diff --git a/00 - META/CHANGELOG.md b/00 - META/CHANGELOG.md index 13ad0c92..d67bcf72 100644 --- a/00 - META/CHANGELOG.md +++ b/00 - META/CHANGELOG.md @@ -1,3 +1,27 @@ +- 2026-10-26T1839 · [[Prescott Bush]] +- 2026-10-26T1839 · [[W. Averell Harriman]] +- 2026-10-26T1838 · [[World War II]] +- 2026-10-26T1838 · [[Council on Foreign Relations]] +- 2026-10-26T1838 · [[Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service]] +- 2026-10-26T1838 · [[John J. McCloy]] +- 2026-10-26T1837 · [[John Foster Dulles]] +- 2026-10-26T1837 · [[Ngo Dinh Diem]] +- 2026-10-26T1837 · [[Eugenics]] +- 2026-10-26T1837 · [[Nicaragua]] +- 2026-10-26T1836 · [[Morgan Guaranty Trust]] +- 2026-10-26T1836 · [[Business Plot]] +- 2026-10-26T1836 · [[Union Banking Corporation]] +- 2026-10-26T1835 · [[Central Intelligence Agency]] +- 2026-10-26T1835 · [[George W. Bush]] +- 2026-10-26T1834 · [[Rockefeller family]] +- 2026-10-26T1834 · [[John Kerry]] +- 2026-10-26T1834 · [[George H.W. Bush]] +- 2026-10-26T1834 · [[McGeorge Bundy]] +- 2026-10-26T1833 · [[Yale University]] +- 2026-10-26T1830 · [[Skull and Bones]] +- 2026-10-26T1829 · [[Antony C. Sutton]] +- 2026-10-26T1829 · [[Brown Brothers Harriman]] +- 2026-10-26T1829 · [[Henry L. Stimson]] - 2026-10-15T2143 · [[Project Monarch]] - 2026-10-15T2143 · [[Kalshi]] - 2026-10-15T2142 · [[Battelle Memorial Institute]] @@ -19,7 +43,6 @@ - 2026-10-15T2131 · [[Area 51]] - 2026-10-15T2131 · [[Nicholas J. Bua]] - 2026-10-15T2131 · [[Danny Casolaro]] -- 2026-10-15T2130 · [[John Foster Dulles]] - 2026-10-15T2130 · [[J. Edgar Hoover]] - 2026-10-15T2130 · [[Jack Anderson]] - 2026-10-15T2129 · [[National Security Archive]] @@ -28,7 +51,6 @@ - 2026-10-15T2127 · [[General Motors]] - 2026-10-15T2126 · [[Hughes Aircraft Company]] - 2026-10-15T2126 · [[Joe Biden]] -- 2026-10-15T2126 · [[Business Plot]] - 2026-10-15T2125 · [[Standard Oil]] - 2026-10-15T2124 · [[Galo Plaza]] - 2026-10-15T2124 · [[Rockefeller Commission 1975]] @@ -37,7 +59,6 @@ - 2026-10-15T2124 · [[Geschickter Fund for Medical Research]] - 2026-10-15T2122 · [[Georgetown University]] - 2026-10-15T2024 · [[Lockheed Martin]] -- 2026-10-15T2024 · [[Yale University]] - 2026-10-15T2024 · [[United States v. Hasbajrami]] - 2026-10-15T2024 · [[Project FUBELT]] - 2026-10-15T2022 · [[Beirut]] @@ -47,7 +68,6 @@ - 2026-10-15T2022 · [[United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit]] - 2026-10-15T2021 · [[Stargate Project]] - 2026-10-15T2021 · [[Kenneth A. Kress]] -- 2026-10-15T2021 · [[George H.W. Bush]] - 2026-10-15T2018 · [[IBM]] - 2026-10-15T2018 · [[Ashley Gorski]] - 2026-10-15T2018 · [[United States v. Epstein]] @@ -78,23 +98,3 @@ - 2026-10-15T2009 · [[Richard Bissell]] - 2026-10-15T2008 · [[Robert Byck]] - 2026-10-15T2008 · [[Crack Cocaine]] -- 2026-10-15T1920 · [[United States Attorney]] -- 2026-10-15T1919 · [[Toby Ord]] -- 2026-10-15T1919 · [[GRU]] -- 2026-10-15T1919 · [[Mark Zuckerberg]] -- 2026-10-15T1919 · [[Child sexual abuse material]] -- 2026-10-15T1919 · [[Palantir Technologies]] -- 2026-10-15T1919 · [[Cambridge Analytica]] -- 2026-10-15T1918 · [[Cantor Fitzgerald]] -- 2026-10-15T1918 · [[BGC Group]] -- 2026-10-15T1917 · [[Counter Extremism Project]] -- 2026-10-15T1917 · [[Anthropic]] -- 2026-10-15T1917 · [[Office of Technical Service]] -- 2026-10-15T1916 · [[Future of Humanity Institute]] -- 2026-10-15T1915 · [[OpenAI]] -- 2026-10-15T1915 · [[David Sacks]] -- 2026-10-15T1915 · [[Edward Snowden]] -- 2026-10-15T1915 · [[Bill Gates]] -- 2026-10-15T1915 · [[Eugene Jhong]] -- 2026-10-15T1914 · [[PayPal Mafia]] -- 2026-10-15T1914 · [[AdFin Solutions]] diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/George H.W. Bush.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/George H.W. Bush.md index a05c60c7..78ad3efd 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/George H.W. Bush.md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/George H.W. Bush.md @@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ aliases: - Bush 41 category: "Political Figure" created: 2024-04-25 -updated: 2026-10-15 +updated: 2026-10-26 tags: - KeyFigure - Person @@ -27,40 +27,40 @@ relations: with: "[[Gerald R. Ford]]" role: "Director of Central Intelligence" start: 1976-01-30 - fn: 26 + fn: 31 - type: director_of with: "[[Central Intelligence Agency]]" role: "Director of Central Intelligence" start: 1976-01-30 end: 1977-01-20 - fn: 26 + fn: 31 - type: reported_to with: "[[Ronald Reagan]]" role: "Vice President" start: 1981-01-20 end: 1989-01-20 - fn: 108 + fn: 113 - type: head_of with: "[[United States]]" role: "President of the United States" start: 1989-01-20 end: 1993-01-20 - fn: 108 + fn: 113 - type: subject_of with: "[[October Surprise]]" start: 1993-01-03 - fn: 93 + fn: 98 - type: member_of with: "[[Skull and Bones]]" fn: 4 - type: employed_by with: "[[The Carlyle Group]]" role: "Senior adviser on Asia" - fn: 147 + fn: 152 - type: participant_in with: "[[South Florida Drug Task Force]]" start: 1982-01-28 - fn: 17 + fn: 22 --- George H.W. Bush served as the Vice President under President [[Ronald Reagan]] and later as the 41st President of the United States. He was present at a meeting of Reagan's high command following the Israeli bombing of the Iraqi nuclear reactor at [[Osirak bombing]] in June 1981, where he agreed that some sanctions against [[Israel]] were essential.[^1] The same history of Israel's nuclear program includes the Vela incident of September 1979, the double flash recorded by an American Vela satellite over the South Atlantic.[^1] @@ -73,255 +73,259 @@ Bush was the son of [[Prescott Bush]], an investment banker who represented Conn The George H. W. Bush Presidential Library's response to a 2009 request for records on the [[Skull and Bones]] Society, filed as FOIA 2009-0116-F, describes the society as one "of which George H. W. Bush and his father Prescott Bush were both members."[^4] The same response describes a rumor about the skull of the Apache leader [[Geronimo]] and the society, and does not endorse it.[^4] The file contains correspondence from President Bush to [[William F. Buckley Jr.]] and [[Thomas W. Ludlow Ashley]] about a Buckley article in [[National Review]] answering [[Pat Buchanan]]'s characterization of Bush's foreign policy as "Skull and Bones foreign policy" during the 1992 campaign, and administrative forms for a Skull and Bones tea held at the White House on October 20, 1989.[^4] -On October 20, 1942 at Washington, the [[Alien Property Custodian]], Leo T. Crowley, signed Vesting Order No. 248, which vested the capital stock of the [[Union Banking Corporation]], a New York corporation, in the Custodian. The order was published in the [[Federal Register]] on November 7, 1942. It lists 4,000 shares. [[E. Roland Harriman]] held 3,991 of them and Prescott S. Bush held one. The order states that all of the shares were held for the benefit of [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]], N.V., of Rotterdam, "which bank is owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family, nationals of Germany and/or Hungary."[^5] +The membership index that [[Antony C. Sutton]] reproduces lists Bush under the class of 1948, and the 1971 membership catalogue entry for him gives his service as a United States congressman from 1966 to 1970.[^5] The Yale class history of 1917 states of Prescott Sheldon Bush: "He belongs to the Whiffenpoofs, Psi Upsilon, and Skull and Bones."[^6] In 2017 a pro se complaint filed in the United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas (*Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*) named Bush, with the Russell Trust Association, Willard Mitt Romney and Yale University, as defendants; it alleged that the society holds the skull of [[Pancho Villa]]. The court dismissed it for lack of subject matter jurisdiction because the plaintiff and Bush were both Texas residents and no federal question was presented, entered final judgment on December 18, 2017, and the Fifth Circuit dismissed the appeal on February 28, 2018.[^7] + +The Yale Alumni Magazine reported in 2006 that the centennial history of the society by F. O. Matthiessen names Prescott Bush, [[Ellery Sedgwick James|Ellery James]] and [[Neil Mallon]], all of the class of 1917 and at [[Fort Sill]] in early 1918, among the members who unearthed a skull there, and that Jonathan Bush met Ned Anderson of the San Carlos Apache Tribe about it.[^8] On May 9, 2006 the Associated Press reported a 1918 letter, found by the researcher [[Marc Wortman]], that one society member wrote to another. The letter describes the skull and remains as taken from the grave at Fort Sill to a stone tomb in New Haven. The report names the writer as [[Winter Mead]] and states that Mead was not at Fort Sill. According to the report, Skull and Bones legend places Prescott Bush among the members who dug up the grave while Army volunteers from Yale were stationed at the fort during World War I. Wortman said that he was skeptical that the remains were Geronimo's.[^9] + +On October 20, 1942 at Washington, the [[Alien Property Custodian]], Leo T. Crowley, signed Vesting Order No. 248, which vested the capital stock of the [[Union Banking Corporation]], a New York corporation, in the Custodian. The order was published in the [[Federal Register]] on November 7, 1942. It lists 4,000 shares. [[E. Roland Harriman]] held 3,991 of them and Prescott S. Bush held one. The order states that all of the shares were held for the benefit of [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]], N.V., of Rotterdam, "which bank is owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family, nationals of Germany and/or Hungary."[^10] ### Zapata Petroleum and Zapata Off-Shore -Bush moved to Odessa, Texas in 1948, worked for Dresser Industries from 1950, and that year formed an oil development company in Midland that merged with another company three years later to create [[Zapata Petroleum]]. In 1954 he became president of the subsidiary Zapata Off-Shore Company and moved the company and his family to Houston.[^2] WhoWhatWhy reports that Zapata Petroleum began in 1953 "through joint efforts with Thomas J. Devine, a CIA staffer who had resigned his agency position that same year." The article quotes a CIA memorandum of November 29, 1975 that describes Devine as an "oil wild-catting associate of Mr. Bush."[^6] The same article quotes a 1968 memorandum that places Devine back in agency work under commercial cover from 1963.[^7] WhoWhatWhy also reports that the CIA documents were released in 1998 from a batch of records provided to the [[House Select Committee on Assassinations]].[^7] +Bush moved to Odessa, Texas in 1948, worked for Dresser Industries from 1950, and that year formed an oil development company in Midland that merged with another company three years later to create [[Zapata Petroleum]]. In 1954 he became president of the subsidiary Zapata Off-Shore Company and moved the company and his family to Houston.[^2] WhoWhatWhy reports that Zapata Petroleum began in 1953 "through joint efforts with Thomas J. Devine, a CIA staffer who had resigned his agency position that same year." The article quotes a CIA memorandum of November 29, 1975 that describes Devine as an "oil wild-catting associate of Mr. Bush."[^11] The same article quotes a 1968 memorandum that places Devine back in agency work under commercial cover from 1963.[^12] WhoWhatWhy also reports that the CIA documents were released in 1998 from a batch of records provided to the [[House Select Committee on Assassinations]].[^12] -The corporation that later carried the Zapata name filed with the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] under the former conformed names Zapata Off Shore Co, dated from January 15, 1969, and Zapata Norness Inc, dated from March 14, 1972. Its fiscal 1994 annual report states that "Zapata Corporation is a Delaware corporation organized in 1954."[^8] Electronic filings on EDGAR begin on February 8, 1994, and the company's record under Central Index Key 109177 starts from that period.[^9] +The corporation that later carried the Zapata name filed with the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] under the former conformed names Zapata Off Shore Co, dated from January 15, 1969, and Zapata Norness Inc, dated from March 14, 1972. Its fiscal 1994 annual report states that "Zapata Corporation is a Delaware corporation organized in 1954."[^13] Electronic filings on EDGAR begin on February 8, 1994, and the company's record under Central Index Key 109177 starts from that period.[^14] ### The 1963 Hoover Memorandum -In 1997 the [[Assassination Records Review Board]] asked the CIA about a memorandum dated November 29, 1963 that carries the name of [[J. Edgar Hoover]]. The Review Board's letter of December 18, 1997 quotes the memorandum's statement that "the substance of the foregoing information [on the assassination of President Kennedy] was orally furnished to Mr. George Bush of the Central Intelligence Agency."[^10] The letter describes the document as "dated November 29,1963, prepared under the name of John Edgar Hoover."[^10] +In 1997 the [[Assassination Records Review Board]] asked the CIA about a memorandum dated November 29, 1963 that carries the name of [[J. Edgar Hoover]]. The Review Board's letter of December 18, 1997 quotes the memorandum's statement that "the substance of the foregoing information [on the assassination of President Kennedy] was orally furnished to Mr. George Bush of the Central Intelligence Agency."[^15] The letter describes the document as "dated November 29,1963, prepared under the name of John Edgar Hoover."[^15] -The routing of the memorandum is recorded in two conflicting ways. A Review Board staff memorandum of January 8, 1998 describes it as concerning Hoover's conversation with President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] about the assassination, and says the memorandum is located in Johnson O&C File 92.[^11] A CIA memorandum by Michelle Combs to T. Jeremy Gunn, dated July 15, 1998, describes it as a memorandum from Hoover to the director of the Bureau of Intelligence and Research at the State Department.[^12] +The routing of the memorandum is recorded in two conflicting ways. A Review Board staff memorandum of January 8, 1998 describes it as concerning Hoover's conversation with President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] about the assassination, and says the memorandum is located in Johnson O&C File 92.[^16] A CIA memorandum by Michelle Combs to T. Jeremy Gunn, dated July 15, 1998, describes it as a memorandum from Hoover to the director of the Bureau of Intelligence and Research at the State Department.[^17] -The Review Board's letter quotes the CIA as having confirmed that "the search query included George Herbert Walker Bush prior to 1970." The letter asks the agency to determine whether George Herbert Walker Bush is the person to whom the memorandum refers.[^10] A CIA memorandum from J. Barry Harrelson to Gunn, dated February 25, 1998, states that the search "determined the Agency has no record of any association with George Herbert Walker Bush during the 1963 time period."[^13] +The Review Board's letter quotes the CIA as having confirmed that "the search query included George Herbert Walker Bush prior to 1970." The letter asks the agency to determine whether George Herbert Walker Bush is the person to whom the memorandum refers.[^15] A CIA memorandum from J. Barry Harrelson to Gunn, dated February 25, 1998, states that the search "determined the Agency has no record of any association with George Herbert Walker Bush during the 1963 time period."[^18] -The Combs memorandum records that the only other "George Bush" serving in the CIA in 1963 was a junior analyst who has repeatedly denied being the "George Bush" referenced in the memorandum. It also cites an entry in the calendar of Director [[Allen Dulles]] for October 4, 1961 that names an Army major general George Bush, with "no indication if this General Bush could be the referenced George Bush."[^12] +The Combs memorandum records that the only other "George Bush" serving in the CIA in 1963 was a junior analyst who has repeatedly denied being the "George Bush" referenced in the memorandum. It also cites an entry in the calendar of Director [[Allen Dulles]] for October 4, 1961 that names an Army major general George Bush, with "no indication if this General Bush could be the referenced George Bush."[^17] -An undated Review Board draft request bearing Gunn's name refers to an affidavit of George William Bush dated September 21, 1988.[^14] +An undated Review Board draft request bearing Gunn's name refers to an affidavit of George William Bush dated September 21, 1988.[^19] -In 1988 Stephen Hart issued a statement answering a report by [[Joseph McBride]] that appeared in The Nation on July 16, 1988. WhoWhatWhy quotes the statement as concluding: "Must be another George Bush."[^15] McBride described the response as "rather detailed for a ritual non-denial."[^15] +In 1988 Stephen Hart issued a statement answering a report by [[Joseph McBride]] that appeared in The Nation on July 16, 1988. WhoWhatWhy quotes the statement as concluding: "Must be another George Bush."[^20] McBride described the response as "rather detailed for a ritual non-denial."[^20] The CIA's 1998 answer, the Review Board staff's account of it, the 1988 statement and the 1988 affidavit all concern the same name. The records do not establish which George Bush the memorandum means. ### The South Florida Drug Task Force and the Medellín Cartel -As Vice President, Bush oversaw anti-drug efforts as head of the South Florida Drug Task Force while the administration simultaneously protected Contra-connected drug traffickers. The contradiction between Bush's public anti-drug posture and the covert reality of the Contra supply chain became a recurring theme in the [[Dark Alliance]] narrative.[^16] +As Vice President, Bush oversaw anti-drug efforts as head of the South Florida Drug Task Force while the administration simultaneously protected Contra-connected drug traffickers. The contradiction between Bush's public anti-drug posture and the covert reality of the Contra supply chain became a recurring theme in the [[Dark Alliance]] narrative.[^21] -Reagan's statement of January 28, 1982 announced the federal anticrime task force for southern Florida: "To coordinate this effort, I am today announcing the establishment of a special task force, headed by Vice President George Bush, to analyze the problems and determine what steps we must take during the period of aggravated crime incidence."[^17] In a statement to a 1988 Senate subcommittee, Admiral [[Daniel Murphy]] said: "The President appointed Vice President Bush to direct the task force comprised of the Secretaries of State, Defense, Transportation, Treasury, Health and Human Service, and the Attorney General."[^18] +Reagan's statement of January 28, 1982 announced the federal anticrime task force for southern Florida: "To coordinate this effort, I am today announcing the establishment of a special task force, headed by Vice President George Bush, to analyze the problems and determine what steps we must take during the period of aggravated crime incidence."[^22] In a statement to a 1988 Senate subcommittee, Admiral [[Daniel Murphy]] said: "The President appointed Vice President Bush to direct the task force comprised of the Secretaries of State, Defense, Transportation, Treasury, Health and Human Service, and the Attorney General."[^23] -The [[Kerry Committee]] report, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy* (1988), states: "These cables led to a 1982 meeting between Vice President Bush, Admiral Daniel Murphy and Bahamian Prime Minister [[Lynden Pindling]], at which the Norman's Cay problem was raised. The Vice President chastised the Prime Minister for what was taking place."[^19] +The [[Kerry Committee]] report, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy* (1988), states: "These cables led to a 1982 meeting between Vice President Bush, Admiral Daniel Murphy and Bahamian Prime Minister [[Lynden Pindling]], at which the Norman's Cay problem was raised. The Vice President chastised the Prime Minister for what was taking place."[^24] -The [[Medellin Cartel|Medellín Cartel]] reportedly made a deal with Vice President Bush. Informant Allen Raul Rudd told federal officials that [[Pablo Escobar]] described "an agreement or relationship between Bush and the American government and members of the Medellín cartel which resulted in planes flying guns to the cartel in [[Colombia]]." Escobar claimed to have a picture of Bush posing with Medellín cartel leader [[Jorge Ochoa]] in front of suitcases full of money, held as blackmail to be released at "the appropriate time."[^16] +The [[Medellin Cartel|Medellín Cartel]] reportedly made a deal with Vice President Bush. Informant Allen Raul Rudd told federal officials that [[Pablo Escobar]] described "an agreement or relationship between Bush and the American government and members of the Medellín cartel which resulted in planes flying guns to the cartel in [[Colombia]]." Escobar claimed to have a picture of Bush posing with Medellín cartel leader [[Jorge Ochoa]] in front of suitcases full of money, held as blackmail to be released at "the appropriate time."[^21] ### Contra Connections and the War on Drugs -At the same time Reagan and Bush were publicly whipping the American public into a frenzy over street-corner crack dealers, [[Oliver North]] and other top administration officials were livid that Contra-connected drug trafficker General [[Jose Bueso Rosa]] had even been charged with a crime. North's computer messages about Bueso Rosa illustrated how skewed the Reagan administration's sense of justice had become regarding its "War on Drugs." [[Scott Weekly]], a figure connected to the CIA and the Hasenfus shootdown, claimed on tape that he reported to people who reported to Bush.[^20] +At the same time Reagan and Bush were publicly whipping the American public into a frenzy over street-corner crack dealers, [[Oliver North]] and other top administration officials were livid that Contra-connected drug trafficker General [[Jose Bueso Rosa]] had even been charged with a crime. North's computer messages about Bueso Rosa illustrated how skewed the Reagan administration's sense of justice had become regarding its "War on Drugs." [[Scott Weekly]], a figure connected to the CIA and the Hasenfus shootdown, claimed on tape that he reported to people who reported to Bush.[^25] ### Political Career Before the CIA -Bush became Republican Party chairman in Harris County, Texas, lost the 1964 Senate race to Ralph Yarborough, won the House seat for Houston's Seventh District in 1966 and was reelected in 1968. He lost the 1970 Senate race to [[Lloyd Bentsen]]. In December 1970 President [[Richard Nixon]] nominated him as ambassador to the [[United Nations]]; in 1973 Nixon moved him to the chairmanship of the [[Republican National Committee]], which he held through the Watergate period until Nixon's resignation in August 1974. President [[Gerald R. Ford]] then made him chief of the U.S. Liaison Office in the People's Republic of China, and in 1975 asked him to direct the CIA. After Ford lost in 1976, Bush offered to stay as director and [[Jimmy Carter]] declined.[^2] [[James C. Oberwetter]], the spokesman for [[Hunt Oil Company]] in a 1977 episode involving the FBI, had been press secretary to Congressman Bush.[^21] +Bush became Republican Party chairman in Harris County, Texas, lost the 1964 Senate race to Ralph Yarborough, won the House seat for Houston's Seventh District in 1966 and was reelected in 1968. He lost the 1970 Senate race to [[Lloyd Bentsen]]. In December 1970 President [[Richard Nixon]] nominated him as ambassador to the [[United Nations]]; in 1973 Nixon moved him to the chairmanship of the [[Republican National Committee]], which he held through the Watergate period until Nixon's resignation in August 1974. President [[Gerald R. Ford]] then made him chief of the U.S. Liaison Office in the People's Republic of China, and in 1975 asked him to direct the CIA. After Ford lost in 1976, Bush offered to stay as director and [[Jimmy Carter]] declined.[^2] [[James C. Oberwetter]], the spokesman for [[Hunt Oil Company]] in a 1977 episode involving the FBI, had been press secretary to Congressman Bush.[^26] ### Out of Office, 1977 to 1981 -In January 1977, as chairman of the [[National Foreign Intelligence Board]], Bush wrote to Vice Admiral [[Bobby Ray Inman]], then vice director of the [[Defense Intelligence Agency]], thanking him for a year of advice to the board.[^22] [[U.S. News & World Report]] stated on April 7, 1980 that Bush was a present or former member of the [[Trilateral Commission]]; the magazine reported that he "resigned from the organization in 1978" and quoted him as saying that "to suggest that those that belong to the commission . . . are involved in a conspiracy is absurd."[^23] Bush announced his candidacy for the Republican nomination on May 1, 1979.[^2] [[William H. Draper III]] was national cochairman of the finance committee for Bush's 1980 presidential campaign, according to the White House announcement of March 18, 1981 nominating Draper to head the [[Export-Import Bank of the United States]].[^24] Bush ran on the Reagan ticket and won the vice presidency in the November 1980 election.[^2] +In January 1977, as chairman of the [[National Foreign Intelligence Board]], Bush wrote to Vice Admiral [[Bobby Ray Inman]], then vice director of the [[Defense Intelligence Agency]], thanking him for a year of advice to the board.[^27] [[U.S. News & World Report]] stated on April 7, 1980 that Bush was a present or former member of the [[Trilateral Commission]]; the magazine reported that he "resigned from the organization in 1978" and quoted him as saying that "to suggest that those that belong to the commission . . . are involved in a conspiracy is absurd."[^28] Bush announced his candidacy for the Republican nomination on May 1, 1979.[^2] [[William H. Draper III]] was national cochairman of the finance committee for Bush's 1980 presidential campaign, according to the White House announcement of March 18, 1981 nominating Draper to head the [[Export-Import Bank of the United States]].[^29] Bush ran on the Reagan ticket and won the vice presidency in the November 1980 election.[^2] ### Director of Central Intelligence, 1976 to 1977 -On November 3, 1975 President Gerald R. Ford announced at a news conference that he intended to nominate Ambassador Bush, then the [[United States]] representative to the People's Republic of China, as [[Director of Central Intelligence]], succeeding [[William Colby]].[^25] Bush was sworn in as Director of Central Intelligence on January 30, 1976.[^26] As director of central intelligence in 1976 Bush was briefed on the CIA's remote-viewing research at [[Stanford Research Institute]] after the agency learned that Soviet visitors were "questioning Puthoff and Targ at SRI," and left office before reacting.[^27] +On November 3, 1975 President Gerald R. Ford announced at a news conference that he intended to nominate Ambassador Bush, then the [[United States]] representative to the People's Republic of China, as [[Director of Central Intelligence]], succeeding [[William Colby]].[^30] Bush was sworn in as Director of Central Intelligence on January 30, 1976.[^31] As director of central intelligence in 1976 Bush was briefed on the CIA's remote-viewing research at [[Stanford Research Institute]] after the agency learned that Soviet visitors were "questioning Puthoff and Targ at SRI," and left office before reacting.[^32] -The Senate Armed Services Committee reported the nomination through Senator [[John Tower]]. Hearings were held on December 15 and 16, 1975. Bush told the committee that "I do feel we need a covert capability," and pledged to "faithfully try to testify before the appropriate oversight committees of the U.S. Congress."[^28] The committee's report of December 18, 1975 recommends confirmation "subject to the nominee's commitment to respond to requests to appear and testify before any duly constituted committee."[^28] The committee approved him 12 to four. The full United States Senate followed in January with a 64 to 27 vote, after a two-hour debate, according to [[Studies in Intelligence]].[^29] +The Senate Armed Services Committee reported the nomination through Senator [[John Tower]]. Hearings were held on December 15 and 16, 1975. Bush told the committee that "I do feel we need a covert capability," and pledged to "faithfully try to testify before the appropriate oversight committees of the U.S. Congress."[^33] The committee's report of December 18, 1975 recommends confirmation "subject to the nominee's commitment to respond to requests to appear and testify before any duly constituted committee."[^33] The committee approved him 12 to four. The full United States Senate followed in January with a 64 to 27 vote, after a two-hour debate, according to [[Studies in Intelligence]].[^34] -In a memorandum to the recipients of National Intelligence Estimate 11-3/8-76, Bush called the estimate "the official appraisal of the Director of Central Intelligence." He wrote that "there is a negative aspect that is already clear and which concerns me deeply; namely, the selective leaks regarding the details of the process and, worse, the substantive conclusions developed by the 'Team B' panel that was concerned with Soviet strategic objectives." He added: "There is no truth to such allegations."[^30] +In a memorandum to the recipients of National Intelligence Estimate 11-3/8-76, Bush called the estimate "the official appraisal of the Director of Central Intelligence." He wrote that "there is a negative aspect that is already clear and which concerns me deeply; namely, the selective leaks regarding the details of the process and, worse, the substantive conclusions developed by the 'Team B' panel that was concerned with Soviet strategic objectives." He added: "There is no truth to such allegations."[^35] -The Team B report, "Soviet Strategic Objectives: An Alternative View," describes the experiment as "undertaken by the DCI on behalf of the [[President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board]]." It names [[Richard Pipes]] as team leader and lists William Van Cleave, [[Daniel O. Graham]], Thomas Wolfe and John Vogt as members. An advisory panel included Foy Kohler, Paul Nitze, Seymour Weiss, Jasper Welch and Paul Wolfowitz. The report states that its views "do not represent either coordinated National Intelligence or the views of the Director of Central Intelligence."[^31] +The Team B report, "Soviet Strategic Objectives: An Alternative View," describes the experiment as "undertaken by the DCI on behalf of the [[President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board]]." It names [[Richard Pipes]] as team leader and lists William Van Cleave, [[Daniel O. Graham]], Thomas Wolfe and John Vogt as members. An advisory panel included Foy Kohler, Paul Nitze, Seymour Weiss, Jasper Welch and Paul Wolfowitz. The report states that its views "do not represent either coordinated National Intelligence or the views of the Director of Central Intelligence."[^36] -William Beecher broke the Team B story in the [[Boston Globe]] on October 20, 1976, according to the editors' note in the Foreign Relations volume. A story by [[David Binder]] in the [[New York Times]] of December 26, 1976 reported the estimate's findings and drew in part on an interview with Bush.[^30] On January 19, 1977 Bush wrote to Cherne, chairman of the President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board, about Team B's recommendations.[^32] +William Beecher broke the Team B story in the [[Boston Globe]] on October 20, 1976, according to the editors' note in the Foreign Relations volume. A story by [[David Binder]] in the [[New York Times]] of December 26, 1976 reported the estimate's findings and drew in part on an interview with Bush.[^35] On January 19, 1977 Bush wrote to Cherne, chairman of the President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board, about Team B's recommendations.[^37] -On February 11, 1976 Bush announced new guidelines governing the agency's relations with the American press. The guideline states: "Effective immediately, CIA will not enter into any paid or contractual relationship with any full-time or part-time news correspondent accredited by any U.S. news service, newspaper, periodical, radio or television network or station."[^33] The report of the [[Church Committee]], chaired by [[Frank Church]], also states that the CIA had maintained covert relationships with about 50 journalists, and that Bush "undertook as one of his first actions to recognize the 'special status afforded the American media under our Constitution.'"[^34] +On February 11, 1976 Bush announced new guidelines governing the agency's relations with the American press. The guideline states: "Effective immediately, CIA will not enter into any paid or contractual relationship with any full-time or part-time news correspondent accredited by any U.S. news service, newspaper, periodical, radio or television network or station."[^38] The report of the [[Church Committee]], chaired by [[Frank Church]], also states that the CIA had maintained covert relationships with about 50 journalists, and that Bush "undertook as one of his first actions to recognize the 'special status afforded the American media under our Constitution.'"[^39] -On February 10, 1976 the [[Washington Star]] reported that Bush, according to a CIA spokesman, "has urged executives of The New York Times and CBS news to support the agency's efforts to keep secret the names of journalists who have aided intelligence operations."[^35] +On February 10, 1976 the [[Washington Star]] reported that Bush, according to a CIA spokesman, "has urged executives of The New York Times and CBS news to support the agency's efforts to keep secret the names of journalists who have aided intelligence operations."[^40] -In June 1976 the Washington Star reported that U.S. District Judge [[June Green]] ordered CIA Director Bush "not to destroy the files gathered by the CIA." Green also granted an appeal that the files be "protected" pending a civil action by the [[American Civil Liberties Union]]. The files were part of [[Operation CHAOS]] and had been gathered by the CIA at the request of Presidents Lyndon B. Johnson and Richard Nixon, who feared extensive foreign influence on domestic unrest.[^36] +In June 1976 the Washington Star reported that U.S. District Judge [[June Green]] ordered CIA Director Bush "not to destroy the files gathered by the CIA." Green also granted an appeal that the files be "protected" pending a civil action by the [[American Civil Liberties Union]]. The files were part of [[Operation CHAOS]] and had been gathered by the CIA at the request of Presidents Lyndon B. Johnson and Richard Nixon, who feared extensive foreign influence on domestic unrest.[^41] -The [[Letelier assassination]] in Washington in September 1976 brought Chile into the Director's correspondence. On September 29, 1976 Senator [[Daniel Inouye]] wrote to Bush thanking him for a briefing, and noted that [[Orlando Letelier]] "was recently discussed at a high-level policy meeting within the Chilean government."[^37] On October 9, 1976 [[U.S. Attorney General|Attorney General]] [[Edward Levi]] wrote to Bush that "the Central Intelligence Agency may be in a position to obtain information bearing on these violent activities."[^38] [[Brent Scowcroft]] endorsed the request on October 21, 1976.[^38] +The [[Letelier assassination]] in Washington in September 1976 brought Chile into the Director's correspondence. On September 29, 1976 Senator [[Daniel Inouye]] wrote to Bush thanking him for a briefing, and noted that [[Orlando Letelier]] "was recently discussed at a high-level policy meeting within the Chilean government."[^42] On October 9, 1976 [[U.S. Attorney General|Attorney General]] [[Edward Levi]] wrote to Bush that "the Central Intelligence Agency may be in a position to obtain information bearing on these violent activities."[^43] [[Brent Scowcroft]] endorsed the request on October 21, 1976.[^43] -A 1980 radio interview transcript in the CIA reading room quotes a speaker, identified only as "MAN," who refers to "our book" and says: "we've been able to establish that George Bush personally handled the information from Paraguay in this intervening week, and discussed it with [[Vernon Walters]], and together made the decision, first of all, to say, 'No, we have nothing to do with this mission.'"[^39] The transcript does not identify the speaker further. +A 1980 radio interview transcript in the CIA reading room quotes a speaker, identified only as "MAN," who refers to "our book" and says: "we've been able to establish that George Bush personally handled the information from Paraguay in this intervening week, and discussed it with [[Vernon Walters]], and together made the decision, first of all, to say, 'No, we have nothing to do with this mission.'"[^44] The transcript does not identify the speaker further. -The Paraguayan material concerned two Chileans traveling on Paraguayan passports under false names. A later Foreign Relations volume records that in July 1976 presidential adviser Conrado Pappalardo approached Ambassador [[George Landau|George W. Landau]] in Asunción about the two. Pappalardo said they would contact "then-U.S. Deputy Director of Central Intelligence General Vernon Walters."[^40] A memorandum by [[Eugene Propper|Propper]], quoted in the same volume, states that the CIA advised that Walters had retired from the agency on July 2, 1976.[^41] +The Paraguayan material concerned two Chileans traveling on Paraguayan passports under false names. A later Foreign Relations volume records that in July 1976 presidential adviser Conrado Pappalardo approached Ambassador [[George Landau|George W. Landau]] in Asunción about the two. Pappalardo said they would contact "then-U.S. Deputy Director of Central Intelligence General Vernon Walters."[^45] A memorandum by [[Eugene Propper|Propper]], quoted in the same volume, states that the CIA advised that Walters had retired from the agency on July 2, 1976.[^46] -On August 11, 1976 Bush wrote a memorandum headed "The Death of Roselli," concerning the murder of [[Johnny Roselli]]. In it he wrote, "I told him that I would like to see the FBI get into the Roselli case." He wrote that he was "most anxious to see the matter fully investigated so that the CIA would be officially exonerated."[^42] +On August 11, 1976 Bush wrote a memorandum headed "The Death of Roselli," concerning the murder of [[Johnny Roselli]]. In it he wrote, "I told him that I would like to see the FBI get into the Roselli case." He wrote that he was "most anxious to see the matter fully investigated so that the CIA would be officially exonerated."[^47] -The memorandum records that calls to Senators had suggested that the CIA was involved in the murder, and that he had asked Attorney General Levi to bring the FBI into the case.[^42] +The memorandum records that calls to Senators had suggested that the CIA was involved in the murder, and that he had asked Attorney General Levi to bring the FBI into the case.[^47] -On the Letelier investigation, Propper, Assistant Attorney General [[J. Stanley Pottinger]] and Bush met to decide how far the CIA could help with the Cuban exile side of the inquiry.[^43] Newspaper clippings that the defendants in *United States v. Sampol* filed to show prejudicial publicity described "a carefully worded agreement placing the Letelier case in a 'national security' status." Defense counsel for [[Guillermo Novo]] and others told the jury that "the CIA and not the Chilean government masterminded the Letelier assassination," and the appeal brief rested the theory on Michael Townley's CIA contacts and on a Fort Lauderdale firm, [[Audio Intelligence Devices]], where Townley spent the morning of September 21, 1976.[^44] The Washington Post reported on November 1, 1976 a belief at the CIA that Chilean operatives had not carried out the bombing, which Bush was said to have expressed to Secretary of State [[Henry A. Kissinger]] the week before.[^45] On November 5, 1976 Assistant Attorney General [[Richard Thornburgh]] asked the State Department to arrange interviews in Caracas of [[Orlando Bosch]], [[Luis Posada Carriles]] and two others held in connection with the [[Cubana Flight 455 bombing]], naming Propper and FBI special agents [[Carter Cornick]] and Raul Salinas as the investigators to be sent.[^46] +On the Letelier investigation, Propper, Assistant Attorney General [[J. Stanley Pottinger]] and Bush met to decide how far the CIA could help with the Cuban exile side of the inquiry.[^48] Newspaper clippings that the defendants in *United States v. Sampol* filed to show prejudicial publicity described "a carefully worded agreement placing the Letelier case in a 'national security' status." Defense counsel for [[Guillermo Novo]] and others told the jury that "the CIA and not the Chilean government masterminded the Letelier assassination," and the appeal brief rested the theory on Michael Townley's CIA contacts and on a Fort Lauderdale firm, [[Audio Intelligence Devices]], where Townley spent the morning of September 21, 1976.[^49] The Washington Post reported on November 1, 1976 a belief at the CIA that Chilean operatives had not carried out the bombing, which Bush was said to have expressed to Secretary of State [[Henry A. Kissinger]] the week before.[^50] On November 5, 1976 Assistant Attorney General [[Richard Thornburgh]] asked the State Department to arrange interviews in Caracas of [[Orlando Bosch]], [[Luis Posada Carriles]] and two others held in connection with the [[Cubana Flight 455 bombing]], naming Propper and FBI special agents [[Carter Cornick]] and Raul Salinas as the investigators to be sent.[^51] -When Bosch entered the United States on February 18, 1988, Acting Associate Attorney General [[Joe D. Whitley]] ordered him excluded on January 23, 1989, writing that "For 30 years Bosch has been resolute and unwavering in his advocacy of terrorist violence." In 1990, over the Justice Department's objection, the Bush White House released him.[^47] The Bush administration also agreed in 1990 to lift sanctions on Chile if the new civilian government prosecuted [[Manuel Contreras]] and [[Pedro Espinoza]] for the Letelier murder, in which [[Ronni Moffitt]] also died; the two served their terms at [[Punta Peuco]].[^48] +When Bosch entered the United States on February 18, 1988, Acting Associate Attorney General [[Joe D. Whitley]] ordered him excluded on January 23, 1989, writing that "For 30 years Bosch has been resolute and unwavering in his advocacy of terrorist violence." In 1990, over the Justice Department's objection, the Bush White House released him.[^52] The Bush administration also agreed in 1990 to lift sanctions on Chile if the new civilian government prosecuted [[Manuel Contreras]] and [[Pedro Espinoza]] for the Letelier murder, in which [[Ronni Moffitt]] also died; the two served their terms at [[Punta Peuco]].[^53] -The Foreign Relations volume on Panama prints a memorandum of conversation dated October 6, 1976 that is catalogued among the "DCI (Bush) Files on Noreiga." Its source note records "Three pages not declassified."[^49] The document concerns [[Manuel Noriega]], whose relations with the agency the volume documents. +The Foreign Relations volume on Panama prints a memorandum of conversation dated October 6, 1976 that is catalogued among the "DCI (Bush) Files on Noreiga." Its source note records "Three pages not declassified."[^54] The document concerns [[Manuel Noriega]], whose relations with the agency the volume documents. -On October 18, 1976 Bush wrote to Defense Secretary [[Donald Rumsfeld]] on the subject of leaks, in a letter that refers to "where these vicious leaks came from."[^50] +On October 18, 1976 Bush wrote to Defense Secretary [[Donald Rumsfeld]] on the subject of leaks, in a letter that refers to "where these vicious leaks came from."[^55] -[[Joseph Trento]] wrote in *Prelude to Terror* that in 1976, after the Church Committee hearings, [[Alexandre de Marenches]] of the French [[SDECE]] organized an informal consortium, the [[Safari Club]], in coordination with Bush. Trento lists its members as the SDECE, Saudi Arabia's General Intelligence Directorate under [[Kamal Adham]], Egypt's [[Mukhabarat]], Morocco's DST under Ahmed Dlimi, and the CIA, with the purpose of continuing anti-Soviet covert operations in Africa and the [[Middle East]] that congressional restrictions had made difficult for the agency; he places Egypt's service in the group as the supplier of Soviet-compatible weapons for operations in the Horn of Africa.[^51] De Marenches maintained personal relationships with American directors including Bush and [[William J. Casey]].[^52] +[[Joseph Trento]] wrote in *Prelude to Terror* that in 1976, after the Church Committee hearings, [[Alexandre de Marenches]] of the French [[SDECE]] organized an informal consortium, the [[Safari Club]], in coordination with Bush. Trento lists its members as the SDECE, Saudi Arabia's General Intelligence Directorate under [[Kamal Adham]], Egypt's [[Mukhabarat]], Morocco's DST under Ahmed Dlimi, and the CIA, with the purpose of continuing anti-Soviet covert operations in Africa and the [[Middle East]] that congressional restrictions had made difficult for the agency; he places Egypt's service in the group as the supplier of Soviet-compatible weapons for operations in the Horn of Africa.[^56] De Marenches maintained personal relationships with American directors including Bush and [[William J. Casey]].[^57] -In Angola the CIA's Operation IAFEATURE (1975 to 1976) supported [[UNITA]] and the [[FNLA]] against the [[MPLA]], with [[Congo|Zaire]] as the logistics base; the Church Committee and later writers record William Colby and then Bush as the directors who managed it. The program was ended by the [[Clark Amendment]], section 404 of Public Law 94-329, enacted June 30, 1976.[^53] +In Angola the CIA's Operation IAFEATURE (1975 to 1976) supported [[UNITA]] and the [[FNLA]] against the [[MPLA]], with [[Congo|Zaire]] as the logistics base; the Church Committee and later writers record William Colby and then Bush as the directors who managed it. The program was ended by the [[Clark Amendment]], section 404 of Public Law 94-329, enacted June 30, 1976.[^58] -[[William Barr|William P. Barr]] worked at the agency from 1973 to 1977 while attending law school, and as assistant legislative counsel under Director Bush in 1976 worked against legislation of Representatives [[Michael Harrington]] and [[Bella Abzug]] that would have required notice to people whose mail the agency had opened under [[HTLINGUAL]]. Barr later joined the White House domestic policy staff, where he worked with [[C. Boyden Gray]], counsel to Vice President Bush, and in 1988 helped screen vice-presidential candidates through [[Robert Kimmitt]].[^54] +[[William Barr|William P. Barr]] worked at the agency from 1973 to 1977 while attending law school, and as assistant legislative counsel under Director Bush in 1976 worked against legislation of Representatives [[Michael Harrington]] and [[Bella Abzug]] that would have required notice to people whose mail the agency had opened under [[HTLINGUAL]]. Barr later joined the White House domestic policy staff, where he worked with [[C. Boyden Gray]], counsel to Vice President Bush, and in 1988 helped screen vice-presidential candidates through [[Robert Kimmitt]].[^59] ### Israel's Nuclear Program and Israeli Channels -In March 1976 [[Carl E. Duckett]] openly discussed Israel's nuclear weapons at an informal seminar, stating that Israel was estimated to have ten to twenty nuclear weapons "available for use." Hersh wrote that the disclosure forced Bush, the newly installed director, to issue a public statement assuming "full responsibility," and that it led to Duckett's retirement. Duckett later acknowledged that rumors of his drinking were the stated reason for his departure but insisted that the real issue was Bush's unwillingness to promote him. Hersh adds that Duckett's 1974 estimate remained the official American estimate until the early 1980s.[^55] +In March 1976 [[Carl E. Duckett]] openly discussed Israel's nuclear weapons at an informal seminar, stating that Israel was estimated to have ten to twenty nuclear weapons "available for use." Hersh wrote that the disclosure forced Bush, the newly installed director, to issue a public statement assuming "full responsibility," and that it led to Duckett's retirement. Duckett later acknowledged that rumors of his drinking were the stated reason for his departure but insisted that the real issue was Bush's unwillingness to promote him. Hersh adds that Duckett's 1974 estimate remained the official American estimate until the early 1980s.[^60] -[[Ari Ben-Menashe]] wrote that he briefed [[Nachum Admoni]] in July 1986 on the Israeli intelligence network's arms sales to Iran for Vice President Bush.[^56] The Israeli arms dealer [[Al Schwimmer]], a special adviser to Prime Minister [[Shimon Peres]] from September 1984 at a salary of one shekel a year, met President Reagan and Vice President Bush in that capacity.[^57] Ben-Menashe also wrote that Israeli intelligence believed [[Amiram Nir]]'s death in 1988 to have been a CIA operation intended to keep his testimony from embarrassing Peres, Reagan or Bush.[^56] +[[Ari Ben-Menashe]] wrote that he briefed [[Nachum Admoni]] in July 1986 on the Israeli intelligence network's arms sales to Iran for Vice President Bush.[^61] The Israeli arms dealer [[Al Schwimmer]], a special adviser to Prime Minister [[Shimon Peres]] from September 1984 at a salary of one shekel a year, met President Reagan and Vice President Bush in that capacity.[^62] Ben-Menashe also wrote that Israeli intelligence believed [[Amiram Nir]]'s death in 1988 to have been a CIA operation intended to keep his testimony from embarrassing Peres, Reagan or Bush.[^61] -On January 20, 1991 President Bush telephoned Prime Minister [[Yitzhak Shamir]] twice from Camp David, at 3 a.m. and 11:30 a.m. Washington time, to thank Israel for its "restraint" in not retaliating for the Iraqi Scud attacks. The spokesman [[Marlin Fitzwater]] quoted the president as telling Shamir: "I understand the anguish of your people and your Government." [[Lawrence Eagleburger]] and [[Paul Wolfowitz]] were sent to Israel, and American crews arrived to operate [[Patriot]] missile batteries.[^58] According to the counterintelligence history "Decade of the Spy," Bush denied clemency to [[Jonathan Pollard]] in January 1993.[^59] +On January 20, 1991 President Bush telephoned Prime Minister [[Yitzhak Shamir]] twice from Camp David, at 3 a.m. and 11:30 a.m. Washington time, to thank Israel for its "restraint" in not retaliating for the Iraqi Scud attacks. The spokesman [[Marlin Fitzwater]] quoted the president as telling Shamir: "I understand the anguish of your people and your Government." [[Lawrence Eagleburger]] and [[Paul Wolfowitz]] were sent to Israel, and American crews arrived to operate [[Patriot]] missile batteries.[^63] According to the counterintelligence history "Decade of the Spy," Bush denied clemency to [[Jonathan Pollard]] in January 1993.[^64] ### Stargate, Center Lane, and the Army -The [[Stargate Project]] appears in the record through the agency's own accounts. [[Kenneth A. Kress]], writing in Studies in Intelligence for the winter of 1977, states that "During November of 1976, Director George Bush became aware that official Soviets were visiting and questioning Puthoff and Targ at SRI about their work in parapsychology. Mr. Bush requested and received a briefing on CIA's investigations into parapsychology. Before there was any official reaction, he left the Agency."[^27] +The [[Stargate Project]] appears in the record through the agency's own accounts. [[Kenneth A. Kress]], writing in Studies in Intelligence for the winter of 1977, states that "During November of 1976, Director George Bush became aware that official Soviets were visiting and questioning Puthoff and Targ at SRI about their work in parapsychology. Mr. Bush requested and received a briefing on CIA's investigations into parapsychology. Before there was any official reaction, he left the Agency."[^32] -Kress also writes that Director [[Stansfield Turner]] stated publicly that the CIA "has had operational interest in parapsychology."[^60] +Kress also writes that Director [[Stansfield Turner]] stated publicly that the CIA "has had operational interest in parapsychology."[^65] -As vice president, in 1983 (the chronology's date reads as March 31 or August 3), Bush "was briefed for thirty minutes concerning [[Center Lane|CENTER LANE]] related activities by Dr. [[Jack Vorona]], DIA," the Army's remote-viewing unit, with "Adm. Murphy, C/S," and "Mr. Gregg" present ([[Donald Gregg]]). The [[United States Army Intelligence and Security Command]] (INSCOM) chronology records that "the briefing was well received and the Vice President was interested and impressed."[^61] A memorandum for the record by Major Gerald Fox dated April 1, 1983 lists the three projects used on March 31, 1983 to brief the Vice President, among them Project 8034, described as a "[[KGB]] agent."[^62] Vorona of the DIA is the first-named member of the November 1978 oversight group of the [[Grill Flame]] committee and the first-listed attendee in February 1979.[^63] +As vice president, in 1983 (the chronology's date reads as March 31 or August 3), Bush "was briefed for thirty minutes concerning [[Center Lane|CENTER LANE]] related activities by Dr. [[Jack Vorona]], DIA," the Army's remote-viewing unit, with "Adm. Murphy, C/S," and "Mr. Gregg" present ([[Donald Gregg]]). The [[United States Army Intelligence and Security Command]] (INSCOM) chronology records that "the briefing was well received and the Vice President was interested and impressed."[^66] A memorandum for the record by Major Gerald Fox dated April 1, 1983 lists the three projects used on March 31, 1983 to brief the Vice President, among them Project 8034, described as a "[[KGB]] agent."[^67] Vorona of the DIA is the first-named member of the November 1978 oversight group of the [[Grill Flame]] committee and the first-listed attendee in February 1979.[^68] -According to an Air War College research report by Dolan M. McKelvy citing Ronald McRae's *Mind Wars* (1984), CIA director Bush in 1976 enthusiastically gave [[Edgar Mitchell]] "permission to organize high-level seminars at the CIA to discuss possible intelligence applications" of parapsychology; the report says that interest waned in 1977 when Stansfield Turner replaced Bush.[^64] +According to an Air War College research report by Dolan M. McKelvy citing Ronald McRae's *Mind Wars* (1984), CIA director Bush in 1976 enthusiastically gave [[Edgar Mitchell]] "permission to organize high-level seminars at the CIA to discuss possible intelligence applications" of parapsychology; the report says that interest waned in 1977 when Stansfield Turner replaced Bush.[^69] ### The Vice President's Briefings and Travel -On April 2, 1982 Casey sent Secretary of State [[Alexander M. Haig, Jr.]] a "Quick Intelligence Assessment on Falkland Affairs" referring to "the Argentine invasion Friday," with a copy to Vice President Bush.[^65] In a letter to *Time* in January 1982, Assistant Secretary of State [[John H. Holdridge]] wrote that Bush had confirmed during a visit to Australia that there had been no CIA involvement in the [[Nugan Hand Bank]], and that Frank Church had said the Senate committee found no evidence implicating the agency. A CBS broadcast of September 22, 1982 quoted former bank executive [[Neil Evans]], who had immunity, as saying: "We were to become the paymasters for the CIA around the world."[^66] [[Michael Hand]] was the bank's co-founder. +On April 2, 1982 Casey sent Secretary of State [[Alexander M. Haig, Jr.]] a "Quick Intelligence Assessment on Falkland Affairs" referring to "the Argentine invasion Friday," with a copy to Vice President Bush.[^70] In a letter to *Time* in January 1982, Assistant Secretary of State [[John H. Holdridge]] wrote that Bush had confirmed during a visit to Australia that there had been no CIA involvement in the [[Nugan Hand Bank]], and that Frank Church had said the Senate committee found no evidence implicating the agency. A CBS broadcast of September 22, 1982 quoted former bank executive [[Neil Evans]], who had immunity, as saying: "We were to become the paymasters for the CIA around the world."[^71] [[Michael Hand]] was the bank's co-founder. -On April 12, 1986 Vice President Bush flew to Marib in North Yemen and dedicated the refinery of the Alif field that Hunt Oil had found in 1984, the first oil discovered in the country. [[Ray Hunt]], head of the company, sat on the President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board from 2001.[^67] +On April 12, 1986 Vice President Bush flew to Marib in North Yemen and dedicated the refinery of the Alif field that Hunt Oil had found in 1984, the first oil discovered in the country. [[Ray Hunt]], head of the company, sat on the President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board from 2001.[^72] -On January 20, 1987 Bush said that an American "in terrorist hands is tortured and, in the case of William Buckley, killed," referring to the CIA's Beirut station chief [[William Buckley]].[^68] On August 17, 1988 he called the death of Pakistan's President [[Zia ul-Haq]] in a [[C-130]] explosion "a great tragedy."[^69] [[Celerino Castillo]] said that on or about January 14, 1986 he tried to alert Vice President Bush at a U.S. embassy party in Guatemala that "something funny" was going on at [[Ilopango Airbase]], and described what followed: "But he just shook my hand, smiled and walked away from me."[^70] +On January 20, 1987 Bush said that an American "in terrorist hands is tortured and, in the case of William Buckley, killed," referring to the CIA's Beirut station chief [[William Buckley]].[^73] On August 17, 1988 he called the death of Pakistan's President [[Zia ul-Haq]] in a [[C-130]] explosion "a great tragedy."[^74] [[Celerino Castillo]] said that on or about January 14, 1986 he tried to alert Vice President Bush at a U.S. embassy party in Guatemala that "something funny" was going on at [[Ilopango Airbase]], and described what followed: "But he just shook my hand, smiled and walked away from me."[^75] ### Gregg, Rodriguez, and the Vice President's Office -At a February 1988 hearing on the testimony of [[Danilo Blandon]], Senator [[John Kerry]] addressed a call to Castro: "while Vice President Bush denied that he made the call, and I do accept his word, it also was learned last night on McNeil-Lehrer that a former NSC staffer admitted that, indeed, there was prior notice given to Castro."[^71] +At a February 1988 hearing on the testimony of [[Danilo Blandon]], Senator [[John Kerry]] addressed a call to Castro: "while Vice President Bush denied that he made the call, and I do accept his word, it also was learned last night on McNeil-Lehrer that a former NSC staffer admitted that, indeed, there was prior notice given to Castro."[^76] -Blandon also described [[Felix Rodriguez]] as "the liaison for providing weapons to the Contras in El Salvador."[^72] Walsh's chapter 29 states that Gregg "arranged for Rodriguez to meet Vice President Bush on January 22, 1985. According to Gregg, the purpose of the meeting was to inform Bush that Rodriguez wanted to work in El Salvador against the guerrillas."[^73] The meeting took place in the Old Executive Office Building, where Rodriguez was "watching a television report on the Bush family."[^73] +Blandon also described [[Felix Rodriguez]] as "the liaison for providing weapons to the Contras in El Salvador."[^77] Walsh's chapter 29 states that Gregg "arranged for Rodriguez to meet Vice President Bush on January 22, 1985. According to Gregg, the purpose of the meeting was to inform Bush that Rodriguez wanted to work in El Salvador against the guerrillas."[^78] The meeting took place in the Old Executive Office Building, where Rodriguez was "watching a television report on the Bush family."[^78] -The 1988 hearing record gives the date of that meeting as February 22, a month later than Walsh's date. In the July 1988 hearings Rodriguez said that he had passed to the FBI and CIA, early in 1985, information from [[Ramon Milian Rodriguez]], whom he called a liar, and in later questioning by Kerry said he met Vice President Bush on February 22.[^74] Rodriguez also answered a question from Kerry: "No, sir. I didn't go there that often as people have publicized."[^74] +The 1988 hearing record gives the date of that meeting as February 22, a month later than Walsh's date. In the July 1988 hearings Rodriguez said that he had passed to the FBI and CIA, early in 1985, information from [[Ramon Milian Rodriguez]], whom he called a liar, and in later questioning by Kerry said he met Vice President Bush on February 22.[^79] Rodriguez also answered a question from Kerry: "No, sir. I didn't go there that often as people have publicized."[^79] -Part IX of Walsh's report states that Gregg "claimed that, notwithstanding the Administration's interest in the success of the contras, he never mentioned any information regarding contra resupply to Vice President Bush."[^75] The Kerry report says that before Murphy's 1987 trips to Panama he met with officials including "the Vice President's National Security Advisor, Donald Gregg."[^76] +Part IX of Walsh's report states that Gregg "claimed that, notwithstanding the Administration's interest in the success of the contras, he never mentioned any information regarding contra resupply to Vice President Bush."[^80] The Kerry report says that before Murphy's 1987 trips to Panama he met with officials including "the Vice President's National Security Advisor, Donald Gregg."[^81] ### Iran-Contra and the Pardons -The executive summary of the final report of the [[Lawrence Walsh|Independent Counsel]] states that the investigation "did not develop evidence that proved that Vice President Bush violated any criminal statute. Contrary to his public pronouncements, however, he was fully aware of the Iran arms sales."[^77] The summary adds that "Bush was regularly briefed, along with the President, on the Iran arms sales, and he participated in discussions to obtain third-country support for the contras." It states that the Independent Counsel "obtained no evidence that Bush was aware of the diversion."[^77] The same summary says that the pardon of [[Caspar Weinberger]] on December 24, 1992 "pre-empted a trial in which defense counsel indicated that they intended to call Bush as a witness."[^77] +The executive summary of the final report of the [[Lawrence Walsh|Independent Counsel]] states that the investigation "did not develop evidence that proved that Vice President Bush violated any criminal statute. Contrary to his public pronouncements, however, he was fully aware of the Iran arms sales."[^82] The summary adds that "Bush was regularly briefed, along with the President, on the Iran arms sales, and he participated in discussions to obtain third-country support for the contras." It states that the Independent Counsel "obtained no evidence that Bush was aware of the diversion."[^82] The same summary says that the pardon of [[Caspar Weinberger]] on December 24, 1992 "pre-empted a trial in which defense counsel indicated that they intended to call Bush as a witness."[^82] -Chapter 28 of the report, headed "George Bush," records that Bush told the FBI in December 1986, and was deposed by the Independent Counsel on January 11, 1988, that he had been regularly informed of events connected with the arms sales, including the 1985 Israeli missile shipments. Walsh writes that these statements "conflicted with his more extreme public assertions that he was 'out of the loop' regarding the operational details of the Iran initiative."[^78] Walsh also writes that "The criminal investigation of Bush was regrettably incomplete."[^78] +Chapter 28 of the report, headed "George Bush," records that Bush told the FBI in December 1986, and was deposed by the Independent Counsel on January 11, 1988, that he had been regularly informed of events connected with the arms sales, including the 1985 Israeli missile shipments. Walsh writes that these statements "conflicted with his more extreme public assertions that he was 'out of the loop' regarding the operational details of the Iran initiative."[^83] Walsh also writes that "The criminal investigation of Bush was regrettably incomplete."[^83] -In 1988 Bush told the [[Washington Post]], "The President and I cooperated fully with the various investigations, turned over thousands of documents and directed our staffs to do the same."[^79] In September 1992 he said, "I have nothing to explain."[^79] +In 1988 Bush told the [[Washington Post]], "The President and I cooperated fully with the various investigations, turned over thousands of documents and directed our staffs to do the same."[^84] In September 1992 he said, "I have nothing to explain."[^84] -Part IX of the report, on the White House investigations, states that the Independent Counsel "concluded that no criminal charges should be brought against President Reagan, Vice President Bush, Meese or Regan because the belated production of notes and other documents delayed the investigation beyond the point where it could be effective."[^80] The same part states that senior advisers including Vice President Bush "were informed in 1985 of presidential approval of the transactions." It also says that the Independent Counsel "found considerable evidence that the President and the Vice President knew about and, in some instances, directly participated in contra-funding efforts during this period."[^80] +Part IX of the report, on the White House investigations, states that the Independent Counsel "concluded that no criminal charges should be brought against President Reagan, Vice President Bush, Meese or Regan because the belated production of notes and other documents delayed the investigation beyond the point where it could be effective."[^85] The same part states that senior advisers including Vice President Bush "were informed in 1985 of presidential approval of the transactions." It also says that the Independent Counsel "found considerable evidence that the President and the Vice President knew about and, in some instances, directly participated in contra-funding efforts during this period."[^85] -The diary is the subject of a separate passage. Walsh writes that "[t]he personal diary of Vice President Bush was disclosed to Independent Counsel only in December 1992, despite early and repeated requests for such documents."[^81] On December 11, 1992 [[Chester Paul Beach]], associate counsel to President Bush, informed the Independent Counsel that a diary kept by Bush from his vice presidency had not been produced. The report describes it as consisting of "Bush's nightly dictation concerning the events of the day."[^81] The first entry, dated November 4, 1986, describes "the beginning of what I hope will be an accurate diary." An entry for November 5, 1986 reads: "I'm one of the few people that know fully the details."[^82] +The diary is the subject of a separate passage. Walsh writes that "[t]he personal diary of Vice President Bush was disclosed to Independent Counsel only in December 1992, despite early and repeated requests for such documents."[^86] On December 11, 1992 [[Chester Paul Beach]], associate counsel to President Bush, informed the Independent Counsel that a diary kept by Bush from his vice presidency had not been produced. The report describes it as consisting of "Bush's nightly dictation concerning the events of the day."[^86] The first entry, dated November 4, 1986, describes "the beginning of what I hope will be an accurate diary." An entry for November 5, 1986 reads: "I'm one of the few people that know fully the details."[^87] -The report records a document request that reached the vice president's office. C. Boyden Gray and John Schmitz told office heads that the request "covers all personal and official records of OVP staff members."[^83] +The report records a document request that reached the vice president's office. C. Boyden Gray and John Schmitz told office heads that the request "covers all personal and official records of OVP staff members."[^88] -After the pardons, Bush refused to be interviewed unless the interview was limited to his non-production of the diary and personal notes. The Independent Counsel declined those conditions. In late February 1993 Bush's counsel set out six professed obstacles to a deposition.[^79] The report states that a grand jury subpoena was not issued because the office did not believe there was an appropriate likelihood of a criminal prosecution.[^81] +After the pardons, Bush refused to be interviewed unless the interview was limited to his non-production of the diary and personal notes. The Independent Counsel declined those conditions. In late February 1993 Bush's counsel set out six professed obstacles to a deposition.[^84] The report states that a grand jury subpoena was not issued because the office did not believe there was an appropriate likelihood of a criminal prosecution.[^86] -On December 24, 1992 Bush issued Proclamation 6518, granting pardons to Caspar Weinberger, [[Robert McFarlane]], [[Elliott Abrams]], [[Dewey Clarridge]], [[Clair George]] and [[Alan Fiers]]. In the proclamation Bush wrote that "the common denominator of their motivation ... was patriotism." He described the prosecutions as "a profoundly troubling development in the political and legal climate of our country: the criminalization of policy differences. ... The proper target is the President, not his subordinates; the proper forum is the voting booth, not the courtroom."[^84] +On December 24, 1992 Bush issued Proclamation 6518, granting pardons to Caspar Weinberger, [[Robert McFarlane]], [[Elliott Abrams]], [[Dewey Clarridge]], [[Clair George]] and [[Alan Fiers]]. In the proclamation Bush wrote that "the common denominator of their motivation ... was patriotism." He described the prosecutions as "a profoundly troubling development in the political and legal climate of our country: the criminalization of policy differences. ... The proper target is the President, not his subordinates; the proper forum is the voting booth, not the courtroom."[^89] -Walsh responded that the pardon of Weinberger "undermines the principle that no man is above the law."[^85] The Fourth Interim Report of February 8, 1993 includes the phrase "prevent full disclosure of some new key fact to the American people," and states that the pardon "thwarted the public airing of new and disturbing facts about the actions of Weinberger and other senior Executive Branch officials."[^86] +Walsh responded that the pardon of Weinberger "undermines the principle that no man is above the law."[^90] The Fourth Interim Report of February 8, 1993 includes the phrase "prevent full disclosure of some new key fact to the American people," and states that the pardon "thwarted the public airing of new and disturbing facts about the actions of Weinberger and other senior Executive Branch officials."[^91] -The [[Tower Commission]] also examined the Vice President's contacts with Israeli channels. Its report records that "The Vice President was in Israel on July 29. While there, he met with Nir." The Vice President told the board that, before the meeting, he had been uneasy and tried to call [[John Poindexter]].[^87] Bush related that his discussion with Amiram Nir "was generally about counterterrorism. There was no discussion of specifics relating to arms going to the Iranians, e.g., the price of TOW missiles was never raised."[^87] The report also contains the phrase that the interests of the United States were "in the grip of the Israelis."[^87] +The [[Tower Commission]] also examined the Vice President's contacts with Israeli channels. Its report records that "The Vice President was in Israel on July 29. While there, he met with Nir." The Vice President told the board that, before the meeting, he had been uneasy and tried to call [[John Poindexter]].[^92] Bush related that his discussion with Amiram Nir "was generally about counterterrorism. There was no discussion of specifics relating to arms going to the Iranians, e.g., the price of TOW missiles was never raised."[^92] The report also contains the phrase that the interests of the United States were "in the grip of the Israelis."[^92] -At the National Security Planning Group meeting of June 25, 1984, the minutes record Casey saying: "We need the legal opinion which makes clear that the US has the authority to facilitate third country funding for the anti-Sandinistas." Vice President Bush asked: "How can anyone object to the US encouraging third parties to provide help to the anti-Sandinistas under the finding? The only problem that might come up is if the United States were to promise to give these third parties something in return so that some people could interpret this as some kind of an exchange." Robert McFarlane proposed "that there be no authority for anyone to seek third party support for the anti-Sandinistas until we have the information we need," and Reagan said: "If such a story gets out, we'll all be hanging by our thumbs in front of the White House until we find out who did it." The meeting took place under the [[Boland Amendment]].[^88] +At the National Security Planning Group meeting of June 25, 1984, the minutes record Casey saying: "We need the legal opinion which makes clear that the US has the authority to facilitate third country funding for the anti-Sandinistas." Vice President Bush asked: "How can anyone object to the US encouraging third parties to provide help to the anti-Sandinistas under the finding? The only problem that might come up is if the United States were to promise to give these third parties something in return so that some people could interpret this as some kind of an exchange." Robert McFarlane proposed "that there be no authority for anyone to seek third party support for the anti-Sandinistas until we have the information we need," and Reagan said: "If such a story gets out, we'll all be hanging by our thumbs in front of the White House until we find out who did it." The meeting took place under the [[Boland Amendment]].[^93] -The [[The Enterprise (Iran-Contra)|Enterprise]] ran the Contra supply operation through the Ilopango Airbase in [[El Salvador]], where CIA Hangar No. 4 was turned over to its operations in 1985; Felix Rodriguez, who had connections to Gregg, then National Security Adviser to the Vice President, coordinated aircraft and logistics there.[^89] +The [[The Enterprise (Iran-Contra)|Enterprise]] ran the Contra supply operation through the Ilopango Airbase in [[El Salvador]], where CIA Hangar No. 4 was turned over to its operations in 1985; Felix Rodriguez, who had connections to Gregg, then National Security Adviser to the Vice President, coordinated aircraft and logistics there.[^94] -In 1992 Bush asked former Attorney General [[Griffin Bell]] to assist in seeking the release of Bush's Iran-Contra deposition, and on December 30, 1992 the White House press secretary issued a statement on the investigation.[^90] Barr later said that at the end of the administration he advised Bush to pardon Weinberger "and about five others," and of the Iran-Contra pardons: "I certainly did not oppose any of them."[^91] [[Christopher Drogoul]], the Atlanta BNL manager, was indicted on February 28, 1991, the day after Bush ordered the ceasefire in the [[Gulf War]].[^92] +In 1992 Bush asked former Attorney General [[Griffin Bell]] to assist in seeking the release of Bush's Iran-Contra deposition, and on December 30, 1992 the White House press secretary issued a statement on the investigation.[^95] Barr later said that at the end of the administration he advised Bush to pardon Weinberger "and about five others," and of the Iran-Contra pardons: "I certainly did not oppose any of them."[^96] [[Christopher Drogoul]], the Atlanta BNL manager, was indicted on February 28, 1991, the day after Bush ordered the ceasefire in the [[Gulf War]].[^97] ### The October Surprise -The October Surprise allegation concerns whether the 1980 Reagan campaign delayed the release of the American hostages held in Iran until after the election. The [[House October Surprise Task Force]] issued its joint report on January 3, 1993 as Calendar No. 634 of the 102d Congress.[^93] +The October Surprise allegation concerns whether the 1980 Reagan campaign delayed the release of the American hostages held in Iran until after the election. The [[House October Surprise Task Force]] issued its joint report on January 3, 1993 as Calendar No. 634 of the 102d Congress.[^98] -In the task force's account of Ari Ben-Menashe's claims about the Paris meetings of October 1980, he remained in the foyer, and "[j]ust prior to the meeting Mehdi Karrubi arrived, followed shortly by George Bush and William Casey by way of an elevator reserved for this purpose."[^94] The report records that Ben-Menashe "had told reporters for [[Newsweek]] magazine that he was positive he had seen George Bush at the Paris meetings on both October 19 and October 20, 1980." The report also notes that Sukkot fell on September 25 in 1980.[^94] +In the task force's account of Ari Ben-Menashe's claims about the Paris meetings of October 1980, he remained in the foyer, and "[j]ust prior to the meeting Mehdi Karrubi arrived, followed shortly by George Bush and William Casey by way of an elevator reserved for this purpose."[^99] The report records that Ben-Menashe "had told reporters for [[Newsweek]] magazine that he was positive he had seen George Bush at the Paris meetings on both October 19 and October 20, 1980." The report also notes that Sukkot fell on September 25 in 1980.[^99] -The task force concludes that Ben-Menashe's account of the October meetings, "like his other October Surprise allegations, is a total fabrication."[^94] On Ben-Menashe's account of a meeting at the L'Enfant Plaza hotel in Washington, which he tied to the [[Iran-Israel Joint Committee]], the task force wrote that "Ben-Menashe's account is demonstrably false from beginning to end."[^95] It states that the personnel records supplied by the Government of Israel, with Ben-Menashe's contemporaneous handwritten answers to the questions he had to answer for the External Relations Department when traveling abroad, showed that he did not travel outside Israel in October 1980, and that exit stamps on his civilian passport indicated the same.[^94] +The task force concludes that Ben-Menashe's account of the October meetings, "like his other October Surprise allegations, is a total fabrication."[^99] On Ben-Menashe's account of a meeting at the L'Enfant Plaza hotel in Washington, which he tied to the [[Iran-Israel Joint Committee]], the task force wrote that "Ben-Menashe's account is demonstrably false from beginning to end."[^100] It states that the personnel records supplied by the Government of Israel, with Ben-Menashe's contemporaneous handwritten answers to the questions he had to answer for the External Relations Department when traveling abroad, showed that he did not travel outside Israel in October 1980, and that exit stamps on his civilian passport indicated the same.[^99] -On Bush's whereabouts the task force reports that Secret Service records place him in Washington on October 19 and campaigning on October 20, 1980. It states that "these records and testimony conclusively prove candidate George Bush's whereabouts in October, 1980," and that "The Task Force has determined that Bush did not travel to Paris during the period of time in question as has been alleged by many October Surprise witnesses."[^96] The report generalizes the point: "In almost all instances, the evidence clearly establishes the presence of major alleged participants in Paris meetings to be someplace else, doing something else."[^97] +On Bush's whereabouts the task force reports that Secret Service records place him in Washington on October 19 and campaigning on October 20, 1980. It states that "these records and testimony conclusively prove candidate George Bush's whereabouts in October, 1980," and that "The Task Force has determined that Bush did not travel to Paris during the period of time in question as has been alleged by many October Surprise witnesses."[^101] The report generalizes the point: "In almost all instances, the evidence clearly establishes the presence of major alleged participants in Paris meetings to be someplace else, doing something else."[^102] -[[Richard Brenneke]] testified that a pilot, Rupp, flew Bush, Casey and others to Paris. The task force records that at Brenneke's trial in Oregon in 1990 he retracted his earlier testimony that he had seen Bush and Allen at the meeting.[^98] The task force states that "Brenneke's testimony that he was in Paris is false." Brenneke's 1980 daily calendar "indicates that he was in the Pacific Northwest when he claimed to have been in Paris."[^99] The report also says that Brenneke "played a central role in falsely propagating the October Surprise allegations for financial and personal reasons."[^99] +[[Richard Brenneke]] testified that a pilot, Rupp, flew Bush, Casey and others to Paris. The task force records that at Brenneke's trial in Oregon in 1990 he retracted his earlier testimony that he had seen Bush and Allen at the meeting.[^103] The task force states that "Brenneke's testimony that he was in Paris is false." Brenneke's 1980 daily calendar "indicates that he was in the Pacific Northwest when he claimed to have been in Paris."[^104] The report also says that Brenneke "played a central role in falsely propagating the October Surprise allegations for financial and personal reasons."[^104] -A 1988 Senate subcommittee report summarizes Brenneke's claims that he had "personally discussed the operation with members of the Vice President's staff." The subcommittee concluded that although Brenneke produced thousands of pages of documents relating to proposed arms deals, "there is no evidence that any of them ever came to fruition." It also found that Brenneke "received completely fabricated information about arms deals from undercover agents of the Customs Service."[^100] +A 1988 Senate subcommittee report summarizes Brenneke's claims that he had "personally discussed the operation with members of the Vice President's staff." The subcommittee concluded that although Brenneke produced thousands of pages of documents relating to proposed arms deals, "there is no evidence that any of them ever came to fruition." It also found that Brenneke "received completely fabricated information about arms deals from undercover agents of the Customs Service."[^105] -The task force examined the calendar of William J. Casey. It records a July 30, 1980 entry for a 6:45 p.m. dinner with George Bush at the Alibi Club.[^101] The report's analysis of Casey's movements states that "The evidence strongly indicates that Casey departed the United States on July 27, arrived in London on July 28, and departed London for the United States on July 29."[^102] Loose calendar pages for July 26 and 27, October 21, October 29, November 3 through 11, and November 13 are listed as missing. The task force states that "[t]he dates July 26th and October 21st are of particular interest to the Task Force."[^103] +The task force examined the calendar of William J. Casey. It records a July 30, 1980 entry for a 6:45 p.m. dinner with George Bush at the Alibi Club.[^106] The report's analysis of Casey's movements states that "The evidence strongly indicates that Casey departed the United States on July 27, arrived in London on July 28, and departed London for the United States on July 29."[^107] Loose calendar pages for July 26 and 27, October 21, October 29, November 3 through 11, and November 13 are listed as missing. The task force states that "[t]he dates July 26th and October 21st are of particular interest to the Task Force."[^108] -[[Robert Parry]] reported in 2011 on a memorandum for the record that Beach wrote on November 4, 1991. The memorandum records that State Department legal adviser Edwin D. Williamson told Beach that the department held material that included "a cable from the Madrid embassy indicating that Bill Casey was in town, for purposes unknown."[^104] Parry writes that "there's no indication that the White House told investigators about Williamson's information," and that the Bush library withholds nearly a quarter of its roughly 4,800 pages.[^104] +[[Robert Parry]] reported in 2011 on a memorandum for the record that Beach wrote on November 4, 1991. The memorandum records that State Department legal adviser Edwin D. Williamson told Beach that the department held material that included "a cable from the Madrid embassy indicating that Bill Casey was in town, for purposes unknown."[^109] Parry writes that "there's no indication that the White House told investigators about Williamson's information," and that the Bush library withholds nearly a quarter of its roughly 4,800 pages.[^109] -The task force also records Reagan's statements. In a June 15, 1991 interview Reagan said, "I did some things actually the other way, to try and be of help in getting those hostages." In a sworn written answer dated October 23, 1992 he wrote that "I and Reagan/Bush campaign officials made it clear by our conduct and statements during the campaign that we were supportive of the Carter administration efforts to secure the release of American hostages held in Iran."[^105] +The task force also records Reagan's statements. In a June 15, 1991 interview Reagan said, "I did some things actually the other way, to try and be of help in getting those hostages." In a sworn written answer dated October 23, 1992 he wrote that "I and Reagan/Bush campaign officials made it clear by our conduct and statements during the campaign that we were supportive of the Carter administration efforts to secure the release of American hostages held in Iran."[^110] -Ben-Menashe's account of the Paris meeting names others besides Bush and Casey. He wrote that [[George Cave]], Robert McFarlane and Donald Gregg attended; that [[Simon Gabbay]] coordinated the October 1980 meeting between Israeli and Iranian delegations that included Bush, Casey and [[Mehdi Karrubi]], with the aim of eliminating direct contact between Israeli and Iranian embassy personnel; and that [[Uri Simchoni]] was part of the Israeli delegation.[^56] Cave also attended a meeting in [[Santiago]] in late 1986, according to Ben-Menashe, where American officials reaffirmed their intention to maintain arms channels to Iraq.[^56] [[Barbara Honegger]] published *October Surprise* (Tudor Publishing, 1989), one of the first extended accounts of the allegations; she alleged meetings in Madrid in July 1980 and in Paris in October 1980 involving Casey, Bush and European intermediaries including de Marenches.[^106] +Ben-Menashe's account of the Paris meeting names others besides Bush and Casey. He wrote that [[George Cave]], Robert McFarlane and Donald Gregg attended; that [[Simon Gabbay]] coordinated the October 1980 meeting between Israeli and Iranian delegations that included Bush, Casey and [[Mehdi Karrubi]], with the aim of eliminating direct contact between Israeli and Iranian embassy personnel; and that [[Uri Simchoni]] was part of the Israeli delegation.[^61] Cave also attended a meeting in [[Santiago]] in late 1986, according to Ben-Menashe, where American officials reaffirmed their intention to maintain arms channels to Iraq.[^61] [[Barbara Honegger]] published *October Surprise* (Tudor Publishing, 1989), one of the first extended accounts of the allegations; she alleged meetings in Madrid in July 1980 and in Paris in October 1980 involving Casey, Bush and European intermediaries including de Marenches.[^111] -[[Cheri Seymour]] wrote in *The Last Circle* that the attorney [[Paul Wilcher]] believed his client [[Gunther Karl Russbacher]] to be a political prisoner persecuted because he allegedly flew former President Bush to Paris to meet leading Iranians to make a deal to supply Iran with weapons in exchange for keeping the 52 American hostages until after the November election. On or about May 21, 1993 Wilcher hand-delivered a 100-page letter to Attorney General [[Janet Reno]] claiming that holdover Justice Department employees from the Reagan-Bush era were responsible for government cover-ups; he was interviewed by [[Carl Stern]], Reno's public relations officer, on or about June 11, and his body was found in his apartment on June 23, 1993. [[Sarah McClendon]], a White House correspondent and friend of Wilcher, wrote that Wilcher held the Russbacher belief.[^107] Seymour also wrote that [[Michael Riconosciuto]], a source of [[Danny Casolaro]]'s investigation of [[The Octopus]], claimed that he and an associate named Brian personally carried $40 million to Iranian officials for that purpose.[^107] +[[Cheri Seymour]] wrote in *The Last Circle* that the attorney [[Paul Wilcher]] believed his client [[Gunther Karl Russbacher]] to be a political prisoner persecuted because he allegedly flew former President Bush to Paris to meet leading Iranians to make a deal to supply Iran with weapons in exchange for keeping the 52 American hostages until after the November election. On or about May 21, 1993 Wilcher hand-delivered a 100-page letter to Attorney General [[Janet Reno]] claiming that holdover Justice Department employees from the Reagan-Bush era were responsible for government cover-ups; he was interviewed by [[Carl Stern]], Reno's public relations officer, on or about June 11, and his body was found in his apartment on June 23, 1993. [[Sarah McClendon]], a White House correspondent and friend of Wilcher, wrote that Wilcher held the Russbacher belief.[^112] Seymour also wrote that [[Michael Riconosciuto]], a source of [[Danny Casolaro]]'s investigation of [[The Octopus]], claimed that he and an associate named Brian personally carried $40 million to Iranian officials for that purpose.[^112] ### The Presidency: Panama, Appointees and Executive Actions -Bush was inaugurated as the 41st President on January 20, 1989.[^108] [[Dick Cheney]] recalled in the Miller Center oral history of the Bush presidency that "Panama was a great training experience for us as an administration. We had the opportunity to have an objective, have to use force, coordinate with the Congress, deal with the public, all of those things that come with using the force." The invasion of [[Panama]] in December 1989 removed Manuel Noriega; [[Colin Powell]], then Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, said in the same project: "Nobody even remembers the Panama war. You don't ever hear of it. But I viewed it as the template of how we should do things."[^109] Seymour wrote that the [[Cali Drug Cartel]] was contrasted with the Medellin Cartel, which Noriega chose to support, ultimately leading to his ousting by Bush; she wrote that the DEA's Centac 21 task force, which had targeted [[Gilberto Rodriguez Orejuela]] and [[Jose Santacruz Londono]] in the 1978 indictments, was dismantled under the Reagan and Bush administrations, leaving disgruntled agents to suspect a CIA connection.[^107] Seymour added that Bush reportedly made secret visits to Damascus for hostage negotiations, and that after Desert Storm Bush and Secretary of State [[James A. Baker III]] encouraged [[Syria]] and Israel to recognize each other's Lebanese occupation zones under a 1990 accord that left Syria in control of the Bekaa Valley.[^107] +Bush was inaugurated as the 41st President on January 20, 1989.[^113] [[Dick Cheney]] recalled in the Miller Center oral history of the Bush presidency that "Panama was a great training experience for us as an administration. We had the opportunity to have an objective, have to use force, coordinate with the Congress, deal with the public, all of those things that come with using the force." The invasion of [[Panama]] in December 1989 removed Manuel Noriega; [[Colin Powell]], then Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, said in the same project: "Nobody even remembers the Panama war. You don't ever hear of it. But I viewed it as the template of how we should do things."[^114] Seymour wrote that the [[Cali Drug Cartel]] was contrasted with the Medellin Cartel, which Noriega chose to support, ultimately leading to his ousting by Bush; she wrote that the DEA's Centac 21 task force, which had targeted [[Gilberto Rodriguez Orejuela]] and [[Jose Santacruz Londono]] in the 1978 indictments, was dismantled under the Reagan and Bush administrations, leaving disgruntled agents to suspect a CIA connection.[^112] Seymour added that Bush reportedly made secret visits to Damascus for hostage negotiations, and that after Desert Storm Bush and Secretary of State [[James A. Baker III]] encouraged [[Syria]] and Israel to recognize each other's Lebanese occupation zones under a 1990 accord that left Syria in control of the Bekaa Valley.[^112] -The Cox Committee counted twelve national-interest determinations for launches of commercial satellites on Chinese rockets between 1989 and early 1998, three by President Bush and nine by [[Bill Clinton]]; the last, of February 18, 1998, applied to the Loral-built [[Chinasat-8]] satellite, a company then headed by [[Bernard L. Schwartz]].[^110] [[National Security Directive 67]], signed by Bush on March 30, 1992, replaced the lettered programs of the [[National Reconnaissance Office]] with three functional directorates, and the existence of the office was declassified on September 18, 1992.[^111] Bush's report to Congress of September 1991 under the [[Iraq Sanctions Act of 1990]] stated that "United States suppliers did not contribute directly to Iraq's conventional or nonconventional weapons capability." Gonzalez said that after Iraq invaded Kuwait in August 1990, [[SerVaas Inc.]] renegotiated a brass-plant contract with its Iraqi counterparts and sold it through a foreign holding company to escape the president's order freezing Iraqi assets.[^112] The prime minister of [[Jamaica]], [[Michael Manley]], sworn in again on February 13, 1989, said that he planned to travel to Washington to meet Bush, congressional leaders and officials of the [[Drug Enforcement Administration]].[^113] +The Cox Committee counted twelve national-interest determinations for launches of commercial satellites on Chinese rockets between 1989 and early 1998, three by President Bush and nine by [[Bill Clinton]]; the last, of February 18, 1998, applied to the Loral-built [[Chinasat-8]] satellite, a company then headed by [[Bernard L. Schwartz]].[^115] [[National Security Directive 67]], signed by Bush on March 30, 1992, replaced the lettered programs of the [[National Reconnaissance Office]] with three functional directorates, and the existence of the office was declassified on September 18, 1992.[^116] Bush's report to Congress of September 1991 under the [[Iraq Sanctions Act of 1990]] stated that "United States suppliers did not contribute directly to Iraq's conventional or nonconventional weapons capability." Gonzalez said that after Iraq invaded Kuwait in August 1990, [[SerVaas Inc.]] renegotiated a brass-plant contract with its Iraqi counterparts and sold it through a foreign holding company to escape the president's order freezing Iraqi assets.[^117] The prime minister of [[Jamaica]], [[Michael Manley]], sworn in again on February 13, 1989, said that he planned to travel to Washington to meet Bush, congressional leaders and officials of the [[Drug Enforcement Administration]].[^118] -Richard Thornburgh continued as Attorney General under Bush through 1991, resigning in August 1991 to run for the Senate.[^114] [[Kenneth Starr]] was the 39th Solicitor General from 1989 to 1993 under Bush.[^115] [[Steve Forbes|Malcolm S. Forbes Jr.]], president of [[Forbes]] magazine, was renominated to the Board for International Broadcasting, which oversees [[Radio Free Europe]], by the Bush White House on January 4, 1990 and again on June 19, 1992, each time with designation as chairman.[^116] [[Jay Lefkowitz]] served under Bush as deputy executive secretary of the [[Domestic Policy Council]] and director of cabinet affairs.[^117] [[Loretta Preska]] was appointed a judge of the [[U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York]] by Bush in 1992.[^118] Lawrence Eagleburger, president of [[Kissinger Associates]] from 1984 to 1989, was deputy secretary of state under Baker and secretary of state in the last weeks of the administration; Brent Scowcroft, vice chairman of the firm's Washington office, became national security adviser in January 1989.[^119] +Richard Thornburgh continued as Attorney General under Bush through 1991, resigning in August 1991 to run for the Senate.[^119] [[Kenneth Starr]] was the 39th Solicitor General from 1989 to 1993 under Bush.[^120] [[Steve Forbes|Malcolm S. Forbes Jr.]], president of [[Forbes]] magazine, was renominated to the Board for International Broadcasting, which oversees [[Radio Free Europe]], by the Bush White House on January 4, 1990 and again on June 19, 1992, each time with designation as chairman.[^121] [[Jay Lefkowitz]] served under Bush as deputy executive secretary of the [[Domestic Policy Council]] and director of cabinet affairs.[^122] [[Loretta Preska]] was appointed a judge of the [[U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York]] by Bush in 1992.[^123] Lawrence Eagleburger, president of [[Kissinger Associates]] from 1984 to 1989, was deputy secretary of state under Baker and secretary of state in the last weeks of the administration; Brent Scowcroft, vice chairman of the firm's Washington office, became national security adviser in January 1989.[^124] ### Iraq, Osirak, and the Teicher Declaration -The Teicher declaration of January 31, 1995, on the [[Iran-Iraq War]], filed in the Florida prosecution of [[Carlos Cardoen]] and others, states in paragraph 7 that a secret 1986 message from Reagan to [[Saddam Hussein]], urging a stepped-up air war against Iran, was delivered by Vice President Bush to [[Hosni Mubarak]], who passed it to Saddam Hussein. The declaration also states that Teicher wrote Bush's talking points for the 1986 meeting with Mubarak.[^120] A corrective declaration filed in October 1996 addresses paragraphs 15 through 18.[^121] +The Teicher declaration of January 31, 1995, on the [[Iran-Iraq War]], filed in the Florida prosecution of [[Carlos Cardoen]] and others, states in paragraph 7 that a secret 1986 message from Reagan to [[Saddam Hussein]], urging a stepped-up air war against Iran, was delivered by Vice President Bush to [[Hosni Mubarak]], who passed it to Saddam Hussein. The declaration also states that Teicher wrote Bush's talking points for the 1986 meeting with Mubarak.[^125] A corrective declaration filed in October 1996 addresses paragraphs 15 through 18.[^126] ### The BNL and Iraqgate Record -The Atlanta branch of Banca Nazionale del Lavoro extended credits to [[Iraq]] that the [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]] examined in February 1993. The committee reports that a National Security Council Deputies Committee meeting on May 29, 1990 was held "to resolve the issue of the second $500 million tranche," and that [[Robert M. Gates]] chaired it.[^122] Barr and Richard opposed going forward with the second tranche, citing the prosecutor's intent to indict Iraqi officials who were involved in "significant criminal violations." The meeting's conclusion was "that the Iraqi government simply be advised that the U.S. would not go forward with the second tranche until the investigation in Atlanta was completed."[^122] The indictment in Atlanta was returned on February 28, 1991.[^122] +The Atlanta branch of Banca Nazionale del Lavoro extended credits to [[Iraq]] that the [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]] examined in February 1993. The committee reports that a National Security Council Deputies Committee meeting on May 29, 1990 was held "to resolve the issue of the second $500 million tranche," and that [[Robert M. Gates]] chaired it.[^127] Barr and Richard opposed going forward with the second tranche, citing the prosecutor's intent to indict Iraqi officials who were involved in "significant criminal violations." The meeting's conclusion was "that the Iraqi government simply be advised that the U.S. would not go forward with the second tranche until the investigation in Atlanta was completed."[^127] The indictment in Atlanta was returned on February 28, 1991.[^127] -On October 2, 1989 Bush signed [[National Security Directive 26]], classified SECRET. It states that the government "should propose economic and political incentives for Iraq to moderate its behavior and to increase our influence with Iraq," and that "any illegal use of chemical and/or biological weapons will lead to economic and political sanctions."[^123] +On October 2, 1989 Bush signed [[National Security Directive 26]], classified SECRET. It states that the government "should propose economic and political incentives for Iraq to moderate its behavior and to increase our influence with Iraq," and that "any illegal use of chemical and/or biological weapons will lead to economic and political sanctions."[^128] -The [[Commodity Credit Corporation Iraq Program]] ran alongside the BNL loans. On October 6, 1989 Secretary of State Baker assured [[Tariq Aziz]] that American concern over proliferation was worldwide and not directed at Iraq; the department then offered Iraq 500 million dollars in guarantees, with a second 500 million to follow "after successful conclusion of the BNL investigation," a condition Iraq rejected.[^124] Friedman wrote in *Spider's Web* on the [[BNL Scandal]] that the House Banking Committee under Gonzalez documented the Reagan administration's and the early Bush administration's consistent support for Iraq's weapons procurement networks, including knowledge of chemical weapons use.[^125] +The [[Commodity Credit Corporation Iraq Program]] ran alongside the BNL loans. On October 6, 1989 Secretary of State Baker assured [[Tariq Aziz]] that American concern over proliferation was worldwide and not directed at Iraq; the department then offered Iraq 500 million dollars in guarantees, with a second 500 million to follow "after successful conclusion of the BNL investigation," a condition Iraq rejected.[^129] Friedman wrote in *Spider's Web* on the [[BNL Scandal]] that the House Banking Committee under Gonzalez documented the Reagan administration's and the early Bush administration's consistent support for Iraq's weapons procurement networks, including knowledge of chemical weapons use.[^130] -In a 1992 statement in the House, Representative [[Henry B. Gonzalez]] quoted the sentence "United States suppliers did not contribute directly to Iraq's conventional or nonconventional weapons capability." He added that "[s]everal Bush administration officials in a position to know the truth have testified before Congress about the United States role in enhancing Iraq's military capability."[^126] The White House's unclassified summary of September 1991 uses different language on the same question.[^127] +In a 1992 statement in the House, Representative [[Henry B. Gonzalez]] quoted the sentence "United States suppliers did not contribute directly to Iraq's conventional or nonconventional weapons capability." He added that "[s]everal Bush administration officials in a position to know the truth have testified before Congress about the United States role in enhancing Iraq's military capability."[^131] The White House's unclassified summary of September 1991 uses different language on the same question.[^132] ### BCCI and the Gulf Finance Network -The Senate report on the Bank of Credit and Commerce International, prepared by Senators John Kerry and [[Hank Brown]] and published in December 1992, describes a figure named Lake who "received $200,000 in payments from Abu Dhabi last fall in connection with this work." The report says he was performing, "as a volunteer, in an unpaid position," the job of "deputy manager to President Bush's re-election campaign."[^128] Kerry, then subcommittee chairman, said at a hearing on March 18, 1992: "I do not believe that Mr. Lake should be sitting in on White House campaign strategy meetings while he is also providing strategy to Sheikh Zayed on how to deal with problems arising out of his ownership of BCCI."[^128] +The Senate report on the Bank of Credit and Commerce International, prepared by Senators John Kerry and [[Hank Brown]] and published in December 1992, describes a figure named Lake who "received $200,000 in payments from Abu Dhabi last fall in connection with this work." The report says he was performing, "as a volunteer, in an unpaid position," the job of "deputy manager to President Bush's re-election campaign."[^133] Kerry, then subcommittee chairman, said at a hearing on March 18, 1992: "I do not believe that Mr. Lake should be sitting in on White House campaign strategy meetings while he is also providing strategy to Sheikh Zayed on how to deal with problems arising out of his ownership of BCCI."[^133] -The report's chapter on [[Ed Rogers]] quotes Rogers's resignation letter, which states that "The ethics atmosphere at the Bush White House was to go the extra mile...."[^129] The report places [[Sam Bamieh]] in Bush's Team 100 fundraising program in 1988.[^130] It also records that [[Richard Helms]] wrote to Vice President Bush on behalf of [[Mohammed Rahim Motaghi Irvani|Irvani]] on October 29, 1987.[^131] +The report's chapter on [[Ed Rogers]] quotes Rogers's resignation letter, which states that "The ethics atmosphere at the Bush White House was to go the extra mile...."[^134] The report places [[Sam Bamieh]] in Bush's Team 100 fundraising program in 1988.[^135] It also records that [[Richard Helms]] wrote to Vice President Bush on behalf of [[Mohammed Rahim Motaghi Irvani|Irvani]] on October 29, 1987.[^136] -The Justice Department's response to Kerry's inquiry about its February 1990 letters states that "The first letter by Mr. Saphos is obviously worded poorly."[^132] A July 24, 1990 letter from Deputy Assistant Attorney General [[Bruce Navarro]] to Kerry also appears in the record.[^133] The report asks whether the Customs undercover investigation of BCCI "is the kind of investigation that President Bush and the Congress desire."[^134] +The Justice Department's response to Kerry's inquiry about its February 1990 letters states that "The first letter by Mr. Saphos is obviously worded poorly."[^137] A July 24, 1990 letter from Deputy Assistant Attorney General [[Bruce Navarro]] to Kerry also appears in the record.[^138] The report asks whether the Customs undercover investigation of BCCI "is the kind of investigation that President Bush and the Congress desire."[^139] ### Stephens, Bath and the Gulf Financiers -[[Jackson Stephens]] of [[Stephens Inc.]] gave to Reagan, Bush and Clinton, and in 1977 introduced the Bank of Credit and Commerce International to the American bank it would secretly acquire.[^135] [[Peter Truell]] and [[Larry Gurwin]] wrote in 1992 that Stephens backed Bush that year while employees of Stephens Inc. gave more money to the Clinton campaign than the employees of all but two other firms; they also wrote that [[Hillary Clinton]], then Hillary Rodham, did legal work in 1978 for Systematics Inc. when it was sued over the stock accumulation for [[Agha Hasan Abedi]].[^136] The firm gave 100,000 dollars to a dinner for President Bush in May 1991, and family members and employees gave more than 83,000 dollars to Clinton by the summer of 1992; [[Worthen Bank]], whose chairman [[Curt Bradbury]] had been a Stephens officer, extended the Clinton campaign a 3.5 million dollar line of credit.[^137] +[[Jackson Stephens]] of [[Stephens Inc.]] gave to Reagan, Bush and Clinton, and in 1977 introduced the Bank of Credit and Commerce International to the American bank it would secretly acquire.[^140] [[Peter Truell]] and [[Larry Gurwin]] wrote in 1992 that Stephens backed Bush that year while employees of Stephens Inc. gave more money to the Clinton campaign than the employees of all but two other firms; they also wrote that [[Hillary Clinton]], then Hillary Rodham, did legal work in 1978 for Systematics Inc. when it was sued over the stock accumulation for [[Agha Hasan Abedi]].[^141] The firm gave 100,000 dollars to a dinner for President Bush in May 1991, and family members and employees gave more than 83,000 dollars to Clinton by the summer of 1992; [[Worthen Bank]], whose chairman [[Curt Bradbury]] had been a Stephens officer, extended the Clinton campaign a 3.5 million dollar line of credit.[^142] -[[James R. Bath]] told *Time* in 1991 that his friendship with Bush dated from their service in the Guard and that he was only "slightly" acquainted with the then-President.[^138] [[Craig Unger]] wrote in *Salon* in 2004 that the second name on a Guard order, released earlier under the Freedom of Information Act to the researcher Marty Heldt, was Bath's, and that the White House redacted it when it released George W. Bush's military records in March 2004; Bath confirmed that he was the man named and said: "Geo did not use drugs."[^139] [[Lucy Komisar]] wrote in 2007 that in 1976, when Bush headed the CIA, the agency sold some planes of its proprietary airline [[Air America]] to Skyway, "a company owned by Bath and Bin Mahfouz"; she wrote that [[Khalid bin Mahfouz]]'s family bought 20 to 30 percent of BCCI for nearly one billion dollars, and that when [[Harken Energy]] got into financial trouble in 1987 Stephens helped it obtain 25 million dollars from [[Union Bank of Switzerland]] and a board seat went to the Harken shareholder [[Abdullah Taha Bakhsh]], "whose chief banker was BCCI shareholder Bin Mahfouz." Harken's proxy statement of April 25, 1994 listed Bakhsh with 6,935,364 shares, 11.66 percent of its common stock.[^140] *Time* described Bakhsh as the reclusive Saudi who bought an 11 percent stake in Harken, of which George W. Bush was a director.[^141] +[[James R. Bath]] told *Time* in 1991 that his friendship with Bush dated from their service in the Guard and that he was only "slightly" acquainted with the then-President.[^143] [[Craig Unger]] wrote in *Salon* in 2004 that the second name on a Guard order, released earlier under the Freedom of Information Act to the researcher Marty Heldt, was Bath's, and that the White House redacted it when it released George W. Bush's military records in March 2004; Bath confirmed that he was the man named and said: "Geo did not use drugs."[^144] [[Lucy Komisar]] wrote in 2007 that in 1976, when Bush headed the CIA, the agency sold some planes of its proprietary airline [[Air America]] to Skyway, "a company owned by Bath and Bin Mahfouz"; she wrote that [[Khalid bin Mahfouz]]'s family bought 20 to 30 percent of BCCI for nearly one billion dollars, and that when [[Harken Energy]] got into financial trouble in 1987 Stephens helped it obtain 25 million dollars from [[Union Bank of Switzerland]] and a board seat went to the Harken shareholder [[Abdullah Taha Bakhsh]], "whose chief banker was BCCI shareholder Bin Mahfouz." Harken's proxy statement of April 25, 1994 listed Bakhsh with 6,935,364 shares, 11.66 percent of its common stock.[^145] *Time* described Bakhsh as the reclusive Saudi who bought an 11 percent stake in Harken, of which George W. Bush was a director.[^146] ### Hinckley -John W. Hinckley Jr. shot President Reagan on March 30, 1981. The [[Houston Post]] reported that Neil Bush, a son of Vice President Bush, had been scheduled to have dinner the day after the shooting with [[Scott Hinckley]], the brother of the gunman. WhoWhatWhy reports that the story was picked up by the Associated Press and UPI.[^142] +John W. Hinckley Jr. shot President Reagan on March 30, 1981. The [[Houston Post]] reported that Neil Bush, a son of Vice President Bush, had been scheduled to have dinner the day after the shooting with [[Scott Hinckley]], the brother of the gunman. WhoWhatWhy reports that the story was picked up by the Associated Press and UPI.[^147] -At a press conference the day after the shooting, Neil Bush acknowledged that Scott Hinckley had also been at his house "a couple of months earlier, at his surprise birthday party." Neil Bush said, "I have no idea."[^142] +At a press conference the day after the shooting, Neil Bush acknowledged that Scott Hinckley had also been at his house "a couple of months earlier, at his surprise birthday party." Neil Bush said, "I have no idea."[^147] -The vice president's press secretary, [[Peter Teeley]], told a UPI reporter, as WhoWhatWhy quotes him: "I don't know a damn thing about it. All I know is what you're telling me." Teeley said that the vice president "made no mention of it whatsoever."[^142] +The vice president's press secretary, [[Peter Teeley]], told a UPI reporter, as WhoWhatWhy quotes him: "I don't know a damn thing about it. All I know is what you're telling me." Teeley said that the vice president "made no mention of it whatsoever."[^147] -The diary of [[Chase Untermyer]], a Bush aide, records that "Neil and Sharon do know Hinckley's brother (in Denver) and were planning to have dinner with them tomorrow night."[^142] +The diary of [[Chase Untermyer]], a Bush aide, records that "Neil and Sharon do know Hinckley's brother (in Denver) and were planning to have dinner with them tomorrow night."[^147] -WhoWhatWhy also reports, citing an Associated Press item of April 1, 1981, that the Department of Energy told the Hinckley family's oil business that it might be penalized about $2 million.[^143] +WhoWhatWhy also reports, citing an Associated Press item of April 1, 1981, that the Department of Energy told the Hinckley family's oil business that it might be penalized about $2 million.[^148] ### Franklin Cover-Up Allegations -[[John DeCamp]] wrote on the Franklin matter in Nebraska. An advertisement for his book, reproduced in a compilation of material gathered by [[Ted Gunderson]], states that the book "contains numerous references to President George Bush."[^144] +[[John DeCamp]] wrote on the Franklin matter in Nebraska. An advertisement for his book, reproduced in a compilation of material gathered by [[Ted Gunderson]], states that the book "contains numerous references to President George Bush."[^149] -The same compilation relays a 1989 report in the [[Washington Times]] by [[George Archibald]] that key Reagan and Bush administration officials were ensnared in a federal probe tied to an escort service and [[Craig Spence]].[^145] +The same compilation relays a 1989 report in the [[Washington Times]] by [[George Archibald]] that key Reagan and Bush administration officials were ensnared in a federal probe tied to an escort service and [[Craig Spence]].[^150] ### Allegations in the Casolaro and Mind-Control Literature -Seymour wrote that the Royal Canadian Mounted Police inquirer [[Sean McDade]] told her that Canadian officials might have bought the PROMIS software unlawfully from officials of the Reagan and Bush administrations, that the RCMP had traced banking transactions supporting this, and that a successful inquiry "could cause the entire U.S. Republican Party to be dismantled."[^107] In September 2001 Admiral Daniel Murphy, who had served as chief of staff to Vice President Bush during the first Reagan term when the PROMIS misappropriations began, told [[Bill Hamilton]] of [[INSLAW]] that he had a "hunch" that there was still another use of PROMIS that INSLAW had not yet discovered; Murphy died on September 21, 2001.[^107] +Seymour wrote that the Royal Canadian Mounted Police inquirer [[Sean McDade]] told her that Canadian officials might have bought the PROMIS software unlawfully from officials of the Reagan and Bush administrations, that the RCMP had traced banking transactions supporting this, and that a successful inquiry "could cause the entire U.S. Republican Party to be dismantled."[^112] In September 2001 Admiral Daniel Murphy, who had served as chief of staff to Vice President Bush during the first Reagan term when the PROMIS misappropriations began, told [[Bill Hamilton]] of [[INSLAW]] that he had a "hunch" that there was still another use of PROMIS that INSLAW had not yet discovered; Murphy died on September 21, 2001.[^112] -[[Project Monarch]] is described in a 1996 PROBE article by A.B.H. Alexander, which reports the claim of Cathy O'Brien that she delivered messages to foreign leaders including Mexican President [[Carlos Salinas]] on behalf of Vice President Bush, using keyword-triggered personality compartments.[^146] +[[Project Monarch]] is described in a 1996 PROBE article by A.B.H. Alexander, which reports the claim of Cathy O'Brien that she delivered messages to foreign leaders including Mexican President [[Carlos Salinas]] on behalf of Vice President Bush, using keyword-triggered personality compartments.[^151] ### The Carlyle Group -In March 2002 Tim Shorrock wrote in [[The Nation]] that "Bush is Carlyle's senior adviser on Asia and makes his money by giving speeches at Carlyle's investment conferences."[^147] The article quotes [[William Conway]] of [[The Carlyle Group]] describing "the cast of ex-Presidents and former officials, including George H.W. Bush, James Baker III and Frank Carlucci, on its payroll."[^147] +In March 2002 Tim Shorrock wrote in [[The Nation]] that "Bush is Carlyle's senior adviser on Asia and makes his money by giving speeches at Carlyle's investment conferences."[^152] The article quotes [[William Conway]] of [[The Carlyle Group]] describing "the cast of ex-Presidents and former officials, including George H.W. Bush, James Baker III and Frank Carlucci, on its payroll."[^152] ### Appointees in the Epstein Record -Lefkowitz, who served under Bush at the Domestic Policy Council, was later the principal defense negotiator of the September 2007 [[Epstein non-prosecution agreement]] between [[Jeffrey Epstein]] and the U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of Florida; he retired from [[Kirkland & Ellis]] in March 2026, saying he would not have taken the Epstein matter "knowing what we all know now."[^148] Starr was a partner at Kirkland before and after his service as Solicitor General.[^148] Preska, whom Bush appointed in 1992, took over [[Giuffre v. Maxwell]] after the death of Judge Robert W. Sweet in 2019 and ruled until 2026 on the release of its sealed discovery.[^149] Federal Election Commission records show a 1988 contribution to Bush by [[Philip Scaturro]], whose contributions otherwise went mostly to Democratic candidates.[^150] +Lefkowitz, who served under Bush at the Domestic Policy Council, was later the principal defense negotiator of the September 2007 [[Epstein non-prosecution agreement]] between [[Jeffrey Epstein]] and the U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of Florida; he retired from [[Kirkland & Ellis]] in March 2026, saying he would not have taken the Epstein matter "knowing what we all know now."[^153] Starr was a partner at Kirkland before and after his service as Solicitor General.[^153] Preska, whom Bush appointed in 1992, took over [[Giuffre v. Maxwell]] after the death of Judge Robert W. Sweet in 2019 and ruled until 2026 on the release of its sealed discovery.[^154] Federal Election Commission records show a 1988 contribution to Bush by [[Philip Scaturro]], whose contributions otherwise went mostly to Democratic candidates.[^155] ### Unidentified Aerial Phenomena and the FBI Vault -A letter to FBI Director [[William S. Sessions]], held in the Bureau's vault, is quoted by [[Larry Holzwarth]] in a HistoryCollection article. The letter states that "President Bush (George H. W. Bush), when asked about UFOs, told the person asking 'You don't know the half of it.'" The letter writer reminds the director that Bush "was formerly with the CIA." Because the letter calls Bush "President," it can date only from January 1989 onward.[^151] +A letter to FBI Director [[William S. Sessions]], held in the Bureau's vault, is quoted by [[Larry Holzwarth]] in a HistoryCollection article. The letter states that "President Bush (George H. W. Bush), when asked about UFOs, told the person asking 'You don't know the half of it.'" The letter writer reminds the director that Bush "was formerly with the CIA." Because the letter calls Bush "President," it can date only from January 1989 onward.[^156] -The astrophysicist [[Eric Davis]] recalled Bush telling him that humans made contact with aliens at a secretive New Mexico air base in 1964. The account was published by OK! Magazine on November 24, 2025 and carried by AOL, and is tied to the documentary *The Age of Disclosure*. When Bush asked for more details, he was told that he did not have a need-to-know.[^152] +The astrophysicist [[Eric Davis]] recalled Bush telling him that humans made contact with aliens at a secretive New Mexico air base in 1964. The account was published by OK! Magazine on November 24, 2025 and carried by AOL, and is tied to the documentary *The Age of Disclosure*. When Bush asked for more details, he was told that he did not have a need-to-know.[^157] ### Footnotes @@ -329,151 +333,156 @@ The astrophysicist [[Eric Davis]] recalled Bush telling him that humans made con [^2]: Miller Center, University of Virginia, "George H. W. Bush: Life Before the Presidency." Phillips Academy, Navy service 1942 to 1945, marriage of January 6, 1945, Yale economics degree by 1948, baseball captain, Skull and Bones, Prescott Bush's Senate service 1952 to 1963, the Texas oil years, the 1964 to 1974 political offices, the CIA appointment, the May 1, 1979 announcement, and the children's names and birth years. https://millercenter.org/president/bush/life-before-the-presidency [^3]: White House, "Biography of President George W. Bush" (archived, georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov). Born July 6, 1946, in New Haven; sworn in January 20, 2001 and January 20, 2005. [^4]: George H. W. Bush Presidential Library, FOIA response 2009-0116-F, records relating to the Skull and Bones Society. https://bush41library.gov/download/file/4777 -[^5]: Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 248, Washington, October 20, 1942, *Federal Register*, November 7, 1942, pp. 9097-9098. -[^6]: Russ Baker, "CIA Helped Bush Senior In Oil Venture," WhoWhatWhy, January 7, 2007, quoting a CIA memorandum of November 29, 1975. https://whowhatwhy.org/2007/01/07/cia-bush-senior-oil-venture/ -[^7]: Russ Baker, "CIA Helped Bush Senior In Oil Venture," WhoWhatWhy, January 7, 2007, citing a 1968 memorandum and the 1998 release of CIA documents. https://whowhatwhy.org/2007/01/07/cia-bush-senior-oil-venture/ -[^8]: Zapata Corporation, annual report on Form 10-K for fiscal 1994, filed December 29, 1994, accession 0000899243-94-000388, Item 1 and filer header (former conformed names), CIK 109177. -[^9]: SEC EDGAR filing history for CIK 109177 (Zapata Corporation and successor names); start of electronic filings February 8, 1994. -[^10]: Assassination Records Review Board, letter to John Pereira, December 18, 1997, CIA release 104-10336-10008. -[^11]: Assassination Records Review Board staff memorandum by Haron, January 8, 1998 (FBIMEM.002). -[^12]: CIA memorandum from Michelle Combs to T. Jeremy Gunn, July 15, 1998 (CIA-IR09). -[^13]: CIA memorandum from J. Barry Harrelson to T. Jeremy Gunn, February 25, 1998, within release 104-10336-10008. -[^14]: Assassination Records Review Board draft request, "George Bush," undated, bearing Gunn's name. -[^15]: WhoWhatWhy, "Classic Who: GHW Bush and the JFK Assassination," October 24, 2017, reporting Stephen Hart's 1988 statement and Joseph McBride's report in *The Nation*, July 16, 1988. https://whowhatwhy.org/2017/10/24/classic-ghw-bush-jfk-assassination/ -[^16]: Gary Webb, *Dark Alliance* (Seven Stories Press, 1998), ch. 13, "The wrong kind of friends." -[^17]: Ronald Reagan, "Statement Announcing the Establishment of a Federal Anticrime Task Force for Southern Florida," January 28, 1982. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/statement-announcing-the-establishment-federal-anticrime-task-force-for-southern-florida -[^18]: *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Hrg. 100-773, pt. 4 (July 1988), statement of Adm. Daniel J. Murphy, pp. 224-225. https://archive.org/details/micro_IA41152832_0009 -[^19]: Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Prt. 100-165 (1988), p. 19. https://archive.org/details/Kerry-Report-Drugs-Contras -[^20]: Gary Webb, *Dark Alliance* (Seven Stories Press, 1998), ch. 20, "It is a sensitive matter." -[^21]: FBI Headquarters file on H.L. Hunt, part 2 (FOIA release), Hunt Oil Company and Estate of H.L. Hunt press releases, March 4 and April 1, 1977, https://archive.org/details/foia_Hunt_H.L.-HQ-2 ; Marie Fagnant (Assassination Records Review Board staff), "Summary of Dallas Figures," memorandum, July 31, 1997; Bill Porterfield, "H.L. Hunt's Long Goodbye," *Texas Monthly*, March 1975. https://www.texasmonthly.com/news-politics/h-l-hunts-long-goodbye/ -[^22]: George Bush, Chairman, National Foreign Intelligence Board, letter to Vice Admiral Bobby R. Inman, January 1977 (DCI/IC 77-0402), CIA CREST copy CIA-RDP80M00165A002600030024-8. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80M00165A002600030024-8 -[^23]: "We've Been Asked: What Is the Trilateral Commission?" *U.S. News & World Report*, April 7, 1980, p. 37, reprinted in Congressional Research Service, *The Trilateral Commission*, Issue Packet IP0092 (Library of Congress, 1981). -[^24]: Ronald Reagan, "Nomination of William H. Draper III To Be President and Chairman of the Export-Import Bank of the United States," March 18, 1981, The American Presidency Project. https://presidency.ucsb.edu/node/247393 -[^25]: "The President's News Conference," November 3, 1975. The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/the-presidents-news-conference-60 -[^26]: "Remarks at the Swearing In of George Bush as Director of Central Intelligence," January 30, 1976. The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-the-swearing-george-bush-director-central-intelligence -[^27]: Kenneth A. Kress, "Parapsychology in Intelligence: A Personal Review and Conclusions," *Studies in Intelligence* 21, no. 4 (winter 1977), p. 15. CIA reading room CIA-RDP96-00791R000200030040-0. Reprinted with the author's January 1999 postscript in *Journal of Scientific Exploration* 13, no. 1 (1999). -[^28]: Senate nomination record for George H. W. Bush as Director of Central Intelligence, hearings of December 15-16, 1975, and committee report of December 18, 1975. CIA reading room CIA-RDP91-00901R000100050001-3. -[^29]: Center for the Study of Intelligence, "Intelligence and Congress: The Nomination of George H. W. Bush as DCI," *Studies in Intelligence* 65, no. 4 (December 2021). https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Article_Intel_Congress_Nomination_ofGHWBush_as_DCI_Studies_65_4_December2021.pdf -[^30]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXV, doc. 170, memorandum from Director of Central Intelligence Bush to recipients of National Intelligence Estimate 11-3/8-76, with editorial note citing William Beecher, *Boston Globe*, October 20, 1976, and David Binder, *New York Times*, December 26, 1976. -[^31]: "Soviet Strategic Objectives: An Alternative View, Report of Team B." CIA reading room CIA-RDP91M00696R001000110006-8. -[^32]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXV, doc. 174, Bush to Cherne, January 19, 1977. -[^33]: Church Committee, *Final Report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities*, Book I, p. 455 (1976). https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel01unit -[^34]: Church Committee, *Final Report*, Book I, p. 193. https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel01unit -[^35]: Norman Kempster, *Washington Star*, February 10, 1976. CIA reading room CIA-RDP99-00498R000100040124-3. -[^36]: "'Operation Chaos' Files Ordered Held," *Washington Star*, June 16, 1976. CIA reading room CIA-RDP90-01208R000100170029-4. -[^37]: Letter from Daniel K. Inouye to George Bush, September 29, 1976. CIA reading room 03303946. -[^38]: Letter from Edward H. Levi to George Bush, October 9, 1976, with Scowcroft's endorsement of October 21, 1976. *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. E-11, pt. 2, doc. 250. -[^39]: CIA reading room document 05535911, 1980 radio interview transcript (speaker identified as "MAN"). -[^40]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980*, vol. XXIV, doc. 209. -[^41]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980*, vol. XXIV, doc. 217, memorandum quoted in the volume. -[^42]: Memorandum by George Bush, "The Death of Roselli," August 11, 1976. CIA reading room 00508811. -[^43]: Timothy S. Robinson, "The Letelier Case," *The Washington Post*, May 21, 1978, p. A4, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP99-00498R000100050048-7, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-00498r000100050048-7. -[^44]: Brief for Appellants, *United States v. Sampol*, Nos. 79-1541 and 79-1542 (D.C. Cir. 1979), https://www.latinamericanstudies.org/MNC/Letelier-appeal.pdf ; Petition of the United States for Rehearing and Suggestion for Rehearing En Banc, *United States v. Sampol* (D.C. Cir., October 29, 1980), https://www.latinamericanstudies.org/MNC/Letelier-rehearing.pdf. -[^45]: "No New Leads Uncovered by Letelier Probe," *The Washington Post*, November 1, 1976, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP99-00498R000100020097-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-00498r000100020097-6 -[^46]: Secretary of State to American Embassy Caracas, "Interrogation of Bosch," telegram 1976STATE277225, November 11, 1976, quoting Richard L. Thornburgh's letter of November 5, 1976, Department of State, released 2006; Zach Dorfman, "Codename: Chilbom," *The Atavist Magazine*, no. 59, June 21, 2016. https://magazine.atavist.com/2016/codename-chilbom -[^47]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Associate Attorney General, *In the Matter of Orlando Bosch-Avila*, decision of Acting Associate Attorney General Joe D. Whitley in exclusion proceedings, January 23, 1989; National Security Archive, "Bombing of Cuban Jetliner 30 Years Later," Electronic Briefing Book 202, October 5, 2006. -[^48]: Peter Kornbluh, "A Modicum of Justice for Ronni Karpen Moffitt," *The Nation*, September 2026. -[^49]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXII, Panama, doc. 133, memorandum of conversation, October 6, 1976, source note. -[^50]: Letter from George Bush to Donald H. Rumsfeld, October 18, 1976. CIA reading room CIA-RDP79-00498A000600090009-7. -[^51]: Joseph Trento, *Prelude to Terror: The Rogue CIA and the Legacy of America's Private Intelligence Network* (Carroll & Graf, 2005), pp. 52-108; Alexandre de Marenches and David Andelman, *The Fourth World War* (Random House, 1992); Church Committee, S. Rept. 94-755, 1976. -[^52]: Roger Faligot and Pascal Krop, *La Piscine: Les Services Secrets Français, 1944-1984* (Seuil, 1985); Alexandre de Marenches and Christine Ockrent, *Dans le Secret des Princes* (Stock, 1986). -[^53]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, S. Rept. 94-465, 1975; Ludo De Witte, *The Assassination of Lumumba* (Verso, 2001); International Security Assistance and Arms Export Control Act of 1976, Public Law 94-329, 90 Stat. 729 (June 30, 1976), sec. 404. -[^54]: Miller Center, University of Virginia, "William P. Barr Oral History," interview of April 5, 2001, George H. W. Bush Oral History Project. https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-oral-histories/william-p-barr-oral-history -[^55]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), ch. 18. -[^56]: Ari Ben-Menashe, *Profits of War: Inside the Secret U.S.-Israeli Arms Network* (Sheridan Square Press, 1992; TrineDay reprint, 2015). -[^57]: *The Tower Commission Report: The Full Text of the President's Special Review Board* (New York: Bantam Books and Times Books, 1987), pp. 24-25, 30-31; Tom Tugend, "Al Schwimmer, Israel Air Force pioneer, dies at 94," *Jewish Journal* (Los Angeles), June 12, 2011; JTA Staff, "Pardoned American served Israel in 1948," Jewish Telegraphic Agency, February 28, 2001. -[^58]: Maureen Dowd, "War in the Gulf: The President; Bush Urges Israeli Restraint in Phone Appeals to Shamir," *The New York Times*, January 20, 1991, p. 16. https://www.nytimes.com/1991/01/20/world/war-gulf-president-bush-urges-israeli-restraint-phone-appeals-shamir.html -[^59]: "Decade of the Spy," undated counterintelligence history extract, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book 407, Doc. 14. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB407/docs/EBB-PollardDoc14.pdf -[^60]: Kress, "Parapsychology in Intelligence," *Studies in Intelligence* 21, no. 4 (winter 1977), p. 16. 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I, Executive Summary, p. xviii. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/execsum.htm -[^78]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, "George Bush," pp. 473-474. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/chap_28.htm -[^79]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, p. 479 and note 67 (*Los Angeles Times*, September 11, 1992; *Washington Post*, 1988). -[^80]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, Part IX, "Investigations of the White House," pp. 443-444. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/part_ix.htm -[^81]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, pp. 474-475, on the diary, the pardons and the grand jury. -[^82]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, p. 480 and note 74 (diary entries of November 4 and 5, 1986). -[^83]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, p. 478. -[^84]: Proclamation 6518, Granting Pardons, December 24, 1992, 107 *Stat.* 2606-2607. -[^85]: Brown University, Thomas J. 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Prt. 100-165 (1989), p. 96. -[^90]: George Bush, "Statement by Press Secretary Fitzwater on the Iran-Contra Investigation," December 30, 1992, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/statement-press-secretary-fitzwater-the-iran-contra-investigation ; U.S. Department of Justice, "Griffin Boyette Bell," Attorneys General biographies. -[^91]: Miller Center, University of Virginia, "William P. Barr Oral History," interview of April 5, 2001, George H. W. Bush Oral History Project (remarks on Bua, Lacey, Civiletti, inherent authority, and the pardons). https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-oral-histories/william-p-barr-oral-history -[^92]: Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *The Intelligence Community's Involvement in the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro (BNL) Affair*, S. Prt. 103-12 (February 1993), pp. 4-5, 10; Lacey, Report of the Independent Counsel, Serial No. 103-95, pp. 344-345; "Drogoul gets 37 months in BNL bank scandal," United Press International, December 9, 1993; *United States v. Drogoul*, 1 F.3d 1546 (11th Cir. 1993). -[^93]: *Joint Report of the Task Force to Investigate Certain Allegations Concerning the Holding of American Hostages by Iran in 1980*, 102d Cong., 2d sess., January 3, 1993, Calendar No. 634. https://archive.org/details/6199732-Joint-Report-of-the-October-Surprise-Task-Force -[^94]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 148. -[^95]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 110. -[^96]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, pp. 172-173. -[^97]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 175. -[^98]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 149, citing the Rupp sentencing (D. Colo., September 23, 1988) and the Brenneke trial (D. Or., May 3, 1990). -[^99]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, pp. 150-151. -[^100]: Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Prt. 100-165 (1988), pp. 131-132. https://archive.org/details/Kerry-Report-Drugs-Contras -[^101]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 90, Casey calendar. -[^102]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 102. -[^103]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, pp. 20-21, missing calendar pages. -[^104]: Robert Parry, "October Surprise Evidence Surfaces," *Consortium News*, July 14, 2011. https://consortiumnews.com/2011/07/14/october-surprise-evidence-surfaces/ -[^105]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, pp. 173-174, Reagan statements. -[^106]: Barbara Honegger, *October Surprise* (New York: Tudor Publishing, 1989). -[^107]: Cheri Seymour, *The Last Circle: Danny Casolaro's Investigation into the Octopus and the PROMIS Software Scandal* (TrineDay, 2010). -[^108]: Miller Center, University of Virginia, "George H. W. Bush: Key Events." https://millercenter.org/president/bush/key-events -[^109]: Miller Center, "Statecraft: The Bush 41 Team," "Proving ground: How the December 1989 invasion of Panama shaped the Bush 41 foreign policy team," quoting Richard Cheney and Colin Powell in the George H. W. Bush Oral History Project. https://millercenter.org/statecraftmovie/proving-ground -[^110]: U.S. House of Representatives, Select Committee on U.S. National Security and Military/Commercial Concerns with the People's Republic of China, Report (H. Rept. 105-851), vol. III, ch. 9, p. 50. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRPT-105hrpt851/pdf/GPO-CRPT-105hrpt851.pdf -[^111]: Bruce Berkowitz, *The National Reconnaissance Office at 50 Years: A Brief History* (Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance, September 2011), pp. 20-21, 23-26. -[^112]: Henry B. Gonzalez, "Brass Factory in Iraq," *Congressional Record*, House, September 25, 1992, p. H9502; Gonzalez floor statement of August 10, 1992. -[^113]: Gayle Young, "Socialists Take the Helm in Jamaica. Manley hopes to strengthen US ties by aiding war on drugs," *The Christian Science Monitor*, February 14, 1989. https://www.csmonitor.com/1989/0214/ojam.html -[^114]: "Richard Lewis Thornburgh," Office of the Attorney General, U.S. Department of Justice, *Attorneys General of the United States*; Miller Center, "Richard Thornburgh." -[^115]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Solicitor General, "Solicitor General: Kenneth W. Starr," historical biography (updated September 18, 2023). https://www.justice.gov/osg/bio/kenneth-w-starr -[^116]: George Bush, "Nomination of Malcolm S. Forbes, Jr., To Be a Member of the Board for International Broadcasting, and Designation as Chairman," January 4, 1990, The American Presidency Project, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/264564 ; George Bush, "Digest of Other White House Announcements," June 19, 1992, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/391789 -[^117]: U.S. Department of State, "Jay Lefkowitz, Special Envoy, Human Rights in North Korea," biography, released May 25, 2006. https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ei/biog/66929.htm ; The White House (George W. Bush archives), "Personnel Announcement," January 31, 2002. -[^118]: Federal Judicial Center, "Preska, Loretta A.," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/preska-loretta -[^119]: Henry B. 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Prt. 102-140 (December 1992), p. 461. https://archive.org/details/thebcciaffair_202003 -[^129]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, p. 542, chapter on Ed Rogers. -[^130]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, p. 538. -[^131]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, Helms letters to Vice President Bush, October 29, 1987. -[^132]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, Justice Department response on the February 1990 letters by Mr. Saphos. -[^133]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, letter of Deputy Assistant Attorney General Bruce Navarro to Senator Kerry, July 24, 1990. -[^134]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, p. 508. -[^135]: "Jackson Thomas Stephens (1923-2005)," *Encyclopedia of Arkansas*; *Financial General Bankshares, Inc. v. Metzger*, 523 F. Supp. 744 (D.D.C. 1981); 680 F.2d 768 (D.C. 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Rept. 105-829 (1998), vol. 2; Roger Morris, *Partners in Power* (Henry Holt, 1996); Truell and Gurwin, *False Profits*, pp. 41 and 428. -[^138]: Jonathan Beaty, "A Mysterious Mover of Money and Planes," *Time*, October 28, 1991. https://time.com/archive/6718843/a-mysterious-mover-of-money-and-planes/ -[^139]: Craig Unger, "Mystery man," *Salon*, April 28, 2004. https://www.salon.com/2004/04/28/james_bath/ -[^140]: Lucy Komisar, "Questions Linger About Bushes and BCCI," Inter Press Service, April 4, 2007, https://www.ipsnews.net/2007/04/finance-questions-linger-about-bushes-and-bcci/ ; Harken Energy Corporation, proxy statement (Schedule 14A), filed April 25, 1994, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/313478/0000950134-94-000454.txt -[^141]: Richard Behar, "Global Intrigue: The Wackiest Rig in Texas," *Time*, October 28, 1991. https://time.com/archive/6718865/global-intrigue-the-wackiest-rig-in-texas/ -[^142]: WhoWhatWhy, "Bush Angle to Reagan Shooting Still Unresolved as Hinckley Walks," August 16, 2016, reporting the *Houston Post* story, Neil Bush's press conference, Peter Teeley's statement to UPI, and the Untermyer diary. https://whowhatwhy.org/2016/08/16/bush-angle-reagan-shooting-still-unresolved-hinckley-walks/ -[^143]: WhoWhatWhy (2016), citing an Associated Press item of April 1, 1981, on the Department of Energy notice to the Hinckley family business. -[^144]: Ted L. Gunderson compilation, *FBI The Finders*, advertisement for John DeCamp's book. https://archive.org/details/ted-gunderson-fbi-the-finders -[^145]: Ted L. Gunderson compilation, *FBI The Finders*, relaying a *Washington Times* report by George Archibald (1989). -[^146]: A.B.H. Alexander, "Sex, Drugs, the CIA, MIND CONTROL and Your Children," *PROBE*, c. 1996. -[^147]: Tim Shorrock, "Crony Capitalism Goes Global," *The Nation*, March 14, 2002. https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/crony-capitalism-goes-global/ -[^148]: "Jeffrey Epstein's Disgraced Lawyer Jay Lefkowitz Who Secured Sweetheart Deal Leaves Firm," *The Daily Beast*, March 2026; U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Solicitor General, "Solicitor General: Kenneth W. Starr"; U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA02847284. -[^149]: *Brown v. Maxwell; Dershowitz v. Giuffre*, 929 F.3d 41 (2d Cir. 2019), Nos. 18-2868, 16-3945-cv(L) (July 3, 2019). https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/4636340/brown-v-maxwell-dershowitz-v-giuffre/ -[^150]: Federal Election Commission, Schedule A individual contributions, API query contributor_name "SCATURRO, PHILIP" (41 results). https://api.open.fec.gov/v1/schedules/schedule_a/?contributor_name=SCATURRO%2C%20PHILIP -[^151]: Larry Holzwarth, "FBI Files: Unexplained Phenomenon Files from the FBI's Vault," HistoryCollection, quoting an anonymous letter to FBI Director William S. Sessions. https://historycollection.com/unexplained-phenomenon-files-from-the-fbis-vault/6/ -[^152]: Allie Fasanella, "George H. W. Bush 'Knew' Humans Made Contact With Aliens in 1964," *OK! Magazine*, November 24, 2025, carried by AOL. https://www.aol.com/articles/george-h-w-bush-knew-161144400.html +[^5]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entry "BUSH, 1948, George Herbert Walker," and index of members by class year, class of 1948. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^6]: *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. 1 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1917), entry for Prescott Sheldon Bush, pp. 105 to 106. https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr +[^7]: *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340 (S.D. Tex.), docket entries 1, 6, 8 and 17. https://archive.org/details/gov.uscourts.txsd.1463674 +[^8]: Kathrin Day Lassila and Mark Alden Branch, "Whose Skull and Bones?," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20060614215733/http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/2006_05/notebook.html +[^9]: Associated Press, reprinted by CBS News, "Letter May Back Yale Claim On Geronimo," May 9, 2006: "according to the letter, written by Winter Mead"; "But Mead was not at Fort Sill"; "According to Skull and Bones legend, members, including President George W. Bush's grandfather, Prescott Bush, dug up Geronimo's grave when a group of Army volunteers from Yale were stationed at the fort during World War I." https://www.cbsnews.com/news/letter-may-back-yale-claim-on-geronimo/ +[^10]: Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 248, Washington, October 20, 1942, *Federal Register*, November 7, 1942, pp. 9097-9098. +[^11]: Russ Baker, "CIA Helped Bush Senior In Oil Venture," WhoWhatWhy, January 7, 2007, quoting a CIA memorandum of November 29, 1975. https://whowhatwhy.org/2007/01/07/cia-bush-senior-oil-venture/ +[^12]: Russ Baker, "CIA Helped Bush Senior In Oil Venture," WhoWhatWhy, January 7, 2007, citing a 1968 memorandum and the 1998 release of CIA documents. https://whowhatwhy.org/2007/01/07/cia-bush-senior-oil-venture/ +[^13]: Zapata Corporation, annual report on Form 10-K for fiscal 1994, filed December 29, 1994, accession 0000899243-94-000388, Item 1 and filer header (former conformed names), CIK 109177. +[^14]: SEC EDGAR filing history for CIK 109177 (Zapata Corporation and successor names); start of electronic filings February 8, 1994. +[^15]: Assassination Records Review Board, letter to John Pereira, December 18, 1997, CIA release 104-10336-10008. +[^16]: Assassination Records Review Board staff memorandum by Haron, January 8, 1998 (FBIMEM.002). +[^17]: CIA memorandum from Michelle Combs to T. Jeremy Gunn, July 15, 1998 (CIA-IR09). +[^18]: CIA memorandum from J. Barry Harrelson to T. Jeremy Gunn, February 25, 1998, within release 104-10336-10008. +[^19]: Assassination Records Review Board draft request, "George Bush," undated, bearing Gunn's name. +[^20]: WhoWhatWhy, "Classic Who: GHW Bush and the JFK Assassination," October 24, 2017, reporting Stephen Hart's 1988 statement and Joseph McBride's report in *The Nation*, July 16, 1988. https://whowhatwhy.org/2017/10/24/classic-ghw-bush-jfk-assassination/ +[^21]: Gary Webb, *Dark Alliance* (Seven Stories Press, 1998), ch. 13, "The wrong kind of friends." +[^22]: Ronald Reagan, "Statement Announcing the Establishment of a Federal Anticrime Task Force for Southern Florida," January 28, 1982. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/statement-announcing-the-establishment-federal-anticrime-task-force-for-southern-florida +[^23]: *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Hrg. 100-773, pt. 4 (July 1988), statement of Adm. Daniel J. Murphy, pp. 224-225. https://archive.org/details/micro_IA41152832_0009 +[^24]: Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Prt. 100-165 (1988), p. 19. https://archive.org/details/Kerry-Report-Drugs-Contras +[^25]: Gary Webb, *Dark Alliance* (Seven Stories Press, 1998), ch. 20, "It is a sensitive matter." +[^26]: FBI Headquarters file on H.L. Hunt, part 2 (FOIA release), Hunt Oil Company and Estate of H.L. Hunt press releases, March 4 and April 1, 1977, https://archive.org/details/foia_Hunt_H.L.-HQ-2 ; Marie Fagnant (Assassination Records Review Board staff), "Summary of Dallas Figures," memorandum, July 31, 1997; Bill Porterfield, "H.L. Hunt's Long Goodbye," *Texas Monthly*, March 1975. https://www.texasmonthly.com/news-politics/h-l-hunts-long-goodbye/ +[^27]: George Bush, Chairman, National Foreign Intelligence Board, letter to Vice Admiral Bobby R. Inman, January 1977 (DCI/IC 77-0402), CIA CREST copy CIA-RDP80M00165A002600030024-8. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80M00165A002600030024-8 +[^28]: "We've Been Asked: What Is the Trilateral Commission?" *U.S. News & World Report*, April 7, 1980, p. 37, reprinted in Congressional Research Service, *The Trilateral Commission*, Issue Packet IP0092 (Library of Congress, 1981). +[^29]: Ronald Reagan, "Nomination of William H. Draper III To Be President and Chairman of the Export-Import Bank of the United States," March 18, 1981, The American Presidency Project. https://presidency.ucsb.edu/node/247393 +[^30]: "The President's News Conference," November 3, 1975. The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/the-presidents-news-conference-60 +[^31]: "Remarks at the Swearing In of George Bush as Director of Central Intelligence," January 30, 1976. The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-the-swearing-george-bush-director-central-intelligence +[^32]: Kenneth A. Kress, "Parapsychology in Intelligence: A Personal Review and Conclusions," *Studies in Intelligence* 21, no. 4 (winter 1977), p. 15. CIA reading room CIA-RDP96-00791R000200030040-0. Reprinted with the author's January 1999 postscript in *Journal of Scientific Exploration* 13, no. 1 (1999). +[^33]: Senate nomination record for George H. W. Bush as Director of Central Intelligence, hearings of December 15-16, 1975, and committee report of December 18, 1975. CIA reading room CIA-RDP91-00901R000100050001-3. +[^34]: Center for the Study of Intelligence, "Intelligence and Congress: The Nomination of George H. W. Bush as DCI," *Studies in Intelligence* 65, no. 4 (December 2021). https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Article_Intel_Congress_Nomination_ofGHWBush_as_DCI_Studies_65_4_December2021.pdf +[^35]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXV, doc. 170, memorandum from Director of Central Intelligence Bush to recipients of National Intelligence Estimate 11-3/8-76, with editorial note citing William Beecher, *Boston Globe*, October 20, 1976, and David Binder, *New York Times*, December 26, 1976. +[^36]: "Soviet Strategic Objectives: An Alternative View, Report of Team B." CIA reading room CIA-RDP91M00696R001000110006-8. +[^37]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXV, doc. 174, Bush to Cherne, January 19, 1977. +[^38]: Church Committee, *Final Report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities*, Book I, p. 455 (1976). https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel01unit +[^39]: Church Committee, *Final Report*, Book I, p. 193. https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel01unit +[^40]: Norman Kempster, *Washington Star*, February 10, 1976. CIA reading room CIA-RDP99-00498R000100040124-3. +[^41]: "'Operation Chaos' Files Ordered Held," *Washington Star*, June 16, 1976. CIA reading room CIA-RDP90-01208R000100170029-4. +[^42]: Letter from Daniel K. Inouye to George Bush, September 29, 1976. CIA reading room 03303946. +[^43]: Letter from Edward H. Levi to George Bush, October 9, 1976, with Scowcroft's endorsement of October 21, 1976. *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. E-11, pt. 2, doc. 250. +[^44]: CIA reading room document 05535911, 1980 radio interview transcript (speaker identified as "MAN"). +[^45]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980*, vol. XXIV, doc. 209. +[^46]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980*, vol. XXIV, doc. 217, memorandum quoted in the volume. +[^47]: Memorandum by George Bush, "The Death of Roselli," August 11, 1976. CIA reading room 00508811. +[^48]: Timothy S. Robinson, "The Letelier Case," *The Washington Post*, May 21, 1978, p. A4, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP99-00498R000100050048-7, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-00498r000100050048-7. +[^49]: Brief for Appellants, *United States v. Sampol*, Nos. 79-1541 and 79-1542 (D.C. Cir. 1979), https://www.latinamericanstudies.org/MNC/Letelier-appeal.pdf ; Petition of the United States for Rehearing and Suggestion for Rehearing En Banc, *United States v. Sampol* (D.C. Cir., October 29, 1980), https://www.latinamericanstudies.org/MNC/Letelier-rehearing.pdf. +[^50]: "No New Leads Uncovered by Letelier Probe," *The Washington Post*, November 1, 1976, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP99-00498R000100020097-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-00498r000100020097-6 +[^51]: Secretary of State to American Embassy Caracas, "Interrogation of Bosch," telegram 1976STATE277225, November 11, 1976, quoting Richard L. Thornburgh's letter of November 5, 1976, Department of State, released 2006; Zach Dorfman, "Codename: Chilbom," *The Atavist Magazine*, no. 59, June 21, 2016. https://magazine.atavist.com/2016/codename-chilbom +[^52]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Associate Attorney General, *In the Matter of Orlando Bosch-Avila*, decision of Acting Associate Attorney General Joe D. Whitley in exclusion proceedings, January 23, 1989; National Security Archive, "Bombing of Cuban Jetliner 30 Years Later," Electronic Briefing Book 202, October 5, 2006. +[^53]: Peter Kornbluh, "A Modicum of Justice for Ronni Karpen Moffitt," *The Nation*, September 2026. +[^54]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXII, Panama, doc. 133, memorandum of conversation, October 6, 1976, source note. +[^55]: Letter from George Bush to Donald H. Rumsfeld, October 18, 1976. CIA reading room CIA-RDP79-00498A000600090009-7. +[^56]: Joseph Trento, *Prelude to Terror: The Rogue CIA and the Legacy of America's Private Intelligence Network* (Carroll & Graf, 2005), pp. 52-108; Alexandre de Marenches and David Andelman, *The Fourth World War* (Random House, 1992); Church Committee, S. Rept. 94-755, 1976. +[^57]: Roger Faligot and Pascal Krop, *La Piscine: Les Services Secrets Français, 1944-1984* (Seuil, 1985); Alexandre de Marenches and Christine Ockrent, *Dans le Secret des Princes* (Stock, 1986). +[^58]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, S. Rept. 94-465, 1975; Ludo De Witte, *The Assassination of Lumumba* (Verso, 2001); International Security Assistance and Arms Export Control Act of 1976, Public Law 94-329, 90 Stat. 729 (June 30, 1976), sec. 404. +[^59]: Miller Center, University of Virginia, "William P. Barr Oral History," interview of April 5, 2001, George H. W. Bush Oral History Project. https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-oral-histories/william-p-barr-oral-history +[^60]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), ch. 18. +[^61]: Ari Ben-Menashe, *Profits of War: Inside the Secret U.S.-Israeli Arms Network* (Sheridan Square Press, 1992; TrineDay reprint, 2015). +[^62]: *The Tower Commission Report: The Full Text of the President's Special Review Board* (New York: Bantam Books and Times Books, 1987), pp. 24-25, 30-31; Tom Tugend, "Al Schwimmer, Israel Air Force pioneer, dies at 94," *Jewish Journal* (Los Angeles), June 12, 2011; JTA Staff, "Pardoned American served Israel in 1948," Jewish Telegraphic Agency, February 28, 2001. +[^63]: Maureen Dowd, "War in the Gulf: The President; Bush Urges Israeli Restraint in Phone Appeals to Shamir," *The New York Times*, January 20, 1991, p. 16. https://www.nytimes.com/1991/01/20/world/war-gulf-president-bush-urges-israeli-restraint-phone-appeals-shamir.html +[^64]: "Decade of the Spy," undated counterintelligence history extract, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book 407, Doc. 14. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB407/docs/EBB-PollardDoc14.pdf +[^65]: Kress, "Parapsychology in Intelligence," *Studies in Intelligence* 21, no. 4 (winter 1977), p. 16. CIA reading room CIA-RDP96-00791R000200030040-0. +[^66]: US Army Intelligence and Security Command, "List of Events from September 1977 to January 1986," entry for 1983. CIA reading room CIA-RDP96-00788R001100020001-8. +[^67]: Memorandum for the record, "Briefing," Major Gerald Fox, April 1, 1983, CIA-RDP96-00788R001700270002-4. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001700270002-4 +[^68]: Defense Intelligence Agency, S-1004/DT-1, "Minutes of the Meeting, DoD Grill Flame Committee," November 28, 1978, CIA-RDP96-00788R002000130006-1; "Minutes of the Grill Flame Committee Meeting, 14 Feb 79," CIA-RDP96-00788R002000130002-5. +[^69]: Dolan M. McKelvy, *Psychic Warfare: Exploring the Mind Frontier*, Air War College research report, Air University, CIA-RDP96-00789R001001420001-3, citing Ronald M. McRae, *Mind Wars* (1984), p. 103. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00789r001001420001-3 +[^70]: William J. Casey to Alexander M. Haig, Jr., April 2, 1982, with "Quick Intelligence Assessment on Falkland Affairs (April 2, 1982)," CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP84B00049R000701780017-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84b00049r000701780017-6 +[^71]: John H. Holdridge, letter, "Australian Intrigue," *Time*, January 3, 1982, CIA-RDP90-00806R000200820017-1, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000200820017-1 ; CBS, "The Nugan Hand Bank," Evening News transcript, September 22, 1982, CIA-RDP90-00552R000201840002-6, https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201840002-6 +[^72]: "Vice President George Bush, completing a 10-day trip aimed...," United Press International, April 12, 1986, https://www.upi.com/Archives/1986/04/12/Vice-President-George-Bush-completing-a-10-day-trip-aimed/5692513666000/ ; "Top-secret cronies," *Salon*, November 17, 2005, https://www.salon.com/2005/11/17/pfiab/ +[^73]: Bill Gertz, "Vice President confirms Buckley was tortured and killed," *Washington Times*, January 21, 1987, CIA-RDP90-00965R000302310058-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000302310058-3 +[^74]: Denholm Barnetson, "President Mohammad Zia ul-Haq, U.S. Ambassador Arnold Raphel and...," United Press International, August 17, 1988. https://www.upi.com/Archives/1988/08/17/President-Mohammad-Zia-ul-Haq-US-Ambassador-Arnold-Raphel-and/3467587793600/ +[^75]: Dennis Bernstein and Robert Knight (Pacific News Service), report published by *Salon*, October 8, 1996. https://www.salon.com/1996/10/08/news_555/ +[^76]: *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Hrg. 100-773, pt. 2 (February 1988), Senator Kerry, pp. 265-266. +[^77]: *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Hrg. 100-773, pt. 2 (February 1988), testimony of Danilo Blandon, pp. 136-137. +[^78]: Lawrence E. Walsh, *Final Report of the Independent Counsel for Iran/Contra Matters*, vol. I, ch. 29, citing Gregg grand jury testimony of October 9, 1987 and Rodriguez grand jury testimony of December 4, 1987. https://irp.fas.org/offdocs/walsh/chap_29.htm +[^79]: *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Hrg. 100-773, pt. 4 (July 1988), Rodriguez testimony, p. 344. +[^80]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, Part IX, p. 443. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/part_ix.htm +[^81]: Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Prt. 100-165 (1988), p. 96. https://archive.org/details/Kerry-Report-Drugs-Contras +[^82]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, Executive Summary, p. xviii. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/execsum.htm +[^83]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, "George Bush," pp. 473-474. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/chap_28.htm +[^84]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, p. 479 and note 67 (*Los Angeles Times*, September 11, 1992; *Washington Post*, 1988). +[^85]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, Part IX, "Investigations of the White House," pp. 443-444. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/part_ix.htm +[^86]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, pp. 474-475, on the diary, the pardons and the grand jury. +[^87]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, p. 480 and note 74 (diary entries of November 4 and 5, 1986). +[^88]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, p. 478. +[^89]: Proclamation 6518, Granting Pardons, December 24, 1992, 107 *Stat.* 2606-2607. +[^90]: Brown University, Thomas J. Dodd Research Center, Iran-Contra materials, "The Pardons," quoting Walsh's response to the pardon of Caspar Weinberger. https://webhelper.brown.edu/cheit/ +[^91]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. II, Fourth Interim Report to Congress, February 8, 1993, pp. 585-587. +[^92]: *The Tower Commission Report*, February 26, 1987, pp. 383-384. https://archive.org/details/towercommission00unit +[^93]: National Security Planning Group minutes, June 25, 1984, "Central America," National Security Archive, *The Iran-Contra Affair 20 Years On*, EBB 210, document 2 (IC 00463), pp. 12, 14. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB210/2-NSPG%20minutes%206-25-84%20(IC%2000463).pdf ; Iran-Contra report, ch. 26, pp. 403-404. +[^94]: Walsh, *Final Report of the Independent Counsel for Iran/Contra Matters*, vol. I, ch. 29 (Gregg and Rodriguez); Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Narcotics, Terrorism and International Operations, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Prt. 100-165 (1989), p. 96. +[^95]: George Bush, "Statement by Press Secretary Fitzwater on the Iran-Contra Investigation," December 30, 1992, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/statement-press-secretary-fitzwater-the-iran-contra-investigation ; U.S. Department of Justice, "Griffin Boyette Bell," Attorneys General biographies. +[^96]: Miller Center, University of Virginia, "William P. Barr Oral History," interview of April 5, 2001, George H. W. Bush Oral History Project (remarks on Bua, Lacey, Civiletti, inherent authority, and the pardons). https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-oral-histories/william-p-barr-oral-history +[^97]: Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *The Intelligence Community's Involvement in the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro (BNL) Affair*, S. Prt. 103-12 (February 1993), pp. 4-5, 10; Lacey, Report of the Independent Counsel, Serial No. 103-95, pp. 344-345; "Drogoul gets 37 months in BNL bank scandal," United Press International, December 9, 1993; *United States v. Drogoul*, 1 F.3d 1546 (11th Cir. 1993). +[^98]: *Joint Report of the Task Force to Investigate Certain Allegations Concerning the Holding of American Hostages by Iran in 1980*, 102d Cong., 2d sess., January 3, 1993, Calendar No. 634. https://archive.org/details/6199732-Joint-Report-of-the-October-Surprise-Task-Force +[^99]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 148. +[^100]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 110. +[^101]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, pp. 172-173. +[^102]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 175. +[^103]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 149, citing the Rupp sentencing (D. Colo., September 23, 1988) and the Brenneke trial (D. Or., May 3, 1990). +[^104]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, pp. 150-151. +[^105]: Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Prt. 100-165 (1988), pp. 131-132. https://archive.org/details/Kerry-Report-Drugs-Contras +[^106]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 90, Casey calendar. +[^107]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 102. +[^108]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, pp. 20-21, missing calendar pages. +[^109]: Robert Parry, "October Surprise Evidence Surfaces," *Consortium News*, July 14, 2011. https://consortiumnews.com/2011/07/14/october-surprise-evidence-surfaces/ +[^110]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, pp. 173-174, Reagan statements. +[^111]: Barbara Honegger, *October Surprise* (New York: Tudor Publishing, 1989). +[^112]: Cheri Seymour, *The Last Circle: Danny Casolaro's Investigation into the Octopus and the PROMIS Software Scandal* (TrineDay, 2010). +[^113]: Miller Center, University of Virginia, "George H. W. Bush: Key Events." https://millercenter.org/president/bush/key-events +[^114]: Miller Center, "Statecraft: The Bush 41 Team," "Proving ground: How the December 1989 invasion of Panama shaped the Bush 41 foreign policy team," quoting Richard Cheney and Colin Powell in the George H. W. Bush Oral History Project. https://millercenter.org/statecraftmovie/proving-ground +[^115]: U.S. House of Representatives, Select Committee on U.S. National Security and Military/Commercial Concerns with the People's Republic of China, Report (H. Rept. 105-851), vol. III, ch. 9, p. 50. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRPT-105hrpt851/pdf/GPO-CRPT-105hrpt851.pdf +[^116]: Bruce Berkowitz, *The National Reconnaissance Office at 50 Years: A Brief History* (Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance, September 2011), pp. 20-21, 23-26. +[^117]: Henry B. Gonzalez, "Brass Factory in Iraq," *Congressional Record*, House, September 25, 1992, p. H9502; Gonzalez floor statement of August 10, 1992. +[^118]: Gayle Young, "Socialists Take the Helm in Jamaica. Manley hopes to strengthen US ties by aiding war on drugs," *The Christian Science Monitor*, February 14, 1989. https://www.csmonitor.com/1989/0214/ojam.html +[^119]: "Richard Lewis Thornburgh," Office of the Attorney General, U.S. Department of Justice, *Attorneys General of the United States*; Miller Center, "Richard Thornburgh." +[^120]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Solicitor General, "Solicitor General: Kenneth W. Starr," historical biography (updated September 18, 2023). https://www.justice.gov/osg/bio/kenneth-w-starr +[^121]: George Bush, "Nomination of Malcolm S. Forbes, Jr., To Be a Member of the Board for International Broadcasting, and Designation as Chairman," January 4, 1990, The American Presidency Project, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/264564 ; George Bush, "Digest of Other White House Announcements," June 19, 1992, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/391789 +[^122]: U.S. Department of State, "Jay Lefkowitz, Special Envoy, Human Rights in North Korea," biography, released May 25, 2006. https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ei/biog/66929.htm ; The White House (George W. Bush archives), "Personnel Announcement," January 31, 2002. +[^123]: Federal Judicial Center, "Preska, Loretta A.," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/preska-loretta +[^124]: Henry B. Gonzalez, "Kissinger Associates, Scowcroft, Eagleburger, Stoga, Iraq, and BNL," *Congressional Record*, House, April 28, 1992, pp. H2694-H2701. https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/congress/1992_cr/h920428g.htm +[^125]: Declaration of Howard R. Teicher, *United States v. Carlos Cardoen et al.*, No. 93-241-CR-Highsmith (S.D. Fla., January 31, 1995), para. 7. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB82/iraq61.pdf +[^126]: Corrective declaration of Howard R. Teicher, docket 679, *United States v. Cardoen* (October 31, 1996). Archive.org item utf-893cr-241-de-679. +[^127]: Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *The Intelligence Community's Involvement in the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro (BNL) Affair*, S. Prt. 103-12 (February 1993). https://intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/publications/10312.pdf +[^128]: National Security Directive 26, "U.S. Policy Toward the Persian Gulf," October 2, 1989, classified SECRET. George H. W. Bush Presidential Library copy. +[^129]: General Accounting Office, report on Iraq's participation in the Commodity Credit Corporation's GSM-102 and GSM-103 export credit guarantee programs, GAO/NSIAD-91-76, November 1990, appendix I; Henry B. Gonzalez, "Continuing Saga of Attempts to Thwart BNL Investigation," *Congressional Record*, House, May 18, 1992, pp. H3370-H3373; "Bush's embarrassing Lavoro scandal," *The Baltimore Sun*, April 28, 1992. +[^130]: Alan Friedman, *Spider's Web: The Secret History of How the White House Illegally Armed Iraq* (Bantam Books, 1993). +[^131]: Representative Henry B. Gonzalez, *Congressional Record*, 1992. https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/congress/1992_cr/h920925g.htm +[^132]: White House, unclassified summary of Iraq sanctions and weapons exports, September 1991. +[^133]: Senate Foreign Relations Committee, *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140 (December 1992), p. 461. https://archive.org/details/thebcciaffair_202003 +[^134]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, p. 542, chapter on Ed Rogers. +[^135]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, p. 538. +[^136]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, Helms letters to Vice President Bush, October 29, 1987. +[^137]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, Justice Department response on the February 1990 letters by Mr. Saphos. +[^138]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, letter of Deputy Assistant Attorney General Bruce Navarro to Senator Kerry, July 24, 1990. +[^139]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, p. 508. +[^140]: "Jackson Thomas Stephens (1923-2005)," *Encyclopedia of Arkansas*; *Financial General Bankshares, Inc. v. Metzger*, 523 F. Supp. 744 (D.D.C. 1981); 680 F.2d 768 (D.C. Cir. 1982). +[^141]: Peter Truell and Larry Gurwin, *False Profits: The Inside Story of BCCI, the World's Most Corrupt Financial Empire* (Houghton Mifflin, 1992), ch. 18 and p. 428. https://archive.org/details/bypetertruellauthorlarrygurwinauthorfalseprofitsth +[^142]: "Meet The Family That Bankrolled Clinton," *The Seattle Times*, January 31, 1993, https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/?date=19930131&slug=1682819 ; House Committee on Government Reform and Oversight, *Investigation of Political Fundraising Improprieties and Possible Violations of Law*, H. Rept. 105-829 (1998), vol. 2; Roger Morris, *Partners in Power* (Henry Holt, 1996); Truell and Gurwin, *False Profits*, pp. 41 and 428. +[^143]: Jonathan Beaty, "A Mysterious Mover of Money and Planes," *Time*, October 28, 1991. https://time.com/archive/6718843/a-mysterious-mover-of-money-and-planes/ +[^144]: Craig Unger, "Mystery man," *Salon*, April 28, 2004. https://www.salon.com/2004/04/28/james_bath/ +[^145]: Lucy Komisar, "Questions Linger About Bushes and BCCI," Inter Press Service, April 4, 2007, https://www.ipsnews.net/2007/04/finance-questions-linger-about-bushes-and-bcci/ ; Harken Energy Corporation, proxy statement (Schedule 14A), filed April 25, 1994, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/313478/0000950134-94-000454.txt +[^146]: Richard Behar, "Global Intrigue: The Wackiest Rig in Texas," *Time*, October 28, 1991. https://time.com/archive/6718865/global-intrigue-the-wackiest-rig-in-texas/ +[^147]: WhoWhatWhy, "Bush Angle to Reagan Shooting Still Unresolved as Hinckley Walks," August 16, 2016, reporting the *Houston Post* story, Neil Bush's press conference, Peter Teeley's statement to UPI, and the Untermyer diary. https://whowhatwhy.org/2016/08/16/bush-angle-reagan-shooting-still-unresolved-hinckley-walks/ +[^148]: WhoWhatWhy (2016), citing an Associated Press item of April 1, 1981, on the Department of Energy notice to the Hinckley family business. +[^149]: Ted L. Gunderson compilation, *FBI The Finders*, advertisement for John DeCamp's book. https://archive.org/details/ted-gunderson-fbi-the-finders +[^150]: Ted L. Gunderson compilation, *FBI The Finders*, relaying a *Washington Times* report by George Archibald (1989). +[^151]: A.B.H. Alexander, "Sex, Drugs, the CIA, MIND CONTROL and Your Children," *PROBE*, c. 1996. +[^152]: Tim Shorrock, "Crony Capitalism Goes Global," *The Nation*, March 14, 2002. https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/crony-capitalism-goes-global/ +[^153]: "Jeffrey Epstein's Disgraced Lawyer Jay Lefkowitz Who Secured Sweetheart Deal Leaves Firm," *The Daily Beast*, March 2026; U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Solicitor General, "Solicitor General: Kenneth W. Starr"; U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA02847284. +[^154]: *Brown v. Maxwell; Dershowitz v. Giuffre*, 929 F.3d 41 (2d Cir. 2019), Nos. 18-2868, 16-3945-cv(L) (July 3, 2019). https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/4636340/brown-v-maxwell-dershowitz-v-giuffre/ +[^155]: Federal Election Commission, Schedule A individual contributions, API query contributor_name "SCATURRO, PHILIP" (41 results). https://api.open.fec.gov/v1/schedules/schedule_a/?contributor_name=SCATURRO%2C%20PHILIP +[^156]: Larry Holzwarth, "FBI Files: Unexplained Phenomenon Files from the FBI's Vault," HistoryCollection, quoting an anonymous letter to FBI Director William S. Sessions. https://historycollection.com/unexplained-phenomenon-files-from-the-fbis-vault/6/ +[^157]: Allie Fasanella, "George H. W. Bush 'Knew' Humans Made Contact With Aliens in 1964," *OK! Magazine*, November 24, 2025, carried by AOL. https://www.aol.com/articles/george-h-w-bush-knew-161144400.html diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/George W. Bush.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/George W. Bush.md index 049ec78b..f99886e5 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/George W. Bush.md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/George W. Bush.md @@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ aliases: - "George Walker Bush" summary: "George W. Bush was the 43rd President of the United States from 2001 to 2009; his administration launched the Iraq invasion, authorized the CIA detention and interrogation program and the NSA's Stellar Wind surveillance program." created: 2026-05-15 -updated: 2026-10-07 +updated: 2026-10-26 born: 1946-07-06 location: "New Haven, Connecticut" relations: @@ -107,6 +107,8 @@ The [[Carlyle Group]] co-founder [[David Rubenstein]] addressed the Los Angeles Bush was a member of [[Skull and Bones]], the Yale senior society. Leslie wrote in Salon in March 2000 that "Bush, on the other hand, joined Bones."[^3] Leslie reported that [[Bill Minutaglio]], in his biography *First Son*, recorded that Bush considered joining a society called "Gin and Tonic" but was swayed when his father, then a congressman, conducted the tapping ritual himself.[^3] Leslie wrote that the elder Bush's membership in Bones "probably was the sole reason George W. was chosen," a view he presented as his own.[^3] +The 1971 membership catalogue, which [[Antony C. Sutton]] reproduces, lists George Walker Bush under the class of 1968, with his service as a lieutenant and pilot in the United States Air Force from June 1968 to June 1970.[^38] + ### September 11 and the August 6, 2001 briefing The September 11, 2001 attacks were carried out by hijackers of [[al-Qaeda]]. On August 6, 2001, Bush received a [[President's Daily Brief]] item titled "Bin Ladin Determined To Strike in US." The [[National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States]] reported that it was the 36th item briefed that year relating to Bin Ladin or al Qaeda, and "the first devoted to the possibility of an attack in the United States." The Commission wrote: "The President told us the August 6 report was historical in nature."[^18] @@ -149,6 +151,8 @@ The Senate Select Committee on Intelligence's second report, on whether public s Mark Danner wrote in 2006 that the memorandum of a July 2002 meeting with [[Tony Blair]] recorded the head of British intelligence, "C," reporting on his Washington visit, and that Washington was engaged in a campaign to see to it that "the intelligence and facts" would be "fixed around the policy."[^36] The memorandum, dated July 23, 2002 and written by [[Matthew Rycroft]], was first published by [[The Sunday Times]] on May 1, 2005 and records: "Bush wanted to remove Saddam, through military action, justified by the conjunction of terrorism and WMD. But the intelligence and facts were being fixed around the policy."[^37] +### Footnotes + [^1]: White House, "Biography of President George W. Bush" (archived, georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov). Sworn in January 20, 2001 and January 20, 2005; 46th Governor of Texas; born July 6, 1946, in New Haven; bachelor's degree in history from Yale University in 1968; F-102 fighter pilot in the Texas Air National Guard; Master of Business Administration from Harvard Business School in 1975; moved back to Midland to begin a career in the energy business; assembled the partners who bought the Texas Rangers in 1989; elected Governor of Texas on November 8, 1994 and re-elected on November 3, 1998. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/president/biography.html [^2]: Biography.com, "George W. Bush." Eldest son of George H.W. and Barbara Bush, presidency, Yale enrollment in 1964, Delta Kappa Epsilon presidency, Texas Air National Guard enlistment in 1968, Air Force Reserve discharge on November 21, 1974. https://www.biography.com/us-president/george-w-bush [^3]: Jacques Leslie, "Yale," Salon, March 1, 2000. Leslie identifies himself as a member of the Yale Class of 1968 who was asked to join Skull and Bones, and cites Bill Minutaglio's biography *First Son* for the account of Bush's tapping. https://www.salon.com/2000/03/01/yale/ @@ -186,3 +190,4 @@ Mark Danner wrote in 2006 that the memorandum of a July 2002 meeting with [[Tony [^35]: Congressional Record, Senate, June 5, 2008, pp. S5133-S5135 (Sen. Rockefeller on prewar Iraq intelligence). https://irp.fas.org/congress/2008_cr/rock060508.html [^36]: Mark Danner, "The Secret Way to War," *The New York Review of Books*, April 6, 2006. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2006/04/06/the-secret-way-to-war/ [^37]: Matthew Rycroft to David Manning, "Iraq: Prime Minister's meeting, 23 July," as published in "The secret Downing Street memo," *The Sunday Times*, May 1, 2005 (archived copy). https://web.archive.org/web/2005id_/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2087-1593607,00.html +[^38]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entry "BUSH, 1968" (George Walker Bush, Armed Services), and index of members by class year, class of 1968. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/John Foster Dulles.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/John Foster Dulles.md index d32c0492..bb999133 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/John Foster Dulles.md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/John Foster Dulles.md @@ -9,116 +9,121 @@ born: 1888-02-25 died: 1959-05-24 location: "Washington, D.C." created: 2025-08-05 -updated: 2026-10-15 +updated: 2026-10-26 relations: - type: member_of role: "trustee" with: "[[Rockefeller Foundation]]" start: 1935 end: 1952 - fn: rfar + fn: 18 - type: head_of role: "chairman of the board" with: "[[Rockefeller Foundation]]" start: 1950 end: 1952-12-02 - fn: rfar + fn: 18 --- John Foster Dulles served as the Secretary of State under President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]. He, along with his brother [[Allen Dulles]], the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] director, were infuriated by [[Israel]]'s attempt to mask the extent of its military buildup prior to the 1956 [[Suez Crisis]]. He was regularly present at [[White House]] briefings where intelligence from [[U-2 Spy Plane|U-2]] flights, including early information on [[Dimona]], was presented.[^1] ### Biographical Record -John Foster Dulles was born on February 25, 1888, in Washington, D.C. He died on May 24, 1959, at [[Walter Reed Army Medical Center]], Washington, D.C., from colon cancer. Funeral services were held on May 27, 1959, at [[Washington National Cathedral]]. He is buried at [[Arlington National Cemetery]].[^bio1] +John Foster Dulles was born on February 25, 1888, in Washington, D.C. He died on May 24, 1959, at [[Walter Reed Army Medical Center]], Washington, D.C., from colon cancer. Funeral services were held on May 27, 1959, at [[Washington National Cathedral]]. He is buried at [[Arlington National Cemetery]].[^2] -He graduated from [[Princeton University]] in 1908, a member of Phi Beta Kappa. As an undergraduate he attended the Second Hague Conference in 1907 with his grandfather [[John Watson Foster]], who had served as Secretary of State under President Benjamin Harrison. After a year at the [[Sorbonne]], he completed a law degree at [[George Washington University Law School]] in two years, graduating in 1911.[^mc016] He was admitted to the New York bar the same year and joined [[Sullivan and Cromwell]], then New York's preeminent international corporate law firm, where he would remain for over four decades.[^bio2] +He graduated from [[Princeton University]] in 1908, a member of Phi Beta Kappa. As an undergraduate he attended the Second Hague Conference in 1907 with his grandfather [[John Watson Foster]], who had served as Secretary of State under President Benjamin Harrison. After a year at the [[Sorbonne]], he completed a law degree at [[George Washington University Law School]] in two years, graduating in 1911.[^3] He was admitted to the New York bar the same year and joined [[Sullivan and Cromwell]], then New York's preeminent international corporate law firm, where he would remain for over four decades.[^4] -At the [[Paris Peace Conference]] of 1919, Dulles served as chief legal adviser to [[Bernard Baruch]] on the [[Reparations Commission]], drafting treaty clauses that sought to limit German compensation obligations. He predicted the punishing reparations imposed by the European powers would produce another war. Baruch later paid Dulles $10,000 to ghostwrite his account of the negotiations, *The Making of the Reparation and Economic Sections of the Treaty*.[^bio3] +At the [[Paris Peace Conference]] of 1919, Dulles served as chief legal adviser to [[Bernard Baruch]] on the [[Reparations Commission]], drafting treaty clauses that sought to limit German compensation obligations. He predicted the punishing reparations imposed by the European powers would produce another war. Baruch later paid Dulles $10,000 to ghostwrite his account of the negotiations, *The Making of the Reparation and Economic Sections of the Treaty*.[^5] -Dulles was appointed to the [[United States Senate]] from New York by Governor [[Thomas E. Dewey]] on July 7, 1949, to fill the seat vacated by the ailing Senator Robert F. Wagner. He served until November 8, 1949, losing the special election to the Democratic nominee [[Herbert H. Lehman]]. His four-month Senate tenure was his only elected office.[^bio4] +Dulles was appointed to the [[United States Senate]] from New York by Governor [[Thomas E. Dewey]] on July 7, 1949, to fill the seat vacated by the ailing Senator Robert F. Wagner. He served until November 8, 1949, losing the special election to the Democratic nominee [[Herbert H. Lehman]]. His four-month Senate tenure was his only elected office.[^6] -He served as Secretary of State under President Dwight D. Eisenhower from January 21, 1953, to April 22, 1959, the longest tenure in that position since [[Cordell Hull]]. He was the first Secretary of State to hold regular departmental press conferences. Diagnosed with colon cancer in 1956, he underwent abdominal surgery at Walter Reed in February 1959 when the disease recurred. He resigned on April 22, 1959, and died thirty-two days later.[^bio5] +He served as Secretary of State under President Dwight D. Eisenhower from January 21, 1953, to April 22, 1959, the longest tenure in that position since [[Cordell Hull]]. He was the first Secretary of State to hold regular departmental press conferences. Diagnosed with colon cancer in 1956, he underwent abdominal surgery at Walter Reed in February 1959 when the disease recurred. He resigned on April 22, 1959, and died thirty-two days later.[^7] ### Sullivan and Cromwell: United Fruit and Latin American Clients -Dulles became a partner at Sullivan and Cromwell in 1920 and was elevated to managing partner in 1927 at age thirty-eight, a position he held until becoming Secretary of State. During that period the firm represented [[United Fruit Company]] as a corporate client for roughly thirty-eight years, and both Foster and Allen Dulles held substantial blocks of United Fruit stock. Sullivan and Cromwell also represented two affiliated entities that together formed the structural core of United Fruit's power in [[Guatemala]]: [[American and Foreign Power Company]], which owned the [[Empresa Electrica de Guatemala]] and controlled most of the country's electricity supply, and [[International Railways of Central America]], which controlled the national rail network.[^ufc1] +Dulles became a partner at Sullivan and Cromwell in 1920 and was elevated to managing partner in 1927 at age thirty-eight, a position he held until becoming Secretary of State. During that period the firm represented [[United Fruit Company]] as a corporate client for roughly thirty-eight years, and both Foster and Allen Dulles held substantial blocks of United Fruit stock. Sullivan and Cromwell also represented two affiliated entities that together formed the structural core of United Fruit's power in [[Guatemala]]: [[American and Foreign Power Company]], which owned the [[Empresa Electrica de Guatemala]] and controlled most of the country's electricity supply, and [[International Railways of Central America]], which controlled the national rail network.[^8] -Thomas McCann, a former United Fruit vice president and company historian, wrote that Dulles "was reputed to be the author of the actual concessions which the firm negotiated on our behalf" in Guatemala. The concession framework most relevant to McCann's description was the 1936 agreement with Guatemalan dictator [[General Jorge Ubico]], under which United Fruit received a ninety-nine-year lease over tracts comprising one-seventh of the country's arable land, along with control of its only Atlantic port. Sullivan and Cromwell also negotiated comparable land-grant concessions for United Fruit in [[Honduras]].[^ufc2] +Thomas McCann, a former United Fruit vice president and company historian, wrote that Dulles "was reputed to be the author of the actual concessions which the firm negotiated on our behalf" in Guatemala. The concession framework most relevant to McCann's description was the 1936 agreement with Guatemalan dictator [[General Jorge Ubico]], under which United Fruit received a ninety-nine-year lease over tracts comprising one-seventh of the country's arable land, along with control of its only Atlantic port. Sullivan and Cromwell also negotiated comparable land-grant concessions for United Fruit in [[Honduras]].[^9] + +### Consolidated Silesian Steel, 1933 + +[[Ben Aris]] and [[Duncan Campbell]] reported in the Guardian in 2004 on a January 1933 letter from [[Knight Woolley]], whom the newspaper described as another partner at [[Brown Brothers Harriman]], to [[W. Averell Harriman]] about the [[Consolidated Silesian Steel Company]], after Polish moves to nationalize the plant. The letter says that Woolley had brought in Sullivan and Cromwell to protect the company's interests. It also states: "After studying the situation Foster Dulles is insisting that their man in Berlin get into the picture and obtain the information which the directors here should have. You will recall that Foster is a director and he is particularly anxious to be certain that there is no liability attaching to the American directors." The Guardian identifies "Foster" as Dulles and describes the letter as concerning the Polish government's drive to nationalize the plant.[^10] ### Guatemala 1954: PBSUCCESS The [[Eisenhower administration]]'s decision to overthrow elected Guatemalan President [[Jacobo Arbenz]] in 1954 was designated [[Operation PBSUCCESS]]. The conflict of interest involving Secretary of State Dulles and his brother Allen Dulles (Director of Central Intelligence) was direct: both had been on the United Fruit payroll through Sullivan and Cromwell, and the Arbenz government's land reform program had expropriated 40 percent of United Fruit's Guatemalan landholdings. -A declassified CIA dispatch from the PBSUCCESS operations center in Florida, dated June 2, 1954 (FRUS 1952-54 Guatemala, Document 169), records that Dulles had publicly protested the arrival of an Eastern European arms shipment at Guatemalan ports at a news conference on May 25, 1954, and that his State Department had formally supported United Fruit's land expropriation claim. The dispatch, written under the pseudonym William D. Playdon (Tracy Barnes), requested that the State Department issue a formal protest and publish a "White Paper" linking the arms shipment to communist influence, serving simultaneously as anti-Arbenz propaganda and operational cover for PBSUCCESS.[^pb1] +A declassified CIA dispatch from the PBSUCCESS operations center in Florida, dated June 2, 1954 (FRUS 1952-54 Guatemala, Document 169), records that Dulles had publicly protested the arrival of an Eastern European arms shipment at Guatemalan ports at a news conference on May 25, 1954, and that his State Department had formally supported United Fruit's land expropriation claim. The dispatch, written under the pseudonym William D. Playdon (Tracy Barnes), requested that the State Department issue a formal protest and publish a "White Paper" linking the arms shipment to communist influence, serving simultaneously as anti-Arbenz propaganda and operational cover for PBSUCCESS.[^11] -A telephone conversation memorandum (FRUS 1952-54 Guatemala, Document 252), dated June 28, 1954, records John Foster Dulles and Allen Dulles coordinating directly on the coup's operational status. John Foster Dulles stated that "our side must use more air power" and that CIA air operations were "excellent and effective." Regarding the accidental sinking of a British vessel by CIA-supported forces, John Foster Dulles said "No authority was given for this. However, we can't say it," documenting both operational awareness and deliberate deniability.[^pb2] +A telephone conversation memorandum (FRUS 1952-54 Guatemala, Document 252), dated June 28, 1954, records John Foster Dulles and Allen Dulles coordinating directly on the coup's operational status. John Foster Dulles stated that "our side must use more air power" and that CIA air operations were "excellent and effective." Regarding the accidental sinking of a British vessel by CIA-supported forces, John Foster Dulles said "No authority was given for this. However, we can't say it," documenting both operational awareness and deliberate deniability.[^12] -A second telephone memorandum (FRUS 1952-54 Guatemala, Document 189), dated June 16, 1954, records Allen Dulles telling John Foster Dulles that he was seeing "men from Standard of NJ" that morning, who would "lay before him their position with regard to the small country down south," and that besides finding out their position he would "possibly slow things up without formalized action"; the Secretary asked whether [[Bourke B. Hickenlooper]] might introduce a sanctions bill in the Senate.[^pb3] +A second telephone memorandum (FRUS 1952-54 Guatemala, Document 189), dated June 16, 1954, records Allen Dulles telling John Foster Dulles that he was seeing "men from Standard of NJ" that morning, who would "lay before him their position with regard to the small country down south," and that besides finding out their position he would "possibly slow things up without formalized action"; the Secretary asked whether [[Bourke B. Hickenlooper]] might introduce a sanctions bill in the Senate.[^13] -After Arbenz's resignation and the installation of a new government, Dulles delivered a national radio address in June 1954 framing the coup as a spontaneous Guatemalan rejection of Soviet infiltration. He asserted that communists had "dominated the social security organization and ran the agrarian land reform program," and praised the restoration of "peace and freedom to that sister Republic." The address made no reference to U.S. covert involvement. The full text was published in the *Department of State Bulletin*.[^pb4] +After Arbenz's resignation and the installation of a new government, Dulles delivered a national radio address in June 1954 framing the coup as a spontaneous Guatemalan rejection of Soviet infiltration. He asserted that communists had "dominated the social security organization and ran the agrarian land reform program," and praised the restoration of "peace and freedom to that sister Republic." The address made no reference to U.S. covert involvement. The full text was published in the *Department of State Bulletin*.[^14] ### Iran 1953: TPAJAX The U.S.-UK operation to overthrow Iranian Prime Minister [[Mohammad Mossadegh]] in August 1953 preceded the Guatemala operation by one year and involved Dulles in a parallel coordinating role. -On March 1, 1953 (FRUS 1951-54 Iran, Document 169), Dulles submitted a memorandum to President Eisenhower assessing the Iran situation. On April 4, 1953 (Document 184), CIA officer [[Kermit Roosevelt]] sent Dulles a proposal for operational action; the document records that "Wisner recommended approval and Dulles approved." The same month, CIA Station Tehran received authorization to spend up to $1 million in any way that would bring about the fall of Mossadegh, including funding for propaganda, street demonstrations, and the cultivation of Iranian military officers. On April 21, 1953 (Document 194), Dulles received briefing notes to present to the National Security Council the following day, at which he characterized the Iranian political situation as "perpetual crisis" and described declining prestige of the Shah alongside growing Mossadegh influence.[^iran1] +On March 1, 1953 (FRUS 1951-54 Iran, Document 169), Dulles submitted a memorandum to President Eisenhower assessing the Iran situation. On April 4, 1953 (Document 184), CIA officer [[Kermit Roosevelt]] sent Dulles a proposal for operational action; the document records that "Wisner recommended approval and Dulles approved." The same month, CIA Station Tehran received authorization to spend up to $1 million in any way that would bring about the fall of Mossadegh, including funding for propaganda, street demonstrations, and the cultivation of Iranian military officers. On April 21, 1953 (Document 194), Dulles received briefing notes to present to the National Security Council the following day, at which he characterized the Iranian political situation as "perpetual crisis" and described declining prestige of the Shah alongside growing Mossadegh influence.[^15] -British intelligence and Dulles jointly argued the U.S. position to Eisenhower by framing Mossadegh's continuation in power as a route to Soviet domination of Iran's oil resources. The coup succeeded on August 19, 1953. A CIA post-operation assessment dated August 28, 1953 (FRUS 1951-54 Iran, Document 306) recorded that "Secretary Dulles' and President Eisenhower's comments concerning the Tudeh were of great help" in shifting Iranian public sentiment against Mossadegh, citing Dulles's public anti-communist messaging as a component of the psychological operations preceding the coup. Following the coup's success, Dulles approved an emergency grant of $45 million to the new Iranian government.[^iran2] +British intelligence and Dulles jointly argued the U.S. position to Eisenhower by framing Mossadegh's continuation in power as a route to Soviet domination of Iran's oil resources. The coup succeeded on August 19, 1953. A CIA post-operation assessment dated August 28, 1953 (FRUS 1951-54 Iran, Document 306) recorded that "Secretary Dulles' and President Eisenhower's comments concerning the Tudeh were of great help" in shifting Iranian public sentiment against Mossadegh, citing Dulles's public anti-communist messaging as a component of the psychological operations preceding the coup. Following the coup's success, Dulles approved an emergency grant of $45 million to the new Iranian government.[^16] ### Personal Rockefeller Connection -John Foster Dulles had a long personal relationship with the [[Rockefeller family]] predating his political career. In the 1920s, he defended Rev. [[Harry Emerson Fosdick]] (the Rockefellers' minister at [[Riverside Church]]) during the Fundamentalist Controversy, emerging as a leader of Presbyterian modernists. He served on the Rockefeller-backed [[Federal Council of Churches' Commission on a Just and Durable Peace]]. [[John D. Rockefeller Jr.]] trusted and respected Dulles, making his criticism of [[Nelson Rockefeller]] at the San Francisco UN conference in 1945 particularly stinging.[^rock1] +John Foster Dulles had a long personal relationship with the [[Rockefeller family]] predating his political career. In the 1920s, he defended Rev. [[Harry Emerson Fosdick]] (the Rockefellers' minister at [[Riverside Church]]) during the Fundamentalist Controversy, emerging as a leader of Presbyterian modernists. He served on the Rockefeller-backed [[Federal Council of Churches' Commission on a Just and Durable Peace]]. [[John D. Rockefeller Jr.]] trusted and respected Dulles, making his criticism of [[Nelson Rockefeller]] at the San Francisco UN conference in 1945 particularly stinging.[^17] ### Rockefeller Foundation Chairmanship -Dulles was elected a trustee of the [[Rockefeller Foundation]] in 1935 and became chairman of its board in 1950. On December 5, 1951, the board invited [[Dean Rusk]], then Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs, to become the foundation's president; Rusk served as assistant to the president from March 4, 1952, and took office on July 1, 1952. On December 2, 1952, after President-elect Eisenhower designated him Secretary of State, Dulles resigned the chairmanship, and the trustees elected John D. Rockefeller 3rd, a trustee since 1931, to succeed him.[^rfar] Rusk resigned as trustee and president in January 1961 to become [[John F. Kennedy]]'s Secretary of State.[^rfar][^rock2] +Dulles was elected a trustee of the [[Rockefeller Foundation]] in 1935 and became chairman of its board in 1950. On December 5, 1951, the board invited [[Dean Rusk]], then Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs, to become the foundation's president; Rusk served as assistant to the president from March 4, 1952, and took office on July 1, 1952. On December 2, 1952, after President-elect Eisenhower designated him Secretary of State, Dulles resigned the chairmanship, and the trustees elected John D. Rockefeller 3rd, a trustee since 1931, to succeed him.[^18] Rusk resigned as trustee and president in January 1961 to become [[John F. Kennedy]]'s Secretary of State.[^18][^19] ### San Francisco UN Conference Confrontation -Dulles was a leader in the U.S. delegation at the San Francisco founding conference of the [[United Nations]] in 1945. He was adamant that the UN charter reflect Wilsonian internationalism and attacked Rockefeller's effort to exempt the [[Act of Chapultepec]] and the [[Monroe Doctrine]] from UN oversight, telling Rockefeller that the letter he had engineered through Senator Vandenberg "might wreck the conference." He called it "a most dangerous and damaging thing." Their confrontation at Stettinius's penthouse suite was a direct clash between Rockefeller's regionalism and Dulles's internationalism.[^rock3] +Dulles was a leader in the U.S. delegation at the San Francisco founding conference of the [[United Nations]] in 1945. He was adamant that the UN charter reflect Wilsonian internationalism and attacked Rockefeller's effort to exempt the [[Act of Chapultepec]] and the [[Monroe Doctrine]] from UN oversight, telling Rockefeller that the letter he had engineered through Senator Vandenberg "might wreck the conference." He called it "a most dangerous and damaging thing." Their confrontation at Stettinius's penthouse suite was a direct clash between Rockefeller's regionalism and Dulles's internationalism.[^20] ### Conflict with Nelson over Open Skies -As Secretary of State, Dulles repeatedly clashed with Nelson Rockefeller over Cold War strategy. Nelson's [[Open Skies]] proposal originated from a working group Rockefeller convened at [[Quantico Marine Corps Base]] between June 5 and 10, 1955. Dulles rejected the plan and, together with Under Secretary [[Herbert Hoover Jr.]], blocked most Rockefeller foreign policy initiatives on the grounds that Rockefeller represented outside interference in State Department prerogatives. When Eisenhower nonetheless incorporated Open Skies into his presentation at the [[1955 Geneva Summit]] on July 21, 1955, Dulles told colleagues he might have to resign if the Soviets accepted the offer; he dreaded having to be "the Devil at Geneva." Eisenhower overruled him and delivered the proposal.[^rock4] +As Secretary of State, Dulles repeatedly clashed with Nelson Rockefeller over Cold War strategy. Nelson's [[Open Skies]] proposal originated from a working group Rockefeller convened at [[Quantico Marine Corps Base]] between June 5 and 10, 1955. Dulles rejected the plan and, together with Under Secretary [[Herbert Hoover Jr.]], blocked most Rockefeller foreign policy initiatives on the grounds that Rockefeller represented outside interference in State Department prerogatives. When Eisenhower nonetheless incorporated Open Skies into his presentation at the [[1955 Geneva Summit]] on July 21, 1955, Dulles told colleagues he might have to resign if the Soviets accepted the offer; he dreaded having to be "the Devil at Geneva." Eisenhower overruled him and delivered the proposal.[^21] ### Key Policy Instruments -Dulles was the primary architect of the [[Southeast Asia Treaty Organization]] (SEATO), signed in Manila on September 8, 1954, establishing collective defense obligations among the United States, United Kingdom, France, Australia, [[New Zealand]], the Philippines, Thailand, and Pakistan, with a separate protocol designating Laos, Cambodia, and South Vietnam as protected territories. He contributed to the conclusion of the [[Austrian State Treaty]] (1955), the [[Formosa Resolution]] (signed January 29, 1955, Public Law 4), and the [[Eisenhower Doctrine]] of 1957.[^policy1] +Dulles was the primary architect of the [[Southeast Asia Treaty Organization]] (SEATO), signed in Manila on September 8, 1954, establishing collective defense obligations among the United States, United Kingdom, France, Australia, [[New Zealand]], the Philippines, Thailand, and Pakistan, with a separate protocol designating Laos, Cambodia, and South Vietnam as protected territories. He contributed to the conclusion of the [[Austrian State Treaty]] (1955), the [[Formosa Resolution]] (signed January 29, 1955, Public Law 4), and the [[Eisenhower Doctrine]] of 1957.[^22] -On January 12, 1954, Dulles delivered an address before the [[Council on Foreign Relations]] in New York articulating the doctrine of "massive retaliation": the United States would "depend primarily upon a great capacity to retaliate, instantly, by means and at places of our choosing" rather than maintain large conventional forces at every potential flashpoint. The speech was published in the *Department of State Bulletin*, January 25, 1954, pages 107-110.[^policy2] +On January 12, 1954, Dulles delivered an address before the [[Council on Foreign Relations]] in New York articulating the doctrine of "massive retaliation": the United States would "depend primarily upon a great capacity to retaliate, instantly, by means and at places of our choosing" rather than maintain large conventional forces at every potential flashpoint. The speech was published in the *Department of State Bulletin*, January 25, 1954, pages 107-110.[^23] -On December 14, 1953, Dulles warned the North Atlantic Council that a French failure to ratify the [[European Defense Community]] (EDC) would require "an agonizing reappraisal" of U.S. relations with France. The EDC failed in 1954 when the French National Assembly rejected it, and Dulles's threat was not executed.[^policy3] +On December 14, 1953, Dulles warned the North Atlantic Council that a French failure to ratify the [[European Defense Community]] (EDC) would require "an agonizing reappraisal" of U.S. relations with France. The EDC failed in 1954 when the French National Assembly rejected it, and Dulles's threat was not executed.[^24] ### Archival Holdings -The John Foster Dulles Papers at the [[Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library]] (Abilene, Kansas) total over 88,000 pages across eleven series, spanning 1950 to 1961 with the bulk in the period 1953-1959. Key series include: the JFD Chronological Series (approximately 13,600 pages of correspondence, memoranda, and memoranda of conversations); the Telephone Conversations Series (13,000 pages of telephone memoranda covering Guatemala, Iran, Korea, Berlin, and other crises); the White House Memoranda Series (including memoranda of Dulles's conversations with Eisenhower and a file of conversations between John Foster and Allen Dulles on intelligence matters); and the Subject Series and General Correspondence and Memoranda Series. A separate collection of Dulles papers (1860-1988) is held at the [[Mudd Manuscript Library]], Princeton University.[^arch1] +The John Foster Dulles Papers at the [[Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library]] (Abilene, Kansas) total over 88,000 pages across eleven series, spanning 1950 to 1961 with the bulk in the period 1953-1959. Key series include: the JFD Chronological Series (approximately 13,600 pages of correspondence, memoranda, and memoranda of conversations); the Telephone Conversations Series (13,000 pages of telephone memoranda covering Guatemala, Iran, Korea, Berlin, and other crises); the White House Memoranda Series (including memoranda of Dulles's conversations with Eisenhower and a file of conversations between John Foster and Allen Dulles on intelligence matters); and the Subject Series and General Correspondence and Memoranda Series. A separate collection of Dulles papers (1860-1988) is held at the [[Mudd Manuscript Library]], Princeton University.[^25] -The FRUS volume *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954, Guatemala* (edited by Susan Holly, published 2003, 287 documents) is the primary State Department documentary record of PBSUCCESS. The FRUS volume *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1951-1954, Iran* is the primary record of TPAJAX. Both are available at history.state.gov.[^arch2] +The FRUS volume *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954, Guatemala* (edited by Susan Holly, published 2003, 287 documents) is the primary State Department documentary record of PBSUCCESS. The FRUS volume *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1951-1954, Iran* is the primary record of TPAJAX. Both are available at history.state.gov.[^26] ### Footnotes [^1]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991. Chapter 4. -[^bio1]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, "John Foster Dulles," *People - Department History*, https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/dulles-john-foster. Arlington National Cemetery, "John Foster Dulles," https://www.arlingtoncemetery.net/jfdulles.htm. -[^bio2]: Miller Center, University of Virginia, "John Foster Dulles (1953-1959)," https://millercenter.org/president/eisenhower/essays/dulles-1953-secretary-of-state. Dulles admitted to the New York bar 1911; managing partner of Sullivan and Cromwell from 1927. -[^bio3]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1919*, Paris Peace Conference, Vol. XI, Document 79, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1919Parisv11/d79. On the ghostwriting arrangement: Stephen Kinzer, *The Brothers: John Foster Dulles, Allen Dulles, and Their Secret World War* (Times Books, 2013), drawing on the Sullivan and Cromwell career record. -[^bio4]: Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, "DULLES, John Foster," https://bioguideretro.congress.gov/Home/MemberDetails?memIndex=d000522. Senate appointment July 7, 1949; special election defeat November 8, 1949, to Herbert H. Lehman. -[^bio5]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, "John Foster Dulles," *People - Department History*, https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/dulles-john-foster. Secretary of State January 21, 1953 to April 22, 1959. Cancer surgery February 1959, Walter Reed Army Medical Center. -[^ufc1]: Stephen Kinzer, *The Brothers: John Foster Dulles, Allen Dulles, and Their Secret World War* (Times Books, 2013). Sullivan and Cromwell represented United Fruit, American and Foreign Power Company, and International Railways of Central America as clients. -[^ufc2]: Thomas McCann, *An American Company: The Tragedy of United Fruit* (Crown, 1976), quoted in multiple secondary accounts of the Sullivan and Cromwell-United Fruit relationship. The 1936 Ubico concession: Sullivan and Cromwell represented United Fruit in the negotiations. -[^pb1]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954, Guatemala*, Document 169, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54Guat/d169. CIA dispatch from PBSUCCESS headquarters (Tracy Barnes, alias William D. Playdon), June 2, 1954. Published 2003, ed. Susan Holly. -[^pb2]: *FRUS 1952-54, Guatemala*, Document 252, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54Guat/d252. Memorandum of telephone conversation, John Foster Dulles and Allen Dulles, June 28, 1954, 9:39 a.m. -[^pb3]: *FRUS 1952-54, Guatemala*, Document 189, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54Guat/d189. Memorandum of telephone conversation, John Foster Dulles and Allen Dulles, June 16, 1954, 11:20 a.m. -[^pb4]: John Foster Dulles, radio address, June 1954. Full text published in *Department of State Bulletin*, 1954. Transcribed and discussed in "Document 9: John F. Dulles, Secretary of State John F. Dulles, Radio Address, 1954," College of Wooster, https://ufcguatemala.voices.wooster.edu/documents/document-9/. -[^iran1]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1951-1954, Iran*, Document 169 (March 1, 1953, memorandum Dulles to Eisenhower); Document 184 (April 4, 1953, Kermit Roosevelt to Dulles, with notation "Wisner recommended approval and Dulles approved"); Document 194 (April 21, 1953, briefing notes for Dulles, NSC briefing April 22). All at https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1951-54Iran. -[^iran2]: *FRUS 1951-54, Iran*, Document 306, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1951-54Iran/d306. CIA Station Tehran memorandum, August 28, 1953. The $45 million emergency grant to the post-coup government is documented in secondary accounts drawing on the same FRUS series. -[^rock1]: Gerard Colby and Charlotte Dennett, *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon* (HarperCollins, 1995), Ch. 12. -[^rock2]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 18. Its dating of Dulles's chairmanship to 1935-1952 is contradicted by the foundation's own reports, which date his trusteeship from 1935 and his chairmanship from 1950. -[^rock3]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 12. -[^rock4]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 19. Eisenhower Library, "The Cold War in the Early Fifties: Open Skies and the 1955 Geneva Summit," subject guide, https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/subject-guides/pdf/cold-war-open-skies-1955-geneva-conference.pdf. Quantico meeting June 5-10, 1955; Geneva Summit proposal July 21, 1955. -[^policy1]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty, signed Manila, September 8, 1954. FRUS 1955-57, Vol. II, Document 56, Formosa Resolution, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1955-57v02/d56. On the Austrian State Treaty and Eisenhower Doctrine: Miller Center, "John Foster Dulles (1953-1959)." -[^policy2]: John Foster Dulles, address before the Council on Foreign Relations, New York, January 12, 1954. Published in *Department of State Bulletin*, January 25, 1954, pp. 107-110. Key passage: "The basic decision was to depend primarily upon a great capacity to retaliate, instantly, by means and at places of our choosing." -[^policy3]: Dulles address, North Atlantic Council, December 14, 1953, on the European Defense Community. Discussed in: "Agonizing Reappraisals: Anthony Eden, John Foster Dulles and the Crisis of European Defence, 1953-54," *Diplomacy and Statecraft*, Vol. 13, No. 4 (2002), https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/714000354. -[^arch1]: Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, "John Foster Dulles Papers: Scope and Content Note," finding aid, Abilene, Kansas, https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/finding-aids/pdf/dulles-john-foster-papers/scope-and-content.pdf. Telephone Conversations Series finding aid, https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/finding-aids/pdf/dulles-john-foster-papers/telephone-conversations-series.pdf. -[^arch2]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954, Guatemala*, ed. Susan Holly (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2003), 287 documents, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54Guat. *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1951-1954, Iran*, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1951-54Iran. -[^rfar]: The Rockefeller Foundation. *Annual Report 1951,* "President's Review," pp. 95-96, https://archive.org/details/the-rockefeller-foundation-annual-report-1951; *Annual Report 1952,* "President's Review," https://archive.org/details/the-rockefeller-foundation-annual-report-1952; *Annual Report 1960,* on Rusk's resignation, https://archive.org/details/the-rockefeller-foundation-annual-report-1960; *Annual Report 1935,* list of trustees, https://archive.org/details/the-rockefeller-foundation-annual-report-1935. The 1947 report lists Walter W. Stewart as chairman of the board, with Dulles a trustee, https://archive.org/details/the-rockefeller-foundation-annual-report-1947. -[^mc016]: Princeton University Library, John Foster Dulles papers, Mudd Manuscript Library, finding aid MC016, biographical note (LL.B., George Washington University Law School, 1911; Sullivan and Cromwell 1911 to 1949; secretary to his grandfather John Watson Foster at the Second Hague Conference, 1907). https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/PRIN_MUDD_MC016 +[^2]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, "John Foster Dulles," *People - Department History*, https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/dulles-john-foster. Arlington National Cemetery, "John Foster Dulles," https://www.arlingtoncemetery.net/jfdulles.htm. +[^3]: Princeton University Library, John Foster Dulles papers, Mudd Manuscript Library, finding aid MC016, biographical note (LL.B., George Washington University Law School, 1911; Sullivan and Cromwell 1911 to 1949; secretary to his grandfather John Watson Foster at the Second Hague Conference, 1907). https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/PRIN_MUDD_MC016 +[^4]: Miller Center, University of Virginia, "John Foster Dulles (1953-1959)," https://millercenter.org/president/eisenhower/essays/dulles-1953-secretary-of-state. Dulles admitted to the New York bar 1911; managing partner of Sullivan and Cromwell from 1927. +[^5]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1919*, Paris Peace Conference, Vol. XI, Document 79, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1919Parisv11/d79. On the ghostwriting arrangement: Stephen Kinzer, *The Brothers: John Foster Dulles, Allen Dulles, and Their Secret World War* (Times Books, 2013), drawing on the Sullivan and Cromwell career record. +[^6]: Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, "DULLES, John Foster," https://bioguideretro.congress.gov/Home/MemberDetails?memIndex=d000522. Senate appointment July 7, 1949; special election defeat November 8, 1949, to Herbert H. Lehman. +[^7]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, "John Foster Dulles," *People - Department History*, https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/dulles-john-foster. Secretary of State January 21, 1953 to April 22, 1959. Cancer surgery February 1959, Walter Reed Army Medical Center. +[^8]: Stephen Kinzer, *The Brothers: John Foster Dulles, Allen Dulles, and Their Secret World War* (Times Books, 2013). Sullivan and Cromwell represented United Fruit, American and Foreign Power Company, and International Railways of Central America as clients. +[^9]: Thomas McCann, *An American Company: The Tragedy of United Fruit* (Crown, 1976), quoted in multiple secondary accounts of the Sullivan and Cromwell-United Fruit relationship. The 1936 Ubico concession: Sullivan and Cromwell represented United Fruit in the negotiations. +[^10]: Ben Aris and Duncan Campbell, "How Bush's grandfather helped Hitler's rise to power," *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004, quoting a letter of January 1933 from Knight Woolley to W. Averell Harriman from the National Archives files the newspaper cites. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar +[^11]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954, Guatemala*, Document 169, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54Guat/d169. CIA dispatch from PBSUCCESS headquarters (Tracy Barnes, alias William D. Playdon), June 2, 1954. Published 2003, ed. Susan Holly. +[^12]: *FRUS 1952-54, Guatemala*, Document 252, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54Guat/d252. Memorandum of telephone conversation, John Foster Dulles and Allen Dulles, June 28, 1954, 9:39 a.m. +[^13]: *FRUS 1952-54, Guatemala*, Document 189, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54Guat/d189. Memorandum of telephone conversation, John Foster Dulles and Allen Dulles, June 16, 1954, 11:20 a.m. +[^14]: John Foster Dulles, radio address, June 1954. Full text published in *Department of State Bulletin*, 1954. Transcribed and discussed in "Document 9: John F. Dulles, Secretary of State John F. Dulles, Radio Address, 1954," College of Wooster, https://ufcguatemala.voices.wooster.edu/documents/document-9/. +[^15]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1951-1954, Iran*, Document 169 (March 1, 1953, memorandum Dulles to Eisenhower); Document 184 (April 4, 1953, Kermit Roosevelt to Dulles, with notation "Wisner recommended approval and Dulles approved"); Document 194 (April 21, 1953, briefing notes for Dulles, NSC briefing April 22). All at https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1951-54Iran. +[^16]: *FRUS 1951-54, Iran*, Document 306, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1951-54Iran/d306. CIA Station Tehran memorandum, August 28, 1953. The $45 million emergency grant to the post-coup government is documented in secondary accounts drawing on the same FRUS series. +[^17]: Gerard Colby and Charlotte Dennett, *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon* (HarperCollins, 1995), Ch. 12. +[^18]: The Rockefeller Foundation. *Annual Report 1951,* "President's Review," pp. 95-96, https://archive.org/details/the-rockefeller-foundation-annual-report-1951; *Annual Report 1952,* "President's Review," https://archive.org/details/the-rockefeller-foundation-annual-report-1952; *Annual Report 1960,* on Rusk's resignation, https://archive.org/details/the-rockefeller-foundation-annual-report-1960; *Annual Report 1935,* list of trustees, https://archive.org/details/the-rockefeller-foundation-annual-report-1935. The 1947 report lists Walter W. Stewart as chairman of the board, with Dulles a trustee, https://archive.org/details/the-rockefeller-foundation-annual-report-1947. +[^19]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 18. Its dating of Dulles's chairmanship to 1935-1952 is contradicted by the foundation's own reports, which date his trusteeship from 1935 and his chairmanship from 1950. +[^20]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 12. +[^21]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 19. Eisenhower Library, "The Cold War in the Early Fifties: Open Skies and the 1955 Geneva Summit," subject guide, https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/subject-guides/pdf/cold-war-open-skies-1955-geneva-conference.pdf. Quantico meeting June 5-10, 1955; Geneva Summit proposal July 21, 1955. +[^22]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty, signed Manila, September 8, 1954. FRUS 1955-57, Vol. II, Document 56, Formosa Resolution, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1955-57v02/d56. On the Austrian State Treaty and Eisenhower Doctrine: Miller Center, "John Foster Dulles (1953-1959)." +[^23]: John Foster Dulles, address before the Council on Foreign Relations, New York, January 12, 1954. Published in *Department of State Bulletin*, January 25, 1954, pp. 107-110. Key passage: "The basic decision was to depend primarily upon a great capacity to retaliate, instantly, by means and at places of our choosing." +[^24]: Dulles address, North Atlantic Council, December 14, 1953, on the European Defense Community. Discussed in: "Agonizing Reappraisals: Anthony Eden, John Foster Dulles and the Crisis of European Defence, 1953-54," *Diplomacy and Statecraft*, Vol. 13, No. 4 (2002), https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/714000354. +[^25]: Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, "John Foster Dulles Papers: Scope and Content Note," finding aid, Abilene, Kansas, https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/finding-aids/pdf/dulles-john-foster-papers/scope-and-content.pdf. Telephone Conversations Series finding aid, https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/finding-aids/pdf/dulles-john-foster-papers/telephone-conversations-series.pdf. +[^26]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954, Guatemala*, ed. Susan Holly (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2003), 287 documents, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54Guat. *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1951-1954, Iran*, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1951-54Iran. diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/McGeorge Bundy.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/McGeorge Bundy.md index 134bcc7a..c059517a 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/McGeorge Bundy.md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/McGeorge Bundy.md @@ -35,7 +35,7 @@ relations: start: 1961 end: 1966 role: "chaired the Special Group, renamed the 303 Committee in June 1964, as Special Assistant for National Security Affairs" - fn: 9 + fn: 13 - type: participant_in with: "[[Operation Mongoose]]" role: "took part in the planning that led to the creation of Operation Mongoose and sat on the Special Group (Augmented)" @@ -44,11 +44,11 @@ relations: with: "[[Harvard University]]" start: 1949 role: "lecturer in government; Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences from August 1953" - fn: 6 + fn: 10 - type: member_of with: "[[Council on Foreign Relations]]" start: 1946 - fn: 5 + fn: 7 - type: member_of with: "[[Skull and Bones]]" fn: 4 @@ -56,94 +56,105 @@ relations: with: "[[Ford Foundation]]" start: 1966 role: "President" - fn: 36 + fn: 40 - type: relative_of with: "[[William P. Bundy]]" role: "brother" - fn: 37 + fn: 41 + - type: partner_of + with: "[[Henry L. Stimson]]" + start: 1947 + role: "co-author of On Active Service in Peace and War (1948); Bundy's note describes a joint method" + fn: 8 created: 2026-10-07 -updated: 2026-10-09 +updated: 2026-10-26 --- McGeorge Bundy served as Special Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs under [[John F. Kennedy]] and remained in that post under [[Lyndon B. Johnson]], chaired the interagency committee that reviewed [[CIA]] covert operations, and in 1966 became president of the [[Ford Foundation]].[^1][^2] ### Yale, Skull and Bones, and the Council on Foreign Relations -Bundy majored in mathematics at [[Yale University]] and returned to [[Harvard University]] and its Society of Fellows after the war.[^3] [[Ron Rosenbaum]]'s 1977 [[Esquire]] article on [[Skull and Bones]] names Bundy among the society's members, together with [[Averell Harriman]], [[Henry L. Stimson]], [[Henry Luce]] and Supreme Court Justice [[Potter Stewart]], and places Bundy's brother [[William P. Bundy]] and [[William F. Buckley]] in the CIA after their years in the society.[^4] The [[Council on Foreign Relations]] lists Bundy among the members who joined in 1946.[^5] +Bundy majored in mathematics at [[Yale University]] and returned to [[Harvard University]] and its Society of Fellows after the war.[^3] [[Ron Rosenbaum]]'s 1977 [[Esquire]] article on [[Skull and Bones]] names Bundy among the society's members, together with [[Averell Harriman]], [[Henry L. Stimson]], [[Henry Luce]] and Supreme Court Justice [[Potter Stewart]], and places Bundy's brother [[William P. Bundy]] and [[William F. Buckley]] in the CIA after their years in the society.[^4] The membership index that [[Antony C. Sutton]] reproduces lists Bundy under the class of 1940 and his brother William P. Bundy under the class of 1939.[^5] Sutton writes that while McGeorge Bundy was in the White House, William P. Bundy "was in key positions relating to the Far East in Defense and State Departments," and that by acting jointly "the Bundy brothers could have controlled absolutely the flow of information relating to Vietnam from Intelligence, State and DOD." Sutton adds: "We are not saying this happened. We believe it to be a hypothesis worthy of examination."[^6] The [[Council on Foreign Relations]] lists Bundy among the members who joined in 1946.[^7] + +### On Active Service in Peace and War + +Bundy is co-author of *On Active Service in Peace and War* (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1948), the memoir of Henry L. Stimson. The book's introduction, written by Stimson, states that "The writing of the book has been the work of Mr. McGeorge Bundy. Its style and composition are his; but, where he writes of what I have thought and felt, he does so after we have worked together for eighteen months in an earnest effort to make an accurate and balanced account."[^8] Bundy's own note at the end of the book says that the work was a joint effort: "If I have held the laboring oar, Mr. Stimson has held the tiller rope, and the judgments and opinions expressed are always his." He describes the method as "an attempt to substitute a joint effort for the singlehanded autobiography he might have undertaken if he were a little younger," and states that "the major sources of the book are two: Mr. Stimson himself and his records."[^9] + +Bundy's note describes the diary that the book draws on as beginning in 1910, with "a long account of the period May, 1911 to March, 1913, written in the spring of the latter year," sporadic entries between 1913 and 1926, and a separate manuscript volume of entries made overseas in 1918.[^9] ### Harvard -Bundy began teaching government and world affairs at Harvard in 1949 and was named Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences in August 1953, at age 34.[^3][^6] [[Kai Bird]], Bundy's biographer, wrote that Harvard negotiated with the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] a policy under which the university would terminate the contracts of untenured scholars who refused to name names, would share information, sometimes from its confidential personnel files, with the FBI, and would use confidential FBI information to screen its employees.[^6] +Bundy began teaching government and world affairs at Harvard in 1949 and was named Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences in August 1953, at age 34.[^3][^10] [[Kai Bird]], Bundy's biographer, wrote that Harvard negotiated with the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] a policy under which the university would terminate the contracts of untenured scholars who refused to name names, would share information, sometimes from its confidential personnel files, with the FBI, and would use confidential FBI information to screen its employees.[^10] -[[Sigmund Diamond]] stated in 1977 that in 1954, about three weeks after Bundy considered him for the post of Counsellor for Foreign Students and Dean of Special Students, the FBI asked him about his prior Communist Party membership and his associates, and that days later Bundy told him the appointment would be withdrawn if he refused to name names. Bundy responded that he was justified in withdrawing the recommendation because the post was administrative, and that only academic appointments "carried all the immunities of academic freedom."[^7] [[Robert Bellah]] wrote that in 1954 Bundy told him an "officer of the university" had informed Bundy of his political past, that he owed "complete candor," and that his fellowship would be cancelled if he failed to cooperate; the FBI then questioned Bellah, and he later declined a Harvard instructorship conditioned on his answering committees such as the [[House Un-American Activities Committee]].[^7] [[Leon Kamin]], subpoenaed by the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee under William Jenner and by [[Joseph McCarthy]]'s subcommittee, said Bundy urged him to name names and let him know that Bundy was in close contact with the FBI.[^7] +[[Sigmund Diamond]] stated in 1977 that in 1954, about three weeks after Bundy considered him for the post of Counsellor for Foreign Students and Dean of Special Students, the FBI asked him about his prior Communist Party membership and his associates, and that days later Bundy told him the appointment would be withdrawn if he refused to name names. Bundy responded that he was justified in withdrawing the recommendation because the post was administrative, and that only academic appointments "carried all the immunities of academic freedom."[^11] [[Robert Bellah]] wrote that in 1954 Bundy told him an "officer of the university" had informed Bundy of his political past, that he owed "complete candor," and that his fellowship would be cancelled if he failed to cooperate; the FBI then questioned Bellah, and he later declined a Harvard instructorship conditioned on his answering committees such as the [[House Un-American Activities Committee]].[^11] [[Leon Kamin]], subpoenaed by the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee under William Jenner and by [[Joseph McCarthy]]'s subcommittee, said Bundy urged him to name names and let him know that Bundy was in close contact with the FBI.[^11] ### Special Group and 303 Committee -The Cuba Study Group's June 13, 1961 narrative for President Kennedy described the Special Group (also called the 5412 Committee) as consisting of a Deputy Under Secretary of State, the Deputy Secretary of Defense, the Director of Central Intelligence and the Special Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs.[^8] The [[Church Committee]] recorded that with the inauguration of Kennedy in January 1961 Special Group meetings were transferred to the White House under the chairmanship of Bundy; that [[Maxwell Taylor]] chaired for a brief period, until Taylor became Chairman of the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]], after which Bundy resumed the chair; and that in January 1963 NSAM 124 created the Special Group (Counterinsurgency), chaired by Taylor, on which Bundy and [[Robert Kennedy]] served.[^9] A CIA paper prepared in February 1967 for the [[Katzenbach Committee]] lists the chairmen as "first McGeorge Bundy, then General Maxwell Taylor, then back to Bundy, and finally to Walt Rostow."[^10] The Church Committee's account of the 1963 Cuba operations states that review and approval of covert operations against Cuba were the responsibility of the Special Group "chaired by McGeorge Bundy."[^11] +The Cuba Study Group's June 13, 1961 narrative for President Kennedy described the Special Group (also called the 5412 Committee) as consisting of a Deputy Under Secretary of State, the Deputy Secretary of Defense, the Director of Central Intelligence and the Special Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs.[^12] The [[Church Committee]] recorded that with the inauguration of Kennedy in January 1961 Special Group meetings were transferred to the White House under the chairmanship of Bundy; that [[Maxwell Taylor]] chaired for a brief period, until Taylor became Chairman of the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]], after which Bundy resumed the chair; and that in January 1963 NSAM 124 created the Special Group (Counterinsurgency), chaired by Taylor, on which Bundy and [[Robert Kennedy]] served.[^13] A CIA paper prepared in February 1967 for the [[Katzenbach Committee]] lists the chairmen as "first McGeorge Bundy, then General Maxwell Taylor, then back to Bundy, and finally to Walt Rostow."[^14] The Church Committee's account of the 1963 Cuba operations states that review and approval of covert operations against Cuba were the responsibility of the Special Group "chaired by McGeorge Bundy."[^15] -On May 19, 1964, Peter Jessup of the [[National Security Council]] staff sent Bundy a memorandum proposing a drab new name for the Special Group, warning that if it were surfaced its members would be exposed to speculative publicity such as "Bundy’s Secret Task Force"; a handwritten marginal note, probably by Bundy, reads "McC[one] v. any change."[^12] National Security Action Memorandum 303 of June 2, 1964 provided that "Henceforth, the Special Group 5412 will be known as the 303 Committee"; an undated list in the file names its members as Bundy, [[John McCone]], Acting Deputy Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs Thompson, and Deputy Secretary of Defense [[Cyrus Vance]].[^13] +On May 19, 1964, Peter Jessup of the [[National Security Council]] staff sent Bundy a memorandum proposing a drab new name for the Special Group, warning that if it were surfaced its members would be exposed to speculative publicity such as "Bundy’s Secret Task Force"; a handwritten marginal note, probably by Bundy, reads "McC[one] v. any change."[^16] National Security Action Memorandum 303 of June 2, 1964 provided that "Henceforth, the Special Group 5412 will be known as the 303 Committee"; an undated list in the file names its members as Bundy, [[John McCone]], Acting Deputy Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs Thompson, and Deputy Secretary of Defense [[Cyrus Vance]].[^17] -Bundy testified before the [[House Select Committee on Intelligence]] on December 10, 1975 that senior officials outside the CIA understood that no covert operation would be undertaken without the explicit approval of "higher authority," and that there was "a general expectation within the Agency that it was its proper business to generate attractive proposals and to stretch them, in operation, to the furthest limit of any authorization actually received."[^9] +Bundy testified before the [[House Select Committee on Intelligence]] on December 10, 1975 that senior officials outside the CIA understood that no covert operation would be undertaken without the explicit approval of "higher authority," and that there was "a general expectation within the Agency that it was its proper business to generate attractive proposals and to stretch them, in operation, to the furthest limit of any authorization actually received."[^13] -On March 24, 1966, [[Bromley Smith]], Executive Secretary of the National Security Council, drafted a memorandum for President Johnson describing the 303 Committee, whose members were Vance, [[U. Alexis Johnson|Alexis Johnson]], Admiral [[William Raborn]] and formerly Bundy, as "the small four-man group" that had been "meeting weekly since 1963," and asking for a White House representative.[^14] When Johnson named [[Walt Rostow]] Special Assistant on March 31, 1966, he designated Rostow and [[Bill Moyers]] within four days as Bundy's replacement on the 303 Committee; The [[New York Times]] reported on April 1 that the President seemed "reluctant to put in the hands of one man the kind of power within Government that Mr. Bundy had."[^15] +On March 24, 1966, [[Bromley Smith]], Executive Secretary of the National Security Council, drafted a memorandum for President Johnson describing the 303 Committee, whose members were Vance, [[U. Alexis Johnson|Alexis Johnson]], Admiral [[William Raborn]] and formerly Bundy, as "the small four-man group" that had been "meeting weekly since 1963," and asking for a White House representative.[^18] When Johnson named [[Walt Rostow]] Special Assistant on March 31, 1966, he designated Rostow and [[Bill Moyers]] within four days as Bundy's replacement on the 303 Committee; The [[New York Times]] reported on April 1 that the President seemed "reluctant to put in the hands of one man the kind of power within Government that Mr. Bundy had."[^19] ### Bay of Pigs -On the evening of April 16, 1961, Bundy telephoned the CIA deputy director [[Charles P. Cabell|C.P. Cabell]]. The Cuba Study Group's June 13, 1961 narrative for President Kennedy states that at about 9:30 p.m. Bundy "telephoned General C.P. Cabell of CIA to inform him that the dawn air strikes the following morning should not be launched until they could be conducted from a strip within the beachhead," and that further consultation "should be with the Secretary of State."[^8] Cabell's own memorandum of May 9, 1961 records that "I was called in the CIA headquarters for the Cuban operation by the Special Assistant to the President, Mr. McGeorge Bundy," who "notified me that we would not be permitted to launch air strikes the next morning until they could be conducted from a strip within the beachhead." [[Richard Bissell]] joined Cabell at the office of Secretary of State [[Dean Rusk]], where both arrived at about 10:15 p.m.[^16] In a memorandum to Kennedy of September 1, 1961, Bundy wrote: "I made it very clear to Cabell and Bissell on Sunday evening that if they disagreed, you would be willing to hear arguments from them."[^16] +On the evening of April 16, 1961, Bundy telephoned the CIA deputy director [[Charles P. Cabell|C.P. Cabell]]. The Cuba Study Group's June 13, 1961 narrative for President Kennedy states that at about 9:30 p.m. Bundy "telephoned General C.P. Cabell of CIA to inform him that the dawn air strikes the following morning should not be launched until they could be conducted from a strip within the beachhead," and that further consultation "should be with the Secretary of State."[^12] Cabell's own memorandum of May 9, 1961 records that "I was called in the CIA headquarters for the Cuban operation by the Special Assistant to the President, Mr. McGeorge Bundy," who "notified me that we would not be permitted to launch air strikes the next morning until they could be conducted from a strip within the beachhead." [[Richard Bissell]] joined Cabell at the office of Secretary of State [[Dean Rusk]], where both arrived at about 10:15 p.m.[^20] In a memorandum to Kennedy of September 1, 1961, Bundy wrote: "I made it very clear to Cabell and Bissell on Sunday evening that if they disagreed, you would be willing to hear arguments from them."[^20] ### Operation Mongoose -The Church Committee recorded that Bundy "participated in the planning that led to the creation of [[Operation Mongoose|Operation MONGOOSE]]." He was also a member of the [[NSC Special Group|Special Group (Augmented)]], the body that oversaw the program.[^1] The March 1962 guidelines for the program were "revised slightly in response to suggestions made by McGeorge Bundy and McCone," and they stated that "The Special Group (5412 augmented) is responsible for providing policy guidance to the project, for approving important operations and for monitoring progress."[^17] +The Church Committee recorded that Bundy "participated in the planning that led to the creation of [[Operation Mongoose|Operation MONGOOSE]]." He was also a member of the [[NSC Special Group|Special Group (Augmented)]], the body that oversaw the program.[^1] The March 1962 guidelines for the program were "revised slightly in response to suggestions made by McGeorge Bundy and McCone," and they stated that "The Special Group (5412 augmented) is responsible for providing policy guidance to the project, for approving important operations and for monitoring progress."[^21] -Bundy's handwritten notes of a Special Group (Augmented) meeting on February 26 read, at one point, "[[Edward Lansdale|Lansdale]] Project: Consensus is that we are in no position to say when U.S. commitment."[^18] On October 5, 1961, Bundy issued NSAM 100, "Contingency Planning for [[Cuba]]," addressed to the Secretary of State.[^19] +Bundy's handwritten notes of a Special Group (Augmented) meeting on February 26 read, at one point, "[[Edward Lansdale|Lansdale]] Project: Consensus is that we are in no position to say when U.S. commitment."[^22] On October 5, 1961, Bundy issued NSAM 100, "Contingency Planning for [[Cuba]]," addressed to the Secretary of State.[^23] -On March 29, 1962, Bundy met members of the [[Cuban Revolutionary Council]], [[José Miró Cardona]] and [[Antonio de Varona]], who urged that the council be given the means to invade Cuba. Bundy replied that if the United States supported any military action against [[Fidel Castro|Castro]], "such action must be decisive and complete."[^20] +On March 29, 1962, Bundy met members of the [[Cuban Revolutionary Council]], [[José Miró Cardona]] and [[Antonio de Varona]], who urged that the council be given the means to invade Cuba. Bundy replied that if the United States supported any military action against [[Fidel Castro|Castro]], "such action must be decisive and complete."[^24] -Bundy testified before the Church Committee that it was his "conviction" that "no one in the Kennedy Administration, in the White House, or in the cabinet, ever gave any authorization, approval, or instruction of any kind for any effort to assassinate anyone by the CIA." The committee's account records that Bissell and Bundy were personal friends, and that Bissell testified he never told Bundy about the plot, a fact Bundy confirmed.[^21] Earlier in the administration Bissell had discussed with Bundy a "capability" for "executive action," a term Bissell said included various means of "eliminating the effectiveness" of foreign leaders, including assassination.[^22] In later testimony Bissell said he "merely informed Bundy of the capability," and Bundy "said he received a briefing and gave no urging, though he raised no objections."[^23] +Bundy testified before the Church Committee that it was his "conviction" that "no one in the Kennedy Administration, in the White House, or in the cabinet, ever gave any authorization, approval, or instruction of any kind for any effort to assassinate anyone by the CIA." The committee's account records that Bissell and Bundy were personal friends, and that Bissell testified he never told Bundy about the plot, a fact Bundy confirmed.[^25] Earlier in the administration Bissell had discussed with Bundy a "capability" for "executive action," a term Bissell said included various means of "eliminating the effectiveness" of foreign leaders, including assassination.[^26] In later testimony Bissell said he "merely informed Bundy of the capability," and Bundy "said he received a briefing and gave no urging, though he raised no objections."[^27] ### Middle East -[[Seymour M. Hersh]] wrote that Bundy tried to cut [[Myer Feldman]] out of the flow of [[Middle East]] paperwork because of Feldman's strong pro-Israel bias, which Hersh said often produced bureaucratic chaos within the [[White House]] staff. Hersh also wrote that Bundy was suspicious of Feldman and anxious about other Jewish National Security Council staff members who handled Israeli issues.[^24] Hersh reported that [[Robert W. Komer]] recalled that Bundy had a standing rule not to send anything to Feldman, because Feldman was involved in issues where he had no business, and that it was hard to tell the difference between what Feldman said and what the Israeli ambassador said.[^24] +[[Seymour M. Hersh]] wrote that Bundy tried to cut [[Myer Feldman]] out of the flow of [[Middle East]] paperwork because of Feldman's strong pro-Israel bias, which Hersh said often produced bureaucratic chaos within the [[White House]] staff. Hersh also wrote that Bundy was suspicious of Feldman and anxious about other Jewish National Security Council staff members who handled Israeli issues.[^28] Hersh reported that [[Robert W. Komer]] recalled that Bundy had a standing rule not to send anything to Feldman, because Feldman was involved in issues where he had no business, and that it was hard to tell the difference between what Feldman said and what the Israeli ambassador said.[^28] -In a December 22, 1969 oral history for the [[John F. Kennedy Presidential Library]], Komer said: "Bundy, I have reason to believe, always played it square with Mike in clueing him when he was going to send up a recommendation from State." He said Feldman "didn't have any of the intelligence clearances" and that "Kennedy and Bundy didn't give them to him," and, asked whether Feldman was used to communicate with the American Jewish community, answered that "That was a constant maneuver on Bundy's part as well as mine."[^25] +In a December 22, 1969 oral history for the [[John F. Kennedy Presidential Library]], Komer said: "Bundy, I have reason to believe, always played it square with Mike in clueing him when he was going to send up a recommendation from State." He said Feldman "didn't have any of the intelligence clearances" and that "Kennedy and Bundy didn't give them to him," and, asked whether Feldman was used to communicate with the American Jewish community, answered that "That was a constant maneuver on Bundy's part as well as mine."[^29] -On June 7, 1967, after the [[Six-Day War]] began, Johnson named Bundy, who took a leave of absence from the Ford Foundation, Executive Secretary of a Special Committee of the National Security Council to coordinate United States policy in the Middle East; the committee ended its formal work in mid-August.[^26] +On June 7, 1967, after the [[Six-Day War]] began, Johnson named Bundy, who took a leave of absence from the Ford Foundation, Executive Secretary of a Special Committee of the National Security Council to coordinate United States policy in the Middle East; the committee ended its formal work in mid-August.[^30] ### NSAM 273 -On November 20, 1963, officials met in [[Honolulu]] on Vietnam. Bundy wrote the first draft of National Security Action Memorandum 273 and sent copies to [[Roger Hilsman]] and William P. Bundy; the editors of the Foreign Relations series state that his draft was almost identical to the final paper, the major exception being paragraph 7, which in Bundy's draft read: "With respect to action against North Vietnam, there should be a detailed plan for the development of additional Government of Vietnam resources, especially for sea-going activity, and such planning should indicate the time and investment necessary to achieve a wholly new level of effectiveness in this field of action. (Action: DOD and CIA)." Hilsman answered on November 23 that the draft was "fine."[^27] +On November 20, 1963, officials met in [[Honolulu]] on Vietnam. Bundy wrote the first draft of National Security Action Memorandum 273 and sent copies to [[Roger Hilsman]] and William P. Bundy; the editors of the Foreign Relations series state that his draft was almost identical to the final paper, the major exception being paragraph 7, which in Bundy's draft read: "With respect to action against North Vietnam, there should be a detailed plan for the development of additional Government of Vietnam resources, especially for sea-going activity, and such planning should indicate the time and investment necessary to achieve a wholly new level of effectiveness in this field of action. (Action: DOD and CIA)." Hilsman answered on November 23 that the draft was "fine."[^31] -At 3 p.m. on November 24, 1963, Johnson met Rusk, [[Robert S. McNamara]], [[George Ball]], Bundy, McCone and Ambassador [[Henry Cabot Lodge]] on South Vietnam.[^28] The memorandum issued on November 26, 1963 over Bundy's signature to the Secretary of State, the Secretary of Defense, the Director of Central Intelligence, the Administrator of the [[Agency for International Development|AID]] and the Director of the United States Information Agency stated that the President had reviewed the Honolulu discussions and "has discussed the matter further with Ambassador Lodge." Its paragraph 7 read: "Planning should include different levels of possible increased activity, and in each instance there should be estimates of such factors as: A. Resulting damage to North Vietnam; B. The plausibility of denial; C. Possible North Vietnamese retaliation; D. Other international reaction."[^27] +At 3 p.m. on November 24, 1963, Johnson met Rusk, [[Robert S. McNamara]], [[George Ball]], Bundy, McCone and Ambassador [[Henry Cabot Lodge]] on South Vietnam.[^32] The memorandum issued on November 26, 1963 over Bundy's signature to the Secretary of State, the Secretary of Defense, the Director of Central Intelligence, the Administrator of the [[Agency for International Development|AID]] and the Director of the United States Information Agency stated that the President had reviewed the Honolulu discussions and "has discussed the matter further with Ambassador Lodge." Its paragraph 7 read: "Planning should include different levels of possible increased activity, and in each instance there should be estimates of such factors as: A. Resulting damage to North Vietnam; B. The plausibility of denial; C. Possible North Vietnamese retaliation; D. Other international reaction."[^31] ### Assassination of Kennedy -The Church Committee recorded that on the morning of November 23, 1963, McCone met with Johnson and Bundy to brief them on information that CIA Headquarters had received from its Mexico Station about [[Lee Harvey Oswald]]'s September 1963 visit to [[Mexico City]], and that McCone met the President and Bundy again on December 1 and December 2, 1963; the memorandum of the December 1 meeting indicates they again discussed the story of "D."[^11] +The Church Committee recorded that on the morning of November 23, 1963, McCone met with Johnson and Bundy to brief them on information that CIA Headquarters had received from its Mexico Station about [[Lee Harvey Oswald]]'s September 1963 visit to [[Mexico City]], and that McCone met the President and Bundy again on December 1 and December 2, 1963; the memorandum of the December 1 meeting indicates they again discussed the story of "D."[^15] ### Brazil -At a meeting on March 28, 1964, which discussed Ambassador [[Lincoln Gordon]]'s message of March 27 on [[Brazil]], the group discussed the situation involving [[Joao Goulart]] and the Brazilian military, and Bundy said "we should be worrying that the military will not react." The participants included [[Richard Helms]] and [[Desmond FitzGerald]].[^29] +At a meeting on March 28, 1964, which discussed Ambassador [[Lincoln Gordon]]'s message of March 27 on [[Brazil]], the group discussed the situation involving [[Joao Goulart]] and the Brazilian military, and Bundy said "we should be worrying that the military will not react." The participants included [[Richard Helms]] and [[Desmond FitzGerald]].[^33] ### Vietnam -On February 7, 1965, writing en route from [[Saigon]] to [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]], Bundy sent President Johnson a memorandum on the situation in [[Vietnam]]; he met the President from 10:48 to 11:25 p.m. that day. Its annex, "A Policy of Sustained Reprisal," opened: "We believe that the best available way of increasing our chance of success in Vietnam is the development and execution of a policy of sustained reprisal against North Vietnam." The annex added that "we may wish at the outset to relate our reprisals to those acts of relatively high visibility."[^2][^30] +On February 7, 1965, writing en route from [[Saigon]] to [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]], Bundy sent President Johnson a memorandum on the situation in [[Vietnam]]; he met the President from 10:48 to 11:25 p.m. that day. Its annex, "A Policy of Sustained Reprisal," opened: "We believe that the best available way of increasing our chance of success in Vietnam is the development and execution of a policy of sustained reprisal against North Vietnam." The annex added that "we may wish at the outset to relate our reprisals to those acts of relatively high visibility."[^2][^34] ### FBI and CIA domestic programs -In 1961 [[J. Edgar Hoover]] sent Bundy a report of the Interdepartmental Intelligence Conference on the status of internal security programs.[^31] In April 1965 Bundy asked the FBI for information concerning the Communist role in criticism of American policy in Vietnam; the following day Hoover met the President, and Hoover's account of the meeting refers to "the request he had made through Honorable McGeorge Bundy at the White House" for an over-all memorandum on the Vietnam demonstrations and communist influence in the same.[^32] +In 1961 [[J. Edgar Hoover]] sent Bundy a report of the Interdepartmental Intelligence Conference on the status of internal security programs.[^35] In April 1965 Bundy asked the FBI for information concerning the Communist role in criticism of American policy in Vietnam; the following day Hoover met the President, and Hoover's account of the meeting refers to "the request he had made through Honorable McGeorge Bundy at the White House" for an over-all memorandum on the Vietnam demonstrations and communist influence in the same.[^36] -In 1965, after the Long Subcommittee hearings on mail covers raised concern at the CIA about discovery of its New York mail-opening project, [[Thomas Karamessines]], then Acting Deputy Director for Plans, "gave instructions that steps should be taken to arrange to pass through McGeorge Bundy to the President after the subcommittee has completed its investigation." The Church Committee found that Bundy "does not recall ever having been informed of the project," that neither Karamessines nor Helms knew of any attempt to inform him, and that there is no documentary record of one.[^33] +In 1965, after the Long Subcommittee hearings on mail covers raised concern at the CIA about discovery of its New York mail-opening project, [[Thomas Karamessines]], then Acting Deputy Director for Plans, "gave instructions that steps should be taken to arrange to pass through McGeorge Bundy to the President after the subcommittee has completed its investigation." The Church Committee found that Bundy "does not recall ever having been informed of the project," that neither Karamessines nor Helms knew of any attempt to inform him, and that there is no documentary record of one.[^37] ### Ford Foundation -[[John J. McCloy]] offered Bundy the Ford Foundation presidency on November 7, 1965, and Bundy reported the offer to Johnson the next day. A report by Garnett D. Horner in the Washington Star of December 8, 1965 gave the presidency's salary as 75,000 dollars a year, against his White House salary of 28,500 dollars.[^34] In a memorandum of December 4, 1965, Bundy told Johnson that he had asked the Ford trustees to let him accept "on the understanding that I shall always be free to accept any special assignments from you," that [[Julius A. Stratton|Jay Stratton]], McCloy's successor, had agreed in the name of the trustees,[^35] and that he would stay in the White House through February 1966; McCloy, for the foundation, had accepted the delay on November 29.[^36] On November 13, 1965, Johnson asked Under Secretary of State [[Thomas C. Mann]] about "Bill Bundy to succeed his brother."[^37] The [[Harvard Crimson]] reported on November 15, 1965 that McCloy, the foundation's chairman, approached Bundy in Washington about succeeding [[Henry T. Heald]] as president beginning January 1, and that Stratton, MIT's president, would succeed McCloy as chairman; as a trustee Stratton had been consulted on the selection of presidential candidates and had supported Bundy as the best man for the job.[^38] +[[John J. McCloy]] offered Bundy the Ford Foundation presidency on November 7, 1965, and Bundy reported the offer to Johnson the next day. A report by Garnett D. Horner in the Washington Star of December 8, 1965 gave the presidency's salary as 75,000 dollars a year, against his White House salary of 28,500 dollars.[^38] In a memorandum of December 4, 1965, Bundy told Johnson that he had asked the Ford trustees to let him accept "on the understanding that I shall always be free to accept any special assignments from you," that [[Julius A. Stratton|Jay Stratton]], McCloy's successor, had agreed in the name of the trustees,[^39] and that he would stay in the White House through February 1966; McCloy, for the foundation, had accepted the delay on November 29.[^40] On November 13, 1965, Johnson asked Under Secretary of State [[Thomas C. Mann]] about "Bill Bundy to succeed his brother."[^41] The [[Harvard Crimson]] reported on November 15, 1965 that McCloy, the foundation's chairman, approached Bundy in Washington about succeeding [[Henry T. Heald]] as president beginning January 1, and that Stratton, MIT's president, would succeed McCloy as chairman; as a trustee Stratton had been consulted on the selection of presidential candidates and had supported Bundy as the best man for the job.[^42] -In October 1966 the FBI learned that [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] had met with Bundy, "then Director of the Ford Foundation," and had received a tentative offer of a grant for the [[Southern Christian Leadership Conference]]. The FBI's Domestic Intelligence Division decided that if the foundation's officials were briefed on King's advisers "this might preclude any assistance being granted," and Hoover approved a plan to have a former FBI agent, then a vice-president of the [[Ford Motor Company]], approach Bundy. In a memorandum of October 26, 1966, [[Cartha DeLoach]] reported that Bundy had refused to talk with the former agent about King, saying he would only talk with a person having first-hand knowledge; Hoover wrote on the memorandum, "Yes. We would get no where with Bundy."[^39] +In October 1966 the FBI learned that [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] had met with Bundy, "then Director of the Ford Foundation," and had received a tentative offer of a grant for the [[Southern Christian Leadership Conference]]. The FBI's Domestic Intelligence Division decided that if the foundation's officials were briefed on King's advisers "this might preclude any assistance being granted," and Hoover approved a plan to have a former FBI agent, then a vice-president of the [[Ford Motor Company]], approach Bundy. In a memorandum of October 26, 1966, [[Cartha DeLoach]] reported that Bundy had refused to talk with the former agent about King, saying he would only talk with a person having first-hand knowledge; Hoover wrote on the memorandum, "Yes. We would get no where with Bundy."[^43] -On September 23, 1966 Bundy wrote to Julius A. Stratton, then chairman of the board of trustees, that the foundation would make a grant of 7,000,000 dollars to the [[Congress for Cultural Freedom]] over six years. "It may raise a few eyebrows among those who know or think they know the previous financial history of the Congress," he wrote, "but it is the right thing to do at the right time."[^40] The foundation's annual report for 1966 records a grant of 1.5 million dollars in further support of the Congress, with a new board of trustees headed by [[Raymond Aron]].[^41] +On September 23, 1966 Bundy wrote to Julius A. Stratton, then chairman of the board of trustees, that the foundation would make a grant of 7,000,000 dollars to the [[Congress for Cultural Freedom]] over six years. "It may raise a few eyebrows among those who know or think they know the previous financial history of the Congress," he wrote, "but it is the right thing to do at the right time."[^44] The foundation's annual report for 1966 records a grant of 1.5 million dollars in further support of the Congress, with a new board of trustees headed by [[Raymond Aron]].[^45] ### William P. Bundy -William P. Bundy, McGeorge Bundy's brother, was Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs in November 1965.[^42] He joined the Central Intelligence Agency's Office of National Estimates in 1951 as chief of staff and liaison to the National Security Council staff, and served on the board of directors of the Council on Foreign Relations from 1964 to 1972.[^43] +William P. Bundy, McGeorge Bundy's brother, was Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs in November 1965.[^46] He joined the Central Intelligence Agency's Office of National Estimates in 1951 as chief of staff and liaison to the National Security Council staff, and served on the board of directors of the Council on Foreign Relations from 1964 to 1972.[^47] ### Footnotes @@ -151,42 +162,46 @@ William P. Bundy, McGeorge Bundy's brother, was Assistant Secretary of State for [^2]: McGeorge Bundy, memorandum to President Lyndon B. Johnson, "The Situation in Vietnam," with Annex A, "A Policy of Sustained Reprisal," February 7, 1965, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. II, doc. 84 (source note: Bundy met the President from 10:48 to 11:25 p.m. on February 7), https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v02/d84 [^3]: "Mac Bundy," *The Harvard Crimson*, November 10, 1956, https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1956/11/10/mac-bundy-pwhen-mcgeorge-bundy-became/ [^4]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. -[^5]: Council on Foreign Relations, "Celebrating a Century: Changing Membership," entry for McGeorge Bundy ("Joined in 1946"), https://www.cfr.org/celebrating-a-century/changing-membership -[^6]: Kai Bird, excerpt from *The Color of Truth: McGeorge Bundy and William Bundy: Brothers in Arms* (Simon & Schuster, 1998), "Open Book: Dean Bundy Deals with McCarthyism," *Harvard Magazine*, https://www.harvardmagazine.com/so98/browse.open2.html -[^7]: Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression, "Harvard's Troubled History with Free Association, Part 2" (summarizing Sigmund Diamond's 1977 and Robert Bellah's accounts in *The New York Review of Books*, including the Bellah quotations, and Leon Kamin's account), https://www.fire.org/harvards-troubled-history-with-free-association-part-2/ -[^8]: Memorandum No. 1 from the Cuba Study Group to President Kennedy, "Narrative of the Anti-Castro Cuban Operation Zapata," June 13, 1961, paragraph 43 and footnote on the Special Group, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. X, doc. 231, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d231 -[^9]: Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Final Report*, Book I, *Foreign and Military Intelligence*, S. Rept. 94-755 (1976), Part II, sections on the National Security Council and the Special Group (chairmanship 1961 to 1966; NSAM 124; Special Group (Augmented)), and the section on maintaining a covert capability quoting Bundy's House Select Committee on Intelligence testimony of December 10, 1975, Hearings, vol. 5, pp. 1794-1795, https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_I.pdf -[^10]: Paper prepared by the Central Intelligence Agency, "Coordination and Policy Approval of Covert Operations," February 23, 1967 (Appendix C to the report of the Katzenbach Committee), paragraph A.7, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. XXXIII, doc. 263, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v33/d263 -[^11]: Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Final Report*, Book V, *The Investigation of the Assassination of President Kennedy: Performance of the Intelligence Agencies*, S. Rept. 94-755 (1976), sections on the CIA's Cuba operations in 1963, the November 23 McCone briefing, and the chronology for December 1 and 2, 1963, https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_V.pdf -[^12]: Memorandum from Peter Jessup of the National Security Council staff to Bundy, "Proposed Name Change for Special Group (5412)," May 19, 1964, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. XXXIII, doc. 203, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v33/d203 -[^13]: National Security Action Memorandum No. 303, June 2, 1964, with editorial footnote on the undated membership list, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. XXXIII, doc. 204, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v33/d204 -[^14]: Draft memorandum from the Executive Secretary of the National Security Council (Smith) to President Johnson, "Need for White House Representation on 303 Committee," March 24, 1966, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. XXXIII, doc. 249, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v33/d249 -[^15]: Editorial note on the appointment of Walt W. Rostow, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. XXXIII, doc. 164, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v33/d164 -[^16]: Memorandum from the Deputy Director of Central Intelligence (Cabell) to General Maxwell D. Taylor, "Cuban Operation," May 9, 1961, paragraphs 1 to 3, with editorial footnote quoting Bundy's memorandum to Kennedy of September 1, 1961, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. X, doc. 108, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d108 -[^17]: "Guidelines for Operation Mongoose," with editorial note, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. X, doc. 314, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d314 -[^18]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. X, doc. 307, footnote citing Kennedy Library, National Security Files, Meetings and Memoranda Series, Special Group (Augmented), Operation Mongoose, 2/62 to 4/62, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d307 -[^19]: Senate Select Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, S. Rept. 94-465 (1975), p. 136 (NSAM 100, October 5, 1961), https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94465.pdf -[^20]: Memorandum of conversation, March 29, 1962, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. X, doc. 317, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d317 -[^21]: Senate Select Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, S. Rept. 94-465 (1975), p. 119 (Bundy testimony of July 11, 1975, pp. 41, 54, 63; Bissell testimony), https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94465.pdf -[^22]: Senate Select Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, S. Rept. 94-465 (1975), p. 121 (Bissell testimony of July 22, 1975, p. 32), https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94465.pdf -[^23]: Senate Select Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, S. Rept. 94-465 (1975), pp. 182 to 183, https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94465.pdf -[^24]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), ch. 8. -[^25]: Robert W. Komer, recorded interview by Dennis J. O'Brien, December 22, 1969, JFK #5, pp. 38 to 39 (Feldman as minorities adviser; Bundy "played it square"), p. 81 (intelligence clearances), p. 82 (communicating with the Jewish community), John F. Kennedy Library Oral History Program, https://www.jfklibrary.org/asset-viewer/archives/jfkoh-rowk-05 -[^26]: Editorial note on the Special Committee of the National Security Council, June 7, 1967, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. XXXIII, doc. 178, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v33/d178 -[^27]: National Security Action Memorandum No. 273, November 26, 1963, with editorial note on the Bundy draft and Hilsman's reply of November 23, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, doc. 331, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d331 -[^28]: Memorandum for the Record of meeting, November 24, 1963, 3 p.m. (drafted by McCone), *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, doc. 330, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d330 -[^29]: Memorandum of conversation, March 28, 1964, National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book 465, document 11, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB465/docs/Document%2011%20brazilnscdocument.pdf -[^30]: *Pentagon Papers*, Part IV.C.3, reproduction of the February 7, 1965 Bundy memorandum with Annex A, https://archive.org/details/204285-pentagon-papers-part-iv-c-3 -[^31]: Senate Select Committee, *Final Report*, Book III, *Supplementary Detailed Staff Reports on Intelligence Activities and the Rights of Americans*, S. Rept. 94-755 (1976), p. 465 (Hoover to Bundy, July 25, 1961, enclosing Interdepartmental Intelligence Conference report), https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_III.pdf -[^32]: Senate Select Committee, *Final Report*, Book III, S. Rept. 94-755 (1976), p. 483 (April 1965 request and Hoover's account), https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_III.pdf -[^33]: Senate Select Committee, *Final Report*, Book III, S. Rept. 94-755 (1976), chapter on CIA mail opening, section "1965 Proposal to Inform President Johnson" (citing Karamessines testimony of October 8, 1975 and a staff summary of a Bundy interview of April 19, 1976), https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_III.pdf -[^34]: Garnett D. Horner, Star staff writer, Washington Star, December 8, 1965, on Johnson's acceptance of Bundy's resignation effective February 28, 1966 and Bundy's move to the Ford Foundation presidency at $75,000 a year, against his $28,500 White House salary (CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP75-00149R000100560005-8). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00149r000100560005-8 -[^35]: Ford Foundation, "Annual Report 1965," opening review (McCloy retiring December 31, 1965; Julius A. Stratton, president of MIT and a trustee since 1955, elected chairman) https://www.fordfoundation.org/media/2435/1965-annual-report.pdf; Langenkamp, note 67 (Julius A. Stratton, chair of the Board of Trustees, September 23, 1966); FRUS 1964-1968, vol. XXXIII, document 159 (December 4, 1965, "his successor, Jay Stratton"). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v33/d159 -[^36]: Memorandum from Bundy to President Johnson, "Letter of resignation," December 4, 1965, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. XXXIII, doc. 159, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v33/d159 -[^37]: Memorandum of telephone conversation between President Johnson and Under Secretary of State Mann, November 13, 1965, 12:15 p.m., *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. XXXIII, doc. 157, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v33/d157 -[^38]: "Bundy, Bell Up for Key Posts," *The Harvard Crimson*, November 15, 1965, https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1965/11/15/bundy-bell-up-for-key-posts/ -[^39]: Senate Select Committee, *Final Report*, Book III, S. Rept. 94-755 (1976), p. 178 (October 1966 FBI plan concerning a Ford Foundation grant to the Southern Christian Leadership Conference; DeLoach memorandum of October 26, 1966), https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_III.pdf -[^40]: Langenkamp, "A Most Interesting and Complex Involvement," Rockefeller Archive Center Research Reports (2021), p. 16 and note 67, citing Bundy to Julius A. Stratton, chair of the Board of Trustees, September 23, 1966 (Rockefeller Archive Center, Francis X. Sutton Papers, FA1141, Box 50, Folder 465). https://rockarch.issuelab.org/resources/38323/38323.pdf -[^41]: Ford Foundation, "Annual Report 1966" (fiscal year ended September 30, 1966), International Affairs section, p. 34. https://www.fordfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/1966-annual-report.pdf -[^42]: Memorandum from Gordon Chase to Bundy, "World Disarmament Conference," November 20, 1965, footnote identifying "your brother William Bundy, Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs," *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. XXXIII, doc. 373, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v33/d373 -[^43]: William P. Bundy Papers (MC189), Biography/History, Public Policy Papers, Princeton University Library, https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/PRIN_MUDD_MC189 +[^5]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1939 (Bundy, William Putman) and class of 1940 (Bundy, McGeorge). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^6]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on the Bundy brothers and the Vietnam information environment, where the book states its own hypothesis. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^7]: Council on Foreign Relations, "Celebrating a Century: Changing Membership," entry for McGeorge Bundy ("Joined in 1946"), https://www.cfr.org/celebrating-a-century/changing-membership +[^8]: Henry L. Stimson and McGeorge Bundy, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1948), Introduction by Henry L. Stimson, p. xi. +[^9]: Stimson and Bundy, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), "A Note of Explanation and Acknowledgment" by McGeorge Bundy, pp. 673 to 674. +[^10]: Kai Bird, excerpt from *The Color of Truth: McGeorge Bundy and William Bundy: Brothers in Arms* (Simon & Schuster, 1998), "Open Book: Dean Bundy Deals with McCarthyism," *Harvard Magazine*, https://www.harvardmagazine.com/so98/browse.open2.html +[^11]: Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression, "Harvard's Troubled History with Free Association, Part 2" (summarizing Sigmund Diamond's 1977 and Robert Bellah's accounts in *The New York Review of Books*, including the Bellah quotations, and Leon Kamin's account), https://www.fire.org/harvards-troubled-history-with-free-association-part-2/ +[^12]: Memorandum No. 1 from the Cuba Study Group to President Kennedy, "Narrative of the Anti-Castro Cuban Operation Zapata," June 13, 1961, paragraph 43 and footnote on the Special Group, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. X, doc. 231, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d231 +[^13]: Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Final Report*, Book I, *Foreign and Military Intelligence*, S. Rept. 94-755 (1976), Part II, sections on the National Security Council and the Special Group (chairmanship 1961 to 1966; NSAM 124; Special Group (Augmented)), and the section on maintaining a covert capability quoting Bundy's House Select Committee on Intelligence testimony of December 10, 1975, Hearings, vol. 5, pp. 1794-1795, https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_I.pdf +[^14]: Paper prepared by the Central Intelligence Agency, "Coordination and Policy Approval of Covert Operations," February 23, 1967 (Appendix C to the report of the Katzenbach Committee), paragraph A.7, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. XXXIII, doc. 263, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v33/d263 +[^15]: Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Final Report*, Book V, *The Investigation of the Assassination of President Kennedy: Performance of the Intelligence Agencies*, S. Rept. 94-755 (1976), sections on the CIA's Cuba operations in 1963, the November 23 McCone briefing, and the chronology for December 1 and 2, 1963, https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_V.pdf +[^16]: Memorandum from Peter Jessup of the National Security Council staff to Bundy, "Proposed Name Change for Special Group (5412)," May 19, 1964, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. XXXIII, doc. 203, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v33/d203 +[^17]: National Security Action Memorandum No. 303, June 2, 1964, with editorial footnote on the undated membership list, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. XXXIII, doc. 204, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v33/d204 +[^18]: Draft memorandum from the Executive Secretary of the National Security Council (Smith) to President Johnson, "Need for White House Representation on 303 Committee," March 24, 1966, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. XXXIII, doc. 249, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v33/d249 +[^19]: Editorial note on the appointment of Walt W. Rostow, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. XXXIII, doc. 164, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v33/d164 +[^20]: Memorandum from the Deputy Director of Central Intelligence (Cabell) to General Maxwell D. Taylor, "Cuban Operation," May 9, 1961, paragraphs 1 to 3, with editorial footnote quoting Bundy's memorandum to Kennedy of September 1, 1961, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. X, doc. 108, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d108 +[^21]: "Guidelines for Operation Mongoose," with editorial note, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. X, doc. 314, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d314 +[^22]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. X, doc. 307, footnote citing Kennedy Library, National Security Files, Meetings and Memoranda Series, Special Group (Augmented), Operation Mongoose, 2/62 to 4/62, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d307 +[^23]: Senate Select Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, S. Rept. 94-465 (1975), p. 136 (NSAM 100, October 5, 1961), https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94465.pdf +[^24]: Memorandum of conversation, March 29, 1962, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. X, doc. 317, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d317 +[^25]: Senate Select Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, S. Rept. 94-465 (1975), p. 119 (Bundy testimony of July 11, 1975, pp. 41, 54, 63; Bissell testimony), https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94465.pdf +[^26]: Senate Select Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, S. Rept. 94-465 (1975), p. 121 (Bissell testimony of July 22, 1975, p. 32), https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94465.pdf +[^27]: Senate Select Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, S. Rept. 94-465 (1975), pp. 182 to 183, https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94465.pdf +[^28]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), ch. 8. +[^29]: Robert W. Komer, recorded interview by Dennis J. O'Brien, December 22, 1969, JFK #5, pp. 38 to 39 (Feldman as minorities adviser; Bundy "played it square"), p. 81 (intelligence clearances), p. 82 (communicating with the Jewish community), John F. Kennedy Library Oral History Program, https://www.jfklibrary.org/asset-viewer/archives/jfkoh-rowk-05 +[^30]: Editorial note on the Special Committee of the National Security Council, June 7, 1967, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. XXXIII, doc. 178, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v33/d178 +[^31]: National Security Action Memorandum No. 273, November 26, 1963, with editorial note on the Bundy draft and Hilsman's reply of November 23, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, doc. 331, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d331 +[^32]: Memorandum for the Record of meeting, November 24, 1963, 3 p.m. (drafted by McCone), *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, doc. 330, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d330 +[^33]: Memorandum of conversation, March 28, 1964, National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book 465, document 11, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB465/docs/Document%2011%20brazilnscdocument.pdf +[^34]: *Pentagon Papers*, Part IV.C.3, reproduction of the February 7, 1965 Bundy memorandum with Annex A, https://archive.org/details/204285-pentagon-papers-part-iv-c-3 +[^35]: Senate Select Committee, *Final Report*, Book III, *Supplementary Detailed Staff Reports on Intelligence Activities and the Rights of Americans*, S. Rept. 94-755 (1976), p. 465 (Hoover to Bundy, July 25, 1961, enclosing Interdepartmental Intelligence Conference report), https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_III.pdf +[^36]: Senate Select Committee, *Final Report*, Book III, S. Rept. 94-755 (1976), p. 483 (April 1965 request and Hoover's account), https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_III.pdf +[^37]: Senate Select Committee, *Final Report*, Book III, S. Rept. 94-755 (1976), chapter on CIA mail opening, section "1965 Proposal to Inform President Johnson" (citing Karamessines testimony of October 8, 1975 and a staff summary of a Bundy interview of April 19, 1976), https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_III.pdf +[^38]: Garnett D. Horner, Star staff writer, Washington Star, December 8, 1965, on Johnson's acceptance of Bundy's resignation effective February 28, 1966 and Bundy's move to the Ford Foundation presidency at $75,000 a year, against his $28,500 White House salary (CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP75-00149R000100560005-8). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00149r000100560005-8 +[^39]: Ford Foundation, "Annual Report 1965," opening review (McCloy retiring December 31, 1965; Julius A. Stratton, president of MIT and a trustee since 1955, elected chairman) https://www.fordfoundation.org/media/2435/1965-annual-report.pdf; Langenkamp, note 67 (Julius A. Stratton, chair of the Board of Trustees, September 23, 1966); FRUS 1964-1968, vol. XXXIII, document 159 (December 4, 1965, "his successor, Jay Stratton"). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v33/d159 +[^40]: Memorandum from Bundy to President Johnson, "Letter of resignation," December 4, 1965, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. XXXIII, doc. 159, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v33/d159 +[^41]: Memorandum of telephone conversation between President Johnson and Under Secretary of State Mann, November 13, 1965, 12:15 p.m., *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. XXXIII, doc. 157, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v33/d157 +[^42]: "Bundy, Bell Up for Key Posts," *The Harvard Crimson*, November 15, 1965, https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1965/11/15/bundy-bell-up-for-key-posts/ +[^43]: Senate Select Committee, *Final Report*, Book III, S. Rept. 94-755 (1976), p. 178 (October 1966 FBI plan concerning a Ford Foundation grant to the Southern Christian Leadership Conference; DeLoach memorandum of October 26, 1966), https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_III.pdf +[^44]: Langenkamp, "A Most Interesting and Complex Involvement," Rockefeller Archive Center Research Reports (2021), p. 16 and note 67, citing Bundy to Julius A. Stratton, chair of the Board of Trustees, September 23, 1966 (Rockefeller Archive Center, Francis X. Sutton Papers, FA1141, Box 50, Folder 465). https://rockarch.issuelab.org/resources/38323/38323.pdf +[^45]: Ford Foundation, "Annual Report 1966" (fiscal year ended September 30, 1966), International Affairs section, p. 34. https://www.fordfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/1966-annual-report.pdf +[^46]: Memorandum from Gordon Chase to Bundy, "World Disarmament Conference," November 20, 1965, footnote identifying "your brother William Bundy, Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs," *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. XXXIII, doc. 373, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v33/d373 +[^47]: William P. Bundy Papers (MC189), Biography/History, Public Policy Papers, Princeton University Library, https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/PRIN_MUDD_MC189 diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Prescott Bush.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Prescott Bush.md new file mode 100644 index 00000000..eafd7217 --- /dev/null +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Prescott Bush.md @@ -0,0 +1,266 @@ +--- +title: Prescott Bush +aliases: + - Prescott Bush + - Prescott S. Bush + - Prescott Sheldon Bush +category: "Political Figure" +tags: + - Person + - UnitedStatesSenate + - Connecticut + - BrownBrothersHarriman + - UnionBankingCorporation + - ThyssenNetwork + - AlienPropertyCustodian + - TradingWithTheEnemyAct + - SkullAndBones + - Geronimo + - PlannedParenthood + - McCarthyCensure + - NationalWarFund + - USO + - CIA + - BushFamily + - Yale + - WorldWarII +summary: "Investment banker and Republican senator from Connecticut from 1952 to 1963, a Yale 1917 member of Skull and Bones named as a shareholder in the 1942 vesting of the Thyssen-linked Union Banking Corporation." +born: 1895-05-15 +died: 1972-10-08 +location: "Greenwich, Connecticut" +created: 2026-10-26 +updated: 2026-10-26 +relations: + - type: member_of + with: "[[Skull and Bones]]" + role: "member, Yale class of 1917" + fn: 3 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Yale University]]" + role: "trustee" + fn: 1 + - type: member_of + with: "[[United States Senate]]" + role: "Senator from Connecticut" + start: 1952-11-04 + end: 1963-01-02 + fn: 1 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Union Banking Corporation]]" + role: "one of seven directors according to the incorporation documents reported by the Guardian; registered holder of one share in Vesting Order No. 248" + start: 1924-08-04 + end: 1942-10-20 + fn: 24 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Pennsylvania Water and Power Company]]" + role: "chairman of the board, early 1940s" + fn: 39 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Dresser Industries]]" + role: "director" + fn: 37 + - type: director_of + with: "[[CBS]]" + role: "director, from 1932" + start: 1932 + fn: 38 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Brown Brothers Harriman]]" + role: "partner" + fn: 16 + - type: partner_of + with: "[[W. Averell Harriman]]" + role: "partner at Brown Brothers Harriman" + fn: 38 + - type: partner_of + with: "[[E. Roland Harriman]]" + role: "partner at Brown Brothers Harriman" + fn: 17 + - type: partner_of + with: "[[Knight Woolley]]" + role: "partner at Brown Brothers Harriman" + fn: 16 + - type: head_of + with: "[[United Service Organizations]]" + role: "national campaign chairman" + fn: 42 + - type: member_of + with: "[[National War Fund]]" + role: "vice president and executive committee member; national campaign chairman" + fn: 43 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Planned Parenthood Federation of America]]" + role: "treasurer of the 1947 national fund-raising campaign" + start: 1947 + fn: 53 + - type: spouse_of + with: "[[Dorothy Walker Bush]]" + start: 1921 + fn: 4 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[George H.W. Bush]]" + role: "son" + fn: 1 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[George W. Bush]]" + role: "grandson" + fn: 1 +--- + +Prescott Sheldon Bush (May 15, 1895 to October 8, 1972) was a partner in [[Brown Brothers Harriman]] and a Republican who represented [[Connecticut]] in the [[United States Senate]] from November 4, 1952 to January 2, 1963.[^1] He was the father of President [[George H.W. Bush]] and the grandfather of President [[George W. Bush]].[^1] The [[Federal Register]] of November 7, 1942 lists him among the registered holders of the [[Union Banking Corporation]], a New York bank whose stock the [[Alien Property Custodian]] vested as held for a Dutch bank owned or controlled, in the order's words, by members of the Thyssen family.[^2] + +### Yale, the Army and Greenwich + +The class history of the [[Yale University]] class of 1917 records that Bush was born May 15, 1895, in [[Columbus, Ohio]], that his father, Samuel Prescott Bush, born on Staten Island in 1863, took an M.E. degree at the [[Stevens Institute of Technology]] in 1884 and was president of the [[Buckeye Steel Castings Company]], and that his mother was Flora Sheldon Bush.[^3] He prepared at [[St. George's School]] in [[Newport, Rhode Island]], sang in the Glee Club, Quartet and Choir, played golf and baseball for Yale and won his "Y," sat on the executive committee of Dwight Hall, the College Student Council and the Junior Prom and Class Day committees, was a football cheer leader and a member of the Yale Battery, and belonged to the [[Whiffenpoofs]], [[Psi Upsilon]] and [[Skull and Bones]]. The entry states that he intended to enter the law.[^3] + +The Biographical Directory of the United States Congress records that he enlisted in the [[Connecticut National Guard]] in 1916; served as a captain of field artillery with the [[American Expeditionary Forces]] from 1917 to 1919; worked as a warehouse clerk in the hardware business in [[St. Louis]]; moved to [[Greenwich, Connecticut]] in 1924; entered banking in [[New York City]] in 1926; served as moderator of the Greenwich Representative Town Meeting from 1935 to 1952; and was a trustee of Yale University.[^1] The [[Guardian]] reported in 2004 that he married Dorothy Walker, daughter of the St. Louis investment banker [[George Herbert Walker]], in 1921.[^4] + +[[Garry Wills]] wrote in 1992 that Bush served six years as secretary and two as vice president of the [[United States Golf Association]] before becoming its president in 1935, and that in 1951 he shot a 68 in the Senior Championship at [[Apawamis Club]], a course and tournament record.[^5] + +### Skull and Bones + +The entries for Bush, [[E. Roland Harriman]] ("Bunny," son of [[E. H. Harriman]]), [[Knight Woolley]] and [[Neil Mallon]] in the Yale 1917 class history each state that the man belonged to Psi Upsilon and Skull and Bones. Harriman's entry lists a brother, William Averell Harriman of the class of 1913, among his Yale relatives, and names him to the class Triennial Committee; Bush appears on the Class Day Committee and the senior delegation.[^3][^6] The Guardian described Woolley in 2004 as Bush's "friend and fellow 'bonesman'."[^7] + +The [[George H. W. Bush Presidential Library]]'s response to a 2009 request for records on Skull and Bones, filed as FOIA 2009-0116-F, describes its material as relating to the society "of which George H. W. Bush and his father Prescott Bush were both members."[^8] The response says that staff and office files contain newspaper articles on the family's connections to the society, and that several of the articles address the rumor "that Prescott Bush and a group of Skull and Bones members had disinterred and taken Apache leader [[Geronimo]]'s skull."[^8] The file also holds administrative forms for a Skull and Bones tea, dated October 20, 1989, in the records of the [[White House Social Office]].[^9] + +On May 9, 2006 the [[Associated Press]] reported a letter that the researcher [[Marc Wortman]] had found in the autumn of 2005. It was written in 1918 by one society member to another and describes the skull and some remains as taken from the grave at [[Fort Sill]], [[Oklahoma]], to a stone tomb in [[New Haven, Connecticut]]: "The skull of the worthy Geronimo the Terrible, exhumed from its tomb at Fort Sill by your club ... is now safe inside the (Tomb) together with his well worn femurs, bit & saddle horn."[^10] The report names the writer as [[Winter Mead]] and states that Mead was not at Fort Sill. It gives the society's legend as the source of the claim that members, "including President George W. Bush's grandfather, Prescott Bush," dug up the grave when a group of Army volunteers from Yale were stationed at the fort during [[World War I]].[^10] Wortman said: "What I think we could probably say is they removed some skull and bones and other materials from a grave at Fort Sill," and added, "Historically, it may be impossible to prove it's Geronimo's."[^10] + +[[Antony C. Sutton]] printed a chart in his book on the society, first published in 1983, under the heading "Hypothesis Number One: A Secret Society Dominated By Old Line American Families And New Wealth Has Existed From 1833 To The Present Day." The chart places "The Order" at the center of family spokes that include the Harriman family, labeled with railroads, along with families of Massachusetts settlement and families of Standard Oil, J. P. Morgan, lumber, flour milling and retail wealth. The tiers and settlement dates on the chart are Sutton's hypotheses.[^11] + +### Brown Brothers Harriman + +The caption to the photograph of Bush in John A. Kouwenhoven's 1968 history of the firm describes him as vice-president and a director of [[W. A. Harriman & Co.]], Inc. and a partner in [[Harriman Brothers & Co.]] at the time of the merger with Brown Brothers & Co., and as secretary of the United States Golf Association at the time of the 1932 championship matches (president from 1935).[^12] The firm's partner table gives January 1, 1930 as his partnership date in Harriman Brothers & Co. and January 1, 1931 in Brown Brothers Harriman.[^13] The history records that in 1942 he became national campaign chairman of the combined fund-raising drives of the USO and other wartime charities, and gives his Senate service as 1952 to 1962; the Senate's Connecticut timeline gives "until 1963."[^14] Antony C. Sutton wrote that Bush was a partner of Brown Brothers Harriman for over forty years.[^15] + +Wills wrote that Bush became, with Knight Woolley, the principal expert at Brown Brothers Harriman on which projects to back, and quoted Bush's oral-history interviews: "We [he and Woolley] were running the business, the day-to-day business, all the administrative decisions and the executive decisions. We were the ones that did it."[^16] Wills wrote that Roland Harriman refused in 1946 when Bush first asked permission to seek a seat in the House of Representatives, saying that a race for the House was beneath a Brown Brothers Harriman partner and that the Senate might be different.[^17] According to Wills, Bush's father-in-law Walker was the partner of [[W. Averell Harriman]] in the ownership of race horses.[^5] + +[[Ben Aris]] and [[Duncan Campbell]] reported in the Guardian in 2004 that Walker helped set Bush up in business in New York in 1924 with Harriman, "the wealthy son of railroad magnate E H Harriman," and that one of the first jobs Walker gave Bush was to manage the Union Banking Corporation.[^18] They described Bush as a founding member of the bank and wrote that the bank "was set up by Harriman and Bush's father-in-law to provide a US bank for the Thyssens."[^18] The same article states: "While there is no suggestion that Prescott Bush was sympathetic to the Nazi cause, the documents reveal that the firm he worked for, Brown Brothers Harriman (BBH), acted as a US base for the German industrialist, Fritz Thyssen, who helped finance Hitler in the 1930s before falling out with him at the end of the decade."[^19] The Guardian wrote that its account rested on three sets of archives: the Harriman papers at the [[Library of Congress]], the vesting-order files at the [[National Archives]], and the files on [[IG Farben]].[^20] + +The Guardian also reported that the Harriman papers contain a wartime profile of Harriman in the New York Journal American and, next to it in the files, a letter from Bush to the paper's financial editor praising the profile, quoting Bush: Harriman's "performance and his whole attitude has been a source of inspiration and pride to his partners and his friends."[^21] + +### Union Banking Corporation and Vesting Order No. 248 + +A Treasury Department memorandum dated August 18, 1941, from E. G. May to [[John W. Pehle]], with the subject "Union Banking Corporation," states that the corporation, incorporated August 4, 1924, was "wholly owned by the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N.V., of Rotterdam, The Netherlands," that the investigation "produced no evidence as to the ownership of this Dutch bank," and that its president, [[Cornelius Lievense|Cornelis Lievense]], believed it possible that Baron [[Heinrich Thyssen]], brother of [[Fritz Thyssen]], might own a substantial interest. It records that in 1931 to 1933 the corporation made gold purchases of over eight million dollars, of which about three million dollars was shipped abroad and $3,085,000 was delivered to the [[Federal Reserve Bank]] on June 15, 1934, and that during the Munich crisis in the fall of 1938 the corporation held two million dollars in currency in a New York safe deposit box, later deposited in its account with Brown Brothers Harriman.[^22] The Guardian dates the same memorandum August 16, 1941.[^22] + +The Guardian reported that on July 30, 1942 the New York Herald-Tribune ran an article headed "Hitler's Angel Has $3m in US Bank," and that the Alien Property Custodian then opened an investigation.[^23] On October 20, 1942 the Custodian, [[Leo T. Crowley]], signed Vesting Order No. 248 under the [[Trading with the Enemy Act]]. Part (a) vested all 4,000 shares of $100 par value common stock of the corporation and lists the registered owners: E. Roland Harriman with 3,991 shares; Lievense with 4; and Harold D. Pennington, Ray Morris, Prescott S. Bush, [[H. J. Kouwenhoven]] and Johann G. Groeninger with 1 share each. The order states that the shares "are held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N. V., Rotterdam, The Netherlands, which bank is owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family, nationals of Germany and/or Hungary." Part (b) vested all indebtedness owing by the corporation to Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart and to the August Thyssen-Bank of [[Berlin]], including security rights in collateral.[^2] + +Aris and Campbell reported that the incorporation documents "list him as one of seven directors" and show that he owned one share worth $125.[^24] They reported that [[Homer Jones]], chief of the Alien Property Custodian's investigation and research division, sent a memorandum to the custodian's executive committee within weeks of the investigation, naming the bank's directors including Bush and describing the shares as "held by the above named individuals, however, solely as nominees for the Bank voor Handel, Rotterdam, Holland, which is owned by one or more of the Thyssen family."[^25] + +The Guardian quoted [[John Loftus]], a former federal prosecutor, who disputed that Bush held only a token share, citing sources "in the banking and intelligence communities" and suggesting that the Bush family, "through George Herbert Walker and Prescott," received $1.5 million from the involvement. The article added: "There is, however, no paper trail to this sum."[^26] The Guardian reported that the Bush family and the United States government deny the claims, and quoted a statement by the [[Anti-Defamation League]] that the "charges are untenable and politically motivated" and that Prescott Bush "was neither a Nazi nor a Nazi sympathiser."[^27] + +### Holland-American, Seamless Steel and Silesian-American + +Vesting Order No. 259, executed October 28, 1942 and published in the Federal Register of December 19, 1942, vested all 500 shares of $100 par value stock of the [[Seamless Steel Equipment Corporation]], a New York corporation, registered in the name of Cornelis Lievense and held for the benefit of Press- und Walzwerk A.G. of [[Düsseldorf]] and of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart.[^28] Vesting Order No. 261, executed the same day, vested all 500 shares of the [[Holland-American Trading Corporation]], registered to E. Roland Harriman (491), C. Lievense (4), and one share each to H. D. Pennington, Ray Morris, Knight Woolley, H. J. Kouwenhoven and J. G. Groeninger, all held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart.[^29] The Guardian described these two companies as affiliates against which "further seizures were made" after the Union Banking Corporation seizure.[^30] + +In Silesian American Corporation v. Clark, 332 U.S. 469, reargued November 12, 1947 and decided December 8, 1947, Justice [[Stanley Reed]] wrote for the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] that the Alien Property Custodian executed Vesting Order No. 370 on November 17, 1942, finding the property to belong to a national of Germany. The property was a block of common and a block of preferred stock in the Silesian American Corporation, a Delaware corporation, which before August 31, 1939 stood in the stock book in the name of [[Non Ferrum]], a Swiss corporation of Zurich, held, according to the Custodian's order, for [[Bergwerksgesellschaft Georg von Giesche's Erben]], a German corporation. The corporation had been a debtor under Chapter X of the Bankruptcy Act since July 30, 1941; its majority stockholder was the Silesian Holding Company, also a Delaware corporation; the Court affirmed the lower courts' order that the corporation issue new certificates to the Custodian.[^31] The Guardian wrote that "By November, the Silesian-American Company, another of Prescott Bush's ventures, had also been seized."[^32] + +The Guardian reported that [[John Buchanan]], a Miami magazine journalist, published findings from the vesting files in the [[New Hampshire Gazette]] in 2003.[^33] The Gazette of November 7, 2003 carried an article headed "Bush: Nazi Dealings Continued Until 1951," which stated that after the seizures of late 1942 of five enterprises he managed for Thyssen, Bush "failed to divest himself of more than a dozen 'enemy national' relationships that continued until as late as 1951, newly-discovered U.S. government documents reveal." It named W. Averell Harriman and E. Roland Harriman as partners in the ventures and gave 1924 to 1951 as the span of transactions conducted by Brown Brothers Harriman.[^34] + +### Consolidated Silesian Steel and John Foster Dulles + +Aris and Campbell wrote that the [[Consolidated Silesian Steel Company]] (CSSC), a Silesian steel and mining company, was linked to Bush in National Archives documents declassified in 2003. They quoted the writer [[Eva Schweitzer]]: "SAC held coal mines and definitely owned CSSC between 1934 and 1935, but when SAC was vested there was no trace of CSSC." The article cites a New York Times article of March 18, 1934 as stating that [[Friedrich Flick]] owned two-thirds of CSSC while "American interests" held the rest.[^35] + +The Guardian quoted a January 1933 letter from Knight Woolley to W. Averell Harriman: "The Consolidated Silesian Steel Company situation has become increasingly complicated, and I have accordingly brought in Sullivan and Cromwell, in order to be sure that our interests are protected." It continues: "After studying the situation Foster Dulles is insisting that their man in Berlin get into the picture and obtain the information which the directors here should have. You will recall that Foster is a director and he is particularly anxious to be certain that there is no liability attaching to the American directors." The Guardian identified the reference as to [[John Foster Dulles]] of [[Sullivan and Cromwell]], and the letter as concerning the Polish government's drive to nationalize the plant.[^36] + +### Directorships: Dresser Industries, CBS and Pennsylvania Water and Power + +Wills wrote that Bush "ended up on the boards of many firms he underwrote, including CBS." Quoting Bush: "In 1929 we bought Dresser Company of Bradford, Pennsylvania for four million dollars, and we sold securities against that company and refinanced it, you see, so that we retained a substantial measure of control."[^37] Wills reports that Bush served on the board of [[Dresser Industries]] and made his Yale friend Neil Mallon its chief executive, and that when George H.W. Bush went from Yale to Texas in 1948 he was hired by Mallon to work for a Dresser subsidiary. Bush recalled: "I was Neil Mallon's chief adviser and consultant in connection with every move that he made with that business during that period of twenty years."[^37] + +Wills places Bush's CBS board seat in 1932, when [[William S. Paley]] came to the firm with Herbert Swope to arrange the purchase of a half interest in the [[CBS]] company, owned by [[Paramount Pictures]], for five million dollars. Paley could raise half, and the Harriman firm raised the other two and a half million; Bush recalled that "Averell put me on it." Wills wrote that Bush "went onto the CBS board to watch what was being done with the investment."[^38] + +The [[Hagley Museum and Library]] describes the [[Pennsylvania Water and Power Company]] as a company whose board Bush joined as chairman in the early 1940s: "Joining the company as Chairman of the Board in the early 1940s was Wall Street executive banker and later U.S. senator, Prescott S. Bush."[^39] In a 1942 letter to company president [[John Abbet Walls]], Bush wrote: "Mr. Buckner's death raises, of course, the question of replacement on the board, and I am not forgetting that we should also replace Mr. Gleason this spring."[^40] The company's presidential records are Hagley Accession 2627 and span 1905 to 1946.[^41] + +### The USO and the National War Fund + +Frank Coffey's official photographic history of the [[United Service Organizations]] states that under national campaign chairman [[Thomas E. Dewey]] the organization had raised over $16 million, and that in 1942 Dewey resigned. The book reproduces a USO appeal letter signed "Prescott S. Bush, National Campaign Chairman," printed with [[John D. Rockefeller Jr.]] as honorary chairman.[^42] + +The [[National War Fund]], the federation of war-relief and USO appeals that ran from 1943 to 1947, listed Bush among its vice presidents and on its executive committee. Its Speakers Handbook, issued as of August 13, 1945, names as president [[Winthrop W. Aldrich]] and as vice presidents Jean B. Adoue Jr. of Texas, Prescott S. Bush of New York, Robert M. Hanes of North Carolina, Francis P. Matthews of Nebraska, Walter Rothschild of New York, Edward L. Ryerson of Illinois, Robert G. Sproul of California and Henry M. Wriston of Rhode Island. Its executive committee includes Aldrich, Bush, [[Henry R. Luce]] and Rockefeller; its budget committee chairman was [[Gerard Swope]].[^43] The Fund's official history, by Harold J. Seymour, names Bush "National Campaign Chairman" and describes him as the sixth man picked in the formation of the leadership, "Averill Harriman's banking partner."[^44] + +### Allen Dulles and the Central Intelligence Agency + +The [[Central Intelligence Agency]] reading-room collection holds correspondence between Bush and the Agency's directors from his first year in the Senate. [[Allen Dulles]] answered a letter of January 27, 1953 from Bush about the employment of a person Bush had recommended on February 3, 1953, addressing him "Dear Pres," and wrote on April 2, 1953 that a person Bush had asked about was not being considered for any appointment and that he did not know in what connection the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] might be inquiring into the person's background.[^45] An internal memorandum approved by Dulles in 1957 records that Bush, recently returned from a trip to Europe on which he gathered information on [[NATO]] and the defenses of Western Europe, was interested in the case of [[John Downey]], and recommends that the Agency debrief him on the trip and brief him on Downey together.[^46] + +Dulles replied on September 8, 1959 to a letter in which Bush, a member of the Senate Committee on Armed Services, had forwarded a correspondent's letter about charges made against the Agency in the New York Mirror column of [[Lee Mortimer]]. Dulles wrote that an Agency representative had met Mortimer in August, that all individuals the Agency employed were investigated, and that Mortimer's statement about CIA accountability to Congress was not entirely accurate.[^47] Acting Director [[Charles P. Cabell]] wrote on June 21, 1960 that Dulles had left before seeing Bush's letter of June 3, and thanked him for sending a Hartford Courant editorial and an article by Donald McLachlan.[^48] + +On October 18, 1960 Dulles wrote to Bush at Greenwich that he had noted a planned trip to Latin America and offered to brief him before his departure and to receive his observations on his return. Bush answered on October 25, 1960: "Tracy Barnes did call and I shall work out an engagement through him in order that I may get a briefing which, heaven knows, I need," adding "Dorothy and I speak of you many times. We appreciate so much our friendship with you and Clover."[^49] [[John A. McCone]], Dulles's successor, wrote Bush on November 8, 1961 that he had read the correspondence concerning Bogota, Colombia, enclosed in Bush's recent letter, and had forwarded it to the officials concerned with Colombia, and wrote again on January 8, 1962 about a person Bush had brought to his attention.[^50] A September 6, 1961 Senate extension of remarks by Bush is titled "Central Intelligence Agency: A Guardian of the National Security."[^51] + +Wills wrote that Bush "was a strong backer of the CIA, of its covert operations, and of its director, Allen Dulles," and that his only criticism of the [[Bay of Pigs]] was that [[John F. Kennedy]] did not "go through with that enterprise" when it bogged down.[^52] + +### Planned Parenthood + +The [[Margaret Sanger Papers Project]] at [[New York University]] states that Bush "in 1947 served as the treasurer of Planned Parenthood's first nationwide fund-raising campaign" and shared the masthead of the [[Planned Parenthood Federation of America]] with [[Margaret Sanger]] at a time when contraception was illegal in Connecticut.[^53] The Project places columnist [[Drew Pearson]]'s disclosure of the ties, in a national television commentary just days before the election, in the 1950 Senate race, which Bush lost by about a thousand votes, and states that the family vehemently denied any association with the organization.[^54] George H.W. Bush wrote in a 1973 foreword: "Many political observers felt a sufficient number of voters were swayed by his alleged contacts with the birth controllers to cost him the election."[^55] Wills places Pearson's column late in the 1952 campaign, stating that Pearson wrote that Bush was a president of the Birth Control League, that Bush "supported Planned Parenthood" without being an officer of the League, and that Bush bought special broadcast time and distributed fliers after Mass asking Catholics to tune in.[^56] + +### Senate, 1950 to 1963 + +Wills wrote that Bush lost the 1950 special election for the seat vacated by Raymond Baldwin to [[William Benton]] by "a thousand votes," with 862,000 votes cast, after a primary against [[Vivian Kellems]]; that Bush had first deferred to Luce, who had expressed interest in the seat; and that in 1952 [[Clare Boothe Luce]] competed with Bush for the nomination to fill the vacancy created by the death of Senator [[James O'Brien McMahon]].[^57] The Biographical Directory records that Bush was elected on November 4, 1952 to fill that vacancy, was reelected in 1956, was not a candidate in 1962 and resumed banking and investment work.[^1] Wills wrote that Bush won the 1952 special election against [[Abraham Ribicoff]]; that Bush attacked Averell Harriman during the campaign, saying Harriman's "political thinking and judgment have been completely changed since he ceased active participation in our firm years ago to enter government"; and that Bush appeared on a platform with [[Joseph McCarthy]] in Connecticut that year.[^58] + +Wills reported that [[Sherman Adams]] arranged the first of many golf matches between Bush and President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], that Bush organized a dinner for the President at [[Burning Tree Club]], that Bush served on the Banking and Currency Committee, and that in 1960 he chaired the platform subcommittee on labor.[^59] + +On December 2, 1954 the Senate adopted Senate Resolution 301, censuring Joseph McCarthy, by a vote of 67 to 22. Bush voted yea.[^60] Before the vote Bush spoke in support of a substitute motion, telling the Senate that "No question of free speech is involved. Free speech does not mean unrestrained," and referring to his statement of December 1.[^61] Wills wrote that Bush called Adams to suggest that Eisenhower invite Senator Arthur Watkins, who chaired the censure committee, to dinner at the White House.[^59] + +On May 29, 1956 the Senate agreed, 41 to 39, to an amendment offered by Senator [[William F. Knowland]] of [[California]] to the Senate's highway bill. Bush voted in the negative.[^62] On June 26, 1956 the Senate agreed to the conference report on the bill by 89 votes to 1, and Bush voted yea.[^63] + +### Footnotes + +[^1]: Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, 1774-2005, H. Doc. 108-222 (Washington: GPO, 2005), PDF p. 762, "BUSH, Prescott Sheldon (father of George Herbert Walker Bush, grandfather of President George W. Bush)": born in Columbus, Ohio, May 15, 1895; Douglas School and St. George's School, Newport, R.I., 1908-1913; Yale 1917; Connecticut National Guard 1916; captain, Field Artillery, AEF 1917-1919; warehouse clerk in the hardware business in St. Louis; Greenwich 1924; banking in New York City 1926; moderator, Greenwich Representative Town Meeting 1935-1952; trustee, Yale University; unsuccessful candidate in 1950; elected November 4, 1952 to fill the vacancy caused by the death of James O'Brien McMahon; reelected 1956; served to January 2, 1963; not a candidate in 1962; died in New York City October 8, 1972; interment in Putnam Cemetery, Greenwich. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CDOC-108hdoc222/pdf/GPO-CDOC-108hdoc222.pdf +[^2]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 248, "All of the Capital Stock of Union Banking Corporation and Certain Indebtedness Owing by It," executed at Washington on October 20, 1942, *Federal Register* 7 (November 7, 1942), pp. 9097-9098 (F.R. Doc. 42-11568, filed November 6, 1942, 11:31 a.m.), registered-owner table and findings (a) and (b). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf +[^3]: *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. I (New Haven: printed for the class under the direction of the Yale University Press, 1917), entry "Prescott Sheldon Bush" (pp. 105-106): born May 15, 1895 in Columbus, Ohio; father Samuel Prescott Bush, president of the Buckeye Steel Castings Company; mother Flora (Sheldon) Bush; St. George's School; Glee Club, Quartet and Choir; golf and baseball; Dwight Hall executive committee; College Student Council; Class Day Committee; Yale Battery; "He belongs to the Whiffenpoofs, Psi Upsilon, and Skull and Bones"; "Bush intends to enter the law." https://archive.org/details/historyofclassofOOmurr +[^4]: Ben Aris and Duncan Campbell, "How Bush's grandfather helped Hitler's rise to power," *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: Prescott Bush "married Dorothy Walker, the daughter of George Herbert Walker, in 1921." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar +[^5]: Garry Wills, "Father Knows Best," *The New York Review of Books*, November 5, 1992: Bush as secretary of the USGA for six years, vice president for two, president in 1935; a 68 in the Senior Championship at Apawamis in 1951; his father-in-law as partner of Averell Harriman in the ownership of race horses. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/ +[^6]: *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. I (1917), entries for Edward Roland Noel Harriman ("He is a member of Psi Upsilon and Skull and Bones"; Triennial Committee; relatives include William Averell Harriman, '13, a brother), Knight Woolley (pp. 343-344: "He belongs to Psi Upsilon and Skull and Bones") and Henry Neil Mallon ("He is a member of Psi Upsilon and Skull and Bones"), and the committee lists for the Class Day Committee and the senior delegation. https://archive.org/details/historyofclassofOOmurr +[^7]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: "Bush's friend and fellow 'bonesman' Knight Woolley, another partner at BBH." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar +[^8]: George H. W. Bush Presidential Library, FOIA 2009-0116-F, "Records on Skull and Bones Society," scope and content note, processed August 2009. https://bush41library.gov/download/file/4777 +[^9]: National Archives and Records Administration, Records of the White House Social Office (George H. W. Bush Administration), Cathy Fenton Subject Files, Container 07104, "10/20/89 Skull and Bones Tea," NAID 492080005, as listed in the container list of FOIA 2009-0116-F. https://bush41library.gov/download/file/4777 +[^10]: Associated Press, reprinted by CBS News, "Letter May Back Yale Claim On Geronimo," May 9, 2006: letter dated 1918 "written by one member of Skull and Bones to another," found by Marc Wortman "last fall"; "according to the letter, written by Winter Mead"; "But Mead was not at Fort Sill"; "According to Skull and Bones legend, members, including President George W. Bush's grandfather, Prescott Bush, dug up Geronimo's grave when a group of Army volunteers from Yale were stationed at the fort during World War I"; the Wortman quotations. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/letter-may-back-yale-claim-on-geronimo/ +[^11]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chart "Hypothesis Number One: A Secret Society Dominated By Old Line American Families And New Wealth Has Existed From 1833 To The Present Day," with spokes labeled Whitney, Perkins, Stimson, Taft, Phelps, Bundy, Wadsworth, Lord, Gilman, Rockefeller and Payne (Standard Oil), Harriman (railroads), Davison (J. P. Morgan), Weyerhaeuser (lumber), Pillsbury (flour milling) and Sloane (retail). +[^12]: John A. Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking: An Historical Portrait of a Great Private Bank, Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., 1818-1968* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1968), pp. 12 to 13, caption of the photograph of Prescott S. Bush. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb +[^13]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), partner table, pp. 231 to 235. +[^14]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 203. United States Senate, Connecticut timeline. https://www.senate.gov/states/CT/timeline.htm +[^15]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2002), section on Brown Brothers, Harriman, list of partners initiated into The Order. +[^16]: Garry Wills, "Father Knows Best," *The New York Review of Books*, November 5, 1992, quoting Prescott Bush's oral-history interviews: "We [he and Woolley] were running the business, the day-to-day business, all the administrative decisions and the executive decisions. We were the ones that did it." https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/ +[^17]: Wills, "Father Knows Best," 1992: in 1946 Roland Harriman refused Bush's first request to seek a House seat, saying a House race was beneath a Brown Brothers Harriman partner and that it might be different for the Senate. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/ +[^18]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: Walker "helped set him up in business in New York with Averill Harriman, the wealthy son of railroad magnate E H Harriman"; "One of the first jobs Walker gave Bush was to manage UBC"; "Bush was a founding member of the bank"; "The bank was set up by Harriman and Bush's father-in-law to provide a US bank for the Thyssens, Germany's most powerful industrial family." The History News Network reprint credits Ben Aris and Duncan Campbell. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar +[^19]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar +[^20]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: "Three sets of archives spell out Prescott Bush's involvement": the Harriman papers at the Library of Congress, vesting order number 248 at the National Archives, and the National Archives files on IG Farben. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar +[^21]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004, on documents from the Harriman papers including a letter from Prescott Bush to the financial editor of the New York Journal American. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar +[^22]: Treasury Department memorandum, E. G. May to J. W. Pehle, August 18, 1941 (date line typed and endorsed in Pehle's hand "Aug 18, 1941"), "Re: Union Banking Corporation," ref. 9-151, declassified by NARA: incorporation August 4, 1924; wholly owned by the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N.V.; Cornelis Lievense; Baron Heinrich Thyssen; gold purchases 1931-1933; $3,085,000 delivered to the Federal Reserve Bank June 15, 1934; fall 1938 safe deposit box with two million dollars in currency, later deposited with Brown Brothers Harriman. https://archive.org/details/BushDocuments0008b-LetterJ.W.PebleToMay. The Guardian's article of September 25, 2004 quotes the report as "of August 16 1941." +[^23]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: "The trouble started on July 30 1942 when the New York Herald-Tribune ran an article entitled 'Hitler's Angel Has $3m in US Bank.'" https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar +[^24]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: "the incorporation documents, which list him as one of seven directors, show he owned one share in UBC worth $125." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar +[^25]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004, describing and quoting a memorandum from Homer Jones to the executive committee of the Alien Property Custodian from National Archives vesting files. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar +[^26]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004, on John Loftus: his sources in "the banking and intelligence communities" and "the Bush family, through George Herbert Walker and Prescott, got $1.5m out of the involvement. There is, however, no paper trail to this sum." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar +[^27]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: "The US government and the Bush family deny all the claims against them"; the Anti-Defamation League statement of 2003 that "These charges are untenable and politically motivated ... Prescott Bush was neither a Nazi nor a Nazi sympathiser." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar +[^28]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 259, "All of the Capital Stock of Seamless Steel Equipment Corporation," executed October 28, 1942 (F.R. Doc. 42-13530, filed December 18, 1942), *Federal Register* 7 (December 19, 1942), pp. 10626-10627. https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-register-find_1942-12-19_7_248 +[^29]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 261, "All of the Capital Stock of Holland-American Trading Corporation," executed October 28, 1942 (F.R. Doc. 42-13532, filed December 18, 1942), *Federal Register* 7 (December 19, 1942), p. 10627, holder table. https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-register-find_1942-12-19_7_248 +[^30]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: "Having gone through the books of the bank, further seizures were made against two affiliates, the Holland-American Trading Corporation and the Seamless Steel Equipment Corporation." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar +[^31]: *Silesian American Corporation v. Clark*, 332 U.S. 469, 68 S.Ct. 179 (reargued November 12, 1947; decided December 8, 1947), opinion of Justice Reed: Vesting Order No. 370 of November 17, 1942; Non Ferrum Gesellschaft, Zurich; Bergwerksgesellschaft Georg von Giesche's Erben; Chapter X debtor since July 30, 1941; Silesian Holding Company; "Judgment affirmed." https://law.resource.org/pub/us/case/reporter/US/332/332.US.469.6.html +[^32]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar +[^33]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: John Buchanan, "a Miami-based magazine journalist who started examining the files while working on a screenplay," published his findings in the *New Hampshire Gazette*. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar +[^34]: "Bush: Nazi Dealings Continued Until 1951," *New Hampshire Gazette*, Vol. 248, No. 3, November 7, 2003, "Federal Documents," as reprinted at raoul-wallenberg.eu. https://www.raoul-wallenberg.eu/2003 +[^35]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: the CSSC passage, the Schweitzer quotation, and the reference to a *New York Times* article of March 18, 1934. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar +[^36]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004, quoting the January 1933 letter from Knight Woolley to Averill Harriman. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar +[^37]: Garry Wills, "Father Knows Best," *The New York Review of Books*, November 5, 1992: "Prescott ended up on the boards of many firms he underwrote, including CBS"; the 1929 purchase of the Dresser Company of Bradford, Pennsylvania for four million dollars; Neil Mallon as chief executive; George H.W. Bush hired in 1948 by Mallon for a Dresser subsidiary. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/ +[^38]: Wills, "Father Knows Best," 1992, quoting Bush's oral history: "Averell put me on it"; "Prescott went onto the CBS board to watch what was being done with the investment." https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/ +[^39]: Hagley Museum and Library, Pennsylvania Water & Power Company presidential records (Acc. 2627), historical introduction. https://hagley.org/node/968 +[^40]: Hagley Museum and Library, Acc. 2627, 1942 letter from Prescott S. Bush to John Abbet Walls, as quoted in the Hagley account. https://hagley.org/node/968 +[^41]: Hagley Museum and Library, Acc. 2627, Pennsylvania Water & Power Company presidential records, 1905 to 1946. https://hagley.org/node/968 +[^42]: Frank Coffey, *Always Home: 50 Years of the USO* (Washington: Brassey's, 1991): under national campaign chairman Thomas Dewey the USO "had raised over $16 million"; "In 1942 Dewey resigned"; appeal letter signed "Prescott S. Bush, National Campaign Chairman, United Service Organizations, Inc." with "Honorary Chairman John D. Rockefeller, Jr." https://archive.org/details/alwayshome50year00coff +[^43]: National War Fund, *Speakers Handbook* (issued as of August 13, 1945), p. 38, "Officers of National War Fund": president Winthrop W. Aldrich; vice presidents including Prescott S. Bush, New York; executive committee including Aldrich, Bush, Henry R. Luce and John D. Rockefeller, Jr.; Gerard Swope, chairman, Budget Committee. https://archive.org/details/SpeakersHandbook001 +[^44]: Harold J. Seymour, *Design for Giving: The Story of the National War Fund, Inc., 1943-1947* (New York: Harper, 1947), on the selection of "Prescott S. Bush, Averill Harriman's banking partner" as "the sixth man" and "Prescott S. Bush, National Campaign Chairman." https://archive.org/details/designforgivings0000haro +[^45]: Allen W. Dulles to Prescott Bush, February 3, 1953, replying to Bush's letter of January 27, 1953, CIA-RDP80R01731R001600070003-9; Dulles to Bush, April 2, 1953, CIA-RDP80R01731R001600070139-9. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R001600070003-9 ; https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R001600070139-9 +[^46]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of General Counsel, memorandum for the Director of Central Intelligence, "Senator Prescott Bush (R., Conn.)," signed by John S. Warner, Legislative Counsel, with Allen W. Dulles's approval, 1957, CIA-RDP80R01731R000200010068-9. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R000200010068-9 +[^47]: Allen W. Dulles to Prescott Bush, September 8, 1959, on the New York Mirror column of Lee Mortimer, CIA-RDP80R01731R000100080046-7. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R000100080046-7 +[^48]: C. P. Cabell, Acting Director, to Prescott Bush, June 21, 1960, CIA-RDP80B01676R000900030010-1. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80B01676R000900030010-1 +[^49]: Allen W. Dulles to Prescott Bush, October 18, 1960, CIA-RDP80B01676R000900040026-3; Prescott Bush to Allen Dulles, October 25, 1960, on United States Senate stationery, marked "Personal," CIA-RDP80B01676R000900040027-2. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80B01676R000900040027-2 +[^50]: John A. McCone to Prescott Bush, November 8, 1961 (Bogota, Colombia), CIA-RDP80B01676R000700190021-4; McCone to Bush, January 8, 1962, CIA-RDP80B01676R002800230007-2. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80B01676R000700190021-4 +[^51]: "Central Intelligence Agency: A Guardian of the National Security," extension of remarks of Hon. Prescott Bush of Connecticut in the Senate of the United States, Wednesday, September 6, 1961, CIA-RDP70-00058R000200120158-2. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP70-00058R000200120158-2 +[^52]: Wills, "Father Knows Best," 1992. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/ +[^53]: New York University Sanger Papers Project, Newsletter No. 44 (Winter 2006/2007), "Bush Family Planning": Sanger "shared the Planned Parenthood Federation of America (PPFA) masthead with the current president's grandfather ... Prescott S. Bush, who in 1947 served as the treasurer of Planned Parenthood's first nationwide fund-raising campaign." https://sanger.hosting.nyu.edu/articles/bush_family_planning/ +[^54]: New York University Sanger Papers Project, Newsletter No. 44: Drew Pearson's broadcast "just days before the election"; "Bush lost by about a thousand votes in a state with a large Catholic population"; the family "vehemently denied that Prescott Bush had any association with the PPFA." https://sanger.hosting.nyu.edu/articles/bush_family_planning/ +[^55]: George H. W. Bush, foreword to Phyllis Tilson Piotrow, *World Population Crisis: The United States Response* (1973), p. vii, as quoted in Newsletter No. 44. https://sanger.hosting.nyu.edu/articles/bush_family_planning/ +[^56]: Wills, "Father Knows Best," 1992: "Late in the campaign, Drew Pearson wrote a column saying that Bush was a president of the Birth Control League. Actually, though he supported Planned Parenthood, Bush was not an officer of the Birth Control League." https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/ +[^57]: Wills, "Father Knows Best," 1992, quoting Bush: "I lost by a thousand votes to Bill Benton, when there were 862,000 votes cast"; Luce's interest in the seat; the 1952 contest with Clare Boothe Luce after McMahon's death. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/ +[^58]: Wills, "Father Knows Best," 1992: the Ribicoff race, Bush's speech on Harriman, and Bush's appearance with McCarthy. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/ +[^59]: Wills, "Father Knows Best," 1992: Adams, golf, Burning Tree dinner, Watkins suggestion, Banking and Currency Committee, 1960 platform subcommittee. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/ +[^60]: *Congressional Record*, vol. 100, 83rd Congress, 2d session, Senate proceedings of December 2, 1954, roll-call vote on Senate Resolution 301: yeas 67, nays 22, "Bush" among the yeas. https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_august-19-december-2-1954_100 +[^61]: *Congressional Record*, vol. 100, December 1 and 2, 1954, remarks of Mr. Bush in support of the substitute motion: "No question of free speech is involved. Free speech does not mean unrestrained"; reference to his statement of December 1, "printed in the Congressional Record at page 16270." https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_august-19-december-2-1954_100 +[^62]: *Congressional Record*, vol. 102, 84th Congress, 2d session, May 29, 1956, vote "on agreeing to the amendment offered by the Senator from California [Mr. KNOWLAND]": yeas 41, nays 39, "Bush" among the nays. https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_may-22-june-11-1956_102 +[^63]: *Congressional Record*, vol. 102, 84th Congress, 2d session, June 26, 1956, vote "on agreeing to the conference report": yeas 89, nay 1 (Long), "Bush" among the yeas. https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_june-12-29-1956_102 diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/John J. McCloy.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/John J. McCloy.md index fe20bb21..3e708f8e 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/John J. McCloy.md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/John J. McCloy.md @@ -56,30 +56,30 @@ relations: start: 1947-03-17 end: 1949-06-30 role: "president" - fn: 11 + fn: 15 - type: appointed with: "[[Harry S. Truman]]" reverse: true start: 1949 role: "High Commissioner for Germany" - fn: 12 + fn: 16 - type: head_of with: "[[Office of the U.S. High Commissioner for Germany]]" start: 1949-09-21 end: 1952-08-01 role: "U.S. High Commissioner for Germany" - fn: 13 + fn: 17 - type: appointed with: "[[David W. Peck]]" start: 1950-03 role: "chairman of the Advisory Board on Clemency for War Criminals" - fn: 16 + fn: 20 - type: director_of with: "[[Ford Foundation]]" start: 1959 end: 1965-12 role: "chairman of the board of trustees (trustee from 1953)" - fn: 26 + fn: 30 - type: head_of with: "[[Council on Foreign Relations]]" start: 1953 @@ -113,36 +113,36 @@ relations: - type: represented with: "[[ExxonMobil]]" role: "counsel to the Seven Sisters oil companies" - fn: 30 + fn: 34 - type: represented with: "[[Mobil]]" role: "counsel to the Seven Sisters oil companies" - fn: 30 + fn: 34 - type: represented with: "[[Gulf Oil]]" role: "counsel to the Seven Sisters oil companies" - fn: 30 + fn: 34 - type: represented with: "[[Texaco]]" role: "counsel to the Seven Sisters oil companies" - fn: 30 + fn: 34 - type: represented with: "[[Standard Oil of California]]" role: "counsel to the Seven Sisters oil companies" - fn: 30 + fn: 34 - type: represented with: "[[BP]]" role: "counsel to the Seven Sisters oil companies" - fn: 30 + fn: 34 - type: represented with: "[[Royal Dutch Shell]]" role: "counsel to the Seven Sisters oil companies" - fn: 30 + fn: 34 - type: participant_in with: "[[Libyan Producers Agreement]]" start: 1971-01 role: "counsel to whom the Business Review letters were addressed" - fn: 35 + fn: 39 - type: participant_in with: "[[Cuban Missile Crisis]]" start: 1962-10 @@ -153,9 +153,9 @@ relations: with: "[[Warren Commission]]" start: 1963-11-29 role: "commissioner" - fn: 51 + fn: 55 created: 2026-10-01 -updated: 2026-10-09 +updated: 2026-10-26 --- John Jay McCloy (born in [[Philadelphia]] on March 31, 1895; died in [[Stamford, Connecticut]], on March 11, 1989) was an American lawyer, banker and government official. He served as Assistant Secretary of War, president of the [[World Bank]], U.S. Military Governor and High Commissioner for [[Germany]], chairman of the [[Chase Manhattan Bank]], the [[Ford Foundation]] and the [[Council on Foreign Relations]], counsel to the major international oil companies, chairman of the [[General Advisory Committee on Arms Control and Disarmament]] and a member of the [[Warren Commission]]. [[Amherst College]], which holds his papers, records his name at birth as John McCloy, with "Snader" used as a middle name in college records until about 1935 and "Jay" thereafter.[^1] @@ -166,170 +166,178 @@ McCloy joined [[Cravath, Swaine & Moore|Cravath, de Gersdorff, Swaine and Wood]] ### Assistant Secretary of War and the Japanese American Exclusion -After the outbreak of war McCloy was the civilian aide to Stimson responsible for Japanese American questions.[^3] In the first weeks of 1942 he took part in the discussions among the [[United States Department of War|War Department]], the [[Western Defense Command]] and the [[Department of Justice]] that preceded [[Executive Order 9066]]. Provost Marshal General [[Allen W. Gullion]] described a heated meeting over a draft press release, which stated that the military situation did not require the removal of American citizens of Japanese descent, between Stimson, McCloy and [[Karl Bendetsen]] for the War Department and Attorney General [[Francis Biddle]], [[J. Edgar Hoover]] and [[James Rowe]] for the Justice Department; Stimson and McCloy wanted General [[John L. DeWitt]] to consider the draft before they responded. On February 3, 1942, DeWitt read McCloy by telephone the memorandum he had promised Gullion and urged deletion of the line stating that citizens need not be removed. The [[Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians]] wrote that McCloy "was most concerned about the legality of any government action," that he favored designating restricted zones and letting people back in by permit, that he would allow in "[e]veryone but the Japs," and that he did not press DeWitt for a military justification for moving the Nisei. On February 4 he met Gullion, Rowe, [[Edward Ennis]] and [[John Burling]] on legislation to remove both citizens and aliens from parts of the West Coast. On February 18, 1942, he attended the conference at which Stimson approved Biddle's draft of the executive order; Stimson wrote in his diary that "Biddle, McCloy and Gullion had done a good piece of work in breaking down the issues between the Departments the night before."[^3] McCloy took [[Milton Eisenhower]] to [[San Francisco]] to meet DeWitt before [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] signed [[Executive Order 9102]] creating the [[War Relocation Authority]] on March 18, 1942. When evacuees were being forced to sell their holdings, he wrote [[Harry Hopkins]] that "[o]ne of the drawbacks they have is the loss of their property," and an exchange with Justice [[Felix Frankfurter]] ended with Frankfurter assuring him that he was handling a delicate matter with wisdom and appropriate hard-headedness.[^4] +After the outbreak of war McCloy was the civilian aide to Stimson responsible for Japanese American questions.[^3] The War Department's internal arrangement under Stimson is described in the memoir: "Robert A. Lovett, who arrived in November, 1940, to be Stimson's air assistant," and "only Patterson of all his civilian assistants was with Stimson from the beginning to the end" (Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1948), p. 338). McCloy is named in the same passage among the Secretary's principal subordinates.[^4] The Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians records the civilian-aide description with the page citation: "civilian aide to Stimson responsible for Japanese American questions" (*Personal Justice Denied* (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1982), p. 47).[^5] The commission also records that Stimson and McCloy "were unwilling, or believed themselves unable, to face down political opposition on the West Coast" in the period before the ending of exclusion (p. 15, Summary).[^6] In the first weeks of 1942 he took part in the discussions among the [[United States Department of War|War Department]], the [[Western Defense Command]] and the [[Department of Justice]] that preceded [[Executive Order 9066]]. Provost Marshal General [[Allen W. Gullion]] described a heated meeting over a draft press release, which stated that the military situation did not require the removal of American citizens of Japanese descent, between Stimson, McCloy and [[Karl Bendetsen]] for the War Department and Attorney General [[Francis Biddle]], [[J. Edgar Hoover]] and [[James Rowe]] for the Justice Department; Stimson and McCloy wanted General [[John L. DeWitt]] to consider the draft before they responded. On February 3, 1942, DeWitt read McCloy by telephone the memorandum he had promised Gullion and urged deletion of the line stating that citizens need not be removed. The [[Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians]] wrote that McCloy "was most concerned about the legality of any government action," that he favored designating restricted zones and letting people back in by permit, that he would allow in "[e]veryone but the Japs," and that he did not press DeWitt for a military justification for moving the Nisei. On February 4 he met Gullion, Rowe, [[Edward Ennis]] and [[John Burling]] on legislation to remove both citizens and aliens from parts of the West Coast. On February 18, 1942, he attended the conference at which Stimson approved Biddle's draft of the executive order; Stimson wrote in his diary that "Biddle, McCloy and Gullion had done a good piece of work in breaking down the issues between the Departments the night before."[^3] McCloy took [[Milton Eisenhower]] to [[San Francisco]] to meet DeWitt before [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] signed [[Executive Order 9102]] creating the [[War Relocation Authority]] on March 18, 1942. When evacuees were being forced to sell their holdings, he wrote [[Harry Hopkins]] that "[o]ne of the drawbacks they have is the loss of their property," and an exchange with Justice [[Felix Frankfurter]] ended with Frankfurter assuring him that he was handling a delicate matter with wisdom and appropriate hard-headedness.[^7] -In January 1943 McCloy assured DeWitt that the new loyalty review for Nisei volunteers would not affect exclusion from the West Coast. On April 8, 1943, he wrote DeWitt that "[t]he very 'entering wedge' which you appear to dread is precisely what must be accomplished." The same month he told Bendetsen, in a discussion of how the original exclusion decision had been reached: "We never thought about it." When DeWitt's printed Final Report on the evacuation reached him in mid-April 1943, McCloy found it "too self-glorifying and too self-serving," objecting above all to its statement that the impossibility of determining loyalty, not urgency, had been the military necessity for exclusion. Bendetsen carried McCloy's revisions to DeWitt in Alaska, after which DeWitt accepted them and set out to destroy every copy of the April version. A Bendetsen memorandum of the period records that McCloy concluded there "no longer existed any military necessity for the continued exclusion of all Japanese from the evacuated zone," and that the War Department "of its own motion, would not take any action to direct or require the revision or revocation of present restrictions." In early November 1944, a week after General [[Charles H. Bonesteel]] of the Western Defense Command asked him for a personal meeting on ending exclusion, McCloy wrote that "there is a disposition not to crowd action too closely upon the heels of the election."[^5] +In January 1943 McCloy assured DeWitt that the new loyalty review for Nisei volunteers would not affect exclusion from the West Coast. On April 8, 1943, he wrote DeWitt that "[t]he very 'entering wedge' which you appear to dread is precisely what must be accomplished." The same month he told Bendetsen, in a discussion of how the original exclusion decision had been reached: "We never thought about it." When DeWitt's printed Final Report on the evacuation reached him in mid-April 1943, McCloy found it "too self-glorifying and too self-serving," objecting above all to its statement that the impossibility of determining loyalty, not urgency, had been the military necessity for exclusion. Bendetsen carried McCloy's revisions to DeWitt in Alaska, after which DeWitt accepted them and set out to destroy every copy of the April version. A Bendetsen memorandum of the period records that McCloy concluded there "no longer existed any military necessity for the continued exclusion of all Japanese from the evacuated zone," and that the War Department "of its own motion, would not take any action to direct or require the revision or revocation of present restrictions." In early November 1944, a week after General [[Charles H. Bonesteel]] of the Western Defense Command asked him for a personal meeting on ending exclusion, McCloy wrote that "there is a disposition not to crowd action too closely upon the heels of the election."[^8] -McCloy and Bendetsen, the two witnesses before the commission most involved in the evacuation decision, testified that it was not taken on the basis of actual incidents of espionage, sabotage or fifth column activity. The commission concluded that the War Department had "failed to scrutinize General DeWitt's demands closely and critically."[^3] From 1947 to 1949 McCloy supported legislation to accept evacuation claims and to grant naturalization rights to Japanese residents not born in the [[United States]]. He opposed the compensation effort that followed the commission's 1983 report and prepared testimony for the House Judiciary Subcommittee on Administrative Law and Governmental Relations in 1984 to 1986.[^6] +McCloy and Bendetsen, the two witnesses before the commission most involved in the evacuation decision, testified that it was not taken on the basis of actual incidents of espionage, sabotage or fifth column activity. The commission concluded that the War Department had "failed to scrutinize General DeWitt's demands closely and critically."[^3] From 1947 to 1949 McCloy supported legislation to accept evacuation claims and to grant naturalization rights to Japanese residents not born in the [[United States]]. He opposed the compensation effort that followed the commission's 1983 report and prepared testimony for the House Judiciary Subcommittee on Administrative Law and Governmental Relations in 1984 to 1986.[^9] -In 1953 the Senate Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act (the [[Jenner Committee]]), headed by Senator [[William E. Jenner]], issued a report referring to "Army tolerance of Communists" during the war and quoting McCloy's 1945 testimony to the [[House Committee on Military Affairs]]. On February 7, 1954, Senator [[Joseph McCarthy]] accused McCloy of having ordered the destruction of Army intelligence files on Communists, and retracted the charge two days later while insisting that McCloy had been the "moving force" behind the commissioning of Communists in the Army. In 1952 Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] named McCloy to a special panel on the loyalty case of the Foreign Service officer [[John Carter Vincent]], with Judge [[Learned Hand]], former Assistant Secretaries of State [[James Grafton Rogers]] and [[G. Howland Chase]], and a former ambassador printed in the finding aid as [[Edmund C. Wilson]]; [[John Foster Dulles]] asked the panel to stop work after the change of administration.[^7] +In 1953 the Senate Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act (the [[Jenner Committee]]), headed by Senator [[William E. Jenner]], issued a report referring to "Army tolerance of Communists" during the war and quoting McCloy's 1945 testimony to the [[House Committee on Military Affairs]]. On February 7, 1954, Senator [[Joseph McCarthy]] accused McCloy of having ordered the destruction of Army intelligence files on Communists, and retracted the charge two days later while insisting that McCloy had been the "moving force" behind the commissioning of Communists in the Army. In 1952 Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] named McCloy to a special panel on the loyalty case of the Foreign Service officer [[John Carter Vincent]], with Judge [[Learned Hand]], former Assistant Secretaries of State [[James Grafton Rogers]] and [[G. Howland Chase]], and a former ambassador printed in the finding aid as [[Edmund C. Wilson]]; [[John Foster Dulles]] asked the panel to stop work after the change of administration.[^10] + +### The Morgenthau Paper, September 1944 + +The editors of *Foreign Relations of the United States: Conferences at Quebec, 1944*, document 90 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944Quebec/d90), state that Stimson's diary for September 7, 8 and 9, 1944 shows that Stimson's two enclosures to his memorandum to [[Cordell Hull]] "were prepared with McCloy's assistance," and that Stimson presented them at the September 9, 1944 meeting of the Cabinet Committee on Germany with Franklin D. Roosevelt.[^11] ### The Auschwitz Letters -In the summer and fall of 1944 the [[World Jewish Congress]] and the [[War Refugee Board]] forwarded requests to the War Department to bomb Auschwitz. On August 14, 1944, McCloy advised that "such an operation could be executed only by the diversion of considerable air support ... now engaged in decisive operations elsewhere and would in any case be of such doubtful efficacy that it would not warrant the use of our resources." Within a week the [[United States Army Air Forces]] carried out a heavy bombing of the [[IG Farben|I.G. Farben]] synthetic oil and rubber (Buna) works near Auschwitz III, less than five miles from the Auschwitz-Birkenau killing center.[^8] On November 18, 1944, answering a letter of November 8 from [[John W. Pehle]], executive director of the War Refugee Board, which forwarded the report of two eyewitnesses on Auschwitz and Birkenau, McCloy wrote that "[t]he Operation Staff of the War Department has given careful consideration to your suggestion." He listed five points, among them that the target was beyond the maximum range of medium bombers, dive bombers and fighter bombers in the [[United Kingdom]], France or Italy, that heavy bombers from British bases would face a "hazardous round trip flight unescorted of approximately 2,000 miles over enemy territory," and that "our strategic air forces are engaged in the destruction of industrial target systems vital to the dwindling war potential of the enemy, from which they should not be diverted." He added: "I know that you have been reluctant to press this activity on the War Department. We have been pressed strongly from other quarters, however, and have taken the best military opinion on its feasibility."[^9] +In the summer and fall of 1944 the [[World Jewish Congress]] and the [[War Refugee Board]] forwarded requests to the War Department to bomb Auschwitz. On August 14, 1944, McCloy advised that "such an operation could be executed only by the diversion of considerable air support ... now engaged in decisive operations elsewhere and would in any case be of such doubtful efficacy that it would not warrant the use of our resources." Within a week the [[United States Army Air Forces]] carried out a heavy bombing of the [[IG Farben|I.G. Farben]] synthetic oil and rubber (Buna) works near Auschwitz III, less than five miles from the Auschwitz-Birkenau killing center.[^12] On November 18, 1944, answering a letter of November 8 from [[John W. Pehle]], executive director of the War Refugee Board, which forwarded the report of two eyewitnesses on Auschwitz and Birkenau, McCloy wrote that "[t]he Operation Staff of the War Department has given careful consideration to your suggestion." He listed five points, among them that the target was beyond the maximum range of medium bombers, dive bombers and fighter bombers in the [[United Kingdom]], France or Italy, that heavy bombers from British bases would face a "hazardous round trip flight unescorted of approximately 2,000 miles over enemy territory," and that "our strategic air forces are engaged in the destruction of industrial target systems vital to the dwindling war potential of the enemy, from which they should not be diverted." He added: "I know that you have been reluctant to press this activity on the War Department. We have been pressed strongly from other quarters, however, and have taken the best military opinion on its feasibility."[^13] ### The Strategic Services Unit -A CIA historical index card dated December 21, 1965 summarizes two memoranda on the War Department's [[Strategic Services Unit]] (SSU): one from Secretary of War [[Robert P. Patterson]] of September 27, 1945, implementing an executive order of September 20 and designating a War Department representative to administer, operate and liquidate the unit "under authority and policies to be determined by Asst SecWar," and one from McCloy of September 26, 1945, instructing him to examine the unit's facilities to determine their disposition, coordinate with the State Department and the Bureau of the Budget, "preserve SSU functions of peacetime value" and follow War Department fiscal procedures. The card's compiler commented that while the SSU director had the mission to liquidate wartime activities and preserve functions suitable for peacetime, "SSU itself appears to be without any operational mission." The name of the designated representative is withheld in the released card.[^10] +A CIA historical index card dated December 21, 1965 summarizes two memoranda on the War Department's [[Strategic Services Unit]] (SSU): one from Secretary of War [[Robert P. Patterson]] of September 27, 1945, implementing an executive order of September 20 and designating a War Department representative to administer, operate and liquidate the unit "under authority and policies to be determined by Asst SecWar," and one from McCloy of September 26, 1945, instructing him to examine the unit's facilities to determine their disposition, coordinate with the State Department and the Bureau of the Budget, "preserve SSU functions of peacetime value" and follow War Department fiscal procedures. The card's compiler commented that while the SSU director had the mission to liquidate wartime activities and preserve functions suitable for peacetime, "SSU itself appears to be without any operational mission." The name of the designated representative is withheld in the released card.[^14] ### World Bank and the High Commissionership -McCloy practiced with [[Milbank Tweed|Milbank, Tweed, Hope & Hadley]] in 1946 and 1947.[^1] He was the second president of the World Bank, from March 17, 1947 to June 30, 1949; during his tenure the Bank began to borrow in the capital market and made its first reconstruction and development loans, and he proposed his associate [[Eugene R. Black]] as his successor.[^11] At a meeting on April 30, 1949, [[Harry S. Truman]] asked him to become High Commissioner for Germany, and he resigned from the Bank on May 18, 1949.[^12] The [[Office of the U.S. High Commissioner for Germany]] (HICOG) was established on September 21, 1949, with the creation of the Federal Republic, and McCloy, its first High Commissioner, served until August 1, 1952; the Amherst chronology dates his tenure as Military Governor and High Commissioner from July 1949 to July 1952.[^13] [^1] +McCloy practiced with [[Milbank Tweed|Milbank, Tweed, Hope & Hadley]] in 1946 and 1947.[^1] He was the second president of the World Bank, from March 17, 1947 to June 30, 1949; during his tenure the Bank began to borrow in the capital market and made its first reconstruction and development loans, and he proposed his associate [[Eugene R. Black]] as his successor.[^15] At a meeting on April 30, 1949, [[Harry S. Truman]] asked him to become High Commissioner for Germany, and he resigned from the Bank on May 18, 1949.[^16] The [[Office of the U.S. High Commissioner for Germany]] (HICOG) was established on September 21, 1949, with the creation of the Federal Republic, and McCloy, its first High Commissioner, served until August 1, 1952; the Amherst chronology dates his tenure as Military Governor and High Commissioner from July 1949 to July 1952.[^17] [^1] -On August 18, 1949, [[Director of Central Intelligence]] [[Roscoe Hillenkoetter]] wrote McCloy that a change in the payment of German employees of American units in Germany had affected "[t]he Central Intelligence Agency unit in Germany, the Department of the Army Detachment," and requested that McCloy allot to the detachment, "from the German reparations account," a sum (withheld in the released copy) per year for the salaries of German service personnel who had worked with the CIA unit since the occupation. Hillenkoetter wrote that the Agency had no provision in its budget to carry them and that it wished "to do all possible to aid you in every way you may desire to carry out the aims of your mission."[^14] On January 12, 1951, Director [[Walter Bedell Smith]] answered a McCloy letter of December 12, 1950 concerning his talks with a person whose name is withheld, writing that "Bill, Allen Dulles and I are doing the best we can." On June 19, 1951, Deputy Director [[Allen Dulles]] returned to McCloy a paper he had handed Dulles the night before, keeping a copy, and promised the Agency's views on its recommendations.[^15] +On August 18, 1949, [[Director of Central Intelligence]] [[Roscoe Hillenkoetter]] wrote McCloy that a change in the payment of German employees of American units in Germany had affected "[t]he Central Intelligence Agency unit in Germany, the Department of the Army Detachment," and requested that McCloy allot to the detachment, "from the German reparations account," a sum (withheld in the released copy) per year for the salaries of German service personnel who had worked with the CIA unit since the occupation. Hillenkoetter wrote that the Agency had no provision in its budget to carry them and that it wished "to do all possible to aid you in every way you may desire to carry out the aims of your mission."[^18] On January 12, 1951, Director [[Walter Bedell Smith]] answered a McCloy letter of December 12, 1950 concerning his talks with a person whose name is withheld, writing that "Bill, Allen Dulles and I are doing the best we can." On June 19, 1951, Deputy Director [[Allen Dulles]] returned to McCloy a paper he had handed Dulles the night before, keeping a copy, and promised the Agency's views on its recommendations.[^19] ### The Landsberg Clemency Decisions -McCloy appointed an [[Advisory Board on Clemency for War Criminals]] in March 1950 to review petitions from prisoners convicted by the [[Nuremberg Military Tribunals]] and held at [[Landsberg Prison]]. Its members were [[David W. Peck]], Presiding Justice of the Appellate Division, First Department, of the New York Supreme Court (chairman); [[Frederick A. Moran]], chairman of the New York Board of Parole; and Brigadier General [[Conrad E. Snow]], Assistant Legal Adviser of the [[State Department|Department of State]]. The board began in Washington, established itself in [[Munich]] in July 1950, sat there for forty days, read the judgments in the cases of 104 defendants and heard 50 counsel representing 90 of them. On January 31, 1951, McCloy announced his decisions: of fifteen death sentences, ten were commuted and five confirmed, four against leaders of the SS [[Einsatzgruppen]] and one against the former head of the concentration camp administration (WVHA).[^16] +McCloy appointed an [[Advisory Board on Clemency for War Criminals]] in March 1950 to review petitions from prisoners convicted by the [[Nuremberg Military Tribunals]] and held at [[Landsberg Prison]]. Its members were [[David W. Peck]], Presiding Justice of the Appellate Division, First Department, of the New York Supreme Court (chairman); [[Frederick A. Moran]], chairman of the New York Board of Parole; and Brigadier General [[Conrad E. Snow]], Assistant Legal Adviser of the [[State Department|Department of State]]. The board began in Washington, established itself in [[Munich]] in July 1950, sat there for forty days, read the judgments in the cases of 104 defendants and heard 50 counsel representing 90 of them. On January 31, 1951, McCloy announced his decisions: of fifteen death sentences, ten were commuted and five confirmed, four against leaders of the SS [[Einsatzgruppen]] and one against the former head of the concentration camp administration (WVHA).[^20] -In the Krupp case (Case 10), McCloy wrote that the guilt of the defendants "was no greater in these cases than that involved in the Farben and Flick cases" and reduced the sentences "so that the terms served will conform approximately to the sentences in similar cases." The decisions, as printed by his office, were: [[Alfried Krupp|Alfried Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach]], "from 12 years and confiscation of all property to time served and no confiscation"; [[Friedrich von Buelow]] and [[Erich Mueller]], from twelve years to time served; [[Eduard Houdremont]] and [[Friedrich Janssen]], from ten years to time served; [[Karl Eberhardt]] and [[Max Ihn]], from nine years to time served; and [[Heinrich Korschan]] and [[Heinrich Lehmann]], from six years to time served. McCloy described the confiscation decree as "the sole case of confiscation decreed against any defendant by the Nuremberg courts," wrote that he could "find no personal guilt in defendant Krupp, based upon the charges in this case, sufficient to distinguish him above all others sentenced by the Nuremberg Courts," and added that he was "making no judgments as to the ultimate title to the former Krupp property," which "will be subject to AHC Law Number 27, 'Reorganization of the German Coal, Iron and Steel Industries,' and is not affected by this decision."[^17] In the Ministries case he approved the board's reduction of the sentence of [[Gottlob Berger]], a close associate of [[Heinrich Himmler]], from twenty-five years to ten, and noted that he had already commuted the sentence of [[Ernst von Weizsäcker]] to time served. The announcement made no mention of the Flick and Farben cases, because all of the defendants in them had been released or were eligible for release.[^18] +In the Krupp case (Case 10), McCloy wrote that the guilt of the defendants "was no greater in these cases than that involved in the Farben and Flick cases" and reduced the sentences "so that the terms served will conform approximately to the sentences in similar cases." The decisions, as printed by his office, were: [[Alfried Krupp|Alfried Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach]], "from 12 years and confiscation of all property to time served and no confiscation"; [[Friedrich von Buelow]] and [[Erich Mueller]], from twelve years to time served; [[Eduard Houdremont]] and [[Friedrich Janssen]], from ten years to time served; [[Karl Eberhardt]] and [[Max Ihn]], from nine years to time served; and [[Heinrich Korschan]] and [[Heinrich Lehmann]], from six years to time served. McCloy described the confiscation decree as "the sole case of confiscation decreed against any defendant by the Nuremberg courts," wrote that he could "find no personal guilt in defendant Krupp, based upon the charges in this case, sufficient to distinguish him above all others sentenced by the Nuremberg Courts," and added that he was "making no judgments as to the ultimate title to the former Krupp property," which "will be subject to AHC Law Number 27, 'Reorganization of the German Coal, Iron and Steel Industries,' and is not affected by this decision."[^21] In the Ministries case he approved the board's reduction of the sentence of [[Gottlob Berger]], a close associate of [[Heinrich Himmler]], from twenty-five years to ten, and noted that he had already commuted the sentence of [[Ernst von Weizsäcker]] to time served. The announcement made no mention of the Flick and Farben cases, because all of the defendants in them had been released or were eligible for release.[^22] -On May 9, 1952, reporting to the State Department on meetings with coalition party leaders over the contractual agreements ending the occupation, McCloy wrote that leaders of the German Party "recommended inter alia early release of war criminals of type of Manstein and Kesselring as gesture of good will," and that he had "gained impression that DP and FDP objections to war criminal provisions were not really fundamental and that review board procedure, if instituted at an early date, wld placate them."[^19] +On May 9, 1952, reporting to the State Department on meetings with coalition party leaders over the contractual agreements ending the occupation, McCloy wrote that leaders of the German Party "recommended inter alia early release of war criminals of type of Manstein and Kesselring as gesture of good will," and that he had "gained impression that DP and FDP objections to war criminal provisions were not really fundamental and that review board procedure, if instituted at an early date, wld placate them."[^23] ### Klaus Barbie and the Cables over McCloy's Name -Cables from the High Commission concerning [[Klaus Barbie]] went out over McCloy's name; [[Allan A. Ryan]], in his 1983 report to the Attorney General, wrote that this followed the State Department practice by which embassy cables carry the ambassador's name, and that "[o]ne cannot infer from this practice that the ambassador or other signatory actually read or knew about the cable." In June 1950, after a French note of May 5 demanding Barbie's surrender, Deputy Political Adviser [[E. Allan Lightner]] wrote that McCloy had decided to "smoke out EUCOM on the matter to see how far they would go in helping to find this character, and to get more details as to just how embarrassing it would be to them (CIC) if he were turned over to the French." On June 16, 1950, [[Benjamin Shute]], director of HICOG's Office of Intelligence, was told at [[European Command]] headquarters in [[Heidelberg]] that the [[Counter Intelligence Corps]] had ended Barbie's employment on May 24, 1949 and had kept in contact with him until late April 1950. Ryan found that "[t]hese representations by CIC and EUCOM were false": the Counter Intelligence Corps employed and paid Barbie, and knew where he was, from April 1947 until he left for [[South America]] in March 1951. Ryan found Lightner's language not inconsistent with the conclusion that no one at HICOG knew Barbie was still in CIC custody, and recorded that "[n]either Lightner nor McCloy recalled the Barbie matter when questioned in this investigation."[^20] +Cables from the High Commission concerning [[Klaus Barbie]] went out over McCloy's name; [[Allan A. Ryan]], in his 1983 report to the Attorney General, wrote that this followed the State Department practice by which embassy cables carry the ambassador's name, and that "[o]ne cannot infer from this practice that the ambassador or other signatory actually read or knew about the cable." In June 1950, after a French note of May 5 demanding Barbie's surrender, Deputy Political Adviser [[E. Allan Lightner]] wrote that McCloy had decided to "smoke out EUCOM on the matter to see how far they would go in helping to find this character, and to get more details as to just how embarrassing it would be to them (CIC) if he were turned over to the French." On June 16, 1950, [[Benjamin Shute]], director of HICOG's Office of Intelligence, was told at [[European Command]] headquarters in [[Heidelberg]] that the [[Counter Intelligence Corps]] had ended Barbie's employment on May 24, 1949 and had kept in contact with him until late April 1950. Ryan found that "[t]hese representations by CIC and EUCOM were false": the Counter Intelligence Corps employed and paid Barbie, and knew where he was, from April 1947 until he left for [[South America]] in March 1951. Ryan found Lightner's language not inconsistent with the conclusion that no one at HICOG knew Barbie was still in CIC custody, and recorded that "[n]either Lightner nor McCloy recalled the Barbie matter when questioned in this investigation."[^24] ### The Ford Foundation, the Council on Foreign Relations and the CIA -McCloy was brought into the Ford Foundation as a consultant by [[Henry Ford II]] and insisted that it add a full European program, directed by his former HICOG public affairs director, [[Shepard Stone]]. In a letter of December 31, 1951, as he prepared to leave Germany, McCloy urged [[Paul G. Hoffman]] that the Foundation "help to carry on certain operations which the future [US] Embassy may find difficult to continue, but which are of great significance to United States objectives in Germany."[^21] The Amherst finding aid describes his tenure as chairman of the Foundation's board of trustees as running from 1952 to 1965; his Ford papers include a report of the [[Reece Committee|House Special Committee to Investigate Tax-Exempt Foundations]] and [[Grenville Clark]]'s 1954 proposal for a Foundation-supported program on disarmament.[^22] +McCloy was brought into the Ford Foundation as a consultant by [[Henry Ford II]] and insisted that it add a full European program, directed by his former HICOG public affairs director, [[Shepard Stone]]. In a letter of December 31, 1951, as he prepared to leave Germany, McCloy urged [[Paul G. Hoffman]] that the Foundation "help to carry on certain operations which the future [US] Embassy may find difficult to continue, but which are of great significance to United States objectives in Germany."[^25] The Amherst finding aid describes his tenure as chairman of the Foundation's board of trustees as running from 1952 to 1965; his Ford papers include a report of the [[Reece Committee|House Special Committee to Investigate Tax-Exempt Foundations]] and [[Grenville Clark]]'s 1954 proposal for a Foundation-supported program on disarmament.[^26] -On April 29, 1953, McCloy, on Council on Foreign Relations letterhead, wrote Allen Dulles, by then Director of Central Intelligence, that he was "delighted to have a report from Shep Stone" that Dulles would join a Council study group on relations between the democratic nations and the [[Soviet Union]], "undertaken at the Council on Foreign Relations under a grant of the Ford Foundation," with a full-time staff under [[Henry L. Roberts]] of [[Columbia University]]. "Though the group will be entirely unofficial, its findings will be made available to our government," he wrote, adding that the CIA's [[Robert Amory]] would attend the first dinner meeting on May 6, 1953.[^23] In a letter of February 25, 1954, quoted by the historian [[Volker Berghahn]] and cited by Harm Langenkamp, Stone wrote McCloy about the [[Congress for Cultural Freedom]]: "you know the sources of funds that have hitherto been supplied to the Congress, but in our conversation with these gentlemen [Nabokov and Rougemont] we should not reveal what we know."[^24] +On April 29, 1953, McCloy, on Council on Foreign Relations letterhead, wrote Allen Dulles, by then Director of Central Intelligence, that he was "delighted to have a report from Shep Stone" that Dulles would join a Council study group on relations between the democratic nations and the [[Soviet Union]], "undertaken at the Council on Foreign Relations under a grant of the Ford Foundation," with a full-time staff under [[Henry L. Roberts]] of [[Columbia University]]. "Though the group will be entirely unofficial, its findings will be made available to our government," he wrote, adding that the CIA's [[Robert Amory]] would attend the first dinner meeting on May 6, 1953.[^27] In a letter of February 25, 1954, quoted by the historian [[Volker Berghahn]] and cited by Harm Langenkamp, Stone wrote McCloy about the [[Congress for Cultural Freedom]]: "you know the sources of funds that have hitherto been supplied to the Congress, but in our conversation with these gentlemen [Nabokov and Rougemont] we should not reveal what we know."[^28] -A memorandum of May 21, 1954 by [[Don K. Price]] set the Foundation's policy on government-sponsored programs: such projects could be recommended if "worth support on their merits, regardless of any official interest," and with the prior approval of three trustees, "the Chairman, the President, and 'Mr. McCloy.'" Langenkamp, citing Price's 1972 oral history and McCloy's interview with [[Kai Bird]], writes that McCloy and Price later defended the arrangement as a means of limiting the [[Central Intelligence Agency]]'s access to Foundation officers and grantees, quotes McCloy as saying the Foundation could not keep its "shirts clean" had it closed the door on the Agency entirely, and quotes Price's warning to Dulles and [[Frank Wisner]]: "The first time you meddle with our boys, we'll quit this whole program." In 1958 Dulles invited Foundation officers to Washington for a briefing on Agency operations, and in 1959 Price reached an understanding allowing the CIA to approach Foundation fellows after their grants expired; in the early 1960s Foundation president [[Henry T. Heald]] repeated the Foundation's position to Director [[John McCone]].[^24] Writing of 1962, when Stone sought a five-year guarantee of some $2,000,000 a year to free the Congress for Cultural Freedom from the CIA's treasury, Langenkamp describes McCloy as Stone's "staunchest ally" and as having by then assumed the chairmanship of the board. The Congress, which the CIA had tried from the outset to transfer to the Ford and Rockefeller foundations, reached self-sufficiency through Ford's 1957 to 1962 grant at the moment the cover of the Agency's network of front organizations was blown; Stone's 1962 proposal itself foundered.[^25] The foundation's 1965 annual report states that McCloy served on the board of trustees from 1953 and as its chairman from 1959, retiring on December 31, 1965, and that [[Julius A. Stratton]], president of the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] and a trustee since 1955, was elected chairman to replace him.[^26] +A memorandum of May 21, 1954 by [[Don K. Price]] set the Foundation's policy on government-sponsored programs: such projects could be recommended if "worth support on their merits, regardless of any official interest," and with the prior approval of three trustees, "the Chairman, the President, and 'Mr. McCloy.'" Langenkamp, citing Price's 1972 oral history and McCloy's interview with [[Kai Bird]], writes that McCloy and Price later defended the arrangement as a means of limiting the [[Central Intelligence Agency]]'s access to Foundation officers and grantees, quotes McCloy as saying the Foundation could not keep its "shirts clean" had it closed the door on the Agency entirely, and quotes Price's warning to Dulles and [[Frank Wisner]]: "The first time you meddle with our boys, we'll quit this whole program." In 1958 Dulles invited Foundation officers to Washington for a briefing on Agency operations, and in 1959 Price reached an understanding allowing the CIA to approach Foundation fellows after their grants expired; in the early 1960s Foundation president [[Henry T. Heald]] repeated the Foundation's position to Director [[John McCone]].[^28] Writing of 1962, when Stone sought a five-year guarantee of some $2,000,000 a year to free the Congress for Cultural Freedom from the CIA's treasury, Langenkamp describes McCloy as Stone's "staunchest ally" and as having by then assumed the chairmanship of the board. The Congress, which the CIA had tried from the outset to transfer to the Ford and Rockefeller foundations, reached self-sufficiency through Ford's 1957 to 1962 grant at the moment the cover of the Agency's network of front organizations was blown; Stone's 1962 proposal itself foundered.[^29] The foundation's 1965 annual report states that McCloy served on the board of trustees from 1953 and as its chairman from 1959, retiring on December 31, 1965, and that [[Julius A. Stratton]], president of the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] and a trustee since 1955, was elected chairman to replace him.[^30] McCloy was chairman of the Council on Foreign Relations from 1953 to 1971.[^1] ### Chase Manhattan -McCloy was chairman of the board of the Chase National Bank from January 1953 to December 1960; the bank merged with the [[Bank of the Manhattan Company]] in April 1955 to form the Chase Manhattan Bank.[^1] His papers include six volumes of appointment and telephone logs kept as chairman from 1953 to 1958, consisting mostly of names with almost no notation of subject matter, and correspondence of March 1960 concerning his retirement from the bank.[^27] On April 20, 1962, Deputy Director of Central Intelligence [[Marshall S. Carter]] wrote him at One Chase Manhattan Plaza that he was being briefed that afternoon on "the other matter" they had discussed by telephone and would come back with "a substantive proposal."[^28] +McCloy was chairman of the board of the Chase National Bank from January 1953 to December 1960; the bank merged with the [[Bank of the Manhattan Company]] in April 1955 to form the Chase Manhattan Bank.[^1] His papers include six volumes of appointment and telephone logs kept as chairman from 1953 to 1958, consisting mostly of names with almost no notation of subject matter, and correspondence of March 1960 concerning his retirement from the bank.[^31] On April 20, 1962, Deputy Director of Central Intelligence [[Marshall S. Carter]] wrote him at One Chase Manhattan Plaza that he was being briefed that afternoon on "the other matter" they had discussed by telephone and would come back with "a substantive proposal."[^32] ### Counsel to the Oil Companies -From 1961 McCloy was a name partner of Milbank, Tweed, Hope, Hadley & McCloy.[^1] For much of the 1960s and 1970s he advised the "McCloy Group," representatives of most of the major American oil companies and several European and British firms, on legal questions and on foreign and domestic policy, and advocated on their behalf in the Justice Department, the State Department and Congress. His files on the group include representation agreements dated March 20 to August 2, 1962. He kept the Antitrust Division informed of oil group meetings and negotiations, sought specific clearance for actions that might have been construed as violations of the antitrust laws, and "made a point of holding briefing meetings with each new Attorney General to ensure a continuity of contact and goodwill with the Department."[^29] +From 1961 McCloy was a name partner of Milbank, Tweed, Hope, Hadley & McCloy.[^1] For much of the 1960s and 1970s he advised the "McCloy Group," representatives of most of the major American oil companies and several European and British firms, on legal questions and on foreign and domestic policy, and advocated on their behalf in the Justice Department, the State Department and Congress. His files on the group include representation agreements dated March 20 to August 2, 1962. He kept the Antitrust Division informed of oil group meetings and negotiations, sought specific clearance for actions that might have been construed as violations of the antitrust laws, and "made a point of holding briefing meetings with each new Attorney General to ensure a continuity of contact and goodwill with the Department."[^33] -From the early 1960s McCloy represented the Seven Sisters ([[Gulf Oil|Gulf]], [[Royal Dutch Shell|Shell]], [[BP]], [[ExxonMobil|Exxon]], [[Standard Oil of California|Socal]], [[Texaco]] and [[Mobil]]) and was engaged by other companies operating in the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean. He testified to the [[Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations]] of the [[Senate Foreign Relations Committee|Senate Committee on Foreign Relations]], chaired by Senator [[Frank Church]], that while an adviser to President [[John F. Kennedy]] he raised the possibility of joint action by the companies against the combined pressure of the producing countries, and that the President arranged a meeting with Attorney General [[Robert Kennedy|Robert F. Kennedy]]. Asked whether the understanding was ever formalized, he answered: "No, I don't believe I ever got a letter from him in regard to it." He informed Deputy Attorney General [[Byron White]] and Attorneys General [[Nicholas Katzenbach]], [[Ramsey Clark]] and [[John N. Mitchell|John Mitchell]] of his concerns about [[OPEC]] in informal conversations.[^30] +From the early 1960s McCloy represented the Seven Sisters ([[Gulf Oil|Gulf]], [[Royal Dutch Shell|Shell]], [[BP]], [[ExxonMobil|Exxon]], [[Standard Oil of California|Socal]], [[Texaco]] and [[Mobil]]) and was engaged by other companies operating in the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean. He testified to the [[Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations]] of the [[Senate Foreign Relations Committee|Senate Committee on Foreign Relations]], chaired by Senator [[Frank Church]], that while an adviser to President [[John F. Kennedy]] he raised the possibility of joint action by the companies against the combined pressure of the producing countries, and that the President arranged a meeting with Attorney General [[Robert Kennedy|Robert F. Kennedy]]. Asked whether the understanding was ever formalized, he answered: "No, I don't believe I ever got a letter from him in regard to it." He informed Deputy Attorney General [[Byron White]] and Attorneys General [[Nicholas Katzenbach]], [[Ramsey Clark]] and [[John N. Mitchell|John Mitchell]] of his concerns about [[OPEC]] in informal conversations.[^34] -On January 11, 1967, as the [[Internal Revenue Service]] questioned the industry's pricing practices, McCloy wrote Secretary of State [[Dean Rusk]] about an IRS audit of the tax returns of the five American majors: "I believe that the Department of State has a particular responsibility to make known to the Treasury Department the implications of its proposed attack on crude oil prices," because the system of royalties and creditable local income taxes "was recommended to the oil companies and to the foreign governments involved in the Department of State and the Treasury Department," and without it "large amounts of direct foreign aid might well be required." The subcommittee found that the failure of the IRS to reverse its original ruling after posted and realized prices diverged in 1957 "has cost the U.S. Treasury billions of dollars in revenues"; in 1973 Exxon paid an effective rate of 11.2 percent on earnings of $2.98 billion, Mobil 5 percent and Texaco 2.3 percent.[^31] +On January 11, 1967, as the [[Internal Revenue Service]] questioned the industry's pricing practices, McCloy wrote Secretary of State [[Dean Rusk]] about an IRS audit of the tax returns of the five American majors: "I believe that the Department of State has a particular responsibility to make known to the Treasury Department the implications of its proposed attack on crude oil prices," because the system of royalties and creditable local income taxes "was recommended to the oil companies and to the foreign governments involved in the Department of State and the Treasury Department," and without it "large amounts of direct foreign aid might well be required." The subcommittee found that the failure of the IRS to reverse its original ruling after posted and realized prices diverged in 1957 "has cost the U.S. Treasury billions of dollars in revenues"; in 1973 Exxon paid an effective rate of 11.2 percent on earnings of $2.98 billion, Mobil 5 percent and Texaco 2.3 percent.[^35] -On December 9, 1969, McCloy joined [[David Rockefeller]] and the men listed as [[J. K. Jamieson|Jamieson]], Anderson, [[Rawleigh Warner|Warner]] and [[John Swearingen|Swearingen]] in a meeting with President [[Richard Nixon]] and [[Henry A. Kissinger|Henry Kissinger]] on the [[Middle East]]; Kissinger's briefing memorandum titled it "Your Meeting with the David Rockefeller Group."[^32] +On December 9, 1969, McCloy joined [[David Rockefeller]] and the men listed as [[J. K. Jamieson|Jamieson]], Anderson, [[Rawleigh Warner|Warner]] and [[John Swearingen|Swearingen]] in a meeting with President [[Richard Nixon]] and [[Henry A. Kissinger|Henry Kissinger]] on the [[Middle East]]; Kissinger's briefing memorandum titled it "Your Meeting with the David Rockefeller Group."[^36] ### The Libyan Producers Agreement and the Business Review Letters -On September 25, 1970, McCloy attended, as attorney for several of the major companies, a meeting at which Under Secretary of State [[U. Alexis Johnson]] told the companies operating in [[Libya]] that United States intervention with the Libyan government would be "ineffective at best."[^33] On September 29, 1970, [[Peter Flanigan]], the President's Assistant for International Economic Affairs, recorded that McCloy, "representative of the International Oil Company," had spoken with Johnson; that Flanigan had cleared with Attorney General Mitchell that the companies could discuss a Libyan proposal together "if they were to sit down together with a member of the Justice Department"; and that "[t]his information was given to John McCloy who also spoke to Mitchell." Flanigan suggested to McCloy that the penalties of a break with Libya were greater than those of a settlement, reasoning that a settlement's cost increase would fall on all European and Japanese supplies but only a small part of American supplies, so that "the result would be a competitive benefit to the United States"; he told McCloy the government would expect the companies "to follow the course that they and he thought best."[^34] On January 7, 1971, Johnson met representatives of Esso, Mobil, Gulf, Texaco and Socal and "attorney John McCloy" on OPEC's demands; McCloy said the producers' cartel was in "very strong bargaining position" and asked whether the State Department "could be helpful with Department of Justice in obtaining permission under anti-trust laws for companies to coordinate response."[^35] [[James Akins]] of the State Department and [[Dudley Chapman]] of the Antitrust Division were detailed to work with the companies and McCloy on the documents.[^30] +On September 25, 1970, McCloy attended, as attorney for several of the major companies, a meeting at which Under Secretary of State [[U. Alexis Johnson]] told the companies operating in [[Libya]] that United States intervention with the Libyan government would be "ineffective at best."[^37] On September 29, 1970, [[Peter Flanigan]], the President's Assistant for International Economic Affairs, recorded that McCloy, "representative of the International Oil Company," had spoken with Johnson; that Flanigan had cleared with Attorney General Mitchell that the companies could discuss a Libyan proposal together "if they were to sit down together with a member of the Justice Department"; and that "[t]his information was given to John McCloy who also spoke to Mitchell." Flanigan suggested to McCloy that the penalties of a break with Libya were greater than those of a settlement, reasoning that a settlement's cost increase would fall on all European and Japanese supplies but only a small part of American supplies, so that "the result would be a competitive benefit to the United States"; he told McCloy the government would expect the companies "to follow the course that they and he thought best."[^38] On January 7, 1971, Johnson met representatives of Esso, Mobil, Gulf, Texaco and Socal and "attorney John McCloy" on OPEC's demands; McCloy said the producers' cartel was in "very strong bargaining position" and asked whether the State Department "could be helpful with Department of Justice in obtaining permission under anti-trust laws for companies to coordinate response."[^39] [[James Akins]] of the State Department and [[Dudley Chapman]] of the Antitrust Division were detailed to work with the companies and McCloy on the documents.[^34] -The [[United States Department of Justice Antitrust Division|Antitrust Division]] under Assistant Attorney General [[Richard W. McLaren]] issued [[Business Review letter|Business Review letters]] to McCloy covering a joint "[[Message to OPEC]]" and the [[Libyan Producers Agreement]] (the Safety Net Agreement), under which Libyan producers would replace the production of any company shut in for resisting Libyan demands, with Persian Gulf production to be shared under specified circumstances. The letters stated that the Department "does not presently intend to institute any proceedings under the antitrust laws." The subcommittee's report dates the letters January 19, 1971, and in the next paragraph places a January 15 meeting of McCloy and the chief executives with Secretary of State [[William P. Rogers]] and Under Secretary [[John N. Irwin II]] "two days after the issuance of the Business Review letters." At that meeting the companies sought a high-level mission to the producing countries; asked by Church whether he had suggested Irwin, McCloy answered: "No. As long as it was a person of dignity, with clout, to use that expression." Irwin, sent with Nixon's authorization, recommended from [[Tehran]] that the companies negotiate with the Gulf states separately; Rogers communicated the recommendation to McCloy, who informed the chief executives, and the subcommittee found that the State Department had thereby abandoned the strategy of a single global negotiation that lay at the heart of the Message to OPEC and the Business Review letters.[^35] [^36] +The [[United States Department of Justice Antitrust Division|Antitrust Division]] under Assistant Attorney General [[Richard W. McLaren]] issued [[Business Review letter|Business Review letters]] to McCloy covering a joint "[[Message to OPEC]]" and the [[Libyan Producers Agreement]] (the Safety Net Agreement), under which Libyan producers would replace the production of any company shut in for resisting Libyan demands, with Persian Gulf production to be shared under specified circumstances. The letters stated that the Department "does not presently intend to institute any proceedings under the antitrust laws." The subcommittee's report dates the letters January 19, 1971, and in the next paragraph places a January 15 meeting of McCloy and the chief executives with Secretary of State [[William P. Rogers]] and Under Secretary [[John N. Irwin II]] "two days after the issuance of the Business Review letters." At that meeting the companies sought a high-level mission to the producing countries; asked by Church whether he had suggested Irwin, McCloy answered: "No. As long as it was a person of dignity, with clout, to use that expression." Irwin, sent with Nixon's authorization, recommended from [[Tehran]] that the companies negotiate with the Gulf states separately; Rogers communicated the recommendation to McCloy, who informed the chief executives, and the subcommittee found that the State Department had thereby abandoned the strategy of a single global negotiation that lay at the heart of the Message to OPEC and the Business Review letters.[^39] [^40] -The companies formed a [[London Policy Group]], with a parallel group in New York. Each London Policy Group meeting, on dates from January 20 to June 18, 1971, "was attended by a partner or associate from the firm of Milbank, Tweed, Hadley & McCloy, counsel for the oil companies, whose function was to assure that the discussions remained within the terms of the Message to OPEC, the Libyan Producers Agreement, and the pertinent business review letters from the Antitrust Division." "No member of the Departments of Justice or State attended any of these meetings; instead, both Departments relied upon ex post-factor [sic] oral reports by oil company executives to Akins and written reports from McCloy to McLaren."[^36] The subcommittee found "no evidence of any Department of Justice monitoring of the negotiations"; not until October 1973, after subcommittee staff began to inquire, did anyone at the Department read the cable record of the company-OPEC negotiations.[^37] The February 14, 1971 [[Tehran Agreement]] raised the Gulf governments' take by an estimated $11.7 billion over five years, a cost McCloy described to McLaren as "extremely high."[^36] +The companies formed a [[London Policy Group]], with a parallel group in New York. Each London Policy Group meeting, on dates from January 20 to June 18, 1971, "was attended by a partner or associate from the firm of Milbank, Tweed, Hadley & McCloy, counsel for the oil companies, whose function was to assure that the discussions remained within the terms of the Message to OPEC, the Libyan Producers Agreement, and the pertinent business review letters from the Antitrust Division." "No member of the Departments of Justice or State attended any of these meetings; instead, both Departments relied upon ex post-factor [sic] oral reports by oil company executives to Akins and written reports from McCloy to McLaren."[^40] The subcommittee found "no evidence of any Department of Justice monitoring of the negotiations"; not until October 1973, after subcommittee staff began to inquire, did anyone at the Department read the cable record of the company-OPEC negotiations.[^41] The February 14, 1971 [[Tehran Agreement]] raised the Gulf governments' take by an estimated $11.7 billion over five years, a cost McCloy described to McLaren as "extremely high."[^40] -On October 15, 1971, McCloy informed McLaren that Libya had taken unilateral steps on exchange rates, and on October 19 he asked for further Business Review letters covering joint negotiation on currency parity and participation and an extension of the sharing agreement; the Department issued new letters addressed to him.[^38] At a State Department meeting on January 3, 1972 attended by the chairmen of the major companies, [[Nelson Bunker Hunt]] and McCloy, the Under Secretary of State proposed an industry advisory body; on January 20 McCloy and Akins agreed that an informal body was acceptable, and McCloy reported that some executives were "disturbed" by Akins's insistence that the companies change their relationship with the producing countries by 1976.[^39] +On October 15, 1971, McCloy informed McLaren that Libya had taken unilateral steps on exchange rates, and on October 19 he asked for further Business Review letters covering joint negotiation on currency parity and participation and an extension of the sharing agreement; the Department issued new letters addressed to him.[^42] At a State Department meeting on January 3, 1972 attended by the chairmen of the major companies, [[Nelson Bunker Hunt]] and McCloy, the Under Secretary of State proposed an industry advisory body; on January 20 McCloy and Akins agreed that an informal body was acceptable, and McCloy reported that some executives were "disturbed" by Akins's insistence that the companies change their relationship with the producing countries by 1976.[^43] -The Business Review letters required the companies to report to the Justice Department through McCloy. In March 1973 a suit by the [[Corporate Accountability Research Group]] for the documents was pending against the Justice Department, "[a] similar request by [[New York Times|The New York Times]] in 1971 had been averted under the [[Freedom of Information Act]]," and the companies told State Department officials that the sharing agreement was a "form of insurance" that had allowed Bunker Hunt Oil Company to "stand firm" against Libyan demands. On March 23, 1973, [[Warren Clark]] of the North African Office in the Bureau of African Affairs wrote that release would show Libya that the companies had banded together to "denationalize" part of British Petroleum, and that the matter was "very sensitive from a domestic political point of view. The State Department and the USG have sanctioned in these Business Review Letters a strengthening of the international cartel of seven Anglo-Saxon oil companies." A Senate subcommittee "would fry the State Department if it was revealed that we classified these documents in order to protect the 'cartel,' and that we had taken the position that what was good for the cartel was good for US national security." Clark approved keeping the agreement and the letters classified on the narrow ground of proprietary interest.[^40] +The Business Review letters required the companies to report to the Justice Department through McCloy. In March 1973 a suit by the [[Corporate Accountability Research Group]] for the documents was pending against the Justice Department, "[a] similar request by [[New York Times|The New York Times]] in 1971 had been averted under the [[Freedom of Information Act]]," and the companies told State Department officials that the sharing agreement was a "form of insurance" that had allowed Bunker Hunt Oil Company to "stand firm" against Libyan demands. On March 23, 1973, [[Warren Clark]] of the North African Office in the Bureau of African Affairs wrote that release would show Libya that the companies had banded together to "denationalize" part of British Petroleum, and that the matter was "very sensitive from a domestic political point of view. The State Department and the USG have sanctioned in these Business Review Letters a strengthening of the international cartel of seven Anglo-Saxon oil companies." A Senate subcommittee "would fry the State Department if it was revealed that we classified these documents in order to protect the 'cartel,' and that we had taken the position that what was good for the cartel was good for US national security." Clark approved keeping the agreement and the letters classified on the narrow ground of proprietary interest.[^44] ### Oil Diplomacy in 1973 and 1974 -[[William J. Casey]] sat on McCloy's General Advisory Committee on Arms Control and Disarmament; the committee's letterheads of June 1970 and March and May 1971 list him among the members.[^41] On September 5, 1973, McCloy met Casey, by then Under Secretary of State for Economic Affairs, and asked that the government send a strong note on the illegality of Libya's nationalization, work with the Europeans "to make the Libyan expropriation attempt fail" by obtaining agreement not to buy oil from fields operated by the majors, and lift the environmental sulphur restriction as a demonstration of political determination. [[John Knubel]] of the [[National Security Council]] staff recorded for Kissinger McCloy's estimate that the net shortfall to the United States would be "about 50,000 barrels per day" if the majors stopped pumping Libyan oil, "a manageable amount (according to McCloy)".[^42] On October 12, 1973, during the [[October War]], McCloy sent [[Alexander Haig]] a memorandum by the chairmen of Exxon, Mobil, Texaco and Standard Oil of California, stating that the "chief ARAMCO shareholders" wished it "placed in the President's hands as soon as possible"; the memorandum warned that OPEC's demands could raise the free world's oil cost from the Persian Gulf alone by $15 billion a year, and a notation on Kissinger's covering memorandum of November 3 indicates that Nixon saw it.[^43] +[[William J. Casey]] sat on McCloy's General Advisory Committee on Arms Control and Disarmament; the committee's letterheads of June 1970 and March and May 1971 list him among the members.[^45] On September 5, 1973, McCloy met Casey, by then Under Secretary of State for Economic Affairs, and asked that the government send a strong note on the illegality of Libya's nationalization, work with the Europeans "to make the Libyan expropriation attempt fail" by obtaining agreement not to buy oil from fields operated by the majors, and lift the environmental sulphur restriction as a demonstration of political determination. [[John Knubel]] of the [[National Security Council]] staff recorded for Kissinger McCloy's estimate that the net shortfall to the United States would be "about 50,000 barrels per day" if the majors stopped pumping Libyan oil, "a manageable amount (according to McCloy)".[^46] On October 12, 1973, during the [[October War]], McCloy sent [[Alexander Haig]] a memorandum by the chairmen of Exxon, Mobil, Texaco and Standard Oil of California, stating that the "chief ARAMCO shareholders" wished it "placed in the President's hands as soon as possible"; the memorandum warned that OPEC's demands could raise the free world's oil cost from the Persian Gulf alone by $15 billion a year, and a notation on Kissinger's covering memorandum of November 3 indicates that Nixon saw it.[^47] -On November 20, 1973, Kissinger met ten oil industry executives and McCloy, listed as "Milbank and Tweed," with Assistant Attorney General for Antitrust [[Thomas Kauper]] among the officials present; Kissinger told McCloy he wanted to meet him "and a group of Atlanticists" about the Europeans, and the next day [[Brent Scowcroft]] reported that McCloy was prepared to assemble Americans and Europeans for the purpose. On February 8, 1974, Kissinger telephoned McCloy that "[w]e cannot have the Community organized against us as anti-American."[^44] Opening a meeting with the oil company heads on March 29, 1974, Kissinger said he had called it "after talking with Jack McCloy," and that "[t]he transcript taken here isn't going to go anywhere, except into my own personal files." When Deputy Secretary of Defense [[William Clements]] described the encouragement of technology and industry transfers into [[Saudi Arabia]] and the [[Atlantic Richfield]] chairman, [[Robert O. Anderson]], added, "In exchange for which we get a preferential position," McCloy said: "In other words, pick up the Yamani offer."[^45] +On November 20, 1973, Kissinger met ten oil industry executives and McCloy, listed as "Milbank and Tweed," with Assistant Attorney General for Antitrust [[Thomas Kauper]] among the officials present; Kissinger told McCloy he wanted to meet him "and a group of Atlanticists" about the Europeans, and the next day [[Brent Scowcroft]] reported that McCloy was prepared to assemble Americans and Europeans for the purpose. On February 8, 1974, Kissinger telephoned McCloy that "[w]e cannot have the Community organized against us as anti-American."[^48] Opening a meeting with the oil company heads on March 29, 1974, Kissinger said he had called it "after talking with Jack McCloy," and that "[t]he transcript taken here isn't going to go anywhere, except into my own personal files." When Deputy Secretary of Defense [[William Clements]] described the encouragement of technology and industry transfers into [[Saudi Arabia]] and the [[Atlantic Richfield]] chairman, [[Robert O. Anderson]], added, "In exchange for which we get a preferential position," McCloy said: "In other words, pick up the Yamani offer."[^49] -In a letter of September 21, 1973 to Kauper, McCloy listed his clients and reported that the producing states were again demanding changes to the Tehran and Tripoli agreements. In a later letter to Church he stated that American companies in the Middle East had made an affirmative contribution of over $2 billion to the 1972 balance of payments; the subcommittee found that the Commerce Department estimates on which he relied had "recently been found to be substantially in error" because they were computed on posted rather than realized prices.[^46] The McCloy Group appears to have been inactive from June 1973 to February 1979.[^29] +In a letter of September 21, 1973 to Kauper, McCloy listed his clients and reported that the producing states were again demanding changes to the Tehran and Tripoli agreements. In a later letter to Church he stated that American companies in the Middle East had made an affirmative contribution of over $2 billion to the 1972 balance of payments; the subcommittee found that the Commerce Department estimates on which he relied had "recently been found to be substantially in error" because they were computed on posted rather than realized prices.[^50] The McCloy Group appears to have been inactive from June 1973 to February 1979.[^33] ### The Critchfield Reports and the Oil Files -The International Oil series of his papers contains sub-series I, "Critchfield Reports, 1968-1973," consisting of 49 "perspectives on development" and 16 special reports on Middle East issues. The Amherst archivists state that "[m]ost, if not all," were prepared by [[Basic Resources International]], a [[Falls Church, Virginia]], consulting firm "headed by [[James H. Critchfield]], formerly CIA bureau chief for the Middle East," and that Report 60 is a prospectus for the firm. Sub-series K of the same series holds a folder titled "Chase Manhattan Bank. Financial analysis of thirty-one petroleum companies" among oil company reports for 1964 to 1966. Other folders in the series hold a draft legal brief on taxes on oil company income and drafts of a proposed letter from President Nixon to the Shah of Iran.[^47] +The International Oil series of his papers contains sub-series I, "Critchfield Reports, 1968-1973," consisting of 49 "perspectives on development" and 16 special reports on Middle East issues. The Amherst archivists state that "[m]ost, if not all," were prepared by [[Basic Resources International]], a [[Falls Church, Virginia]], consulting firm "headed by [[James H. Critchfield]], formerly CIA bureau chief for the Middle East," and that Report 60 is a prospectus for the firm. Sub-series K of the same series holds a folder titled "Chase Manhattan Bank. Financial analysis of thirty-one petroleum companies" among oil company reports for 1964 to 1966. Other folders in the series hold a draft legal brief on taxes on oil company income and drafts of a proposed letter from President Nixon to the Shah of Iran.[^51] ### Brazil and the McCone File -On February 21, 1964, Ambassador [[Lincoln Gordon]] reported from [[Rio de Janeiro]] that President [[Joao Goulart|João Goulart]] "said looking forward to McCloy visit and thought Hanna case could have constructive solution." On February 29, 1964, McCloy, then a partner of Milbank, Tweed, Hadley and McCloy, met Goulart in Rio to discuss the status of the M.A. [[Hanna Mining Company]].[^48] On April 9, 1964, at 11:10 a.m., Director of Central Intelligence John McCone and McCloy spoke by telephone; four pages of the source text of the transcript, filed in McCone's "Eyes Only" telephone records, have not been declassified. The same day the three military ministers, [[Artur da Costa e Silva|Artur Costa e Silva]], [[Francisco de Assis Correia de Melo]] and [[Augusto Rademaker|Augusto Hamann Rademaker Grünewald]], signed Brazil's [[Institutional Act]].[^49] On June 10, 1964, President [[Humberto Castelo Branco]] showed Gordon a staff report on "areas of friction abroad," including the Hanna case, and said work on resolving all of them was going forward rapidly.[^50] +On February 21, 1964, Ambassador [[Lincoln Gordon]] reported from [[Rio de Janeiro]] that President [[Joao Goulart|João Goulart]] "said looking forward to McCloy visit and thought Hanna case could have constructive solution." On February 29, 1964, McCloy, then a partner of Milbank, Tweed, Hadley and McCloy, met Goulart in Rio to discuss the status of the M.A. [[Hanna Mining Company]].[^52] On April 9, 1964, at 11:10 a.m., Director of Central Intelligence John McCone and McCloy spoke by telephone; four pages of the source text of the transcript, filed in McCone's "Eyes Only" telephone records, have not been declassified. The same day the three military ministers, [[Artur da Costa e Silva|Artur Costa e Silva]], [[Francisco de Assis Correia de Melo]] and [[Augusto Rademaker|Augusto Hamann Rademaker Grünewald]], signed Brazil's [[Institutional Act]].[^53] On June 10, 1964, President [[Humberto Castelo Branco]] showed Gordon a staff report on "areas of friction abroad," including the Hanna case, and said work on resolving all of them was going forward rapidly.[^54] ### The Warren Commission -[[Lyndon B. Johnson]] created the Commission by [[Executive Order 11130]] of November 29, 1963, and selected from private life two lawyers, Allen Dulles, former Director of Central Intelligence, and McCloy; Chief Justice [[Earl Warren]], Senators [[Richard B. Russell]] and [[John Sherman Cooper]], and Representatives [[Hale Boggs]] and [[Gerald R. Ford]] completed its membership. Its first meeting was on December 5, 1963.[^51] A transcript titled "Report of Meeting of Members of Staff," dated July 9, 1964, records a meeting attended by General Counsel [[J. Lee Rankin]], staff, McCloy and Dulles, at which Drs. [[Dale C. Cameron]], [[Howard P. Rome]] and [[David A. Rothstein]] gave "an informal colloquy, interrogation, and explanation" on a psychiatric interpretation of [[Lee Harvey Oswald]]; its pages, 7821 to 8071, indicate that it was volume 57 of the Commission's transcripts.[^52] Rankin's files, donated to the JFK Collection, include memoranda and handwritten changes to draft chapters of the report that Ford, McCloy and Dulles, among others, recommended.[^53] +[[Lyndon B. Johnson]] created the Commission by [[Executive Order 11130]] of November 29, 1963, and selected from private life two lawyers, Allen Dulles, former Director of Central Intelligence, and McCloy; Chief Justice [[Earl Warren]], Senators [[Richard B. Russell]] and [[John Sherman Cooper]], and Representatives [[Hale Boggs]] and [[Gerald R. Ford]] completed its membership. Its first meeting was on December 5, 1963.[^55] A transcript titled "Report of Meeting of Members of Staff," dated July 9, 1964, records a meeting attended by General Counsel [[J. Lee Rankin]], staff, McCloy and Dulles, at which Drs. [[Dale C. Cameron]], [[Howard P. Rome]] and [[David A. Rothstein]] gave "an informal colloquy, interrogation, and explanation" on a psychiatric interpretation of [[Lee Harvey Oswald]]; its pages, 7821 to 8071, indicate that it was volume 57 of the Commission's transcripts.[^56] Rankin's files, donated to the JFK Collection, include memoranda and handwritten changes to draft chapters of the report that Ford, McCloy and Dulles, among others, recommended.[^57] -Among the papers of Director McCone, the [[Assassination Records Review Board]] found a notation for a meeting of May 19, 1964, participants "DCI, J.J. McCloy," a dinner at the Director's residence, "Re: Oswald," annotated "Destroyed 1-28-72"; CIA historians had found the document missing when they reviewed the files in 1986, along with a record of a November 26, 1963 meeting between McCone and [[McGeorge Bundy]] on the assassination. The Board designated the notations as assassination records.[^54] +Among the papers of Director McCone, the [[Assassination Records Review Board]] found a notation for a meeting of May 19, 1964, participants "DCI, J.J. McCloy," a dinner at the Director's residence, "Re: Oswald," annotated "Destroyed 1-28-72"; CIA historians had found the document missing when they reviewed the files in 1986, along with a record of a November 26, 1963 meeting between McCone and [[McGeorge Bundy]] on the assassination. The Board designated the notations as assassination records.[^58] ### Disarmament and the Cuban Missile Crisis -On January 27, 1961, Kennedy designated McCloy his adviser on disarmament and arms control, including the nuclear test ban, with offices in the [[White House]] and the State Department. On February 7, 1961, Dulles answered a McCloy letter on the test ban by naming [[Herbert Scoville]], the CIA's Assistant Director for Scientific Intelligence, as the Agency's point of contact.[^55] In July 1961 McCloy and [[Valerian Zorin]] conducted bilateral disarmament talks in Moscow; McCloy reported "little point in continuing while Zorin talks about plans and I talk about principles."[^56] McCloy chaired the General Advisory Committee on Arms Control and Disarmament from 1961 to 1974, and the committee's sessions drew briefings from CIA officers including [[Arthur Lundahl]] of the National Photographic Interpretation Center and [[David Brandwein]], chairman of the Guided Missile Committee; in November 1969 he asked Director [[Richard Helms]] for a CIA specialist on Chinese strategic questions, noting that the content of the committee's discussions "is classified and should not be revealed beyond the Committee."[^41] +On January 27, 1961, Kennedy designated McCloy his adviser on disarmament and arms control, including the nuclear test ban, with offices in the [[White House]] and the State Department. On February 7, 1961, Dulles answered a McCloy letter on the test ban by naming [[Herbert Scoville]], the CIA's Assistant Director for Scientific Intelligence, as the Agency's point of contact.[^59] In July 1961 McCloy and [[Valerian Zorin]] conducted bilateral disarmament talks in Moscow; McCloy reported "little point in continuing while Zorin talks about plans and I talk about principles."[^60] McCloy chaired the General Advisory Committee on Arms Control and Disarmament from 1961 to 1974, and the committee's sessions drew briefings from CIA officers including [[Arthur Lundahl]] of the National Photographic Interpretation Center and [[David Brandwein]], chairman of the Guided Missile Committee; in November 1969 he asked Director [[Richard Helms]] for a CIA specialist on Chinese strategic questions, noting that the content of the committee's discussions "is classified and should not be revealed beyond the Committee."[^45] -In the [[Cuban Missile Crisis]] McCloy chaired the Coordinating Committee and negotiated with the Soviet representative [[Vasily Kuznetsov]] in New York. On October 26, 1962, he joined [[Adlai Stevenson]] in talks with the [[United Nations]] Secretary-General and his aides on inspection and the removal of the missiles and IL-28 aircraft. A draft United States declaration headed "McCloy draft" and dated November 21, 1962 conditioned an assurance against invading Cuba on the withdrawal of offensive weapons. On January 2 and 3, 1963, McCloy and Kuznetsov negotiated the joint letter withdrawing the matter from the Security Council.[^57] +In the [[Cuban Missile Crisis]] McCloy chaired the Coordinating Committee and negotiated with the Soviet representative [[Vasily Kuznetsov]] in New York. On October 26, 1962, he joined [[Adlai Stevenson]] in talks with the [[United Nations]] Secretary-General and his aides on inspection and the removal of the missiles and IL-28 aircraft. A draft United States declaration headed "McCloy draft" and dated November 21, 1962 conditioned an assurance against invading Cuba on the withdrawal of offensive weapons. On January 2 and 3, 1963, McCloy and Kuznetsov negotiated the joint letter withdrawing the matter from the Security Council.[^61] ### Iran -From 1979 to 1981 McCloy was a member of a "Special Project Team" working to gain asylum in the United States for the deposed [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi|Shah of Iran]]; the team was headed by David Rockefeller, then chairman of the Chase Manhattan Bank, and included Kissinger and Chase vice president [[Joseph Verner Reed Jr.]] The team lobbied the President and the Secretary of State for the Shah's admission; he was admitted in October 1979 for cancer treatment, which was followed by the November 1979 seizure of the United States embassy in Tehran. Rockefeller in particular "was accused of helping the Shah out of self-interest, because of the millions of dollars of Iranian loans and assets held by the Chase Manhattan Bank."[^58] +From 1979 to 1981 McCloy was a member of a "Special Project Team" working to gain asylum in the United States for the deposed [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi|Shah of Iran]]; the team was headed by David Rockefeller, then chairman of the Chase Manhattan Bank, and included Kissinger and Chase vice president [[Joseph Verner Reed Jr.]] The team lobbied the President and the Secretary of State for the Shah's admission; he was admitted in October 1979 for cancer treatment, which was followed by the November 1979 seizure of the United States embassy in Tehran. Rockefeller in particular "was accused of helping the Shah out of self-interest, because of the millions of dollars of Iranian loans and assets held by the Chase Manhattan Bank."[^62] ### The Papers -McCloy gave his papers to Amherst College, where he was a trustee from 1947 to 1989, by a deed of gift in July 1985. Before their transfer, "roughly half of the papers underwent a national security review by the Department of State"; the bulk arrived in May 1986, "with several batches sent later following clearance by the relevant government agency," and a second installment received in June 1990, after his death, was reviewed by the State Department and legal counsel. The collection holds only photocopies of his War Department diaries; the originals are at the [[National Archives and Records Administration]]. Names or other details were removed from some entries to protect the privacy of individuals, and "there are a few places where information was removed from the original by an unknown party prior to the diaries' transfer to Amherst College."[^59] +McCloy gave his papers to Amherst College, where he was a trustee from 1947 to 1989, by a deed of gift in July 1985. Before their transfer, "roughly half of the papers underwent a national security review by the Department of State"; the bulk arrived in May 1986, "with several batches sent later following clearance by the relevant government agency," and a second installment received in June 1990, after his death, was reviewed by the State Department and legal counsel. The collection holds only photocopies of his War Department diaries; the originals are at the [[National Archives and Records Administration]]. Names or other details were removed from some entries to protect the privacy of individuals, and "there are a few places where information was removed from the original by an unknown party prior to the diaries' transfer to Amherst College."[^63] ### Footnotes [^1]: Amherst College Archives and Special Collections, "John J. McCloy (AC 1916) Papers, 1897-1989 (Bulk: 1940-1979)," Finding Aid MA.00035, Historical Note and Chronology. https://www.amherst.edu/media/view/393545/original/McCloy%2BPapers.pdf [^2]: Amherst finding aid MA.00035, Series 7: Black Tom, 1924-1946, scope note and sub-series C to E. https://www.amherst.edu/media/view/393545/original/McCloy%2BPapers.pdf [^3]: Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, *Personal Justice Denied* (Washington, D.C., December 1982), Part I, Chapter 2, "Executive Order 9066." https://npshistory.com/publications/incarceration/personal-justice-denied/chap2.htm -[^4]: *Personal Justice Denied*, Part I, Chapter 3, "Exclusion and Evacuation." https://npshistory.com/publications/incarceration/personal-justice-denied/chap3.htm -[^5]: *Personal Justice Denied*, Part I, Chapter 8, "Ending the Exclusion." https://npshistory.com/publications/incarceration/personal-justice-denied/chap8.htm -[^6]: Amherst finding aid MA.00035, Series 11: Japanese Americans: Relocation and Compensation, 1942-1989, scope note, sub-series A to F. https://www.amherst.edu/media/view/393545/original/McCloy%2BPapers.pdf -[^7]: Amherst finding aid MA.00035, Series 15: Jenner-McCarthy, 1952-1955, sub-series A to C. https://www.amherst.edu/media/view/393545/original/McCloy%2BPapers.pdf -[^8]: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, "The United States and the Holocaust: Why Auschwitz Was Not Bombed," *Holocaust Encyclopedia*, last edited May 1, 2016. https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/the-united-states-and-the-holocaust-why-auschwitz-was-not-bombed -[^9]: John J. McCloy, Assistant Secretary of War, to John W. Pehle, Executive Director, War Refugee Board, November 18, 1944, as reproduced by the Jewish Virtual Library. https://jewishvirtuallibrary.org/mccloy-informs-pehle-that-war-department-won-rsquo-t-bomb-auschwitz-november-1944 -[^10]: Central Intelligence Agency, index card, "Memoranda for [withheld], Patterson-McCloy, 27, 26 Sept 45," TSD/H 119, dated 12/21/65, CIA-RDP83-00036R000200110010-5 (approved for release 2006/10/17). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83-00036r000200110010-5 -[^11]: World Bank Group Archives, "John J. McCloy, 2nd World Bank President, March 17, 1947 - June 30, 1949." https://www.worldbank.org/en/about/archives/history/past-presidents/john-jay-mccloy -[^12]: Amherst finding aid MA.00035, Series 10: World Bank (folder "JJM resignation (to go to HICOG)," 1949 May 18) and Series 2, sub-series B (account of the April 30, 1949 meeting with President Truman). https://www.amherst.edu/media/view/393545/original/McCloy%2BPapers.pdf -[^13]: Allan A. Ryan Jr., *Klaus Barbie and the United States Government: A Report to the Attorney General of the United States* (U.S. Department of Justice, August 1983), p. 84, note. https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/criminal-hrsp/legacy/2011/02/04/08-02-83barbie-rpt.pdf -[^14]: R. H. Hillenkoetter, Director of Central Intelligence, to John J. McCloy, U.S. High Commissioner for Germany, August 18, 1949, CIA-RDP80R01731R001300150013-2 (approved for release 2003/06/16). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001300150013-2 -[^15]: Walter B. Smith to John J. McCloy, January 12, 1951, CIA-RDP80R01731R001300110003-7, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001300110003-7 ; Allen W. Dulles, Deputy Director, to John J. McCloy, June 19, 1951, CIA-RDP80R01731R001300110002-8, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001300110002-8 -[^16]: Office of the U.S. High Commissioner for Germany, Public Relations Division, *Landsberg: A Documentary Report* (Frankfurt, January 31, 1951), "Statement of US High Commissioner," pp. 2 to 4, and report of the Advisory Board on Clemency for War Criminals. https://archive.org/details/landsbergdocumen00unit -[^17]: *Landsberg: A Documentary Report*, "Case 10, The Krupp Case," pp. 9 to 11. https://archive.org/details/landsbergdocumen00unit -[^18]: *Landsberg: A Documentary Report*, note preceding "Case 7, The Hostages Case," and "Case 11, Ministries Case." https://archive.org/details/landsbergdocumen00unit -[^19]: U.S. Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, vol. VII, part 1, *Germany and Austria*, Document 30 (telegram from the High Commissioner for Germany (McCloy) to the Department of State, Bonn, May 9, 1952). https://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1952-54v07p1/ebook/frus1952-54v07p1.epub -[^20]: Ryan, *Klaus Barbie and the United States Government*, pp. 101 (note), 118 to 121 and notes. https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/criminal-hrsp/legacy/2011/02/04/08-02-83barbie-rpt.pdf -[^21]: Harm Langenkamp, "'A Most Interesting and Complex Involvement': Cold War Alignments between the Ford and Rockefeller Foundations, the Congress for Cultural Freedom, and the Central Intelligence Agency," Rockefeller Archive Center Research Reports (2021), p. 11 and note 49 (citing McCloy to Hoffman, December 31, 1951, in Kai Bird, *The Chairman*, p. 358). https://rockarch.issuelab.org/resources/38323/38323.pdf -[^22]: Amherst finding aid MA.00035, Series 16: Ford Foundation, scope note and sub-series A and B. https://www.amherst.edu/media/view/393545/original/McCloy%2BPapers.pdf -[^23]: John J. McCloy, Council on Foreign Relations, to Allen W. Dulles, April 29, 1953, CIA-RDP80R01731R001200020045-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001200020045-2 -[^24]: Langenkamp, Rockefeller Archive Center Research Reports (2021), notes 50 (Stone to McCloy, February 25, 1954, cited by Volker Berghahn), 56 (Price memorandum of May 21, 1954; Price oral history, June 22, 1972, p. 70; McCloy interview in Bird, *The Chairman*, p. 427) and 57 (John B. Howard oral history; Henry T. Heald oral history). https://rockarch.issuelab.org/resources/38323/38323.pdf -[^25]: Langenkamp, Rockefeller Archive Center Research Reports (2021), abstract, text at notes 58 and 59, and conclusion. https://rockarch.issuelab.org/resources/38323/38323.pdf -[^26]: Ford Foundation, "Annual Report 1965" (fiscal year ended September 30, 1965), opening review by the president, on the retirement of John J. McCloy as chairman effective December 31, 1965 ("as a member of the Board since 1953 and as chairman since 1959") and the election of Julius A. Stratton as chairman. https://www.fordfoundation.org/media/2435/1965-annual-report.pdf -[^27]: Amherst finding aid MA.00035, Series 2, sub-series F and G (Chase Manhattan Bank appointment records and telephone logs) and Series 1 (retirement from Chase Manhattan, 1960 Mar). https://www.amherst.edu/media/view/393545/original/McCloy%2BPapers.pdf -[^28]: Marshall S. Carter, Lieutenant General, USA, to John J. McCloy, April 20, 1962, CIA-RDP80B01676R001300050094-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r001300050094-2 -[^29]: Amherst finding aid MA.00035, Series 20: International Oil, 1946-1981, scope note and sub-series B, C and E. https://www.amherst.edu/media/view/393545/original/McCloy%2BPapers.pdf -[^30]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *Multinational Oil Corporations and U.S. Foreign Policy*, report together with individual views, 93d Cong., 2d sess., committee print, January 2, 1975, pp. 126 to 127. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/CPRT-93SPRT77795O -[^31]: *Multinational Oil Corporations and U.S. Foreign Policy*, pp. 13 and 92 to 93 (McCloy to Rusk, January 11, 1967, Multinational Corporations hearings, Part 9). https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/CPRT-93SPRT77795O -[^32]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXVI, *Energy Crisis, 1969-1974*, Document 21, note 6, and Document 24 (Kissinger to Nixon, December 8, 1969) and note 5. https://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1969-76v36/pdf/frus1969-76v36.pdf -[^33]: *Multinational Oil Corporations and U.S. Foreign Policy*, p. 125. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/CPRT-93SPRT77795O -[^34]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXVI, Document 57 (memorandum for the files by Peter Flanigan, September 29, 1970), pp. 130 to 131. https://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1969-76v36/pdf/frus1969-76v36.pdf -[^35]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXVI, Document 66 (telegram 3565 from the Department of State, January 8, 1971), pp. 167 to 168; *Multinational Oil Corporations and U.S. Foreign Policy*, pp. 127 to 129. https://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1969-76v36/pdf/frus1969-76v36.pdf ; https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/CPRT-93SPRT77795O -[^36]: *Multinational Oil Corporations and U.S. Foreign Policy*, pp. 129 to 133. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/CPRT-93SPRT77795O -[^37]: *Multinational Oil Corporations and U.S. Foreign Policy*, p. 17. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/CPRT-93SPRT77795O -[^38]: *Multinational Oil Corporations and U.S. Foreign Policy*, pp. 134 to 135. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/CPRT-93SPRT77795O -[^39]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXVI, Document 104 (memorandum of conversation, Washington, January 3, 1972) and note 2, pp. 246 to 247. https://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1969-76v36/pdf/frus1969-76v36.pdf -[^40]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXVI, Document 173 (editorial note), pp. 438 to 440. https://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1969-76v36/pdf/frus1969-76v36.pdf -[^41]: General Advisory Committee on Arms Control and Disarmament letterheads and correspondence: McCloy to Arthur Lundahl, June 5, 1970, CIA-RDP78B05703A000400090083-2, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp78b05703a000400090083-2 ; McCloy to David S. Brandwein, March 26, 1971, CIA-RDP81R00560R000100110004-6, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp81r00560r000100110004-6 ; McCloy to Richard Helms, May 28, 1971, CIA-RDP74B00681R000100160009-6, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp74b00681r000100160009-6 ; McCloy to Richard Helms, November 10, 1969, CIA-RDP80B01495R000100010004-9, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01495r000100010004-9 -[^42]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXVI, Document 201 (memorandum from John Knubel to Kissinger, September 5, 1973), pp. 548 to 549. https://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1969-76v36/pdf/frus1969-76v36.pdf -[^43]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXVI, Document 212 (memorandum by the chairmen of Exxon, Mobil, Texaco and Standard Oil of California, New York, October 12, 1973) and note 1. https://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1969-76v36/pdf/frus1969-76v36.pdf -[^44]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXVI, Document 243 (memorandum of conversation, November 20, 1973, 5 p.m.) and note 8, pp. 684 to 690; Document 311 (Kissinger and David Rockefeller, February 8, 1974), note 3. https://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1969-76v36/pdf/frus1969-76v36.pdf -[^45]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXVI, Document 345 (memorandum of conversation, March 29, 1974, 5:15 p.m.), pp. 954 to 977. https://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1969-76v36/pdf/frus1969-76v36.pdf -[^46]: *Multinational Oil Corporations and U.S. Foreign Policy*, pp. 14, 127 and 169. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/CPRT-93SPRT77795O -[^47]: Amherst finding aid MA.00035, Series 20: International Oil, sub-series B, I (Critchfield Reports, 1968-1973, Reports 1 to 65) and K (Oil Company Annual Reports, 1964-1966). https://www.amherst.edu/media/view/393545/original/McCloy%2BPapers.pdf -[^48]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. XXXI, *South and Central America; Mexico*, Document 183 (telegram 1761 from the Embassy in Brazil, Rio de Janeiro, February 21, 1964), paragraph 8 and note 10, pp. 402 to 403. https://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1964-68v31/pdf/frus1964-68v31.pdf -[^49]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. XXXI, Document 210 (transcript of telephone conversation between Director of Central Intelligence McCone and John J. McCloy, April 9, 1964, 11:10 a.m.; source: CIA, Job 80-B01285A, DCI (McCone) Files, Telephone Calls, Eyes Only), p. 461, and Document 211 (telegram 2235 from Rio de Janeiro, April 10, 1964), note 2. https://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1964-68v31/pdf/frus1964-68v31.pdf -[^50]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. XXXI, Document 214 (telegram 2790 from Rio de Janeiro, June 10, 1964). https://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1964-68v31/pdf/frus1964-68v31.pdf -[^51]: *Report of the President's Commission on the Assassination of President Kennedy*, Foreword, p. ix, National Archives. https://www.archives.gov/research/jfk/warren-commission-report/foreword -[^52]: National Archives, "Inventory of the Warren Commission's Records," Entry 46 ("Report of Meeting of Members of Staff," July 9, 1964, National Archives Identifier 607521). https://www.archives.gov/research/jfk/warren-commission-report/inventory -[^53]: Assassination Records Review Board, *Final Report* (September 1998), chapter 6, "J. Lee Rankin: Warren Commission Papers." https://www.archives.gov/research/jfk/review-board/report/arrb-final-report.txt -[^54]: Assassination Records Review Board, *Final Report* (September 1998), chapter 6, "John McCone." https://www.archives.gov/research/jfk/review-board/report/arrb-final-report.txt -[^55]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. VII, *Arms Control and Disarmament*, Document 2 (Kennedy to McCloy, January 27, 1961) and note 1, https://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1961-63v07/ebook/frus1961-63v07.epub ; Allen W. Dulles to John J. McCloy, February 7, 1961, CIA-RDP80B01676R000800050039-9, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r000800050039-9 -[^56]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. VII, Document 41 (editorial note). https://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1961-63v07/ebook/frus1961-63v07.epub -[^57]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. XI, *Cuban Missile Crisis and Aftermath*, Documents 86 (telegram 1484 from the Mission to the United Nations, October 26, 1962) and 263 (editorial note), https://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1961-63v11/ebook/frus1961-63v11.epub ; "McCloy Draft," 11/21/62, CIA-RDP80B01676R001900100035-5, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r001900100035-5 -[^58]: Amherst finding aid MA.00035, Series 28: Shah of Iran, 1979-1981, scope note. https://www.amherst.edu/media/view/393545/original/McCloy%2BPapers.pdf -[^59]: Amherst finding aid MA.00035, "History of the Collection," "Processing Information" and Series 2: Diaries and Communication Logs, notes. https://www.amherst.edu/media/view/393545/original/McCloy%2BPapers.pdf +[^4]: Stimson and Bundy, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), p. 338. +[^5]: Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, *Personal Justice Denied* (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1982), p. 47. +[^6]: *Personal Justice Denied* (1982), Summary, p. 15. +[^7]: *Personal Justice Denied*, Part I, Chapter 3, "Exclusion and Evacuation." https://npshistory.com/publications/incarceration/personal-justice-denied/chap3.htm +[^8]: *Personal Justice Denied*, Part I, Chapter 8, "Ending the Exclusion." https://npshistory.com/publications/incarceration/personal-justice-denied/chap8.htm +[^9]: Amherst finding aid MA.00035, Series 11: Japanese Americans: Relocation and Compensation, 1942-1989, scope note, sub-series A to F. https://www.amherst.edu/media/view/393545/original/McCloy%2BPapers.pdf +[^10]: Amherst finding aid MA.00035, Series 15: Jenner-McCarthy, 1952-1955, sub-series A to C. https://www.amherst.edu/media/view/393545/original/McCloy%2BPapers.pdf +[^11]: *Foreign Relations of the United States: Conferences at Quebec, 1944*, document 90, editorial footnote. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944Quebec/d90 +[^12]: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, "The United States and the Holocaust: Why Auschwitz Was Not Bombed," *Holocaust Encyclopedia*, last edited May 1, 2016. https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/the-united-states-and-the-holocaust-why-auschwitz-was-not-bombed +[^13]: John J. McCloy, Assistant Secretary of War, to John W. Pehle, Executive Director, War Refugee Board, November 18, 1944, as reproduced by the Jewish Virtual Library. https://jewishvirtuallibrary.org/mccloy-informs-pehle-that-war-department-won-rsquo-t-bomb-auschwitz-november-1944 +[^14]: Central Intelligence Agency, index card, "Memoranda for [withheld], Patterson-McCloy, 27, 26 Sept 45," TSD/H 119, dated 12/21/65, CIA-RDP83-00036R000200110010-5 (approved for release 2006/10/17). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83-00036r000200110010-5 +[^15]: World Bank Group Archives, "John J. McCloy, 2nd World Bank President, March 17, 1947 - June 30, 1949." https://www.worldbank.org/en/about/archives/history/past-presidents/john-jay-mccloy +[^16]: Amherst finding aid MA.00035, Series 10: World Bank (folder "JJM resignation (to go to HICOG)," 1949 May 18) and Series 2, sub-series B (account of the April 30, 1949 meeting with President Truman). https://www.amherst.edu/media/view/393545/original/McCloy%2BPapers.pdf +[^17]: Allan A. Ryan Jr., *Klaus Barbie and the United States Government: A Report to the Attorney General of the United States* (U.S. Department of Justice, August 1983), p. 84, note. https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/criminal-hrsp/legacy/2011/02/04/08-02-83barbie-rpt.pdf +[^18]: R. H. Hillenkoetter, Director of Central Intelligence, to John J. McCloy, U.S. High Commissioner for Germany, August 18, 1949, CIA-RDP80R01731R001300150013-2 (approved for release 2003/06/16). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001300150013-2 +[^19]: Walter B. Smith to John J. McCloy, January 12, 1951, CIA-RDP80R01731R001300110003-7, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001300110003-7 ; Allen W. Dulles, Deputy Director, to John J. McCloy, June 19, 1951, CIA-RDP80R01731R001300110002-8, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001300110002-8 +[^20]: Office of the U.S. High Commissioner for Germany, Public Relations Division, *Landsberg: A Documentary Report* (Frankfurt, January 31, 1951), "Statement of US High Commissioner," pp. 2 to 4, and report of the Advisory Board on Clemency for War Criminals. https://archive.org/details/landsbergdocumen00unit +[^21]: *Landsberg: A Documentary Report*, "Case 10, The Krupp Case," pp. 9 to 11. https://archive.org/details/landsbergdocumen00unit +[^22]: *Landsberg: A Documentary Report*, note preceding "Case 7, The Hostages Case," and "Case 11, Ministries Case." https://archive.org/details/landsbergdocumen00unit +[^23]: U.S. Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, vol. VII, part 1, *Germany and Austria*, Document 30 (telegram from the High Commissioner for Germany (McCloy) to the Department of State, Bonn, May 9, 1952). https://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1952-54v07p1/ebook/frus1952-54v07p1.epub +[^24]: Ryan, *Klaus Barbie and the United States Government*, pp. 101 (note), 118 to 121 and notes. https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/criminal-hrsp/legacy/2011/02/04/08-02-83barbie-rpt.pdf +[^25]: Harm Langenkamp, "'A Most Interesting and Complex Involvement': Cold War Alignments between the Ford and Rockefeller Foundations, the Congress for Cultural Freedom, and the Central Intelligence Agency," Rockefeller Archive Center Research Reports (2021), p. 11 and note 49 (citing McCloy to Hoffman, December 31, 1951, in Kai Bird, *The Chairman*, p. 358). https://rockarch.issuelab.org/resources/38323/38323.pdf +[^26]: Amherst finding aid MA.00035, Series 16: Ford Foundation, scope note and sub-series A and B. https://www.amherst.edu/media/view/393545/original/McCloy%2BPapers.pdf +[^27]: John J. McCloy, Council on Foreign Relations, to Allen W. Dulles, April 29, 1953, CIA-RDP80R01731R001200020045-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001200020045-2 +[^28]: Langenkamp, Rockefeller Archive Center Research Reports (2021), notes 50 (Stone to McCloy, February 25, 1954, cited by Volker Berghahn), 56 (Price memorandum of May 21, 1954; Price oral history, June 22, 1972, p. 70; McCloy interview in Bird, *The Chairman*, p. 427) and 57 (John B. Howard oral history; Henry T. Heald oral history). https://rockarch.issuelab.org/resources/38323/38323.pdf +[^29]: Langenkamp, Rockefeller Archive Center Research Reports (2021), abstract, text at notes 58 and 59, and conclusion. https://rockarch.issuelab.org/resources/38323/38323.pdf +[^30]: Ford Foundation, "Annual Report 1965" (fiscal year ended September 30, 1965), opening review by the president, on the retirement of John J. McCloy as chairman effective December 31, 1965 ("as a member of the Board since 1953 and as chairman since 1959") and the election of Julius A. Stratton as chairman. https://www.fordfoundation.org/media/2435/1965-annual-report.pdf +[^31]: Amherst finding aid MA.00035, Series 2, sub-series F and G (Chase Manhattan Bank appointment records and telephone logs) and Series 1 (retirement from Chase Manhattan, 1960 Mar). https://www.amherst.edu/media/view/393545/original/McCloy%2BPapers.pdf +[^32]: Marshall S. Carter, Lieutenant General, USA, to John J. McCloy, April 20, 1962, CIA-RDP80B01676R001300050094-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r001300050094-2 +[^33]: Amherst finding aid MA.00035, Series 20: International Oil, 1946-1981, scope note and sub-series B, C and E. https://www.amherst.edu/media/view/393545/original/McCloy%2BPapers.pdf +[^34]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *Multinational Oil Corporations and U.S. Foreign Policy*, report together with individual views, 93d Cong., 2d sess., committee print, January 2, 1975, pp. 126 to 127. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/CPRT-93SPRT77795O +[^35]: *Multinational Oil Corporations and U.S. Foreign Policy*, pp. 13 and 92 to 93 (McCloy to Rusk, January 11, 1967, Multinational Corporations hearings, Part 9). https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/CPRT-93SPRT77795O +[^36]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXVI, *Energy Crisis, 1969-1974*, Document 21, note 6, and Document 24 (Kissinger to Nixon, December 8, 1969) and note 5. https://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1969-76v36/pdf/frus1969-76v36.pdf +[^37]: *Multinational Oil Corporations and U.S. Foreign Policy*, p. 125. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/CPRT-93SPRT77795O +[^38]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXVI, Document 57 (memorandum for the files by Peter Flanigan, September 29, 1970), pp. 130 to 131. https://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1969-76v36/pdf/frus1969-76v36.pdf +[^39]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXVI, Document 66 (telegram 3565 from the Department of State, January 8, 1971), pp. 167 to 168; *Multinational Oil Corporations and U.S. Foreign Policy*, pp. 127 to 129. https://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1969-76v36/pdf/frus1969-76v36.pdf ; https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/CPRT-93SPRT77795O +[^40]: *Multinational Oil Corporations and U.S. Foreign Policy*, pp. 129 to 133. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/CPRT-93SPRT77795O +[^41]: *Multinational Oil Corporations and U.S. Foreign Policy*, p. 17. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/CPRT-93SPRT77795O +[^42]: *Multinational Oil Corporations and U.S. Foreign Policy*, pp. 134 to 135. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/CPRT-93SPRT77795O +[^43]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXVI, Document 104 (memorandum of conversation, Washington, January 3, 1972) and note 2, pp. 246 to 247. https://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1969-76v36/pdf/frus1969-76v36.pdf +[^44]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXVI, Document 173 (editorial note), pp. 438 to 440. https://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1969-76v36/pdf/frus1969-76v36.pdf +[^45]: General Advisory Committee on Arms Control and Disarmament letterheads and correspondence: McCloy to Arthur Lundahl, June 5, 1970, CIA-RDP78B05703A000400090083-2, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp78b05703a000400090083-2 ; McCloy to David S. Brandwein, March 26, 1971, CIA-RDP81R00560R000100110004-6, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp81r00560r000100110004-6 ; McCloy to Richard Helms, May 28, 1971, CIA-RDP74B00681R000100160009-6, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp74b00681r000100160009-6 ; McCloy to Richard Helms, November 10, 1969, CIA-RDP80B01495R000100010004-9, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01495r000100010004-9 +[^46]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXVI, Document 201 (memorandum from John Knubel to Kissinger, September 5, 1973), pp. 548 to 549. https://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1969-76v36/pdf/frus1969-76v36.pdf +[^47]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXVI, Document 212 (memorandum by the chairmen of Exxon, Mobil, Texaco and Standard Oil of California, New York, October 12, 1973) and note 1. https://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1969-76v36/pdf/frus1969-76v36.pdf +[^48]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXVI, Document 243 (memorandum of conversation, November 20, 1973, 5 p.m.) and note 8, pp. 684 to 690; Document 311 (Kissinger and David Rockefeller, February 8, 1974), note 3. https://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1969-76v36/pdf/frus1969-76v36.pdf +[^49]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXVI, Document 345 (memorandum of conversation, March 29, 1974, 5:15 p.m.), pp. 954 to 977. https://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1969-76v36/pdf/frus1969-76v36.pdf +[^50]: *Multinational Oil Corporations and U.S. Foreign Policy*, pp. 14, 127 and 169. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/CPRT-93SPRT77795O +[^51]: Amherst finding aid MA.00035, Series 20: International Oil, sub-series B, I (Critchfield Reports, 1968-1973, Reports 1 to 65) and K (Oil Company Annual Reports, 1964-1966). https://www.amherst.edu/media/view/393545/original/McCloy%2BPapers.pdf +[^52]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. XXXI, *South and Central America; Mexico*, Document 183 (telegram 1761 from the Embassy in Brazil, Rio de Janeiro, February 21, 1964), paragraph 8 and note 10, pp. 402 to 403. https://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1964-68v31/pdf/frus1964-68v31.pdf +[^53]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. XXXI, Document 210 (transcript of telephone conversation between Director of Central Intelligence McCone and John J. McCloy, April 9, 1964, 11:10 a.m.; source: CIA, Job 80-B01285A, DCI (McCone) Files, Telephone Calls, Eyes Only), p. 461, and Document 211 (telegram 2235 from Rio de Janeiro, April 10, 1964), note 2. https://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1964-68v31/pdf/frus1964-68v31.pdf +[^54]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. XXXI, Document 214 (telegram 2790 from Rio de Janeiro, June 10, 1964). https://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1964-68v31/pdf/frus1964-68v31.pdf +[^55]: *Report of the President's Commission on the Assassination of President Kennedy*, Foreword, p. ix, National Archives. https://www.archives.gov/research/jfk/warren-commission-report/foreword +[^56]: National Archives, "Inventory of the Warren Commission's Records," Entry 46 ("Report of Meeting of Members of Staff," July 9, 1964, National Archives Identifier 607521). https://www.archives.gov/research/jfk/warren-commission-report/inventory +[^57]: Assassination Records Review Board, *Final Report* (September 1998), chapter 6, "J. Lee Rankin: Warren Commission Papers." https://www.archives.gov/research/jfk/review-board/report/arrb-final-report.txt +[^58]: Assassination Records Review Board, *Final Report* (September 1998), chapter 6, "John McCone." https://www.archives.gov/research/jfk/review-board/report/arrb-final-report.txt +[^59]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. VII, *Arms Control and Disarmament*, Document 2 (Kennedy to McCloy, January 27, 1961) and note 1, https://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1961-63v07/ebook/frus1961-63v07.epub ; Allen W. Dulles to John J. McCloy, February 7, 1961, CIA-RDP80B01676R000800050039-9, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r000800050039-9 +[^60]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. VII, Document 41 (editorial note). https://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1961-63v07/ebook/frus1961-63v07.epub +[^61]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. XI, *Cuban Missile Crisis and Aftermath*, Documents 86 (telegram 1484 from the Mission to the United Nations, October 26, 1962) and 263 (editorial note), https://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1961-63v11/ebook/frus1961-63v11.epub ; "McCloy Draft," 11/21/62, CIA-RDP80B01676R001900100035-5, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r001900100035-5 +[^62]: Amherst finding aid MA.00035, Series 28: Shah of Iran, 1979-1981, scope note. https://www.amherst.edu/media/view/393545/original/McCloy%2BPapers.pdf +[^63]: Amherst finding aid MA.00035, "History of the Collection," "Processing Information" and Series 2: Diaries and Communication Logs, notes. https://www.amherst.edu/media/view/393545/original/McCloy%2BPapers.pdf diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/John Kerry.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/John Kerry.md index 7a0f28e9..dec645f3 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/John Kerry.md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/John Kerry.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ aliases: - John Kerry - John Forbes Kerry created: 2026-05-17 -updated: 2026-05-17 +updated: 2026-10-26 category: "Political Figure" tags: - Person @@ -15,38 +15,48 @@ tags: summary: "Senator from Massachusetts who chaired the Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics, and International Operations, investigating both BCCI and links between the Contras and cocaine trafficking with findings that were systematically suppressed." born: 1943-12-11 location: "Aurora, Colorado" +relations: + - type: member_of + with: "[[Skull and Bones]]" + role: "member, Class of 1966" + fn: 2 --- John Kerry is a former Democratic Senator from [[Massachusetts]] who chaired the Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics, and International Operations of the [[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]].[^1] +### Yale and Skull and Bones + +John Forbes Kerry is listed under the class of 1966 in the index of members that [[Antony C. Sutton]] reproduces from the society's membership catalogue.[^2] + ### BCCI Investigation -Kerry's subcommittee spearheaded probes of drug trafficking and money laundering, which veered into [[Manuel Noriega]]'s financial dealings.[^2] He proposed a serious investigation of [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International|BCCI]], but his efforts were initially brushed aside, leading him to believe there was a high-level cover-up.[^2] +Kerry's subcommittee spearheaded probes of drug trafficking and money laundering, which veered into [[Manuel Noriega]]'s financial dealings.[^3] He proposed a serious investigation of [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International|BCCI]], but his efforts were initially brushed aside, leading him to believe there was a high-level cover-up.[^3] -He was a key figure in pushing for investigations into BCCI's activities, despite resistance from government agencies. Kerry's subcommittee issued subpoenas for BCCI records and investigated the bank's secret ownership of [[First American Bank]].[^3] He also questioned [[Richard J. Kerr]], Acting [[Central Intelligence Agency]] Director, about the agency's knowledge of BCCI's operations.[^4] +He was a key figure in pushing for investigations into BCCI's activities, despite resistance from government agencies. Kerry's subcommittee issued subpoenas for BCCI records and investigated the bank's secret ownership of [[First American Bank]].[^4] He also questioned [[Richard J. Kerr]], Acting [[Central Intelligence Agency]] Director, about the agency's knowledge of BCCI's operations.[^5] -Kerry received money from [[Clark Clifford]] and [[Robert Altman]], members of their law firm, during the same month that [[Jack Blum]]'s contract with his subcommittee was terminated.[^5] He introduced a bill that would allow the government to revoke the license of any bank whose officials had been convicted of money laundering, known as the "death penalty bill," which was opposed by BCCI's lawyers.[^6] +Kerry received money from [[Clark Clifford]] and [[Robert Altman]], members of their law firm, during the same month that [[Jack Blum]]'s contract with his subcommittee was terminated.[^6] He introduced a bill that would allow the government to revoke the license of any bank whose officials had been convicted of money laundering, known as the "death penalty bill," which was opposed by BCCI's lawyers.[^7] ### Contra Drug Trafficking Investigation -In 1987 and 1988, Kerry's subcommittee investigated links between the [[Contras]] and [[Cocaine]] trafficking, with chief investigator Jack Blum uncovering direct connections.[^7] The committee took videotaped depositions from Contra leaders who acknowledged receiving drug profits with the apparent knowledge of the CIA. Drug dealers admitted under oath to giving money to the Contras and passed polygraph tests. Pilots admitted flying weapons south and cocaine and marijuana north.[^7] +In 1987 and 1988, Kerry's subcommittee investigated links between the [[Contras]] and [[Cocaine]] trafficking, with chief investigator Jack Blum uncovering direct connections.[^8] The committee took videotaped depositions from Contra leaders who acknowledged receiving drug profits with the apparent knowledge of the CIA. Drug dealers admitted under oath to giving money to the Contras and passed polygraph tests. Pilots admitted flying weapons south and cocaine and marijuana north.[^8] -[[Norwin Meneses]] was an early target of the investigation, but the Justice Department stonewalled the committee's requests for information. Blum told Webb that he eventually gave up trying to obtain the records.[^7] +[[Norwin Meneses]] was an early target of the investigation, but the Justice Department stonewalled the committee's requests for information. Blum told Webb that he eventually gave up trying to obtain the records.[^8] ### Wanda Palacios and William Weld -In 1986, Kerry's staff interviewed [[Wanda Palacios]], a [[Miami]] FBI informant who reported witnessing [[Southern Air Transport]] planes being loaded with cocaine and unloading guns in Barranquilla, [[Colombia]]. Kerry and an aide took her eleven-page statement to the Justice Department and met with William Weld, one of Attorney General Edwin Meese's top assistants. Weld "read about a half a page and chuckled" and said "this isn't the first time today I've seen allegations about CIA agent involvement in drugs." Weld stated that "while he couldn't vouch for every line in it, there was nothing in it which didn't appear true to him." When Palacios's allegations leaked, she was publicly dismissed as a crank.[^8] +In 1986, Kerry's staff interviewed [[Wanda Palacios]], a [[Miami]] FBI informant who reported witnessing [[Southern Air Transport]] planes being loaded with cocaine and unloading guns in Barranquilla, [[Colombia]]. Kerry and an aide took her eleven-page statement to the Justice Department and met with William Weld, one of Attorney General Edwin Meese's top assistants. Weld "read about a half a page and chuckled" and said "this isn't the first time today I've seen allegations about CIA agent involvement in drugs." Weld stated that "while he couldn't vouch for every line in it, there was nothing in it which didn't appear true to him." When Palacios's allegations leaked, she was publicly dismissed as a crank.[^9] ### Suppression of Findings -Blum described how the investigation was systematically undermined: "We laid it all out, and we were trashed. We were totally hit by the leadership of the administration and much of the congressional leadership. They simply turned around and said, 'These people are crazy.' And they dumped all over us." The major newspapers largely ignored the committee's findings.[^7] +Blum described how the investigation was systematically undermined: "We laid it all out, and we were trashed. We were totally hit by the leadership of the administration and much of the congressional leadership. They simply turned around and said, 'These people are crazy.' And they dumped all over us." The major newspapers largely ignored the committee's findings.[^8] ### Footnotes [^1]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 9. -[^2]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank*. Random House, 1993, p. 26. -[^3]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank*. Random House, 1993, p. 30. -[^4]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank*. Random House, 1993, p. 89. -[^5]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank*. Random House, 1993, p. 65. -[^6]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank*. Random House, 1993, p. 370. -[^7]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Prologue: "It was like they didn't want to know" -[^8]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Chapter 13: "The wrong kind of friends" +[^2]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1966 (Kerry, John Forbes). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^3]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank*. Random House, 1993, p. 26. +[^4]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank*. Random House, 1993, p. 30. +[^5]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank*. Random House, 1993, p. 89. +[^6]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank*. Random House, 1993, p. 65. +[^7]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank*. Random House, 1993, p. 370. +[^8]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Prologue: "It was like they didn't want to know" +[^9]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Chapter 13: "The wrong kind of friends" diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/W. Averell Harriman.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/W. Averell Harriman.md new file mode 100644 index 00000000..bc86593c --- /dev/null +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/W. Averell Harriman.md @@ -0,0 +1,269 @@ +--- +aliases: + - W. Averell Harriman + - Averell Harriman + - William Averell Harriman + - Governor Harriman +category: "Political Figure" +tags: + - Person + - BrownBrothersHarriman + - SkullAndBones + - LendLease + - UnionPacific + - Vietnam + - Laos + - Mongoose + - UnionBankingCorporation + - ColdWar + - Manganese + - MarshallPlan +summary: "W. Averell Harriman, a Skull and Bones member and Brown Brothers Harriman partner, chaired Union Pacific, ran Lend-Lease in London, served as ambassador to Moscow and London, Secretary of Commerce and governor of New York." +born: 1891 +died: 1986 +location: "New York, New York" +created: 2026-10-26 +updated: 2026-10-26 +relations: + - type: member_of + with: "[[Skull and Bones]]" + start: 1913 + role: "Member of the Yale senior society, class of 1913" + fn: 6 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[E. H. Harriman]]" + role: "Son" + fn: 3 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[E. Roland Harriman]]" + role: "Brother" + fn: 10 + - type: head_of + with: "[[W. A. Harriman & Co.]]" + start: 1920 + end: 1931 + role: "Chairman of the board" + fn: 1 + - type: partner_of + with: "[[Brown Brothers Harriman]]" + start: 1931 + end: 1946 + role: "Partner" + fn: 1 + - type: head_of + with: "[[Union Pacific Railroad]]" + start: 1932 + end: 1946 + role: "Chairman of the board" + fn: 1 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Illinois Central Railroad]]" + start: 1915 + end: 1946 + role: "Director; chairman of the executive committee 1931 to 1942" + fn: 1 + - type: partner_of + with: "[[Vincent Astor]]" + start: 1933 + role: "Co-founder of the weekly Today, merged with Newsweek in 1937" + fn: 1 + - type: appointed + with: "[[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]" + reverse: true + start: 1941 + end: 1943 + role: "Special representative to Great Britain with rank of ambassador (Lend-Lease)" + fn: 1 + - type: appointed + with: "[[Harry S. Truman]]" + reverse: true + start: 1946 + end: 1948 + role: "Ambassador to the United Kingdom, then Secretary of Commerce; later Special Representative in Europe" + fn: 43 + - type: appointed + with: "[[Harry S. Truman]]" + reverse: true + start: 1951-10-11 + role: "Director for Mutual Security, nominated" + fn: 47 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Council on Foreign Relations]]" + start: 1952 + end: 1953 + role: "Director" + fn: 49 + - type: head_of + with: "[[New York]]" + start: 1955 + end: 1958 + role: "Governor of New York" + fn: 51 + - type: appointed + with: "[[John F. Kennedy]]" + reverse: true + start: 1962-09-21 + role: "Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs, later Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs" + fn: 54 + - type: spouse_of + with: "[[Pamela Harriman]]" + start: 1971 + fn: 1 +--- + +W. Averell Harriman (1891 to 1986) was a son of the railroad financier [[E. H. Harriman]], a member of [[Skull and Bones]] at [[Yale University]] in the class of 1913, chairman of the [[Union Pacific Railroad]] from 1932 to 1946, and a partner in [[Brown Brothers Harriman]] from its formation. He ran Lend-Lease aid from London, served as ambassador to the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom, as [[United States Secretary of Commerce]], as director of mutual security and as governor of [[New York]], and held senior State Department posts under Presidents [[John F. Kennedy]] and [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]. + +### Family and Yale + +Harriman was born in New York on November 15, 1891, attended [[Groton School]] and received his B.A. from Yale in 1913.[^1][^2] His mother, [[Mary Averell Harriman]], was the civic activist whose letters to him run into the 1930s in his papers, and the [[Library of Congress]] records his membership of the [[Palisades Interstate Park Commission]] from 1915 to 1954.[^3][^1] The [[Eugenics Record Office]] at [[Cold Spring Harbor]] was established in October 1910 by Mrs. E. H. Harriman, who according to a report of the [[New York Times]] provided funds for the office and its annual running expenses, her contributions over eight years amounting to more than 500,000 dollars; the report adds the "additional assistance of John D. Rockefeller and others." The Cold Spring Harbor image archive lists the donation as 10,000 dollars in 1910 and holds [[Charles Davenport]]'s letter to Mrs. E. H. Harriman about the first training class, and the [[Carnegie Institution of Washington]] accepted the office from her as a gift.[^4][^5] + +[[Antony C. Sutton]] places Harriman among the initiates of Skull and Bones in 1913 and writes that "Like other initiates Harriman has carefully expunged membership from the public record."[^6] [[Ron Rosenbaum]] listed him among the members of the society in an article in [[Esquire]] in September 1977, together with [[McGeorge Bundy]], [[Henry L. Stimson]], [[Henry Luce]] and [[Potter Stewart]].[^7] [[Jacques Leslie]] wrote in [[Salon]] in March 2000 that Harriman was among the members named by students of his era.[^8] + +Sutton writes that E. H. Harriman bought into the Union Pacific after the crash of 1893, and that the railroad's general counsel, Judge Robert Scott Lovett, was the father of [[Robert A. Lovett]], who "with the two Harriman boys, Roland and Averell, was initiated into The Order." Sutton gives the years as 1913 for Averell, 1917 for [[E. Roland Harriman]] and 1918 for Lovett.[^9] + +### Union Pacific and Illinois Central + +The Library of Congress chronology lists Harriman as vice president of the Union Pacific from 1915 to 1917, director of the [[Illinois Central Railroad]] from 1915 to 1946, chairman of the Illinois Central executive committee from 1931 to 1942, and chairman of the board of the Union Pacific from 1932 to 1946.[^1] A report of December 1930 describes Judge Lovett as the "now chairman" of E. H. Harriman's Union Pacific.[^10] Sutton's chronology adds that in 1917 Harriman became a director of the [[Guaranty Trust Company]], and states that the Harriman family's holding of about one third of Guaranty stock was put into a [[J. P. Morgan and Company]] voting trust in 1912, when Mrs. Edward Harriman sold 8,000 of the 20,000 outstanding shares to Morgan.[^11][^12] The finding aid states that Harriman "took charge of the Union Pacific Railroad" in the early 1930s and was credited with reviving the line during the worst years of the Depression.[^3] + +### Shipping and the Hamburg-American Line + +The Library of Congress lists Harriman as chairman of the board of the [[Merchant Shipbuilding Corporation]] from 1917 to 1925.[^1] On August 16, 1920 the chairman of the [[United States Shipping Board]], [[William S. Benson]], announced co-operative working agreements between the American Ship and Commerce Corporation of New York and the [[Hamburg-American Line]] of Germany, to run for 20 years. Each party was to supply equal tonnage to services between the United States and Germany, each was to act as the other's agent in its home country, and the American corporation was to supply passenger ships not exceeding 40,000 gross tons within a year. Benson said: "There is no German money in the American end of the business nor is there any agreement for German investment in any American companies."[^13] A report of 1930 states that in 1920 Harriman "set out to make the U. S. great upon the sea, formed an alliance with Hamburg-American Line," and was "Thwarted in the fulfillment of this."[^10] + +The Harriman papers contain incoming and outgoing cable files with the Hamburg-American Line for 1920 to 1926 and with [[Wilhelm Cuno]] for 1920 to 1931, a file on the sale of the United American Lines steamers to the Hamburg-American Line in 1926, and a Hamburg-American Line subject file for 1933 to 1937.[^14] + +### W. A. Harriman and Company + +The Library of Congress lists Harriman as chairman of the board of W. A. Harriman and Company from 1920 to 1931; a report of December 1930 states that he and his brother formed the firm in 1919. The same report says the firm "was one of the first to enter Europe after the War, made many a loan in Germany," was active in Polish financing, financed Silesian zinc mines with the [[Anaconda Copper Mining Company|Anaconda]] group, and in 1929 backed the Aviation Corporation together with [[Lehman Brothers]].[^1][^10] Sutton's chronology lists 1920 as the year the firm was established with Roland Harriman as vice president.[^11] + +### The Georgian manganese concession + +The Soviet government concluded a concession contract with the American company "Harriman ('The Georgian Manganese' Stock Company)" dated June 12, 1925, relating to property nationalized by the Georgian Soviet decrees; the Soviet side cited it in 1936 as an example of a concession made by the Union government for property nationalized by a constituent republic.[^15] The Hoover Institution holds an agreement of 1925 between the Tchitouri Manganese Exporting Society (Tchemo) and W. A. Harriman and Company, and the Harriman papers list a Tchemo agreement and a syndicate agreement of June 12, 1925, an assignment from W. A. Harriman and Company of July 18, 1925, property of voting trustees of August 10, 1925, and an ore-shipment contract of November 1925.[^16][^17] Sutton gives the date of the concession agreement as July 12, 1925, states that four million dollars was spent on mechanizing the mines and on a loading elevator at [[Poti]], and writes that the chairman of the Georgian Manganese Company was Matthew C. Brush, whom he calls the Order's "front man." Sutton's chronology dates the formation of the company to 1923.[^18][^11] + +A report of March 1926 ranked the manganese rights obtained by the Harriman interests second among the concessions granted to foreigners, after the Volga timber concessions given to the former German chancellor [[Joseph Wirth]]. A report of July 1927 states that the Soviets had reconfirmed the concession and that the British had been using their offices to thwart it.[^19][^20] The Library of Congress lists a trip to the USSR in 1926 and the investment as running 1925 to 1928; its files include Harriman's correspondence while in the USSR for 1926 and 1927, his resignation in 1928, a termination agreement of August 21 to 28, 1928, and Soviet notes from 1928 to 1943.[^1][^17] The Soviet Bureau of Foreign Concessions announced in July 1928 the "amicable termination" of the 22-year concession after three years, with the 3,500,000 dollars spent by the concessionaires to be treated as a loan repaid by the Soviet government.[^21] Sutton wrote that the Soviets expropriated the concessions of the 1920s, including Harriman's, usually without reimbursement, and that Harriman took three million dollars in Soviet bonds as compensation. Sutton quotes a statement of Harriman to [[John B. Stetson Jr.]] of the State Department: "Mr. Harriman said that they expect to drop about three million dollars which they would charge off to experience."[^22] + +A second Soviet-related business, the Russian Finance and Construction Corporation, is documented in the Harriman papers for 1921 to 1952, including its consolidation with the Georgia Manganese Company in 1927 and an agreement with the Soviet government in 1928. A folder in the same files is titled "Reynders, John V. W. re J. Henry Schroder Banking Corp. acquisition of Thyssen stock, 1940."[^23] The Georgian National Archives hold a photograph of Harriman in Poti dated about 1920 to 1921, and the description attached to the image states that "Harriman's company held the concession for the Chiatura manganese mines during this period."[^24] Sutton writes that Harriman participated in [[Ruskombank]], the first Soviet commercial bank, whose first vice president for foreign operations was Max May of Guaranty Trust Company.[^25] + +### Brown Brothers Harriman + +On December 22, 1930 the merger of Brown Brothers and Company and the Harriman firms was reported as completed "last week"; the report counts 16 partners in the new firm of Brown Bros., Harriman and Company, eleven of them Yale graduates, and notes that partner [[Ellery Sedgwick James]] was a classmate of the Harriman partners Edward Roland Noel Harriman, [[Prescott Bush]] and [[Knight Woolley]], and that Robert A. Lovett was the son of Judge Lovett.[^10] The firm's own history states that the merger was first discussed among six partners in November 1930, that twelve of 17 partners had graduated from Yale, and that in 1931 an emergency infusion of 10 million dollars from Averell and Roland Harriman averted collapse after Germany declared a standstill on debt payments to foreign creditors.[^26] A finding aid for the firm's records gives 1931 as the year Brown Brothers merged with the Harriman interests.[^27] The printed circular announcing the union, dated January 2, 1931, states that "effective January 1, 1931" the businesses of Brown Brothers & Co., Harriman Brothers & Co. and W. A. Harriman & Co., Inc. were united in Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.[^28] The firm's partner table gives October 30, 1926 as the date Averell and Roland Harriman became partners of the Harriman bank (organized on St. Patrick's Day 1927 under the name W. A. Harriman & Co. and renamed Harriman Brothers & Co.), and January 1, 1931 to October 31, 1946 as his term as general partner of the merged firm, with limited partner status afterward.[^28] The firm's history records that he chaired the Department of Commerce Business Advisory Council from 1937 to 1939 and served with the N.R.A., the [[National Defense Advisory Commission]] and the [[Office of Production Management]] before going to Great Britain for lend-lease.[^28] [[Zachary Karabell]] wrote that the merger was announced on December 12, 1930, and that Harriman "was flush with the millions provided by his father's fortune" but "his business was struggling as well."[^29] The Library of Congress lists Harriman as a partner from 1931 to 1946, and holds a cable file of Brown Brothers Harriman for 1931.[^1][^14] The report describes Brown Brothers as formed in 1825 by Alexander Brown, with an associate house, Brown, Shipley and Company, in which Montagu Norman had been a partner before becoming head of the Bank of England. Sutton's chronology gives 1933 for the merger and lists the Brown Brothers Harriman partners who were members of the society, including Averell Harriman (class of 1913) and Roland Harriman (class of 1917).[^11] + +### Union Banking Corporation + +A Treasury Department memorandum of August 18, 1941, from Mr. May to [[J. W. Pehle]], subject "Union Banking Corporation," states that the corporation, incorporated August 4, 1924, was wholly owned by the [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]] of Rotterdam, that the investigation "produced no evidence as to the ownership of this Dutch bank," and that its president, Cornelis Lievense, believed Baron [[Heinrich Thyssen]] might own a substantial interest. It records gold purchases of over eight million dollars in 1931 to 1933, of which 3,085,000 dollars was delivered to the Federal Reserve Bank on June 15, 1934, and states that "In the fall of 1938, during the Munich crisis, Union Banking Corporation held two million dollars in currency in a safe deposit box in New York, but this sum was subsequently deposited in the company's account with Brown Brothers, Harriman."[^30] + +On October 20, 1942 the [[Alien Property Custodian]], Leo T. Crowley, signed Vesting Order Number 248, vesting the 4,000 shares of Union Banking Corporation, published in the [[Federal Register]] on November 7, 1942. The registered owners were E. Roland Harriman with 3,991 shares, [[Cornelius Lievense]] with 4, and Harold D. Pennington, Ray Morris, Prescott S. Bush, H. J. Kouwenhoven and Johann G. Groeninger with one share each. The order states that the shares were held for the benefit of the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, which it describes as owned or controlled by members of the [[Thyssen family]]. W. Averell Harriman is not among the registered owners.[^31] Sutton writes that "the Harrimans had a financial interest in" the corporation, that Roland was a director, and that Averell Harriman, Roland Harriman, E. S. James and Knight Woolley were "through the Union Bank (in which they held a major interest) prime financial backers of Hitler"; he lists eight directors in 1932: E. Roland Harriman, H. J. Kouwenhoven, Knight Woolley, Cornelius Lievense, Ellery Sedgwick James, Johann Groninger, J. L. Guinter and Prescott Sheldon Bush.[^32] A [[Council on Foreign Relations]] table of November 1951 lists Brown Brothers Harriman officers who were members as E. Roland Harriman, Ray Morris, Knight Woolley and Thomas McCance.[^33] + +### Today, Newsweek and the Business Advisory Council + +The Library of Congress lists Harriman as co-founder with [[Vincent Astor]] of the weekly Today in 1933, merged with [[Newsweek]] in 1937, and as chairman of the [[Business Advisory Council]] from 1937 to 1939; he held the position of Administrator and special assistant at the [[National Recovery Administration]] in 1934 and 1935 and founded the Sun Valley ski resort in Idaho in 1935 and 1936.[^1] On September 11, 1933 Astor and Harriman announced a weekly, Today, to be edited by [[Raymond Moley]].[^34] On March 17, 1961 [[Philip Graham]] sent [[Alfred Friendly]] to Rome to secure a pledge from Harriman, "an early Newsweek backer," to sell his 13 percent holding in Newsweek to the [[Washington Post]].[^35] + +### Lend-Lease and the Moscow embassy + +Harriman became [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]'s special representative to Great Britain with the rank of ambassador in March 1941, serving until September 1943, and chaired the President's special mission to the USSR.[^1][^3] On August 6, 1941 the Secretary of State sent [[Winant]], the ambassador in the United Kingdom, a telegram marked "Personal from Harriman" relaying a conversation with [[Brendan Bracken]], the British Minister of Information, about American belief that Britain was using Lend-Lease materials to foster and retain its commercial exports.[^36] + +He was ambassador to the Soviet Union from 1943 to 1946.[^1] A telegram of February 10, 1944 from Moscow reports a conversation with [[Anastas Mikoyan]] about the Persian route and the decorations proposed for the American officers who supervised it.[^37] On February 13, 1944 he wrote to [[Harry Hopkins]] that he did not intend to object to a supplementary agreement to the Third Protocol and that the Department had indicated legal difficulties in arranging a reconstruction credit under the [[Johnson Act]].[^38] Sutton quotes a report of June 30, 1944 from Harriman in Moscow to the State Department in which Stalin is said to have stated that about two-thirds of all the large industrial enterprises in the Soviet Union had been built with United States help or technical assistance.[^39] On February 10, 1944 the Acting Secretary of State had sent Harriman the replies approved by the President to three questions asked by the Polish government.[^40] + +Sutton reproduces an account of a dinner party in 1971 at which, he writes, the journalist [[Edward Weintal]] told Harriman: "You told Roosevelt that you were convinced that the Soviets did not want to introduce a Communist government into Poland." Sutton states that Weintal cited a State Department telegram of February 12, 1944 from Harriman to Roosevelt, that Harriman shouted "If you print anything like that in your book, I'll break your jaw," and that a Washington Post reporter noted the details in a column by [[Maxine Cheshire]] of March 17, 1971.[^41] + +### Ambassador to the United Kingdom and Secretary of Commerce + +The State Department records that Harriman resigned as ambassador to the Soviet Union in February 1946 and assumed his duties as ambassador in the United Kingdom in April 1946.[^42] On April 22, 1948 President Truman accepted his resignation as United States Secretary of Commerce, effective that day, so that he could take up the administration of the European Recovery Program.[^43] The Library of Congress lists the commerce post as 1946 to 1948, and states that Truman named him ambassador to the Court of St. James's before recalling him to Washington to become secretary of commerce.[^1][^3] [[Harry Kern]] and the historian [[Howard Schonberger]] wrote that Kern and Harriman, as Secretary of Commerce, helped to turn American occupation policy in Japan away from democratic reform.[^44] + +### The Marshall Plan + +In May 1948 Truman sent Harriman to Paris as Special Representative in Europe to carry out the European Recovery Program, and he returned to the United States in mid-1950 to become the president's special assistant.[^3] [[Lincoln Gordon]] worked under Harriman on the Marshall Plan mission in London. [[Vernon Walters]] served as Harriman's aide at Marshall Plan headquarters in Paris.[^45] [[Robert R. Mullen]] recalled that he and [[E. Howard Hunt]] both worked for the Marshall Plan in Paris from 1948 to 1950, when [[Dorothy Hunt]] was employed by Harriman.[^46] The Library of Congress files for the period also record his mediation in the British-Iranian oil crisis of 1951 and the Korean War controversy over the dismissal of General [[Douglas MacArthur]].[^3] + +### Mutual Security and the Council on Foreign Relations + +The volume of Foreign Relations of the United States for 1951 records that the [[International Security Affairs Committee]] was to be abolished and that Harriman had been nominated as Director for Mutual Security on October 11, 1951; the Library of Congress lists him as director of the [[Mutual Security Agency]] from 1951 to 1953 and chairman of the North Atlantic Commission on Defense Plans in 1951 and 1952.[^47][^1] On December 12, 1950 [[Hamilton Fish Armstrong]] sent Harriman, then at the [[White House]], a statement of a Council study group on aid to Europe, noting in the covering letter that [[Allen Dulles]] had spoken to Harriman about it that morning.[^48] The Council's officers for 1952 to 1953 included Harriman among the directors, and he is listed among the individual donors of 10,000 dollars or more.[^49][^50] + +### Governor of New York + +Harriman was governor of New York from 1955 to 1958; the Library of Congress lists the term as 1955 to 1959 and notes that the papers of the governorship are held at Syracuse University.[^51][^1] [[Mary Lasker]] recalled in her Columbia oral history that Harriman asked for suggestions for a commissioner of mental hygiene soon after the election, and that [[Lester Markel]] of the New York Times telephoned to ask whether she knew [[Paul Hoch]], then in charge of research at the institute; Hoch's appointment was announced in July 1955.[^52] The Columbia oral history of [[Grayson Kirk]], held by the Eisenhower Library, covers Harriman's donation of the Arden House estate to [[Columbia University]].[^53] + +### Kennedy administration and Vietnam + +By September 1962 Harriman was Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs, and by August 1963 Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs.[^54][^55] On August 24, 1963 the State Department sent telegram 243 to [[Henry Cabot Lodge]] in Saigon, stating that the "US Government cannot tolerate situation in which power lies in Nhu's hands" and instructing the country team to "make detailed plans as to how we might bring about Diem's replacement if this should become necessary." The telegram was signed by [[George Ball]].[^56] A memorandum for the record by [[Victor Krulak]] of the same day records the account of [[Michael Forrestal]] that "Hilsman and Governor Harriman" had converted a proposed course of action into an instruction to Lodge, that it had been sent to the President for approval, and that it was not something on which Defense clearance was desired.[^57] [[Maxwell Taylor]] said in 1981 that the telegram had been drafted by Harriman, [[Roger Hilsman]] and Forrestal and dispatched "without the concurrence of the Defense Department, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, or the CIA," and called it an "end run" in his memoirs; Hilsman maintained that the President and representatives of the agencies concerned had cleared it.[^58] + +On October 7, 1963 Harriman attended a White House meeting on Brazil with Kennedy, [[Robert McNamara]], [[Edwin Martin]] and Lincoln Gordon, at which Kennedy asked whether the United States might find it desirable to intervene militarily.[^59] On June 19, 1963 he attended the meeting at which Kennedy approved a sabotage program against Cuba, one of the programs later grouped as [[Operation Mongoose]], with [[John McCone]] and McGeorge Bundy present.[^60] + +### Laos + +Harriman headed the American delegation to the Geneva conference on Laos in 1961 and 1962; the Library of Congress lists him as deputy representative to the conference.[^61][^1] A memorandum of his conversation with the North Vietnamese foreign minister at Geneva on July 22, 1962 records that he said the United States intended to carry out the Laos agreements "in the letter and in the spirit," including the removal of its military personnel from Laos.[^62] The State Department editorial note states that "On July 23, Secretary Rusk signed for the United States the Declaration on the Neutrality of Laos."[^63] + +### Paris peace talks + +In October 1968 Harriman and [[Cyrus Vance]] led the American side in the Paris talks on Vietnam. A telegram from the Paris embassy dated October 9, 1968 is headed "From Harriman and Vance" and reports a meeting in which [[Le Duc Tho]], [[Xuan Thuy]] and Lau joined the Americans during a tea break.[^64] + +### Marriages and papers + +The Library of Congress lists Harriman's marriages as 1915 to Kathleen Lanier Lawrence (divorced 1929), 1930 to Marie Norton Whitney (died 1970) and 1971 to [[Pamela Harriman]], formerly Pamela Digby Churchill Hayward. Sutton notes that Pamela Hayward had been married to [[Randolph Churchill]].[^1][^11] + +The W. Averell Harriman Papers in the Library of Congress Manuscript Division run to 346,760 items in 1,041 containers, with series for the Georgian Manganese Company and the Russian Finance and Construction Corporation, and a Classified, Top Secret, Restricted Data and Sensitive Compartmented Information series for 1946 to 1980.[^3] FRUS volume III for 1961 to 1963 records that its documents were drawn from the papers while still in the possession of the late ambassador, and other volumes cite the Chronology File for May to August 1962.[^28][^62] + +### Footnotes + +[^1]: W. Averell Harriman Papers, A Finding Aid to the Collection in the Library of Congress, Manuscript Division (2016), Biographical Note (chronology 1891 to 1986). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003012.pdf +[^2]: The Yale Banner and Pot Pourri, Yale University, 1913 to 1914, list of students including William Averell Harriman. https://archive.org/details/yalebannerpotpou00newh +[^3]: W. Averell Harriman Papers finding aid, Library of Congress Manuscript Division, Collection Summary and Scope and Content Note (MSS61911). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003012.pdf +[^4]: "Harriman philanthropy to have a board of scientific directors," The New York Times, Sunday issue as transcribed by the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory DNA Learning Center. https://dnalc.cshl.edu/view/10495-%2DHarriman-philanthropy-to-have-a-board-of-scientific-directors-The-New-York-Times.html +[^5]: Image Archive on the American Eugenics Movement, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, theme "Eugenics Record Office (ERO)," including the 1910 donation of 10,000 dollars by the widow of E. H. Harriman, a Davenport letter to Mrs. E. H. Harriman, and "Transfer of ERO," Eugenical News vol. 3. https://www.eugenicsarchive.org/html/eugenics/static/themes/20.html +[^6]: Antony C. Sutton, America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull and Bones (1983), chapter "W. Averell Harriman (The Order '13)." The passage "In official Harriman biographies, however, there is no mention of The Order, Skull & Bones, or the Russell Trust. Like other initiates Harriman has carefully expunged membership from the public record." +[^7]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977 +[^8]: Jacques Leslie, "Smirk from the past," Salon, March 1, 2000. https://www.salon.com/2000/03/01/yale/ +[^9]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), Harriman chapter, family section (E. H. Harriman, Judge Robert Scott Lovett, and the initiation of Robert Abercrombie Lovett "with the two Harriman boys, Roland and Averell"). +[^10]: "Business: Brown-Harriman," Time, December 22, 1930. https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,740853,00.html +[^11]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), chronology under the heading of an official summary of Averell Harriman's career (marriages; 1920, 1923, 1933 entries; Pamela Hayward and Randolph Churchill). +[^12]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), chronology and the section "The Guaranty Trust Company." +[^13]: "Sanction Plan to Run Ships on German Routes," The Omaha Bee, August 17, 1920, p. 2 (Washington dispatch of August 16, 1920). https://nebnewspapers.unl.edu/lccn/sn99021999/1920-08-17/ed-1/seq-2 +[^14]: W. Averell Harriman Papers finding aid, Library of Congress, Special Files: Business (cables incoming and outgoing, Hamburg-American Line 1920 to 1926; Cuno, Wilhelm, 1920 to 1931; Brown Brothers Harriman and Co., 1931), Subject File (Hamburg-American Line, 1933 to 1937, Box 56; United American Lines re sale of steamers, 1926). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003012.pdf +[^15]: Telegram, the Chargé in the Soviet Union (Henderson) to the Secretary of State, Moscow, September 22, 1936, Foreign Relations of the United States, The Soviet Union, 1933 to 1939, document 334. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1933-39/d334 +[^16]: W. A. Harriman and Company agreement, 1925, Hoover Institution Library and Archives (Online Archive of California). https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt867nf2wp +[^17]: W. Averell Harriman Papers finding aid, Special Files: Business, Georgian Manganese Company, 1921 to 1946 (Boxes 694 to 709: Tchemo agreement and syndicate agreement of June 12, 1925; W. A. Harriman and Co. assignment of July 18, 1925; property of voting trustees, August 10, 1925; ore shipments, November 1925 contract; Harriman correspondence while in USSR, 1926 to 1927; resignation, 1928; termination agreement, August 21 to 28, 1928; Soviet notes). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003012.pdf +[^18]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), section "How the Order Developed the Stagnant Soviet Union" (concession agreement of July 12, 1925; four million dollars; Matthew C. Brush; State Department Decimal File 316-138-12/331), and the Order chart naming Brush as chairman of the Georgian Manganese Company. +[^19]: "Russia: Concessions," Time, March 15, 1926. https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,736634,00.html +[^20]: Time, July 25, 1927, on the Soviet reconfirmation of the Harriman manganese concession. https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,736830,00.html +[^21]: "Foreign News: Harriman Out," Time, July 16, 1928. https://time.com/archive/6778286/foreign-news-harriman-out/ +[^22]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), Harriman chapter, discussing Harriman's article in Look, October 3, 1967, and State Department file 861.637-Harriman (Stetson). +[^23]: W. Averell Harriman Papers finding aid, Special Files: Business, Russian Finance and Construction Corporation, 1921 to 1952 (Boxes 710 to 731). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003012.pdf +[^24]: National Archives of Georgia photograph, "American Industrialist W. Averell Harriman in Poti, c. 1920," institutional description, Internet Archive item. https://archive.org/details/043-harriman-in-poti-with-mikaberidze-c-1920-01 +[^25]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), introductory examples of the Order's activity (Ruskombank and Max May of Guaranty Trust). +[^26]: Brown Brothers Harriman, "Joining Forces: The Birth of Brown Brothers Harriman," firm history. https://www.bbh.com/apac/en/bbh-who-we-are/our-story/200-years-of-partnership/joining-forces-the-birth-of-brown-brothers-harriman.html +[^27]: Brown Brothers Harriman records, finding aid, New-York Historical Society collection at NYU. https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms78_brown_brothers_harriman/ +[^28]: John A. Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking: An Historical Portrait of a Great Private Bank, Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., 1818-1968* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1968), pp. 12 to 19, 202 and partner table pp. 231 to 234. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb +[^29]: Zachary Karabell, "Inside Money: Brown Brothers Harriman and the American Way of Power," *Financial History* 138 (Summer 2021), Museum of American Finance, pp. 15 to 16. https://archive.org/details/financialhistory138 +[^30]: Treasury Department memorandum, Mr. May to Mr. J. W. Pehle, August 18, 1941, "Re: Union Banking Corporation," ref. 9-151, declassified by NARA (NND 960103). https://archive.org/details/BushDocuments0008b-LetterJ.W.PebleToMay +[^31]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 248, executed October 20, 1942, 7 Federal Register 9097 to 9098 (November 7, 1942). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf +[^32]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), introductory examples and section "The Union Banking Connection" (directors in 1932, Roland Harriman as director). +[^33]: Council on Foreign Relations, Receipts (1946-1951), Research Budget, with Contributions of Corporations, Individual Contributions to the 25th Anniversary Fund and Corporations with Officers who are members of the Council on Foreign Relations, November 1951, CIA-RDP80R01731R001100170005-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001100170005-1 +[^34]: "Press: Today," *Time*, September 11, 1933. https://time.com/archive/6751591/press-today/ +[^35]: "The Press: Newsweek's News," *Time*, March 17, 1961. https://time.com/archive/6829457/the-press-newsweeks-news/ +[^36]: Telegram, Secretary of State to the Ambassador in the United Kingdom (Winant), Washington, August 6, 1941, "Personal from Harriman," Foreign Relations of the United States, 1941, vol. III. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1941v03/d14 +[^37]: Telegram 440, Ambassador in the Soviet Union (Harriman) to the Secretary of State, Moscow, February 10, 1944, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1944, vol. IV, document 761. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944v04/d761 +[^38]: Telegram, Harriman to the Chairman of the President's Soviet Protocol Committee (Hopkins), Moscow, February 13, 1944, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1944, vol. IV, document 957. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944v04/d957 +[^39]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), Harriman chapter, citing State Department Decimal File 033.1161 Johnston Eric/6-3044, telegram of June 30, 1944. +[^40]: Telegram, the Acting Secretary of State to the Ambassador in the Soviet Union (Harriman), Washington, February 10, 1944, 8 p.m., Foreign Relations of the United States, 1944, vol. III, document 1162. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944v03/d1162 +[^41]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), Harriman chapter, passage on Edward Weintal, citing the Washington Post, March 17, 1971, VIP column by Maxine Cheshire. +[^42]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1946, vol. VI, document 420, editorial headnote. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1946v06/d420 +[^43]: Harry S. Truman, Letter to Secretary Harriman Following His Nomination as U.S. Special Representative in Europe, April 22, 1948, Public Papers, Harry S. Truman Library. https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/public-papers/83/letter-secretary-harriman-following-his-nomination-us-special +[^44]: Howard B. Schonberger, *Aftermath of War: Americans and the Remaking of Japan, 1945-1952* (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1989), p. 7. +[^45]: Vernon Walters, *Silent Missions* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1978). +[^46]: Central Intelligence Agency, Central Cover Staff, "Request for CSA concerning E. Howard Hunt," June 3, 1970, CIA Reading Room document C00297384. +[^47]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1951, vol. I, document 769 and its headnote on the Mutual Security Agency. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1951v01/d769 +[^48]: Letter, Hamilton Fish Armstrong to W. Averell Harriman, December 12, 1950, CIA-RDP80R01731R003100010004-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003100010004-7 +[^49]: Council on Foreign Relations, Annual Report of the Executive Director, 1951-1952, with list of members and by-laws (New York, 1952), Officers and Standing Committees, CIA-RDP80R01731R001200010036-3. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R001200010036-3 +[^50]: Council on Foreign Relations, Annual Report, July 1, 1984 to June 30, 1985 (New York, 1985), Campaign for the Council, individual donors of $10,000 or more, CIA-RDP90-00806R000100210066-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000100210066-5 +[^51]: Empire State Plaza, Hall of Governors, "W. Averell Harriman, 48th Governor, 1955 to 1958," New York State Office of General Services. https://empirestateplaza.ny.gov/node/3471 +[^52]: Columbia University Libraries, Oral History Research Office, Mary Lasker oral history, transcript pages laskerm_1_19_570 and laskerm_1_19_572. https://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/digital/collections/nny/laskerm/transcripts/laskerm_1_19_572.html ; University at Albany, M.E. Grenander Department of Special Collections and Archives, record of a 1956 interview of Dr. Paul H. Hoch, Commissioner of Mental Hygiene. https://archives.albany.edu/description/catalog/apap015aspace_033e27487bc26a06ec8cf9fd535fb0c3 +[^53]: Eisenhower Library, Oral History Project, finding aid OH-364, Grayson L. Kirk, interview by David Horrocks, 1975. https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/oral-histories/oral-history-finding-aids/ohfa364.pdf +[^54]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. XXIV, document 423, Memorandum from the Deputy Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs (Johnson) to the Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (Harriman), September 21, 1962. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v24/d423 +[^55]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. III, document 243, Memorandum of Telephone Conversation Between the Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs (Harriman) and the Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (Hilsman). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d243 +[^56]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. III, document 281, Telegram 243, Department of State to the Embassy in Vietnam, Washington, August 24, 1963, 9:36 p.m. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d281 +[^57]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. III, document 282, Memorandum for the Record by Krulak, August 24, 1963. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d282 +[^58]: Robert S. Gallagher, "Gen. Maxwell Taylor: Memories of Peace and War," *American Heritage*, vol. 32, no. 3 (April/May 1981), https://www.americanheritage.com/gen-maxwell-taylor-memories-peace-and-war ; *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. III, document 281, source note citing Taylor, *Swords and Plowshares*, pp. 292-294, and Hilsman, *To Move a Nation*, pp. 487-488. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d281 +[^59]: National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 465, Document 9 (White House meeting recording, October 7, 1963; present: Kennedy, Harriman, McNamara, Martin, Gordon and others). +[^60]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, S. Rept. 94-465 (1975), p. 337 and pp. 172 to 173 (Special Group minutes and memorandum of June 19, 1963). https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit +[^61]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. XXIV, document 106, Paper Prepared by the Head of the Delegation to the Laos Conference (Harriman). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v24/d106 +[^62]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. XXIV, document 410, Memorandum of Conversation, Geneva, July 22, 1962, source Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, Harriman Papers, Chronology File, May to August 1962. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v24/d410 +[^63]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. XXIV, document 411, Editorial Note. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v24/d411 +[^64]: Telegram 805 (Delto), Embassy in France to the Department of State, Paris, October 9, 1968, "From Harriman and Vance," Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964 to 1968, vol. VII, document 54. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v07/d54 diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Antony C. Sutton.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Antony C. Sutton.md new file mode 100644 index 00000000..57de3174 --- /dev/null +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Antony C. Sutton.md @@ -0,0 +1,189 @@ +--- +aliases: + - Antony C. Sutton + - Antony Sutton + - Anthony Sutton + - Anthony C. Sutton + - Antony Cyril Sutton +category: "Authors & Journalists" +tags: + - Person + - AntonySutton + - SkullAndBones + - WallStreetTrilogy + - HooverInstitution + - WesternTechnology + - BrownBrothersHarriman + - Trilaterals + - FederalReserve + - ColdFusion +summary: "Antony C. Sutton, London-born economist and Hoover Institution research fellow from 1968 to 1973, wrote Western Technology and Soviet Economic Development, the Wall Street trilogy and America's Secret Establishment." +born: 1925 +died: 2002 +location: "Stanford, California" +birthplace: "London, England" +deathplace: "Reno, Nevada" +created: 2026-10-26 +updated: 2026-10-26 +relations: + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Hoover Institution]]" + start: 1968 + end: 1973 + role: "research fellow, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, Stanford University" + fn: 1 + - type: head_of + with: "[[Phoenix Letter]]" + start: 1984 + role: "editor, Phoenix Letter, vol. 3, no. 8 (October 1984) masthead" + fn: 42 +--- + +Antony Cyril Sutton (1925 to 2002) was born in London, educated at the Universities of London, Göttingen and California, and held a research fellowship at the [[Hoover Institution]] at [[Stanford University]] from 1968 to 1973. He died in [[Reno, Nevada]]. His Hoover studies of Western technology in the Soviet economy were published in three volumes, and his later books covered the financing of the Bolshevik and Nazi movements, the [[Skull and Bones]] and other [[Yale University]] senior societies, and the [[Trilateral Commission]].[^1][^2][^3][^4] + +The Library of Congress name authority record gives his birth year as 1925, his birthplace as London and his death place as Reno, Nevada.[^3] The author note in the reissue of Wall Street and FDR states that he was later an economics professor at [[California State University, Los Angeles]]; the author note in the 1981 printing of Wall Street and the Bolshevik Revolution describes him as a former economics professor there and "still affiliated" with the Hoover Institution.[^4][^5] The Hoover Institution Library and Archives holds the Antony C. Sutton papers (1920 to 1972, four manuscript boxes and one microfilm reel), acquired in 1990, which contain his writings and notes on wars, civil wars and revolutions from 1820 to 1970 and on the business investments of [[Armand Hammer]] in the Soviet Union.[^6] + +### Hoover Institution and Western Technology + +Sutton began his research into the transfer of Western technology to the Soviet Union in the late 1950s. The first volume of his study, covering 1917 to 1930, was completed in 1966 and published by the Hoover Institution in November 1968. The second volume, covering 1930 to 1945, was published in 1971. The third, covering 1945 to 1965, was completed in mid-1970 and published in November 1973, under the general title Western Technology and Soviet Economic Development.[^2][^7] + +In his own account to a House subcommittee in April 1974, Sutton said that he had examined the origins of each major Soviet process or technology, and that most of his information came directly or indirectly from Soviet sources, since the relevant United States material was largely classified.[^1] He described the three volumes as a precise technical examination of Soviet industry that traced where its technologies came from.[^2] + +The volumes were reviewed in academic journals. [[Michael R. Dohan]] of Queens College reviewed the second volume in the Slavic Review in December 1972 (volume 31, number 4, pages 904 to 905), and [[Howard J. Sherman]] of the University of California, Riverside reviewed the first in the American Political Science Review in September 1973 (volume 67, number 3, pages 1126 to 1128). [[Carl B. Turner]] of North Carolina State University reviewed the second volume in the same journal in September 1976 (volume 70, number 3, pages 1017 to 1018).[^8][^9][^10] Sutton's own bibliography, filed with the 1974 hearing, lists reviews of the first two volumes through March 1973 in Foreign Affairs (April 1969 and October 1971), Orbis, the Journal of Economic History (December 1969), the Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, the Journal of Political Economy (March 1973), Technology and Culture (January 1973) and the American Historical Review (February 1973), among about fifty others.[^11] His bibliography also lists two reference volumes published by Hoover, Wars and Revolutions: a comprehensive list of conflicts, with fatalities (part one 1820 to 1900, 1971; part two 1900 to 1973, 1973).[^11] + +The Washington and Lee Commerce Review published his summary article "Western Technology in the Soviet Union: A Summation" in its first volume, Winter 1973.[^12] + +### The 1972 Republican convention and National Suicide + +Sutton's account of his own efforts before 1973 places a series of written testimony, articles and requests for records ahead of his book. He wrote that in 1969 he submitted written testimony to a Senate international finance subcommittee, under the title "Some aspects of Trade, Western technology and Soviet Military Capability." In 1971 he contracted with the United States Naval Institute Press for a book on the Western origins of the Soviet merchant marine, and in 1971 and 1972 he sought classified Department of Defense data for a two-volume study of military assistance to the Soviet Union.[^2] + +Sutton testified that in August 1972 he attempted to brief a national security subcommittee at the Republican convention on the problem, and that the only official response was an injunction not to make any more such speeches if he wanted to "survive." He stated that several million copies of that testimony were distributed.[^2] The Republican platform committee held hearings for a week in Miami Beach before the convention; [[John J. Rhodes]] of Arizona was its chairman, and he named as the "wordsmith" who wrote the document Martin C. Anderson, a former White House aide then with the Hoover Institution.[^13] The platform that the Committee on Resolutions proposed on August 21, 1972 stated, in its foreign policy section, that the party would "encourage increased trade for the benefit of our consumers, businessmen, workers, and farmers."[^14] [[Human Events]] published Sutton's article "The East-West Trade Fight" on March 11, 1972. It states that when the time came for expropriation of the concessions of the 1920s only "the favored few," among them [[W. Averell Harriman]], received compensation, describes the sale of 46 Centalign-B machines by the Bryant Chucking Grinder Company to the Soviet Union in 1959 for miniature ball bearing manufacture, and states that in late 1971 the Nixon administration issued one billion dollars in export licenses for the Kama truck plant.[^15] His bibliography also lists "The Soviet Military-Industrial Complex" in Human Events on September 9, 1972, and "It's time for Great Debate on U.S.-Soviet Trade" in Human Events on August 18, 1973.[^11] + +He then assembled the material he had into National Suicide: Military Aid to the Soviet Union, published by [[Arlington House]] in New York in October 1973, after advance copies became available in July.[^2][^16] Sutton testified that the book came to the attention of the Hoover Institution in about July 1973.[^2] + +### Departure from Hoover + +According to Sutton's 1974 statement, his name was removed from the Hoover personnel directory after the book came to Hoover's attention. In August 1973 he was removed from his position as research fellow. He wrote that the dust jacket of the third volume, then in press, was changed to describe him as "a Research Fellow at the Hoover Institution from 1968 to 1973."[^2] + +Sutton testified that he still had an office at Hoover and received a monthly research grant, but that he was not officially connected with the institution. He wrote that Hoover emphatically disassociated itself from his testimony.[^2] He called the treatment "reminiscent of" book burning in [[Adolf Hitler]]'s Germany and asked the Congress to investigate.[^17] + +### House testimony, April 1974 + +On April 24, 1974 Sutton appeared as a witness before the Subcommittee on International Trade of the House Committee on Banking and Currency. The hearings covered H. Res. 774, a resolution on a prohibition of Export-Import Bank credit, and bills to implement the International Economic Policy Act of 1972. The subcommittee chairman was [[Thomas L. Ashley]] of Ohio.[^1] + +His oral summary described four sectors. He reported that he had identified 44 types of Soviet marine diesel engines, with a Western origin established for all but two. He stated that about 68 percent of Soviet merchant ships had been built completely in the West, and about 80 percent of the main diesel engines in Soviet ships had been built in the West.[^18] He said that he could identify no significant indigenous Soviet computer technology, and that professors in Toronto and at the Israel Institute of Technology confirmed the conclusion.[^18] He cited ball bearing manufacturing equipment and a plant in the Soviet Union for 10-ton military trucks built with United States firms. He concluded that Western technology went into the Soviet military-industrial complex and that the term "peaceful trade" was misleading.[^18] Asked by Ashley whether his conclusions were that the Soviet Union depended on the West for technology, that peaceful trade was a myth and that any exported industrial technology could be used for war, Sutton answered that this was accurate except that by "myth" he meant that the phrase diverted attention from the military use of exports.[^19] + +The other witnesses at the hearing included [[Franklyn D. Holzman]] of Tufts University, who testified immediately after Sutton and had told the subcommittee that the number of Western business arrangements in the Soviet Union of the 1920s "was larger than has commonly been believed," as Sutton had written in his books.[^20] A prepared statement from another witness likewise referred to "the recent work by Antony C. Sutton" for the same point.[^21] On a later hearing day, Representative [[Ben B. Blackburn]] of Georgia asked [[Roger E. Shields]], Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense, whether he was familiar with Sutton's research, stating that Sutton found no indigenous Soviet computer technology, and then questioned the witnesses about the 1972 sale of 164 Bryant ball bearing machines to the Soviet Union, which Sutton's testimony also described.[^22] + +### The Wall Street trilogy + +Sutton's three books on finance use a common method: a chronology of named bankers and corporations, drawn from State Department files and congressional and wartime records, with the claim that a financial network linked those firms to revolutionary and fascist regimes. He described the method in the Preface to the first book, saying that the State Department Decimal File, particularly section 861.00, "contains extensive documentation on the hypothesized link."[^23] + +#### Wall Street and the Bolshevik Revolution (1974) + +Sutton's preface, dated March 1974, states that he set out to test an old hypothesis that "international bankers" were linked to Bolshevik revolutionaries, and that earlier attempts had rarely been supported by hard evidence.[^23] He wrote that the German funding of the Bolshevik return from exile had been documented by [[Michael Futrell]], [[Stefan Possony]] and [[George Katkov]], and that his own work went beyond that record.[^24] + +The central figure of his account is the [[Morgan Guaranty Trust|Guaranty Trust Company]] of New York, which he describes as Morgan-controlled. Sutton wrote that [[Olof Aschberg]] was the Morgan agent in Russia before 1917, that Aschberg became head of [[Ruskombank]], the first Soviet international bank, and that [[Max May]] of Guaranty Trust became director of Ruskombank's foreign department.[^25] He wrote that [[William Boyce Thompson]], a director of the [[Federal Reserve Bank of New York]], contributed one million dollars to the Bolshevik cause for propaganda purposes, a statement he said was "substantiated by a cablegram."[^25] He describes the [[American International Corporation]], the [[Guaranty Securities Company]] and several other firms at 120 Broadway as the center of this activity.[^25][^26] + +The synopsis adds further claims. Sutton wrote that [[Ludwig Martens]], the first Soviet representative in the United States, was, according to the British intelligence chief Sir Basil Thomson, backed by funds from Guaranty Trust; that [[John Reed]] was financed by the New York banker Eugene Boissevain and employed by Harry Payne Whitney's Metropolitan magazine, Whitney being then a director of Guaranty Trust; that Thompson's American Red Cross Mission to Russia was a private venture and that British War Cabinet papers record Thompson's personal intervention with [[David Lloyd George]] in December 1917; and that [[Alexander Gumberg]] worked for Thompson's mission, became chief Bolshevik agent in Scandinavia, and later served as confidential assistant to Reeve Schley of [[Chase National Bank]] and to Floyd Odlum of the [[Atlas Corporation]].[^25] He also wrote that Wall Street firms including Guaranty Trust were involved with revolutionary activities in Mexico, that a Wall Street syndicate financed the 1912 [[Sun Yat-sen]] revolution in China, and that Colonel [[Edward Mandel House]] intervened to have [[Robert Minor]] released.[^25] Sutton wrote that the concentration of activity at 120 Broadway, where the Federal Reserve Bank of New York and the American International Corporation were located, appeared to be the foreign counterpart of [[Carroll Quigley]]'s claim that J. P. Morgan had infiltrated the domestic left.[^25] + +#### Wall Street and FDR (1975) + +The second book, dated October 1974 in its preface, extends the thesis to [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and the New Deal. Sutton wrote that the evidence was based largely on Roosevelt's own papers and that Wall Street financiers were associated with Roosevelt between 1917 and 1934.[^27] Its chapter on the 1934 [[Business Plot]] hearings describes [[Grayson M.-P. Murphy & Co.]] of 52 Broadway, and [[Smedley Butler]]'s testimony that [[Gerald P. MacGuire]] proposed a plan through that firm. Sutton wrote that Murphy was, in the early 1930s, a director of several companies controlled by the [[J. P. Morgan]] interests, including the Guaranty Trust Company, and that the speechwriter proposed for Butler, [[John W. Davis]], was a partner at Davis, Polk, Wardwell, Gardner and Reed.[^28] He suggested that Wall Street "had none other than Franklin Delano Roosevelt in mind as 'the man on the white horse.'"[^28] + +#### Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler (1976) + +The third book argues that German war preparation depended on American finance and technical transfers. Sutton quoted the [[Kilgore Committee]] of the United States Senate: "The United States accidentally played an important role in the technical arming of Germany."[^29] He wrote that the Kilgore Committee concluded that [[Standard Oil]], through an agreement with [[I.G. Farben]], had "fully accomplished I.G.'s purpose" of preventing American synthetic rubber production, and that the evidence was presented to the [[Harry S. Truman]], Bone and Kilgore committees.[^30] His bibliography lists the Senate Military Affairs subcommittee hearings "Elimination of German Resources for War" (1945), the 1944 hearings on "Scientific and Technical Mobilization," a Field Information Agency technical intelligence report of the Control Council for Germany, the Strategic Bombing Survey plant reports, and the I.G. Farben volume of the Nuremberg tribunal records.[^31] + +The chapter on the Thyssen funds states that [[Fritz Thyssen]] arranged a credit of 250,000 marks for Hitler through a Dutch bank affiliated with the Harrimans. Sutton noted that Thyssen's book I Paid Hitler, published in 1941 under Thyssen's name, was later repudiated, and wrote that its account put Thyssen's contribution at as much as one million marks.[^32] + +### America's Secret Establishment (1983) + +Sutton's preface, dated July 30, 1983 at Phoenix, Arizona, says that after the Wall Street series he received "an eight-inch batch of documents" that proved to be "the membership lists of an American secret society." He wrote that "the names spelled Power, with a capital P."[^33] The 2002 Trine Day edition repeats the account and states that the material arrived as an anonymous donation in the early 1980s.[^33][^34] + +In the book he identifies the material as the "Addresses" books of the Skull and Bones society, which he describes as the membership lists back to 1832. He asked how the material reached outside hands and wrote: "It is possible that one or more members, although bound by oath, would not be dismayed if the story became public knowledge. That's all we will say."[^35] The membership list he describes contains about 2,500 initiates.[^36] + +The book's sections are organized as numbered "memoranda," in which the author sets out hypotheses. Memorandum Number Four states Hypothesis One: that a secret society comprising members of old line American families and representatives of financial power has existed since 1833.[^36] The chart that the text places on page 19 presents the hypothesis in a radial diagram with the label "THE ORDER" at the center.[^36] + +#### Hypothesis One and the family tiers + +The chart lists nine old-line families with settlement dates and places: Whitney (1635, Watertown, Massachusetts), Stimson (1635, Watertown), Perkins (1631, Boston), Taft (1679, Braintree), Phelps (1630, Dorchester), Bundy (1635, Boston), Wadsworth (1632, Newtown), Lord (1635, Cambridge) and Gilman (1638, Hingham). It labels seven families of newer wealth with their sources of fortune: Rockefeller and Payne (Standard Oil), Harriman (railroads), Davison (J. P. Morgan), Weyerhaeuser (lumber), Pillsbury (flour milling) and Sloane (retail).[^36] + +Sutton wrote that a group of 20 to 30 families had come to dominate the society, and that the families fell into two groups. The first were "old line American families who arrived on the East coast in the 1600s, e.g., Whitney, Lord, Phelps, Wadsworth, Allen, Bundy, Adams." The second were "families who acquired wealth in the last 100 years, sent their sons to Yale and in time became almost old line families, e.g., Harriman, Rockefeller, Payne, Davison."[^37] He wrote that intermarriage among these families was common, and that the Puritan families "either intermarried with financial power" or took in the sons of money.[^36] + +### Brown Brothers Harriman, Union Banking and Prescott Bush + +Sutton's account of the [[Brown Brothers Harriman]] partnership says that by the 1970s the firm had "taken in so many of 'the Brotherhood'" that, of its 26 individual partners, "no fewer than 9 were members of The Order."[^38] The list he gives of partners who were members includes [[Prescott Bush]], whom he describes as a partner for over forty years, the father of President George H. W. Bush, and initiated in 1917. It also includes W. Averell Harriman (initiated 1913) and his brother [[E. Roland Harriman]] (initiated 1917).[^38] + +Sutton devotes a passage to the [[Union Banking Corporation]] of New York. He writes that Union Banking had eight directors, including four members of the Yale class of 1917, that Guaranty Trust was represented by [[Knight Woolley]], that two directors, Kouwenhoven and Groninger, were Nazi directors of the Rotterdam bank [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]], which he identifies as the former von Heydt bank, and that Prescott Bush and [[Ellery Sedgwick James|Ellery S. James]] were partners in Brown Brothers, later Brown Brothers, Harriman.[^38][^39] In The Rise of Hitler he describes Union Banking as a joint Thyssen and Harriman operation, with E. Roland Harriman as a director in 1932.[^39][^40] + +### The Stimson and Bundy chain + +The book's section "The Whitney-Stimson-Bundy-Acheson Chain of Influence" follows a family line through a sequence of offices. Sutton wrote that [[Henry L. Stimson]] went to work for the Root firm in 1890 after Yale and Harvard Law School, married the daughter of a Skull and Bones member, was appointed Secretary of War by [[William Howard Taft]] in 1911, and held offices under every president from Taft through Truman except [[Warren G. Harding]].[^41] He wrote that Stimson brought [[Harvey Hollister Bundy]] into the wartime Pentagon as a special assistant, and that Stimson brought Harvey's son [[McGeorge Bundy]] into the Pentagon to work on the 1948 book On Active Service in Peace and War.[^41] Sutton summarized the pattern as Stimson using his office "to advance the career of fellow members of The Order," naming Harvey Hollister Bundy and McGeorge Bundy.[^41] + +Sutton's account of Stimson in the Second World War also refers to the atomic bombing of [[Japan]], which he says Stimson recommended in 1945.[^41] + +### Phoenix Letter and the Yale senior societies + +Sutton's October 1984 issue of the Phoenix Letter, which named him as editor and was published by Research Publications at a Phoenix, Arizona post office box, argues that the three Yale senior societies, Skull and Bones ([[Russell Trust]]), [[Scroll and Key]] (Kingsley Trust) and [[Wolf's Head]] (Phelps Trust), form a network. It states that Scroll and Key had been founded by members of Skull and Bones, and that "three quarters of the inner core" had been identified in his diagram of the society.[^42] The same issue cites [[George Wilson Pierson]]'s official history of Yale, and it states that the [[Elihu]] society catalog lists [[Anson Phelps Stokes]] as a Skull and Bones member and an honorary member of Elihu since its founding in 1903.[^42] The newsletter also says that it had not yet accounted for the power of Edward Mandel House, whom it had earlier identified as a friend of Yale initiates in the society.[^42] + +Sutton's booklet How the Order Controls Education is catalogued by archive.org with a 1985 date.[^43] + +### Trilaterals Over America and later works + +Sutton's book on the Trilateral Commission, in the 1995 edition titled Trilaterals Over America, states that the commission was founded in 1973 by the New York banker [[David Rockefeller]], then chairman of [[Chase Manhattan Bank]], and the Harvard academic [[Zbigniew Brzezinski]], later National Security Adviser to President [[Jimmy Carter]]. Its appendix lists members as of October 1978 and July 1993.[^44] The book refers to an earlier volume, Trilaterals Over Washington, written with [[Patrick M. Wood]] and published in Scottsdale, Arizona, by the August Corporation (the Library of Congress record gives c1978, 1979 printing).[^44][^45] The 1995 book directs readers to the Phoenix Letter, then in its twelfth year, at an address in Billings, Montana.[^44] + +His later titles include The War on Gold (1977), Energy: The Created Crisis (1979), The Federal Reserve Conspiracy (1995) and Cold Fusion: The Secret Energy Revolution (1999), each catalogued by archive.org.[^46] + +### Death and the 2002 edition + +Sutton's copyright page for America's Secret Establishment gives 1983, 1986 and 2002. The 2002 Trine Day edition includes a section on the Yale catalogue compiled by [[Kris Millegan]].[^34] Sutton died in 2002 in Reno, Nevada.[^3][^4] + +### Footnotes + +[^1]: International Economic Policy: Hearings before the Subcommittee on International Trade of the Committee on Banking and Currency, House of Representatives, Ninety-third Congress, second session, on H. Res. 774 and H.R. 13838 and 13839 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1974), statement of Antony C. Sutton, April 24, 1974, pp. 156 to 167. https://archive.org/details/international-economic-policy-hearings-before-the-subcommittee-on-international- +[^2]: Sutton, prepared statement, April 24, 1974, in International Economic Policy (1974), pp. 159 to 160 (volume chronology, publication dates, the 1972 Republican convention attempt, removal from Hoover and the dust-jacket wording). +[^3]: Library of Congress Name Authority File, "Sutton, Antony C., 1925-2002," record n79122365 (birth 1925, London; death 2002, Reno, Nevada; source note citing the 2009 edition of America's Secret Establishment, p. iv). https://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n79122365 +[^4]: Author note, Antony C. Sutton, Wall Street and FDR (reissue with publisher's note; born in London in 1925, educated at the universities of London, Göttingen and California, Hoover research fellow 1968 to 1973, later economics professor at California State University, Los Angeles, "He died in 2002"). The same note appears in the Trine Day edition of America's Secret Establishment, which adds a D.Sc. from the University of Southampton. +[^5]: Author note, Sutton, Wall Street and the Bolshevik Revolution (1981 printing), back cover ("still affiliated with the institution"; "former economics professor at California State University, Los Angeles"; "bom in London in 1925"). +[^6]: Hoover Institution Library & Archives, Antony C. Sutton papers, 1920 to 1972 (4 manuscript boxes, 1 microfilm reel; acquired 1990), Online Archive of California finding aid. https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt287033k0 +[^7]: Sutton, Western Technology and Soviet Economic Development, 3 vols. (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1968, 1971, 1973), as listed in Sutton, Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler (1976), Selected Bibliography, pp. 209 to 210. +[^8]: Michael R. Dohan, review of Sutton, Western Technology and Soviet Economic Development, 1930 to 1945, Slavic Review 31, no. 4 (December 1972): 904 to 905. https://doi.org/10.2307/2493797 +[^9]: Howard J. Sherman, review of Sutton, Western Technology and Soviet Economic Development, 1917 to 1930, American Political Science Review 67, no. 3 (September 1973): 1126 to 1128. https://doi.org/10.2307/1958770 +[^10]: Carl B. Turner, review of Sutton, Western Technology and Soviet Economic Development, 1930 to 1945, American Political Science Review 70, no. 3 (September 1976): 1017 to 1018. https://doi.org/10.2307/1959932 +[^11]: Sutton, prepared statement, April 24, 1974, in International Economic Policy (1974), Appendix A, "Bibliography of Published Works" (pp. 165 to 166) and Appendix B, "Reviews of Western Technology and Soviet Economic Development, Volumes One and Two (up to March 1973 only)" (pp. 166 to 167). +[^12]: Antony C. Sutton, "Western Technology in the Soviet Union: A Summation," Washington and Lee Commerce Review, vol. 1, no. 1 (Winter 1973), Lexington, Virginia. +[^13]: Press summary of the 1972 Republican platform, Michael Raoul-Duval Papers, Box 23, folder "Republican Platform - 1976: Background Material, 1960-1975 (2)," Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library (hearings for a week in Miami Beach; Representative John J. Rhodes, committee chairman, naming Martin C. Anderson of the Hoover Institution as the "wordsmith"). https://www.fordlibrarymuseum.gov/sites/default/files/pdf_documents/library/document/0205/148729960.pdf +[^14]: Republican Party, 1972 platform, proposed by the Committee on Resolutions to the Republican National Convention, August 21, 1972, Miami Beach, Florida, foreign policy section. https://www.fordlibrarymuseum.gov/sites/default/files/pdf_documents/library/document/0205/1672784.pdf +[^15]: Antony C. Sutton, "The East-West Trade Fight," Human Events, vol. 32, no. 11, March 11, 1972, p. 14. +[^16]: Antony C. Sutton, National Suicide: Military Aid to the Soviet Union (New York: Arlington House, 1973). +[^17]: Sutton, oral statement, April 24, 1974, in International Economic Policy (1974), p. 159 ("reminiscent of Hitler's book burning"; urging that Congress investigate), and prepared statement, p. 160 ("police state tactics of Hitler's Germany"). +[^18]: Sutton, oral statement, April 24, 1974, in International Economic Policy (1974), pp. 157 to 159 (marine diesel engines, the 68 and 80 percent figures, computers, ball bearings and trucks). +[^19]: International Economic Policy (1974), colloquy between Chairman Ashley and Sutton following the panel testimony, April 24, 1974. +[^20]: International Economic Policy (1974), statement of Franklyn D. Holzman, following Sutton's statement (the 1920s concession arrangements "larger than has commonly been believed"). +[^21]: International Economic Policy (1974), prepared statement of a panel witness preceding Sutton's, referring to "the recent work by Antony C. Sutton" on the 1920s concessions. +[^22]: International Economic Policy (1974), questioning by Representative Ben B. Blackburn of Roger E. Shields and other witnesses, pp. 796 to 797 (Sutton's computer findings; Bryant Chucking Grinder ball bearing machines sold in 1972). +[^23]: Antony C. Sutton, Wall Street and the Bolshevik Revolution (New York: Arlington House, 1974), Preface, p. 11 (dated March 1974); the Decimal File quotation appears in the same preface. +[^24]: Sutton, Wall Street and the Bolshevik Revolution (1974), note 1 to the synopsis, p. 169, citing Michael Futrell, Northern Underground (London: Faber and Faber, 1963); Stefan Possony, Lenin: The Compulsive Revolutionary (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1966); and George Katkov, "German Foreign Office Documents on Financial Support to the Bolsheviks in 1917," International Affairs 32 (1956). +[^25]: Sutton, Wall Street and the Bolshevik Revolution (1974), "The Evidence Presented: A Synopsis," pp. 169 to 171 (Aschberg, May, Ruskombank, Thompson's one million dollars and the cablegram, 120 Broadway). +[^26]: Sutton, Wall Street and the Bolshevik Revolution (1974), Chapter 8, "120 Broadway, New York City," pp. 125 to 137, and synopsis, pp. 171 to 172. +[^27]: Sutton, Wall Street and FDR (New York: Arlington House, 1975), Preface, p. 9 (dated October 1974, Cupertino, California). +[^28]: Sutton, Wall Street and FDR (1975), Chapter 10, "FDR: Man on the White Horse," pp. 144 to 147 (Murphy as director, the Butler plan, Davis and the speech, the "man on the white horse" passage). +[^29]: Sutton, Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler (1976), p. 21, quoting the Kilgore Committee. The quotation begins "The United States accidentally played an important role in the technical arming of Germany." +[^30]: Sutton, Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler (1976), pp. 21 to 22 and p. 68 (Standard Oil and the Jasco agreement, quoting the Kilgore Committee's conclusion that Standard "fully accomplished I.G.'s purpose"). +[^31]: Sutton, Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler (1976), Selected Bibliography, pp. 209 to 211 (Senate Military Affairs subcommittee hearings, 1944 and 1945; Control Council Field Information Agency report EF/ME/1, September 4, 1945; Strategic Bombing Survey reports; Nuremberg Military Tribunals, Volume VIII, I.G. Farben case). +[^32]: Sutton, Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler (1976), pp. 102 to 103 (Thyssen, the 250,000 marks credit and the Harriman connection), and p. 106 (I Paid Hitler, "later repudiated"). +[^33]: Antony C. Sutton, America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull and Bones (Trine Day, 2002 edition), Preface, dated July 30, 1983 at Phoenix, Arizona. +[^34]: Antony C. Sutton, America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull and Bones (Trine Day, 2002 edition), copyright page (1983, 1986, 2002) and the section "The Order of Skull and Bones Yale Catalogue," compiled by Kris Millegan. +[^35]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section on the "Addresses" books (the membership lists back to 1832, and the remark about members bound by oath). +[^36]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), Memorandum Number Four, "Who Is In This Secret Society?" (membership of about 2,500 initiates, Hypothesis One) and the chart the text places on page 19. +[^37]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section on the membership history from 1833, including the founders William Huntington Russell and Alphonso Taft and the description of the two groups of families. +[^38]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section on Brown Brothers, Harriman, including the list of partners initiated into The Order in the mid-1970s. +[^39]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section on the directors of Union Banking Corporation (eight directors, four Yale 1917 initiates, Knight Woolley, Kouwenhoven and Groninger, and Ellery S. James and Prescott S. Bush). +[^40]: Sutton, Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler (1976), Table 7-1 and text, p. 103 (Union Banking Corporation directors in 1932, including E. Roland Harriman). +[^41]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section "The Whitney-Stimson-Bundy-Acheson Chain of Influence," points 1 to 4, and the summary bullets that follow. +[^42]: "The Yale Senior Society Program," Phoenix Letter, vol. 3, no. 8 (October 1984), Research Publications, Box 39850, Phoenix, Arizona, pp. 1 to 6. +[^43]: Antony C. Sutton, How the Order Controls Education (1985), archive.org catalogue record. +[^44]: Antony C. Sutton, Trilaterals Over America (1995), Chapter One, "What is the Trilateral Commission?" (founded in 1973 by David Rockefeller, then chairman of Chase Manhattan) and Appendix A, "Membership October 1978 and July 1993." +[^45]: Library of Congress catalog record, Sutton, Antony C., and Patrick M. Wood, Trilaterals Over Washington (Scottsdale, Ariz.: August Corp., c1978, 1979 printing), call number HF1411 .S8864. https://www.loc.gov/item/78078277 +[^46]: Archive.org catalogue records for The War on Gold (1977), Energy: The Created Crisis (1979), The Federal Reserve Conspiracy (1995) and Cold Fusion: The Secret Energy Revolution (1999), by Antony C. Sutton. diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Henry L. Stimson.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Henry L. Stimson.md new file mode 100644 index 00000000..4aa0dc2c --- /dev/null +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Henry L. Stimson.md @@ -0,0 +1,329 @@ +--- +aliases: + - Henry Stimson + - Henry Lewis Stimson + - H. L. Stimson + - Stimson +category: "Political Figure" +tags: + - Person + - SkullAndBones + - BlackChamber + - StimsonDoctrine + - ManhattanProject + - InterimCommittee + - JapaneseAmericanEvacuation + - MorgenthauPlan + - WarDepartment + - StateDepartment + - Kyoto +summary: "Henry L. Stimson, Skull and Bones member and twice Secretary of War, chaired the Interim Committee that advised on the atomic bomb." +born: 1867 +died: 1950 +location: "New York, New York" +relations: + - type: member_of + with: "[[Skull and Bones]]" + role: "member, Yale class of 1888" + start: 1887 + fn: 4 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Root & Clarke]]" + start: 1891 + role: "clerk; admitted to the firm January 1, 1893" + fn: 8 + - type: prosecuted + with: "[[American Sugar Refining Company]]" + start: 1906 + end: 1909 + role: "United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York; rebating indictments" + fn: 11 + - type: appointed + with: "[[William Howard Taft]]" + start: 1911 + end: 1913 + role: "Secretary of War" + fn: 13 + - type: appointed + with: "[[Herbert Hoover]]" + start: 1929 + end: 1933 + role: "Secretary of State" + fn: 17 + - type: appointed + with: "[[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]" + start: 1940 + end: 1945 + role: "Secretary of War, July 10, 1940 to September 21, 1945" + fn: 27 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[United States Department of War]]" + start: 1940 + end: 1945 + role: "Secretary of War" + fn: 27 + - type: head_of + with: "[[Interim Committee]]" + start: 1945 + role: "chairman; George L. Harrison acted as chairman in his absence" + fn: 40 + - type: participant_in + with: "[[Manhattan Project]]" + start: 1945 + role: "advised the President on the use of the atomic bomb; struck Kyoto from the target list" + fn: 50 + - type: partner_of + with: "[[McGeorge Bundy]]" + role: "co-author of On Active Service in Peace and War (1948), with Bundy credited for the writing" + fn: 2 +created: 2026-10-26 +updated: 2026-10-26 +--- + +Henry Lewis Stimson (September 21, 1867 to October 20, 1950) was a New York lawyer, United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York, Secretary of War under [[William Howard Taft]], Governor-General of the [[Philippines]], Secretary of State under [[Herbert Hoover]] and Secretary of War from July 1940 to September 1945 under [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]. He was born in New York City and died at Huntington, [[Long Island]].[^1] His memoir, *On Active Service in Peace and War*, was published in 1948 under his name, with the writing credited to [[McGeorge Bundy]].[^2] + +### Yale, Skull and Bones, and Root & Clarke + +Stimson wrote that in the autumn of 1884 he entered [[Yale University]] and joined the class of '88.[^3] The Yale Obituary Record for 1950 to 1951 lists his undergraduate honors as a first Berkeley Premium in Latin composition as a freshman, the first prize in English composition as a sophomore, a Townsend Premium and a philosophical oration appointment as a junior, and the DeForest Prize Medal and an oration appointment as a senior, together with membership in He Boule, [[Psi Upsilon]], [[Skull and Bones]], Chi Delta Theta and [[Phi Beta Kappa]].[^4] The Yale Banner of 1888 prints "Henry Lewis Stimson, of New York City" among the Commencement speakers of June 27, 1888, with the oration "John Hale and the Latitudinarians."[^5] + +[[Antony C. Sutton]]'s 1983 book on Skull and Bones carries a chart, "Hypothesis Number One," with the title "A Secret Society Dominated By Old Line American Families And New Wealth Has Existed From 1833 To The Present Day." It places the Stimson family among the old-line families around a central circle labeled "The Order," with the date "1635, Watertown, Mass." The chart also lists the Taft family (1679, Braintree, Mass.), the Bundy family (1635, Boston, Mass.) and the Harriman family (railroads). Sutton presented the chart as a hypothesis.[^6] [[Ron Rosenbaum]] wrote in [[Esquire]] in September 1977 that the society's members included [[W. Averell Harriman]], [[Henry Luce]] and Supreme Court Justice [[Potter Stewart]], together with Henry L. Stimson.[^7] + +After his admission to the New York County bar in June 1891, Stimson became a clerk in the office of [[Root & Clarke]], the firm of [[Elihu Root]]. He was admitted to the firm on January 1, 1893, on the same day as [[Bronson Winthrop]], who became his lifelong partner. The firm took the name Root, Howard, Winthrop & Stimson in 1897, when Clarke retired.[^8] The Obituary Record lists him as a New York lawyer from 1891 to 1950, and as counsel to Winthrop, Stimson, Putnam & Roberts. It gives his marriage as July 6, 1893, in New Haven, to Mabel Wellington White, and his death as due to coronary thrombosis, with burial at Memorial Cemetery, Cold Spring Harbor.[^1] + +### Highhold + +Stimson described the family's property in the West Hills of the Township of Huntington on Long Island as lying "on the summit of the central ridge of Long Island" and affording "glimpses of the sound on the north and the distant ocean on the south." The family named the place [[Highhold]] from that view. He wrote that it had been their home "for forty-four years" when the memoir was written.[^9] + +### United States Attorney, Southern District of New York + +Stimson was United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York from 1906 to 1909, and special assistant to the Attorney General in 1909 and 1910.[^1] The memoir says the first evidence for his rebating prosecutions came from the offices of [[William Randolph Hearst]] late in 1905, and that "within five months he had brought seven indictments, and in the following year his office brought fourteen more."[^10] + +His most important rebating prosecutions were against the [[American Sugar Refining Company]] and the railroads from which it had received rebates. The memoir states that the [[New York Central Railroad]] and the sugar company "had been partners in rebating, as Stimson proved in three successive jury trials." The sugar company "fought only one case and then surrendered without a trial on the remaining indictments." Its counsel came to Stimson's office and said: "Damn it, Stimson, we think you're wrong on the law and wrong on the facts, but we can't stand the publicity." The memoir also records Elihu Root's advice after Stimson's first successful trial, that the way to stop rebating was to keep prosecuting until railroads and shippers understood that they would be punished in the courts.[^11] + +The memoir describes a second major undertaking, the prosecution of [[Charles W. Morse]] for misusing the funds of the [[Bank of North America]].[^12] + +### Secretary of War under Taft + +Stimson accepted an offer from William Howard Taft to serve as Secretary of War; the Yale Obituary Record gives his term as 1911 to 1913.[^13] The memoir's second chapter, "With Roosevelt and Taft," follows the split between Taft and [[Theodore Roosevelt]] in 1912, during which Stimson remained with Taft's administration.[^14] + +### Nicaragua and the Philippines + +The Obituary Record lists Stimson as special Presidential representative in [[Nicaragua]] in 1927 and Governor General of the Philippine Islands from 1928 to 1929.[^1] The State Department's biography states that between 1918 and 1926 he served only as an occasional envoy to Latin America, mediating a dispute between Chile and Peru in 1925, and that he negotiated an end to the Nicaraguan civil war in 1927 before [[Calvin Coolidge]] appointed him Governor General.[^15] The memoir's chapter "As Private Citizen" includes a section titled "The Peace of Tipitapa," on the Nicaragua settlement of 1927, and the following chapter, "Governor General of the Philippines," gives the Philippine years a full treatment under the subheadings "The Background," "A Happy Year" and "Later Disappointments and Some Hopes."[^16] + +### Secretary of State and the Black Chamber + +Stimson was Secretary of State from March 28, 1929, to March 4, 1933, succeeding Frank Kellogg a few days after the Senate ratified the Kellogg-Briand Pact. He headed the American delegation to the London Naval Conference of 1930 and the Geneva Disarmament Conference of 1932.[^17] + +In 1929 he closed the State Department's code-breaking office. The memoir says that "he closed down the so-called Black Chamber," which it describes as "the State Department's code-cracking office," and that "This act he never regretted." It adds that "In later years he was to permit and indeed encourage similar labors in another Department, but in later years the situation was different." The memoir gives the reason in these words: "Stimson, as Secretary of State, was dealing as a gentleman with the gentlemen sent as ambassadors and ministers from friendly nations, and, as he later said, 'Gentlemen do not read each other's mail.'" The passage places the decision under the principle that "the way to make men trustworthy is to trust them," and gives no date for the remark.[^18] + +The [[National Security Agency]] account of the office states that an agreement between the Acting Secretary of State and the Secretary of War in May 1919 created the Cipher Bureau, headed by [[Herbert Yardley]] and sponsored by the State Department, with the Army and Navy sharing the budget and the decrypts. It records that Stimson "made a decision to eliminate the Cipher Bureau," that the decision "likely was based on budget considerations, but it has come down to us as based on the need for acting in good faith in international relations," and that in May 1929 the Signal Corps took over cryptology from Military Intelligence and offered Yardley a place at a salary it expected him to refuse. The employees were paid three months' severance in late 1929; they had been paid from "confidential funds" and held no civil service status. The account adds that Yardley charged that Stimson had ended the bureau "strictly for moralistic reasons," and that Stimson did not deny this in his autobiography.[^19] + +In his 1931 book, *The American Black Chamber*, Yardley wrote: "The secret activities of the American Black Chamber, which I directed, ceased in 1929." The book's foreword says that "a new Secretary of State ordered the door of the Black Chamber closed and bolted."[^20] + +In 1932 Stimson appointed [[Harvey H. Bundy]], a Boston lawyer with experience in finance, as Assistant Secretary of State. The memoir says that the death of a senior officer had left the Department "without a senior officer experienced in economic matters," and that Bundy was appointed to fill that gap.[^21] + +### The Stimson Doctrine, 1932 + +A telegram of January 7, 1932 from the Secretary of State to the [[Nanking]] consul general instructed him to deliver a note to the Chinese and Japanese governments. The same instruction went to the ambassador in [[Japan]], and the text was repeated to the consul at [[Geneva]] for transmission to the League of Nations. The note stated that the United States "does not intend to recognize any situation, treaty or agreement which may be brought about by means contrary to the covenants and obligations of the Pact of Paris of August 27, 1928."[^22] + +The Office of the Historian's essay on the Mukden Incident is titled "The Mukden Incident of 1931 and the Stimson Doctrine." It states that Secretary Stimson "issued the Stimson Doctrine in early 1932," that the United States would not recognize any treaty or agreement between Japan and China that violated American rights or agreements to which it subscribed, and that the policy "proved incredibly ineffectual in the face of on-going Japanese aggression and expansion."[^23] The Department's biography of Stimson states that the doctrine "later became known as" the Stimson Doctrine.[^24] + +The memoir's chapter on the Far Eastern crisis has a section headed "From Conciliation to Nonrecognition," and calls nonrecognition "a moral weapon, a moral sanction."[^25] + +### Secretary of War, 1940 to 1945 + +Stimson went to New Haven for the Yale Commencement of June 1940. The memoir says that after addressing the alumni on compulsory military training he prepared a radio speech, delivered on June 18, that "fully set forth his principles and policies in the face of the crisis," and that its delivery put "him squarely on record before he accepted public office."[^26] The National Archives gives the dates of his service as Secretary of War as July 10, 1940, to September 21, 1945; [[Cordell Hull]] was Secretary of State from March 4, 1933, to November 20, 1944.[^27] + +The Department's principal civilian assistants included [[Robert A. Lovett]], who arrived in November 1940 as Stimson's air assistant, [[John J. McCloy]], and [[Robert P. Patterson]]. The memoir says that "only Patterson of all his civilian assistants was with Stimson from the beginning to the end." Harvey H. Bundy, who had served with Stimson before, is named among the same group.[^28] + +### Japanese American evacuation + +The [[Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians]] quoted Stimson's diary entry for February 10, 1942, which says: "The second generation Japanese [Nisei] can only be evacuated either as part of a total evacuation, giving access to the areas only by permits, or by frankly trying to put them out on the ground that their racial characteristics are such that we cannot understand or trust even the citizen Japanese. This latter is the fact but I am afraid it will make a tremendous hole in our constitutional system to apply it."[^29] + +The commission records that Stimson met on February 18, 1942 with officials of the Department of Justice and the War Department about the executive order, and quotes his record of February 17 for the scale of the plan: "It will involve the tremendous task of moving between fifty and one hundred thousand people from their homes and finding temporary support and sustenance for them in the meanwhile, and ultimately locating them in new places away from the coast."[^30] + +[[Executive Order 9066]], dated February 19, 1942, carried the title "Executive Order Authorizing the Secretary of War to Prescribe Military Areas."[^31] The commission states that the order "empowered the Secretary of War or his delegate to designate military areas" to which entry of any or all persons could be barred.[^32] On February 20, 1942, Stimson wrote to [[John L. DeWitt]] delegating authority to implement the order within the [[Western Defense Command]].[^32] + +The commission's summary states that "In May 1944 Secretary Stimson put before President Roosevelt and the Cabinet his position that the exclusion no longer had a military justification." It concludes that the President delayed action "until the first Cabinet meeting following the Presidential election of November 1944," and that "The inescapable conclusion from this factual pattern is that the delay was motivated by political considerations."[^33] Its account of the Cabinet meeting of May 26, 1944 records [[Francis Biddle]] noting that the Secretary of War raised "whether it was appropriate for the War Department, at this time, to cancel the Japanese Exclusion Orders and let the Japs go home."[^34] The commission describes McCloy as the "civilian aide to Stimson responsible for Japanese American questions."[^35] + +### Bases and big powers, January 1945 + +On January 23, 1945, Stimson sent Secretary of State [[Edward R. Stettinius Jr.]] a list of points under the heading "Bases and Big Powers," arguing that the four large powers would have to maintain security "during the time necessary to establish a permanent organization of the whole world," and that attempting to formulate the Dumbarton Oaks organization before settling those foundations repeated the error of creating the League of Nations without a prior guarantee of French security. The editors of the Foreign Relations series refer readers to the memoir's discussion at pages 599 to 605.[^36] + +### April 25, 1945: the briefing of Truman + +Stimson's memorandum of April 25, 1945, prepared with [[George L. Harrison]] and approved by [[George Marshall|George C. Marshall]] and Major General [[Leslie R. Groves]], began: "Within four months we shall in all probability have completed the most terrible weapon ever known in human history." It stated that no other nation could reach the American position for some years but that this was "practically certain" not to last, and that a system of control would involve "such thorough-going rights of inspection and internal controls as we have never heretofore contemplated." It added that the question of sharing the weapon with other nations "becomes a primary question of our foreign relations."[^37] + +His diary for the same day records that he spent the morning on the paper with Harrison, showed it to Marshall and Groves, and then went to the White House by a route chosen so that the reporters waiting in the President's anteroom would not see him with Groves, whom Colonel McCarthy, the Secretary of the General Staff, had brought through underground passages to a room near the President. Stimson showed Truman the memorandum on the political aspects of "S-1," Groves reported on production, and Truman took one copy of the papers while Stimson and Groves kept the other. The same entry records a telephone conversation with McCloy about the war crimes plan for the San Francisco conference, in which Stimson wrote that the British "have come out strongly against having a trial and wish to kill the people offhand," and that Truman "strongly supported our position."[^38] + +### The Interim Committee and the Manhattan Project + +In April 1945 Stimson set up a committee "charged with the function of advising the President on the various questions raised by our apparently imminent success in developing an atomic weapon." It was known as the [[Interim Committee]], and advised on the atomic weapon then being developed under the [[Manhattan Project]]. The memoir states that Stimson was its chairman, but that the "principal labor of guiding its extended deliberations" fell to George L. Harrison, who acted as chairman in Stimson's absence. The memoir lists its other members as [[James F. Byrnes]], [[Ralph A. Bard]], [[William L. Clayton]], [[Vannevar Bush]], [[Karl T. Compton]] and [[James B. Conant]].[^39] + +The notes of the committee's meeting of Thursday, May 31, 1945, taken by its secretary, Second Lieutenant R. Gordon Arneson, list Stimson as chairman and present with the committee members the scientists [[J. Robert Oppenheimer]], [[Enrico Fermi]], [[Arthur H. Compton]] and [[Ernest O. Lawrence]], and, by invitation, Marshall, Groves, Harvey H. Bundy and Arthur Page. The notes open with Stimson explaining that the committee "had been appointed by him with the approval of the President, to make recommendations on temporary war-time controls, public announcement, legislation and post-war organization," and that Marshall shared with him the responsibility for recommendations to the President on the military aspects.[^40] + +The notes record the discussion of Russia. Byrnes feared that if information were given to the Russians even in general terms, "Stalin would ask to be brought into the partnership." Marshall favored building a combination of like-minded powers and raised the question whether two prominent Russian scientists should be invited to witness the test. Oppenheimer suggested that the subject be opened with the Soviets tentatively and in the most general terms. The notes record the view, "generally agreed to by all present," that the United States should stay ahead in production and research while making every effort to better its political relations with Russia.[^40] + +The afternoon session took up the effect of bombing on the Japanese. The notes state the conclusion "on which there was general agreement" as Stimson expressed it: that "we could not give the Japanese any warning," that the bomb should not be concentrated on a civilian area, but that the committee "should seek to make a profound psychological impression on as many of the inhabitants as possible." At Conant's suggestion Stimson agreed that the most desirable target would be a vital war plant employing a large number of workers and closely surrounded by workers' houses. Groves objected to several simultaneous strikes. Under a separate heading, Groves stated that the program had been "plagued since its inception by the presence of certain scientists of doubtful discretion and uncertain loyalty," and the meeting agreed that nothing could be done about dismissing them until after the bomb had been used or at least tested. The notes close with the next meeting set for June 1, 1945, at 11:00 a.m. in the Secretary of War's office, to hear four representatives of industry.[^40] + +On June 6, 1945, Arneson wrote to Harrison that the notes of "the Thursday and Friday meetings" indicated the following action: that the committee, "while recognizing that the final selection of the target is essentially a military decision," recommended that the bomb be used against Japan as soon as possible, that it be used on a dual target, "that is, a military installation or war plant surrounded by or adjacent to homes or other buildings most susceptible to damage," and that it be used without prior warning. The memorandum also recommended that the committee advise the Secretary that there might be advantage in a small military panel on the highest level to discuss with him the type of target and the timing.[^41] + +The memoir records that the committee "on June 1, recommended that the bomb should be used against Japan, without specific warning, as soon as possible, and against such a target as to make clear its devastating strength." It continues: "The ultimate responsibility for the recommendation to the President rested upon me, and I have no desire to veil it."[^42] + +Stimson's memorandum of a conference with Truman on June 6, 1945, begins with the dispute with Charles de Gaulle over French troop movements into Italian territory, in which Stimson told Truman he had come to regard de Gaulle as psychopathic and that the President shared the opinion. It then reports that Byrnes had already told the President of the committee's work, and Stimson's account of its points of agreement: no revelation to Russia or others until the weapon had been successfully used on Japan, and an international committee of control with full power of inspection. Truman said he was thinking of the Polish, Rumanian, Yugoslavian and Manchurian settlements as the quid pro quo for bringing the Soviets into a partnership. In the same conference Stimson told Truman that he was holding down area bombing of Japan because he feared the United States would get "the reputation of outdoing Hitler in atrocities," and that the Air Force might leave Japan so thoroughly bombed that the new weapon would lack "a fair background to show its strength," at which, the memorandum records, Truman laughed and said he understood.[^43] + +### Potsdam, July 1945 + +The first test of the weapon in New Mexico took place on July 16, 1945, while Stimson was at Potsdam. Harrison's coded telegram of that date to Stimson reads: "Operated on this morning. Diagnosis not yet complete but results seem satisfactory and already exceed expectations." Stimson's diary records that he took the first message to the President's house at 7:30 p.m. and showed it to Truman and Byrnes.[^44] + +On July 16 Stimson sent Truman a memorandum on the conduct of the war with Japan, urging that "we are at the psychological moment to commence our warnings to Japan," and recommending a warning delivered during the conference, with "the full force of our newer weapons" to follow if Japan persisted. His diary for July 17 records that Byrnes "was opposed to a prompt and early warning to Japan which I had first suggested," and that he outlined a timetable the President had apparently agreed to, so Stimson "pressed it no further."[^45] On July 20 Stimson proposed changing the words "until her unconditional capitulation" in the draft proclamation to "until she ceases to resist," observing that a capitulation was defined in his only dictionary as "a conditional surrender; a treaty."[^46] + +On July 21 Groves's special report on the test reached Stimson by courier. Stimson's diary describes it as "an immensely powerful document," states that it revealed "far greater destructive power than we expected," and records that he read it to Truman and Byrnes, who were "immensely pleased," and that the President said it "gave him an entirely new feeling of confidence."[^47] + +On July 25 Stimson met [[Joseph Stalin]] at Potsdam for eighteen minutes and spoke of the Teheran and Yalta conferences and the Pacific war. His memorandum of the conversation records Stalin saying that "Three Power intervention in the Pacific would surely speed up victory."[^48] + +### Kyoto + +Harrison cabled Stimson on July 21 that all his local military advisers "definitely favor your pet city," meaning Kyoto, and would like to use it as first choice if those on the scene selected it from the four possible targets.[^49] Stimson replied on July 23, asking for the date and for the name of the target or alternates, "always excluding the particular place against which I have decided," and adding: "My decision has been confirmed by highest authority." The Foreign Relations editors print his diary entries for the period. On July 22 Truman "strongly confirmed my view and said he felt the same way." General [[Henry H. Arnold]] told Stimson he agreed "about the target which I had struck off the program." On July 24 Stimson gave Truman his reasons again, and Truman was "particularly emphatic in agreeing" that a "wanton act" at Kyoto "might make it impossible during the long post-war period to reconcile the Japanese to us in that area rather than to the Russians."[^50] + +In the Harper's article Stimson wrote: "With President Truman's warm support I struck off the list of suggested targets the city of Kyoto. Although it was a target of considerable military importance, it had been the ancient capital of Japan and was a shrine of Japanese art and culture. We determined that it should be spared. I approved four other targets including the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki."[^51] + +### The Hiroshima decision and the 1947 Harper's article + +The memoir states that "It was in the fall of 1941 that the question of atomic energy was first brought directly to my attention." It describes Stimson's article in [[Harper's Magazine]] of February 1947 as "a careful record of his personal connection with this issue."[^52] + +The article was reprinted in the *Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists* of February 1947. It prints the memorandum of July 2, 1945, which proposed a warning to Japan and stated: "I personally think that if in saying this we should add that we do not exclude a constitutional monarchy under her present dynasty, it would substantially add to the chances of acceptance." Stimson wrote of that memorandum: "It was designed to promise destruction if Japan resisted, and hope, if she surrendered," and that the atomic bomb was not mentioned in it because "on grounds of secrecy the bomb was never mentioned except when absolutely necessary, and furthermore, it had not yet been tested." He wrote that the Potsdam ultimatum of July 26 "very closely followed" the memorandum "with the exception that it made no mention of the Japanese Emperor," and that on July 28 Premier Suzuki rejected it by announcing that it was "unworthy of public notice."[^51] + +The article states that "all the evidence I have seen indicates that the controlling factor in the final Japanese decision to accept our terms of surrender was the atomic bomb," and, of the two bombs, that "The two atomic bombs which we had dropped were the only ones we had ready, and our rate of production at the time was very small." It describes Hiroshima as an army center and Nagasaki as a naval and industrial city. Its closing passage reads: "The decision to use the atomic bomb was a decision that brought death to over a hundred thousand Japanese. No explanation can change that fact and I do not wish to gloss it over."[^51] The two bombs were dropped on [[Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki]] in August 1945. + +The memoir's introduction states that "The writing of the book has been the work of Mr. McGeorge Bundy. Its style and composition are his."[^53] Bundy's note at the end of the book describes the sources as "two: Mr. Stimson himself and his records," and describes the diary as beginning in 1910, with "a long account of the period May, 1911 to March, 1913, written in the spring of the latter year," sporadic entries between 1913 and 1926, and a separate manuscript volume of entries made overseas in 1918.[^54] + +### The Morgenthau Plan + +On September 5, 1944, Stimson sent Roosevelt, through Hull, his comments on a Cabinet Committee paper on the treatment of Germany. He wrote that "With the exception of the last paragraph I find myself in agreement with the principles stated therein." The paragraph called for the German standard of living to be "held down to subsistence levels" and for German economic position in Europe to be eliminated.[^55] [[Henry Morgenthau Jr.]] wrote to Stimson on September 6, 1944: "I do not remember anybody suggesting closing down the Saar."[^55] + +Stimson's memorandum of September 9, 1944 set out his objection to the Morgenthau proposal: "The fundamental remedy of Mr. Morgenthau is to provide that the industry of Germany shall be substantially obliterated."[^56] The editors of the Foreign Relations series state that Stimson's diary for September 7, 8 and 9, 1944 shows that the enclosures were prepared with the assistance of McCloy, and that Stimson presented them at a meeting between the Cabinet Committee on Germany and Roosevelt on September 9.[^57] + +### Papers and diaries + +Stimson's papers for the years before 1933 were placed on deposit in the Yale University Library in 1949 and became a gift on February 11, 1952.[^58] They are held by the Manuscripts and Archives department as the Henry Lewis Stimson papers, MS 465.[^59] The National Security Archive's collection of atomic bomb documents prints diary entries of April 25, May 14 and 15, June 6 and July 1945 from the Stimson Diary at Yale, with a microfilm copy at the Library of Congress.[^38] The editors of the Foreign Relations series cite Stimson's diary for September 1944 to the "Stimson Papers."[^57] + +### Footnotes + +[^1]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1950-1951 (New Haven: Yale University, 1951), entry "Henry Lewis Stimson, B.A. 1888," pp. 11-12 (born September 21, 1867, New York City; died October 20, 1950, Huntington, N.Y.; lawyer 1891-1950; U.S. attorney Southern District of New York 1906-9 and special assistant 1909-10; Secretary of War 1911-13 and 1940-45; Secretary of State 1929-33; special Presidential representative in Nicaragua 1927; Governor General of the Philippine Islands 1928-29; London Naval Conference 1930 and Geneva Disarmament Conference 1932; marriage of July 6, 1893; coronary thrombosis; burial). Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1950-51.pdf. + +[^2]: Henry L. Stimson and McGeorge Bundy, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1948), Introduction by Henry L. Stimson, p. xi; "A Note of Explanation and Acknowledgment" by McGeorge Bundy, pp. 673-674; title page (Secretary of War 1940-45, Secretary of State 1929-33). + +[^3]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), ch. I, pp. 3-6, quoting "In the autumn of 1884 I entered the class of '88 at Yale." + +[^4]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1950-1951, entry "Henry Lewis Stimson, B.A. 1888," p. 11 (Berkeley Premium, English composition prize, Townsend Premium, DeForest Prize Medal, "He Boule, Psi Upsilon, Skull and Bones, Chi Delta Theta, Phi Beta Kappa"). + +[^5]: *The Yale Banner*, vol. 47 (New Haven, 1888), "Commencement" section, Commencement speakers, June 27, 1888 ("'John Hale and the Latitudinarians,' by Henry Lewis Stimson, of New York City"). https://archive.org/details/yalebanner02univgoog. + +[^6]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chart "Hypothesis Number One," with the family entries for Stimson (1635, Watertown, Mass.), Taft (1679, Braintree, Mass.), Bundy (1635, Boston, Mass.) and Harriman (railroads). + +[^7]: Ron Rosenbaum, article on Skull and Bones, *Esquire*, September 1977. + +[^8]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), ch. I, pp. 3-6 (admission to the bar in June 1891, clerkship with Root & Clarke, admission to the firm on January 1, 1893, Bronson Winthrop, and the 1897 firm name). + +[^9]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), ch. I, p. 6 (West Hills, Township of Huntington, the central ridge of Long Island, the name "Highhold," and forty-four years). + +[^10]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), ch. I, p. 9 (Hearst's office, seven indictments within five months, fourteen more the following year). + +[^11]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), ch. I, pp. 9-10 (New York Central and the American Sugar Refining Company, three successive jury trials, the company's surrender on the remaining indictments, the counsel's remark, and Root's advice). + +[^12]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), ch. I, p. 10 (prosecution of Charles W. Morse for misusing the funds of the Bank of North America). + +[^13]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), ch. II, p. 29 (Taft's offer of the Secretary of War post, accepted by Stimson); Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University 1950-1951, p. 11 ("Secretary of War of the United States 1911-13"); United States Department of State, Office of the Historian, "Henry Lewis Stimson," Biographies of the Secretaries of State (appointed Secretary of War by Taft in 1911), https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/stimson-henry-lewis. + +[^14]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), ch. II, "With Roosevelt and Taft," pp. 18-55, and table of contents ("The Split of 1912"). + +[^15]: United States Department of State, Office of the Historian, "Henry Lewis Stimson," Biographies of the Secretaries of State (Chile-Peru mediation of 1925, Nicaraguan civil war of 1927, appointment as Governor General by Coolidge, Secretary of State from March 1929), https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/stimson-henry-lewis. + +[^16]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), table of contents and chapter headings: ch. V, "As Private Citizen," section "The Peace of Tipitapa" (pp. 101-116); ch. VI, "Governor General of the Philippines" (p. 117), with sections "The Background," "A Happy Year" and "Later Disappointments and Some Hopes" (pp. 117-154). + +[^17]: United States Department of State, Office of the Historian, "Henry Lewis Stimson" (Secretary of State: appointed March 5, 1929; entry on duty March 28, 1929; termination March 4, 1933; succeeded Frank Kellogg; London Naval Conference 1930; Geneva Disarmament Conference 1932), https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/stimson-henry-lewis. + +[^18]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), ch. VII, p. 188 (the Black Chamber passage and the principle that "the way to make men trustworthy is to trust them"). + +[^19]: National Security Agency, "The Black Chamber", https://www.nsa.gov/History/Cryptologic-History/Historical-Events/Article-View/Article/2740622/the-black-chamber/ (May 1919 agreement and $100,000 appropriation; Stimson's decision; May 1929 Signal Corps reorganization; severance and "confidential funds"; Yardley's charge and Stimson's autobiography). + +[^20]: Herbert O. Yardley, *The American Black Chamber* (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1931), ch. 1, "The State Department Code Room" (the "ceased in 1929" sentence) and Foreword (the "new Secretary of State" sentence). + +[^21]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), ch. VII, p. 193 (appointment of Harvey H. Bundy as Assistant Secretary, and of Herbert Feis as Economic Adviser, after the death of an officer named Cotton). + +[^22]: United States Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States, Diplomatic Papers, 1932, Volume III, The Far East*, telegram, The Secretary of State to the Consul General at Nanking (Peck), January 7, 1932, document 10, p. 7, with the text of the note (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1932v03/d10). + +[^23]: United States Department of State, Office of the Historian, "The Mukden Incident of 1931 and the Stimson Doctrine," Milestones: 1921-1936, https://history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/mukden-incident. + +[^24]: United States Department of State, Office of the Historian, "Henry Lewis Stimson," Biographies of the Secretaries of State ("what later became known as the 'Stimson Doctrine'"), https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/stimson-henry-lewis. + +[^25]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), ch. IX, "The Far Eastern Crisis," section 1, "From Conciliation to Nonrecognition," beginning p. 220. + +[^26]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), p. 317 (Yale Commencement of June 1940, the radio speech of June 18, 1940, and "before he accepted public office"). + +[^27]: National Archives, Records of the Office of the Secretary of War (Record Group 107), agency history note ("The wartime Secretaries of War were Henry L. Stimson, July 10, 1940-September 21, 1945, and Robert P. Patterson"), https://www.archives.gov/research/holocaust/finding-aid/military/rg-107.html; United States Department of State, Office of the Historian, "Cordell Hull" (appointed March 4, 1933; served until November 20, 1944), https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/hull-cordell. + +[^28]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), p. 338 (Lovett's arrival in November 1940 as air assistant, Patterson's service "from the beginning to the end," and Harvey H. Bundy's earlier service with Stimson). + +[^29]: Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, *Personal Justice Denied* (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1982), pp. 79-80, including nn. 151-152 (Stimson diary, February 10, 1942). + +[^30]: *Personal Justice Denied* (1982), p. 83, including nn. 166-167 (Stimson's record of February 17, 1942, and the meeting of February 18, 1942). + +[^31]: National Archives, "Executive Order 9066: Resulting in Japanese-American Incarceration (1942)," transcript of Executive Order No. 9066, February 19, 1942 (https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/executive-order-9066). + +[^32]: *Personal Justice Denied* (1982), p. 99 (the powers conferred by Executive Order 9066, and Stimson's letter of February 20, 1942 to DeWitt). + +[^33]: *Personal Justice Denied* (1982), Summary, p. 15 (May 1944 position; delay until after the November 1944 election; "motivated by political considerations"). + +[^34]: *Personal Justice Denied* (1982), p. 227 (Cabinet meeting of May 26, 1944, and Biddle's note). + +[^35]: *Personal Justice Denied* (1982), p. 47 (McCloy as civilian aide to Stimson responsible for Japanese American questions). + +[^36]: United States Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States: Diplomatic Papers, 1945, Volume I, General: The United Nations*, document 6, Memorandum by the Secretary of War (Stimson) to the Secretary of State, January 23, 1945, with editorial note citing Stimson and Bundy, *On Active Service in Peace and War*, pp. 599-605 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v01/d6). + +[^37]: Memorandum discussed with the President, April 25, 1945, Henry Stimson Diary, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library (microfilm at the Library of Congress), in National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 162, "The Atomic Bomb and the End of World War II," Document 3b (https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/3b.pdf); see also Document 3a, the memorandum of April 23, 1945 prepared by Groves. + +[^38]: Stimson Diary, April 25, 1945, in National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 162, Document 3d (https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/3d.pdf); Document 3c (War Department record of the arrangements for Groves to accompany Stimson); the collection's index of documents drawn from the Stimson Diary (https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/). + +[^39]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), "The Atomic Bomb and the Surrender of Japan," p. 616 (the committee set up in April, its chairmanship, and the list of members). + +[^40]: "Notes of the Interim Committee Meeting, Thursday, 31 May 1945," signed R. Gordon Arneson, Secretary, Records of the Army Corps of Engineers (RG 77), Manhattan Engineer District, Harrison-Bundy files, folder 100, in National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 162, Document 12 (https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/12.pdf), sections on the opening statement, Russia, effect of the bombing on the Japanese, undesirable scientists and next meeting. + +[^41]: Memorandum from R. Gordon Arneson to Mr. Harrison, June 6, 1945, RG 77, Harrison-Bundy files, folder 100, in National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 162, Document 14 (https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/14.pdf). + +[^42]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), p. 617. + +[^43]: Memorandum of Conference with the President, June 6, 1945, Stimson Papers, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library, in National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 162, Document 15 (https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/15.pdf). + +[^44]: United States Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States: Diplomatic Papers, The Conference of Berlin (The Potsdam Conference), 1945, Volume II*, document 1303, Harrison to Stimson, July 16, 1945, with the editorial footnote quoting Stimson's diary of July 16 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02/d1303). + +[^45]: *Foreign Relations: The Conference of Berlin, 1945, Volume II*, document 1236, Stimson to the Secretary of State, with memorandum for the President, "The Conduct of the War with Japan," July 16, 1945, and the editorial footnote quoting Stimson's diary of July 17, 23 and 24 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02/d1236). + +[^46]: *Foreign Relations: The Conference of Berlin, 1945, Volume II*, document 1241, Stimson to the President, "Proposed Proclamation to Japan," July 20, 1945 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02/d1241). + +[^47]: *Foreign Relations: The Conference of Berlin, 1945, Volume II*, document 1305, Groves to Stimson, editorial footnote quoting Stimson's diary of July 21, 1945 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02/d1305). + +[^48]: *Foreign Relations: The Conference of Berlin, 1945, Volume II*, document 710a-109, Memorandum by the Secretary of War, "Conference with Generalissimo Stalin, 25 July 1945, 1225 to 1243 at Schloss Cecilienhof" (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02/d710a-109). + +[^49]: *Foreign Relations: The Conference of Berlin, 1945, Volume II*, document 1307, Harrison to Stimson, July 21, 1945, with editorial footnote on the selection of Kyoto as a possible target (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02/d1307). + +[^50]: *Foreign Relations: The Conference of Berlin, 1945, Volume II*, document 1310, Stimson to Harrison, July 23, 1945, with editorial footnote quoting Stimson's diary of July 22 and 24, 1945 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02/d1310). + +[^51]: Henry L. Stimson, "The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb," *Harper's Magazine*, February 1947, as reprinted in *Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists*, vol. 3, no. 2 (February 1947) (https://archive.org/details/sim_bulletin-of-the-atomic-scientists_1947-02_3_2), sections on the memorandum of July 2, "The Use of the Bomb" and "A Personal Summary," and the Bulletin's editorial "The Decision to Use the Bomb." + +[^52]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), p. 609 (the fall of 1941, and the Harper's article as "a careful record"). + +[^53]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), Introduction, p. xi. + +[^54]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), "A Note of Explanation and Acknowledgment," pp. 673-674. + +[^55]: *Foreign Relations of the United States: Conferences at Quebec, 1944*, document 85, The Secretary of War (Stimson) to the President, September 5, 1944, and footnote quoting Morgenthau's letter to Stimson of September 6, 1944 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944Quebec/d85). + +[^56]: *Foreign Relations of the United States: Conferences at Quebec, 1944*, document 90, Memorandum by the Secretary of War (Stimson), September 9, 1944, enclosure 1 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944Quebec/d90). + +[^57]: *Foreign Relations of the United States: Conferences at Quebec, 1944*, document 90, editorial footnote on Stimson's diary for September 7, 8 and 9, 1944, citing "Stimson Papers" (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944Quebec/d90). + +[^58]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1950-1951, p. 12 ("Mr. Stimson's papers for the years prior to 1933 were placed on deposit in the University Library in 1949, and became a gift February 11, 1952"). + +[^59]: Henry Lewis Stimson papers (MS 465), Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library (https://hdl.handle.net/10079/fa/mssa.ms.0465). diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Ngo Dinh Diem.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Ngo Dinh Diem.md index ab234cb1..9f3250df 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Ngo Dinh Diem.md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Ngo Dinh Diem.md @@ -69,7 +69,7 @@ relations: start: 1963-08-24 end: 1963-11-02 role: "target of the generals' coup" - fn: 35 + fn: 37 - type: investigated with: "[[Church Committee]]" reverse: true @@ -77,7 +77,7 @@ relations: role: "subject of the interim report on alleged assassination plots" fn: 2 created: 2026-10-01 -updated: 2026-10-01 +updated: 2026-10-26 --- Ngo Dinh Diem (died November 2, 1963, [[Saigon]]) was premier of the [[State of Vietnam]] from July 7, 1954, and president of [[South Vietnam]] until he and his brother [[Ngo Dinh Nhu]] were killed during the [[1963 South Vietnamese coup d'état|generals' coup of November 1 and 2, 1963]].[^1][^2] Two [[Central Intelligence Agency]] stations in Saigon worked with his government from its first weeks, and the CIA paid money through him to armed sects in 1954.[^3][^4] A [[Michigan State University Vietnam Advisory Group|Michigan State University group]] under contract to his government advised his police from 1955 to 1962.[^5] The Senate's [[Church Committee]] found in 1975 that the [[United States]] encouraged the coup against him but neither desired nor was involved in his death.[^2] @@ -132,35 +132,35 @@ In October 1961 President Kennedy sent General [[Maxwell Taylor]] and [[Walt Ros On May 8, 1963, South Vietnamese troops in Hue fired on [[Buddhists in Vietnam|Buddhists]] celebrating Buddha's birthday, killing nine and wounding fourteen. By July 4 Generals [[Duong Van Minh]], [[Tran Van Don]], [[Le Van Kim]] and [[Tran Thien Khiem]] had agreed on the necessity of a coup. Shortly after midnight on August 21 Nhu ordered forces loyal to him to attack pagodas across the country; over thirty monks were injured and 1,400 arrested.[^2] -On August 24 the State Department sent telegram 243 to Ambassador [[Henry Cabot Lodge]]. It stated that the "US Government cannot tolerate situation in which power lies in Nhu's hands," authorized Lodge to tell key military leaders that the United States would find it impossible to continue support unless the Nhus were removed, added that "if, in spite of all of your efforts, Diem remains obdurate and refuses, then we must face the possibility that Diem himself cannot be preserved," and instructed the country team to "make detailed plans as to how we might bring about Diem's replacement if this should become necessary." It was drafted by [[Roger Hilsman]], cleared by Hilsman, [[Michael V. Forrestal|Michael Forrestal]] and [[George Ball]], and approved for transmission by [[Averell Harriman]].[^13] Taylor later said it was sent without the concurrence of the Defense Department, the Joint Chiefs or the CIA; Hilsman maintained that the President and representatives of the agencies concerned had cleared it.[^13] +On August 24 the State Department sent telegram 243 to Ambassador [[Henry Cabot Lodge]]. It stated that the "US Government cannot tolerate situation in which power lies in Nhu's hands," authorized Lodge to tell key military leaders that the United States would find it impossible to continue support unless the Nhus were removed, added that "if, in spite of all of your efforts, Diem remains obdurate and refuses, then we must face the possibility that Diem himself cannot be preserved," and instructed the country team to "make detailed plans as to how we might bring about Diem's replacement if this should become necessary." It was drafted by [[Roger Hilsman]], cleared by Hilsman, [[Michael V. Forrestal|Michael Forrestal]] and [[George Ball]], and approved for transmission by [[Averell Harriman]].[^13] The Krulak memorandum of August 24, 1963 records Forrestal's account that he, Roger Hilsman and "Governor Harriman" had converted a proposed course of action into an instruction to Lodge, that the instruction had been sent to the President for approval, and that it was not something on which Defense clearance was desired.[^14] Harriman's title on that date was Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs.[^15] Taylor later said it was sent without the concurrence of the Defense Department, the Joint Chiefs or the CIA; Hilsman maintained that the President and representatives of the agencies concerned had cleared it.[^13] -Lieutenant Colonel [[Lucien Conein]] and another CIA officer were told on August 26 to convey the substance of the telegram to Generals Khiem and [[Nguyen Khanh]], reminding them that "we cannot be of any help during initial action of assuming power of state." On August 29 a message from the [[White House]] authorized General [[Paul Harkins]] to confirm that the United States would support a coup with a good chance of success, and Kennedy cabled Lodge the same day: "Until the very moment of the go signal for the operation by the Generals, I must reserve a contingent right to change course and reverse previous instructions."[^2] On August 30 Taylor sent the President a CIA-sourced table of the probable loyalties of the units around Saigon in a coup, rating the Presidential Guard most likely to remain loyal and the airborne brigade likely to act against Diem.[^14] +Lieutenant Colonel [[Lucien Conein]] and another CIA officer were told on August 26 to convey the substance of the telegram to Generals Khiem and [[Nguyen Khanh]], reminding them that "we cannot be of any help during initial action of assuming power of state." On August 29 a message from the [[White House]] authorized General [[Paul Harkins]] to confirm that the United States would support a coup with a good chance of success, and Kennedy cabled Lodge the same day: "Until the very moment of the go signal for the operation by the Generals, I must reserve a contingent right to change course and reverse previous instructions."[^2] On August 30 Taylor sent the President a CIA-sourced table of the probable loyalties of the units around Saigon in a coup, rating the Presidential Guard most likely to remain loyal and the airborne brigade likely to act against Diem.[^16] -On October 2 Secretary of Defense [[Robert McNamara]] and Taylor reported that there was "no solid evidence of the possibility of a successful coup, although assassination of Diem or Nhu is always a possibility." They recommended withholding commodity import funds, which together with [[Public Law 480]] made up 60 to 70 percent of Vietnam's imports, suspending two [[Agency for International Development|AID]] loans, and cutting off MAP and CIA support to the units of Colonel [[Le Quang Tung]] unless they were placed under the [[Joint General Staff (Vietnam)|Joint General Staff]]. They held that "no initiative should be taken to encourage actively a change in government" and called for "an intensive clandestine effort, under the Ambassador's direction, to establish necessary contacts" to appraise coup prospects.[^15] Taylor had written to Diem the day before as "an old friend of South Vietnam," and had met Minh privately on September 29 and October 1.[^16][^17] +On October 2 Secretary of Defense [[Robert McNamara]] and Taylor reported that there was "no solid evidence of the possibility of a successful coup, although assassination of Diem or Nhu is always a possibility." They recommended withholding commodity import funds, which together with [[Public Law 480]] made up 60 to 70 percent of Vietnam's imports, suspending two [[Agency for International Development|AID]] loans, and cutting off MAP and CIA support to the units of Colonel [[Le Quang Tung]] unless they were placed under the [[Joint General Staff (Vietnam)|Joint General Staff]]. They held that "no initiative should be taken to encourage actively a change in government" and called for "an intensive clandestine effort, under the Ambassador's direction, to establish necessary contacts" to appraise coup prospects.[^17] Taylor had written to Diem the day before as "an old friend of South Vietnam," and had met Minh privately on September 29 and October 1.[^18][^19] ### The generals and Conein, October 1963 -On the night of October 2 Conein, who had known many of the generals since the Second World War, met Don at [[Nha Trang]] with the approval of the deputy chief of mission, [[William Trueheart]], whose guidance was to neither encourage nor discourage coup thinking.[^18] On October 5 Minh told Conein that he needed to know the American position and outlined three plans, the first being the assassination of Nhu and Ngo Dinh Can with Diem kept in office, which he called the easiest; Conein said he could not answer.[^19] The station recommended to Lodge that "we do not set ourselves irrevocably against the assassination plot." [[John McCone]], the Director of Central Intelligence, cabled on October 5 that "we cannot be in the position of stimulating, approving, or supporting assassination," and on October 6 that the recommendation be withdrawn; William Colby, then chief of the Far East Division, drafted the first cable. Conein testified that Lodge told him of McCone's position around October 20 and that he then told Don the United States opposed assassination.[^2] A CIA cable to Lodge of October 9 stated that Washington did not wish to stimulate a coup but would not thwart a change of government or deny aid to a new regime, and that knowledge was confined to an extremely limited group in the White House, State, Defense and the CIA.[^20] +On the night of October 2 Conein, who had known many of the generals since the Second World War, met Don at [[Nha Trang]] with the approval of the deputy chief of mission, [[William Trueheart]], whose guidance was to neither encourage nor discourage coup thinking.[^20] On October 5 Minh told Conein that he needed to know the American position and outlined three plans, the first being the assassination of Nhu and Ngo Dinh Can with Diem kept in office, which he called the easiest; Conein said he could not answer.[^21] The station recommended to Lodge that "we do not set ourselves irrevocably against the assassination plot." [[John McCone]], the Director of Central Intelligence, cabled on October 5 that "we cannot be in the position of stimulating, approving, or supporting assassination," and on October 6 that the recommendation be withdrawn; William Colby, then chief of the Far East Division, drafted the first cable. Conein testified that Lodge told him of McCone's position around October 20 and that he then told Don the United States opposed assassination.[^2] A CIA cable to Lodge of October 9 stated that Washington did not wish to stimulate a coup but would not thwart a change of government or deny aid to a new regime, and that knowledge was confined to an extremely limited group in the White House, State, Defense and the CIA.[^22] -Conein's after-action report of November 1 states that the majority of officers wished Diem to have honorable retirement and exile, but that "as to Ngo Dinh Nhu and Ngo Dinh Can, there was never dissention. The attitude was that their deaths, along with Madame Ngo Dinh Nhu would be welcomed."[^2] Conein received 3 million piasters on October 24 and kept them in a safe at his house; on October 29 Lodge cabled that a request for funds should be anticipated.[^2] The station's cable 2023 of October 29 on Conein's meeting with Don the day before, held at a dentist's office, which listed coup units and described two escape tunnels from [[Gia Long Palace]], was sent eyes only to McNamara, [[Roswell Gilpatric|Gilpatric]], Taylor, [[Victor Krulak|Krulak]] and [[William Bundy]] at Defense, among others.[^4][^21] +Conein's after-action report of November 1 states that the majority of officers wished Diem to have honorable retirement and exile, but that "as to Ngo Dinh Nhu and Ngo Dinh Can, there was never dissention. The attitude was that their deaths, along with Madame Ngo Dinh Nhu would be welcomed."[^2] Conein received 3 million piasters on October 24 and kept them in a safe at his house; on October 29 Lodge cabled that a request for funds should be anticipated.[^2] The station's cable 2023 of October 29 on Conein's meeting with Don the day before, held at a dentist's office, which listed coup units and described two escape tunnels from [[Gia Long Palace]], was sent eyes only to McNamara, [[Roswell Gilpatric|Gilpatric]], Taylor, [[Victor Krulak|Krulak]] and [[William Bundy]] at Defense, among others.[^4][^23] -At the White House on October 29 Colby estimated pro-Diem and anti-Diem forces at about 9,800 each, with 18,000 neutral. Secretary of State [[Dean Rusk]] said that the United States needed 48 hours' notice, not four, of any coup. Attorney General [[Robert Kennedy]] called his opposition to a coup "the minority view," and Taylor and McCone agreed with him; McNamara proposed that the deputy chief of mission, the acting CIA chief and Harkins jointly decide "what our agent Conein would say and do."[^22] Around October 30 Colby wrote to McCone proposing that Nhu be installed in his brother's place as a "strong, reasonably well oriented and efficient potential successor," whose "highly unfavorable public image" the United States should help improve; the proposal drew no support.[^4] Conein later recalled that Lodge had remarked that if nothing happened and Lodge made his scheduled trip to Washington, Conein would never work another day for the government.[^4] +At the White House on October 29 Colby estimated pro-Diem and anti-Diem forces at about 9,800 each, with 18,000 neutral. Secretary of State [[Dean Rusk]] said that the United States needed 48 hours' notice, not four, of any coup. Attorney General [[Robert Kennedy]] called his opposition to a coup "the minority view," and Taylor and McCone agreed with him; McNamara proposed that the deputy chief of mission, the acting CIA chief and Harkins jointly decide "what our agent Conein would say and do."[^24] Around October 30 Colby wrote to McCone proposing that Nhu be installed in his brother's place as a "strong, reasonably well oriented and efficient potential successor," whose "highly unfavorable public image" the United States should help improve; the proposal drew no support.[^4] Conein later recalled that Lodge had remarked that if nothing happened and Lodge made his scheduled trip to Washington, Conein would never work another day for the government.[^4] ### November 1 and 2, 1963 -On the morning of November 1 Diem received Lodge and Admiral [[Harry D. Felt|Harry Felt]] and complained that that junior CIA officers were "poisoning atmosphere by spreading rumors of coups against him," naming one officer, Hodges.[^23] Speaking alone with Lodge afterwards, Diem asked him to consult "Mr. Colby of CIA and former Ambassador Nolting" about Nhu, saying that Colby had told him it was "too bad that brother Nhu was living in an ivory tower," and asked Lodge to tell Kennedy that he was "a good and a frank ally."[^24] +On the morning of November 1 Diem received Lodge and Admiral [[Harry D. Felt|Harry Felt]] and complained that that junior CIA officers were "poisoning atmosphere by spreading rumors of coups against him," naming one officer, Hodges.[^25] Speaking alone with Lodge afterwards, Diem asked him to consult "Mr. Colby of CIA and former Ambassador Nolting" about Nhu, saying that Colby had told him it was "too bad that brother Nhu was living in an ivory tower," and asked Lodge to tell Kennedy that he was "a good and a frank ally."[^26] -The coup began early in the afternoon; Harkins cabled Taylor that instead of four hours' or two days' notice "we got approximately four minutes."[^25] An aide to Don asked Conein to bring all available money to the Joint General Staff headquarters, and Conein brought 3 million piasters, about $42,000, which was given to Don to buy food for the troops and pay death benefits. Don wrote in his memoir, *Our Endless War*, that Conein "offered us money and weapons, but I turned him down."[^2][^21] Conein stayed at the Joint General Staff headquarters through the coup, relaying what Minh and Don told him; CIA officers in the streets supplied, with him, nearly all the authoritative information Washington received over the next twenty-four hours.[^4] At 4:30 p.m. Diem telephoned Lodge and asked, "What is the attitude of the US?" Lodge replied that he lacked information and instructions, said he was concerned for Diem's safety, and asked whether Diem had heard of the offer of safe conduct if he resigned; Diem answered, "I am trying to reestablish order."[^4] +The coup began early in the afternoon; Harkins cabled Taylor that instead of four hours' or two days' notice "we got approximately four minutes."[^27] An aide to Don asked Conein to bring all available money to the Joint General Staff headquarters, and Conein brought 3 million piasters, about $42,000, which was given to Don to buy food for the troops and pay death benefits. Don wrote in his memoir, *Our Endless War*, that Conein "offered us money and weapons, but I turned him down."[^2][^23] Conein stayed at the Joint General Staff headquarters through the coup, relaying what Minh and Don told him; CIA officers in the streets supplied, with him, nearly all the authoritative information Washington received over the next twenty-four hours.[^4] At 4:30 p.m. Diem telephoned Lodge and asked, "What is the attitude of the US?" Lodge replied that he lacked information and instructions, said he was concerned for Diem's safety, and asked whether Diem had heard of the offer of safe conduct if he resigned; Diem answered, "I am trying to reestablish order."[^4] -In Washington, before the outcome was known, Rusk cabled Lodge that "since coup is wholly Vietnamese," premature American recognition would falsely brand it as American-inspired. A second telegram, drafted by Hilsman and [[McGeorge Bundy]], instructed Lodge that acceptance of the coup in the United States would be "greatly increased" if the generals continued to develop "strongly and publicly" their charge that Nhu had been "dickering with Communists"; Lodge replied the next day that he knew "of no hard evidence of such a desire."[^26][^27] Rusk told Senator [[J. William Fulbright]] by telephone at noon that "our own involvement is minimal."[^28] +In Washington, before the outcome was known, Rusk cabled Lodge that "since coup is wholly Vietnamese," premature American recognition would falsely brand it as American-inspired. A second telegram, drafted by Hilsman and [[McGeorge Bundy]], instructed Lodge that acceptance of the coup in the United States would be "greatly increased" if the generals continued to develop "strongly and publicly" their charge that Nhu had been "dickering with Communists"; Lodge replied the next day that he knew "of no hard evidence of such a desire."[^28][^29] Rusk told Senator [[J. William Fulbright]] by telephone at noon that "our own involvement is minimal."[^30] At 6:20 on the morning of November 2 Diem called Don and offered to surrender if he and Nhu were given safe conduct to an airport. Lodge had cabled on October 30 that key leaders might request evacuation, and Conein was charged with obtaining an aircraft; when Minh and Don asked for one, a station officer told Conein it would take twenty-four hours, because it would have to come from [[Guam]] and could fly Diem only to a country that granted asylum.[^2] The station officer, [[David Smith (CIA)|David Smith]], also named France as the country most likely to grant asylum and put at twenty-four hours the time needed to bring in an aircraft able to reach Paris without intermediate stops.[^4] An escort appeared at the palace at 8:00 a.m., but Diem and Nhu were not there.[^2] -When Conein returned to the Joint General Staff about 10:30 a.m., Minh told him the brothers were dead and had killed themselves in a Catholic church, to which Conein responded that someone had better construct a more plausible story. Minh offered to show him the bodies, and Conein declined.[^2][^4] Conein reported that he believed Minh had ordered the executions.[^4] The embassy reported that day several versions: that the brothers had spent the night at a Cholon clubhouse owned by a Chinese businessman, gone to church in the morning and been picked up by the army and locked in a vehicle; that Minh had told the former finance minister that they had shot themselves with a gun left in the vehicle "due to an inadvertence"; and that an aide to General Khanh, who saw the bodies, said they had been assassinated at least at the direction of General [[Mai Huu Xuan]].[^29] Most station reporting attributed the decision to kill them to Minh, and the various reports agreed that the killing was carried out by an officer named Nhung, described variously as Minh's bodyguard and as a supporter of Mai Huu Xuan.[^4] On November 16 an officer of unknown reliability gave the CIA two photographs of the bodies in which their hands appeared tied behind their backs, and said they had been shot and stabbed in the vehicle taking them to the Joint General Staff.[^2] +When Conein returned to the Joint General Staff about 10:30 a.m., Minh told him the brothers were dead and had killed themselves in a Catholic church, to which Conein responded that someone had better construct a more plausible story. Minh offered to show him the bodies, and Conein declined.[^2][^4] Conein reported that he believed Minh had ordered the executions.[^4] The embassy reported that day several versions: that the brothers had spent the night at a Cholon clubhouse owned by a Chinese businessman, gone to church in the morning and been picked up by the army and locked in a vehicle; that Minh had told the former finance minister that they had shot themselves with a gun left in the vehicle "due to an inadvertence"; and that an aide to General Khanh, who saw the bodies, said they had been assassinated at least at the direction of General [[Mai Huu Xuan]].[^31] Most station reporting attributed the decision to kill them to Minh, and the various reports agreed that the killing was carried out by an officer named Nhung, described variously as Minh's bodyguard and as a supporter of Mai Huu Xuan.[^4] On November 16 an officer of unknown reliability gave the CIA two photographs of the bodies in which their hands appeared tied behind their backs, and said they had been shot and stabbed in the vehicle taking them to the Joint General Staff.[^2] -The news reached Kennedy during a meeting at 9:35 a.m. on November 2, when Forrestal brought in a telegram reporting the deaths.[^30] Rusk instructed Lodge that the generals should establish publicly that the deaths were suicides "if this true," through an impartial group.[^31] McGeorge Bundy cabled Lodge that evening that the generals "should not be left under illusion that political assassination is easily accepted here."[^32] The State Department instructed all diplomatic posts, particularly in the Western Hemisphere, to distinguish the Saigon coup from its opposition to military coups against democratic governments elsewhere.[^33] Lodge recommended resuming commercial import payments "on a periodic and selective basis without public announcement so as to avoid appearance of blank check or of pay-off."[^34] +The news reached Kennedy during a meeting at 9:35 a.m. on November 2, when Forrestal brought in a telegram reporting the deaths.[^32] Rusk instructed Lodge that the generals should establish publicly that the deaths were suicides "if this true," through an impartial group.[^33] McGeorge Bundy cabled Lodge that evening that the generals "should not be left under illusion that political assassination is easily accepted here."[^34] The State Department instructed all diplomatic posts, particularly in the Western Hemisphere, to distinguish the Saigon coup from its opposition to military coups against democratic governments elsewhere.[^35] Lodge recommended resuming commercial import payments "on a periodic and selective basis without public announcement so as to avoid appearance of blank check or of pay-off."[^36] -The Church Committee concluded that the details of the deaths were not known and that there was no available evidence of direct or indirect American involvement in them.[^2] Taylor, asked in 1981 whether the killing had been a covert operation, answered, "Not if you mean a covert operation conducted by the CIA."[^35] +The Church Committee concluded that the details of the deaths were not known and that there was no available evidence of direct or indirect American involvement in them.[^2] Taylor, asked in 1981 whether the killing had been a covert operation, answered, "Not if you mean a covert operation conducted by the CIA."[^37] ### Footnotes @@ -177,25 +177,27 @@ The Church Committee concluded that the details of the deaths were not known and [^11]: *United States-Vietnam Relations, 1945-1967*, Book 2, Part IV.A.4, "U.S. Training of the Vietnamese National Army, 1954-1959," DTIC ADA542557, https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA542557 [^12]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum for the Director of Central Intelligence via the Deputy Director (Plans), "Position Papers for President Ngo Dinh Diem Visit," May 9, 1957, CIA-RDP80R01731R000700500014-9, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r000700500014-9 [^13]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. III, *Vietnam, January-August 1963*, document 281, telegram 243 from the Department of State to the Embassy in Vietnam, August 24, 1963, and source note, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d281 -[^14]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, *Vietnam, August-December 1963*, document 24, Taylor to the President, CM-856-63, August 30, 1963, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d24 -[^15]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 167, McNamara and Taylor to the President, "Report of McNamara-Taylor Mission to South Vietnam," October 2, 1963, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d167 -[^16]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 163, Taylor to President Diem, October 1, 1963, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d163 -[^17]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 162, memorandum for the record by Taylor, October 1, 1963, and source note, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d162 -[^18]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 171, CIA Saigon station telegram 1385, October 3, 1963, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d171 -[^19]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 177, CIA Saigon station telegram, October 5, 1963, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d177 -[^20]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 192, CIA telegram to the Ambassador in Vietnam, October 9, 1963, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d192 -[^21]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 225, CIA Saigon station telegram 2023, October 29, 1963, and source note quoting Tran Van Don, *Our Endless War*, pp. 98-99, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d225 -[^22]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 234, memorandum of conference with President Kennedy, October 29, 1963, 4:20 p.m., https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d234 -[^23]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 261, Saigon telegram 854, November 1, 1963, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d261 -[^24]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 262, Saigon telegram 841, November 1, 1963, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d262 -[^25]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 267, Harkins to Taylor, MAC J00 8512, November 1, 1963, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d267 -[^26]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 264, telegram 673 to Saigon, November 1, 1963, and document 266, telegram 674 to Saigon, November 1, 1963, with source notes, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d264 and https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d266 -[^27]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 270, Saigon telegram 875, November 2, 1963, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d270 -[^28]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 265, memorandum of telephone conversation between Rusk and Senator Fulbright, November 1, 1963, 12:01 p.m., https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d265 -[^29]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 273, Saigon telegram 888, November 2, 1963, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d273 -[^30]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 274, editorial note, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d274 -[^31]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 271, telegram 688 to Saigon, November 2, 1963, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d271 -[^32]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 278, Bundy to Lodge, CAP 63602, November 2, 1963, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d278 -[^33]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 277, circular telegram 833, November 2, 1963, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d277 -[^34]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 270, Saigon telegram 875, November 2, 1963, paragraph 1, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d270 -[^35]: Robert S. Gallagher, "Gen. Maxwell Taylor: Memories of Peace and War" (interview), *American Heritage*, vol. 32, no. 3 (April/May 1981), https://www.americanheritage.com/gen-maxwell-taylor-memories-peace-and-war +[^14]: Memorandum for the Record by the Joint Chiefs of Staff's Special Assistant for Counterinsurgency and Special Activities (Krulak), Washington, August 24, 1963, National Defense University, Taylor Papers, T-172-69. *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963*, vol. III, document 282. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d282 +[^15]: Memorandum of Telephone Conversation Between the Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs (Harriman) and the Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (Hilsman), *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963*, vol. III, document 243. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d243 +[^16]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, *Vietnam, August-December 1963*, document 24, Taylor to the President, CM-856-63, August 30, 1963, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d24 +[^17]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 167, McNamara and Taylor to the President, "Report of McNamara-Taylor Mission to South Vietnam," October 2, 1963, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d167 +[^18]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 163, Taylor to President Diem, October 1, 1963, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d163 +[^19]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 162, memorandum for the record by Taylor, October 1, 1963, and source note, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d162 +[^20]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 171, CIA Saigon station telegram 1385, October 3, 1963, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d171 +[^21]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 177, CIA Saigon station telegram, October 5, 1963, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d177 +[^22]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 192, CIA telegram to the Ambassador in Vietnam, October 9, 1963, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d192 +[^23]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 225, CIA Saigon station telegram 2023, October 29, 1963, and source note quoting Tran Van Don, *Our Endless War*, pp. 98-99, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d225 +[^24]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 234, memorandum of conference with President Kennedy, October 29, 1963, 4:20 p.m., https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d234 +[^25]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 261, Saigon telegram 854, November 1, 1963, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d261 +[^26]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 262, Saigon telegram 841, November 1, 1963, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d262 +[^27]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 267, Harkins to Taylor, MAC J00 8512, November 1, 1963, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d267 +[^28]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 264, telegram 673 to Saigon, November 1, 1963, and document 266, telegram 674 to Saigon, November 1, 1963, with source notes, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d264 and https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d266 +[^29]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 270, Saigon telegram 875, November 2, 1963, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d270 +[^30]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 265, memorandum of telephone conversation between Rusk and Senator Fulbright, November 1, 1963, 12:01 p.m., https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d265 +[^31]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 273, Saigon telegram 888, November 2, 1963, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d273 +[^32]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 274, editorial note, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d274 +[^33]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 271, telegram 688 to Saigon, November 2, 1963, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d271 +[^34]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 278, Bundy to Lodge, CAP 63602, November 2, 1963, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d278 +[^35]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 277, circular telegram 833, November 2, 1963, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d277 +[^36]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, document 270, Saigon telegram 875, November 2, 1963, paragraph 1, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d270 +[^37]: Robert S. Gallagher, "Gen. Maxwell Taylor: Memories of Peace and War" (interview), *American Heritage*, vol. 32, no. 3 (April/May 1981), https://www.americanheritage.com/gen-maxwell-taylor-memories-peace-and-war diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Rockefeller family.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Rockefeller family.md index c81e692a..44fc80ff 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Rockefeller family.md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Rockefeller family.md @@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ relations: start: 1955-03-10 fn: 9 created: 2026-09-22 -updated: 2026-09-22 +updated: 2026-10-26 --- The Rockefeller family's fortune came from [[Standard Oil]]. In 1870 [[John D. Rockefeller]] and his associates formed the Standard Oil Company (Ohio), with the largest refining capacity of any firm in the world; in 1882 the Standard Oil Trust took in Standard Oil of New Jersey and Standard Oil of New York, with headquarters at 26 Broadway in New York; after a Supreme Court decision in 1911 it was broken up into 34 companies.[^1] The Court's opinion of May 15, 1911 names "The Standard Oil Company of New Jersey and thirty-three other corporations" as appellants, together with John D. Rockefeller, William Rockefeller and five other individual defendants, and affirmed the decree with directions to modify it.[^2] The family's philanthropies followed: the [[General Education Board]], the [[Rockefeller Sanitary Commission]] and, chartered in 1913, the [[Rockefeller Foundation]], which by the 1920s owned stock in thirteen oil companies and nine pipelines. When [[Charles Evans Hughes]], a Standard Oil counsel and Foundation trustee, became secretary of state, the British Foreign Office complained that "Washington officials begin to think, talk, and write like Standard Oil officials."[^3] @@ -50,7 +50,12 @@ Nelson, a director of Standard Oil of New Jersey's Venezuelan subsidiary, Creole The Foundation paid for the founding in 1943 of the [[Allan Memorial Institute]] in Montreal, where [[D. Ewen Cameron]] later conducted the depatterning experiments funded under [[Project MKUltra|MKULTRA]].[^12] David founded the Council of the Americas in 1963 and in 1973, with [[Zbigniew Brzezinski]], the [[Trilateral Commission]].[^5] +### Skull and Bones + +[[Percy Avery Rockefeller]] is listed under the class of 1900 in the index of members that [[Antony C. Sutton]] reproduces.[^13] Sutton's chart of the society's families lists the Rockefeller family among the new-wealth families, beside the Payne family, under Standard Oil.[^14] In 1977 [[Ron Rosenbaum]] wrote in [[Esquire]] that [[J. Richardson Dilworth]], "the Bonesman who now manages the Rockefeller fortune," could be asked how wealthy the society is.[^15] + ### Footnotes + [^1]: ExxonMobil, "Our History," corporate history timeline, entries for 1870, 1882 and the 1911 dissolution. https://corporate.exxonmobil.com/company/who-we-are/our-history [^2]: *Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States*, 221 U.S. 1 (decided May 15, 1911), opening paragraph and concluding part of the opinion of Chief Justice White. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/221/1 [^3]: Colby, Gerard, and Charlotte Dennett. *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon.* HarperCollins, 1995, chs. 2-3. @@ -63,3 +68,6 @@ The Foundation paid for the founding in 1943 of the [[Allan Memorial Institute]] [^10]: Colby and Dennett, Introduction (2017) and ch. 23, as cited on the Henry A. Kissinger page. [^11]: Executive Order 11828, January 4, 1975. [^12]: Marks, John. *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate: The CIA and Mind Control.* Times Books, 1979, ch. 8. +[^13]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1900 (Rockefeller, Percy Avery). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^14]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), chart "Hypothesis Number One," new-wealth families. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^15]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977 diff --git a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Central Intelligence Agency.md b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Central Intelligence Agency.md index 7c8d5da0..28e131db 100644 --- a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Central Intelligence Agency.md +++ b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Central Intelligence Agency.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ aliases: - Central Intelligence Agency - CIA created: 2025-07-22 -updated: 2026-10-15 +updated: 2026-10-26 tags: - Organization - Intelligence @@ -22,71 +22,75 @@ relations: role: "Office of Security release of police techniques through LEAA" start: 1970 end: 1973 - fn: 5 + fn: 10 - type: employed_by with: "[[Bobby Ray Inman]]" reverse: true role: "deputy director" start: 1981-02 end: 1982-04 - fn: 32 + fn: 37 - type: participant_in with: "[[Psychological Strategy Board]]" role: "Member agency; the Director of Central Intelligence chaired meeting M-8" start: 1952-01-10 - fn: 59 + fn: 64 - type: employed_by with: "[[Max Millikan]]" reverse: true role: "Assistant Director, Research and Reports (1951); Special Consultant (1952)" start: 1951-01 end: 1952-03 - fn: 60 + fn: 65 - type: funded with: "[[Center for International Studies]]" role: "agency money reported to have set up the center in 1951; $300,000 reported in 1967" start: 1951 - fn: 67 + fn: 72 - type: employed_by with: "[[Ronald Pandolfi]]" reverse: true start: 1995 role: "analyst; described as a CIA scientist (Farley, 1995) and CIA analyst (Cox Committee, 1999)" - fn: 44 + fn: 49 --- The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) is a primary intelligence-gathering organization of the United States government. In the context of psychic research, the CIA played a significant, albeit often covert, role in funding and overseeing programs aimed at exploring and utilizing psychic phenomena for intelligence purposes.[^1] The CIA, particularly through its Photographic Intelligence Division, was instrumental in aerial reconnaissance efforts, especially with the U-2 spy plane, to monitor Soviet nuclear programs and later, the Israeli nuclear facility at [[Dimona]].[^2] +### Personnel posts, 1951 to 1973 + +In July 1951 an [[Associated Press]] item reported that [[F. Trubee Davison]], formerly Assistant Secretary of War for Air and president of the [[American Museum of Natural History]], would join the Agency on July 16 as a principal assistant to [[Walter Bedell Smith]], and that he probably would do personnel work.[^3] A memorandum from Davison dated September 11, 1951 appears on a CIA routing slip addressed to the Assistant Director (Personnel).[^4] CIA documents of 1968, 1969 and 1972 name [[Hugh T. Cunningham]] as the Agency's Director of Training.[^5] The Covert Action Information Bulletin reported in 1990 that Cunningham served in the Agency from 1947 to 1973 and that Davison, Cunningham, [[William P. Bundy]] and [[Dino Pionzio]] (deputy chief of station in [[Santiago]] in 1970) were members of the Yale society [[Skull and Bones]].[^6] [[Antony C. Sutton]]'s index of members lists Davison under the class of 1918, Cunningham (Hugh Terry) under 1934, Bundy under 1939 and Pionzio under 1950.[^7] + ### Early Involvement in Psi Research The CIA's interest in psi research dates back to the early 1970s, partly in response to rumors of extensive Soviet psi research. Following a number of scandals in the mid-1970s, including revelations of domestic spying, the CIA came under unprecedented scrutiny from Congress. This led to a preference for "clean" spying methods, making psychic intelligence an appealing, low-profile alternative to traditional human intelligence (HUMINT).[^1] -In 1972, the CIA, through officials like [[Kenneth A. Kress|Ken Kress]] from the Technical Services Division (TSD) (later the Office of Technical Service, OTS), provided the initial funding for [[Hal Puthoff]]'s psi research program at [[Stanford Research Institute]] (SRI). This funding, initially $50,000 for eight months, was contingent on the researchers demonstrating a repeatable psi phenomenon. The Office of Research and Development (ORD) also jointly managed the funding and contract.[^1] In the late 1960s, the CIA had approached Hal Puthoff and Russell Targ at Stanford University to develop a program to counter a similar effort in the Soviet Union, which led to the creation of the [[Stargate Project]], a program that trained individuals in [[Remote Viewing]] to spy on foreign targets. The program was reportedly highly successful, and Puthoff reported directly to the Director of the CIA and the [[White House]].[^3] +In 1972, the CIA, through officials like [[Kenneth A. Kress|Ken Kress]] from the Technical Services Division (TSD) (later the Office of Technical Service, OTS), provided the initial funding for [[Hal Puthoff]]'s psi research program at [[Stanford Research Institute]] (SRI). This funding, initially $50,000 for eight months, was contingent on the researchers demonstrating a repeatable psi phenomenon. The Office of Research and Development (ORD) also jointly managed the funding and contract.[^1] In the late 1960s, the CIA had approached Hal Puthoff and Russell Targ at Stanford University to develop a program to counter a similar effort in the Soviet Union, which led to the creation of the [[Stargate Project]], a program that trained individuals in [[Remote Viewing]] to spy on foreign targets. The program was reportedly highly successful, and Puthoff reported directly to the Director of the CIA and the [[White House]].[^8] ### The Search for Behavioral Control -Since [[World War II]] the CIA searched secretly for ways to control human behavior, an effort that extended the wartime [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]] quest for a truth drug and echoed both the Nazi experiments at [[Dachau]] and [[Albert Hofmann]]'s discovery of [[LSD]]. The programs were triggered by the 1949 show trial of [[Josef Cardinal Mindszenty]] in [[Hungary]], whose glazed confession convinced Agency officials the Communists had developed a technique to render defendants zombielike; what began as defensive research quickly turned offensive, with documents stressing the goal of "controlling an individual to the point where he will do our bidding against his will and even against such fundamental laws of nature as self-preservation." The effort passed through [[Project Bluebird and Project Artichoke|Project BLUEBIRD]] (1950), ARTICHOKE (1952), and finally [[Project MKUltra|MKULTRA]] under the [[Office of Technical Service|Technical Services Staff]], with [[Richard Helms]] its most important sponsor and his protégé [[Sidney Gottlieb]] running it day to day. The research systematically violated the will of subjects drawn from groups officials considered expendable, mental patients, prostitutes, foreigners, drug addicts, and prisoners; as one Agency psychologist put it, operators lacked "a universal concept of mankind" and were willing to do things to foreigners they would not try on Americans. "It was strictly a patriotic vision," he said.[^4] +Since [[World War II]] the CIA searched secretly for ways to control human behavior, an effort that extended the wartime [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]] quest for a truth drug and echoed both the Nazi experiments at [[Dachau]] and [[Albert Hofmann]]'s discovery of [[LSD]]. The programs were triggered by the 1949 show trial of [[Josef Cardinal Mindszenty]] in [[Hungary]], whose glazed confession convinced Agency officials the Communists had developed a technique to render defendants zombielike; what began as defensive research quickly turned offensive, with documents stressing the goal of "controlling an individual to the point where he will do our bidding against his will and even against such fundamental laws of nature as self-preservation." The effort passed through [[Project Bluebird and Project Artichoke|Project BLUEBIRD]] (1950), ARTICHOKE (1952), and finally [[Project MKUltra|MKULTRA]] under the [[Office of Technical Service|Technical Services Staff]], with [[Richard Helms]] its most important sponsor and his protégé [[Sidney Gottlieb]] running it day to day. The research systematically violated the will of subjects drawn from groups officials considered expendable, mental patients, prostitutes, foreigners, drug addicts, and prisoners; as one Agency psychologist put it, operators lacked "a universal concept of mankind" and were willing to do things to foreigners they would not try on Americans. "It was strictly a patriotic vision," he said.[^9] ### Police Technique Program Through LEAA -From 1970 the Office of Security used the [[LEAA|Law Enforcement Assistance Administration]] as its channel for releasing agency techniques to police. A June 10, 1970 memorandum to the Director of Central Intelligence recommended LEAA as "the best vehicle to expand dissemination of this technique to all public law enforcement officials in the United States" for the Trace Metal Detection Technique, which the Director had declassified.[^5] The memorandum carried the concurrence of the Deputy Director for Plans, [[Thomas Karamessines]]. It stated that the only stipulation placed on recipients was that there be "no public connection between the technique and this Agency."[^5] +From 1970 the Office of Security used the [[LEAA|Law Enforcement Assistance Administration]] as its channel for releasing agency techniques to police. A June 10, 1970 memorandum to the Director of Central Intelligence recommended LEAA as "the best vehicle to expand dissemination of this technique to all public law enforcement officials in the United States" for the Trace Metal Detection Technique, which the Director had declassified.[^10] The memorandum carried the concurrence of the Deputy Director for Plans, [[Thomas Karamessines]]. It stated that the only stipulation placed on recipients was that there be "no public connection between the technique and this Agency."[^10] -Between June 1970 and December 1971 Office of Security representatives demonstrated the technique to approximately 35 police departments, three professional police associations and representatives of 83 other state and local departments. Outside the Washington area they appeared as "consultants" to LEAA, and "no mention was made of the Agency."[^6] The office provided six men to LEAA in 1970 for the same briefings.[^7] +Between June 1970 and December 1971 Office of Security representatives demonstrated the technique to approximately 35 police departments, three professional police associations and representatives of 83 other state and local departments. Outside the Washington area they appeared as "consultants" to LEAA, and "no mention was made of the Agency."[^11] The office provided six men to LEAA in 1970 for the same briefings.[^12] -The Explosive Residue Detection Technique was declassified in March 1971, and the Security Office recommended dissemination through LEAA or the LEAA-funded National Bomb Data Center.[^6] On November 10, 1971 agency officers demonstrated it to LEAA staff and then met [[Lester Shubin]] and [[Marc Nerenstone]], whom the memorandum describes as "both witting of the Agency's role in the development of the technique."[^8] +The Explosive Residue Detection Technique was declassified in March 1971, and the Security Office recommended dissemination through LEAA or the LEAA-funded National Bomb Data Center.[^11] On November 10, 1971 agency officers demonstrated it to LEAA staff and then met [[Lester Shubin]] and [[Marc Nerenstone]], whom the memorandum describes as "both witting of the Agency's role in the development of the technique."[^13] -A February 16, 1972 Office of Security memorandum records that LEAA never reimbursed the agency's travel costs "because of their desire to avoid unclassified (i.e. public) reimbursement of the money to CIA" and that "LEAA indicated it did not wish to be publicly affiliated with CIA."[^9] A May 9, 1973 survey of the Office of Research and Development recorded that an adhesive restraint, a non-lethal incapacitation system, had been made available to LEAA in August 1972. It said that "if they developed the system, it would be used for civilian crowd and riot control."[^10] On June 18, 1973 the House adopted by voice vote the Holtzman amendment to H.R. 8152, which the Office of Legislative Counsel summarized as prohibiting LEAA from using the agency's services, equipment, personnel and facilities.[^11] +A February 16, 1972 Office of Security memorandum records that LEAA never reimbursed the agency's travel costs "because of their desire to avoid unclassified (i.e. public) reimbursement of the money to CIA" and that "LEAA indicated it did not wish to be publicly affiliated with CIA."[^14] A May 9, 1973 survey of the Office of Research and Development recorded that an adhesive restraint, a non-lethal incapacitation system, had been made available to LEAA in August 1972. It said that "if they developed the system, it would be used for civilian crowd and riot control."[^15] On June 18, 1973 the House adopted by voice vote the Holtzman amendment to H.R. 8152, which the Office of Legislative Counsel summarized as prohibiting LEAA from using the agency's services, equipment, personnel and facilities.[^16] -Section 508 of the Crime Control Act of 1973 authorized LEAA to use federal agency services "(not including the Central Intelligence Agency)," a restriction absent from the 1968 statute.[^12] An Office of General Counsel memorandum of October 15, 1973 concluded that the agency was not required to reject all LEAA requests and would decide each one case by case.[^13] In July 1978 the Office of Legislative Counsel reviewed reauthorization language that would bar any use of CIA services by LEAA, and reported that the agency did not endorse the provision but had no formal objection to it.[^14] On November 14, 1975 an agency officer briefed two staff members of a House select committee on the LEAA liaison. The memorandum records that the agency discontinued liaison with LEAA in 1973 as a result of the Kennedy-Holtzman amendment, and that one staff member asked where the agency fit into the operation of the Law Enforcement Intelligence Unit, described as "a communications network between police intelligence agencies"; the officer answered that he knew of no such nationwide network in which the agency had taken part.[^15] +Section 508 of the Crime Control Act of 1973 authorized LEAA to use federal agency services "(not including the Central Intelligence Agency)," a restriction absent from the 1968 statute.[^17] An Office of General Counsel memorandum of October 15, 1973 concluded that the agency was not required to reject all LEAA requests and would decide each one case by case.[^18] In July 1978 the Office of Legislative Counsel reviewed reauthorization language that would bar any use of CIA services by LEAA, and reported that the agency did not endorse the provision but had no formal objection to it.[^19] On November 14, 1975 an agency officer briefed two staff members of a House select committee on the LEAA liaison. The memorandum records that the agency discontinued liaison with LEAA in 1973 as a result of the Kennedy-Holtzman amendment, and that one staff member asked where the agency fit into the operation of the Law Enforcement Intelligence Unit, described as "a communications network between police intelligence agencies"; the officer answered that he knew of no such nationwide network in which the agency had taken part.[^20] ### The 1977 Notifications to Institutions -In the summer of 1977 the agency located MKULTRA documents it had believed destroyed in 1973, and notified the institutions named in them. Director of Central Intelligence [[Stansfield Turner]] wrote to Senator [[Daniel K. Inouye]] on August 2, 1977 that the agency now held "the names of 185 non-government researchers and assistants" and the names of 80 institutions where the work was done or with which the researchers were affiliated. He listed them as 44 colleges or universities, 15 research foundations or chemical or pharmaceutical companies and the like, 12 hospitals or clinics, and 3 penal institutions. The names went to the Senate committee on a classified basis, and the Director wrote that he had "a legal obligation under the Privacy Act not to publicly disclose the names of the individual researchers without their consent."[^16] +In the summer of 1977 the agency located MKULTRA documents it had believed destroyed in 1973, and notified the institutions named in them. Director of Central Intelligence [[Stansfield Turner]] wrote to Senator [[Daniel K. Inouye]] on August 2, 1977 that the agency now held "the names of 185 non-government researchers and assistants" and the names of 80 institutions where the work was done or with which the researchers were affiliated. He listed them as 44 colleges or universities, 15 research foundations or chemical or pharmaceutical companies and the like, 12 hospitals or clinics, and 3 penal institutions. The names went to the Senate committee on a classified basis, and the Director wrote that he had "a legal obligation under the Privacy Act not to publicly disclose the names of the individual researchers without their consent."[^21] -General Counsel [[Anthony A. Lapham]] wrote to each institution in August 1977. The letter stated that the institution "is included among the institutions at which some portion of this CIA-sponsored research appears to have been performed or with which one or more individuals performing some aspect of this research were affiliated," and that the agency "does not intend to reveal to the public the identities of any institutions that knowingly or unknowingly were involved in MKULTRA activities, or the names of individual researchers."[^17] On September 7, 1977 A. R. Cinquegrana of the Office of General Counsel sent the president of the [[New School for Social Research]], [[John R. Everett]], copies of the two MKULTRA subproject files relating to the school, with a letter stating that "the name of the School has been reinserted wherever it appears in the original documents."[^18] Lapham's letter of November 7, 1977 asked whether each institution had itself made its correspondence public, and wrote that "Where an institution has itself made public these relationships, there would seem to be little point in our continued refusal to confirm these facts."[^19] On March 17, 1978 Assistant General Counsel Cinquegrana wrote that the agency would presume an institution wished its identity protected if it did not respond by April 15, 1978.[^20] +General Counsel [[Anthony A. Lapham]] wrote to each institution in August 1977. The letter stated that the institution "is included among the institutions at which some portion of this CIA-sponsored research appears to have been performed or with which one or more individuals performing some aspect of this research were affiliated," and that the agency "does not intend to reveal to the public the identities of any institutions that knowingly or unknowingly were involved in MKULTRA activities, or the names of individual researchers."[^22] On September 7, 1977 A. R. Cinquegrana of the Office of General Counsel sent the president of the [[New School for Social Research]], [[John R. Everett]], copies of the two MKULTRA subproject files relating to the school, with a letter stating that "the name of the School has been reinserted wherever it appears in the original documents."[^23] Lapham's letter of November 7, 1977 asked whether each institution had itself made its correspondence public, and wrote that "Where an institution has itself made public these relationships, there would seem to be little point in our continued refusal to confirm these facts."[^24] On March 17, 1978 Assistant General Counsel Cinquegrana wrote that the agency would presume an institution wished its identity protected if it did not respond by April 15, 1978.[^25] -The Senate Health Subcommittee invited the presidents of 20 institutions to testify on September 20 and 21, 1977. Only one accepted, and that president was not scheduled to testify because the others declined.[^21] +The Senate Health Subcommittee invited the presidents of 20 institutions to testify on September 20 and 21, 1977. Only one accepted, and that president was not scheduled to testify because the others declined.[^26] ### Notable Operations and Impact @@ -108,180 +112,185 @@ Following the Israeli bombing of the Iraqi nuclear reactor at [[Osirak bombing]] ### Involvement with BCCI -The CIA used the [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International|BCCI]] extensively, particularly in connection with covert U.S. operations in [[Central America]].[^22] Even before [[Oliver North]] established his network for illegal payments to the [[Contras]], the [[National Security Council]] used BCCI to channel money to them through [[Saudi Arabia]].[^22] The CIA maintained accounts in BCCI for covert operations.[^23] +The CIA used the [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International|BCCI]] extensively, particularly in connection with covert U.S. operations in [[Central America]].[^27] Even before [[Oliver North]] established his network for illegal payments to the [[Contras]], the [[National Security Council]] used BCCI to channel money to them through [[Saudi Arabia]].[^27] The CIA maintained accounts in BCCI for covert operations.[^28] -In 1986, the CIA issued a report stating that BCCI had owned [[First American Bank]] since 1982.[^24] In 1991, Acting CIA Director [[Richard J. Kerr]] confirmed that the agency had used BCCI to move money around the world.[^25] The CIA also maintained slush funds at BCCI branches, which were used for payoffs of Pakistani military officers and Afghan rebel leaders.[^26] +In 1986, the CIA issued a report stating that BCCI had owned [[First American Bank]] since 1982.[^29] In 1991, Acting CIA Director [[Richard J. Kerr]] confirmed that the agency had used BCCI to move money around the world.[^30] The CIA also maintained slush funds at BCCI branches, which were used for payoffs of Pakistani military officers and Afghan rebel leaders.[^31] -William J. Casey, former CIA Director, met secretly with [[Agha Hasan Abedi]] over a three-year period, discussing U.S. arms deals with Iran and the arming of Afghan resistance forces.[^27] The CIA began using BCCI in the bank's earliest days, as it was establishing itself in countries where American intelligence had few assets.[^27] +William J. Casey, former CIA Director, met secretly with [[Agha Hasan Abedi]] over a three-year period, discussing U.S. arms deals with Iran and the arming of Afghan resistance forces.[^32] The CIA began using BCCI in the bank's earliest days, as it was establishing itself in countries where American intelligence had few assets.[^32] -The [[BCCI Kerry-Brown Senate Report|Kerry-Brown Senate Report]] recorded that the agency produced several hundred reports on BCCI between 1979 and 1991, including special analyses in 1985, 1986 and 1989. The 1985 report, delivered in January 1985 to the Treasury's intelligence liaison, [[Douglas Mulholland]], who called it "dynamite," stated that BCCI secretly owned First American Bank; the 1986 report went to the [[State Department]], the Defense Intelligence Agency, the [[National Security Agency]], the National Security Council, Commerce and the Treasury, except for "the two agencies which would have had a statutory responsibility to begin investigations in response," the [[Federal Reserve Board|Federal Reserve]] and the [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]]. Acting Director Richard J. Kerr testified on October 25, 1991, that the agency's own use of BCCI had been "limited and routine," and acknowledged "extensive use of First American" for ordinary accounts. The agency denied any relationship between William J. Casey and Agha Hasan Abedi; the report recorded a contrary account from a BCCI official of meetings at the [[Madison Hotel]] in Washington, and the view of the agency's legal department that any such activity by Casey would have been undertaken "in his position as an advisor to the President, rather than in his position as Director of Central Intelligence," outside the agency's records.[^28] +The [[BCCI Kerry-Brown Senate Report|Kerry-Brown Senate Report]] recorded that the agency produced several hundred reports on BCCI between 1979 and 1991, including special analyses in 1985, 1986 and 1989. The 1985 report, delivered in January 1985 to the Treasury's intelligence liaison, [[Douglas Mulholland]], who called it "dynamite," stated that BCCI secretly owned First American Bank; the 1986 report went to the [[State Department]], the Defense Intelligence Agency, the [[National Security Agency]], the National Security Council, Commerce and the Treasury, except for "the two agencies which would have had a statutory responsibility to begin investigations in response," the [[Federal Reserve Board|Federal Reserve]] and the [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]]. Acting Director Richard J. Kerr testified on October 25, 1991, that the agency's own use of BCCI had been "limited and routine," and acknowledged "extensive use of First American" for ordinary accounts. The agency denied any relationship between William J. Casey and Agha Hasan Abedi; the report recorded a contrary account from a BCCI official of meetings at the [[Madison Hotel]] in Washington, and the view of the agency's legal department that any such activity by Casey would have been undertaken "in his position as an advisor to the President, rather than in his position as Director of Central Intelligence," outside the agency's records.[^33] ### Operations and Activities -The CIA sent the [[Inter-Services Intelligence|Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI)]] agency enormous quantities of cash to keep things moving through [[Pakistan]] during the [[Soviet-Afghan War]].[^29] The CIA was responsible for obtaining arms and ammunition for the [[Mujahideen]], but once delivered to [[Karachi]], the ISI was responsible for moving the equipment.[^29] +The CIA sent the [[Inter-Services Intelligence|Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI)]] agency enormous quantities of cash to keep things moving through [[Pakistan]] during the [[Soviet-Afghan War]].[^34] The CIA was responsible for obtaining arms and ammunition for the [[Mujahideen]], but once delivered to [[Karachi]], the ISI was responsible for moving the equipment.[^34] -In 1980, Jimmy Carter signed a presidential "finding" authorizing the CIA to aid the Afghan rebels in "harassment" of the Soviet occupying forces through secret supplies of light weapons and limited funds.[^30] This became the largest covert-action program since [[World War Two]].[^30] +In 1980, Jimmy Carter signed a presidential "finding" authorizing the CIA to aid the Afghan rebels in "harassment" of the Soviet occupying forces through secret supplies of light weapons and limited funds.[^35] This became the largest covert-action program since [[World War Two]].[^35] ### Deputy Director Bobby Ray Inman, 1981 to 1982 -President Ronald Reagan nominated [[Bobby Ray Inman]], then director of the [[NSA]], as deputy director of Central Intelligence in 1981.[^31] The White House announced his resignation on April 21, 1982.[^32] The White House biography gives March 1982 as the date he resigned.[^31] +President Ronald Reagan nominated [[Bobby Ray Inman]], then director of the [[NSA]], as deputy director of Central Intelligence in 1981.[^36] The White House announced his resignation on April 21, 1982.[^37] The White House biography gives March 1982 as the date he resigned.[^36] -The [[Philadelphia Inquirer]] reported that Inman had submitted his resignation during a "heated internal debate" over a secret counterintelligence study, and that he and other intelligence officials had since narrowed the study's scope. Its sources said two topics that Inman, Casey and FBI Director William Webster had feared might be included, the organization of U.S. counterintelligence agencies and deceptive Soviet missile telemetry, were not on the agenda approved by an interagency working group chaired by John Kohler of the intelligence community staff.[^33] A CBS radio commentary of April 22, 1982 described William J. Casey, the director, as "a professional politician."[^34] +The [[Philadelphia Inquirer]] reported that Inman had submitted his resignation during a "heated internal debate" over a secret counterintelligence study, and that he and other intelligence officials had since narrowed the study's scope. Its sources said two topics that Inman, Casey and FBI Director William Webster had feared might be included, the organization of U.S. counterintelligence agencies and deceptive Soviet missile telemetry, were not on the agenda approved by an interagency working group chaired by John Kohler of the intelligence community staff.[^38] A CBS radio commentary of April 22, 1982 described William J. Casey, the director, as "a professional politician."[^39] ### Senior Review Panel -The Senior Review Panel was an advisory body within the Director's area that reviewed draft national intelligence estimates and commented on them to the Director of Central Intelligence, the Chairman of the National Intelligence Council and the relevant National Intelligence Officer. In a 1991 letter printed in the Senate report on the nomination of [[Robert Gates]], Gates wrote that "The SRP's sole function was to review draft national estimates and offer comments as a group to the DCI, the Chairman/NIC and the relevant NIO."[^35] The Senate report records that [[James D. Theberge]] served on the panel from January 1986 until his death in January 1988, and that he had been hired on a three-days-per-week basis.[^35] Panel memoranda in the CIA reading room carry his name among the signers of comments dated September 1, September 8, September 24, October 22 and December 1, 1987, alongside [[William Leonhart]], B. McPherson and, on some, [[Richard L. Walker]] or [[Courtland D. Perkins]].[^36] +The Senior Review Panel was an advisory body within the Director's area that reviewed draft national intelligence estimates and commented on them to the Director of Central Intelligence, the Chairman of the National Intelligence Council and the relevant National Intelligence Officer. In a 1991 letter printed in the Senate report on the nomination of [[Robert Gates]], Gates wrote that "The SRP's sole function was to review draft national estimates and offer comments as a group to the DCI, the Chairman/NIC and the relevant NIO."[^40] The Senate report records that [[James D. Theberge]] served on the panel from January 1986 until his death in January 1988, and that he had been hired on a three-days-per-week basis.[^40] Panel memoranda in the CIA reading room carry his name among the signers of comments dated September 1, September 8, September 24, October 22 and December 1, 1987, alongside [[William Leonhart]], B. McPherson and, on some, [[Richard L. Walker]] or [[Courtland D. Perkins]].[^41] ### UAP Research and Secrecy -The CIA has a long and complex history with the [[Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena]] (UAP) issue. The agency has been a key player in the government's long-standing policy of secrecy and denial on the UAP topic. The Robertson Panel, a CIA-sponsored committee in 1953, recommended a policy of debunking UAP reports and using the mass media to ridicule the topic. This policy was highly effective in creating the stigma that has surrounded the UAP issue for decades.[^3] +The CIA has a long and complex history with the [[Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena]] (UAP) issue. The agency has been a key player in the government's long-standing policy of secrecy and denial on the UAP topic. The Robertson Panel, a CIA-sponsored committee in 1953, recommended a policy of debunking UAP reports and using the mass media to ridicule the topic. This policy was highly effective in creating the stigma that has surrounded the UAP issue for decades.[^8] -The CIA is also said to have operated a little-known "weird desk," which was responsible for investigating unusual medical issues, implants, and abductions related to UAP encounters. [[Dr. William Livingston]], who served as a medical advisor to the [[Advanced Aerospace Threat Identification Program]] (AATIP), is described as having presided over this desk.[^3] +The CIA is also said to have operated a little-known "weird desk," which was responsible for investigating unusual medical issues, implants, and abductions related to UAP encounters. [[Dr. William Livingston]], who served as a medical advisor to the [[Advanced Aerospace Threat Identification Program]] (AATIP), is described as having presided over this desk.[^8] -In recent years, the CIA has been more involved in the official UAP investigation. The agency was a participant in the [[UAP Task Force]] and is a member of the current [[All-domain Anomaly Resolution Office]] (AARO). However, the agency's long history of secrecy and obfuscation on the UAP topic has led to a great deal of skepticism about its willingness to be fully transparent.[^3] +In recent years, the CIA has been more involved in the official UAP investigation. The agency was a participant in the [[UAP Task Force]] and is a member of the current [[All-domain Anomaly Resolution Office]] (AARO). However, the agency's long history of secrecy and obfuscation on the UAP topic has led to a great deal of skepticism about its willingness to be fully transparent.[^8] ### Dark Alliance Investigation -The CIA's covert action division, the Directorate of Operations, created and managed the Contra project during the 1980s, with its Latin American Division headed by [[Dewey Clarridge]] from 1981 to 1984. The agency recruited Contra leaders including [[Enrique Bermudez|Enrique Bermúdez]] in 1980 and [[Eden Pastora]] in 1981. The CIA maintained station chiefs in [[Costa Rica]], notably [[Joseph Fernandez|Joseph Fernández]] from 1984 to 1986, who were integral to Oliver North's illegal Contra resupply operation.[^37] +The CIA's covert action division, the Directorate of Operations, created and managed the Contra project during the 1980s, with its Latin American Division headed by [[Dewey Clarridge]] from 1981 to 1984. The agency recruited Contra leaders including [[Enrique Bermudez|Enrique Bermúdez]] in 1980 and [[Eden Pastora]] in 1981. The CIA maintained station chiefs in [[Costa Rica]], notably [[Joseph Fernandez|Joseph Fernández]] from 1984 to 1986, who were integral to Oliver North's illegal Contra resupply operation.[^42] ### Contra Drug Trafficking and the Frogman Case -Federal law enforcement records and congressional testimony established that the CIA had reports of [[Cocaine]] being transshipped through Contra-linked facilities, including [[Ilopango Airbase]] in [[El Salvador]]. When defense attorneys in the [[Frogman Case]] obtained letters from CIA assets claiming seized drug money belonged to the Contras, the CIA's Costa Rican station cabled Langley that both men were assets of an organization that had "unwittingly received CIA support." CIA lawyer Lee Strickland flew to [[San Francisco]] and asked the prosecutor to ensure depositions did not go forward. The government returned $36,020 in seized drug money and a CIA cable declared: "CIA equities are fully protected."[^38] +Federal law enforcement records and congressional testimony established that the CIA had reports of [[Cocaine]] being transshipped through Contra-linked facilities, including [[Ilopango Airbase]] in [[El Salvador]]. When defense attorneys in the [[Frogman Case]] obtained letters from CIA assets claiming seized drug money belonged to the Contras, the CIA's Costa Rican station cabled Langley that both men were assets of an organization that had "unwittingly received CIA support." CIA lawyer Lee Strickland flew to [[San Francisco]] and asked the prosecutor to ensure depositions did not go forward. The government returned $36,020 in seized drug money and a CIA cable declared: "CIA equities are fully protected."[^43] -Webb wrote that the pseudonymous agent [[Ivan Gomez|Iván Gómez]], assigned to Costa Rica in 1982 as the CIA's liaison to the Contra armies, admitted during polygraph tests that he had laundered drug money, and that he was fired in 1989 for repeated polygraph failures concerning drug dealing.[^38] The CIA Inspector General's 1998 report stated that CIA records show a CIA independent contractor used the alias "Ivan Gomez" in Costa Rica in the 1980s, that CIA records place the contractor in the United States during April and May 1982, and that he denied meeting Carlos Cabezas.[^39] +Webb wrote that the pseudonymous agent [[Ivan Gomez|Iván Gómez]], assigned to Costa Rica in 1982 as the CIA's liaison to the Contra armies, admitted during polygraph tests that he had laundered drug money, and that he was fired in 1989 for repeated polygraph failures concerning drug dealing.[^43] The CIA Inspector General's 1998 report stated that CIA records show a CIA independent contractor used the alias "Ivan Gomez" in Costa Rica in the 1980s, that CIA records place the contractor in the United States during April and May 1982, and that he denied meeting Carlos Cabezas.[^44] ### The Secret 1982 Agreement with the Justice Department -In early 1982, CIA director William J. Casey and Attorney General [[William French Smith]] signed a formal Memorandum of Understanding that exempted the CIA from reporting drug crimes committed by its non-employees - a category including agents, assets, and non-staff employees. Drug offenses were specifically removed from the list of crimes the CIA was required to report. The agreement remained in effect from 1982 to 1995.[^40] +In early 1982, CIA director William J. Casey and Attorney General [[William French Smith]] signed a formal Memorandum of Understanding that exempted the CIA from reporting drug crimes committed by its non-employees - a category including agents, assets, and non-staff employees. Drug offenses were specifically removed from the list of crimes the CIA was required to report. The agreement remained in effect from 1982 to 1995.[^45] ### Ilopango Obstruction -When [[DEA]] agent [[Celerino Castillo]] began investigating Contra drug trafficking at Ilopango, the CIA intervened directly.[^41] On April 25, 1986 the El Salvador station replied to a Costa Rica station cable of April 23 about Carlos Amador. The reply asked: "Based on that information, [El Salvador] Station would appreciate [Costa Rica] Station advising [DEA] not to make any inquiries to anyone re: hangar no. 4 at Ilopango since only legitimate [CIA] supported operations were conducted from this facility." The same cable stated that station air operations had moved from Hangar 4 into Hangar 5, which the station still occupied.[^42] +When [[DEA]] agent [[Celerino Castillo]] began investigating Contra drug trafficking at Ilopango, the CIA intervened directly.[^46] On April 25, 1986 the El Salvador station replied to a Costa Rica station cable of April 23 about Carlos Amador. The reply asked: "Based on that information, [El Salvador] Station would appreciate [Costa Rica] Station advising [DEA] not to make any inquiries to anyone re: hangar no. 4 at Ilopango since only legitimate [CIA] supported operations were conducted from this facility." The same cable stated that station air operations had moved from Hangar 4 into Hangar 5, which the station still occupied.[^47] ### Inspector General Investigation -CIA Inspector General [[Fred Hitz]] testified before the [[House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence|House Intelligence Committee]] in March 1998 that the CIA "did not, in an expeditious or consistent fashion, cut off relationships with individuals supporting the Contra program who were alleged to have engaged in drug trafficking activity," including trafficking within the United States. His 400-page report documented CIA relationships with more than 50 suspected drug traffickers during the Contra war.[^40] +CIA Inspector General [[Fred Hitz]] testified before the [[House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence|House Intelligence Committee]] in March 1998 that the CIA "did not, in an expeditious or consistent fashion, cut off relationships with individuals supporting the Contra program who were alleged to have engaged in drug trafficking activity," including trafficking within the United States. His 400-page report documented CIA relationships with more than 50 suspected drug traffickers during the Contra war.[^45] ### Hughes Electronics and the Pandolfi Estimate, 1995 to 1998 -On July 19, 1995 an analyst from the agency's Directorate of Intelligence visited the Hughes facility in El Segundo, California, while researching a draft National Intelligence Estimate on the effect of technology transfers on China's military capabilities. The analyst was [[Ronald Pandolfi]].[^43] The analyst alleged that during a visit to the plant he came across information indicating that technical data had been improperly passed by Hughes to the PRC in connection with the 1995 failure investigation of a Long March 2E, and that the agency ignored his request for a formal report to headquarters.[^44] The Congressional Research Service reports that in April 1996 Pandolfi had reportedly prepared an estimate on how Hughes may have helped improve China's missile capabilities, and that the agency did not approve it.[^45] The New York Times reported that agency officials said the estimate was "not 'rigorous' enough" and that it was not distributed to other government officials.[^43] +On July 19, 1995 an analyst from the agency's Directorate of Intelligence visited the Hughes facility in El Segundo, California, while researching a draft National Intelligence Estimate on the effect of technology transfers on China's military capabilities. The analyst was [[Ronald Pandolfi]].[^48] The analyst alleged that during a visit to the plant he came across information indicating that technical data had been improperly passed by Hughes to the PRC in connection with the 1995 failure investigation of a Long March 2E, and that the agency ignored his request for a formal report to headquarters.[^49] The Congressional Research Service reports that in April 1996 Pandolfi had reportedly prepared an estimate on how Hughes may have helped improve China's missile capabilities, and that the agency did not approve it.[^50] The New York Times reported that agency officials said the estimate was "not 'rigorous' enough" and that it was not distributed to other government officials.[^48] -In September 1998 the agency told Hughes about Pandolfi's briefing to the Senate Intelligence Committee, according to an internal cable of September 23, 1998. The Cox Committee judged that the agency's notification was "ill-advised and an impediment" to the committee's investigation, and the agency said it had notified Hughes "as a courtesy."[^44] Bill Harlow, an agency spokesman, declined in December 1998 to discuss Pandolfi's experiences or the 1996 estimate "because of the investigations."[^43] The Congressional Research Service reports that Senator Richard Shelby said in September 2000 that the Justice Department had decided not to charge an unnamed CIA official with obstructing a Senate investigation.[^45] +In September 1998 the agency told Hughes about Pandolfi's briefing to the Senate Intelligence Committee, according to an internal cable of September 23, 1998. The Cox Committee judged that the agency's notification was "ill-advised and an impediment" to the committee's investigation, and the agency said it had notified Hughes "as a courtesy."[^49] Bill Harlow, an agency spokesman, declined in December 1998 to discuss Pandolfi's experiences or the 1996 estimate "because of the investigations."[^48] The Congressional Research Service reports that Senator Richard Shelby said in September 2000 that the Justice Department had decided not to charge an unnamed CIA official with obstructing a Senate investigation.[^50] ### Iran-Contra Indictments -Multiple CIA officials were indicted during the Iran-Contra investigation. Clarridge was indicted on seven counts of perjury. Fernández was indicted on four counts. [[Alan Fiers]] pleaded guilty to withholding information from Congress. All were pardoned by former CIA director [[George H.W. Bush]].[^37] +Multiple CIA officials were indicted during the Iran-Contra investigation. Clarridge was indicted on seven counts of perjury. Fernández was indicted on four counts. [[Alan Fiers]] pleaded guilty to withholding information from Congress. All were pardoned by former CIA director [[George H.W. Bush]].[^42] ### Interrogation videotapes and the 2004 to 2006 directorship -[[Porter Goss]], a former House intelligence chairman, was confirmed by the Senate 77 to 17 on September 22, 2004, was sworn in at the White House on September 24, 2004, and announced his resignation on May 5, 2006.[^46] His executive director, [[Kyle Foggo]], the agency's No. 3 official, resigned in May 2006 while the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] was examining whether he had improperly helped the defense contractor [[Brent Wilkes]] obtain large CIA contracts.[^47] Foggo pleaded guilty in 2008 to one count of defrauding the government and was sentenced on February 26, 2009 to 37 months.[^48] +[[Porter Goss]], a former House intelligence chairman, was confirmed by the Senate 77 to 17 on September 22, 2004, was sworn in at the White House on September 24, 2004, and announced his resignation on May 5, 2006.[^51] His executive director, [[Kyle Foggo]], the agency's No. 3 official, resigned in May 2006 while the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] was examining whether he had improperly helped the defense contractor [[Brent Wilkes]] obtain large CIA contracts.[^52] Foggo pleaded guilty in 2008 to one count of defrauding the government and was sentenced on February 26, 2009 to 37 months.[^53] -The [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]]'s 2014 study of the detention and interrogation program records that the CIA destroyed videotapes of the interrogations of [[Abu Zubaydah]] and [[Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri]] on November 9, 2005, the day after the Senate's November 8 vote against an amendment to establish an independent commission on detainee treatment.[^49] In an October 31, 2005 email, the CIA attorney [[John Rizzo]] wrote that he needed "to be the skunk at the party again."[^49] +The [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]]'s 2014 study of the detention and interrogation program records that the CIA destroyed videotapes of the interrogations of [[Abu Zubaydah]] and [[Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri]] on November 9, 2005, the day after the Senate's November 8 vote against an amendment to establish an independent commission on detainee treatment.[^54] In an October 31, 2005 email, the CIA attorney [[John Rizzo]] wrote that he needed "to be the skunk at the party again."[^54] -Emails released by the [[United States Department of Justice|Justice Department]] in April 2010, under a Freedom of Information Act request by the [[American Civil Liberties Union]], state that in November 2005 [[Jose A. Rodriguez Jr.|Jose Rodriguez]] told Goss and others he "felt it was extremely important to destroy the tapes and that if there was any heat, he would take it," and that Goss "laughed and said he'd be the one to take the heat." The same email states: "PG, however, agreed with the decision." NBC News reported that the email is an after-the-fact summary that does not prove Goss approved the destruction, that current and former intelligence officials have said he did not and was angry to find out, and that Rodriguez's lawyer disputed that.[^50] On November 9, 2010, the Justice Department said special prosecutor [[John Durham]] would not bring criminal charges over the destruction.[^51] +Emails released by the [[United States Department of Justice|Justice Department]] in April 2010, under a Freedom of Information Act request by the [[American Civil Liberties Union]], state that in November 2005 [[Jose A. Rodriguez Jr.|Jose Rodriguez]] told Goss and others he "felt it was extremely important to destroy the tapes and that if there was any heat, he would take it," and that Goss "laughed and said he'd be the one to take the heat." The same email states: "PG, however, agreed with the decision." NBC News reported that the email is an after-the-fact summary that does not prove Goss approved the destruction, that current and former intelligence officials have said he did not and was angry to find out, and that Rodriguez's lawyer disputed that.[^55] On November 9, 2010, the Justice Department said special prosecutor [[John Durham]] would not bring criminal charges over the destruction.[^56] ### Foreign Broadcast Information Service -The [[Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service]] became a unit of the agency in 1947. The [[War Department]] had sponsored the service from January 2, 1946, and the [[Director of Central Intelligence]] assumed control of it on July 31, 1946, before the [[National Security Act of 1947]] replaced the [[Central Intelligence Group]] with the agency.[^52] The administrative history of the service's record group lists the successor as "Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Central Intelligence Agency, 1947-."[^53] The service's 1969 history says it came to the agency "almost mature, trained and disciplined, and ready to plunge immediately into the tasks outlined for it."[^54] +The [[Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service]] became a unit of the agency in 1947. The [[War Department]] had sponsored the service from January 2, 1946, and the [[Director of Central Intelligence]] assumed control of it on July 31, 1946, before the [[National Security Act of 1947]] replaced the [[Central Intelligence Group]] with the agency.[^57] The administrative history of the service's record group lists the successor as "Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Central Intelligence Agency, 1947-."[^58] The service's 1969 history says it came to the agency "almost mature, trained and disciplined, and ready to plunge immediately into the tasks outlined for it."[^59] -Within the agency the service sat under the [[Assistant Director for Operations]]. In January 1947 the Assistant Director presented a propaganda analysis program to the PRC, approving the proposed program but excluding "interpretative analysis" from its scope, and the requested staff was twelve at $61,000 a year. [[Lawrence K. White]] was announced as deputy chief of the service on January 9, 1947.[^55] +Within the agency the service sat under the [[Assistant Director for Operations]]. In January 1947 the Assistant Director presented a propaganda analysis program to the PRC, approving the proposed program but excluding "interpretative analysis" from its scope, and the requested staff was twelve at $61,000 a year. [[Lawrence K. White]] was announced as deputy chief of the service on January 9, 1947.[^60] -The service's functions were folded into the [[Open Source Center]] in November 2005. The release announcing the center said the Director of the CIA would administer it on behalf of the DNI.[^56] +The service's functions were folded into the [[Open Source Center]] in November 2005. The release announcing the center said the Director of the CIA would administer it on behalf of the DNI.[^61] ### Psychological warfare liaison, 1946 to 1952 -In July 1946 the Central Intelligence Group's Central Planning Staff closed out its liaison with the Security Advisory Board of the [[Office of War Information]]. The memorandum designated a liaison officer to the Director, charged him with recommending when appropriate whether the board should be placed under the [[National Intelligence Authority]], and recorded that no further action by the Security Branch was required. The board was being replaced by a new Security Advisory Board under the [[State-War-Navy Coordinating Committee]].[^57] +In July 1946 the Central Intelligence Group's Central Planning Staff closed out its liaison with the Security Advisory Board of the [[Office of War Information]]. The memorandum designated a liaison officer to the Director, charged him with recommending when appropriate whether the board should be placed under the [[National Intelligence Authority]], and recorded that no further action by the Security Branch was required. The board was being replaced by a new Security Advisory Board under the [[State-War-Navy Coordinating Committee]].[^62] -In July 1947 the Assistant Director of the Office of Research and Evaluation complained to the chief of the Group's Interdepartmental Coordinating and Planning Staff that the arrangement for the Group's seat on the coordinating committee's subcommittee for psychological warfare was "not operable." The principal member came from the [[Office of Special Operations]] and the alternate from the Office of Research and Evaluation, and the memorandum was addressed to the Executive Director.[^58] +In July 1947 the Assistant Director of the Office of Research and Evaluation complained to the chief of the Group's Interdepartmental Coordinating and Planning Staff that the arrangement for the Group's seat on the coordinating committee's subcommittee for psychological warfare was "not operable." The principal member came from the [[Office of Special Operations]] and the alternate from the Office of Research and Evaluation, and the memorandum was addressed to the Executive Director.[^63] -On January 10, 1952 the eighth meeting of the [[Psychological Strategy Board]] was chaired by [[Walter Bedell Smith]], the Director of Central Intelligence. Its members were the Deputy Secretary of Defense, William C. Foster, and the Under Secretary of State, James E. Webb. [[Edward W. Barrett]], Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs, attended as a participant from the Department of State.[^59] +On January 10, 1952 the eighth meeting of the [[Psychological Strategy Board]] was chaired by Walter Bedell Smith, the Director of Central Intelligence. Its members were the Deputy Secretary of Defense, William C. Foster, and the Under Secretary of State, James E. Webb. [[Edward W. Barrett]], Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs, attended as a participant from the Department of State.[^64] -In a letter stamped January 30, 1951, [[Max Millikan]] wrote that he had "gone on leave from MIT to head up the Office of Research and Reports in this Agency."[^60] On October 29, 1951 he wrote to a prospective recruit that for "the last nine or ten months" he had been "trying to put together for General Smith an organization to do economic research."[^61] A memorandum of conversation dated January 22, 1951 lists "Dr. Max Millikan, Central Intelligence Agency" among the participants in a discussion with State Department officers of psychological intelligence, and records his concern that splitting that work among several organizations would produce the shortcomings of decentralization.[^62] A memorandum of March 6, 1951, addressed to the intelligence chiefs of the State Department, the Army, the Navy and the Air Force, was issued "For the Director of Central Intelligence" over Millikan's typed name as Assistant Director, Research and Reports.[^63] A letter he signed as Assistant Director on November 26, 1951 says that "Walt Rostow at the Center for International Studies has sought my assistance in finding him someone to help out with some research."[^64] A letter of March 3, 1952 addresses him as Special Consultant, Central Intelligence Agency.[^65] In an interview note of March 5, 1952 titled "Origin of PSB," a CIA historian recorded that Millikan "participated in a 'contract study,' State and MIT," which the note identifies as the "Troy Project," and that its study "had considerable to do with the creation of the PSB."[^66] +In a letter stamped January 30, 1951, [[Max Millikan]] wrote that he had "gone on leave from MIT to head up the Office of Research and Reports in this Agency."[^65] On October 29, 1951 he wrote to a prospective recruit that for "the last nine or ten months" he had been "trying to put together for General Smith an organization to do economic research."[^66] A memorandum of conversation dated January 22, 1951 lists "Dr. Max Millikan, Central Intelligence Agency" among the participants in a discussion with State Department officers of psychological intelligence, and records his concern that splitting that work among several organizations would produce the shortcomings of decentralization.[^67] A memorandum of March 6, 1951, addressed to the intelligence chiefs of the State Department, the Army, the Navy and the Air Force, was issued "For the Director of Central Intelligence" over Millikan's typed name as Assistant Director, Research and Reports.[^68] A letter he signed as Assistant Director on November 26, 1951 says that "Walt Rostow at the Center for International Studies has sought my assistance in finding him someone to help out with some research."[^69] A letter of March 3, 1952 addresses him as Special Consultant, Central Intelligence Agency.[^70] In an interview note of March 5, 1952 titled "Origin of PSB," a CIA historian recorded that Millikan "participated in a 'contract study,' State and MIT," which the note identifies as the "Troy Project," and that its study "had considerable to do with the creation of the PSB."[^71] -The agency's financing of the [[Center for International Studies]] at MIT is recorded in several places. [[Patrick Oster]] reported in the Washington Post of September 11, 1977 that the agency "secretly financed a research project at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in order to gain data on how to turn Russian scientists into CIA agents," as part of "Project MK-ULTRA," with a foundation as a "front," and that the researcher was affiliated with MIT's Center for International Studies, "which was set up in 1951 with CIA money and had as its first director Max F. Millikan, a former assistant director of the agency."[^67] Time reported on February 24, 1967 "directly and without masquerade" "$300,000 to finance M.I.T.'s topflight Center for International Studies," and that MIT then "terminated the contract 'for practical, not moral reasons.'"[^68] [[Andreas Lowenfeld]], of the State Department's Office of Legal Adviser, testifying before the Senate Judiciary Committee's Internal Security Subcommittee, said of the center in 1951 and 1952: "they had some kind of contract with the CIA," and, asked whether he knew it was a CIA operation, "I was never formally told, but it became apparent."[^69] +The agency's financing of the [[Center for International Studies]] at MIT is recorded in several places. [[Patrick Oster]] reported in the Washington Post of September 11, 1977 that the agency "secretly financed a research project at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in order to gain data on how to turn Russian scientists into CIA agents," as part of "Project MK-ULTRA," with a foundation as a "front," and that the researcher was affiliated with MIT's Center for International Studies, "which was set up in 1951 with CIA money and had as its first director Max F. Millikan, a former assistant director of the agency."[^72] Time reported on February 24, 1967 "directly and without masquerade" "$300,000 to finance M.I.T.'s topflight Center for International Studies," and that MIT then "terminated the contract 'for practical, not moral reasons.'"[^73] [[Andreas Lowenfeld]], of the State Department's Office of Legal Adviser, testifying before the Senate Judiciary Committee's Internal Security Subcommittee, said of the center in 1951 and 1952: "they had some kind of contract with the CIA," and, asked whether he knew it was a CIA operation, "I was never formally told, but it became apparent."[^74] -The third progress report on NSC 59/1 records that the CIA had been assigned a continuing study of balloons as propaganda carriers and "instructed to stockpile one thousand large-sized propaganda balloons of the best type presently available."[^70] The [[Project Troy]] report had placed balloon work inside political warfare, stating that "The balloon problem is a part of political warfare. It cannot be handled by a separate balloon shop."[^71] +The third progress report on NSC 59/1 records that the CIA had been assigned a continuing study of balloons as propaganda carriers and "instructed to stockpile one thousand large-sized propaganda balloons of the best type presently available."[^75] The [[Project Troy]] report had placed balloon work inside political warfare, stating that "The balloon problem is a part of political warfare. It cannot be handled by a separate balloon shop."[^76] -In February 1961 [[Allen Dulles|Allen W. Dulles]] wrote to Millikan, then director of the center, that he was "very deeply interested in the proposal in your letter of January 23," and expected to attend at least part of the meetings of May 18 to 21, 1961, at which the center would review its first ten years.[^72] +In February 1961 [[Allen Dulles|Allen W. Dulles]] wrote to Millikan, then director of the center, that he was "very deeply interested in the proposal in your letter of January 23," and expected to attend at least part of the meetings of May 18 to 21, 1961, at which the center would review its first ten years.[^77] -A CIA document titled "Principles Governing Budgetary Relationships Between CENIS and CIA" describes an annual contract under which research projects were "mutually agreed upon case by case" between the agency and the Center for International Studies, within an annual authorization of $500,000. The document is undated.[^73] A CIA list of recipients of Office of Research and Reports unclassified studies names Max Millikan, [[Walt Rostow]], [[Wilfred Malenbaum]], [[Everett Hagen]], [[Evsey Domar]] and [[Thomas Schelling]], each listed under the Center for International Studies.[^74] A CIA memorandum dated February 16, 1959, forwarding a [[National Review]] Bulletin item, carries the item's text stating that [[Richard Bissell]] and [[Robert Amory]] "lean ideologically on CIA's outriding auxiliary at MIT, the Center for International Studies," and that they have been influenced by the theories of "W. W. Rostow, director of the Center."[^75] The MIT President's report for 1962 to 1963 refers to "Max F. Millikan, Director of the Center for International Studies."[^76] A CIA Office of Legislative Counsel journal entry of March 3, 1967 records that "the Agency has Senator Fulbright's letter concerning a Center for International Studies, MIT, and is preparing a response."[^77] +A CIA document titled "Principles Governing Budgetary Relationships Between CENIS and CIA" describes an annual contract under which research projects were "mutually agreed upon case by case" between the agency and the Center for International Studies, within an annual authorization of $500,000. The document is undated.[^78] A CIA list of recipients of Office of Research and Reports unclassified studies names Max Millikan, [[Walt Rostow]], [[Wilfred Malenbaum]], [[Everett Hagen]], [[Evsey Domar]] and [[Thomas Schelling]], each listed under the Center for International Studies.[^79] A CIA memorandum dated February 16, 1959, forwarding a [[National Review]] Bulletin item, carries the item's text stating that [[Richard Bissell]] and [[Robert Amory]] "lean ideologically on CIA's outriding auxiliary at MIT, the Center for International Studies," and that they have been influenced by the theories of "W. W. Rostow, director of the Center."[^80] The MIT President's report for 1962 to 1963 refers to "Max F. Millikan, Director of the Center for International Studies."[^81] A CIA Office of Legislative Counsel journal entry of March 3, 1967 records that "the Agency has Senator Fulbright's letter concerning a Center for International Studies, MIT, and is preparing a response."[^82] ### Footnotes [^1]: Schnabel, Jim. *Remote Viewers*. Dell, 1997. [^2]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991. -[^3]: Elizondo, Luis. *Imminent*. William Morrow, 2024. -[^4]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979, Chapters 1-2. -[^5]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum to the Director of Central Intelligence, "Release of Trace Metal Detection Technique to Law Enforcement Officials," June 10, 1970, CIA-RDP83B00823R000600150029-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00823r000600150029-5 -[^6]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security, memorandum on the relationship with LEAA, CIA CREST document C01435053. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01435053 -[^7]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security, "Relationship with Police," CIA CREST document C01435041. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01435041 -[^8]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security memorandum, "Technology Transfer of ERDT to LEAA," November 10, 1971, CIA-RDP83B00823R000600150007-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00823r000600150007-9 -[^9]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security, memorandum for the Deputy Director of Security, "LEAA Request for Agency Support, Where's What," February 16, 1972, CIA-RDP83B00823R000200060130-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00823r000200060130-3 -[^10]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Research and Development, "Survey of ORD for Non-Foreign Intelligence Activities," May 9, 1973, CIA CREST document 01430445, entry on LEAA. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01430445 -[^11]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Legislative Counsel, summary of the Holtzman Amendment, CIA-RDP76M00527R000700190003-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp76m00527r000700190003-1 -[^12]: Crime Control Act of 1973, Pub. L. 93-83, sec. 508, 87 Stat. 211 (August 6, 1973). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-87/pdf/STATUTE-87-Pg197.pdf -[^13]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of General Counsel, memorandum for the record, "CIA Action on LEAA Requests," OGC 73-1954, October 15, 1973, CIA-RDP75-00793R000300160026-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00793r000300160026-2 -[^14]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Legislative Counsel memorandum, "Law Enforcement Assistance Administration Reauthorization Legislation," July 12, 1978, CIA-RDP81M00980R001800050017-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp81m00980r001800050017-0 -[^15]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum for the Review Staff, "Briefing of House Select Committee Staff re LEAA Relationships," November 14, 1975, CIA-RDP89B00552R000100110024-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp89b00552r000100110024-1 -[^16]: Turner, Stansfield, Director of Central Intelligence, letter to Senator Daniel K. Inouye, chairman, Select Committee on Intelligence, August 2, 1977, in New School digital object NS010102_000027, PDF pp. 96-103 (figures at p. 101; Privacy Act at p. 102). https://digital.archives.newschool.edu/index.php/Detail/objects/NS010102_000027 -[^17]: Lapham, Anthony A., General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, August 1977 (stamped August 15, 1977), in NS010102_000027, PDF pp. 94-95. -[^18]: Cinquegrana, A. R., Office of General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, September 7, 1977, in NS010102_000027, PDF p. 7. https://digital.archives.newschool.edu/index.php/Detail/objects/NS010102_000027 -[^19]: Lapham, Anthony A., General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, November 7, 1977, in NS010102_000027, PDF p. 3. -[^20]: Cinquegrana, A. R., Assistant General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, March 17, 1978, in NS010102_000027, PDF p. 1. -[^21]: Thomas, Jo, "Extent of University Work for C.I.A. Is Hard to Pin Down," New York Times, October 9, 1977, CIA reading room clipping CIA-RDP88-01315R000300390007-3. -[^22]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 126. -[^23]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 147. -[^24]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 12. -[^25]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 9. -[^26]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 149. -[^27]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 347. -[^28]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 11, "BCCI, the CIA and Foreign Intelligence." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm -[^29]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 334. -[^30]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 341. -[^31]: White House, Office of the Press Secretary, "Biography of Bobby Ray Inman," December 16, 1993. https://clintonwhitehouse6.archives.gov/1993/12/1993-12-16-biography-of-bobby-ray-inman.html -[^32]: George C. Wilson and George Gardner Jr., "Leaving for Private Industry: Inman Quitting," *The Washington Post*, April 22, 1982, CIA CREST copy CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230020-3. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230020-3 -[^33]: Michael J. Sniffen, *Philadelphia Inquirer*, April 1982, CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230017-7. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230017-7 -[^34]: CBS Radio network commentary, April 22, 1982, "Admiral Inman Resigns," CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230019-5. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230019-5 -[^35]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Intelligence, *Nomination of Robert M. Gates to be Director of Central Intelligence*, S. Exec. Rept. 102-19, 102d Cong., 1st sess., October 24, 1991, section 5, PDF pages 186 to 188. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/sites-default-filesations-10219.pdf -[^36]: CREST Senior Review Panel memoranda CIA-RDP93T00837R000400110005-3 (NIC-03024-87, September 1, 1987), CIA-RDP93T01222R000100010013-9 (NIC-03595-87, September 8, 1987), CIA-RDP92T00306R000300090020-0 (September 24, 1987), CIA-RDP93T00451R000300080006-5 (NIC-04228-87, October 22, 1987) and CIA-RDP93T00451R000400110014-1 (December 1, 1987). https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t00837r000400110005-3, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t01222r000100010013-9, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp92t00306r000300090020-0, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t00451r000300080006-5, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t00451r000400110014-1 -[^37]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Prologue and Chapter 5: "God, Fatherland and Freedom" -[^38]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Chapter 5: "God, Fatherland and Freedom" -[^39]: CIA Office of Inspector General, Report of Investigation Concerning Allegations of Connections Between CIA and the Contras in Cocaine Trafficking to the United States, Volume I, January 29, 1998, findings on Carlos Cabezas and "Ivan Gomez." https://irp.fas.org/cia/product/cocaine/findings2.html -[^40]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Epilogue: "The damage that has been done" -[^41]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Chapter 13: "The wrong kind of friends" -[^42]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Inspector General, Chapter X, part 2, section C.2 (Carlos Amador: CIA cables of April 23 and April 25, 1986). https://oig.justice.gov/special/9712/ch10p2.htm -[^43]: Gerth, Jeff, "Old Concerns Over Data Transfer to China Get New Attention," *The New York Times,* December 7, 1998, section A, p. 20, archived copy at https://web.archive.org/web/20201101033224/https://www.nytimes.com/1998/12/07/us/old-concerns-over-data-transfer-to-china-get-new-attention.html -[^44]: U.S. House of Representatives, Select Committee on U.S. National Security and Military/Commercial Concerns with the People's Republic of China, Report (Cox Report), H. Rept. 105-851, vol. II, ch. 5, pp. 55-57, and Appendix A, pp. 208-209, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CRPT-105hrpt851/pdf/CRPT-105hrpt851.pdf -[^45]: Congressional Research Service, "China: Possible Missile Technology Transfers under U.S. Satellite Export Policy: Actions and Chronology," report 98-485 F, entries for April 1996 and September 1998, with notes 76 and 77, https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/98-485F.html -[^46]: Congressional Record, Senate, September 22, 2004, Rollcall Vote No. 187 (yeas 77, nays 17). https://irp.fas.org/congress/2004_cr/goss092204.html ; "Porter Goss Sworn in As New CIA Director," PBS NewsHour, September 24, 2004 (sworn in by Andrew Card in the Oval Office). https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/government_programs-july-dec04-cia_09-24 ; Norris, "Goss Is Latest to Leave Bush Administration," NPR transcript, May 5, 2006. https://www.npr.org/transcripts/5387220 -[^47]: JURIST, "FBI probes CIA defense contracts after top official resigns," May 2006 (FBI probe of Foggo's possible help to ADCS). https://www.jurist.org/news/2006/05/fbi-probes-cia-defense-contracts-after ; Paul Blumenthal, "MSNBC: Foggo Gone," Sunlight Foundation, May 8, 2006 (resignation reported Monday). https://sunlightfoundation.com/2006/05/08/msnbc-foggo-gone/ -[^48]: NBC News, "Ex-CIA executive gets 37 months in prison," February 26, 2009 (one count of fraud, 27 counts dropped, Judge James Cacheris, 37 months as requested). https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna29413971 ; Associated Press, "CIA officer gets jail time for fraud," Philadelphia Inquirer, February 27, 2009. https://www.inquirer.com/philly/news/nation_world/20090227_CIA_officer_gets_jail_time_for_fraud.html -[^49]: Select Committee on Intelligence, United States Senate, Committee Study of the Central Intelligence Agency's Detention and Interrogation Program, S. Rept. 113-288 (December 2014), executive summary and findings, sections on the 2005 videotapes ("The CIA destroyed the CIA interrogation videotapes the following day"; Rizzo's October 31, 2005 email). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/CRPT-113srpt288.pdf -[^50]: NBC News, "Ex-CIA chief agreed with tape destruction," April 2010 (e-mails released by the Justice Department under an ACLU FOIA request; "PG, however, agreed with the decision"; the disputed account). https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna36589750 -[^51]: JURIST, "No charges to be filed in CIA videotape destruction case: DOJ," November 2010 (spokesman Matthew Miller on Durham's decision; Durham appointed 2008 by Attorney General Michael Mukasey). https://www.jurist.org/news/2010/11/no-charges-to-be-filed-in-cia-videotape-destruction-case/ -[^52]: Joseph E. Roop, "Foreign Broadcast Information Service. History. Part I: 1941-1947" (Central Intelligence Agency, approved for release April 1969), pp. 279, 299-300 and 303. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. -[^53]: National Archives and Records Administration, Guide to Federal Records, Record Group 262, administrative history. https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/262.html. -[^54]: Roop, Part I, p. 2. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. -[^55]: Roop, Part II (CIA Directorate of Intelligence, August 1970), pp. 2 and 151-152. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690. -[^56]: Office of the Director of National Intelligence, "ODNI Announces Establishment of Open Source Center," News Release No. 6-05, November 8, 2005. https://irp.fas.org/news/2005/11/odni110805.html. -[^57]: Central Intelligence Group, Central Planning Staff, memorandum "Liquidation of Security Advisory Board, OWI (C.I.G. Liaison with New Security Advisory Board under SWNCC)," July 22, 1946. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP78-04007A000300040024-9. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp78-04007a000300040024-9 -[^58]: Central Intelligence Group, Chief, ICAPS, to the Executive Director, memorandum "CIG Membership on SWNCC Subcommittee for Psychological Warfare," July 21, 1947. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP84-00022R000400100046-0. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp84-00022r000400100046-0 -[^59]: Central Intelligence Agency, Minutes of the Eighth Meeting of the Psychological Strategy Board (PSB M-8), January 10, 1952, membership and other participants. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP80-01065A000500100033-6. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp80-01065a000500100033-6 -[^60]: Max F. Millikan, letter stamped January 30, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003100150032-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003100150032-1 -[^61]: Max F. Millikan, letter of October 29, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP79-01157A000200020002-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp79-01157a000200020002-2 -[^62]: CIA, memorandum of conversation, "Psychological Intelligence," January 22, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003500180026-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003500180026-1 -[^63]: CIA, "Report of Intelligence Project Initiations, February 1951," memorandum of March 6, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP60-00213A000200030008-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp60-00213a000200030008-3 -[^64]: Max F. Millikan, letter of November 26, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003000200096-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003000200096-6 -[^65]: Stuart A. Rice, Assistant Director for Statistical Standards, Bureau of the Budget, letter to Max F. Millikan, March 3, 1952, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00662R000300120004-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00662r000300120004-5 -[^66]: A. B. Darling, note of interview with Max Millikan, "Origin of PSB," March 5, 1952, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP83-00036R000400050039-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83-00036r000400050039-0 -[^67]: Patrick Oster, "CIA Envisioned Soviet Scientists as U.S. Agents," Chicago Sun-Times, reprinted in the Washington Post, September 11, 1977, p. A-9, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP88-01315R000400460003-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01315r000400460003-8 -[^68]: Time, February 24, 1967, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP84-00161R000400210135-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84-00161r000400210135-8 -[^69]: U.S. Senate, Committee on the Judiciary, Internal Security Subcommittee, extracts from hearings (Part 3) on State Department security and passport regulations, testimony of Andreas F. Lowenfeld, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00149R000400560007-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00149r000400560007-3 -[^70]: FRUS, The Intelligence Community, 1950-1955, Document 57 (third progress report on NSC 59/1), paragraph 12. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d57 -[^71]: CIA reading room document CIA-RDP79S01011A000900030019-8, excerpt of the Project Troy report to the Secretary of State, February 1, 1951 (balloon chapter). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP79S01011A000900030019-8 -[^72]: Allen W. Dulles, letter to Max F. Millikan, February 27, 1961, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80B01676R003500160028-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003500160028-9 -[^73]: CIA, "Principles Governing Budgetary Relationships Between CENIS and CIA" (undated; released 2000), CIA reading room document CIA-RDP67-00059A000200090016-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp67-00059a000200090016-2 -[^74]: CIA, "Recipients for ORR Unclassified Studies" (undated list), CIA reading room document CIA-RDP63-00314R000100180007-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp63-00314r000100180007-7 -[^75]: CIA memorandum from the Assistant to the Director, February 16, 1959, forwarding a National Review Bulletin item, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00001R000100260064-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000100260064-9 -[^76]: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, President's Report Issue for the year ending July 1, 1963, p. 165, MIT Libraries, DSpace. https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/160055 -[^77]: CIA Office of Legislative Counsel, journal entry, "Friday, 3 March 1967," CIA reading room document CIA-RDP69B00369R000200020044-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp69b00369r000200020044-4 +[^3]: Associated Press item, "F. Trubee Davison to Join CIA in Personnel Post," CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP78-04718A000500180115-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp78-04718a000500180115-2 +[^4]: Memorandum from F. Trubee Davison, September 11, 1951, on CIA Official Routing Slip, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80R01731R003100090067-0. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003100090067-0 +[^5]: CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP84-00780R003200020017-9 (May 15, 1969), CIA-RDP84-00780R003200020006-1 (1968) and CIA-RDP80-00536A000300070001-5 (Midcareer Course No. 32, 1972). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-00536a000300070001-5 +[^6]: "Bush's Boy's Club: Skull and Bones," *Covert Action Information Bulletin*, no. 33 (Winter 1990), pp. 20 to 22. https://archive.org/details/CAIB33 +[^7]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^8]: Elizondo, Luis. *Imminent*. William Morrow, 2024. +[^9]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979, Chapters 1-2. +[^10]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum to the Director of Central Intelligence, "Release of Trace Metal Detection Technique to Law Enforcement Officials," June 10, 1970, CIA-RDP83B00823R000600150029-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00823r000600150029-5 +[^11]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security, memorandum on the relationship with LEAA, CIA CREST document C01435053. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01435053 +[^12]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security, "Relationship with Police," CIA CREST document C01435041. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01435041 +[^13]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security memorandum, "Technology Transfer of ERDT to LEAA," November 10, 1971, CIA-RDP83B00823R000600150007-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00823r000600150007-9 +[^14]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security, memorandum for the Deputy Director of Security, "LEAA Request for Agency Support, Where's What," February 16, 1972, CIA-RDP83B00823R000200060130-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00823r000200060130-3 +[^15]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Research and Development, "Survey of ORD for Non-Foreign Intelligence Activities," May 9, 1973, CIA CREST document 01430445, entry on LEAA. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01430445 +[^16]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Legislative Counsel, summary of the Holtzman Amendment, CIA-RDP76M00527R000700190003-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp76m00527r000700190003-1 +[^17]: Crime Control Act of 1973, Pub. L. 93-83, sec. 508, 87 Stat. 211 (August 6, 1973). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-87/pdf/STATUTE-87-Pg197.pdf +[^18]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of General Counsel, memorandum for the record, "CIA Action on LEAA Requests," OGC 73-1954, October 15, 1973, CIA-RDP75-00793R000300160026-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00793r000300160026-2 +[^19]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Legislative Counsel memorandum, "Law Enforcement Assistance Administration Reauthorization Legislation," July 12, 1978, CIA-RDP81M00980R001800050017-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp81m00980r001800050017-0 +[^20]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum for the Review Staff, "Briefing of House Select Committee Staff re LEAA Relationships," November 14, 1975, CIA-RDP89B00552R000100110024-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp89b00552r000100110024-1 +[^21]: Turner, Stansfield, Director of Central Intelligence, letter to Senator Daniel K. Inouye, chairman, Select Committee on Intelligence, August 2, 1977, in New School digital object NS010102_000027, PDF pp. 96-103 (figures at p. 101; Privacy Act at p. 102). https://digital.archives.newschool.edu/index.php/Detail/objects/NS010102_000027 +[^22]: Lapham, Anthony A., General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, August 1977 (stamped August 15, 1977), in NS010102_000027, PDF pp. 94-95. +[^23]: Cinquegrana, A. R., Office of General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, September 7, 1977, in NS010102_000027, PDF p. 7. https://digital.archives.newschool.edu/index.php/Detail/objects/NS010102_000027 +[^24]: Lapham, Anthony A., General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, November 7, 1977, in NS010102_000027, PDF p. 3. +[^25]: Cinquegrana, A. R., Assistant General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, March 17, 1978, in NS010102_000027, PDF p. 1. +[^26]: Thomas, Jo, "Extent of University Work for C.I.A. Is Hard to Pin Down," New York Times, October 9, 1977, CIA reading room clipping CIA-RDP88-01315R000300390007-3. +[^27]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 126. +[^28]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 147. +[^29]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 12. +[^30]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 9. +[^31]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 149. +[^32]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 347. +[^33]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 11, "BCCI, the CIA and Foreign Intelligence." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm +[^34]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 334. +[^35]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 341. +[^36]: White House, Office of the Press Secretary, "Biography of Bobby Ray Inman," December 16, 1993. https://clintonwhitehouse6.archives.gov/1993/12/1993-12-16-biography-of-bobby-ray-inman.html +[^37]: George C. Wilson and George Gardner Jr., "Leaving for Private Industry: Inman Quitting," *The Washington Post*, April 22, 1982, CIA CREST copy CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230020-3. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230020-3 +[^38]: Michael J. Sniffen, *Philadelphia Inquirer*, April 1982, CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230017-7. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230017-7 +[^39]: CBS Radio network commentary, April 22, 1982, "Admiral Inman Resigns," CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230019-5. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230019-5 +[^40]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Intelligence, *Nomination of Robert M. Gates to be Director of Central Intelligence*, S. Exec. Rept. 102-19, 102d Cong., 1st sess., October 24, 1991, section 5, PDF pages 186 to 188. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/sites-default-filesations-10219.pdf +[^41]: CREST Senior Review Panel memoranda CIA-RDP93T00837R000400110005-3 (NIC-03024-87, September 1, 1987), CIA-RDP93T01222R000100010013-9 (NIC-03595-87, September 8, 1987), CIA-RDP92T00306R000300090020-0 (September 24, 1987), CIA-RDP93T00451R000300080006-5 (NIC-04228-87, October 22, 1987) and CIA-RDP93T00451R000400110014-1 (December 1, 1987). https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t00837r000400110005-3, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t01222r000100010013-9, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp92t00306r000300090020-0, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t00451r000300080006-5, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t00451r000400110014-1 +[^42]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Prologue and Chapter 5: "God, Fatherland and Freedom" +[^43]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Chapter 5: "God, Fatherland and Freedom" +[^44]: CIA Office of Inspector General, Report of Investigation Concerning Allegations of Connections Between CIA and the Contras in Cocaine Trafficking to the United States, Volume I, January 29, 1998, findings on Carlos Cabezas and "Ivan Gomez." https://irp.fas.org/cia/product/cocaine/findings2.html +[^45]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Epilogue: "The damage that has been done" +[^46]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Chapter 13: "The wrong kind of friends" +[^47]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Inspector General, Chapter X, part 2, section C.2 (Carlos Amador: CIA cables of April 23 and April 25, 1986). https://oig.justice.gov/special/9712/ch10p2.htm +[^48]: Gerth, Jeff, "Old Concerns Over Data Transfer to China Get New Attention," *The New York Times,* December 7, 1998, section A, p. 20, archived copy at https://web.archive.org/web/20201101033224/https://www.nytimes.com/1998/12/07/us/old-concerns-over-data-transfer-to-china-get-new-attention.html +[^49]: U.S. House of Representatives, Select Committee on U.S. National Security and Military/Commercial Concerns with the People's Republic of China, Report (Cox Report), H. Rept. 105-851, vol. II, ch. 5, pp. 55-57, and Appendix A, pp. 208-209, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CRPT-105hrpt851/pdf/CRPT-105hrpt851.pdf +[^50]: Congressional Research Service, "China: Possible Missile Technology Transfers under U.S. Satellite Export Policy: Actions and Chronology," report 98-485 F, entries for April 1996 and September 1998, with notes 76 and 77, https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/98-485F.html +[^51]: Congressional Record, Senate, September 22, 2004, Rollcall Vote No. 187 (yeas 77, nays 17). https://irp.fas.org/congress/2004_cr/goss092204.html ; "Porter Goss Sworn in As New CIA Director," PBS NewsHour, September 24, 2004 (sworn in by Andrew Card in the Oval Office). https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/government_programs-july-dec04-cia_09-24 ; Norris, "Goss Is Latest to Leave Bush Administration," NPR transcript, May 5, 2006. https://www.npr.org/transcripts/5387220 +[^52]: JURIST, "FBI probes CIA defense contracts after top official resigns," May 2006 (FBI probe of Foggo's possible help to ADCS). https://www.jurist.org/news/2006/05/fbi-probes-cia-defense-contracts-after ; Paul Blumenthal, "MSNBC: Foggo Gone," Sunlight Foundation, May 8, 2006 (resignation reported Monday). https://sunlightfoundation.com/2006/05/08/msnbc-foggo-gone/ +[^53]: NBC News, "Ex-CIA executive gets 37 months in prison," February 26, 2009 (one count of fraud, 27 counts dropped, Judge James Cacheris, 37 months as requested). https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna29413971 ; Associated Press, "CIA officer gets jail time for fraud," Philadelphia Inquirer, February 27, 2009. https://www.inquirer.com/philly/news/nation_world/20090227_CIA_officer_gets_jail_time_for_fraud.html +[^54]: Select Committee on Intelligence, United States Senate, Committee Study of the Central Intelligence Agency's Detention and Interrogation Program, S. Rept. 113-288 (December 2014), executive summary and findings, sections on the 2005 videotapes ("The CIA destroyed the CIA interrogation videotapes the following day"; Rizzo's October 31, 2005 email). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/CRPT-113srpt288.pdf +[^55]: NBC News, "Ex-CIA chief agreed with tape destruction," April 2010 (e-mails released by the Justice Department under an ACLU FOIA request; "PG, however, agreed with the decision"; the disputed account). https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna36589750 +[^56]: JURIST, "No charges to be filed in CIA videotape destruction case: DOJ," November 2010 (spokesman Matthew Miller on Durham's decision; Durham appointed 2008 by Attorney General Michael Mukasey). https://www.jurist.org/news/2010/11/no-charges-to-be-filed-in-cia-videotape-destruction-case/ +[^57]: Joseph E. Roop, "Foreign Broadcast Information Service. History. Part I: 1941-1947" (Central Intelligence Agency, approved for release April 1969), pp. 279, 299-300 and 303. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. +[^58]: National Archives and Records Administration, Guide to Federal Records, Record Group 262, administrative history. https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/262.html. +[^59]: Roop, Part I, p. 2. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. +[^60]: Roop, Part II (CIA Directorate of Intelligence, August 1970), pp. 2 and 151-152. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690. +[^61]: Office of the Director of National Intelligence, "ODNI Announces Establishment of Open Source Center," News Release No. 6-05, November 8, 2005. https://irp.fas.org/news/2005/11/odni110805.html. +[^62]: Central Intelligence Group, Central Planning Staff, memorandum "Liquidation of Security Advisory Board, OWI (C.I.G. Liaison with New Security Advisory Board under SWNCC)," July 22, 1946. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP78-04007A000300040024-9. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp78-04007a000300040024-9 +[^63]: Central Intelligence Group, Chief, ICAPS, to the Executive Director, memorandum "CIG Membership on SWNCC Subcommittee for Psychological Warfare," July 21, 1947. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP84-00022R000400100046-0. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp84-00022r000400100046-0 +[^64]: Central Intelligence Agency, Minutes of the Eighth Meeting of the Psychological Strategy Board (PSB M-8), January 10, 1952, membership and other participants. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP80-01065A000500100033-6. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp80-01065a000500100033-6 +[^65]: Max F. Millikan, letter stamped January 30, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003100150032-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003100150032-1 +[^66]: Max F. Millikan, letter of October 29, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP79-01157A000200020002-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp79-01157a000200020002-2 +[^67]: CIA, memorandum of conversation, "Psychological Intelligence," January 22, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003500180026-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003500180026-1 +[^68]: CIA, "Report of Intelligence Project Initiations, February 1951," memorandum of March 6, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP60-00213A000200030008-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp60-00213a000200030008-3 +[^69]: Max F. Millikan, letter of November 26, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003000200096-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003000200096-6 +[^70]: Stuart A. Rice, Assistant Director for Statistical Standards, Bureau of the Budget, letter to Max F. Millikan, March 3, 1952, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00662R000300120004-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00662r000300120004-5 +[^71]: A. B. Darling, note of interview with Max Millikan, "Origin of PSB," March 5, 1952, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP83-00036R000400050039-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83-00036r000400050039-0 +[^72]: Patrick Oster, "CIA Envisioned Soviet Scientists as U.S. Agents," Chicago Sun-Times, reprinted in the Washington Post, September 11, 1977, p. A-9, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP88-01315R000400460003-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01315r000400460003-8 +[^73]: Time, February 24, 1967, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP84-00161R000400210135-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84-00161r000400210135-8 +[^74]: U.S. Senate, Committee on the Judiciary, Internal Security Subcommittee, extracts from hearings (Part 3) on State Department security and passport regulations, testimony of Andreas F. Lowenfeld, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00149R000400560007-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00149r000400560007-3 +[^75]: FRUS, The Intelligence Community, 1950-1955, Document 57 (third progress report on NSC 59/1), paragraph 12. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d57 +[^76]: CIA reading room document CIA-RDP79S01011A000900030019-8, excerpt of the Project Troy report to the Secretary of State, February 1, 1951 (balloon chapter). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP79S01011A000900030019-8 +[^77]: Allen W. Dulles, letter to Max F. Millikan, February 27, 1961, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80B01676R003500160028-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003500160028-9 +[^78]: CIA, "Principles Governing Budgetary Relationships Between CENIS and CIA" (undated; released 2000), CIA reading room document CIA-RDP67-00059A000200090016-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp67-00059a000200090016-2 +[^79]: CIA, "Recipients for ORR Unclassified Studies" (undated list), CIA reading room document CIA-RDP63-00314R000100180007-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp63-00314r000100180007-7 +[^80]: CIA memorandum from the Assistant to the Director, February 16, 1959, forwarding a National Review Bulletin item, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00001R000100260064-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000100260064-9 +[^81]: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, President's Report Issue for the year ending July 1, 1963, p. 165, MIT Libraries, DSpace. https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/160055 +[^82]: CIA Office of Legislative Counsel, journal entry, "Friday, 3 March 1967," CIA reading room document CIA-RDP69B00369R000200020044-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp69b00369r000200020044-4 diff --git a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service.md b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service.md index ff0d8494..96c923c3 100644 --- a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service.md +++ b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service.md @@ -29,7 +29,7 @@ summary: "The Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service was the United States gover start: 1941-02-26 location: "Washington, D.C." created: 2026-10-09 -updated: 2026-10-09 +updated: 2026-10-26 relations: - type: head_of with: "[[Lloyd Free]]" @@ -37,81 +37,81 @@ relations: role: "Director" start: 1941-06-16 end: 1942-04 - fn: 21 + fn: 22 - type: head_of with: "[[Robert D. Leigh]]" reverse: true role: "Director" start: 1942-07 end: 1944-07 - fn: 23 + fn: 24 - type: head_of with: "[[Charles S. Hyneman]]" reverse: true role: "Director" start: 1944-07-27 end: 1945-08-07 - fn: 69 + fn: 70 - type: head_of with: "[[Russell M. Shepherd]]" reverse: true role: "Director, fourth director of the service" start: 1945-08-07 end: 1947-09-29 - fn: 90 + fn: 91 - type: employed_by with: "[[Harold N. Graves Jr.]]" reverse: true role: "Senior Administrative Officer; acting director in 1942" start: 1941-03 end: 1943-12 - fn: 65 + fn: 66 - type: employed_by with: "[[Goodwin Watson]]" reverse: true role: "Head of the Analysis Section, later Analysis Division" start: 1941-11-17 end: 1943-11 - fn: 24 + fn: 25 - type: employed_by with: "[[Hans Speier]]" reverse: true role: "Senior Political Analyst and head of the Central European Section; acting chief analyst after Watson's departure" start: 1942-03 end: 1944-05-22 - fn: 33 + fn: 34 - type: employed_by with: "[[Nathan Leites]]" reverse: true role: "Analyst; sent to London with Watson in September 1942" start: 1942-09 - fn: 30 + fn: 31 - type: employed_by with: "[[Alexander L. George]]" reverse: true role: "Analyst in the Central European Section" - fn: 36 + fn: 37 - type: employed_by with: "[[William E. Dodd Jr.]]" reverse: true role: "Editor, hired December 1941" start: 1941-12 end: 1943-11 - fn: 42 + fn: 43 - type: investigated with: "[[House Un-American Activities Committee]]" reverse: true role: "Named Goodwin Watson, Frederick L. Schuman and William E. Dodd Jr. in 1941 and 1943 attacks" start: 1941-11-18 end: 1943-04-21 - fn: 41 + fn: 42 - type: investigated with: "[[Cox Committee]]" reverse: true role: "Special House committee to investigate the Federal Communications Commission" start: 1943-01 end: 1945-01-02 - fn: 59 + fn: 60 - type: owned with: "[[Federal Communications Commission]]" reverse: true @@ -125,24 +125,24 @@ relations: role: "Sponsoring agency after the War Department" start: 1946-07-31 end: 1947-09 - fn: 80 + fn: 81 - type: owned with: "[[Central Intelligence Agency]]" reverse: true role: "Component of the agency, under the Assistant Director for Operations" start: 1947 - fn: 81 + fn: 82 - type: head_of with: "[[Theodore Newcomb]]" reverse: true role: "Director of the Analysis Division, succeeding Watson, per the National Archives records description" start: 1943-11 - fn: 27 + fn: 28 - type: partner_of with: "[[Office of War Information]]" role: "Analysis Division used exclusively for OWI radio reporting under the April 19, 1943 agreement" start: 1943-04-19 - fn: 32 + fn: 33 --- The Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service (FBIS) was the United States government's service for monitoring, translating and analyzing foreign radio broadcasts. It began as the Foreign Broadcast Monitoring Service inside the [[Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) in 1941, passed to the [[War Department]] at the end of 1945, came under the [[Central Intelligence Group]] in 1946 and the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] in 1947, and in November 2005 was named as the base of expertise for the [[Open Source Center]].[^1] @@ -151,109 +151,109 @@ The Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service (FBIS) was the United States governme The proposal for a government monitoring service reached the [[Defense Communications Board]] in January 1941. The [[Princeton Listening Center]] had been running since November 1939, and the [[State Department]] official [[Breckinridge Long]], the Board's State Department representative, introduced the resolution calling on the FCC to establish a monitoring service.[^2] [[Helena Huntington Smith]] wrote in *Collier's* in January 1943 that the service's "godfather was Breckinridge Long of the State Department," who took the idea to FCC chairman [[James L. Fly]]. Stephen C. Mercado, who serves in the Directorate of Science and Technology, uses the same word for Long and quotes his letter of September 10, 1941 congratulating Fly.[^3] The FCC's annual report for fiscal 1941 states that the service was created in cooperation with the Defense Communications Board.[^4] -On February 25, 1941 [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] allotted $150,000 from his emergency fund, and the money was transferred the next day, so that the birth date of the Foreign Broadcast Monitoring Service (FBMS) was February 26, 1941.[^5] Daniel Bessner's dissertation on [[Hans Speier]] dates the origin to a late 1940 meeting between Roosevelt and [[Henry L. Stimson]], then Secretary of War, at which Stimson suggested a unit to monitor foreign propaganda aimed at the United States.[^6] A 1969 CIA history of the service has the idea raised in an informal late 1940 discussion between the Secretary of State and Roosevelt.[^7] The FCC's Radio Intelligence Division had been running the National Defense Activities that recorded foreign broadcasts, and the FCC was "the only group staffed and equipped" for the monitoring work.[^8] +On February 25, 1941 [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] allotted $150,000 from his emergency fund, and the money was transferred the next day, so that the birth date of the Foreign Broadcast Monitoring Service (FBMS) was February 26, 1941.[^5] Daniel Bessner's dissertation on [[Hans Speier]] dates the origin to a late 1940 meeting between Roosevelt and [[Henry L. Stimson]], then Secretary of War, at which Stimson suggested a unit to monitor foreign propaganda aimed at the United States.[^6] A 1969 CIA history of the service has the idea raised in an informal late 1940 discussion between the Secretary of State and Roosevelt; the Secretary of State in late 1940 was [[Cordell Hull]].[^7][^8] The FCC's Radio Intelligence Division had been running the National Defense Activities that recorded foreign broadcasts, and the FCC was "the only group staffed and equipped" for the monitoring work.[^9] -The service began in an old garage at 316 F Street Northeast in Washington, and in April 1942 moved to 1424 K Street NW, where four floors were assigned to it.[^9] +The service began in an old garage at 316 F Street Northeast in Washington, and in April 1942 moved to 1424 K Street NW, where four floors were assigned to it.[^10] -[[Robert D. Leigh]], who took over as director on July 15, 1942, recommended renaming the service the Broadcast Intelligence Service, on the reasoning that the name was "less unwieldy and more accurately reflected the duties of the organization." The FCC insisted on keeping the word "foreign," and on July 26, 1942 the FBMS became the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service.[^10] An FCC order of July 28, 1942 is recorded for the same change.[^11] The name was raised again in 1945. In a memorandum for the FCC of March 2, 1945, [[Charles S. Hyneman]] proposed a change to end confusion with the FBI, which reported trouble from misdirected mail, and suggested International Broadcast Intelligence Service, Broadcast Intelligence Service, Foreign Broadcast Reporting Service and Broadcast Reporting Service, explaining that "intelligence" and "reporting" described its operations better than "monitoring." The service's newsletter, *On the Beam*, reported on April 9, 1945 that the FCC had approved the change to Foreign Broadcast Reporting Service. The next month the newsletter announced that the FCC had reversed itself, and the new name was never formally adopted.[^12] +[[Robert D. Leigh]], who took over as director on July 15, 1942, recommended renaming the service the Broadcast Intelligence Service, on the reasoning that the name was "less unwieldy and more accurately reflected the duties of the organization." The FCC insisted on keeping the word "foreign," and on July 26, 1942 the FBMS became the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service.[^11] An FCC order of July 28, 1942 is recorded for the same change.[^12] The name was raised again in 1945. In a memorandum for the FCC of March 2, 1945, [[Charles S. Hyneman]] proposed a change to end confusion with the FBI, which reported trouble from misdirected mail, and suggested International Broadcast Intelligence Service, Broadcast Intelligence Service, Foreign Broadcast Reporting Service and Broadcast Reporting Service, explaining that "intelligence" and "reporting" described its operations better than "monitoring." The service's newsletter, *On the Beam*, reported on April 9, 1945 that the FCC had approved the change to Foreign Broadcast Reporting Service. The next month the newsletter announced that the FCC had reversed itself, and the new name was never formally adopted.[^13] ### Princeton and the Rockefeller Foundation -The Princeton Listening Center was the most visible American monitoring effort before the government service existed. [[Harold N. Graves Jr.]], who had directed it, wrote in 1941 that "The Center was established in November 1939 by the School of Public and International Affairs of Princeton University, to study international broadcasting in wartime."[^13] The center's finding aid states that the project was financed by the [[Rockefeller Foundation]], was conceived by the Princeton professor [[John B. Whitton]], and was administered by Graves with a committee that included [[Hadley Cantril]], William S. Carpenter, [[Harwood L. Childs]], O. W. Riegel and the engineer Brunson S. McCutchen, with quarters in a house on Alexander Street. It records the center's transcripts from November 1939 through May 1941, "until the operations of the Center were taken over by the Federal Communications Commission," and says the center continued its work until June 1941.[^14] Mercado likewise gives the center's funding as coming from the Rockefeller Foundation and its absorption by the service as occurring in June.[^15] Bessner's dissertation states that the service "had absorbed the Rockefeller-funded Princeton Listening Center, whose director, Harold Graves, became the FBIS's Senior Administrative Officer."[^16] Graves was hired to help organize the service as "the young man who had been acting as director of the Princeton Listening Post since its inception." Staff who had worked at Princeton and joined the new service included [[Jerome S. Bruner]], [[Bennett Ferrell Ellington]], [[Arthur Mathieu]] and [[Arthur Cantor]].[^17] +The Princeton Listening Center was the most visible American monitoring effort before the government service existed. [[Harold N. Graves Jr.]], who had directed it, wrote in 1941 that "The Center was established in November 1939 by the School of Public and International Affairs of Princeton University, to study international broadcasting in wartime."[^14] The center's finding aid states that the project was financed by the [[Rockefeller Foundation]], was conceived by the Princeton professor [[John B. Whitton]], and was administered by Graves with a committee that included [[Hadley Cantril]], William S. Carpenter, [[Harwood L. Childs]], O. W. Riegel and the engineer Brunson S. McCutchen, with quarters in a house on Alexander Street. It records the center's transcripts from November 1939 through May 1941, "until the operations of the Center were taken over by the Federal Communications Commission," and says the center continued its work until June 1941.[^15] Mercado likewise gives the center's funding as coming from the Rockefeller Foundation and its absorption by the service as occurring in June.[^16] Bessner's dissertation states that the service "had absorbed the Rockefeller-funded Princeton Listening Center, whose director, Harold Graves, became the FBIS's Senior Administrative Officer."[^17] Graves was hired to help organize the service as "the young man who had been acting as director of the Princeton Listening Post since its inception." Staff who had worked at Princeton and joined the new service included [[Jerome S. Bruner]], [[Bennett Ferrell Ellington]], [[Arthur Mathieu]] and [[Arthur Cantor]].[^18] -The Rockefeller connection was also a public relations problem. A [[Baltimore Sun]] article described the service as a joint project of the FCC, Princeton and the Rockefeller Foundation, and as the "brain child" of Whitton. Graves wrote a memo for [[Lloyd Free]] on July 9, 1941 about his "embarrassment" at inaccuracies in the article, among them the "dragging in" of the Princeton Listening Post and the joint-project claim. On September 8, 1941 a syndicated column by [[Eleanor Ragsdale]] said the service was "inaugurated and pushed through by Chairman Fly of FCC."[^18] +The Rockefeller connection was also a public relations problem. A [[Baltimore Sun]] article described the service as a joint project of the FCC, Princeton and the Rockefeller Foundation, and as the "brain child" of Whitton. Graves wrote a memo for [[Lloyd Free]] on July 9, 1941 about his "embarrassment" at inaccuracies in the article, among them the "dragging in" of the Princeton Listening Post and the joint-project claim. On September 8, 1941 a syndicated column by [[Eleanor Ragsdale]] said the service was "inaugurated and pushed through by Chairman Fly of FCC."[^19] -On July 29, 1942 [[Nelson Rockefeller]], the [[Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs]], wrote to FCC chairman James L. Fly that his office had "been able thus far to make good use of the material provided by teletype from the Kingsville Field Bureau," and asked for a larger volume of verbatim transcripts for hemispheric propaganda work.[^19] +On July 29, 1942 [[Nelson Rockefeller]], the [[Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs]], wrote to FCC chairman James L. Fly that his office had "been able thus far to make good use of the material provided by teletype from the Kingsville Field Bureau," and asked for a larger volume of verbatim transcripts for hemispheric propaganda work.[^20] -An administrative memorandum to FBIS officers dated January 22, 1943 recorded an exchange of correspondence with Rockefeller, the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs, under which FBIS would have with his office the same relationship it had with OWI. Under the same memorandum, FBIS material reached non-government users only through one of two OWI officials, one of them [[Leo Rosten]], deputy director in charge of enemy sources, and requests for Latin American material went to officers of the Coordinator's office.[^20] +An administrative memorandum to FBIS officers dated January 22, 1943 recorded an exchange of correspondence with Rockefeller, the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs, under which FBIS would have with his office the same relationship it had with OWI. Under the same memorandum, FBIS material reached non-government users only through one of two OWI officials, one of them [[Leo Rosten]], deputy director in charge of enemy sources, and requests for Latin American material went to officers of the Coordinator's office.[^21] ### Directors and the Analysis Division -Free, editor of the [[Public Opinion Quarterly]] and a Princeton man, assumed office as director on June 16, 1941. He established contacts with the [[BBC]] very soon after taking office, with the idea of attaching a staff to the BBC, and in December 1941 he was still in London when the Pearl Harbor attack came.[^21] Harold Graves and Tom Grandin took over the Washington office on December 7, 1941.[^22] Free resigned in April 1942 to accept an Army commission, and he was military attaché at the United States Embassy in Switzerland for most of the war years.[^23] +Free, editor of the [[Public Opinion Quarterly]] and a Princeton man, assumed office as director on June 16, 1941. He established contacts with the [[BBC]] very soon after taking office, with the idea of attaching a staff to the BBC, and in December 1941 he was still in London when the Pearl Harbor attack came.[^22] Harold Graves and Tom Grandin took over the Washington office on December 7, 1941.[^23] Free resigned in April 1942 to accept an Army commission, and he was military attaché at the United States Embassy in Switzerland for most of the war years.[^24] -Leigh, for fourteen years president of [[Bennington College]], took over on July 15, 1942, with Graves as acting director in the intervening months. He was paid $1,000 more than the $8,000 Free had received, and the appropriation bill had to be amended to legalize the salary.[^23] +Leigh, for fourteen years president of [[Bennington College]], took over on July 15, 1942, with Graves as acting director in the intervening months. He was paid $1,000 more than the $8,000 Free had received, and the appropriation bill had to be amended to legalize the salary.[^24] -The Analysis Division was the service's research core. In November 1941 [[Goodwin Watson]] of [[Columbia University]] entered on duty to head the Analysis Section, which Free and Graves had recruited him to lead.[^24] Watson testified in April 1943 that his connection with the commission dated from November 15, 1941.[^25] The section became the Analysis Division in 1942.[^26] A records description of the service gives November 15, 1941 as the start of Watson's directorship of the division and November 15, 1943 as the day [[Theodore Newcomb]] succeeded him; Newcomb was second only to Watson in the division by February 1943.[^27][^28] In March 1942 the table of organization of the Analysis Division called for 37 analysts, assistants and trainees, with 17 of the positions filled, and the planned table was never reached.[^29] In September 1942 Watson and [[Nathan Leites]] went to London to set up an analysis operation working with the [[Office of War Information]], and a two-man staff remained there through the war.[^30] The division's German Section began the weekly *Central European Radio Analysis* in January 1943, and the *Radio Report on the Far East* first appeared on August 24, 1942.[^31] +The Analysis Division was the service's research core. In November 1941 [[Goodwin Watson]] of [[Columbia University]] entered on duty to head the Analysis Section, which Free and Graves had recruited him to lead.[^25] Watson testified in April 1943 that his connection with the commission dated from November 15, 1941.[^26] The section became the Analysis Division in 1942.[^27] A records description of the service gives November 15, 1941 as the start of Watson's directorship of the division and November 15, 1943 as the day [[Theodore Newcomb]] succeeded him; Newcomb was second only to Watson in the division by February 1943.[^28][^29] In March 1942 the table of organization of the Analysis Division called for 37 analysts, assistants and trainees, with 17 of the positions filled, and the planned table was never reached.[^30] In September 1942 Watson and [[Nathan Leites]] went to London to set up an analysis operation working with the [[Office of War Information]], and a two-man staff remained there through the war.[^31] The division's German Section began the weekly *Central European Radio Analysis* in January 1943, and the *Radio Report on the Far East* first appeared on August 24, 1942.[^32] -On April 19, 1943 Robert D. Leigh announced an agreement under which the Bureau of Research and Analysis of the Overseas Operations Branch of the Office of War Information would use the Analysis Division exclusively for reporting and analyzing radio broadcasts, and the division would move to the Social Security Building. On May 13 Harold N. Graves Jr. said that the division would "function as an integral part of OWI" while continuing its other duties. In a letter to Leigh of June 18, 1943, [[Eugene Katz]], identified as the head of the OWI division, wrote that relations with the Analysis Division were "so friendly" that nothing warranted a formal reappraisal of the agreement.[^32] +On April 19, 1943 Robert D. Leigh announced an agreement under which the Bureau of Research and Analysis of the Overseas Operations Branch of the Office of War Information would use the Analysis Division exclusively for reporting and analyzing radio broadcasts, and the division would move to the Social Security Building. On May 13 Harold N. Graves Jr. said that the division would "function as an integral part of OWI" while continuing its other duties. In a letter to Leigh of June 18, 1943, [[Eugene Katz]], identified as the head of the OWI division, wrote that relations with the Analysis Division were "so friendly" that nothing warranted a formal reappraisal of the agreement.[^33] ### Hans Speier and the Central European Section -Hans Speier reached the service through the research project he ran with [[Ernst Kris]] at the [[New School for Social Research]]. Speier sent the project's first report a week after the attack on Pearl Harbor, and Free and Watson read his work "with the greatest of interest." In February 1942 Watson offered him a post as Senior Political Analyst and head of the Central European Section, and the Analysis Division was the "heart" of the service.[^33] Graves had written to Speier and Kris on December 23, 1941 about their reports and encouraged them to send more, and Free wrote to Speier on January 31, 1942.[^34] The Civil Service Commission informed Speier on May 26, 1942, two months after he entered the division, that he had been rated eligible for the post of Senior Political Analyst.[^35] +Hans Speier reached the service through the research project he ran with [[Ernst Kris]] at the [[New School for Social Research]]. Speier sent the project's first report a week after the attack on Pearl Harbor, and Free and Watson read his work "with the greatest of interest." In February 1942 Watson offered him a post as Senior Political Analyst and head of the Central European Section, and the Analysis Division was the "heart" of the service.[^34] Graves had written to Speier and Kris on December 23, 1941 about their reports and encouraged them to send more, and Free wrote to Speier on January 31, 1942.[^35] The Civil Service Commission informed Speier on May 26, 1942, two months after he entered the division, that he had been rated eligible for the post of Senior Political Analyst.[^36] -Speier brought colleagues into the division, including [[Alexander L. George]], Leites and the psychologist Henry Kellermann.[^36] Watson praised Speier's "extraordinarily good job of analysis," and wrote that he knew "nobody in the United States whom I would willingly trade for him."[^36] Watson left under pressure from opponents of the New Deal, after which Speier became acting chief analyst with thirty people under him.[^37] Bessner cites a letter from Newcomb to Colonel S. A. Greenwell of December 4, 1943 for Speier's replacing Watson as Acting Chief Analyst.[^38] Speier moved from the service to the Office of War Information on May 22, 1944, under [[Wallace Carroll]].[^39] +Speier brought colleagues into the division, including [[Alexander L. George]], Leites and the psychologist Henry Kellermann.[^37] Watson praised Speier's "extraordinarily good job of analysis," and wrote that he knew "nobody in the United States whom I would willingly trade for him."[^37] Watson left under pressure from opponents of the New Deal, after which Speier became acting chief analyst with thirty people under him.[^38] Bessner cites a letter from Newcomb to Colonel S. A. Greenwell of December 4, 1943 for Speier's replacing Watson as Acting Chief Analyst.[^39] Speier moved from the service to the Office of War Information on May 22, 1944, under [[Wallace Carroll]].[^40] -On October 29, 1943 Speier wrote a memorandum predicting much of Hitler's speech for the anniversary of the Beer Hall Putsch. Seventeen of twenty-five predictions were correct. Speier gave the memo to an OWI contact, [[Mark Abrams]], who brought it to the attention of Representative [[Joseph Martin]] and Senator [[Alexander Wiley]], and they used most of its content in a radio broadcast.[^40] +On October 29, 1943 Speier wrote a memorandum predicting much of Hitler's speech for the anniversary of the Beer Hall Putsch. Seventeen of twenty-five predictions were correct. Speier gave the memo to an OWI contact, [[Mark Abrams]], who brought it to the attention of Representative [[Joseph Martin]] and Senator [[Alexander Wiley]], and they used most of its content in a radio broadcast.[^41] ### The Dies Committee and the 1943 Rider -The first congressional attack came from [[Martin Dies]], chairman of the [[House Un-American Activities Committee]]. On November 18, 1941, the day after Watson entered on duty, Dies wrote to James L. Fly expressing "deep concern" over the selection of a man who had written in favor of the Soviet Union, and naming thirteen organizations he called communist fronts.[^41] Fly replied that Watson belonged to only one of them, Consumers Union. The House passed an appropriation bill with a rider denying salary to the named employees, including [[Frederick L. Schuman]] and [[William E. Dodd Jr.]], who had been hired as an editor in December 1941. The Senate Appropriations Committee deleted the rider, and Watson testified before that committee on February 4, 1942.[^42] +The first congressional attack came from [[Martin Dies]], chairman of the [[House Un-American Activities Committee]]. On November 18, 1941, the day after Watson entered on duty, Dies wrote to James L. Fly expressing "deep concern" over the selection of a man who had written in favor of the Soviet Union, and naming thirteen organizations he called communist fronts.[^42] Fly replied that Watson belonged to only one of them, Consumers Union. The House passed an appropriation bill with a rider denying salary to the named employees, including [[Frederick L. Schuman]] and [[William E. Dodd Jr.]], who had been hired as an editor in December 1941. The Senate Appropriations Committee deleted the rider, and Watson testified before that committee on February 4, 1942.[^43] -In a House speech on February 1, 1943, Dies listed 39 "communists" holding government posts, with Dodd, Watson and Schuman at the head of the list.[^43] On February 4, 1943 [[Joe Hendricks]] of Florida gave notice of an amendment to the House Post Office and Treasury appropriations bill forbidding payment of the thirty-nine named employees, among them Watson, Schuman and Dodd. On February 5 the House, in the Committee of the Whole, rejected it, 130 to 137 on a division and 146 to 153 on tellers, and then agreed, 163 to 111 on tellers, to a separate amendment naming only [[William Pickens]].[^44] Dies accused the employees of "un-American beliefs."[^45] Mercado writes that Dies may have been provoked by FBIS reports that his statements were being praised in Nazi Germany, and that Vice President [[Henry A. Wallace]] had said Dies's statements "might as well come from Goebbels himself as far as their practical effect is concerned."[^46] [[House Resolution 105]], adopted February 9, 1943, authorized the Committee on Appropriations, "acting through a special subcommittee," to examine charges of unfitness based on association with organizations whose aims were subversive. The subcommittee was Congressman [[John H. Kerr]] (chairman), [[Albert Gore Sr.|Albert Gore]], [[Clinton P. Anderson]], [[D. Lane Powers]] and [[Frank B. Keefe]], with Major Matt H. Allen as counsel, and Watson's testimony opens at its sitting of Friday, April 9, 1943.[^47] On March 31, 1943 Dies told the House that a subcommittee headed by [[Joe Starnes]] of Alabama, whom he called his "distinguished and able colleague," would make a report.[^48] On April 7 Kerr told the House that the committee had been asking for six weeks for the full evidence and had been able to get it for only "3 of the 38 men who are charged in this resolution." Dies replied, "You have evidence on 10."[^49] The subcommittee took testimony in executive session from the three men. Its report of April 21, 1943 found Watson and Dodd unfit for government employment and stated that it "does not find sufficient evidence to support a recommendation of unfitness" as to Schuman; Roop's history names the three men found guilty of "subversive activity" and "unfit" as Dodd, Watson and the Interior Department official [[Robert Morss Lovett]]. The subcommittee's hearings and H. Rept. No. 448 of May 14, 1943 were printed by the Government Printing Office.[^50][^51] The subcommittee was later accused of having prepared its final report before the men were called to testify.[^50] +In a House speech on February 1, 1943, Dies listed 39 "communists" holding government posts, with Dodd, Watson and Schuman at the head of the list.[^44] On February 4, 1943 [[Joe Hendricks]] of Florida gave notice of an amendment to the House Post Office and Treasury appropriations bill forbidding payment of the thirty-nine named employees, among them Watson, Schuman and Dodd. On February 5 the House, in the Committee of the Whole, rejected it, 130 to 137 on a division and 146 to 153 on tellers, and then agreed, 163 to 111 on tellers, to a separate amendment naming only [[William Pickens]].[^45] Dies accused the employees of "un-American beliefs."[^46] Mercado writes that Dies may have been provoked by FBIS reports that his statements were being praised in Nazi Germany, and that Vice President [[Henry A. Wallace]] had said Dies's statements "might as well come from Goebbels himself as far as their practical effect is concerned."[^47] [[House Resolution 105]], adopted February 9, 1943, authorized the Committee on Appropriations, "acting through a special subcommittee," to examine charges of unfitness based on association with organizations whose aims were subversive. The subcommittee was Congressman [[John H. Kerr]] (chairman), [[Albert Gore Sr.|Albert Gore]], [[Clinton P. Anderson]], [[D. Lane Powers]] and [[Frank B. Keefe]], with Major Matt H. Allen as counsel, and Watson's testimony opens at its sitting of Friday, April 9, 1943.[^48] On March 31, 1943 Dies told the House that a subcommittee headed by [[Joe Starnes]] of Alabama, whom he called his "distinguished and able colleague," would make a report.[^49] On April 7 Kerr told the House that the committee had been asking for six weeks for the full evidence and had been able to get it for only "3 of the 38 men who are charged in this resolution." Dies replied, "You have evidence on 10."[^50] The subcommittee took testimony in executive session from the three men. Its report of April 21, 1943 found Watson and Dodd unfit for government employment and stated that it "does not find sufficient evidence to support a recommendation of unfitness" as to Schuman; Roop's history names the three men found guilty of "subversive activity" and "unfit" as Dodd, Watson and the Interior Department official [[Robert Morss Lovett]]. The subcommittee's hearings and H. Rept. No. 448 of May 14, 1943 were printed by the Government Printing Office.[^51][^52] The subcommittee was later accused of having prepared its final report before the men were called to testify.[^51] -On May 17, 1943 Frank B. Keefe of Wisconsin read excerpts of Watson's testimony to the House. Keefe quoted Watson's 1934 article "The Great Choice, Reformation or Transformation," and said that, asked about it, Watson answered "I just do not believe in that any more. That was the effusion of an academic mind written in 1934," and "I disavow myself of that sort of philosophy."[^52] The printed hearings record Watson's answer on the article as that it was an academic idea that had appealed to him at the time and that "I do not now believe it to be true," and record Keefe's question whether he had ever published an article disavowing it, to which Watson answered "That is true" (that he had not).[^53] Kerr told the House on May 18 that the employees "have no property rights in their offices" and that "One Congress can take away their rights given them by another."[^54] +On May 17, 1943 Frank B. Keefe of Wisconsin read excerpts of Watson's testimony to the House. Keefe quoted Watson's 1934 article "The Great Choice, Reformation or Transformation," and said that, asked about it, Watson answered "I just do not believe in that any more. That was the effusion of an academic mind written in 1934," and "I disavow myself of that sort of philosophy."[^53] The printed hearings record Watson's answer on the article as that it was an academic idea that had appealed to him at the time and that "I do not now believe it to be true," and record Keefe's question whether he had ever published an article disavowing it, to which Watson answered "That is true" (that he had not).[^54] Kerr told the House on May 18 that the employees "have no property rights in their offices" and that "One Congress can take away their rights given them by another."[^55] -The House approved the rider a second time. The Senate rejected it four times before accepting it, 48 to 32. The President signed the appropriation bill while denouncing the rider and declaring it unconstitutional.[^55] The rider became Section 304 of the Urgent Deficiency Appropriation Act of 1943, which halted pay for the three men after November 15, 1943 unless the President reappointed them with the advice and consent of the Senate.[^56] +The House approved the rider a second time. The Senate rejected it four times before accepting it, 48 to 32. The President signed the appropriation bill while denouncing the rider and declaring it unconstitutional.[^56] The rider became Section 304 of the Urgent Deficiency Appropriation Act of 1943, which halted pay for the three men after November 15, 1943 unless the President reappointed them with the advice and consent of the Senate.[^57] -In [[United States v. Lovett]], decided June 3, 1946, the Supreme Court held Section 304 unconstitutional. Justice Black wrote that "legislative trials and punishments were too dangerous to liberty to exist in the nation of free men they envisioned." He continued: "And so they proscribed bills of attainder. Section 304 is one."[^57] The judgment ran for Lovett, Watson and Dodd. +In [[United States v. Lovett]], decided June 3, 1946, the Supreme Court held Section 304 unconstitutional. Justice Black wrote that "legislative trials and punishments were too dangerous to liberty to exist in the nation of free men they envisioned." He continued: "And so they proscribed bills of attainder. Section 304 is one."[^58] The judgment ran for Lovett, Watson and Dodd. -Other staff were drawn into the same attacks. [[Peter Rhodes]], [[Audrey Menefee]] and Speier were attacked on the House floor. Fly wrote to [[J. Edgar Hoover]] on April 28, 1942 that one informant had described the New York school where Speier taught as a "refuge for exiled European communists," and a counter-report called it "a nest of pro-Nazi activities."[^58] +Other staff were drawn into the same attacks. [[Peter Rhodes]], [[Audrey Menefee]] and Speier were attacked on the House floor. Fly wrote to [[J. Edgar Hoover]] on April 28, 1942 that one informant had described the New York school where Speier taught as a "refuge for exiled European communists," and a counter-report called it "a nest of pro-Nazi activities."[^59] ### The Cox Committee -The most serious confrontation with Congress came from [[Eugene Cox]], a Georgia congressman who had been an enthusiastic supporter of the FCC. The FCC referred a case about an Atlanta radio station's representation to the Justice Department and urged prosecution of Cox, and Cox retaliated by seeking an investigation of the FCC. In early 1943 the House named him chairman of a special committee, and he appointed [[Eugene Garey]], a New York lawyer, as chief investigator.[^59] +The most serious confrontation with Congress came from [[Eugene Cox]], a Georgia congressman who had been an enthusiastic supporter of the FCC. The FCC referred a case about an Atlanta radio station's representation to the Justice Department and urged prosecution of Cox, and Cox retaliated by seeking an investigation of the FCC. In early 1943 the House named him chairman of a special committee, and he appointed [[Eugene Garey]], a New York lawyer, as chief investigator.[^60] -The committee requisitioned the FBIS personnel files. Leigh reported, in his January 1945 article in [[Harper's Magazine]], that the truck took away "three-fourths of FBIS personnel files," which had no duplicates, and held them for more than a year.[^60] Ten FBIS employees were subpoenaed at 8:00 a.m. after working all night, and Leigh called the questioning that followed "Star Chamber testimony."[^60] +The committee requisitioned the FBIS personnel files. Leigh reported, in his January 1945 article in [[Harper's Magazine]], that the truck took away "three-fourths of FBIS personnel files," which had no duplicates, and held them for more than a year.[^61] Ten FBIS employees were subpoenaed at 8:00 a.m. after working all night, and Leigh called the questioning that followed "Star Chamber testimony."[^61] -The committee found one actual irregularity at FBIS, a night clerical shift in which a sick employee drew pay while coworkers marked her present. It publicized that case and also charged that FBIS was "masquerading" as a war agency, that it used "intelligence" in its name to misrepresent its operations, and that it was no more than a "glorified news gathering agency."[^61] Counsel for the committee also charged that Leigh changed the name of the service to "dignify its activities."[^62] +The committee found one actual irregularity at FBIS, a night clerical shift in which a sick employee drew pay while coworkers marked her present. It publicized that case and also charged that FBIS was "masquerading" as a war agency, that it used "intelligence" in its name to misrepresent its operations, and that it was no more than a "glorified news gathering agency."[^62] Counsel for the committee also charged that Leigh changed the name of the service to "dignify its activities."[^63] -The Washington Post ran a series of sixteen editorials critical of the committee. An FCC member who usually opposed Fly's views and was sympathetic to Cox agreed to petition the Speaker to dismiss him as chairman, and Cox resigned after an emotional speech. [[Clarence F. Lea]] of California took over the committee, fired Garey, and promised the FCC a fair hearing.[^63] +The Washington Post ran a series of sixteen editorials critical of the committee. An FCC member who usually opposed Fly's views and was sympathetic to Cox agreed to petition the Speaker to dismiss him as chairman, and Cox resigned after an emotional speech. [[Clarence F. Lea]] of California took over the committee, fired Garey, and promised the FCC a fair hearing.[^64] -FBIS officials testified in May 1944. Leigh made the principal statement, [[Stewart Hensley]] described the wire service, [[Ellis G. Porter]] described the publications, and Harold N. Graves Jr., who had left FBIS and was a naval officer by then, described the Analysis Division. The Lea committee's final report of January 2, 1945 cleared FBIS of wrongdoing and stated that it was rendering an efficient and worthwhile service. Two members, [[Louis E. Miller]] of Missouri and [[Richard B. Wigglesworth]] of Massachusetts, filed a dissenting minority report expressing "grave doubt" as to the value of FBIS materials. In his own minority report Wigglesworth, a member of the Appropriations Committee, charged that Fly and Leigh had violated the law by soliciting aid in congressional appropriations for the FCC, and stated that it was "but fair to assume" that the select committee's inquiry was "largely responsible" for a two-million-dollar cut in the FCC's appropriation for fiscal 1945.[^64] The majority report, quoted in *On the Beam* on February 3, 1945, stated that "Obviously the United States could not conduct an intelligent program for counteracting enemy propaganda without a reasonably accurate knowledge of that propaganda."[^65] +FBIS officials testified in May 1944. Leigh made the principal statement, [[Stewart Hensley]] described the wire service, [[Ellis G. Porter]] described the publications, and Harold N. Graves Jr., who had left FBIS and was a naval officer by then, described the Analysis Division. The Lea committee's final report of January 2, 1945 cleared FBIS of wrongdoing and stated that it was rendering an efficient and worthwhile service. Two members, [[Louis E. Miller]] of Missouri and [[Richard B. Wigglesworth]] of Massachusetts, filed a dissenting minority report expressing "grave doubt" as to the value of FBIS materials. In his own minority report Wigglesworth, a member of the Appropriations Committee, charged that Fly and Leigh had violated the law by soliciting aid in congressional appropriations for the FCC, and stated that it was "but fair to assume" that the select committee's inquiry was "largely responsible" for a two-million-dollar cut in the FCC's appropriation for fiscal 1945.[^65] The majority report, quoted in *On the Beam* on February 3, 1945, stated that "Obviously the United States could not conduct an intelligent program for counteracting enemy propaganda without a reasonably accurate knowledge of that propaganda."[^66] ### Budget Cuts and Leigh's Departure -The budget was the next weapon. A newsletter by Leigh on February 15, 1944 reported that the House Appropriations Committee would eliminate 30 percent of the service's budget from July onward, and noted that the committee had given no reason. Leigh wrote that "[t]he obvious conclusion is that the proposed cut relates to the opposition on the part of Representative Cox to FCC for reasons well known and [to] the Dodd-Watson case." Leigh resigned that summer.[^66] The House Appropriations Committee recommended a cut of 25 percent for each FCC department. The Senate Appropriations Committee, under Senator [[Kenneth McKellar]], demanded proof of the service's value, and then recommended a cut of $500,000 that both houses approved.[^67] +The budget was the next weapon. A newsletter by Leigh on February 15, 1944 reported that the House Appropriations Committee would eliminate 30 percent of the service's budget from July onward, and noted that the committee had given no reason. Leigh wrote that "[t]he obvious conclusion is that the proposed cut relates to the opposition on the part of Representative Cox to FCC for reasons well known and [to] the Dodd-Watson case." Leigh resigned that summer.[^67] The House Appropriations Committee recommended a cut of 25 percent for each FCC department. The Senate Appropriations Committee, under Senator [[Kenneth McKellar]], demanded proof of the service's value, and then recommended a cut of $500,000 that both houses approved.[^68] -Leigh wrote in *Harper's* that no congressional statement gave the real reason for the cut, and that Fly was ruled out of order when he tried to state it to the Senate Appropriations Committee. He quoted a member of Congress, speaking privately: "Surely it was a punitive cut. Larry Fly has been defiant of Congress for a long time. He has been openly defiant. Now his chickens have come home to roost." The CIA's history of the service describes the cut as made to punish Fly and the FCC for defiance of Congress and for Fly's request that the Department of Justice prosecute Cox.[^68] Hyneman became director on July 27, 1944 and served until August 7, 1945, when [[Russell M. Shepherd]] became the fourth director.[^69] +Leigh wrote in *Harper's* that no congressional statement gave the real reason for the cut, and that Fly was ruled out of order when he tried to state it to the Senate Appropriations Committee. He quoted a member of Congress, speaking privately: "Surely it was a punitive cut. Larry Fly has been defiant of Congress for a long time. He has been openly defiant. Now his chickens have come home to roost." The CIA's history of the service describes the cut as made to punish Fly and the FCC for defiance of Congress and for Fly's request that the Department of Justice prosecute Cox.[^69] Hyneman became director on July 27, 1944 and served until August 7, 1945, when [[Russell M. Shepherd]] became the fourth director.[^70] -In the second half of 1944 the service abandoned most of its analytical work. A liaison study of April 1944 found that State, War, the Foreign Economic Administration and the [[Office of Strategic Services]] were reluctant to give up the analytical publications but would drop them and keep the Daily Report if they had to choose, and the Special Reports Section of six analysts in the OWI office was abolished on December 31, 1944. Only the Far East Division under Audrey Menefee kept analytical work. Certain quarters protested in November 1944; Hyneman answered that State should set up a Russian analysis team to use the service's materials and recommended that it obtain the retiring Soviet expert Charles Prince. On January 17, 1945 [[Geroid T. Robinson]] of the OSS wrote to Hyneman to express regret that the analytical work had been discontinued, and added that he hoped the Daily Report would carry more Soviet radio material.[^70] The Soviet Embassy in Washington had asked for copies of the Daily Report as early as November 11, 1942, with State Department approval, and in London the service received the daily Soviet communique directly from TASS.[^71] +In the second half of 1944 the service abandoned most of its analytical work. A liaison study of April 1944 found that State, War, the Foreign Economic Administration and the [[Office of Strategic Services]] were reluctant to give up the analytical publications but would drop them and keep the Daily Report if they had to choose, and the Special Reports Section of six analysts in the OWI office was abolished on December 31, 1944. Only the Far East Division under Audrey Menefee kept analytical work. Certain quarters protested in November 1944; Hyneman answered that State should set up a Russian analysis team to use the service's materials and recommended that it obtain the retiring Soviet expert Charles Prince. On January 17, 1945 [[Geroid T. Robinson]] of the OSS wrote to Hyneman to express regret that the analytical work had been discontinued, and added that he hoped the Daily Report would carry more Soviet radio material.[^71] The Soviet Embassy in Washington had asked for copies of the Daily Report as early as November 11, 1942, with State Department approval, and in London the service received the daily Soviet communique directly from TASS.[^72] ### War Department Custody, 1945 to 1946 -A draft executive order survives among the service's files, undated and bearing the name of [[Harry S. Truman]], to transfer its functions to the State Department and to the Interim Research and Intelligence Service. The draft was apparently prepared by Shepherd and perhaps by State Department representatives, and it was never approved by the Secretary of State.[^72] +A draft executive order survives among the service's files, undated and bearing the name of [[Harry S. Truman]], to transfer its functions to the State Department and to the Interim Research and Intelligence Service. The draft was apparently prepared by Shepherd and perhaps by State Department representatives, and it was never approved by the Secretary of State.[^73] -On September 19, 1945 the House Appropriations Committee voted to rescind part of the National Defense Activities appropriation. On 26 September the FCC announced that FBIS would go out of existence within thirty days, and sent thirty-day notices to employees. On 1 December a conference committee reported a compromise rescinding half the remaining money, $465,000, which both houses approved on 3 December. FBIS operations came to a close on December 10, 1945.[^73] +On September 19, 1945 the House Appropriations Committee voted to rescind part of the National Defense Activities appropriation. On 26 September the FCC announced that FBIS would go out of existence within thirty days, and sent thirty-day notices to employees. On 1 December a conference committee reported a compromise rescinding half the remaining money, $465,000, which both houses approved on 3 December. FBIS operations came to a close on December 10, 1945.[^74] -Mercado writes that the last Daily Report appeared on December 4, 1945, and that the FCC terminated the service the following day.[^74] The FCC's annual report for fiscal 1946 says FBIS was "discontinued as a Commission activity on December 30, 1945."[^75] +Mercado writes that the last Daily Report appeared on December 4, 1945, and that the FCC terminated the service the following day.[^75] The FCC's annual report for fiscal 1946 says FBIS was "discontinued as a Commission activity on December 30, 1945."[^76] -The War Department then stepped in. On December 13, 1945 Shepherd told the FCC that the War Department had requested an executive order transferring FBIS to the Military Intelligence Division effective January 1, 1946. On 21 December Secretary of War [[Robert P. Patterson]] wrote to [[Paul Porter]], chairman of the FCC, asking that FBIS personnel transfer on 31 December. Porter accepted on 27 December, and the service resumed on January 2, 1946 under War Department sponsorship. Shepherd asked that operations continue until the transfer, and only token operations followed, with little monitoring and no publications. No document authorizing continued operations has been found, although "permission may have been given orally."[^76] +The War Department then stepped in. On December 13, 1945 Shepherd told the FCC that the War Department had requested an executive order transferring FBIS to the Military Intelligence Division effective January 1, 1946. On 21 December Secretary of War [[Robert P. Patterson]] wrote to [[Paul Porter]], chairman of the FCC, asking that FBIS personnel transfer on 31 December. Porter accepted on 27 December, and the service resumed on January 2, 1946 under War Department sponsorship. Shepherd asked that operations continue until the transfer, and only token operations followed, with little monitoring and no publications. No document authorizing continued operations has been found, although "permission may have been given orally."[^77] ### Central Intelligence Group and the Name -In January 1946 President Harry S. Truman created the Central Intelligence Group (CIG) by executive order. In February [[Hoyt Vandenberg]], then Assistant Chief of Staff for G-2, gave [[Sidney W. Souers]] a memorandum proposing that the CIG choose the agency to direct the service, and a committee of five, drawn from the CIG and the remaining Intelligence Advisory Board members, was formed to study it.[^77][^78] +In January 1946 President Harry S. Truman created the Central Intelligence Group (CIG) by executive order. In February [[Hoyt Vandenberg]], then Assistant Chief of Staff for G-2, gave [[Sidney W. Souers]] a memorandum proposing that the CIG choose the agency to direct the service, and a committee of five, drawn from the CIG and the remaining Intelligence Advisory Board members, was formed to study it.[^78][^79] -The ad hoc committee recommended that FBIS remain with the War Department, but that its operating organization be liquidated and rebuilt, because its publications circulated too widely and its personnel had not been screened for security. The War Department refused, arguing that operating a monitoring service was properly a CIG function, and proposed that the State Department take it over. State declined, and a State memorandum signed by [[William L. Langer]] on May 27, 1946 accepted CIG sponsorship.[^79] +The ad hoc committee recommended that FBIS remain with the War Department, but that its operating organization be liquidated and rebuilt, because its publications circulated too widely and its personnel had not been screened for security. The War Department refused, arguing that operating a monitoring service was properly a CIG function, and proposed that the State Department take it over. State declined, and a State memorandum signed by [[William L. Langer]] on May 27, 1946 accepted CIG sponsorship.[^80] -The Director of Central Intelligence "assumed control" of FBIS on July 31, 1946, and personnel were transferred to the CIG on 3 November.[^80] NARA gives August 5, 1946 as the date of transfer to the CIG, and November 1, 1946 as the date its agency was abolished, with "Foreign Broadcast Information Service, CIG, November-December, 1946" as the successor.[^81] +The Director of Central Intelligence "assumed control" of FBIS on July 31, 1946, and personnel were transferred to the CIG on 3 November.[^81] NARA gives August 5, 1946 as the date of transfer to the CIG, and November 1, 1946 as the date its agency was abolished, with "Foreign Broadcast Information Service, CIG, November-December, 1946" as the successor.[^82] -The name shifted during this period. A March 1946 CIG memorandum still uses the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service name.[^82] Shepherd's notice of October 31, 1946 announcing the personnel transfer of 3 November stated that the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service would immediately become the Foreign Broadcast Information Service, with publications and letterheads changed accordingly.[^83] On December 31, 1946 [[Edwin L. Sibert]], in charge of the CIG Office of Operations, informed the staff that the name had been changed to the Foreign Broadcast Information Branch, and in a wire of January 2, 1947 designated Shepherd Chief, FBIB.[^84] By May and June 1947 CIG papers refer to the branch by that name. Colonel [[Lawrence K. White]], acting chief of the branch, met with Lloyd Stratton of the Associated Press in May 1947.[^85] A 1970 CIA history places a notice of July 28, 1947 telling field bureaus that they would no longer bear the "confusing name" of the branch, but would retain the name Foreign Broadcast Information Service, and that offices outside Washington were to camouflage their connection with CIG.[^86] A footnote in Mercado's article dates the name Foreign Broadcast Information Service to 1967.[^87] +The name shifted during this period. A March 1946 CIG memorandum still uses the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service name.[^83] Shepherd's notice of October 31, 1946 announcing the personnel transfer of 3 November stated that the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service would immediately become the Foreign Broadcast Information Service, with publications and letterheads changed accordingly.[^84] On December 31, 1946 [[Edwin L. Sibert]], in charge of the CIG Office of Operations, informed the staff that the name had been changed to the Foreign Broadcast Information Branch, and in a wire of January 2, 1947 designated Shepherd Chief, FBIB.[^85] By May and June 1947 CIG papers refer to the branch by that name. Colonel [[Lawrence K. White]], acting chief of the branch, met with Lloyd Stratton of the Associated Press in May 1947.[^86] A 1970 CIA history places a notice of July 28, 1947 telling field bureaus that they would no longer bear the "confusing name" of the branch, but would retain the name Foreign Broadcast Information Service, and that offices outside Washington were to camouflage their connection with CIG.[^87] A footnote in Mercado's article dates the name Foreign Broadcast Information Service to 1967.[^88] ### Central Intelligence Agency, 1947 onward -The [[National Security Act of 1947]] transformed the CIG into the CIA, and the successor is recorded as "Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Central Intelligence Agency, 1947-."[^81] The service came to the agency "almost mature, trained and disciplined, and ready to plunge immediately into the tasks outlined for it."[^88] +The [[National Security Act of 1947]] transformed the CIG into the CIA, and the successor is recorded as "Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Central Intelligence Agency, 1947-."[^82] The service came to the agency "almost mature, trained and disciplined, and ready to plunge immediately into the tasks outlined for it."[^89] -Within the agency the service sat under the Assistant Director for Operations, Sibert. Shepherd proposed in a memorandum of November 5, 1946 that the service take up propaganda analysis, estimating 35 employees at $150,000 a year. The Assistant Director presented a scaled-down project to the PRC on January 6, 1947, approving Shepherd's program but making clear that FBIS would not take over "interpretative analysis." The reduced request was for a staff of twelve at $61,000 a year. White was announced as deputy chief of FBIS on January 9, 1947. A Special Reports Division was approved on February 13, 1947 on an experimental basis, began work on March 28, 1947 and issued its first Survey of Soviet Radio Broadcasts on April 15, 1947. The early years of analysis under the CIA are described as "stormy."[^89] Shepherd resigned on September 29, 1947, and Colonel White became chief.[^90] +Within the agency the service sat under the Assistant Director for Operations, Sibert. Shepherd proposed in a memorandum of November 5, 1946 that the service take up propaganda analysis, estimating 35 employees at $150,000 a year. The Assistant Director presented a scaled-down project to the PRC on January 6, 1947, approving Shepherd's program but making clear that FBIS would not take over "interpretative analysis." The reduced request was for a staff of twelve at $61,000 a year. White was announced as deputy chief of FBIS on January 9, 1947. A Special Reports Division was approved on February 13, 1947 on an experimental basis, began work on March 28, 1947 and issued its first Survey of Soviet Radio Broadcasts on April 15, 1947. The early years of analysis under the CIA are described as "stormy."[^90] Shepherd resigned on September 29, 1947, and Colonel White became chief.[^91] -The service also had a working relationship with the BBC monitoring service. In June 1946 Shepherd spent three weeks in London with BBC officials, and met [[Malcolm Frost]], then chief of the BBC Monitoring Service, who proposed that the American service begin paying its share of the monitoring cost, perhaps $250,000 a year, or supply the BBC with enough material from its own monitoring to balance the books.[^91] The BBC service then employed 385 persons at a cost of $650,000 a year. After further negotiation, Frost informed the service on October 15, 1947 that the BBC had obtained authority and funds to sign an agreement.[^92] +The service also had a working relationship with the BBC monitoring service. In June 1946 Shepherd spent three weeks in London with BBC officials, and met [[Malcolm Frost]], then chief of the BBC Monitoring Service, who proposed that the American service begin paying its share of the monitoring cost, perhaps $250,000 a year, or supply the BBC with enough material from its own monitoring to balance the books.[^92] The BBC service then employed 385 persons at a cost of $650,000 a year. After further negotiation, Frost informed the service on October 15, 1947 that the BBC had obtained authority and funds to sign an agreement.[^93] -After 1957 the service "had come of age as an established CIA unit." On March 23, 1961 the Directorate of Intelligence and the Assistant Director for Operations instructed FBIS to accept responsibility for propaganda indications, and that FBIS and the BBC together monitored broadcasts from 90 countries in 1961, a figure that rose to 115 by the spring of 1963.[^93] +After 1957 the service "had come of age as an established CIA unit." On March 23, 1961 the Directorate of Intelligence and the Assistant Director for Operations instructed FBIS to accept responsibility for propaganda indications, and that FBIS and the BBC together monitored broadcasts from 90 countries in 1961, a figure that rose to 115 by the spring of 1963.[^94] ### Daily Report and Records -The Daily Report, the service's translation series, first appeared on November 18, 1941.[^94] Ellis G. Porter, a former newspaper editor, joined the staff in January 1942 to direct its publication.[^95] A Daily Report of the Far Eastern Section dated January 3, 1946 is in Record Group 262, Entry 25, Box 1, and the first issue of the new Daily Report was published that month.[^96] +The Daily Report, the service's translation series, first appeared on November 18, 1941.[^95] Ellis G. Porter, a former newspaper editor, joined the staff in January 1942 to direct its publication.[^96] A Daily Report of the Far Eastern Section dated January 3, 1946 is in Record Group 262, Entry 25, Box 1, and the first issue of the new Daily Report was published that month.[^97] -The wartime records are held in [[Record Group 262]], including the daily reports of foreign radio broadcasts for 1941 to 1945, daily reports of the Far Eastern, Latin American and European sections for 1941 to 1946, the weekly reviews, the *Radio Reports on the Far East* for 1942 to 1945, and program schedules for 1942 to 1947. The Foreign Broadcast Information Branch records for 1947 and 1948 are in Record Group 263, Records of the Central Intelligence Agency.[^97] +The wartime records are held in [[Record Group 262]], including the daily reports of foreign radio broadcasts for 1941 to 1945, daily reports of the Far Eastern, Latin American and European sections for 1941 to 1946, the weekly reviews, the *Radio Reports on the Far East* for 1942 to 1945, and program schedules for 1942 to 1947. The Foreign Broadcast Information Branch records for 1947 and 1948 are in Record Group 263, Records of the Central Intelligence Agency.[^98] ### Open Source Center, 2005 @@ -266,95 +266,96 @@ On November 8, 2005 [[John D. Negroponte]], the Director of National Intelligenc [^3]: Helena Huntington Smith, "It Pays to Listen," *Collier's*, January 30, 1943, pp. 43-44, which states "Its godfather was Breckinridge Long of the State Department, who foresaw that we might one day be cut off from accustomed sources of news in foreign countries. He took it up with Chairman Fly of the FCC." https://archive.org/details/colliers111janspri_201908. Stephen C. Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis, 1941-1945," Studies in Intelligence 45, no. 5 (2001), on Assistant Secretary of State Breckinridge Long, "godfather" of FBIS, and his letter of September 10, 1941 to FCC chairman James L. Fly. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/. [^4]: Federal Communications Commission, Seventh Annual Report, fiscal year 1941, section on the Foreign Broadcast Monitoring Service, "created February 26, 1941, by the Federal Communications Commission in cooperation with the Defense Communications Board." https://archive.org/details/fcc_DOC-308657A1. [^5]: Roop, Part I, p. 9, on the President's allotment of $150,000 on February 25, 1941, its transfer the next day, the "birth date" of the service on February 26, 1941. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. -[^6]: Daniel Morris Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State" (PhD dissertation, Duke University, 2013), p. 132, which describes "a late 1940 meeting between Secretary of State Henry L. Stimson and FDR" and the allocation of $150,000 on February 25, 1941. Stimson was Secretary of War from July 1940; Roop (note 7) gives the Secretary of State without naming him. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/items/19152946-8fbb-4b9b-9da0-faca0979e718. +[^6]: Daniel Morris Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State" (PhD dissertation, Duke University, 2013), p. 132, which describes "a late 1940 meeting between Secretary of State Henry L. Stimson and FDR" and the allocation of $150,000 on February 25, 1941. Stimson was Secretary of War from July 10, 1940 (National Archives, RG 107 finding aid); his term as Secretary of State ended March 4, 1933, and Cordell Hull held that office from March 4, 1933 to November 20, 1944 (Office of the Historian, Biographies of the Secretaries of State). https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/items/19152946-8fbb-4b9b-9da0-faca0979e718. [^7]: Roop, Part I, pp. 5-6, quoting the account that "Toward the end of 1940 the Secretary of State, in an informal discussion with President Roosevelt, suggested that a government unit should be established to monitor and analyze propaganda beamed to the United States." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. -[^8]: Roop, Part I, p. 9, on the FCC's Radio Intelligence Division and its National Defense Activities, quoting the FCC as "the only group staffed and equipped" for the monitoring work. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. -[^9]: Roop, Part I, p. 9, on the service's beginnings "in an old garage at 316 F Street Northeast," and p. 49, "In April a move was made to 1424 K St., N.W., where four floors were assigned to FBMS." Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," photograph caption, "FBIS headquarters from 1942-1947 at 1424 K Street, NW, in Washington." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/. -[^10]: Roop, Part I, pp. 49-50, on Leigh taking over "on 15 July 1942," his recommendation of the name Broadcast Intelligence Service, the phrase "less unwieldy and more accurately reflected the duties of the organization," the FCC's insistence on "foreign," and the change of July 26, 1942. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. -[^11]: National Archives and Records Administration, Guide to Federal Records, "Records of the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service," Record Group 262, administrative history, which gives "FCC order, July 28, 1942." https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/262.html. The same guide's history line reads "Federal Broadcast Intelligence Service, 1942," which is an apparent typographical error. -[^12]: Roop, Part I, p. 259, on Hyneman's memorandum for the FCC of March 2, 1945 proposing alternative names to avoid confusion with the FBI, the preference for Foreign Broadcast Reporting Service, the report in *On the Beam* of April 9, 1945, and, on p. 260, the reversal and the statement that the new name was "never formally adopted." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. -[^13]: Harold N. Graves Jr., *War on the Short Wave* (Foreign Policy Association, Headline Books No. 30, 1941), Acknowledgments. -[^14]: Princeton University Library, "Princeton Listening Center Records, 1939-1941" (AC015), finding aid, Scope and Contents and Biographical / Historical notes. https://findingaids.princeton.edu/catalog/AC015 (EAD at https://findingaids.princeton.edu/catalog/AC015.xml). The finding aid states that the project "was financed by the Rockefeller Foundation," that the center "continued its work successfully until June, 1941," and that its published book was *Propaganda by Short Wave*, edited by Harwood L. Childs and John B. Whitton (Princeton University Press, 1942). -[^15]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," on the Princeton Listening Center's launch in November 1939 with funding from the Rockefeller Foundation, and on its absorption by FBIS in June. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/. -[^16]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 133, on the absorption of the Princeton Listening Center and Graves's post as Senior Administrative Officer. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/items/19152946-8fbb-4b9b-9da0-faca0979e718. -[^17]: Roop, Part I, p. 10, describing Graves as "the young man who had been acting as director of the Princeton Listening Post since its inception" and naming the Princeton staff; Roop, Part I, pp. 93-95, on the Baltimore Sun article, Graves's memo of July 9, 1941 about his "embarrassment," the "dragging in" of the Princeton Listening Post, the "brain child" description, and the Eleanor Ragsdale column of September 8, 1941. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. -[^18]: Roop, Part I, pp. 93-95. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. -[^19]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," note 24: Nelson A. Rockefeller to James L. Fly, July 29, 1942, National Archives, RG 262, Entry 68, Box 22, quoted as "We have been able thus far to make good use of the material provided by teletype from the Kingsville Field Bureau of the Monitoring Service of your Commission." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/. -[^20]: FBIS Administrative Memorandum No. 16, "To Officers of the FBIS," January 22, 1943. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP82-00177R000300410017-3. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp82-00177r000300410017-3 -[^21]: Roop, Part I, p. 10, on Free's editorship of the *Public Opinion Quarterly*, and "Mr. Free assumed office as Director on 16 June 1941" (p. 11); p. 35, on Free's contacts with BBC officials "very soon after he assumed office with the idea of attaching a staff to BBC." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. -[^22]: Roop, Part I, pp. 36-37, quoting "With Lloyd Free still in London, Harold Graves and Tom Grandin took over at 316 F St. on 7 December 1941." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. -[^23]: Roop, Part I, pp. 48-50, on Free's resignation in April 1942 "to accept a commission in the Army," his service as military attache in the United States Embassy in Switzerland, the appointment of Leigh of Bennington College, the $1,000 difference from Free's $8,000 salary and the appropriation bill provision, and Graves as Acting Director until Leigh took over on July 15, 1942. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. -[^24]: Roop, Part I, p. 189, on Free and Graves's recruitment of Goodwin Watson of Columbia University, who "entered upon duty 17 November 1941." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. -[^25]: Hearings before the Special Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, House of Representatives, 78th Cong., 1st Sess., acting under H. Res. 105 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1943), p. 2. https://archive.org/details/1943-watson-dodd-lovett -[^26]: Roop, Part I, p. 50, on the Analysis Section becoming the Analysis Division. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. -[^27]: Central Intelligence Agency Reading Room, Records of the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service (National Archives records description, compiled by Walter W. Weinstein): "Goodwin Watson was Director of the Division from November 15, 1941, until November 15, 1943, when he was succeeded by Theodore Newcomb." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp08t00376r000100250001-1 -[^28]: Roop, Part I, p. 122, on Newcomb, "who was second only to Watson in the Analysis Division," in a note of February 15, 1943. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947 -[^29]: Roop, Part I, p. 57, "In March 1942 the table of organization of the Analysis Division called for 37 analysts, assistants, and trainees, but with only 17 of the positions filled," and p. 58, "the planned table of organization was never reached." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. -[^30]: Roop, Part I, p. 46, that Watson and Leites "were sent to London in September 1942" to set up analysis, and that "a two-man analysis staff remained" through the war. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. -[^31]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," on the Central European Radio Analysis, begun January 1943 by the German Section, and the Radio Report on the Far East, first published August 24, 1942 (RG 262, Entry 34, Box 1). https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/. -[^32]: Roop, Part I, pp. 121-122 (Leigh's announcement of April 19, 1943; Graves on May 13, 1943; Eugene Katz's letter of June 18, 1943). https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947 -[^33]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," pp. 132-133, on Speier's report sent "a week after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor," Free and Watson's reading of his work "with the greatest of interest," the February 1942 offer, and the Analysis Division as the "heart" of the service. -[^34]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 132, note 51, citing Harold Graves to Hans Speier and Ernst Kris, December 23, 1941, and Lloyd Free to Hans Speier, January 31, 1942, RG 262, Entry 2, Box 66. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/items/19152946-8fbb-4b9b-9da0-faca0979e718. -[^35]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 134, which places the letter of May 26, 1942 two months after Speier entered the Analysis Division and quotes it as stating that, "as a result of investigation," he had "been rated eligible on suitability for the position of Senior Political Analyst" (note 59: United States Civil Service Commission to Hans Speier, May 26, 1942, Speier Papers, Box 2, Folder 5). https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/items/19152946-8fbb-4b9b-9da0-faca0979e718. -[^36]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 135, on Speier's colleagues George, Leites and Henry Kellermann and on Watson's praise, with the quoted phrases "extraordinarily good job of analysis" and "nobody in the United States whom I would willingly trade for him" (note 62). -[^37]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 138 and p. 143 (note 90), on Watson leaving "under pressure from enemies of the New Deal" and Speier becoming acting chief analyst, overseeing thirty people. -[^38]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 143 and note 90 (Theodore Newcomb to Col. S. A. Greenwell, December 4, 1943; Speier's Application for Federal Employment, Speier Papers, Box 2, Folder 5): "Speier replaced Watson as Acting Chief Analyst." -[^39]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 145, on Speier's transfer on "May 22, 1944" from the Analysis Division to the Office of War Information, with Wallace Carroll as his immediate superior. -[^40]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," pp. 136-137, on the memorandum of October 29, 1943, the seventeen of twenty-five predictions, Mark Abrams, Representative Joseph Martin and Senator Alexander Wiley. -[^41]: Roop, Part I, p. 189, on Dies's letter to Fly of November 18, 1941, which expressed "deep concern" and named thirteen organizations. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. -[^42]: Roop, Part I, pp. 190-191, on Fly's reply that Watson "belonged to only one of the 13 organizations Dies named," the Senate Appropriations Committee's deletion of the rider, Dodd's hiring as an editor in December 1941, and Watson's testimony of February 4, 1942. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. Roop and Mercado spell the analyst's surname "Schumann"; Bessner writes "Schuman." -[^43]: Roop, Part I, pp. 191-192, on Dies's House speech of February 1, 1943, listing 39 "communists," with Dodd, Watson and Schumann at the head of the list. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. -[^44]: Congressional Record, vol. 89, pp. 623-624 (House, February 4, 1943, notice of the amendment naming thirty-nine employees), and pp. 645, 655 and 656 (House, February 5, 1943). Roop, Part I, pp. 191-192, states that a rider "immediately was attached" to the appropriation bill after Dies's speech. https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_january-06-march-01-1943_89 -[^45]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," on Congressman Dies accusing three FBIS employees, among dozens of civil servants, of "un-American beliefs." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/. -[^46]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," quoting Vice President Henry Wallace on Dies. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/. -[^47]: Hearings (as above), pp. iii-v and 1 (the text of H. Res. 105 and the membership; first sitting April 9, 1943, "pursuant to adjournment on Wednesday, April 7, 1943"). https://archive.org/details/1943-watson-dodd-lovett -[^48]: Congressional Record, vol. 89, pp. 2788-2789 (House, March 31, 1943). https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_march-02-april-05-1943_89 -[^49]: Congressional Record, 78th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 89, p. 3068 (House, April 7, 1943). https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_april-06-may-13-1943_89 -[^50]: Roop, Part I, pp. 192-193, on the subcommittee under Congressman Kerr, which started hearings on April 2, 1943 and reported on 21 April, the findings of "subversive activity" and "unfit," the three named men, and the statement that the subcommittee "was later accused of having its final report prepared before the men were called to testify." Roop states that the subcommittee was named by the Un-American Activities Committee. The printed hearings give the authority as House Resolution 105, adopted February 9, 1943, directed to the Committee on Appropriations (Hearings, pp. iii-v), and give the sitting at which Watson's testimony begins as April 9, 1943, against Roop's April 2. *United States v. Lovett*, 328 U.S. 303 (1946), likewise describes a special subcommittee of the House Appropriations Committee, appointed under a House resolution, whose report is H. Rep. No. 448, 78th Cong., 1st Sess. The Monthly Catalog lists H. Rept. 448 (May 14, 1943, pursuant to H. Res. 105, "submitted by Mr. Kerr") on Watson, Dodd and Lovett; a February 1943 newspaper report names Kerr, a North Carolina Democrat, as chairman of the subcommittee. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/328/303. -[^51]: Hearings (as above), Appendix D, H. Rept. No. 448, 78th Cong., 1st Sess., pp. 327-334, including the finding that Schuman's case did not support a recommendation of unfitness and the findings on Watson and Dodd. -[^52]: Congressional Record, vol. 89, pp. 4554-4555 (House, May 17, 1943). https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_may-14-june-14-1943_89 -[^53]: Hearings (as above), pp. 100-105 and 118-119. -[^54]: Congressional Record, vol. 89, p. 4583 (House, May 18, 1943), the page cited in *United States v. Lovett*, 328 U.S. 303 (1946). -[^55]: Roop, Part I, p. 193, on the Senate's four rejections, its approval of the rider by 48 to 32, and the President's signature while denouncing the rider and declaring it unconstitutional. -[^56]: Urgent Deficiency Appropriation Act of 1943, section 304, 57 Stat. 431, 450, as quoted in *United States v. Lovett*, 328 U.S. 303 (1946). Roop, Part I, p. 193, note, gives the effective cutoff as November 21, 1943, where the statute as quoted gives 15 November. The enacted text also excepted accrued leave and salary and payment for jury or armed-forces service; the text proposed in the subcommittee's report (Hearings, p. 328) omitted the November 15 date and the reappointment clause. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/328/303. -[^57]: *United States v. Lovett*, 328 U.S. 303 (1946), argued May 3-6, 1946, decided June 3, 1946, opinion of Justice Black. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/328/303. Mercado's article gives the middle name as "Morse." -[^58]: Roop, Part I, pp. 194-195, on the attacks on Rhodes, Menefee and Speier; Fly's letter to J. Edgar Hoover of April 28, 1942, and the two informant reports, one calling the New York school a "refuge for exiled European communists" and the other calling it "a nest of pro-Nazi activities." -[^59]: Roop, Part I, p. 196, on Cox, the Atlanta station case, the FCC's referral to the Justice Department, the House's naming of Cox as chairman in early 1943, and the appointment of Eugene Garey as investigator. -[^60]: Roop, Part I, p. 197, on the removal of "three-fourths of FBIS personnel files," the subpoena of ten employees at 8:00 a.m., and "Star Chamber testimony," citing Leigh's article "Politicians vs. Bureaucrats" (subtitle "The case of FCC Chairman Fly and Congressman Cox"), *Harper's Magazine*, January 1945. https://harpers.org/archive/1945/01/politicians-vs-bureaucrats. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. -[^61]: Roop, Part I, p. 198, on the single irregularity found at FBIS and the list of charges, including "masquerading," "intelligence" and "glorified news gathering agency." Mercado renders the last phrase as "glorified news agency." -[^62]: Roop, Part I, p. 50, on the Cox counsel's charge that Leigh changed the name of the service to "dignify its activities," make it sound more like a war agency, and influence Congress to grant appropriations." -[^63]: Roop, Part I, pp. 198-199, on the Washington Post's sixteen editorials, the FCC member who "agreed to petition the Speaker of the House to dismiss Cox as chairman," Cox's resignation after an emotional speech, Lea's succession, and Garey's dismissal. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. Louis E. Miller (R-Mo.) and Richard B. Wigglesworth (R-Mass.) are the minority members named in *Broadcasting*, January 8, 1945. Full names: Clarence Frederick Lea (D-Calif.), Louis Ebenezer Miller (R-Mo.), Richard Bowditch Wigglesworth (R-Mass.) and Kenneth Douglas McKellar (D-Tenn.), per the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress as reproduced in the unitedstates/congress-legislators dataset. -[^64]: "Lea Probe Demands Sweeping Law Change," *Broadcasting*, January 8, 1945, on the Miller and Wigglesworth minority reports and Wigglesworth's statements. https://www.worldradiohistory.com/Archive-BC/BC-1945/1945-01-08-BC.pdf. -[^65]: Roop, Part I, pp. 200-201, on the May 1944 testimony of Leigh, Hensley, Porter and Graves; the Lea report of January 2, 1945 ("an efficient and worthwhile service"); the Miller and Wigglesworth minority report ("grave doubt"); and the majority passage quoted in *On the Beam* of February 3, 1945, in the note on p. 201. The hearings are *Hearings of the Special House Committee Investigating the FCC* (GPO, 1944), three volumes, with FBIS testimony beginning in Volume III, page 3439. Roop, Part I, p. 189, records Graves's resignation by the end of 1943. -[^66]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," on Leigh's newsletter of February 15, 1944: "The obvious conclusion is that the proposed cut relates to the opposition on the part of Representative Cox to FCC," the 30 percent figure, and Leigh's resignation "that summer." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/. -[^67]: Roop, Part I, pp. 204-206, on the House Appropriations Committee's recommended cut of 25 percent for each FCC department, Senator McKellar's demand for proof, and the Senate Appropriations Committee's recommended cut of $500,000 that both houses approved. Mercado's figure of 30 percent is given at note 48. -[^68]: Roop, Part I, pp. 206-207, on the absence of any stated congressional reason for the cut, Fly's being ruled out of order, the statement that "it was a punitive cut, made to punish Fly and FCC for defiance of Congress and for Fly's effrontery in asking the Department of Justice to prosecute Eugene Cox, a member of Congress," and, in the note on p. 207, Leigh's quotation of a member of Congress speaking privately, from Leigh's *Harper's Magazine* article, January 1945. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. -[^69]: Roop, Part I, pp. 241-244, "Charles S. Hyneman, who succeeded Leigh as FBIS director on 27 July 1944," and p. 260, "from 27 July 1944 to 7 August 1945," and Shepherd's appointment as the fourth FBIS Director. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. -[^70]: Roop, Part I, pp. 256-257 (note on the liaison study of April 29, 1944; abolition of the Special Reports Section on December 31, 1944), p. 259 (Far East Division retained "the only analytical work done in FBIS"), and pp. 267-268 (the protest of November 1944, Hyneman's response, and Robinson's letter of January 17, 1945). https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. -[^71]: Roop, Part I, p. 268, on the Soviet Embassy's request of November 11, 1942 and the TASS arrangement in London in 1943. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. -[^72]: Roop, Part I, p. 275, note, on the undated executive order with the name of President Truman, transferring FBIS functions to the Interim Research and Intelligence Service, "prepared by Shepherd and perhaps some representatives from State," and "never approved by the Secretary of State." Job 54-27, Box 15, CIA Records Center. -[^73]: Roop, Part I, pp. 274-277, on the House Appropriations Committee's action of September 19, 1945, the FCC's news release of 26 September, the conference compromise of 1 December ($465,000) approved on 3 December, and the closing of operations on December 10, 1945. -[^74]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," on the last Daily Report "on 4 December" and the FCC's termination "the following day." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/. -[^75]: Federal Communications Commission, Twelfth Annual Report, fiscal year ended June 30, 1946, which states that FBIS "was discontinued as a Commission activity on December 30, 1945." https://archive.org/details/fcc_DOC-308665A1. -[^76]: Roop, Part I, pp. 278-280, on Shepherd's letter of December 13, 1945 to the FCC, the token operations that followed, Patterson's letter of 21 December, Porter's reply of 27 December, the resumption on January 2, 1946 under War Department sponsorship, and the note on p. 279 that "No documents authorizing continued operations have been found, but permission may have been given orally." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. -[^77]: Roop, Part I, pp. 299-300, on the creation of the CIG by executive order in January 1946, the Vandenberg memorandum to Souers in February 1946, and the five-member committee. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. -[^78]: Central Intelligence Group, "Survey of the Function of Monitoring Press and Propaganda Broadcasts of Foreign Powers," C.I.G. 1, memorandum by the Director of Central Intelligence, February 25, 1946, which states that FBIS functions were "taken over by the War Department on an interim basis on 30 December 1945." https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003400110003-4. Ad hoc committee report, March 18, 1946: https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003400110004-3. -[^79]: Roop, Part I, pp. 301-303, on the ad hoc committee's recommendations (March 18, 1946), the War Department's refusal, the State Department's reply, C.I.G. 1/1 (April 26, 1946), C.I.G. 1/2 (May 8, 1946, signed by James S. Lay), and the State memorandum signed by William L. Langer on May 27, 1946, enclosed with C.I.G. 1/3 (June 4, 1946). -[^80]: Roop, Part I, pp. 303-304, on the notice, signed for the Director of Central Intelligence by Col. John Dabney, that the Director had "assumed control" of FBIS on July 31, 1946, and on the personnel transfer to CIG on November 3, 1946, announced on 31 October. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. -[^81]: National Archives and Records Administration, Guide to Federal Records, RG 262, administrative history: transfer to the Central Intelligence Group, "August 5, 1946"; "Abolished: November 1, 1946"; successors "Foreign Broadcast Information Service, CIG, November-December, 1946," "Foreign Broadcast Information Branch, CIG, January-September 1947," and "Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Central Intelligence Agency, 1947-." https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/262.html. -[^82]: CIG, "Background on Development of Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service," memorandum for the Chief, Information Branch, March 1946. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003400110001-6. -[^83]: Roop, Part I, pp. 303-304, on the notice of October 31, 1946 that "the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service would immediately become the Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS), with all publications and letterheads changed accordingly." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. -[^84]: Roop, Part I, p. 305 and note, on Sibert's statement of December 31, 1946 "informing that the name had been changed to the Foreign Broadcast Information Branch (FBIB)" and his wire of January 2, 1947 designating Russell Shepherd Chief, FBIB. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. -[^85]: CIG, "'A' and 'X' Wire Services Furnished by Foreign Broadcast Information Branch," memorandum, June 10, 1947. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003400110015-1. Also memorandum on the May 6, 1947 interview of Colonel L. K. White, Acting Chief, FBIB, with Lloyd Stratton of the Associated Press. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003400110022-3. -[^86]: Roop, Part II (CIA Directorate of Intelligence, August 1970), p. 102, on the notice that field bureaus would no longer bear "the confusing name of Foreign Broadcast Information Branch (FBIB)," and on the camouflage of their connection with CIG. The notice is dated July 28, 1947. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690. -[^87]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," note 4: "The initial monitoring service was renamed the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service in 1942 and evolved into the Foreign Broadcast Information Service in 1967." Roop, Part I, pp. 303-304 (the notice of October 31, 1946) and the 1947 CIG memoranda already use the later name. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/. -[^88]: Roop, Part I, p. 2, "FBIS took form during those six years before its adoption by the Central Intelligence Agency, and came to CIA almost mature, trained and disciplined, and ready to plunge immediately into the tasks outlined for it." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. -[^89]: Roop, Part II, pp. 151-152, on Shepherd's memorandum of November 5, 1946, the Assistant Director for Operations' presentation to the PRC on January 6, 1947, the 35-employee and $150,000 proposal, the reduced request of twelve staff at $61,000, the "stormy" early years, and the Special Reports Division (approved February 13, 1947, begun March 28, 1947, first Survey of Soviet Radio Broadcasts April 15, 1947); p. 2, on the announcement of Col. Lawrence K. White as Deputy Chief on January 9, 1947. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690. -[^90]: Roop, Part II, p. 56, "Shepherd resigned from FBIS on 29 September 1947," with Colonel White the new FBIS Chief. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690. Appointment of the fourth director: Roop, Part I, p. 260. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. -[^91]: Roop, Part II, p. 51, on Shepherd's visit to London from June 24, 1946, his meeting with "Malcolm Frost, Chief of the BBC Monitoring Service," the $250,000 figure, and the BBC Monitoring Service's 385 employees and $650,000 cost. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690. -[^92]: Roop, Part II, pp. 54-56, on the Shepherd-Frost negotiations and the notice of October 15, 1947. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690. -[^93]: Joseph E. Roop, "Foreign Broadcast Information Service History, Part III: 1957-1967" (CIA Directorate of Intelligence, May 1972), p. 2, "after 1957 FBIS had come of age as an established CIA unit"; p. 19, on the March 23, 1961 instruction to accept responsibility for propaganda indications; and pp. 4-5, "FBIS and the BBC were monitoring broadcasts from 90 countries in 1961. By the spring of 1963 this number had increased to 115." https://archive.org/details/CIADirectorateOfIntelligenceHistoricalSeriesForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart319571967. -[^94]: Roop, Part I, p. 25, on the mailing list for the Daily Report issued on November 18, 1941; Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," states that the service "published its first Daily Report of translations on 18 November 1941." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/. -[^95]: Roop, Part I, p. 50, that Ellis G. Porter, "former editor of newspapers in Baltimore and Philadelphia," joined the staff in January 1942 "to direct publication of the Daily Report." -[^96]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," note 39: "FBIS, Daily Report, Foreign Radio Broadcasts, Far Eastern Section, 3 January 1946, NARA, RG 262, Entry 25, Box 1," and the text that the first issue of the new Daily Report was published in January 1946. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/. -[^97]: NARA, Guide to Federal Records, RG 262: "Daily reports of foreign radio broadcasts, 1941-45"; "Daily reports of the Far Eastern, Latin American, and European Sections, 1941-46"; "Weekly reviews of official foreign broadcasts, 1941-44"; "Radio reports on the Far East, 1942-45"; "Program schedules of foreign broadcasts, 1942-47"; and "Related Records: Records of the Foreign Broadcast Information Branch, 1947-48, in RG 263." https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/262.html. +[^8]: United States Department of State, Office of the Historian, "Cordell Hull," Biographies of the Secretaries of State. https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/hull-cordell +[^9]: Roop, Part I, p. 9, on the FCC's Radio Intelligence Division and its National Defense Activities, quoting the FCC as "the only group staffed and equipped" for the monitoring work. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. +[^10]: Roop, Part I, p. 9, on the service's beginnings "in an old garage at 316 F Street Northeast," and p. 49, "In April a move was made to 1424 K St., N.W., where four floors were assigned to FBMS." Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," photograph caption, "FBIS headquarters from 1942-1947 at 1424 K Street, NW, in Washington." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/. +[^11]: Roop, Part I, pp. 49-50, on Leigh taking over "on 15 July 1942," his recommendation of the name Broadcast Intelligence Service, the phrase "less unwieldy and more accurately reflected the duties of the organization," the FCC's insistence on "foreign," and the change of July 26, 1942. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. +[^12]: National Archives and Records Administration, Guide to Federal Records, "Records of the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service," Record Group 262, administrative history, which gives "FCC order, July 28, 1942." https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/262.html. The same guide's history line reads "Federal Broadcast Intelligence Service, 1942," which is an apparent typographical error. +[^13]: Roop, Part I, p. 259, on Hyneman's memorandum for the FCC of March 2, 1945 proposing alternative names to avoid confusion with the FBI, the preference for Foreign Broadcast Reporting Service, the report in *On the Beam* of April 9, 1945, and, on p. 260, the reversal and the statement that the new name was "never formally adopted." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. +[^14]: Harold N. Graves Jr., *War on the Short Wave* (Foreign Policy Association, Headline Books No. 30, 1941), Acknowledgments. +[^15]: Princeton University Library, "Princeton Listening Center Records, 1939-1941" (AC015), finding aid, Scope and Contents and Biographical / Historical notes. https://findingaids.princeton.edu/catalog/AC015 (EAD at https://findingaids.princeton.edu/catalog/AC015.xml). The finding aid states that the project "was financed by the Rockefeller Foundation," that the center "continued its work successfully until June, 1941," and that its published book was *Propaganda by Short Wave*, edited by Harwood L. Childs and John B. Whitton (Princeton University Press, 1942). +[^16]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," on the Princeton Listening Center's launch in November 1939 with funding from the Rockefeller Foundation, and on its absorption by FBIS in June. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/. +[^17]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 133, on the absorption of the Princeton Listening Center and Graves's post as Senior Administrative Officer. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/items/19152946-8fbb-4b9b-9da0-faca0979e718. +[^18]: Roop, Part I, p. 10, describing Graves as "the young man who had been acting as director of the Princeton Listening Post since its inception" and naming the Princeton staff; Roop, Part I, pp. 93-95, on the Baltimore Sun article, Graves's memo of July 9, 1941 about his "embarrassment," the "dragging in" of the Princeton Listening Post, the "brain child" description, and the Eleanor Ragsdale column of September 8, 1941. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. +[^19]: Roop, Part I, pp. 93-95. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. +[^20]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," note 24: Nelson A. Rockefeller to James L. Fly, July 29, 1942, National Archives, RG 262, Entry 68, Box 22, quoted as "We have been able thus far to make good use of the material provided by teletype from the Kingsville Field Bureau of the Monitoring Service of your Commission." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/. +[^21]: FBIS Administrative Memorandum No. 16, "To Officers of the FBIS," January 22, 1943. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP82-00177R000300410017-3. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp82-00177r000300410017-3 +[^22]: Roop, Part I, p. 10, on Free's editorship of the *Public Opinion Quarterly*, and "Mr. Free assumed office as Director on 16 June 1941" (p. 11); p. 35, on Free's contacts with BBC officials "very soon after he assumed office with the idea of attaching a staff to BBC." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. +[^23]: Roop, Part I, pp. 36-37, quoting "With Lloyd Free still in London, Harold Graves and Tom Grandin took over at 316 F St. on 7 December 1941." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. +[^24]: Roop, Part I, pp. 48-50, on Free's resignation in April 1942 "to accept a commission in the Army," his service as military attache in the United States Embassy in Switzerland, the appointment of Leigh of Bennington College, the $1,000 difference from Free's $8,000 salary and the appropriation bill provision, and Graves as Acting Director until Leigh took over on July 15, 1942. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. +[^25]: Roop, Part I, p. 189, on Free and Graves's recruitment of Goodwin Watson of Columbia University, who "entered upon duty 17 November 1941." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. +[^26]: Hearings before the Special Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, House of Representatives, 78th Cong., 1st Sess., acting under H. Res. 105 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1943), p. 2. https://archive.org/details/1943-watson-dodd-lovett +[^27]: Roop, Part I, p. 50, on the Analysis Section becoming the Analysis Division. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. +[^28]: Central Intelligence Agency Reading Room, Records of the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service (National Archives records description, compiled by Walter W. Weinstein): "Goodwin Watson was Director of the Division from November 15, 1941, until November 15, 1943, when he was succeeded by Theodore Newcomb." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp08t00376r000100250001-1 +[^29]: Roop, Part I, p. 122, on Newcomb, "who was second only to Watson in the Analysis Division," in a note of February 15, 1943. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947 +[^30]: Roop, Part I, p. 57, "In March 1942 the table of organization of the Analysis Division called for 37 analysts, assistants, and trainees, but with only 17 of the positions filled," and p. 58, "the planned table of organization was never reached." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. +[^31]: Roop, Part I, p. 46, that Watson and Leites "were sent to London in September 1942" to set up analysis, and that "a two-man analysis staff remained" through the war. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. +[^32]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," on the Central European Radio Analysis, begun January 1943 by the German Section, and the Radio Report on the Far East, first published August 24, 1942 (RG 262, Entry 34, Box 1). https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/. +[^33]: Roop, Part I, pp. 121-122 (Leigh's announcement of April 19, 1943; Graves on May 13, 1943; Eugene Katz's letter of June 18, 1943). https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947 +[^34]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," pp. 132-133, on Speier's report sent "a week after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor," Free and Watson's reading of his work "with the greatest of interest," the February 1942 offer, and the Analysis Division as the "heart" of the service. +[^35]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 132, note 51, citing Harold Graves to Hans Speier and Ernst Kris, December 23, 1941, and Lloyd Free to Hans Speier, January 31, 1942, RG 262, Entry 2, Box 66. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/items/19152946-8fbb-4b9b-9da0-faca0979e718. +[^36]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 134, which places the letter of May 26, 1942 two months after Speier entered the Analysis Division and quotes it as stating that, "as a result of investigation," he had "been rated eligible on suitability for the position of Senior Political Analyst" (note 59: United States Civil Service Commission to Hans Speier, May 26, 1942, Speier Papers, Box 2, Folder 5). https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/items/19152946-8fbb-4b9b-9da0-faca0979e718. +[^37]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 135, on Speier's colleagues George, Leites and Henry Kellermann and on Watson's praise, with the quoted phrases "extraordinarily good job of analysis" and "nobody in the United States whom I would willingly trade for him" (note 62). +[^38]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 138 and p. 143 (note 90), on Watson leaving "under pressure from enemies of the New Deal" and Speier becoming acting chief analyst, overseeing thirty people. +[^39]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 143 and note 90 (Theodore Newcomb to Col. S. A. Greenwell, December 4, 1943; Speier's Application for Federal Employment, Speier Papers, Box 2, Folder 5): "Speier replaced Watson as Acting Chief Analyst." +[^40]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 145, on Speier's transfer on "May 22, 1944" from the Analysis Division to the Office of War Information, with Wallace Carroll as his immediate superior. +[^41]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," pp. 136-137, on the memorandum of October 29, 1943, the seventeen of twenty-five predictions, Mark Abrams, Representative Joseph Martin and Senator Alexander Wiley. +[^42]: Roop, Part I, p. 189, on Dies's letter to Fly of November 18, 1941, which expressed "deep concern" and named thirteen organizations. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. +[^43]: Roop, Part I, pp. 190-191, on Fly's reply that Watson "belonged to only one of the 13 organizations Dies named," the Senate Appropriations Committee's deletion of the rider, Dodd's hiring as an editor in December 1941, and Watson's testimony of February 4, 1942. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. Roop and Mercado spell the analyst's surname "Schumann"; Bessner writes "Schuman." +[^44]: Roop, Part I, pp. 191-192, on Dies's House speech of February 1, 1943, listing 39 "communists," with Dodd, Watson and Schumann at the head of the list. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. +[^45]: Congressional Record, vol. 89, pp. 623-624 (House, February 4, 1943, notice of the amendment naming thirty-nine employees), and pp. 645, 655 and 656 (House, February 5, 1943). Roop, Part I, pp. 191-192, states that a rider "immediately was attached" to the appropriation bill after Dies's speech. https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_january-06-march-01-1943_89 +[^46]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," on Congressman Dies accusing three FBIS employees, among dozens of civil servants, of "un-American beliefs." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/. +[^47]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," quoting Vice President Henry Wallace on Dies. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/. +[^48]: Hearings (as above), pp. iii-v and 1 (the text of H. Res. 105 and the membership; first sitting April 9, 1943, "pursuant to adjournment on Wednesday, April 7, 1943"). https://archive.org/details/1943-watson-dodd-lovett +[^49]: Congressional Record, vol. 89, pp. 2788-2789 (House, March 31, 1943). https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_march-02-april-05-1943_89 +[^50]: Congressional Record, 78th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 89, p. 3068 (House, April 7, 1943). https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_april-06-may-13-1943_89 +[^51]: Roop, Part I, pp. 192-193, on the subcommittee under Congressman Kerr, which started hearings on April 2, 1943 and reported on 21 April, the findings of "subversive activity" and "unfit," the three named men, and the statement that the subcommittee "was later accused of having its final report prepared before the men were called to testify." Roop states that the subcommittee was named by the Un-American Activities Committee. The printed hearings give the authority as House Resolution 105, adopted February 9, 1943, directed to the Committee on Appropriations (Hearings, pp. iii-v), and give the sitting at which Watson's testimony begins as April 9, 1943, against Roop's April 2. *United States v. Lovett*, 328 U.S. 303 (1946), likewise describes a special subcommittee of the House Appropriations Committee, appointed under a House resolution, whose report is H. Rep. No. 448, 78th Cong., 1st Sess. The Monthly Catalog lists H. Rept. 448 (May 14, 1943, pursuant to H. Res. 105, "submitted by Mr. Kerr") on Watson, Dodd and Lovett; a February 1943 newspaper report names Kerr, a North Carolina Democrat, as chairman of the subcommittee. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/328/303. +[^52]: Hearings (as above), Appendix D, H. Rept. No. 448, 78th Cong., 1st Sess., pp. 327-334, including the finding that Schuman's case did not support a recommendation of unfitness and the findings on Watson and Dodd. +[^53]: Congressional Record, vol. 89, pp. 4554-4555 (House, May 17, 1943). https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_may-14-june-14-1943_89 +[^54]: Hearings (as above), pp. 100-105 and 118-119. +[^55]: Congressional Record, vol. 89, p. 4583 (House, May 18, 1943), the page cited in *United States v. Lovett*, 328 U.S. 303 (1946). +[^56]: Roop, Part I, p. 193, on the Senate's four rejections, its approval of the rider by 48 to 32, and the President's signature while denouncing the rider and declaring it unconstitutional. +[^57]: Urgent Deficiency Appropriation Act of 1943, section 304, 57 Stat. 431, 450, as quoted in *United States v. Lovett*, 328 U.S. 303 (1946). Roop, Part I, p. 193, note, gives the effective cutoff as November 21, 1943, where the statute as quoted gives 15 November. The enacted text also excepted accrued leave and salary and payment for jury or armed-forces service; the text proposed in the subcommittee's report (Hearings, p. 328) omitted the November 15 date and the reappointment clause. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/328/303. +[^58]: *United States v. Lovett*, 328 U.S. 303 (1946), argued May 3-6, 1946, decided June 3, 1946, opinion of Justice Black. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/328/303. Mercado's article gives the middle name as "Morse." +[^59]: Roop, Part I, pp. 194-195, on the attacks on Rhodes, Menefee and Speier; Fly's letter to J. Edgar Hoover of April 28, 1942, and the two informant reports, one calling the New York school a "refuge for exiled European communists" and the other calling it "a nest of pro-Nazi activities." +[^60]: Roop, Part I, p. 196, on Cox, the Atlanta station case, the FCC's referral to the Justice Department, the House's naming of Cox as chairman in early 1943, and the appointment of Eugene Garey as investigator. +[^61]: Roop, Part I, p. 197, on the removal of "three-fourths of FBIS personnel files," the subpoena of ten employees at 8:00 a.m., and "Star Chamber testimony," citing Leigh's article "Politicians vs. Bureaucrats" (subtitle "The case of FCC Chairman Fly and Congressman Cox"), *Harper's Magazine*, January 1945. https://harpers.org/archive/1945/01/politicians-vs-bureaucrats. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. +[^62]: Roop, Part I, p. 198, on the single irregularity found at FBIS and the list of charges, including "masquerading," "intelligence" and "glorified news gathering agency." Mercado renders the last phrase as "glorified news agency." +[^63]: Roop, Part I, p. 50, on the Cox counsel's charge that Leigh changed the name of the service to "dignify its activities," make it sound more like a war agency, and influence Congress to grant appropriations." +[^64]: Roop, Part I, pp. 198-199, on the Washington Post's sixteen editorials, the FCC member who "agreed to petition the Speaker of the House to dismiss Cox as chairman," Cox's resignation after an emotional speech, Lea's succession, and Garey's dismissal. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. Louis E. Miller (R-Mo.) and Richard B. Wigglesworth (R-Mass.) are the minority members named in *Broadcasting*, January 8, 1945. Full names: Clarence Frederick Lea (D-Calif.), Louis Ebenezer Miller (R-Mo.), Richard Bowditch Wigglesworth (R-Mass.) and Kenneth Douglas McKellar (D-Tenn.), per the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress as reproduced in the unitedstates/congress-legislators dataset. +[^65]: "Lea Probe Demands Sweeping Law Change," *Broadcasting*, January 8, 1945, on the Miller and Wigglesworth minority reports and Wigglesworth's statements. https://www.worldradiohistory.com/Archive-BC/BC-1945/1945-01-08-BC.pdf. +[^66]: Roop, Part I, pp. 200-201, on the May 1944 testimony of Leigh, Hensley, Porter and Graves; the Lea report of January 2, 1945 ("an efficient and worthwhile service"); the Miller and Wigglesworth minority report ("grave doubt"); and the majority passage quoted in *On the Beam* of February 3, 1945, in the note on p. 201. The hearings are *Hearings of the Special House Committee Investigating the FCC* (GPO, 1944), three volumes, with FBIS testimony beginning in Volume III, page 3439. Roop, Part I, p. 189, records Graves's resignation by the end of 1943. +[^67]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," on Leigh's newsletter of February 15, 1944: "The obvious conclusion is that the proposed cut relates to the opposition on the part of Representative Cox to FCC," the 30 percent figure, and Leigh's resignation "that summer." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/. +[^68]: Roop, Part I, pp. 204-206, on the House Appropriations Committee's recommended cut of 25 percent for each FCC department, Senator McKellar's demand for proof, and the Senate Appropriations Committee's recommended cut of $500,000 that both houses approved. Mercado's figure of 30 percent is given at note 48. +[^69]: Roop, Part I, pp. 206-207, on the absence of any stated congressional reason for the cut, Fly's being ruled out of order, the statement that "it was a punitive cut, made to punish Fly and FCC for defiance of Congress and for Fly's effrontery in asking the Department of Justice to prosecute Eugene Cox, a member of Congress," and, in the note on p. 207, Leigh's quotation of a member of Congress speaking privately, from Leigh's *Harper's Magazine* article, January 1945. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. +[^70]: Roop, Part I, pp. 241-244, "Charles S. Hyneman, who succeeded Leigh as FBIS director on 27 July 1944," and p. 260, "from 27 July 1944 to 7 August 1945," and Shepherd's appointment as the fourth FBIS Director. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. +[^71]: Roop, Part I, pp. 256-257 (note on the liaison study of April 29, 1944; abolition of the Special Reports Section on December 31, 1944), p. 259 (Far East Division retained "the only analytical work done in FBIS"), and pp. 267-268 (the protest of November 1944, Hyneman's response, and Robinson's letter of January 17, 1945). https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. +[^72]: Roop, Part I, p. 268, on the Soviet Embassy's request of November 11, 1942 and the TASS arrangement in London in 1943. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. +[^73]: Roop, Part I, p. 275, note, on the undated executive order with the name of President Truman, transferring FBIS functions to the Interim Research and Intelligence Service, "prepared by Shepherd and perhaps some representatives from State," and "never approved by the Secretary of State." Job 54-27, Box 15, CIA Records Center. +[^74]: Roop, Part I, pp. 274-277, on the House Appropriations Committee's action of September 19, 1945, the FCC's news release of 26 September, the conference compromise of 1 December ($465,000) approved on 3 December, and the closing of operations on December 10, 1945. +[^75]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," on the last Daily Report "on 4 December" and the FCC's termination "the following day." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/. +[^76]: Federal Communications Commission, Twelfth Annual Report, fiscal year ended June 30, 1946, which states that FBIS "was discontinued as a Commission activity on December 30, 1945." https://archive.org/details/fcc_DOC-308665A1. +[^77]: Roop, Part I, pp. 278-280, on Shepherd's letter of December 13, 1945 to the FCC, the token operations that followed, Patterson's letter of 21 December, Porter's reply of 27 December, the resumption on January 2, 1946 under War Department sponsorship, and the note on p. 279 that "No documents authorizing continued operations have been found, but permission may have been given orally." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. +[^78]: Roop, Part I, pp. 299-300, on the creation of the CIG by executive order in January 1946, the Vandenberg memorandum to Souers in February 1946, and the five-member committee. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. +[^79]: Central Intelligence Group, "Survey of the Function of Monitoring Press and Propaganda Broadcasts of Foreign Powers," C.I.G. 1, memorandum by the Director of Central Intelligence, February 25, 1946, which states that FBIS functions were "taken over by the War Department on an interim basis on 30 December 1945." https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003400110003-4. Ad hoc committee report, March 18, 1946: https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003400110004-3. +[^80]: Roop, Part I, pp. 301-303, on the ad hoc committee's recommendations (March 18, 1946), the War Department's refusal, the State Department's reply, C.I.G. 1/1 (April 26, 1946), C.I.G. 1/2 (May 8, 1946, signed by James S. Lay), and the State memorandum signed by William L. Langer on May 27, 1946, enclosed with C.I.G. 1/3 (June 4, 1946). +[^81]: Roop, Part I, pp. 303-304, on the notice, signed for the Director of Central Intelligence by Col. John Dabney, that the Director had "assumed control" of FBIS on July 31, 1946, and on the personnel transfer to CIG on November 3, 1946, announced on 31 October. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. +[^82]: National Archives and Records Administration, Guide to Federal Records, RG 262, administrative history: transfer to the Central Intelligence Group, "August 5, 1946"; "Abolished: November 1, 1946"; successors "Foreign Broadcast Information Service, CIG, November-December, 1946," "Foreign Broadcast Information Branch, CIG, January-September 1947," and "Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Central Intelligence Agency, 1947-." https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/262.html. +[^83]: CIG, "Background on Development of Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service," memorandum for the Chief, Information Branch, March 1946. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003400110001-6. +[^84]: Roop, Part I, pp. 303-304, on the notice of October 31, 1946 that "the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service would immediately become the Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS), with all publications and letterheads changed accordingly." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. +[^85]: Roop, Part I, p. 305 and note, on Sibert's statement of December 31, 1946 "informing that the name had been changed to the Foreign Broadcast Information Branch (FBIB)" and his wire of January 2, 1947 designating Russell Shepherd Chief, FBIB. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. +[^86]: CIG, "'A' and 'X' Wire Services Furnished by Foreign Broadcast Information Branch," memorandum, June 10, 1947. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003400110015-1. Also memorandum on the May 6, 1947 interview of Colonel L. K. White, Acting Chief, FBIB, with Lloyd Stratton of the Associated Press. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003400110022-3. +[^87]: Roop, Part II (CIA Directorate of Intelligence, August 1970), p. 102, on the notice that field bureaus would no longer bear "the confusing name of Foreign Broadcast Information Branch (FBIB)," and on the camouflage of their connection with CIG. The notice is dated July 28, 1947. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690. +[^88]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," note 4: "The initial monitoring service was renamed the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service in 1942 and evolved into the Foreign Broadcast Information Service in 1967." Roop, Part I, pp. 303-304 (the notice of October 31, 1946) and the 1947 CIG memoranda already use the later name. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/. +[^89]: Roop, Part I, p. 2, "FBIS took form during those six years before its adoption by the Central Intelligence Agency, and came to CIA almost mature, trained and disciplined, and ready to plunge immediately into the tasks outlined for it." https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. +[^90]: Roop, Part II, pp. 151-152, on Shepherd's memorandum of November 5, 1946, the Assistant Director for Operations' presentation to the PRC on January 6, 1947, the 35-employee and $150,000 proposal, the reduced request of twelve staff at $61,000, the "stormy" early years, and the Special Reports Division (approved February 13, 1947, begun March 28, 1947, first Survey of Soviet Radio Broadcasts April 15, 1947); p. 2, on the announcement of Col. Lawrence K. White as Deputy Chief on January 9, 1947. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690. +[^91]: Roop, Part II, p. 56, "Shepherd resigned from FBIS on 29 September 1947," with Colonel White the new FBIS Chief. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690. Appointment of the fourth director: Roop, Part I, p. 260. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. +[^92]: Roop, Part II, p. 51, on Shepherd's visit to London from June 24, 1946, his meeting with "Malcolm Frost, Chief of the BBC Monitoring Service," the $250,000 figure, and the BBC Monitoring Service's 385 employees and $650,000 cost. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690. +[^93]: Roop, Part II, pp. 54-56, on the Shepherd-Frost negotiations and the notice of October 15, 1947. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690. +[^94]: Joseph E. Roop, "Foreign Broadcast Information Service History, Part III: 1957-1967" (CIA Directorate of Intelligence, May 1972), p. 2, "after 1957 FBIS had come of age as an established CIA unit"; p. 19, on the March 23, 1961 instruction to accept responsibility for propaganda indications; and pp. 4-5, "FBIS and the BBC were monitoring broadcasts from 90 countries in 1961. By the spring of 1963 this number had increased to 115." https://archive.org/details/CIADirectorateOfIntelligenceHistoricalSeriesForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart319571967. +[^95]: Roop, Part I, p. 25, on the mailing list for the Daily Report issued on November 18, 1941; Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," states that the service "published its first Daily Report of translations on 18 November 1941." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/. +[^96]: Roop, Part I, p. 50, that Ellis G. Porter, "former editor of newspapers in Baltimore and Philadelphia," joined the staff in January 1942 "to direct publication of the Daily Report." +[^97]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis," note 39: "FBIS, Daily Report, Foreign Radio Broadcasts, Far Eastern Section, 3 January 1946, NARA, RG 262, Entry 25, Box 1," and the text that the first issue of the new Daily Report was published in January 1946. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-45-no-5/fbis-against-the-axis-1941-1945-u/. +[^98]: NARA, Guide to Federal Records, RG 262: "Daily reports of foreign radio broadcasts, 1941-45"; "Daily reports of the Far Eastern, Latin American, and European Sections, 1941-46"; "Weekly reviews of official foreign broadcasts, 1941-44"; "Radio reports on the Far East, 1942-45"; "Program schedules of foreign broadcasts, 1942-47"; and "Related Records: Records of the Foreign Broadcast Information Branch, 1947-48, in RG 263." https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/262.html. diff --git a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Brown Brothers Harriman.md b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Brown Brothers Harriman.md new file mode 100644 index 00000000..abdc31f8 --- /dev/null +++ b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Brown Brothers Harriman.md @@ -0,0 +1,290 @@ +--- +aliases: + - Brown Brothers Harriman + - Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. + - Brown Brothers Harriman & Company + - Brown Brothers, Harriman & Co. + - Brown Brothers, Harriman and Company + - Brown Bros., Harriman & Co. + - BBH + - BBH & Co. + - Brown Brothers & Co. + - Brown Brothers and Company + - Brown Bros. & Co. +category: "Private Organization" +tags: + - Organization + - Banking + - PrivateBank + - Partnership + - Harriman + - SkullAndBones + - Nicaragua + - Thyssen + - Nazi + - WorldWarII + - ColdWar + - CovertAction + - FINRA +summary: "Private New York partnership bank formed January 1, 1931 from Brown Brothers & Co. and two Harriman firms, whose partners made the Nicaragua loans of 1911 and 1912 and filled senior Washington posts." +start: 1931-01-01 +location: "New York, New York" +created: 2026-10-26 +updated: 2026-10-26 +relations: + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Prescott Bush]]" + reverse: true + start: 1931-01-01 + role: "vice-president and director of W. A. Harriman & Co., Inc. and partner in Harriman Brothers & Co. from January 1, 1930; partner in the merged firm from January 1, 1931" + fn: 4 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Robert A. Lovett]]" + reverse: true + start: 1926-01-01 + end: 1940-12-16 + role: "partner; rejoined June 1, 1946 to May 15, 1947, April 1, 1949 to October 3, 1950 and from March 1, 1953" + fn: 4 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[E. Roland Harriman]]" + reverse: true + start: 1931-01-01 + role: "partner (of W. A. Harriman & Co. from October 30, 1926); registered holder of 3,991 of 4,000 Union Banking Corporation shares in 1942" + fn: 4 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[W. Averell Harriman]]" + reverse: true + start: 1931-01-01 + end: 1946-10-31 + role: "partner until he became Secretary of Commerce; limited partner afterward" + fn: 4 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Ellery Sedgwick James]]" + reverse: true + start: 1925-01-01 + end: 1932-11-25 + role: "partner of Brown Brothers & Co. and of the merged firm until his death" + fn: 4 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Knight Woolley]]" + reverse: true + start: 1931-01-01 + end: 1956-01-01 + role: "general manager and managing partner of Harriman Brothers & Co. (partner from January 1, 1929); partner of the merged firm" + fn: 4 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Thatcher Magoun Brown]]" + reverse: true + start: 1907-01-01 + end: 1954-05-02 + role: "partner; managing partner at the 1930 merger according to Karabell; author of the firm's 1950 history" + fn: 4 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Moreau Delano]]" + reverse: true + start: 1907-01-01 + end: 1936-12-04 + role: "partner" + fn: 4 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Charles J. Rhoads]]" + reverse: true + start: 1921-01-01 + end: 1929-06-30 + role: "partner; left to become Commissioner of Indian Affairs under President Herbert Hoover" + fn: 4 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Ray Morris]]" + reverse: true + start: 1921-01-01 + end: 1956-01-01 + role: "partner; registered holder of 1 Union Banking Corporation share in 1942" + fn: 4 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Harold D. Pennington]]" + reverse: true + start: 1931-01-01 + end: 1956-12-31 + role: "manager of operations from the merger and partner from January 1, 1945; registered holder of 1 Union Banking Corporation share in 1942" + fn: 4 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Thomas McCance]]" + reverse: true + start: 1945-01-01 + role: "partner; listed with the firm in the Council on Foreign Relations table of November 1951" + fn: 4 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Robert V. Roosa]]" + reverse: true + start: 1965-01-01 + end: 1991-01-01 + role: "partner after resigning as Under Secretary of the Treasury for Monetary Affairs" + fn: 19 + - type: contractor_to + with: "[[Nicaragua]]" + start: 1911-09-01 + end: 1924-01-01 + role: "lender and fiscal agent under the agreement of September 1, 1911, the supplemental agreement of March 26, 1912 and the agreement of November 4, 1912; repaid in 1924 according to Thatcher M. Brown" + fn: 40 + - type: investigated + with: "[[New York Stock Exchange]]" + reverse: true + start: 2006-11-13 + role: "Hearing Board decision HPD 06-200: violation of NYSE Rule 342(a) and (b); censure and $170,000 fine" + fn: 52 + - type: investigated + with: "[[New York State Banking Department]]" + reverse: true + start: 2007-08-01 + role: "written agreement requiring improvement of anti-money laundering controls, recited in the 2014 FINRA order" + fn: 54 + - type: investigated + with: "[[Financial Industry Regulatory Authority]]" + reverse: true + start: 2014-02-04 + role: "Acceptance, Waiver and Consent No. 2013035821401 on anti-money laundering failures involving penny stock; censure and $8,000,000 fine" + fn: 54 + - type: investigated + with: "[[Securities and Exchange Commission]]" + reverse: true + start: 2014-09-10 + role: "cease-and-desist order, File No. 3-16076, for late Section 16(a) filings and Schedule 13G amendments; $120,000 civil penalty" + fn: 53 +--- + +Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. is a private banking partnership in [[New York City|New York]]. Effective January 1, 1931 the businesses of Brown Brothers & Co., [[Harriman Brothers & Co.]] and [[W. A. Harriman & Co.]], Inc. were united in the co-partnership firm of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.[^1] Its partners included [[Robert A. Lovett]], [[W. Averell Harriman]], [[E. Roland Harriman]] and [[Prescott Bush]], and it appears in the record of the [[Nicaragua]] customs loans of 1911 and 1912, the [[Union Banking Corporation]] and the Cold War intelligence establishment. + +### Formation of the Firm + +The Brown partnership descends from [[Alexander Brown]], a [[Belfast]] linen merchant who emigrated to the United States in 1800. In 1818 he founded [[Alex. Brown & Sons]], according to the finding aid for the firm's records at the [[New-York Historical Society]].[^2] [[Time]] dated the house differently, stating that it was "formed in 1825 by Alexander Brown, previously a linen merchant."[^3] The finding aid records that Alexander Brown's eldest son William founded [[William Brown & Co.]] in [[Liverpool]] in 1810, which became [[Brown Shipley & Co.]] in 1839 and separated from Brown Brothers as a distinct business in 1918.[^2] The partner table in the firm's 1968 history lists [[Montagu Norman]] as a partner of the Brown Shipley house from 1900 to 1915, before he became Governor of the [[Bank of England]].[^4] By 1929 only three of the twelve Brown Brothers partners were Browns: the senior partner [[James Brown]] and his cousins James Crosby Brown and [[Thatcher Magoun Brown]].[^5] + +W. A. Harriman & Co., Inc. was organized on November 13, 1919 under the management of W. Averell Harriman, [[George Herbert Walker]] (president from 1920 until 1930) and Prescott Bush. The firm opened an office in [[Berlin]] in 1922, extended short-term credits to German industries, helped finance zinc mines in [[Silesia]], and in 1928 financed the [[Aviation Corporation]], which became [[Pan American World Airways]].[^6] Time reported that in 1920 Averell Harriman "set out to make the U. S. great upon the sea" and formed an alliance with the [[Hamburg-American Line]], that he was thwarted in it, and that the firm "made many a loan in [[Germany]]."[^3] On St. Patrick's Day, 1927, the Harrimans set up a partnership bank, originally called W. A. Harriman & Co. without the "Inc." and soon renamed Harriman Brothers & Co. [[Knight Woolley]] of the foreign department of the American Exchange National Bank became its general manager. The bank started with four employees, capital from the Harrimans and M. Samuel & Co., Ltd., and Averell Harriman's instruction, "Here's four million. Go ahead and run the bank."[^7] The firm's partner table gives October 30, 1926 as the date E. Roland Harriman and Averell Harriman became partners of the Harriman bank and describes Woolley as general manager "from its founding in 1926."[^4] The first bankers acceptance created by the bank, dated October 24, 1927, financed a German metal refining company's import of Chilean copper. The minute book of the bank's partners records for 1927 that Woolley accepted, through [[Ellery Sedgwick James]], "the offer of a $250,000 participation" with Brown Brothers & Co. and two other banks in an acceptance credit for a Berlin metal firm.[^8] + +The firm's 1968 history, written by [[John A. Kouwenhoven]], quotes the 1950 firm history by Thatcher M. Brown that "it became clear to us, during the year 1930, that we were doing too large a business for our capital," after losses on securities underwritten before the 1929 crash and the withdrawal of capital by older partners.[^9] The merger was announced on December 12, 1930, according to [[Zachary Karabell]], who wrote that the announcement appeared on the front page of [[The New York Times]] on the day the Bank of United States collapsed, and that clerks carried the Harriman family's securities from 39 Broadway to 59 Wall Street under armed guard.[^10] The finding aid lists newspaper clippings announcing the merger and a clipping reporting Woolley's election as a director, dated December 12, 1930 to January 23, 1931.[^2] Time reported on December 22, 1930 that the two houses had merged "last week," counting sixteen partners in the new firm of Brown Bros., Harriman & Co., eleven of them [[Yale University|Yale]] graduates.[^3] The printed circular announcing the union is dated January 2, 1931 and states that the businesses were united "effective January 1, 1931."[^1] The chronology in the finding aid to the W. Averell Harriman papers at the [[Library of Congress]] lists him as partner of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. from 1931 to 1946.[^11] The firm's history page counts seventeen partners, twelve of them Yale graduates.[^12] [[Antony C. Sutton]] wrote that before 1933 the firm "consisted of two firms," W. A. Harriman Company and Brown Brothers, and gave 1933 as the year of the merger.[^13] + +Three accounts place the origin of the merger on a train to a Yale event. The firm's history page states that "according to firm lore" the idea was first floated among six partners in November 1930 on the train from New York to [[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]] for the Yale-[[Harvard University|Harvard]] football game.[^12] Karabell described a railcar chartered on the New Haven line from Grand Central Station to a Yale reunion on a fall day in 1930, and wrote, "Roland wasn't on the train that day, but Ellery James and Knight Woolley were."[^10] Kouwenhoven placed the card game in the spring of 1930, with James, Woolley and Prescott Bush traveling to a Yale reunion with two other classmates, and called it a story "now current in various versions, as all good legends are." He recorded Thatcher Brown's recollection that James first suggested talking with the Harrimans, and Roland Harriman's recollection that James spoke to him about "working under one roof" before the crash of 1929.[^9] + +The firm's history page states that in 1931, a few months after the merger closed, Germany declared a Stillhalte (standstill) on debt payments to foreign private creditors, including over $10 million in credits from the firm, roughly the size of its entire capital, against liabilities of nearly ten times that amount, and that "an emergency infusion of $10 million from the Harrimans, Averell and Roland, staved off collapse."[^12] Karabell wrote, "Every Brown Brothers partner was personally exposed."[^10] The firm's 1968 history states that the Banking Act of 1933 required private banking houses to choose between underwriting and deposit banking, that Brown Brothers Harriman remained a bank of deposit, and that several partners resigned on June 9, 1934 to join Brown Harriman & Co., Inc. in the investment banking business.[^14][^4] + +### The Partners + +Time named the partners it considered most prominent. It described Ellery Sedgwick James as a Brown Brothers partner and a classmate of E. Roland Harriman, Prescott Bush and Knight Woolley. It described Robert A. Lovett as a partner and the son of Judge [[Robert Scott Lovett]], "longtime personal attorney and close friend of the late Edward Henry Harriman and now chairman of his Union Pacific."[^3] + +The partner table in Kouwenhoven's history gives the dates. James was a partner of Brown Brothers from January 1, 1925 and died on November 25, 1932. Lovett became a partner on January 1, 1926 and left on December 16, 1940 for Washington, rejoining on June 1, 1946, April 1, 1949 and March 1, 1953. Woolley became a partner of Harriman Brothers on January 1, 1929 and of the merged firm on January 1, 1931. Bush became a partner of Harriman Brothers on January 1, 1930 and of the merged firm on January 1, 1931. Averell Harriman was a partner of the merged firm from January 1, 1931 to October 31, 1946, and a limited partner afterward. [[Ray Morris]] was a partner from January 1, 1921 to 1956, [[Charles J. Rhoads]] from January 1, 1921 to June 30, 1929, [[Thomas McCance]] from January 1, 1945 and [[Robert V. Roosa]] from January 1, 1965.[^4] [[Harold D. Pennington]] was a partner of Harriman Brothers during 1930, a manager of the merged firm, and a partner from January 1, 1945 to December 31, 1956. Kouwenhoven wrote that he was from the start manager in charge of operations for the new concern and that he walked behind the handcarts that moved the Harriman securities to the vault at 59 Wall Street with a pistol in his pocket.[^15] [[Moreau Delano]] (1877 to 1936) was a partner from 1907, and Thatcher M. Brown (1876 to 1954) from 1907 to May 2, 1954.[^4] + +Karabell described Thatcher Brown, great-grandson of Alexander Brown, as managing partner of the Brown firm and Woolley as managing partner of "another one of the Harriman firms."[^10] The New-York Historical Society finding aid lists images of the Thatcher Brown and Moreau Delano partnerships, one dated January 1, 1907, and holds the Moreau Delano papers for 1931 to 1935. It lists Thatcher M. Brown's papers for 1890 to 1966 and his firm history *Brown Brothers & Co. [and] Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., 1900-1950*. The records were gathered in part to support *Partners in Banking*, which Kouwenhoven wrote after the firm hired him in 1964 as Director of the Historical Files and which [[Doubleday & Co.]] commissioned for the firm's 150th anniversary in 1968.[^2] + +Robert A. Lovett married Adele Quartley Brown, daughter of the senior partner James Brown, in 1919, joined Brown Brothers in 1921, was granted a power of attorney in January 1925 and was admitted to partnership in 1926. In that year he was also elected a director of the [[Union Pacific Railroad]] and member of its executive committee. Kouwenhoven recorded that Roland Harriman and Lovett met as eight-year-old boys in 1903.[^16] A November 1951 table of corporations whose officers belonged to the [[Council on Foreign Relations]] lists Brown Brothers Harriman with E. Roland Harriman, Ray Morris, Knight Woolley and Thomas McCance.[^17] A 1981 North American roster of the [[Trilateral Commission]] lists Robert V. Roosa as a partner of the firm.[^18] The Kennedy Library's biographical note records that Roosa was a director of the Council on Foreign Relations from 1966 to 1981.[^19] + +### Public Service of the Partners + +Thatcher Brown wrote in 1950 that public service "was more or less expected of the leaders of our business." Kouwenhoven recorded that Averell Harriman chaired the Commerce Department's [[Business Advisory Council]] from 1937 to 1939, served with the [[National Recovery Administration]], the [[National Defense Advisory Commission]] and the Office of Production Management, and went to Great Britain as President Roosevelt's special representative to coordinate lend-lease aid. During the war Roland Harriman managed the North Atlantic Area of the [[American Red Cross]] and Prescott Bush became national campaign chairman of the combined fund-raising drives of the [[United Service Organizations|USO]] and other wartime charities in 1942. Lovett was called to Washington in June 1940 as Special Assistant to the Secretary of War (the partner table dates the post from December 1940 to April 1941) and served as Assistant Secretary of War for Air from 1941 to 1945. The firm's history reproduces the Distinguished Service Medal citation calling him "the eyes, ears, and hands of the Secretary of War in respect to the growth of that enormous American air power."[^20] President Truman appointed Roland Harriman president of the American Red Cross in 1950. Bush served as United States Senator from [[Connecticut]] from 1952 to 1962, and Lovett served as Under Secretary of State from 1947 to 1949 and as Deputy Secretary and Secretary of Defense from 1950 to 1953.[^21] The [[United States Senate]] timeline for Connecticut records that Bush won election to the Senate on November 4, 1952, "following a defeat in the 1950 election," and that he "served until 1963."[^22] + +Roosa, who had served in London with the Enemy Objectives Unit of the [[Office of Strategic Services]] in the Second World War, joined the [[Federal Reserve Bank of New York]] after the war, served as Under Secretary of the Treasury for Monetary Affairs under Presidents Kennedy and Johnson until 1964, and worked at the firm from 1965 to 1991. He was chairman of the board of trustees of the [[Brookings Institution]] from 1975 to 1986.[^19] Kouwenhoven quoted the American Banker on Roosa's resignation from the Treasury: "one of the great innovators" in financial affairs.[^23] The finding aid lists correspondence about the appointment of partner Charles J. Rhoads as [[Commissioner of Indian Affairs]] in 1929, donated to the [[American Philosophical Society]] in 1965.[^2] + +### Robert A. Lovett and the Intelligence Establishment + +Lovett's oral history at the [[Harry S. Truman Library]], recorded July 7, 1971, describes his move from the firm to the [[State Department]] in 1947. He recalled that the President telephoned him early in the morning at a superintendent's cottage on his father's place in [[Locust Valley, New York|Locust Valley]]. The President told him, "I've got to get a new Secretary of State and I've signed up General Marshall on the condition which he made that you'd come down and be his Under Secretary." Lovett answered, "I've got to go and check with my partners; I've got to get permission to get out of the firm and the New York State Bank Department has to approve."[^24] The library's biographical summary lists his posts as Under Secretary of State from 1947 to 1949, private law practice with Brown Brothers, Harriman and Company from 1949 to 1950, Deputy Secretary of Defense from 1950 to 1951, and later Secretary of Defense. The firm's partner table gives April 1, 1949 to October 3, 1950 as his second period as partner.[^24][^4] + +In the *Foreign Relations of the United States* volume on the intelligence community, a memorandum of March 30, 1950 from [[George F. Kennan]] records that the [[National Security Council]] directive NSC 10/2 of June 1948 established an Office of Special Projects (later the [[Office of Policy Coordination]]) in the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] to plan and conduct covert operations, and that Kennan's designation as the State Department's representative for the purpose was made known to the Council by a letter signed August 13, 1948 by Lovett.[^25] A State Department memorandum of October 15, 1952 recalls the "concept of General Marshall, Mr. Forrestal, Mr. Lovett and Mr. Kennan, when OPC was set up in the spring of 1948," that covert political warfare was of primary interest to the State Department.[^26] The first meeting of the [[Psychological Strategy Board]], held on July 2, 1951 in the Director of Central Intelligence's conference room, was attended by [[Walter Bedell Smith]], Lovett as Deputy Secretary of Defense, [[Gordon Gray]], [[Allen Dulles]] and Edward Barrett for the Under Secretary of State.[^27] On October 24, 1952 President Truman addressed a memorandum on communications intelligence to Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] and Secretary of Defense Lovett, designating them a Special Committee of the National Security Council for the subject. The volume also prints a memorandum to Lovett from the Director of the [[National Security Agency]] and representatives of the Military Services and Joint Chiefs of Staff.[^28] The volume lists Lovett as a member of the Strategic Missile Evaluation Committee (the "Teapot Committee") from June 16, 1953 to February 8, 1954 and of the [[President's Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities]] from January 13, 1956.[^29] + +A State Department memorandum of December 22, 1955 reported that Allen Dulles had said the White House would soon announce the appointment of a Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities, and listed the expected members as John E. Hull, Richard Connolly, James Doolittle, James Killian, David Bruce, Benjamin Fairless and Morris Hadley. The board was established by Executive Order 10656 of February 6, 1956.[^30] The Center for the Study of Intelligence newsletter of Spring 1995 states that [[David K. E. Bruce]] and Lovett prepared a report for President Eisenhower in the fall of 1956 and that they "had been charter members" of the board; the CIA History Staff searched the board's files, the Eisenhower Library, the National Archives and the Virginia Historical Society without finding it.[^31] [[Peter Grose]] wrote that Killian delegated Lovett and Bruce to investigate the covert action programs, and described Lovett as "a partner in the investment banking firm of Brown Brothers Harriman." Grose and [[Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.]], who saw the report among Robert Kennedy's papers, quoted from it. Lovett told the Taylor board of inquiry on the Bay of Pigs in 1961 that Bruce "was very much disturbed" and that "instead of completing the report in thirty days we took two months or more." According to Schlesinger, the report found that "no one, other than those in the CIA immediately concerned with their day to day operation, has any detailed knowledge of what is going on," that a "horde of CIA representatives" was exerting "significant, almost unilateral influences" on the formulation of foreign policy, and asked whether anyone in an authoritative position was weighing "the long-range wisdom of activities which have entailed our virtual abandonment of the international 'golden rule.'"[^32] Schlesinger wrote that the full board's December 1956 statement on "the extremely informal and somewhat exclusive methods" used for clandestine projects was signed by another board member, [[Joseph P. Kennedy]], and that in its January 1961 report the board stated, "We have been unable to conclude that, on balance, all of the covert action programs undertaken by CIA up to this time have been worth the risk or the great expenditure of manpower, money and other resources involved." Schlesinger also wrote that when [[Richard Bissell]] and others briefed the board on the Cuban project in late 1960, "its members, Lovett particularly, registered dismay."[^32] + +### Prescott Bush and the Union Banking Corporation + +Karabell wrote that Bush had gone from selling rubber flooring to working as a vice president at Harriman with his college friend E. Roland Harriman, and that he had married the daughter of George Herbert Walker of [[St. Louis]].[^10] Kouwenhoven's caption describes Bush as vice-president and a director of W. A. Harriman & Co., Inc. and a partner in Harriman Brothers & Co. at the time of the merger, and as secretary of the [[United States Golf Association]] in 1932 and its president from 1935.[^6] + +Bush appears in the records of the Union Banking Corporation, a New York company whose stock the [[Office of the Alien Property Custodian]] vested in 1942. Vesting Order Number 248, executed October 20, 1942, vested "all of the capital stock of Union Banking Corporation, a New York corporation," consisting of 4,000 shares of $100 par value stock. It listed the registered owners: E. Roland Harriman, 3,991 shares; [[Cornelius Lievense]], 4; Harold D. Pennington, 1; Ray Morris, 1; Prescott S. Bush, 1; [[H. J. Kouwenhoven]], 1; and [[Johann G. Groeninger]], 1. The order says the shares were "held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N. V., Rotterdam," which it describes as "owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family, nationals of Germany and/or Hungary." A second paragraph vested claims of that bank and of the August [[Thyssen-Bank]], Berlin, Germany, against the corporation for indebtedness. The order was published in the [[Federal Register]] on November 7, 1942.[^33] Of the seven holders, four (Harriman, Morris, Bush and Pennington) appear in the firm's partner table or staff records.[^4][^15] + +A [[Department of the Treasury|Treasury Department]] memorandum of August 18, 1941 on the corporation records that it was wholly owned by the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart of Rotterdam. It records that the corporation's president, Cornelius Lievense, claimed no knowledge of the bank's ownership but believed it possible that Baron [[Heinrich Thyssen]], brother of [[Fritz Thyssen]], might own a substantial interest. It also records gold purchases of more than eight million dollars in 1931 to 1933, of which $3,085,000 was delivered to the [[Federal Reserve Bank]] on June 15, 1934. It records that in the fall of 1938 the corporation held two million dollars in currency in a New York safe deposit box, later deposited in its account with Brown Brothers Harriman.[^34] + +Sutton wrote that the Union Banking Corporation was "a joint Thyssen-Harriman operation," and listed eight directors for 1932. He named E. Roland Harriman as a vice president of W. A. Harriman & Co., Ellery Sedgwick James as a partner of Brown Brothers, Prescott Sheldon Bush as a partner of Brown Brothers Harriman, Knight Woolley as a director of [[Guaranty Trust Company]] and of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, and H. J. Kouwenhoven, Johann Groninger, Cornelius Lievense and [[J. L. Guinter]] as the remaining directors.[^35] The 1942 vesting order lists Morris and Pennington among the registered holders. Kouwenhoven's partner table gives James's death as November 25, 1932.[^33][^4] + +### The Yale Concentration + +Time counted eleven Yale graduates among the sixteen partners, and the firm's history page counts twelve among seventeen.[^3][^12] Sutton's catalogue of [[Skull and Bones]] members by class year, printed in the 2002 edition of his book, gives Prescott Sheldon Bush, Edward Roland Noel Harriman and Knight Woolley for the class of 1917, W. Averell Harriman for the class of 1913, and Robert Abercrombie Lovett for the class of 1918. It also lists William Ellery Sedgwick James for the class of 1917.[^36] Sutton wrote that among the firm's 26 partners in the mid-1970s, no fewer than nine were members of the order, and listed [[Walter H. Brown]] (1945), Bush (1917), Granger Kent Costikyan (1929), E. Roland Harriman (1917), W. Averell Harriman (1913), Stephen Young Hord (1921), Lovett (1918), John Beckwith Madden (1941) and Woolley (1917).[^37] Karabell wrote that James and Woolley had each been sworn into Skull and Bones before enlisting in the military and that Lovett belonged to their circle.[^10] Kouwenhoven's table gives Hord's partnership as beginning January 1, 1945 in Chicago and Madden's on January 1, 1955.[^4] + +### Nicaragua, 1911 to 1912 + +The firm's loans to the Republic of Nicaragua are documented in the *Foreign Relations of the United States* for 1911 and 1912. The headnote to the loan convention records that the Nicaraguan assembly ratified it on June 15 and July 7, 1911, and that it was "Still pending in the Senate of the United States."[^38] In a July 17, 1911 message the President proposed amending Article IV, under which the Nicaraguan government "will appoint from a list of names to be presented to it by the fiscal agent of the loan and approved by the President of the United States of America, a collector general of customs." The message proposed striking the words "who need not be a Nicaraguan and" from the article.[^39] + +Brown Brothers and [[J. and W. Seligman and Company]] wrote to the Secretary of State on November 2, 1911 that "on September 1, 1911, we entered into an agreement with the Republic of Nicaragua, by which we undertook to make a temporary loan of $1,500,000, which the Republic urgently needed." The two houses had nominated [[Clifford D. Ham]], Surveyor of the Port of [[Manila]], as Collector General of Customs.[^40] On November 11, 1911 the Secretary of State told the Nicaraguan minister that he had approved the nomination.[^41] + +The loans followed in a series of agreements. The houses reported the [[Ethelburga]] contract of December 9, 1911, which later failed.[^42] They reported a supplemental agreement of March 26, 1912 for loans up to $775,000.[^43] Their June 3, 1912 letter reported contracts dated May 25, 1912 with the [[Corporation of Foreign Bondholders]].[^44] On August 2, 1912 the houses wrote that the Republic had asked for an immediate loan of $100,000 "for the purpose of enabling it to reestablish order," and that they would make it through the [[National Bank of Nicaragua]], which had opened at [[Managua]] on August 1. They wrote that "The entire capital stock of that Bank is pledged with us as security for the various loans which we have heretofore made to the Republic," and that "the Bank is under our management and control."[^45] On November 13, 1912 they reported an agreement dated November 4, 1912 and a separate fund of $400,000.[^46] + +In a February 14, 1912 letter the American Minister wrote that the Legation "did not wish to take any official part in the business negotiations between the Nicaraguan Government and Brown Brothers et al."[^47] In 1914 the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations took testimony on the convention. [[Charles A. Douglas]], who said that "I have represented Nicaragua for a little over a year," testified that Ham was "nominated and put there really by the bankers with the assent of the Secretary of State." He said that Brown Brothers and Seligman were the only bankers he knew in connection with the Nicaraguan affair, and that the treaty "was never ratified."[^48] The same hearing volume prints a list of five agreements the committee received. Two of them were between the Republic and Brown Bros. & Co. and J. & W. Seligman & Co., one for the purchase of Treasury bills and one for the purchase of railroad and bank stock. The others were between the Republic and the National Bank of Nicaragua, the [[Ferrocarril del Pacifico de Nicaragua]], and the [[United States Mortgage and Trust Company]].[^49] The finding aid lists an excerpt from Senate Committee on Foreign Relations confidential hearings on Nicaragua from October 1912, a transcript from June 1914, and a [[Linton Wells]] memorandum on the involvement of Brown Brothers and Seligman in Nicaraguan affairs covering 1911 to 1929.[^2] + +Kouwenhoven reproduced a specimen of the 1912 Nicaraguan paper currency bearing the signature of James Brown, senior partner of Brown Brothers & Co., as "Presidente" of the Banco Nacional de Nicaragua. He recorded that [[Oswald Garrison Villard]] published an editorial entitled "The Republic of Brown Brothers" in *[[The Nation]]* on June 7, 1922, charging that the United States had reduced Haiti, Santo Domingo and Nicaragua "to the status of colonies." Kouwenhoven wrote that the firm's records, including James Brown's private diary and an unpublished account by Thatcher M. Brown, "suggest that it was quite the other way around," that the loan was made in 1911 at the request of the State Department, which "was anxious" for a one-year loan for currency reform and a bank headed by Americans. Thatcher Brown's account, quoted there, describes James Brown and Albert Straus of the Seligman firm before a Senate committee, Senator Williams's remark that "I always knew Wall Street bankers were crooks, but this is the first time I ever realized they were damn fools as well," and payment of the loans "principal and interest, in 1924." The J. G. White Engineering Corporation was employed by Brown Brothers and the Seligmans to put the country's railroads into operating condition.[^50] + +### Later Records + +The [[Office of Government Ethics]] disclosure that [[Jay Clayton]] filed on his nomination to the SEC listed Brown Brothers Harriman among the clients from which he had earned more than $5,000 in a year.[^51] + +### Regulatory Record + +The firm's FINRA registration record, CRD number 104487, classifies it as a partnership. It states that the firm "was formed in [[Pennsylvania]]," that its FINRA registration ran from January 4, 1933 to July 12, 2017, and that it ceased business on June 12, 2017. The record describes the bank as principally regulated by the [[New York State Department of Financial Services]] and the securities division as principally regulated by the [[Financial Industry Regulatory Authority]].[^52] + +The record lists three regulatory events. The first is a [[New York Stock Exchange]] Hearing Board decision dated November 13, 2006 (case HPD 06-200). It found that the firm violated NYSE Rule 342(a) and (b) by failing to establish and maintain adequate policies, procedures and controls. The firm consented, without admitting or denying guilt, to a censure and a fine of $170,000.[^52] + +The second is an order of the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] dated September 10, 2014, File No. 3-16076. The order records that BBH "also serves as the general partner" of the BBH Fund, and that "BBH designated certain of its partners to exercise voting and investment power over investments of the BBH Fund and to serve as directors of the BBH Fund." It found failures to timely file Section 16(a) reports concerning two corporations in which the firm held more than 10 percent, and failures to amend Schedule 13G filings. The firm consented without admitting or denying the findings and paid a civil penalty of $120,000.[^53] + +The third is a FINRA Acceptance, Waiver and Consent, No. 2013035821401, accepted by FINRA on February 4, 2014. Respondents were the firm and Harold A. Crawford, its Global Anti Money Laundering Compliance Officer from May 2007 through December 31, 2013. The order states that in August 2007 the firm and the then-named New York State Banking Department entered into a written agreement requiring it to improve its system of internal controls, policies and procedures on verifying the identities of account holders and to devote resources to an effective anti-money laundering program. For January 1, 2009 through June 30, 2013, FINRA found that the firm directly executed sales or, as a custodian, delivered to other firms the securities underlying the sale of at least 6 billion shares of low-priced securities, generating at least $850 million in proceeds to the sellers, less than 20 percent of it through transactions where the firm acted as executing broker. The firm conducted penny stock transactions for omnibus accounts of banks in Switzerland, Guernsey and Jersey on behalf of undisclosed underlying customers. FINRA found that the firm and Crawford were aware its brokerage activity had expanded when its Swiss bank clients "realized they could offer their underlying clients anonymous access to U.S. Securities markets." It found that the anti-money laundering program failed to monitor and investigate suspicious penny stock activity, including delivery-versus-payment transactions, failed to conduct adequate periodic reviews of correspondent accounts for foreign financial institutions, failed to ensure that suspicious activity was reported, and that the firm lacked a supervisory system to prevent the distribution of unregistered securities. The firm was censured and fined $8,000,000, and Crawford was suspended for one month and fined $25,000, without admitting or denying the findings. The firm's corrective action statement states that equity brokerage accounted for less than 1 percent of annual revenues in 2013 and that it announced in December 2013 a decision to close the business effective June 2014. The BrokerCheck record states that the firm paid the fine on February 12, 2014.[^54][^52] + +The affiliated entities on the same record are [[Brown Brothers Harriman Investments]], LLC, [[Brown Brothers Harriman Credit Partners]], LLC, and the [[Brown Brothers Harriman Mutual Fund Advisory Department]].[^52] + +### Footnotes + +[^1]: John A. Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking: An Historical Portrait of a Great Private Bank, Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., 1818-1968* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1968), p. 19, circular of January 2, 1931 reproduced from the firm's Historical File; partner table on pp. 231 to 234 gives January 1, 1931. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb +[^2]: Brown Brothers Harriman Records, MS 78, New-York Historical Society, Historical Note and series descriptions for Series I, Series IV, Series V and Series IX, finding aid hosted by New York University Libraries. https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms78_brown_brothers_harriman/ +[^3]: "Business: Brown-Harriman," *Time*, December 22, 1930. https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,740853,00.html +[^4]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), "Partners of Brown Brothers & Co. and Brown Brothers Harriman & Co." table with dates and comments, pp. 231 to 235 (entries for Montagu Norman, James Brown, Thatcher M. Brown, Moreau Delano, Ellery Sedgewick James, Prescott Sheldon Bush, E. Roland Noel Harriman, William Averell Harriman, Robert Abercrombie Lovett, Knight Woolley, Ray Morris, Charles James Rhoads, Harold Douglas Pennington, Thomas McCance, Robert Vincent Roosa, Stephen Young Hord, John Beckwith Madden). https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb +[^5]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 192. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb +[^6]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 12 to 13, text and caption of the photograph of Prescott S. Bush. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb +[^7]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 13. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb +[^8]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 14 to 15 (first bankers acceptance of October 24, 1927) and p. 16 (minute book entry of 1927). https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb +[^9]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 16 to 17, quoting Thatcher M. Brown's informal history of the firm. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb +[^10]: Zachary Karabell, "Inside Money: Brown Brothers Harriman and the American Way of Power," *Financial History* 138 (Summer 2021), Museum of American Finance, pp. 14 to 17 (passages quoted at pp. 15 to 16). https://archive.org/details/financialhistory138 +[^11]: W. Averell Harriman Papers, A Finding Aid to the Collection in the Library of Congress, Manuscript Division (2016), Biographical Note (chronology 1891 to 1986). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003012.pdf +[^12]: Brown Brothers Harriman, "Joining Forces: The Birth of Brown Brothers Harriman," firm history page. https://www.bbh.com/apac/en/bbh-who-we-are/our-story/200-years-of-partnership/joining-forces-the-birth-of-brown-brothers-harriman.html +[^13]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2002), memoranda on Guaranty Trust and Brown Brothers, Harriman, and the Harriman chronology. The dating is Sutton's. +[^14]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 15, on the Banking Act of 1933 and the "Big Four" houses of 1931. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb +[^15]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 197 to 198, caption of the photograph of Harold D. Pennington. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb +[^16]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 17 to 18. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb +[^17]: Council on Foreign Relations, Receipts (1946-1951), Research Budget, with Contributions of Corporations, Individual Contributions to the 25th Anniversary Fund and Corporations with Officers who are members of the Council on Foreign Relations, November 1951, CIA-RDP80R01731R001100170005-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001100170005-1 +[^18]: The Trilateral Commission, membership roster "As of July 1, 1981," reprinted in Congressional Research Service, *The Trilateral Commission*, Issue Packet IP0092 (Library of Congress, 1981). https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/19810501_IP0092_2d3ea09e2c6068af730f41d315f4ea490bc91878.pdf +[^19]: Jennifer Marciello, "Collection Opening: Robert V. Roosa Personal Papers," John F. Kennedy Presidential Library archives blog, November 7, 2024. https://jfk.blogs.archives.gov/2024/11/07/collection-opening-robert-v-roosa-personal-papers +[^20]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 202 to 203. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb +[^21]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 203. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb +[^22]: United States Senate, Connecticut timeline, entry for November 4, 1952 (Prescott Bush). https://www.senate.gov/states/CT/timeline.htm +[^23]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 208. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb +[^24]: "Oral History Interview with Robert A. Lovett," July 7, 1971, Harry S. Truman Library, transcript pp. 4 to 7, with the library's biographical summary. https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/oral-histories/lovettra +[^25]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 4, Memorandum from the Counselor of the Department of State (Kennan) to the Under Secretary of State (Webb), March 30, 1950. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d4 +[^26]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 129, Memorandum from Robert P. Joyce of the Policy Planning Staff to the Under Secretary of State (Bruce), October 15, 1952. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d129 +[^27]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 78, Minutes of a Meeting of the Psychological Strategy Board, July 2, 1951. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d78 +[^28]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 132, Memorandum from President Truman to Secretary of State Acheson and Secretary of Defense Lovett, October 24, 1952, and document 136, Memorandum from the Director of the National Security Agency (Canine) and Representatives of the Military Services and Joint Chiefs of Staff to Secretary of Defense Lovett. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d132 +[^29]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, list of persons, entry for Lovett, Robert A. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/persons +[^30]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 247, Memorandum from the Secretary of State's Special Assistant for Intelligence and Research (Armstrong) to Secretary of State Dulles, December 22, 1955, with the editorial note on Executive Order 10656. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d247 +[^31]: Central Intelligence Agency, Center for the Study of Intelligence Newsletter, no. 3 (Spring 1995), "The Elusive 'Bruce-Lovett Report.'" https://web.archive.org/web/2005/https://www.cia.gov/csi/bulletin/csi3.htm +[^32]: Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., *Robert Kennedy and His Times* (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1978), pp. 455 to 458, and Peter Grose, *Gentleman Spy: The Life of Allen Dulles* (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1994), pp. 444 to 448, (excerpts at https://cryptome.org/0001/bruce-lovett.htm) +[^33]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 248, "All of the Capital Stock of Union Banking Corporation and Certain Indebtedness Owing by It," executed October 20, 1942, F.R. Doc. 42-11568, 7 *Federal Register* 9097 to 9098 (November 7, 1942). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf +[^34]: Treasury Department memorandum, Mr. May to Mr. J. W. Pehle, August 18, 1941, "Re: Union Banking Corporation," ref. 9-151, with handwritten notation by J. W. Pehle, declassified by NARA (authority NND 960103). +[^35]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (Trine Day, 2002), section "The Union Banking Connection." The lists and characterizations are Sutton's. +[^36]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2002), membership catalogue by class year in the 2002 edition. +[^37]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (Trine Day, 2002), section on Brown Brothers, Harriman, list of partners "who were also members of The Order in the mid 1970s." The count and list are Sutton's. +[^38]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1478, headnote to the Loan Convention between the United States and Nicaragua. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1478 +[^39]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1480, Senate Executive E, 62d Congress, 1st session, amendments proposed in the President's message of July 17, 1911. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1480 +[^40]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1482, Brown Brothers and Company and J. and W. Seligman and Company to the Secretary of State, November 2, 1911. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1482 +[^41]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1485, the Secretary of State to the Nicaraguan Minister, November 11, 1911. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1485 +[^42]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1486, December 13, 1911. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1486 +[^43]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1504, Brown Brothers and Company and J. and W. Seligman and Company to the Secretary of State, April 2, 1912. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1504 +[^44]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1509, June 3, 1912. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1509 +[^45]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1512, Brown Brothers and Company and J. and W. Seligman and Company to the Secretary of State, August 2, 1912. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1512 +[^46]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1517, Brown Brothers and Company and J. and W. Seligman and Company to the Secretary of State, November 13, 1912. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1517 +[^47]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1498, the American Minister to the Secretary of State, February 14, 1912. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1498 +[^48]: *Convention between the United States and Nicaragua*, hearing before the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate, 63d Congress, 2d session (Washington, 1914), statement of Charles A. Douglas, counsel for the Government of Nicaragua. https://archive.org/details/conventionbetwee00unitrich +[^49]: *Convention between the United States and Nicaragua*, hearing before the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate, 63d Congress, 2d session (Washington, 1914), list of agreements submitted to the committee in May 1914. https://archive.org/details/conventionbetwee00unitrich +[^50]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 189 to 190, quoting Thatcher M. Brown's account; Oswald Garrison Villard, "The Republic of Brown Brothers," *The Nation*, June 7, 1922, as described there. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb +[^51]: ProPublica, "Jay Clayton," *Trump Town*, from his OGE Form 278e financial disclosure (database updated October 2019). https://projects.propublica.org/trump-town/staffers/jay-clayton +[^52]: FINRA BrokerCheck, firm report for Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., CRD 104487, Disclosure Events, Firm Statement and Firm History sections. https://files.brokercheck.finra.org/firm/firm_104487.pdf +[^53]: Securities and Exchange Commission, Order Instituting Cease-and-Desist Proceedings, Release No. 34-73047 (September 10, 2014), File No. 3-16076, *In the Matter of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.* https://www.sec.gov/litigation/admin/2014/34-73047.pdf +[^54]: Financial Industry Regulatory Authority, Letter of Acceptance, Waiver and Consent No. 2013035821401, *Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.* (CRD 104487) and Harold A. Crawford (CRD 5326696), accepted February 4, 2014, with the Corrective Action Statement of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. https://www.finra.org/sites/default/files/fda_documents/2013035821401_FDA_D821567%20%282019-1562955575747%29.pdf diff --git a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Council on Foreign Relations.md b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Council on Foreign Relations.md index 867c0e04..e197424f 100644 --- a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Council on Foreign Relations.md +++ b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Council on Foreign Relations.md @@ -143,7 +143,7 @@ The fourth page of the November 1951 table lists corporations with officers who ### Officers and committees in 1952 -For 1952 to 1953 the Council's officers were [[R. C. Leffingwell]] as chairman of the board, Allen W. Dulles as vice-chairman (on leave), [[Henry M. Wriston]] as president, David Rockefeller as vice-president, Frank Altschul as vice-president and secretary, [[Devereux C. Josephs]] as vice-president and treasurer, [[Walter H. Mallory]] as executive director (on leave) and George S. Franklin Jr. as acting executive director. The directors included W. Averell Harriman, [[William A. M. Burden]], [[John W. Davis]], [[Grayson Kirk]], [[Lewis W. Douglas]], [[Thomas K. Finletter]], [[Whitney H. Shepardson]] and Taylor. Rockefeller chaired the Membership Committee; Dulles sat on the Committee on Studies with Wriston, Armstrong, Dean, Mosely and others; Armstrong edited Foreign Affairs, whose Editorial Advisory Board comprised [[George H. Blakeslee]], Davis, Dulles, [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], [[George Kennan]], Langer, [[Charles H. McIlwain]], Seymour and Wriston.[^4] +For 1952 to 1953 the Council's officers were [[R. C. Leffingwell]] as chairman of the board, Allen W. Dulles as vice-chairman (on leave), [[Henry M. Wriston]] as president, David Rockefeller as vice-president, Frank Altschul as vice-president and secretary, [[Devereux C. Josephs]] as vice-president and treasurer, [[Walter H. Mallory]] as executive director (on leave) and George S. Franklin Jr. as acting executive director. The directors included [[W. Averell Harriman]], [[William A. M. Burden]], [[John W. Davis]], [[Grayson Kirk]], [[Lewis W. Douglas]], [[Thomas K. Finletter]], [[Whitney H. Shepardson]] and Taylor. Rockefeller chaired the Membership Committee; Dulles sat on the Committee on Studies with Wriston, Armstrong, Dean, Mosely and others; Armstrong edited Foreign Affairs, whose Editorial Advisory Board comprised [[George H. Blakeslee]], Davis, Dulles, [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], [[George Kennan]], Langer, [[Charles H. McIlwain]], Seymour and Wriston.[^4] Membership stood at 927 on August 1, 1951 and 933 on August 1, 1952, in the classes resident (420 and 420), resident academic (164 and 167), junior (13 and 9), nonresident (160 and 160) and nonresident academic (170 and 177). The Committees on Foreign Relations held 191 meetings that year, and a grant from the Fund for Adult Education financed the reprinting of an article from Foreign Affairs nine times a year, with a discussion guide, for about 1,000 adult discussion groups.[^4] diff --git a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Morgan Guaranty Trust.md b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Morgan Guaranty Trust.md index 63cc3fac..83a07725 100644 --- a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Morgan Guaranty Trust.md +++ b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Morgan Guaranty Trust.md @@ -77,7 +77,7 @@ relations: role: "defendant with J.P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated and a former employee in a copper trading suit in the Southern District of New York" fn: 12 created: 2026-10-01 -updated: 2026-10-01 +updated: 2026-10-26 --- Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York was formed on April 24, 1959 by the merger of [[J.P. Morgan & Co.]] Incorporated and the Guaranty Trust Company of New York. A Senate staff study of January 1978 recorded that J.P. Morgan held all of its stock and that in 1976 it was "among the top 5 stockvoters in almost one-half of the 130 companies in the study." After J.P. Morgan merged into [[Chase Manhattan Corporation]] on December 31, 2000, the bank was "succeeded through merger by [[JPMorgan Chase]] Bank."[^1][^2][^3] @@ -88,7 +88,7 @@ On July 15, 1916 the Imperial Russian Government opened an account at the Guaran ### The Business Plot Hearings -In November 1934 the [[McCormack-Dickstein Committee|House Special Committee on Un-American Activities]] heard Major General [[Smedley Butler]], who testified that [[Gerald P. MacGuire|Gerald MacGuire]], a bond salesman at [[Grayson M.-P. Murphy & Co.]], 52 Broadway, had proposed that he lead a veterans' organization. Butler said MacGuire gave him two names as the source of the money: "Colonel Murphy, Grayson M.-P. Murphy, for whom he worked, was one." MacGuire told the committee that Murphy was "my boss." Murphy had been senior vice president of Guaranty Trust from 1915 to 1917 and again from 1919 to 1920, and in 1936 was treasurer of the [[American Liberty League]], according to *Who's Who in Commerce and Industry.* The writer [[Antony C. Sutton]] described him as a director of the Guaranty Trust Company at the time of the hearings.[^5][^6] +In November 1934 the [[McCormack-Dickstein Committee|House Special Committee on Un-American Activities]] heard Major General [[Smedley Butler]], who testified that [[Gerald P. MacGuire|Gerald MacGuire]], a bond salesman at [[Grayson M.-P. Murphy & Co.]], 52 Broadway, had proposed that he lead a veterans' organization. Butler said MacGuire gave him two names as the source of the money: "Colonel Murphy, Grayson M.-P. Murphy, for whom he worked, was one." MacGuire told the committee that Murphy was "my boss." Murphy had been senior vice president of Guaranty Trust from 1915 to 1917 and again from 1919 to 1920, and in 1936 was treasurer of the [[American Liberty League]], according to *Who's Who in Commerce and Industry.* The writer [[Antony C. Sutton]] described Murphy as "a director of several companies controlled by the J.P. Morgan interests, including the Guaranty Trust Company" in the early 1930s, and wrote that MacGuire showed Butler a bank book whose deposits he attributed to Murphy, "director of Guaranty Trust Company and other Morgan-controlled companies."[^5][^6] On November 24, 1934 the committee's statement said that it had "no evidence before it that would in the slightest degree warrant calling before it such men as John W. Davis, [[Hugh S. Johnson|Gen. Hugh Johnson]], [[General Harbord]], [[Thomas W. Lamont]], [[Admiral Sims]], or [[Hanford MacNider]]."[^5] The reproduced release and testimony of the [[Business Plot]] hearings name Murphy as MacGuire's employer and as one of two sources of the money and do not mention the Guaranty Trust Company.[^5] @@ -146,7 +146,7 @@ Monthly "Asset Account Portfolio" statements of Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of [^2]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Governmental Affairs, Subcommittee on Reports, Accounting and Management, *Interlocking Directorates Among the Major U.S. Corporations: A Staff Study,* Committee Print, 95th Cong., 2d sess. (January 1978), summary of findings. https://archive.org/details/interlockingdire00unit [^3]: J.P. Morgan Chase & Co., Form 10-K405 for 2001 (filed March 22, 2002), Item 1, Item 14 Exhibit 4.1, and Management's Discussion. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/19617/000095012302002823/y57010e10-k405.htm [^4]: *Guaranty Trust Co. of New York v. United States,* 304 U.S. 126 (1938) (No. 566, argued March 28 and 29, decided April 25, 1938; opinion of Stone, J.). https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/304/126 -[^5]: House Special Committee on Un-American Activities (McCormack-Dickstein Committee), *Investigation of Un-American Activities,* statement of November 24, 1934 and testimony of Smedley D. Butler, Paul Comly French and Gerald P. MacGuire, November 20 to 22, 1934, as reproduced in "The Plot to Overthrow FDR." https://archive.org/details/McCormackDicksteinCommittee ; Antony C. Sutton, *Wall Street and FDR* (Arlington House, 1975), ch. 10. https://archive.org/details/wall-street-and-fdr-1975 +[^5]: House Special Committee on Un-American Activities (McCormack-Dickstein Committee), *Investigation of Un-American Activities,* statement of November 24, 1934 and testimony of Smedley D. Butler, Paul Comly French and Gerald P. MacGuire, November 20 to 22, 1934, as reproduced in "The Plot to Overthrow FDR." https://archive.org/details/McCormackDicksteinCommittee ; Antony C. Sutton, *Wall Street and FDR* (Arlington House, 1975), ch. 10, "FDR: Man on the White Horse," pp. 145, 147 (Murphy as director; the bank book passage at p. 145). https://archive.org/details/wall-street-and-fdr-1975 [^6]: *Who's Who in Commerce and Industry* (1936), entry "Murphy, Grayson Mallet-Prevost" ("Senior Vice-Pres., Guaranty Trust Co., 1915-17"; "Resumed position with Guaranty Trust Co., 1919-20"; "Treas., American Liberty League"). https://archive.org/details/whoswhoincommerc00unse_0 [^7]: University of Pennsylvania, Kislak Center, finding aid for the Thomas Sovereign Gates, Jr. papers, biographical note; Gerald R. Ford Library, nomination of Thomas S. Gates as Chief of the U.S. Liaison Office, Beijing, 1976. https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/legacy/upenn_rbml_PUSpMsColl1135 [^8]: Douglas A. Blackmon, "Silent Partner: How the South's Fight To Uphold Segregation Was Funded Up North," *The Wall Street Journal,* June 11, 1999, p. A1, reproduced at https://slaverybyanothername.com/other-writings/silent-partner-how-the-souths-fight-to-uphold-segregation-was-funded-up-north/ diff --git a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Skull and Bones.md b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Skull and Bones.md new file mode 100644 index 00000000..c675effa --- /dev/null +++ b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Skull and Bones.md @@ -0,0 +1,271 @@ +--- +created: 2026-10-26 +updated: 2026-10-26 +title: Skull and Bones +aliases: + - Skull and Bones + - Skull & Bones + - Order of Skull and Bones + - Skull and Bones Society + - Russell Trust Association + - The Russell Trust + - RTA Incorporated + - The Order + - Bones +category: "Private Organization" +tags: + - Organization + - SeniorSociety + - SkullAndBones + - RussellTrustAssociation + - YaleUniversity + - CentralIntelligenceAgency + - OfficeOfStrategicServices + - BrownBrothersHarriman + - Geronimo + - PoliticalDynasties +summary: "Yale senior society chartered in Connecticut in 1856 as the Russell Trust Association and reincorporated in 1961 as RTA Incorporated, with members including Taft, Stimson, the Harrimans, Luce, Buckley and two Presidents Bush." +location: "New Haven, Connecticut" +relations: + - type: member_of + with: "[[George H.W. Bush]]" + reverse: true + role: "member, Class of 1948" + fn: 37 + - type: member_of + with: "[[George W. Bush]]" + reverse: true + role: "member, Class of 1968" + fn: 37 + - type: member_of + with: "[[McGeorge Bundy]]" + reverse: true + role: "member, Class of 1940" + fn: 43 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Prescott Bush]]" + reverse: true + role: "member, Class of 1917" + fn: 31 + - type: member_of + with: "[[E. Roland Harriman]]" + reverse: true + role: "member, Class of 1917" + fn: 31 + - type: member_of + with: "[[W. Averell Harriman]]" + reverse: true + role: "member, Class of 1913" + fn: 30 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Henry L. Stimson]]" + reverse: true + role: "member, Class of 1888" + fn: 26 + - type: member_of + with: "[[F. Trubee Davison]]" + reverse: true + role: "member, Class of 1918" + fn: 55 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Henry Luce]]" + reverse: true + role: "member, Class of 1920" + fn: 42 + - type: member_of + with: "[[William F. Buckley Jr.]]" + reverse: true + role: "member, Class of 1950" + fn: 45 + - type: member_of + with: "[[John Kerry]]" + reverse: true + role: "member, Class of 1966" + fn: 49 + - type: founded + with: "[[William Huntington Russell]]" + reverse: true + start: "1832" + fn: 1 + - type: founded + with: "[[Alphonso Taft]]" + reverse: true + start: "1832" + fn: 1 +--- + +Skull and Bones is a senior society at [[Yale University]] in [[New Haven, Connecticut]]. Its members are chosen in their junior year, spend one year on campus as initiates, and remain members for life as patriarchs. The society meets in a windowless sandstone building on [[High Street]]. Its corporate affairs run through three Connecticut entities: the Russell Trust Association, chartered by the [[Connecticut General Assembly]] in 1856; RTA Incorporated, a nonstock corporation formed in 1961 and recognized as a tax-exempt educational organization supporting Yale; and the Deer Island Club Corporation, formed in 1907 to operate the society's island retreat in the [[St. Lawrence River]]. + +### Founding and the tomb + +[[David A. Richards]] wrote in the [[Yale Alumni Magazine]] in May and June 2015 that "The society had been founded in 1832."[^1] Richards wrote that the conception "seems to have been that of the 1833 valedictorian, class orator, and secretary of [[Phi Beta Kappa]], William Huntington Russell," and named [[Alphonso Taft]], father of [[William Howard Taft]], as a cofounder.[^1] He wrote that the members first called their club the Eulogian Club, and that a skull and crossbones over the number 322, on a meeting notice posted by one member in the first year, gave the society its name and badge.[^1] Graduate members are called patriarchs and initiates are called knights.[^1] + +[[Antony C. Sutton]] dated the founding to 1833. His chart is titled "Hypothesis Number One: A Secret Society Dominated By Old Line American Families And New Wealth Has Existed From 1833 To The Present Day."[^2] Sutton wrote that the American chapter "was founded in 1833 at Yale University by General William Huntington Russell and Alphonso Taft."[^3] + +Before 1856 the society met in a low-studded back room on the third floor of the building opposite the college yard that became the [[Courant building]].[^4] Richards wrote that the alumni built a hall on High Street in 1856, near the corner of [[Chapel Street]]. The name "Tomb" attached to it at that time, and Richards wrote that "a tomb is what it resembled": "a single forbidding, windowless block in Egypto-Doric style."[^1] Its cost was later estimated at about $30,000.[^1] A nineteenth-century description of the building, reprinted by Sutton, gives its iron doors, its roof plates of 1867 and the value of the premises as "upwards of $30,000."[^5] + +### The 1856 charter and RTA Incorporated + +Richards wrote: "The first step was to incorporate the club in the State of Connecticut as a trust; they called it the Russell Trust Association." The purpose, in his account, was to let "a proper corporation" hold "fee-simple title" to the building.[^1] Sutton states that the Order "was incorporated as The Russell Trust in 1856," and writes that [[Daniel C. Gilman]] became treasurer of the association and Russell its president; Gilman was assistant librarian at Yale in the fall of 1856 and was appointed librarian in 1858.[^6] + +The special act of the General Assembly, a certified copy of which the Connecticut Secretary of the State issued on March 28, 2001, resolved that William H. Russell, [[John S. Beach]], [[Henry B. Harrison]], Daniel C. Gilman, [[Henry T. Blake]] and [[Henry D. White]], "and all such other persons as may be from time to time associated with them," were constituted "a body corporate and politic" under the name of the Russell Trust Association, "for the purpose of the intellectual and moral improvement of its members, and for that only." The act capped the real and personal estate the association could hold at fifteen thousand dollars, fixed its first meeting at New Haven on the last Wednesday of July 1856, and reserved to the General Assembly the power to alter, amend or repeal it.[^7] A resolution approved in July 1870 amended the charter to raise the ceiling on the property the association could hold. A resolution approved on March 24, 1887 validated a meeting held in November 1885 and the by-laws adopted there. An act approved on July 9, 1943 raised the ceiling to seven hundred thousand dollars; the members accepted it unanimously at New Haven on November 12, 1943, and the certificate was sworn by [[Morris Hadley]] as president.[^7] Sutton's index lists Hadley under the class of 1916.[^8] + +On April 14, 1961 the Connecticut registry shows the incorporation of RTA Incorporated, a nonstock corporation.[^9] Its certificate of incorporation states that it is formed "for exclusively educational purposes," including the intellectual and moral improvement of its members and "the support of education at Yale University." All members of the Russell Trust Association became members of the new corporation, together with undergraduates at Yale elected under its by-laws; the activities of the corporation were to be managed by a board of six directors, two elected each year. On dissolution, the assets after the payment of lawful claims were to "be paid to Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, to be by it used for its general educational purposes."[^10] The oath on the certificate was sworn by Henry B. Van Sinderen, John W. Hincks, Howard S. Weaver, H. P. Baldwin Terry and Sidney Lovett. The same names appear in Sutton's index of members, under the classes of 1911, 1952, 1948, 1935 and 1950.[^10][^11] + +The October 1983 membership catalogue that Sutton reproduces tells members to send corrections and changes of address to the secretary of RTA Incorporated at a post office box in Yale Station, New Haven.[^12] In November 1983 the members voted an amending certificate that increased the board from six to eight directors (nine when the term of the president would otherwise have expired), lengthened terms to four years, let the president continue as a director, and deleted the section of the 1961 certificate that required a two-thirds vote of members for fundamental changes. The certificate records 35 members as the quorum, 71 present in person or by proxy and 48 as the vote required.[^13] [[Kris Millegan]], who reprinted the filings, quoted the New Haven Register of September 27, 1991 as reporting that "almost 700 of the club's approximately 800 surviving members narrowly voted to admit women."[^14] [[Ron Rosenbaum]] reported in [[Esquire]] in 1977 that when a class of the 1970s proposed tapping Yale women, the officers of the Russell Trust Association threatened to bar that class from the tomb and change the locks.[^15] + +The Connecticut business registry lists "RUSSELL TRUST ASSOCIATION, THE" as a domestic business of the type "Special Chartered," with status "Active" and account number 0269315. It lists RTA INCORPORATED as an active nonstock corporation, account number 0059060, registered on April 14, 1961, with a billing address at 64 High Street in New Haven and a post office box in the 06520 postal district.[^9] + +Sutton wrote that "the Russell Trust Association is run entirely by Patriarchs," and that the organization, both as the association and as the Deer Iland Corporation, is "essentially geared towards the post graduation world."[^16] Rosenbaum wrote that the [[File and Claw]] break-in pamphlet was among the papers he found in a box in the manuscript room of the [[Yale University Library|Yale library]], filed "under Skull and Bones's corporate name, Russell Trust Association."[^15] Sutton lists three nineteenth-century publications about the society: the student paper The Iconoclast, published October 13, 1873; an anonymous pamphlet on an 1876 break-in at the society's hall; and an anonymous satire titled The Order, The Fall of Skull and Bones (New Haven, 1876).[^17] He wrote that the [[Sterling Memorial Library]] at Yale, which has "major holdings" of the society's records, had refused researchers further access to "Russell Trust papers."[^18] + +### Finances and the island + +The Internal Revenue Service lists RTA Incorporated (employer identification number 06-0768741, post office box in New Haven) as a section 501(c)(3) organization with a ruling date of February 1966.[^19] Its annual return for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021 gives its mission as "To provide structured programs of intellectual inquiry, sensitivity training and personal development for students of Yale University focusing on topics of intellectual, political or cultural importance." The return describes the corporation as a Type III functionally integrated supporting organization under section 509(a)(3), with Yale University as the one supported organization; states that the organization has members who vote for the board; reports 13 officers and directors, ten of them voting; and reports four employees and twenty volunteers. Of total expenses of $575,657, occupancy accounted for $199,381 and conferences and meetings for $74,195.[^20] Its Schedule R lists the Deer Island Club, a post office box in [[Alexandria Bay, New York]], as a related organization with the activity "Social Club" under section 501(c)(7).[^20] + +The Internal Revenue Service return data for fiscal years ending in June show the following. In fiscal 2011, total assets of $4,229,513. In fiscal 2017, total assets of $3,906,458, with contributions of $163,612. In fiscal 2018, contributions of $5,133,725 and total assets of $8,922,229. In fiscal 2019, contributions of $5,061,958 and total assets of $13,791,929. In fiscal 2021, contributions of $693,165 and total assets of $16,127,481. In fiscal 2022, total assets of $17,182,221, and in fiscal 2023, $17,146,085. The 2025 entry in the exempt-organization master file lists assets of $17,071,890.[^19][^21] + +Millegan wrote in 2003, from the corporation's returns of the preceding years, that investment earnings were sometimes over $400,000 a year, that the corporation reported $4,000 to $10,000 a year as "rental of facility for educational programs" for the island, that it spent about $50,000 a year on conferences, conventions and meetings and renovation costs of more than a quarter of a million dollars in 1998, and that its only charitable gifts in the returns he read were $5,000 to the Yale scholarship fund in each of 1999 and 2000. He wrote that contributions fell from $164,000 in 1997.[^14] Rosenbaum reported in 1977, citing "one source," that each initiate received "a no-strings, tax-free gift of $15,000 from the Russell Trust Association."[^15] [[Jacques Leslie]], a Yale student of the class of 1968 who was asked to join the society, wrote in [[Salon]] in March 2000 that students heard rumors that the society's assets made it "the largest corporation in Connecticut," and that each member was guaranteed a lifetime annual stipend of $20,000. Leslie added: "Nobody knew whether the rumors were true."[^22] Rosenbaum wrote that one could ask [[J. Richardson Dilworth]], "the Bonesman who now manages the Rockefeller fortune," "just how wealthy the Bones society is and whether it's true that each new initiate gets a no-strings gift of fifteen thousand dollars cash and guaranteed financial security for life."[^15] + +Sutton writes that the society meets once a year, with patriarchs only, on [[Deer Island]] in the St. Lawrence River at Alexandria Bay, where the [[Deer Iland Club]] operates; the island was donated in 1906 by George Douglas Miller (listed in Sutton's index under the class of 1870), and the club was established in 1907.[^23] Rosenbaum described it as a "private resort island owned and maintained by the Russell Trust Association."[^15] The Connecticut registry lists the Deer Island Club Corporation as an active nonstock corporation, account number 0053733, registered and organized on February 20, 1907, with its billing address in care of the New Haven law firm [[Wiggin & Dana]]; it lists a separate specially chartered nonstock corporation, The Deer Island Association, registered on May 19, 1915 (account number 0269028).[^9] + +### Membership in government, intelligence and finance + +Sutton reproduces entries from a 1971 membership catalogue and an index of members arranged by class year.[^24] The class years below come from that index unless another source is cited. Printed records of the period give the same affiliations for several members, as noted. + +[[Henry L. Stimson]] is listed under the class of 1888.[^25] A 1897 catalogue of the Phillips Academy society H.A.E. lists his Yale degree of 1888 with Skull and Bones among his Yale societies.[^26] The Yale Obituary Record for 1950 to 1951 lists among his undergraduate honors "He Boule, Psi Upsilon, Skull and Bones, Chi Delta Theta, Phi Beta Kappa."[^27] Rosenbaum named Stimson among the members in 1977.[^15] Leslie also named Stimson, as a member of the class of 1888.[^22] Sutton writes that Stimson married Mabel White, the daughter of Charles A. White, a member of the society, and that Stimson "proved he was capable in the law." When William Howard Taft, also a member, was looking for a Secretary of War in 1911, Sutton writes, he appointed Stimson.[^28] William Howard Taft is listed under the class of 1878.[^29] Sutton also gives Alphonso Taft's tenure as Secretary of War in 1876, under President Grant.[^3] + +[[W. Averell Harriman]] is listed under the class of 1913, and [[E. Roland Harriman]], his brother, under the class of 1917.[^30] The class history of 1917 prints Edward Roland Noel Harriman's biographical entry with the statement that he is "a member of Psi Upsilon and Skull and Bones."[^31] Rosenbaum named Averell Harriman among the members in 1977.[^15] Sutton writes that Harriman and his fellow investment bankers "have dominated the direction of The Order."[^32] E. Roland Harriman appears in the [[Union Banking Corporation]] record discussed below.[^33] Sutton wrote that the Harriman brothers and two other members, [[Ellery Sedgwick James|E.S. James]] and [[Knight Woolley]], "through the Union Bank (in which they held a major interest) were prime financial backers of Hitler."[^34] The same class history prints entries for William Ellery Sedgwick James and Knight Woolley that state membership in Skull and Bones, as it does for Prescott Sheldon Bush and [[Neil Mallon|Henry Neil Mallon]].[^31] + +[[Prescott Bush]] is listed under the class of 1917. The class history of 1917 states of him: "He belongs to the Whiffenpoofs, Psi Upsilon, and Skull and Bones."[^31] The 1971 entry in Sutton's catalogue gives his offices as Yale Corporation member from 1944 to 1958, United States Senator from Connecticut from 1952 to 1963, and former partner of [[Brown Brothers Harriman]].[^35] [[Anthony L. Kimery]]'s article in the CIA reading room states that Prescott Bush and a Yale classmate named Mallon were "Yale classmates and initiates of Skull and Bones," and describes Prescott Bush as "a managing partner of Brown Brothers Harriman and major benefactor of Yale."[^36] Kimery wrote that Mallon, as longtime chairman of the board of Dresser Industries, "personally offered Bush the IDECO job," and that Mallon "steered prospective candidates for spy work to Dulles and often provided cover employment to CIA operatives."[^36] + +On October 20, 1942 the [[Alien Property Custodian]], [[Leo T. Crowley]], signed Vesting Order No. 248 concerning the Union Banking Corporation, a New York corporation. The order vested "all of the capital stock" of the corporation, 4,000 shares of $100 par value, held for the benefit of [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]] of Rotterdam, which the order describes as "owned or controlled by members of the [[Thyssen family]], nationals of Germany and/or Hungary." The registered owners were E. Roland Harriman (3,991 shares), [[Cornelius Lievense]] (4), [[Harold D. Pennington]] (1), [[Ray Morris]] (1), Prescott S. Bush (1), [[H. J. Kouwenhoven]] (1) and [[Johann G. Groeninger]] (1). The order was published in the [[Federal Register]] on November 7, 1942.[^33] + +[[George H.W. Bush]] is listed under the class of 1948, and [[George W. Bush]] under the class of 1968.[^37] The index also lists [[Jonathan James Bush]] under the class of 1953.[^38] The 1971 entry for George H.W. Bush gives his service as a United States congressman from 1966 to 1970, and the entry for George W. Bush gives his service as a lieutenant and pilot in the United States Air Force from June 1968 to June 1970.[^39] Kimery writes that George H.W. Bush joined the society in his junior year.[^36] + +[[Robert A. Lovett]] is listed under the class of 1918.[^40] Sutton writes that Judge Robert Scott Lovett, a friend and attorney of [[E. H. Harriman]] and general counsel for the [[Union Pacific Railroad]], handled $250,000 that Harriman gave the [[Republican National Committee]] in 1904 after a request from President [[Theodore Roosevelt]], citing [[George Kennan]]'s biography of Harriman. Sutton writes that the judge's son, Robert Abercrombie Lovett, went to Yale and was initiated with the two Harriman brothers.[^41] + +[[Henry Luce]] is listed under the class of 1920.[^42] Rosenbaum named Luce among the members in 1977, together with Averell Harriman and Stimson.[^15] Leslie named Luce as well.[^22] + +[[William P. Bundy]] is listed under the class of 1939, and [[McGeorge Bundy]] under the class of 1940.[^43] Sutton writes that William P. Bundy held key positions in government while his brother McGeorge was in the White House. Sutton presents the brothers' positions as a possible control of the information reaching the President on Vietnam, and writes: "We are not saying this happened. We believe it to be a hypothesis worthy of examination."[^44] + +[[William F. Buckley Jr.]] is listed under the class of 1950.[^45] [[William Sloane Coffin]] is listed under the class of 1949.[^46] An FBI memorandum of October 20, 1950 records that Buckley "graduated at Yale in 1950, and was chairman of" the [[Yale Daily News]].[^47] [[Potter Stewart]] is listed under the class of 1937, and Rosenbaum named him among the members in 1977.[^48] [[John Kerry|John Forbes Kerry]] is listed under the class of 1966.[^49] [[Archibald MacLeish]] is listed under the class of 1915 and [[Richard A. Moore]] under the class of 1936.[^50] The Library of Congress lists MacLeish as Librarian of Congress from 1939.[^51] Sutton wrote that the constitution of [[UNESCO]] "was written largely by The Order, i.e., member Archibald MacLeish."[^52] + +[[Percy Avery Rockefeller]] is listed under the class of 1900.[^53] [[Harry Payne Whitney]] is listed under the class of 1894.[^54] Sutton's chart places the Payne family and the [[Rockefeller family]] under [[Standard Oil]], and the Davison family under [[J. P. Morgan]].[^24] + +### The Yale Unit and the Central Intelligence Agency + +The Yale Alumni Magazine reported in 2006 that [[F. Trubee Davison]] co-founded the Yale aviation group that grew into the first squadron of the Naval Air Reserve, and that of the two dozen Yale students he recruited before the United States entered the war, five were Bonesmen. Davison crashed during a training flight and was disabled for life; the magazine reported that while he recovered at home, fellow members wrote to him about candidates for membership, initiations abroad and other society business, and that the yearbook entries for Davison, [[Winter Mead]] and [[Charles C. Haffner Jr.]] confirmed that each was a member.[^55] Sutton's index lists Davison under the class of 1918.[^56] + +An Associated Press item in the CIA reading room reports that "Brig. Gen. Trubee Davison, former Assistant Secretary of War for Air," would join the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] on July 16, 1951, as "a principal assistant" to [[Walter Bedell Smith]], and that he "probably would do personnel work." The item adds that Davison had been president of the [[American Museum of Natural History]] since 1933 and assistant chief of the Army Air Force air staff during part of World War II.[^57] A memorandum of September 11, 1951 from Davison to the Deputy Director of Central Intelligence appears on a routing slip addressed to the Assistant Director (Personnel).[^58] The Covert Action Information Bulletin reported in 1990, citing the New York Times of July 5, 1951, that Davison was the CIA's Director of Personnel in 1951, and that two of his sons, [[Endicott Peabody Davison]] and [[Daniel Pomeroy Davison]], were also Bonesmen.[^59] + +The same article in the Covert Action Information Bulletin listed other members it connected to intelligence work. It reported that [[Hugh Cunningham]], of the class of 1934, a Rhodes Scholar, served in the CIA from 1947 to 1973 in positions that included the Board of National Estimates and the Director of Training from 1969 to 1973, citing Victor Marchetti and John D. Marks.[^59] CIA documents released to the reading room name Hugh T. Cunningham as Director of Training in 1968, 1969 and 1972.[^60] Sutton's index lists a Hugh Terry Cunningham under the class of 1934.[^61] The article reported that William P. Bundy began in the [[Office of Strategic Services]] during World War II and worked at the CIA from 1951 to 1961, including the Office of National Estimates; that [[Dino Pionzio]], of the class of 1950, was CIA deputy chief of station in [[Santiago]], [[Chile]] in 1970 and later a vice president at [[Dillon, Read & Co.]]; and that Richard A. Moore served as a special assistant to the chief of military intelligence in World War II and later as special assistant to President [[Richard Nixon]].[^59] Sutton's index lists Dino John Pionzio under the class of 1950.[^62] + +Rosenbaum wrote in 1977 that "Bill Bundy or Bill Buckley, both of whom went into the C.I.A. after leaving Bones," could be asked whether Skull and Bones was useful training for "the clandestine trade," and that George Bush "ran the C.I.A."[^63] He wrote that Coffin "headed for the C.I.A. not long after graduation from Bones," and that "the man Coffin tapped for Bones, William F. Buckley Jr., was himself tapped by the C.I.A. the following year."[^63] The Covert Action Information Bulletin reported that, according to "several experts on the CIA," Buckley began cooperating with the Agency in [[Mexico City]] in 1952, where his friend [[Howard Hunt|E. Howard Hunt]] was station chief, and that his older brother [[James L. Buckley]], also a member in the bulletin's account, was Under Secretary of State for Security Assistance, Science and Technology in 1981 and 1982. It cited Donald Freed and Fred Landis, *Death in Washington* (1980), for the statement that on September 14, 1976, a week before the assassination of [[Orlando Letelier]], [[Michael Townley]] and [[Guillermo Novo]] visited Senator Buckley's office in New York.[^59] + +Kimery's article cites [[Robin W. Winks]]'s account of Yale's ties to the intelligence services and quotes Winks that Yale "influenced the CIA more than any other institution."[^36] + +### Sutton's hypothesis + +Sutton's book, first published in 1983 as [[America's Secret Establishment]], sets out three hypotheses. The first is that "a secret society comprising members of old line American families and representatives of financial power" has existed since 1833.[^3] The chart renders the hypothesis visually, placing "THE ORDER" at the center of a wheel of families.[^24] + +The chart gives settlement dates for the old-line families: Whitney (1635, [[Watertown, Massachusetts]]), Stimson (1635, Watertown), Perkins (1631, [[Boston]]), Taft (1679, [[Braintree, Massachusetts|Braintree]]), Phelps (1630, [[Dorchester, Massachusetts|Dorchester]]), Bundy (1635, Boston), Wadsworth (1632, [[Newtown, Massachusetts|Newtown]]), Lord (1635, [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]]) and Gilman (1638, [[Hingham, Massachusetts|Hingham]]).[^24] The chart's new-wealth families are the Rockefeller and Payne families (Standard Oil), the Harriman family (railroads), the Davison family (J. P. Morgan), the Weyerhaeuser family (lumber), the Pillsbury family (flour milling) and the Sloane family (retail).[^24] + +In the text Sutton describes "old line American families who arrived on the East coast in the 1600s, e.g., Whitney, Lord, Phelps, Wadsworth, Allen, Bundy, Adams and so on," and "families who acquired wealth in the last 100 years, sent their sons to Yale and in time became almost old line families, e.g., Harriman, Rockefeller, Payne, Davison."[^3] He adds that "Some families, like the Whitneys, were Connecticut Yankees and acquired wealth in the nineteenth century."[^3] Sutton writes that active members "have enough influence to push their sons and relatives into The Order," and that there is "significant inter-marriage among the families."[^3] + +### Other writers + +Jacques Leslie's 2000 article in Salon named [[John Hersey]] and William Sloane Coffin among the members, along with Stimson, Stewart, Harriman and Luce. Leslie also recounted [[Bill Minutaglio]]'s biography of George W. Bush, which records that Bush considered joining a society called "Gin and Tonic" and was swayed when his father, then a congressman, conducted the tapping himself.[^22] + +[[Alexandra Robbins]] published [[Secrets of the Tomb]] in 2002, with the subtitle "Skull and Bones, the Ivy League, and the Hidden Paths of Power."[^64] + +Millegan issued [[Fleshing Out Skull & Bones]] through [[Trine Day]] in 2003. The book includes a chapter titled "Geronimo's Bones" by [[Howard Altman]], dated July 2003, and Millegan's own chapter on RTA Incorporated, with certified copies of the corporation's filings.[^65][^14] + +### The Geronimo skull claim + +The George H.W. Bush Presidential Library's file FOIA 2009-0116-F describes its contents as records "related to the Skull and Bones Society at Yale University, of which George H. W. Bush and his father Prescott Bush were both members."[^66] The file contains correspondence from President Bush to William F. Buckley Jr. and [[Thomas W. Ludlow Ashley]] about a Buckley article in [[National Review]], which had answered [[Pat Buchanan]]'s description of Bush's foreign policy as "Skull and Bones foreign policy" in the 1992 campaign. It also contains administrative forms for a Skull and Bones tea at the White House on October 20, 1989.[^66] The library's description states that "Several of the articles address the rumor that Prescott Bush and a group of Skull and Bones members had disinterred and taken Apache leader [[Geronimo]]'s skull."[^66] + +The Yale Alumni Magazine reported in May 2006 that [[Marc Wortman]], researching Davison's war years in the F. Trubee Davison Papers at Sterling Memorial Library, found a letter of June 7, 1918 from Winter Mead '19 to Davison '18, about an exhumation at [[Fort Sill]], Oklahoma. It reads (with the magazine's expansions of the letter's abbreviations): "The skull of the worthy Geronimo the Terrible, exhumed from its tomb at Fort Sill by your club & the K[night] Haffner, is now safe inside the T[omb] together with his well worn femurs[,] bit & saddle horn." The magazine reported that Haffner's yearbook entry places him at the artillery school at Fort Sill between August 1917 and July 1918, that Mead was not at Fort Sill, and that Judith Schiff, chief research archivist at Sterling, said the letter "adds to the seriousness of the belief" and "has a very strong likelihood of being true, since it was written so close to the time." It reported that the rumor had reached public attention in 1986, when Ned Anderson, then chair of the [[San Carlos Apache Tribe]], received an anonymous letter from a writer who claimed to be a member, with a photograph of a skull in a display case and a copy of what appeared to be a centennial history of the society by [[F. O. Matthiessen]] (class of 1923). In that history, which quotes a society log book of 1919, six members unearthed the skull; the history names three of them, all at Fort Sill in early 1918: Ellery James, Neil Mallon and Prescott Bush, all of the class of 1917. The magazine reported that Anderson met Jonathan Bush '53 and Endicott Peabody Davison '45, who showed a display case containing a skull that they said was a child's and offered it to him; he declined. It also reported that the historian David H. Miller of Cameron University said the grave at Fort Sill was unmarked and overgrown until the 1920s and doubted that the Bonesmen found Geronimo's grave, and that Alexandra Robbins told the magazine that members spoke to her of "a skull in a glass case by the front door that they call Geronimo."[^55] The Yale Alumni Magazine also reported that Ron Rosenbaum, in 2001, recorded on videotape what appeared to be an initiation in the society's courtyard in which members carried skulls and "femur-sized bones."[^55] + +Altman's chapter reports that a man who said he was "Geronimo's great-great grandson" came to the [[New Haven Advocate]] office in the late summer of 1989 and described the bones as dug up by Prescott Bush and taken to the society's building.[^65] The chapter's principal source for the claim is Anderson. Anderson told Altman that a former Bonesman, referred to as "Pat," had tipped him off, and that the Bonesman had given him a picture of what Anderson said were Geronimo's bones in New Haven.[^65] Anderson said that the bones were dug up in 1918 by Prescott Bush and others, and that he had arranged a meeting with Jonathan Bush: "Bush was taken aback when confronted with the evidence," Anderson told Altman.[^65] Altman wrote that when he later tracked down Bush, Bush was cordial but would not discuss the meeting.[^65] The [[Mescalero Apache]] leader [[Wendell Chino]], who represented the family, called Anderson's bid to move the remains "a publicity stunt to attract tourists."[^65] + +The complaint in [[Geronimo et al. v. Obama et al.]] was filed in the [[United States District Court for the District of Columbia]] on February 17, 2009, the hundredth anniversary of Geronimo's death.[^67] It was brought by a group of twenty descendants of Geronimo and named [[Barack Obama]], [[Robert M. Gates]], [[Peter Geren]], Yale University and the Order of Skull and Bones as defendants.[^68] The lawyer for the plaintiffs, [[Ramsey Clark]], told the Yale Alumni Magazine that the principal defendant was the United States Army, as owner of Fort Sill, and that the society received one paragraph of the 32-page complaint; a university spokeswoman said that Skull and Bones is not part of the university and is legally independent of it.[^67] The court's account of the complaint states that Geronimo was buried at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, "in the dress of a chief with his possessions," and that "a group of Yale University students who were members of the organization named the Order of Skull and Bones opened the tomb of Geronimo and removed his skull, other bones, and items that were buried with Geronimo's body."[^68] + +In its July 27, 2010 memorandum opinion, the court wrote that "the only alleged discovery or wrongful removal described by the complaint occurred in or around 1918." Judge [[Richard W. Roberts]] held that the statute the complaint invoked applies only to discoveries after November 16, 1990, that the alleged 1918 removal fell outside it, and that the United States had not waived sovereign immunity.[^68] The court granted the federal defendants' motion to dismiss and wrote that the complaint "will be dismissed as to all defendants."[^68] Intervenor plaintiffs, who were other lineal descendants of Geronimo, had argued that the gravesite should not be disturbed under Apache custom.[^68] + +### The Pancho Villa skull suit + +A complaint filed pro se in the [[United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas]], Corpus Christi Division, on October 31, 2017, *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340, named the Russell Trust Association, George H.W. Bush, [[Mitt Romney|Willard Mitt Romney]] and Yale University as defendants. The magistrate judge summarized it: the plaintiff alleged that the society possesses the skull of [[Pancho Villa]], which was stolen from his grave in 1926, that the defendants know of its presence in the society's headquarters on the Yale campus, and that Romney is a member; he asked that the skull be returned so that it could be buried with Villa's body in Mexico City.[^69] On November 13, 2017 the magistrate judge, [[Jason B. Libby]], ordered a more definite statement on the plaintiff's standing and the court's jurisdiction. In a memorandum and recommendation of November 21, 2017 he recommended dismissal for lack of subject matter jurisdiction: the complaint presented no federal question, complete diversity was lacking because the plaintiff, of Corpus Christi, and Bush, of Houston, were citizens of Texas, and no amount in controversy was alleged. None of the defendants had appeared. Judge [[Nelva Gonzales Ramos]] adopted the recommendation and entered final judgment on December 18, 2017; she denied a motion for reconsideration and a request for a refund of the filing fee on January 23, 2018, and the Fifth Circuit dismissed the plaintiff's appeal (No. 18-40008) on February 28, 2018. The docket records the return of service on the Russell Trust Association as executed on December 21, 2017.[^69] + +The magistrate judge's memorandum states that "the Russell Trust Association is the governing body of the Society," citing Robbins. It cites the Washington Post of August 11, 1988, which reported that a group of Mexican nationals in El Paso, Texas wished to sue the society in 1988 to reclaim Villa's skull but had difficulty establishing standing, and Mark Singer, "La Cabeza de Villa," The New Yorker, November 27, 1989, and it cites the Geronimo suit as another action over remains attributed to the society.[^69] + +### Footnotes + +[^1]: David A. Richards, "The origins of the tomb," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2015, with editors' note on the author's listing among Skull and Bones members in the Class of 1967 graduation book. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4072-the-origins-of-the-tomb +[^2]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chart "Hypothesis Number One," after the text on the three hypotheses. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^3]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), opening chapter and the passage that sets out Hypothesis One, with the old-line and new-wealth families. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^4]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), nineteenth-century description of the hall reprinted in the appendix, passage on the earlier meeting room in the Courant building. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^5]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), appendix, undated nineteenth-century description of the hall, its doors and roof plates and its value. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^6]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passages stating that the Order "was incorporated as The Russell Trust in 1856" and on Daniel C. Gilman's role as treasurer, his appointment as assistant librarian in 1856 and as librarian in 1858. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^7]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, certified copies (March 28, 2001) of "An Act incorporating Russell Trust Association" (1856); resolution amending the charter (July 1870); resolution confirming the by-laws (approved March 24, 1887); and "An Act amending the charter of The Russell Trust Association" (approved July 9, 1943) with the certificate of acceptance of November 12, 1943 sworn by the president and secretary, as reprinted in Kris Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), pp. 694 to 696. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones +[^8]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1916 (Hadley, Morris). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^9]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, Connecticut Business Registry (data.ct.gov dataset n7gp-d28j), business master records for account numbers 0269315 (The Russell Trust Association; Special Chartered; Active), 0059060 (RTA Incorporated; Non-Stock; Active; registered April 14, 1961; organization meeting February 28, 1962; billing street 64 High Street, New Haven), 0053733 (The Deer Island Club Corporation; Non-Stock; Active; registered February 20, 1907) and 0269028 (The Deer Island Association; Non-Stock Specially Chartered; Active; registered May 19, 1915). https://data.ct.gov/resource/n7gp-d28j.json?accountnumber=0059060 +[^10]: Certificate of Incorporation of RTA Incorporated (1961), under the Nonstock Corporation Act of Connecticut, sections 3 to 6 and oath of the signers, as reprinted in Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), pp. 697 to 700. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones +[^11]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year: Van Sinderen, Henry B. (1911); Hincks, John Winslow (1952); Terry, Henry Porter Baldwin (1935); Weaver, Howard Sayer (1948); Lovett, Sidney (1950). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^12]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), description of the October 1983 membership catalogue, whose inside title page directs corrections to "The Secretary, RTA Incorporated, P.O. Box 2138, Yale Station, New Haven, Conn. 06520." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^13]: Certificate amending the Certificate of Incorporation of RTA Incorporated (December 1983), with the vote of the members, as reprinted in Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), pp. 701 to 702. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones +[^14]: Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," July 2003, in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), pp. 691 to 693, quoting the New Haven Register, September 27, 1991. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones +[^15]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977 +[^16]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), concluding passage on the Russell Trust Association and the Deer Iland Corporation as organizations geared to the post-graduation world. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^17]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), notes on nineteenth-century publications: *The Iconoclast* (New Haven, October 13, 1873); an anonymous *Skull & Bones* pamphlet on the 1876 break-in; *The Order, The Fall of Skull and Bones* (New Haven, 1876). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^18]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on access to the Russell Trust papers at the Sterling Library, Yale University. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^19]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer, organization record for RTA Incorporated, EIN 06-0768741, New Haven, Connecticut (Internal Revenue Service return data, fiscal years 2011 to 2023; ruling date February 1966). https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/60768741 +[^20]: RTA Incorporated, IRS Form 990 for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021 (e-file object 202241189349302124), Part I, Part III, Part VI, Part IX, Schedule A (supporting organization, Yale University, EIN 06-0646973), Schedule O and Schedule R (Deer Island Club, EIN 13-1897694). https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/60768741 +[^21]: Internal Revenue Service, Exempt Organizations Business Master File extract for Connecticut (eo_ct.csv), entry for RTA Incorporated, EIN 060768741, tax period 2025-06 (asset amount 17,071,890; income amount 2,178,912; revenue amount 808,538). https://www.irs.gov/charities-non-profits/exempt-organizations-business-master-file-extract-eo-bmf +[^22]: Jacques Leslie, "Smirk from the past" ("Yale"), *Salon*, March 1, 2000. https://www.salon.com/2000/03/01/yale/ +[^23]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), Deer Iland Club entry (island donated in 1906 by Patriarch George Douglas Miller; club established 1907; 76th season in 1983) and index of members by class year, class of 1870 (Miller, George Douglas). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^24]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), chart of families, October 1983 membership catalogue (living members) and index of members by class year. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^25]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1888 (Stimson, Henry Lewis). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^26]: *A Catalogue of the Members of H. A. E. of Phillips Academy, Andover* (New Haven: T. M. & T. Press, 1897), entry 25, Henry Lewis Stimson ("Yale, 1888, A.B." with the society list that includes Skull and Bones). https://archive.org/details/catalogueofmembe00pial +[^27]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1950-1951 (New Haven: Yale University, 1951), entry "Henry Lewis Stimson, B.A. 1888," p. 11. http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1950-51.pdf +[^28]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on Henry Stimson's career, his marriage to Mabel White and his 1911 appointment. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^29]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1878 (Taft, William Howard). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^30]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1913 (Harriman, William Averell) and class of 1917 (Harriman, Edward Roland N.), and the passage that reads "William Averell Harriman (113) and Edward Roland Noel Harriman (17) joined The Order." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^31]: George Mosher Murray and others, *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. 1 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1917), biographical entries for Prescott Sheldon Bush (pp. 105 to 106), Edward Roland Noel Harriman, William Ellery Sedgwick James, Henry Neil Mallon and Knight Woolley. https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr +[^32]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), chapter on the Harriman family and the investment bankers, passage ending "have dominated the direction of The Order." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^33]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 248 (executed October 20, 1942), 7 Fed. Reg. 9097-9098 (November 7, 1942), F.R. Doc. 42-11568. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf +[^34]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on Averell Harriman, Roland Harriman, E.S. James, Knight Woolley and the Union Bank. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^35]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entry "BUSH, 1917, Prescott S." (Yale Corporation, U.S. Senator, former partner of Brown Brothers Harriman). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^36]: Anthony L. Kimery, "George Bush and the CIA: In the Company of Friends," CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP99-01448R000401570011-0, sections "The Early Years: Waltzing with Spooks" and the passage on Henry Neil Mallon, citing Robin W. Winks, *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* (William Morrow, 1987), ch. 1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401570011-0 +[^37]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entries "BUSH, 1948, George Herbert Walker" and "BUSH, 1968" (George Walker Bush), and class index. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^38]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entry "BUSH, 1953, Jonathan James" (investments). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^39]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entries for George Herbert Walker Bush ("U.S. Congressman, '66-70") and George Walker Bush ("Lieut., Pilot, USAF, June '68-June 70"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^40]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1918 (Lovett, Robert Abercrombie), and the passage on the Lovett family ("The Order '18"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^41]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on Judge Robert Scott Lovett, citing George Kennan's biography of E. H. Harriman, and on Robert Abercrombie Lovett's initiation. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^42]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1920 (Luce, Henry Robinson). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^43]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1939 (Bundy, William Putman) and class of 1940 (Bundy, McGeorge). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^44]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on the Bundy brothers and Vietnam, where the book states its own hypothesis. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^45]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1950 (Buckley, William Frank Jr.). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^46]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1949 (Coffin, William S. Jr.). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^47]: FBI headquarters file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 1, memorandum L. B. Nichols to Mr. Tolson, October 20, 1950. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1 +[^48]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1937 (Stewart, Potter). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^49]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1966 (Kerry, John Forbes). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^50]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, classes of 1915 (MacLeish, Archibald) and 1936 (Moore, Richard Anthony). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^51]: Library of Congress, "Librarians of Congress" (Archibald MacLeish and Luther Harris Evans, 1939-1953). https://guides.loc.gov/librarians-of-congress +[^52]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), closing section on education, "UNESCO - Constitution, Archibald MacLeish ('15)." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^53]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1900 (Rockefeller, Percy Avery). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^54]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1894 (Whitney, Harry Payne). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^55]: Kathrin Day Lassila and Mark Alden Branch, "Whose Skull and Bones?," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20060614215733/http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/2006_05/notebook.html +[^56]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1918 (Davison, Fredrick Trubee). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^57]: Associated Press item, "F. Trubee Davison to Join CIA in Personnel Post," CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP78-04718A000500180115-2 (released May 10, 2000). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp78-04718a000500180115-2 +[^58]: Memorandum from F. Trubee Davison dated September 11, 1951, on CIA Official Routing Slip, CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP80R01731R003100090067-0. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003100090067-0 +[^59]: "Bush's Boy's Club: Skull and Bones," *Covert Action Information Bulletin*, no. 33 (Winter 1990), pp. 20 to 22, citing the *New York Times*, July 5, 1951, Marchetti and Marks, *The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence* (1974), pp. 110 to 111, Payne and Dobson, *Who's Who in Espionage* (1984), and Freed and Landis, *Death in Washington* (1980), p. 168. https://archive.org/details/CAIB33 +[^60]: CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP84-00780R003200020017-9 (letter of May 15, 1969 signed by Hugh T. Cunningham, Director of Training); CIA-RDP84-00780R003200020006-1 (Midcareer Executive Development Course correspondence, 1968); CIA-RDP80-00536A000300070001-5 (Midcareer Course No. 32, April to June 1972, listing Hugh Cunningham, Director of Training). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-00536a000300070001-5 +[^61]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1934 (Cunningham, Hugh Terry). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^62]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1950 (Pionzio, Dino John). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^63]: Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977, passages on the C.I.A. careers of Bill Bundy, Bill Buckley and William Sloane Coffin. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977 +[^64]: Alexandra Robbins, *Secrets of the Tomb: Skull and Bones, the Ivy League, and the Hidden Paths of Power* (Little, Brown, 2002). https://archive.org/details/secretsoftombsku00robb +[^65]: Howard Altman, "Geronimo's Bones," in Kris Millegan, *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), pp. 33 to 37. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones +[^66]: George H. W. Bush Presidential Library, "Records on Skull and Bones Society," FOIA 2009-0116-F, scope and content note, processed August 2009. https://www.bush41library.gov/download/file/4777 +[^67]: Carole Bass, "Apaches sue to recover Geronimo's skull," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2009. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/2421-apaches-sue-to-recover-geronimo-s-skull +[^68]: *Geronimo et al. v. Obama et al.*, No. 09-303 (RWR) (D.D.C. July 27, 2010), memorandum opinion of Judge Richard W. Roberts, background, discussion and conclusion. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303/pdf/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303-0.pdf +[^69]: *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340 (S.D. Tex.), docket entries 1 (complaint, October 31, 2017), 4 (order for more definite statement, November 13, 2017), 6 (memorandum and recommendation, November 21, 2017, with footnotes 1 to 3), 7 and 8 (order adopting and final judgment, December 18, 2017), 9 (return of service on the Russell Trust Association, executed December 21, 2017), 16 (order of January 23, 2018) and 17 (Fifth Circuit dismissal, February 28, 2018, No. 18-40008). https://archive.org/details/gov.uscourts.txsd.1463674 diff --git a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Union Banking Corporation.md b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Union Banking Corporation.md index 4951c3f9..63038547 100644 --- a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Union Banking Corporation.md +++ b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Union Banking Corporation.md @@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ start: 1924-08-04 end: 1942-10-20 location: "New York, New York" created: 2026-10-14 -updated: 2026-10-14 +updated: 2026-10-26 relations: - type: owned with: "[[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]]" @@ -26,28 +26,89 @@ relations: start: 1924-08-04 end: 1942-10-20 role: "sole owner according to the Treasury investigation of 1941" - fn: 1 + fn: 2 - type: owned with: "[[Office of the Alien Property Custodian]]" reverse: true start: 1942-10-20 role: "capital stock vested under Vesting Order Number 248" - fn: 2 + fn: 1 + - type: owned + with: "[[E. Roland Harriman]]" + reverse: true + end: 1942-10-20 + role: "registered holder of 3,991 of 4,000 shares at vesting" + fn: 1 + - type: owned + with: "[[Prescott Bush]]" + reverse: true + end: 1942-10-20 + role: "registered holder of 1 of 4,000 shares at vesting" + fn: 1 + - type: owned + with: "[[Ray Morris]]" + reverse: true + end: 1942-10-20 + role: "registered holder of 1 of 4,000 shares at vesting" + fn: 1 + - type: owned + with: "[[Harold D. Pennington]]" + reverse: true + end: 1942-10-20 + role: "registered holder of 1 of 4,000 shares at vesting" + fn: 1 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Prescott Bush]]" + reverse: true + start: 1924-08-04 + end: 1942-10-20 + role: "one of seven directors according to the incorporation documents as reported by the Guardian; registered holder of one share in Vesting Order Number 248" + fn: 11 + - type: director_of + with: "[[E. Roland Harriman]]" + reverse: true + start: 1932 + role: "director in 1932, according to Sutton (1976), Table 7-1" + fn: 6 --- -The Union Banking Corporation (UBC) was a New York corporation incorporated on August 4, 1924 and wholly owned by the [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]] of Rotterdam. The Alien Property Custodian vested all of its capital stock under the [[Trading with the Enemy Act]] on October 20, 1942, in an order that records the stock as held for the benefit of that bank and describes the bank as owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family.[^2] +The Union Banking Corporation (UBC) was a New York corporation incorporated on August 4, 1924 and wholly owned by the [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]] of Rotterdam. The Alien Property Custodian vested all of its capital stock under the [[Trading with the Enemy Act]] on October 20, 1942, in an order that records the stock as held for the benefit of that bank and describes the bank as owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family.[^1] ### Treasury Investigation, 1941 -A Treasury Department memorandum of August 18, 1941, from Mr. May to Mr. [[J. W. Pehle]] under the subject "Union Banking Corporation," reports that the corporation was wholly owned by the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, that the investigation "produced no evidence as to the ownership of this Dutch bank," that its president, Cornelis Lievense, claimed no knowledge of that ownership but believed it possible that Baron [[Heinrich Thyssen]], brother of [[Fritz Thyssen]], might own a substantial interest, and that Heinrich Thyssen was said to have acquired Hungarian citizenship.[^1] +A Treasury Department memorandum of August 18, 1941, from Mr. May to Mr. [[J. W. Pehle]] under the subject "Union Banking Corporation," reports that the corporation was wholly owned by the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, that the investigation "produced no evidence as to the ownership of this Dutch bank," that its president, Cornelis Lievense, claimed no knowledge of that ownership but believed it possible that Baron [[Heinrich Thyssen]], brother of [[Fritz Thyssen]], might own a substantial interest, and that Heinrich Thyssen was said to have acquired Hungarian citizenship.[^2] -The memorandum records gold purchases of over eight million dollars in 1931 to 1933, of which $3,085,000 was delivered to the [[Federal Reserve Bank]] on June 15, 1934. It states that the rumor that Fritz Thyssen had large gold deposits in the United States might have arisen from those purchases, while adding that all purchases were "satisfactorily accounted for" in the books. It states that in the fall of 1938 the corporation held two million dollars in currency in a New York safe deposit box, later deposited in its account with [[Brown Brothers Harriman]].[^1] The memorandum does not name [[Prescott Bush]].[^1] +The memorandum records gold purchases of over eight million dollars in 1931 to 1933, of which $3,085,000 was delivered to the [[Federal Reserve Bank]] on June 15, 1934. It states that the rumor that Fritz Thyssen had large gold deposits in the United States might have arisen from those purchases, while adding that all purchases were "satisfactorily accounted for" in the books. It states that in the fall of 1938 the corporation held two million dollars in currency in a New York safe deposit box, later deposited in its account with [[Brown Brothers Harriman]].[^2] The memorandum does not name [[Prescott Bush]].[^2] The [[The Guardian|Guardian]] dated the same memorandum August 16, 1941.[^3] ### Vesting Order Number 248 -On October 20, 1942 the Alien Property Custodian, Leo T. Crowley, signed Vesting Order Number 248, published in the Federal Register on November 7, 1942. It vested "all of the capital stock of Union Banking Corporation, a New York corporation," consisting of 4,000 shares of $100 par value common stock, and listed the registered owners and their shares: E. Roland Harriman, 3,991; Cornelius Lievense, 4; Harold D. Pennington, 1; Ray Morris, 1; Prescott S. Bush, 1; H. J. Kouwenhoven, 1; and Johann G. Groeninger, 1. The order states "all of which shares are held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N. V., Rotterdam, The Netherlands, which bank is owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family, nationals of Germany and/or Hungary." A second paragraph vested all claims of that bank and of the August Thyssen-Bank, Berlin, against the corporation for indebtedness.[^2] +On October 20, 1942 the Alien Property Custodian, Leo T. Crowley, signed Vesting Order Number 248, published in the Federal Register on November 7, 1942. It vested "all of the capital stock of Union Banking Corporation, a New York corporation," consisting of 4,000 shares of $100 par value common stock, and listed the registered owners and their shares: [[E. Roland Harriman]], 3,991; [[Cornelius Lievense]], 4; [[Harold D. Pennington]], 1; [[Ray Morris]], 1; Prescott S. Bush, 1; [[H. J. Kouwenhoven]], 1; and [[Johann G. Groeninger]], 1. The order states "all of which shares are held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N. V., Rotterdam, The Netherlands, which bank is owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family, nationals of Germany and/or Hungary." A second paragraph vested all claims of that bank and of the August Thyssen-Bank, Berlin, against the corporation for indebtedness.[^1] + +### Holders and Directors + +Of the seven registered holders in the vesting order, four were connected with Brown Brothers Harriman. E. Roland Harriman became a partner of the Harriman bank on October 30, 1926 and of the merged firm on January 1, 1931. Prescott Bush was a partner of Harriman Brothers & Co. on January 1, 1930 and of the merged firm on January 1, 1931. Ray Morris was a partner from January 1, 1921 to 1956. Harold D. Pennington was a partner of Harriman Brothers during 1930, manager in charge of operations of the merged firm from its start, and a partner from January 1, 1945 to December 31, 1956.[^4] The Yale class history of 1917 states of Edward Roland Noel Harriman, "He is a member of Psi Upsilon and Skull and Bones," and of Prescott Sheldon Bush, "He belongs to the Whiffenpoofs, Psi Upsilon, and Skull and Bones."[^5] + +[[Antony C. Sutton]] described the corporation in 1976 as "a joint Thyssen-Harriman operation," wrote that the Harrimans had a financial interest in it, described the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart as a Thyssen front bank in Holland that controlled it, and named E. Roland Harriman, a vice president of W. A. Harriman & Co., and H. J. Kouwenhoven as directors in a table of its directors in 1932.[^6] In his 1983 book on Skull and Bones he listed eight directors: E. Roland Harriman as a vice president of W. A. Harriman & Co.; [[Ellery Sedgwick James]] as a partner of Brown Brothers & Co.; Prescott Sheldon Bush as a partner of Brown Brothers Harriman; [[Knight Woolley]] as a director of [[Guaranty Trust Company]] and of the [[Federal Reserve Bank of New York]]; Cornelius Lievense as president; and H. J. Kouwenhoven, Johann G. Groeninger and [[J. L. Guinter]]. He wrote that four of the directors were members of the Yale class of 1917 and of the same society, and that Kouwenhoven and Groeninger were directors of the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, which he described as the former von Heydt bank.[^7] The firm's partner table gives November 25, 1932 as the date of James's death.[^4] + +### Holland-American Trading and Seamless Steel Equipment, 1942 + +Vesting Order Number 259 vested all of the capital stock of the [[Seamless Steel Equipment Corporation]], a New York corporation of 500 shares of $100 par value stock, registered in the name of Cornelius Lievense and held for the benefit of Press- und Walzwerk A.G. of [[Düsseldorf]] and of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart. Vesting Order Number 261 vested all of the capital stock of the [[Holland-American Trading Corporation]], also a New York corporation with 500 shares, held by E. Roland Harriman (491 shares), Lievense (4), and Harold D. Pennington, Ray Morris, Knight Woolley, H. J. Kouwenhoven and J. G. Groeninger (1 share each), for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart. Both orders were executed October 28, 1942 and published in the Federal Register on December 19, 1942.[^8][^9] The Guardian described both companies as affiliates against which "further seizures were made" after the seizure of the Union Banking Corporation.[^10] + +### The Guardian Account, 2004 + +[[Ben Aris]] and [[Duncan Campbell]] reported in the Guardian in 2004 that the incorporation documents of the corporation "list him as one of seven directors" and show that Prescott Bush owned one share worth $125.[^11] They also reported that [[Homer Jones]], chief of the Alien Property Custodian's investigation and research division, sent a memorandum to the custodian's executive committee within weeks of the investigation. Jones named the directors of the bank in that memorandum, including Bush, and wrote that the stock was "held by the above named individuals, however, solely as nominees for the Bank voor Handel, Rotterdam, Holland, which is owned by one or more of the Thyssen family."[^12] ### Footnotes -[^1]: Treasury Department memorandum, Mr. May to Mr. Pehle, August 18, 1941, "Re: Union Banking Corporation," ref. 9-151, with handwritten notation by J. W. Pehle, declassified by NARA (authority NND 960103). -[^2]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 248, "All of the Capital Stock of Union Banking Corporation and Certain Indebtedness Owing by It," executed October 20, 1942, signed Leo T. Crowley, F.R. Doc. 42-11568, filed November 6, 1942, 7 *Federal Register* 9097 (November 7, 1942). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf +[^1]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 248, "All of the Capital Stock of Union Banking Corporation and Certain Indebtedness Owing by It," executed October 20, 1942, signed Leo T. Crowley, F.R. Doc. 42-11568, filed November 6, 1942, 7 *Federal Register* 9097 (November 7, 1942). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf +[^2]: Treasury Department memorandum, Mr. May to Mr. Pehle, August 18, 1941, "Re: Union Banking Corporation," ref. 9-151, with handwritten notation by J. W. Pehle, declassified by NARA (authority NND 960103). +[^3]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004, which gives the date of the report as "August 16 1941." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar +[^4]: John A. Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking: An Historical Portrait of a Great Private Bank, Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., 1818-1968* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1968), partner table pp. 231 to 235 and caption of the Pennington photograph pp. 197 to 198. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb +[^5]: *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. 1 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1917), entries for Edward Roland Noel Harriman and Prescott Sheldon Bush (pp. 105 to 106). https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr +[^6]: Antony C. Sutton, *Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler* (1976), p. 103 (Table 7-1 and text on the 1932 directors and the joint Thyssen-Harriman operation) and pp. 106 to 107 (E. Roland Harriman). +[^7]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983; Trine Day, 2002), section "The Union Banking Connection," with the table of the eight directors in 1932. +[^8]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 259, "All of the Capital Stock of Seamless Steel Equipment Corporation," executed October 28, 1942, filed December 18, 1942 (F.R. Doc. 42-13530), *Federal Register* 7 (December 19, 1942), pp. 10626 to 10627. https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-register-find_1942-12-19_7_248 +[^9]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 261, "All of the Capital Stock of Holland-American Trading Corporation," executed October 28, 1942 (F.R. Doc. 42-13532, filed December 18, 1942), *Federal Register* 7 (December 19, 1942), p. 10627, holder table of 500 shares. https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-register-find_1942-12-19_7_248 +[^10]: Ben Aris and Duncan Campbell, "How Bush's grandfather helped Hitler's rise to power," *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: "Having gone through the books of the bank, further seizures were made against two affiliates, the Holland-American Trading Corporation and the Seamless Steel Equipment Corporation." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar +[^11]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: "the incorporation documents, which list him as one of seven directors, show he owned one share in UBC worth $125." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar +[^12]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004, quoting the Homer Jones memorandum from National Archives vesting files. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar diff --git a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Yale University.md b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Yale University.md index 27b259d2..ab2321e4 100644 --- a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Yale University.md +++ b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Yale University.md @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ --- created: 2026-10-15 -updated: 2026-10-15 +updated: 2026-10-26 title: Yale University aliases: - Yale @@ -30,83 +30,83 @@ relations: role: "assistant professor of English; OSS Library Project collector in Istanbul from April 1943; returned to Yale in the summer of 1946" start: 1943 end: 1946 - fn: 13 + fn: 24 - type: employed_by with: "[[Richard Bissell]]" reverse: true role: "doctorate in economics, 1939; taught economics at Yale before moving to MIT in 1942" start: 1939 end: 1942 - fn: 22 + fn: 33 - type: employed_by with: "[[Sherman Kent]]" reverse: true role: "history professor before 1941; left for the OSS Research and Analysis Branch; returned in 1947 or 1949 (the CIA essays give both); left for the CIA in 1950" start: 1933 end: 1950 - fn: 21 + fn: 32 - type: employed_by with: "[[Mark A. May]]" reverse: true role: "professor of educational psychology; director of the Institute of Human Relations, 1935 to 1961" start: 1927 end: 1960 - fn: 25 + fn: 36 - type: employed_by with: "[[Stanley Milgram]]" reverse: true role: "conducted the obedience experiments in the Yale interaction laboratory; at Harvard by 1963" start: 1960 end: 1963 - fn: 28 + fn: 39 - type: employed_by with: "[[Myron S. Malkin]]" reverse: true role: "member of the physics faculty" start: 1952 end: 1961 - fn: 37 + fn: 48 - type: employed_by with: "[[José M. R. Delgado]]" reverse: true role: "Department of Psychiatry; came to Yale in 1952 as an instructor" start: 1952 - fn: 30 + fn: 41 - type: employed_by with: "[[Robert B. Livingston]]" reverse: true role: "School of Medicine, instructor to assistant professor of physiology under John F. Fulton" start: 1946 end: 1952 - fn: 31 + fn: 42 - type: employed_by with: "[[Robert Byck]]" reverse: true role: "Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine; testified before the House Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control on July 26, 1979" start: 1979 end: 1979 - fn: 42 + fn: 53 - type: employed_by with: "[[José A. Cabranes]]" reverse: true role: "general counsel and director of government relations" start: 1975 end: 1979 - fn: 47 + fn: 58 - type: head_of with: "[[Richard Levin]]" reverse: true role: "twenty-second president" start: 1993 end: 2013 - fn: 66 + fn: 77 - type: funded with: "[[Thiel Foundation]]" reverse: true role: "$25,000 grant to Yale University for education, 2006" start: 2006 end: 2006 - fn: 65 + fn: 76 --- Yale University is a private university in [[New Haven, Connecticut]], chartered by the [[Connecticut Colony]] in 1701 as a collegiate school. Its senior society [[Skull and Bones]], its wartime faculty recruited into the [[Office of Strategic Services]] and the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], its psychology, psychiatry and neurophysiology laboratories, and its alumni in the federal courts and the executive branch appear in the records of intelligence services, behavioral research, parapsychology, drug policy and finance. @@ -119,75 +119,81 @@ The General Court of the Colony of Connecticut passed an "Act for a Collegiate S [[David A. Richards]], who is writing a history of American college societies and whose name the magazine's editors note appears in the Class of 1967 list of Skull and Bones members, wrote in the Yale Alumni Magazine in 2015 that Skull and Bones was founded in 1832 on the conception of [[William Huntington Russell]], the valedictorian of the Class of 1833, with [[Alphonso Taft]] as a cofounder, and that its members called it the Eulogian Club before a skull and crossbones sketched on a chapel-door notice gave it its name and its badge number, 322. He wrote that in 1856 the society's alumni incorporated it in Connecticut as a trust called the Russell Trust Association, so that a corporation could hold title to the windowless "tomb" on High Street, which was later estimated to have cost about $30,000.[^3] A reader's letter in the same magazine, citing [[James Bradley]]'s book *The China Mirage*, stated that the money for the 1856 building was "Russell money" traced to [[Russell and Company]] of Canton, "America's biggest smuggler of Turkish opium into China."[^4] The Connecticut Secretary of the State's business registry lists "The Russell Trust Association" as a domestic business of the type "Special Chartered," status "Active," account number 0269315.[^5] -[[Ron Rosenbaum]] wrote in [[Esquire]] in September 1977 that the society's members included [[McGeorge Bundy]], [[Averell Harriman]], [[Henry L. Stimson]], [[Henry Luce]] and Supreme Court Justice [[Potter Stewart]]. He wrote that Bundy's brother [[William P. Bundy]] and [[William F. Buckley]] entered the Central Intelligence Agency after their years in the society.[^6] Bundy majored in mathematics at Yale and then returned to [[Harvard University]] and its Society of Fellows after the war.[^7] A [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] memorandum of October 20, 1950 from [[Louis B. Nichols]] to [[Clyde Tolson]] records that Buckley "graduated at Yale in 1950, and was chairman of" the Yale Daily News, and that the editor of the News had promoted a forum at the Yale Law School in 1949 at which Nichols spoke.[^8] +[[Ron Rosenbaum]] wrote in [[Esquire]] in September 1977 that the society's members included [[McGeorge Bundy]], [[Averell Harriman]], [[Henry L. Stimson]], [[Henry Luce]] and Supreme Court Justice [[Potter Stewart]]. The Yale Obituary Record for 1950 to 1951 lists, among the undergraduate honors of Stimson, B.A. 1888, "He Boule, Psi Upsilon, Skull and Bones, Chi Delta Theta, Phi Beta Kappa."[^6] Rosenbaum also wrote that Bundy's brother [[William P. Bundy]] and [[William F. Buckley]] entered the Central Intelligence Agency after their years in the society.[^7] Bundy majored in mathematics at Yale and then returned to [[Harvard University]] and its Society of Fellows after the war.[^8] A [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] memorandum of October 20, 1950 from [[Louis B. Nichols]] to [[Clyde Tolson]] records that Buckley "graduated at Yale in 1950, and was chairman of" the Yale Daily News, and that the editor of the News had promoted a forum at the Yale Law School in 1949 at which Nichols spoke.[^9] -[[George W. Bush]] entered Yale in 1964 and received a bachelor's degree in history in 1968.[^9] [[Jacques Leslie]], a member of the Class of 1968, wrote in [[Salon]] in March 2000 that he and Bush had both been asked to join Skull and Bones, that he refused on Tap Night, and that "Bush, on the other hand, joined Bones." Leslie cited [[Bill Minutaglio]]'s biography *First Son* for the account that Bush had considered a society called Gin and Tonic but was swayed when his father, then a congressman, conducted the tapping himself. Leslie listed Stimson (Class of 1888), Stewart, Harriman, Luce, [[John Hersey]] and [[William Sloane Coffin]] as members, and wrote that students heard rumors that the society's assets made it the largest corporation in Connecticut and that each member was guaranteed a lifetime annual stipend of $20,000, adding that "Nobody knew whether the rumors were true."[^10] +[[George W. Bush]] entered Yale in 1964 and received a bachelor's degree in history in 1968.[^10] [[Jacques Leslie]], a member of the Class of 1968, wrote in [[Salon]] in March 2000 that he and Bush had both been asked to join Skull and Bones, that he refused on Tap Night, and that "Bush, on the other hand, joined Bones." Leslie cited [[Bill Minutaglio]]'s biography *First Son* for the account that Bush had considered a society called Gin and Tonic but was swayed when his father, then a congressman, conducted the tapping himself. Leslie listed Stimson (Class of 1888), Stewart, Harriman, Luce, [[John Hersey]] and [[William Sloane Coffin]] as members, and wrote that students heard rumors that the society's assets made it the largest corporation in Connecticut and that each member was guaranteed a lifetime annual stipend of $20,000, adding that "Nobody knew whether the rumors were true."[^11] -The [[George H. W. Bush Presidential Library]] describes its file FOIA 2009-0116-F as records "related to the Skull and Bones Society at Yale University, of which George H. W. Bush and his father Prescott Bush were both members." The file contains correspondence from President Bush to Buckley and [[Thomas W. Ludlow Ashley]] about a Buckley article in [[National Review]] answering [[Pat Buchanan]]'s characterization of Bush's foreign policy as "Skull and Bones foreign policy" during the 1992 campaign, administrative forms for a Skull and Bones tea held at the White House on October 20, 1989, and newspaper articles on the rumor that [[Prescott Bush]] and a group of Skull and Bones members had taken the skull of the Apache leader [[Geronimo]].[^11] Vesting Order 248 of the Alien Property Custodian, executed October 20, 1942 and published in the Federal Register on November 7, 1942, vested "All of the capital stock of Union Banking Corporation," 4,000 shares held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N.V., Rotterdam, "which bank is owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family." It lists the registered owners as [[E. Roland Harriman]] (3,991 shares), Cornelius Lievense (4), Harold D. Pennington (1), Ray Morris (1), Prescott S. Bush (1), H. J. Kouwenhoven (1) and Johann G. Groeninger (1).[^12] +The [[George H. W. Bush Presidential Library]] describes its file FOIA 2009-0116-F as records "related to the Skull and Bones Society at Yale University, of which George H. W. Bush and his father Prescott Bush were both members." The file contains correspondence from President Bush to Buckley and [[Thomas W. Ludlow Ashley]] about a Buckley article in [[National Review]] answering [[Pat Buchanan]]'s characterization of Bush's foreign policy as "Skull and Bones foreign policy" during the 1992 campaign, administrative forms for a Skull and Bones tea held at the White House on October 20, 1989, and newspaper articles on the rumor that [[Prescott Bush]] and a group of Skull and Bones members had taken the skull of the Apache leader [[Geronimo]].[^12] Vesting Order 248 of the Alien Property Custodian, executed October 20, 1942 and published in the Federal Register on November 7, 1942, vested "All of the capital stock of Union Banking Corporation," 4,000 shares held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N.V., Rotterdam, "which bank is owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family." It lists the registered owners as [[E. Roland Harriman]] (3,991 shares), Cornelius Lievense (4), Harold D. Pennington (1), Ray Morris (1), Prescott S. Bush (1), H. J. Kouwenhoven (1) and Johann G. Groeninger (1).[^13] + +A special act of the [[Connecticut General Assembly]] in 1856 incorporated the Russell Trust Association "for the purpose of the intellectual and moral improvement of its members, and for that only"; the act limited its holdings of real and personal estate to fifteen thousand dollars, and an act approved July 9, 1943 raised the limit to seven hundred thousand dollars.[^14] In 1961 the members incorporated RTA Incorporated as a Connecticut nonstock corporation "for exclusively educational purposes," including "the support of education at Yale University," with its assets on dissolution payable to Yale University.[^15] RTA Incorporated (EIN 06-0768741) is recognized by the [[Internal Revenue Service]] as a section 501(c)(3) organization and reports itself as a Type III functionally integrated supporting organization of Yale University; its return for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021 reports total assets of $16,127,481, and the exempt-organization master file lists assets of $17,071,890 for the period ending June 2025.[^16][^17] A Yale spokeswoman told the Yale Alumni Magazine in 2009 that Skull and Bones is not part of the university and is legally independent of it.[^18] + +[[Antony C. Sutton]]'s book states that the Sterling Library at Yale, which holds major holdings of the society's records, had refused researchers further access to the Russell Trust papers.[^19] Ron Rosenbaum reported in 1977 that he found the File and Claw pamphlet in the library's manuscript room, filed under the corporate name Russell Trust Association.[^20] + +In 2017 a pro se complaint, *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340 (S.D. Tex.), named Yale University, the Russell Trust Association, George H.W. Bush and Willard Mitt Romney as defendants. It alleged that the society holds the skull of [[Pancho Villa]] and asked for its return for burial in Mexico City. The court dismissed it for lack of subject matter jurisdiction on December 18, 2017, and the Fifth Circuit dismissed the appeal on February 28, 2018.[^21] In the United States District Court for the District of Columbia, twenty descendants of Geronimo sued Yale University and the Order of Skull and Bones in 2009 over the removal of Geronimo's remains, which the opinion places "in or around 1918." Judge [[Richard W. Roberts]] dismissed the complaint as to all defendants in a memorandum opinion of July 27, 2010.[^22] The Yale Alumni Magazine reported in 2006 a letter of June 7, 1918 from one member to another stating that the skull of Geronimo had been taken from [[Fort Sill]] and was "safe inside" the society's building.[^23] ### The Library Project, the Research and Analysis Branch and X-2 -Yale's wartime collection of enemy publications served as cover for an Office of Strategic Services operation. In April 1943 Joseph Toy Curtiss, an assistant professor of English, sailed for Istanbul with a $25,000 fund to acquire books and war material for Yale and other libraries; he had been recruited to collect intelligence on the Axis powers, and the operation was called the Library Project. [[Donald Downes]], an OSS officer and Yale graduate, formed the plan after reading a notice in the Yale Library Gazette. Only Curtiss and the collection's two curators, [[Russell Pruden]] and [[Thomas Mendenhall]], knew the purpose at Yale; President [[Charles Seymour]] was not told. The OSS sent the money to [[Walter Pforzheimer|Walter L. Pforzheimer]], a trustee of the Yale Library Associates, who presented it to the university as a gift from anonymous alumni, and two sets of accounts were kept, one for Yale and one for the OSS. The Library Project remained secret until 1953, and Curtiss returned to Yale in the summer of 1946 and taught there for twenty more years.[^13] The Yale research archivist who wrote that account cites [[Robin W. Winks]], a Yale history professor, and his book *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* for the Yale connections of the new intelligence service.[^14] A Walter Pforzheimer received a letter from the chief investigator of the [[Senate Internal Security Subcommittee]] on May 9, 1955, and a letter from [[Daniel O. Graham]] on September 23, 1980 enclosing a partial membership list of the [[National Strategy Committee]]; the records found do not state whether that recipient is the Yale trustee of the same name.[^15] +Yale's wartime collection of enemy publications served as cover for an Office of Strategic Services operation. In April 1943 Joseph Toy Curtiss, an assistant professor of English, sailed for Istanbul with a $25,000 fund to acquire books and war material for Yale and other libraries; he had been recruited to collect intelligence on the Axis powers, and the operation was called the Library Project. [[Donald Downes]], an OSS officer and Yale graduate, formed the plan after reading a notice in the Yale Library Gazette. Only Curtiss and the collection's two curators, [[Russell Pruden]] and [[Thomas Mendenhall]], knew the purpose at Yale; President [[Charles Seymour]] was not told. The OSS sent the money to [[Walter Pforzheimer|Walter L. Pforzheimer]], a trustee of the Yale Library Associates, who presented it to the university as a gift from anonymous alumni, and two sets of accounts were kept, one for Yale and one for the OSS. The Library Project remained secret until 1953, and Curtiss returned to Yale in the summer of 1946 and taught there for twenty more years.[^24] The Yale research archivist who wrote that account cites [[Robin W. Winks]], a Yale history professor, and his book *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* for the Yale connections of the new intelligence service.[^25] A Walter Pforzheimer received a letter from the chief investigator of the [[Senate Internal Security Subcommittee]] on May 9, 1955, and a letter from [[Daniel O. Graham]] on September 23, 1980 enclosing a partial membership list of the [[National Strategy Committee]]; the records found do not state whether that recipient is the Yale trustee of the same name.[^26] -[[Norman Holmes Pearson]], a Yale University professor, headed [[X-2]], the OSS counterintelligence branch, in London, according to a review in the CIA's Studies in Intelligence of the memoirs of Richard W. Cutler, a Yale-educated lawyer who built X-2's agent vetting section at Pearson's direction.[^16] [[James Jesus Angleton]] (class of 1941) entered Yale in 1937, majored in English literature, and edited the poetry review [[Furioso]], which published [[T.S. Eliot]] and [[Ezra Pound]]; he entered [[Harvard Law School]] and then joined the Army in 1943.[^17] According to [[Tom Mangold]]'s biography, he co-founded the magazine with the poet [[Reed Whittemore]] and developed close ties to Eliot and Pound during those years.[^18] [[David Robarge]] wrote in the CIA's Studies in Intelligence in 2009 that Winks's chapter "The Theorist" in *Cloak and Gown*, partly derived from conversations with Angleton, was "the most insightful biographical sketch of Angleton yet written," and described the argument of the scholar David Holzman that the New Criticism prominent at Yale when Angleton attended shaped his approach to counterintelligence.[^19] +[[Norman Holmes Pearson]], a Yale University professor, headed [[X-2]], the OSS counterintelligence branch, in London, according to a review in the CIA's Studies in Intelligence of the memoirs of Richard W. Cutler, a Yale-educated lawyer who built X-2's agent vetting section at Pearson's direction.[^27] [[James Jesus Angleton]] (class of 1941) entered Yale in 1937, majored in English literature, and edited the poetry review [[Furioso]], which published [[T.S. Eliot]] and [[Ezra Pound]]; he entered [[Harvard Law School]] and then joined the Army in 1943.[^28] According to [[Tom Mangold]]'s biography, he co-founded the magazine with the poet [[Reed Whittemore]] and developed close ties to Eliot and Pound during those years.[^29] [[David Robarge]] wrote in the CIA's Studies in Intelligence in 2009 that Winks's chapter "The Theorist" in *Cloak and Gown*, partly derived from conversations with Angleton, was "the most insightful biographical sketch of Angleton yet written," and described the argument of the scholar David Holzman that the New Criticism prominent at Yale when Angleton attended shaped his approach to counterintelligence.[^30] -[[Sherman Kent]] was born in Chicago in 1903, graduated from Yale in 1926 and received a Ph.D. in history there in 1933. In 1941 he left Yale for the Research and Analysis Branch of the Coordinator of Information, later the OSS, and in January 1943 became chief of its Europe-Africa Division. The CIA's collected essays on his years as chairman of the [[Board of National Estimates]], 1952 to 1967, say that his Yale classes had been popular because his enthusiasm brought history to life, and that he bestowed D's and F's "with abandon" on sham or lack of preparation.[^20] One essay says he served on the staff of the [[National War College]] before "returning to Yale in 1947," where he wrote *[[Strategic Intelligence for American World Policy]]*, published in 1949, and that a year after its publication he left Yale for the CIA in the wake of the [[Korean War]]. The editor's note to another essay says Kent "did not return to teach at Yale until 1949," having taught at the National War College in 1946-1947 and held a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1947-1948, and that he joined the CIA's Office of National Estimates in late 1950 under [[William L. Langer]].[^21] +[[Sherman Kent]] was born in Chicago in 1903, graduated from Yale in 1926 and received a Ph.D. in history there in 1933. In 1941 he left Yale for the Research and Analysis Branch of the Coordinator of Information, later the OSS, and in January 1943 became chief of its Europe-Africa Division. The CIA's collected essays on his years as chairman of the [[Board of National Estimates]], 1952 to 1967, say that his Yale classes had been popular because his enthusiasm brought history to life, and that he bestowed D's and F's "with abandon" on sham or lack of preparation.[^31] One essay says he served on the staff of the [[National War College]] before "returning to Yale in 1947," where he wrote *[[Strategic Intelligence for American World Policy]]*, published in 1949, and that a year after its publication he left Yale for the CIA in the wake of the [[Korean War]]. The editor's note to another essay says Kent "did not return to teach at Yale until 1949," having taught at the National War College in 1946-1947 and held a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1947-1948, and that he joined the CIA's Office of National Estimates in late 1950 under [[William L. Langer]].[^32] -[[Richard Bissell]] took a doctorate at Yale in 1939 and taught economics there before moving to the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] in 1942, according to the CIA's official history of the U-2 program by [[Gregory W. Pedlow]] and [[Donald E. Welzenbach]].[^22] [[Tracy Barnes]] graduated from Yale and Harvard Law School before joining the OSS, and served in Europe as a paramilitary operative.[^23] +[[Richard Bissell]] took a doctorate at Yale in 1939 and taught economics there before moving to the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] in 1942, according to the CIA's official history of the U-2 program by [[Gregory W. Pedlow]] and [[Donald E. Welzenbach]].[^33] [[Tracy Barnes]] graduated from Yale and Harvard Law School before joining the OSS, and served in Europe as a paramilitary operative.[^34] ### The 1958 Conference on America's Human Resources -A letter of February 7, 1958 from [[Howard L. Bevis]], chairman of the [[President's Committee on Scientists and Engineers]], to [[Allen Dulles]], then Director of Central Intelligence, thanks Dulles for addressing the Conference on America's Human Resources at Yale on February 3 and 4, 1958 and for an address that "was a distinct contribution." The enclosed list of participants names [[Max Ascoli]] ("Editor and Publisher, The Reporter," of [[The Reporter]]), the publisher [[William Benton]], [[Lloyd Berkner]] of Associated Universities, and [[Frank H. Bartholomew]], president of [[United Press]]. The program's campus map locates the Institute of Human Relations, the Cowles Foundation, the Institute of Far Eastern Languages and the society buildings Skull and Bones, Scroll and Key, Wolf's Head, Book and Snake and the Elihu Club.[^24] +A letter of February 7, 1958 from [[Howard L. Bevis]], chairman of the [[President's Committee on Scientists and Engineers]], to [[Allen Dulles]], then Director of Central Intelligence, thanks Dulles for addressing the Conference on America's Human Resources at Yale on February 3 and 4, 1958 and for an address that "was a distinct contribution." The enclosed list of participants names [[Max Ascoli]] ("Editor and Publisher, The Reporter," of [[The Reporter]]), the publisher [[William Benton]], [[Lloyd Berkner]] of Associated Universities, and [[Frank H. Bartholomew]], president of [[United Press]]. The program's campus map locates the Institute of Human Relations, the Cowles Foundation, the Institute of Far Eastern Languages and the society buildings Skull and Bones, Scroll and Key, Wolf's Head, Book and Snake and the Elihu Club.[^35] ### The Institute of Human Relations and behavioral research -The Yale Institute of Human Relations was first organized in 1929 to integrate teaching at Yale on the study of man. [[Mark A. May]], professor of educational psychology at Yale from 1927 to 1960, was its executive secretary and then its director from 1935 to 1961; its work addressed juvenile delinquency, psychotherapy, cultural conflicts and child rearing. May was a scientific consultant to the War Department in the Second World War on psychological warfare and the psychological effects of weaponry, conducted research for the Office of Scientific Research and Development on psychological damage in soldiers caused by different weapons, and after the war served on the Advisory Commission on Information of the [[United States Information Agency]], chairing it from 1952; Yale holds his papers.[^25] [[Ernst Kris]] joined Yale's Child Study Center in 1949 and became professor of psychology there in 1951 and of psychiatry in 1953, after attending the September 1947 Project RAND conference of social scientists.[^26] +The Yale Institute of Human Relations was first organized in 1929 to integrate teaching at Yale on the study of man. [[Mark A. May]], professor of educational psychology at Yale from 1927 to 1960, was its executive secretary and then its director from 1935 to 1961; its work addressed juvenile delinquency, psychotherapy, cultural conflicts and child rearing. May was a scientific consultant to the War Department in the Second World War on psychological warfare and the psychological effects of weaponry, conducted research for the Office of Scientific Research and Development on psychological damage in soldiers caused by different weapons, and after the war served on the Advisory Commission on Information of the [[United States Information Agency]], chairing it from 1952; Yale holds his papers.[^36] [[Ernst Kris]] joined Yale's Child Study Center in 1949 and became professor of psychology there in 1951 and of psychiatry in 1953, after attending the September 1947 Project RAND conference of social scientists.[^37] -The congressional record of the CIA's behavioral modification program cites Yale work on drug interrogation. A survey titled "'Truth' Drugs in Interrogation," which [[Stansfield Turner]], Director of Central Intelligence, supplied for the record of the August 3, 1977 joint Senate hearing on [[Project MKULTRA]], reports that "Redlich and his associates at Yale" administered sodium amytal to nine volunteers who had invented cover stories for guilty episodes in their pasts, and cites F. C. Redlich, L. J. Ravitz and G. H. Dession, "Narcoanalysis and truth," *American Journal of Psychiatry* 107 (1951).[^27] +The congressional record of the CIA's behavioral modification program cites Yale work on drug interrogation. A survey titled "'Truth' Drugs in Interrogation," which [[Stansfield Turner]], Director of Central Intelligence, supplied for the record of the August 3, 1977 joint Senate hearing on [[Project MKULTRA]], reports that "Redlich and his associates at Yale" administered sodium amytal to nine volunteers who had invented cover stories for guilty episodes in their pasts, and cites F. C. Redlich, L. J. Ravitz and G. H. Dession, "Narcoanalysis and truth," *American Journal of Psychiatry* 107 (1951).[^38] -[[Stanley Milgram]] described his obedience experiments in the *Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology* in 1963 while "Now at Harvard University." The paper reports that the subjects were 40 men aged 20 to 50 drawn from New Haven and surrounding communities by newspaper advertisement and direct mail, who believed they were taking part in a study of memory and learning at Yale; that they were paid $4.50; and that the experiment was conducted "on the grounds of Yale University in the elegant interaction laboratory." Of the 40, 26 obeyed the experimenter's orders to the end, up to the 450-volt switch on a 30-switch shock generator, while fourteen Yale seniors asked beforehand to predict the behavior of 100 hypothetical subjects estimated from 0 to 3 percent, with a mean of 1.2 percent. Milgram acknowledged a grant (NSF G-17916) from the [[National Science Foundation]] and a 1960 grant for exploratory studies from the Higgins Fund at Yale, thanked the research assistants [[Alan C. Elms]] and Jon Wayland, and wrote that he gave the National Science Foundation a first report in January 1961 and first submitted the article to the journal on December 27, 1961.[^28] +[[Stanley Milgram]] described his obedience experiments in the *Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology* in 1963 while "Now at Harvard University." The paper reports that the subjects were 40 men aged 20 to 50 drawn from New Haven and surrounding communities by newspaper advertisement and direct mail, who believed they were taking part in a study of memory and learning at Yale; that they were paid $4.50; and that the experiment was conducted "on the grounds of Yale University in the elegant interaction laboratory." Of the 40, 26 obeyed the experimenter's orders to the end, up to the 450-volt switch on a 30-switch shock generator, while fourteen Yale seniors asked beforehand to predict the behavior of 100 hypothetical subjects estimated from 0 to 3 percent, with a mean of 1.2 percent. Milgram acknowledged a grant (NSF G-17916) from the [[National Science Foundation]] and a 1960 grant for exploratory studies from the Higgins Fund at Yale, thanked the research assistants [[Alan C. Elms]] and Jon Wayland, and wrote that he gave the National Science Foundation a first report in January 1961 and first submitted the article to the journal on December 27, 1961.[^39] ### Neuroelectric research, psychoenergetics and the STARGATE file -[[José M. R. Delgado]] is listed as a contributor to the 1971 proceedings of the Fourth Annual National Conference of the [[Neuroelectric Society]], held in San Antonio, Texas, with the affiliation "Department of Psychiatry, Yale University." The proceedings, edited by [[Norman L. Wulfsohn]] and [[Anthony Sances]], Jr., were filed as CIA-RDP96-00787R000500200005-2 in the [[Project Stargate]] collection.[^29] An early proposal titled "Direct Brain Perception," submitted by [[Edgar Mitchell]] and prepared by [[Andrija Puharich]], includes biographical sketches of its consultants. One states that Delgado "came to Yale in 1952 as an Instructor."[^30] +[[José M. R. Delgado]] is listed as a contributor to the 1971 proceedings of the Fourth Annual National Conference of the [[Neuroelectric Society]], held in San Antonio, Texas, with the affiliation "Department of Psychiatry, Yale University." The proceedings, edited by [[Norman L. Wulfsohn]] and [[Anthony Sances]], Jr., were filed as CIA-RDP96-00787R000500200005-2 in the [[Project Stargate]] collection.[^40] An early proposal titled "Direct Brain Perception," submitted by [[Edgar Mitchell]] and prepared by [[Andrija Puharich]], includes biographical sketches of its consultants. One states that Delgado "came to Yale in 1952 as an Instructor."[^41] -The 1992 "Phenomenological Research and Analysis Technical Volume" of [[Science Applications International Corporation]], by [[Edwin May]] and Wanda L. W. Luke, lists [[Robert B. Livingston]], M.D., of the [[University of California, San Diego]] as a member of its Institutional Review Board with [[Louis Jolyon West|Louis J. West]] of the [[University of California, Los Angeles]], and prints Livingston's 1991 curriculum vitae: Yale University School of Medicine, instructor to assistant professor of physiology under [[John F. Fulton]], 1946-1952, with a publication list that includes work "with José Delgado." The same volume adds Professor [[Steven A. Hillyard]] of UC San Diego to its Scientific Oversight Committee and states that his resume is included in its Section IV, which holds a curriculum vitae recording a Yale Ph.D. in psychology in 1968 with a traineeship under [[Robert Galambos]].[^31] +The 1992 "Phenomenological Research and Analysis Technical Volume" of [[Science Applications International Corporation]], by [[Edwin May]] and Wanda L. W. Luke, lists [[Robert B. Livingston]], M.D., of the [[University of California, San Diego]] as a member of its Institutional Review Board with [[Louis Jolyon West|Louis J. West]] of the [[University of California, Los Angeles]], and prints Livingston's 1991 curriculum vitae: Yale University School of Medicine, instructor to assistant professor of physiology under [[John F. Fulton]], 1946-1952, with a publication list that includes work "with José Delgado." The same volume adds Professor [[Steven A. Hillyard]] of UC San Diego to its Scientific Oversight Committee and states that his resume is included in its Section IV, which holds a curriculum vitae recording a Yale Ph.D. in psychology in 1968 with a traineeship under [[Robert Galambos]].[^42] -[[Annie Jacobsen]] wrote that Puharich's theory of an energy linking the brain and the cells gained traction when [[Lloyd H. Beck]] and [[Walter S. Miles]] of Yale reported that the olfactory nerve of a bee radiated energy in the infrared range.[^32] [[Harold Saxton Burr]] published "Diurnal Potentials in the Maple Tree" in the [[Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine]] in July 1945.[^33] A 1984 interim report on a geophysical effects study, prepared by [[Harold Puthoff]] and Marsha Adams of [[SRI International]] for the U.S. Army Intelligence and Security Command under the [[Center Lane]] special access program, states that its ultra-low-frequency measurements "were stimulated by the work of Burr on relatively steady-state tree potentials," and its reference list cites Burr's 1945 and 1947 papers in the Yale journal and his 1956 paper in *Science*.[^34] +[[Annie Jacobsen]] wrote that Puharich's theory of an energy linking the brain and the cells gained traction when [[Lloyd H. Beck]] and [[Walter S. Miles]] of Yale reported that the olfactory nerve of a bee radiated energy in the infrared range.[^43] [[Harold Saxton Burr]] published "Diurnal Potentials in the Maple Tree" in the [[Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine]] in July 1945.[^44] A 1984 interim report on a geophysical effects study, prepared by [[Harold Puthoff]] and Marsha Adams of [[SRI International]] for the U.S. Army Intelligence and Security Command under the [[Center Lane]] special access program, states that its ultra-low-frequency measurements "were stimulated by the work of Burr on relatively steady-state tree potentials," and its reference list cites Burr's 1945 and 1947 papers in the Yale journal and his 1956 paper in *Science*.[^45] -A survey of international parapsychology research, held in the CIA reading room as a chapter of the book *[[New Psychic Frontiers]]*, lists Yale University, New Haven, among the institutions with parapsychology activity. The entry names [[Henry Margenau]] and [[Dieter Brill]] as the professors involved.[^35] A Defense Intelligence Agency report of August 7, 1984, titled "Psychoenergetics Research," prints an Exhibit 7 headed "Universities Involved in Courses, Research, or Degrees in Parapsychology," on which Yale University appears on the same line as the University of California, Berkeley.[^36] +A survey of international parapsychology research, held in the CIA reading room as a chapter of the book *[[New Psychic Frontiers]]*, lists Yale University, New Haven, among the institutions with parapsychology activity. The entry names [[Henry Margenau]] and [[Dieter Brill]] as the professors involved.[^46] A Defense Intelligence Agency report of August 7, 1984, titled "Psychoenergetics Research," prints an Exhibit 7 headed "Universities Involved in Courses, Research, or Degrees in Parapsychology," on which Yale University appears on the same line as the University of California, Berkeley.[^47] ### Physics, the Space Shuttle and Dimona -[[Myron S. Malkin]] was a member of the Yale physics faculty from 1952 to 1961. He then worked at [[General Electric]] on re-entry vehicles and later directed the [[Space Shuttle program]] at [[NASA]] headquarters from 1973 to 1980.[^37] [[Robert T. Webber]] earned a doctorate in physics at Yale and served as scientific attache at the American embassy in [[Tel Aviv]]. According to [[Seymour Hersh]]'s account in *[[The Samson Option]]*, he shared the interest of [[William N. Dale]] in the [[Dimona]] reactor.[^38] +[[Myron S. Malkin]] was a member of the Yale physics faculty from 1952 to 1961. He then worked at [[General Electric]] on re-entry vehicles and later directed the [[Space Shuttle program]] at [[NASA]] headquarters from 1973 to 1980.[^48] [[Robert T. Webber]] earned a doctorate in physics at Yale and served as scientific attache at the American embassy in [[Tel Aviv]]. According to [[Seymour Hersh]]'s account in *[[The Samson Option]]*, he shared the interest of [[William N. Dale]] in the [[Dimona]] reactor.[^49] ### Walt Rostow, Eugene Rostow and the Yale Law School -[[Walt Rostow]] received a Ph.D. in economics from Yale in 1940.[^39] His brother [[Eugene V. Rostow]], dean of the [[Yale Law School]], is listed as a member of Panel IV of the [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund]] [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund Special Studies Project]], whose 1961 report *[[Prospect for America]]* names him as "dean, Yale University Law School."[^40] [[Max Millikan]] took a B.S. in physics at Yale in 1935 and a Yale Ph.D. in 1941 before working at the [[Office of Price Administration]] in 1942.[^41] +[[Walt Rostow]] received a Ph.D. in economics from Yale in 1940.[^50] His brother [[Eugene V. Rostow]], dean of the [[Yale Law School]], is listed as a member of Panel IV of the [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund]] [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund Special Studies Project]], whose 1961 report *[[Prospect for America]]* names him as "dean, Yale University Law School."[^51] [[Max Millikan]] took a B.S. in physics at Yale in 1935 and a Yale Ph.D. in 1941 before working at the [[Office of Price Administration]] in 1942.[^52] ### Pharmacology and the 1979 cocaine hearings -[[Robert Byck]] of the Yale Department of Pharmacology, described in the hearing record as a professor of psychiatry and pharmacology at Yale who had just returned from an international conference on cocaine in Peru, testified on July 26, 1979 before the [[House Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control]] in the hearings published as *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*.[^42] He opened by saying that, cocaine as then used in the United States was not dangerous in the usual sense, and that the emphasis had been placed in the wrong place. His prepared statement, printed in the same volume, says that freebase smoking "can represent the same threat that the speed epidemics of the 1960's represented in their time," that the United States did not yet have an epidemic of freebase or coca paste smoking, and that "The possibility is strong that this might occur. It is occurring in the countries of South America."[^43] [[Gary Webb]] wrote in *[[Dark Alliance]]* in 1998 that Byck had warned Congress of the coming [[Crack Cocaine|crack]] epidemic in 1979 and had been ignored.[^44] +[[Robert Byck]] of the Yale Department of Pharmacology, described in the hearing record as a professor of psychiatry and pharmacology at Yale who had just returned from an international conference on cocaine in Peru, testified on July 26, 1979 before the [[House Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control]] in the hearings published as *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*.[^53] He opened by saying that, cocaine as then used in the United States was not dangerous in the usual sense, and that the emphasis had been placed in the wrong place. His prepared statement, printed in the same volume, says that freebase smoking "can represent the same threat that the speed epidemics of the 1960's represented in their time," that the United States did not yet have an epidemic of freebase or coca paste smoking, and that "The possibility is strong that this might occur. It is occurring in the countries of South America."[^54] [[Gary Webb]] wrote in *[[Dark Alliance]]* in 1998 that Byck had warned Congress of the coming [[Crack Cocaine|crack]] epidemic in 1979 and had been ignored.[^55] ### Yale-China -The Yale-China Association, known first as Yale-in-China, was founded on February 10, 1901 by young Yale alumni, who chose Hunan Province as the field; a renovated building in central [[Changsha]] provided classrooms and a Western medicine clinic by Christmas 1906. [[Edward H. Hume]], Yale class of 1897, opened a small hospital and with [[Yan Fuqing]] secured land and funding for the medical school, and the 1913 Xiang-ya Agreement with the Hunan authorities was described as a turning point; the preparatory school became Yali High School.[^45] Yale's own China timeline records that Yan Fuqing graduated from the Yale School of Medicine in 1909 and became head of Xiangya Hospital, founder of Shanghai Medical College of Fudan University, and Minister of Health, and that [[Yung Wing]] graduated from Yale College in 1854 and organized the Chinese Educational Mission that sent 120 students to New England.[^46] +The Yale-China Association, known first as Yale-in-China, was founded on February 10, 1901 by young Yale alumni, who chose Hunan Province as the field; a renovated building in central [[Changsha]] provided classrooms and a Western medicine clinic by Christmas 1906. [[Edward H. Hume]], Yale class of 1897, opened a small hospital and with [[Yan Fuqing]] secured land and funding for the medical school, and the 1913 Xiang-ya Agreement with the Hunan authorities was described as a turning point; the preparatory school became Yali High School.[^56] Yale's own China timeline records that Yan Fuqing graduated from the Yale School of Medicine in 1909 and became head of Xiangya Hospital, founder of Shanghai Medical College of Fudan University, and Minister of Health, and that [[Yung Wing]] graduated from Yale College in 1854 and organized the Chinese Educational Mission that sent 120 students to New England.[^57] ### Courts, the Law School and the executive branch -[[José A. Cabranes]] graduated from [[Columbia University]] in 1961 and from Yale Law School in 1965. He was general counsel and director of government relations at Yale from 1975 to 1979. [[Jimmy Carter]] nominated him to the District of Connecticut on November 6, 1979, and [[Bill Clinton]] nominated him to the Second Circuit on May 24, 1994. He served on the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review from 2013 to 2020, presiding from 2018 to 2020.[^47] [[Robert W. Sweet]] graduated from Yale in 1944 and from Yale Law School in 1948, after service as a Navy lieutenant junior grade from 1943 to 1946. Carter nominated him to the Southern District of New York on February 17, 1978.[^48] +[[José A. Cabranes]] graduated from [[Columbia University]] in 1961 and from Yale Law School in 1965. He was general counsel and director of government relations at Yale from 1975 to 1979. [[Jimmy Carter]] nominated him to the District of Connecticut on November 6, 1979, and [[Bill Clinton]] nominated him to the Second Circuit on May 24, 1994. He served on the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review from 2013 to 2020, presiding from 2018 to 2020.[^58] [[Robert W. Sweet]] graduated from Yale in 1944 and from Yale Law School in 1948, after service as a Navy lieutenant junior grade from 1943 to 1946. Carter nominated him to the Southern District of New York on February 17, 1978.[^59] -[[Stephen Cutler]] graduated summa cum laude from Yale and received his law degree there before being named Enforcement Director of the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] in October 2001.[^49] [[William Bradford Reynolds]] received a B.A. from Yale in 1964.[^50] [[Richard Thornburgh]] earned a B.S. in engineering from Yale in 1954.[^51] [[Cyrus Vance]] graduated from Yale in 1939 and received his law degree there in 1942.[^52] [[Dean Acheson]] also graduated from Yale.[^53] [[Mark W. Everson]] received a B.A. in history from Yale.[^54] [[Porter Goss]] took a B.A. in classics and Greek from Yale in 1960.[^55] +[[Stephen Cutler]] graduated summa cum laude from Yale and received his law degree there before being named Enforcement Director of the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] in October 2001.[^60] [[William Bradford Reynolds]] received a B.A. from Yale in 1964.[^61] [[Richard Thornburgh]] earned a B.S. in engineering from Yale in 1954.[^62] [[Cyrus Vance]] graduated from Yale in 1939 and received his law degree there in 1942.[^63] [[Dean Acheson]] also graduated from Yale.[^64] [[Mark W. Everson]] received a B.A. in history from Yale.[^65] [[Porter Goss]] took a B.A. in classics and Greek from Yale in 1960.[^66] -Other lawyers and officials who took their law degrees at Yale include [[David Boies]] (LL.B. 1966),[^56] [[Alan Dershowitz]],[^57] [[Hillary Clinton]], who met Bill Clinton there,[^58] [[Cory Booker]],[^59] [[Ro Khanna]],[^60] [[JD Vance]] (2013)[^61] and [[Mariano-Florentino Cuéllar]].[^62] [[John Morley]] of Yale Law School helped design the governance structure of [[Anthropic]]'s [[Long-Term Benefit Trust]].[^63] [[William H. Draper III]], nominated by [[Ronald Reagan]] in 1981 to head the [[Export-Import Bank of the United States]], held a Yale B.A. from 1950.[^64] +Other lawyers and officials who took their law degrees at Yale include [[David Boies]] (LL.B. 1966),[^67] [[Alan Dershowitz]],[^68] [[Hillary Clinton]], who met Bill Clinton there,[^69] [[Cory Booker]],[^70] [[Ro Khanna]],[^71] [[JD Vance]] (2013)[^72] and [[Mariano-Florentino Cuéllar]].[^73] [[John Morley]] of Yale Law School helped design the governance structure of [[Anthropic]]'s [[Long-Term Benefit Trust]].[^74] [[William H. Draper III]], nominated by [[Ronald Reagan]] in 1981 to head the [[Export-Import Bank of the United States]], held a Yale B.A. from 1950.[^75] ### Money, presidents and families -The [[Thiel Foundation]]'s 2006 return reports a grant of $25,000 to Yale University in the education category.[^65] [[Richard Levin]], the economist who served as Yale's twenty-second president from 1993 to 2013, is the father of [[Jonathan Levin]], who was named president of [[Stanford University]] in 2024.[^66] [[Larry Summers]] left his advisory role at the Yale Budget Lab in November 2025.[^67] [[Nick Bostrom]] was teaching at Yale in 2001 when he met [[James Hughes]] and [[Mark Walker]] in the meeting that began the second phase of the [[World Transhumanist Association]].[^68] [[David Goslin]] took his doctorate in sociology at Yale in 1962.[^69] +The [[Thiel Foundation]]'s 2006 return reports a grant of $25,000 to Yale University in the education category.[^76] [[Richard Levin]], the economist who served as Yale's twenty-second president from 1993 to 2013, is the father of [[Jonathan Levin]], who was named president of [[Stanford University]] in 2024.[^77] [[Larry Summers]] left his advisory role at the Yale Budget Lab in November 2025.[^78] [[Nick Bostrom]] was teaching at Yale in 2001 when he met [[James Hughes]] and [[Mark Walker]] in the meeting that began the second phase of the [[World Transhumanist Association]].[^79] [[David Goslin]] took his doctorate in sociology at Yale in 1962.[^80] -The [[Yale Center for British Art]] describes [[Paul Mellon]] as its founder.[^70] [[Cari Tuna]] studied political science at Yale and worked on the college paper before she and [[Dustin Moskovitz]] began the giving that became [[Good Ventures]].[^71] [[Francis Shelden]], the owner of [[North Fox Island]], testified in a 1982 deposition that he received a bachelor of arts degree from Yale.[^72] [[Frederic J. Truslow]] is recorded in the 1963 Harvard Law School yearbook as "B.A. Yale '61."[^73] +The [[Yale Center for British Art]] describes [[Paul Mellon]] as its founder.[^81] [[Cari Tuna]] studied political science at Yale and worked on the college paper before she and [[Dustin Moskovitz]] began the giving that became [[Good Ventures]].[^82] [[Francis Shelden]], the owner of [[North Fox Island]], testified in a 1982 deposition that he received a bachelor of arts degree from Yale.[^83] [[Frederic J. Truslow]] is recorded in the 1963 Harvard Law School yearbook as "B.A. Yale '61."[^84] -Yale's Manuscripts and Archives holds the papers of [[Alvin Johnson]] (MS 615, 1902 to 1969), given by Johnson, [[Agnes de Lima]] and Edith Levy in 1967.[^74] [[Christopher Mellon]] took a master's degree in international affairs at Yale.[^75] [[Rob Reich]] holds a B.A. in philosophy from Yale.[^76] +Yale's Manuscripts and Archives holds the papers of [[Alvin Johnson]] (MS 615, 1902 to 1969), given by Johnson, [[Agnes de Lima]] and Edith Levy in 1967.[^85] [[Christopher Mellon]] took a master's degree in international affairs at Yale.[^86] [[Rob Reich]] holds a B.A. in philosophy from Yale.[^87] ### Footnotes @@ -195,75 +201,86 @@ Yale's Manuscripts and Archives holds the papers of [[Alvin Johnson]] (MS 615, 1 [^2]: "An Act for the more full and compleat Establishment of Yale College in New Haven, and for enlarging the Powers and Priviledges thereof," General Court, May 1745, in *The Public Records of the Colony of Connecticut, from May, 1744, to November, 1750*, ed. Charles J. Hoadly (Hartford: Case, Lockwood and Brainard, 1876), pp. 113-114. https://archive.org/details/publicrecordsofc009conn [^3]: David A. Richards, "The origins of the tomb," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2015, with editors' note on the author's listing among Skull and Bones members in the Class of 1967 graduation book. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4072-the-origins-of-the-tomb [^4]: Bruce L. Reynolds '66, letter, "More secrets of the Tomb," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, responding to the May/June 2015 article; the letter cites James Bradley, *The China Mirage* (Little, Brown, 2015). The passage is the letter writer's account. https://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4127-more-secrets-of-the-tomb -[^5]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, Connecticut Business Registry - Business Master, open data set n7gp-d28j, record "RUSSELL TRUST ASSOCIATION, THE" (business type Special Chartered; status Active; citizenship Domestic; account number 0269315). https://data.ct.gov/resource/n7gp-d28j.json -[^6]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. Cited as the McGeorge Bundy page cites it. -[^7]: "Mac Bundy," *The Harvard Crimson*, November 10, 1956. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1956/11/10/mac-bundy-pwhen-mcgeorge-bundy-became/ -[^8]: FBI headquarters file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 1, memorandum L. B. Nichols to Mr. Tolson, October 20, 1950, and summary memoranda. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1 -[^9]: White House, "Biography of President George W. Bush" (archived). Born July 6, 1946, in New Haven; bachelor's degree in history from Yale University in 1968. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov ; Biography.com, "George W. Bush" (Yale enrollment in 1964). https://www.biography.com/us-president/george-w-bush -[^10]: Jacques Leslie, "Smirk from the past" ("Yale"), *Salon*, March 1, 2000. https://www.salon.com/2000/03/01/yale/ -[^11]: George H. W. Bush Presidential Library, "Records on Skull and Bones Society," FOIA 2009-0116-F, processed August 2009 (Records of the White House Office of Policy Development, Emily Mead Subject Files, 23348-002; Press Office of the Vice President, Subject Files, 14925-046; White House Social Office, Cathy Fenton Subject Files, 07104, "10/20/89 Skull and Bones Tea"). The library text describes the Geronimo rumor and does not endorse it. https://www.bush41library.gov/download/file/4777 -[^12]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 248, executed October 20, 1942 (Leo T. Crowley, Alien Property Custodian), 7 Fed. Reg. 9097-9098 (November 7, 1942), F.R. Doc. 42-11567 series. Federal Register, vol. 7, no. 220. -[^13]: Judith Ann Schiff, "The library at war," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, Nov/Dec 2019. https://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4991-the-library-at-war -[^14]: Robin W. Winks, *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* (New York: William Morrow, 1987), cited in the Schiff article. -[^15]: Letter from the chief investigator of the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee to Walter Pforzheimer, May 9, 1955, CIA-RDP58-00597A000100240018-8, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp58-00597a000100240018-8 ; Daniel O. Graham to Walter Pforzheimer, September 23, 1980, enclosing a partial membership list of the National Strategy Committee, CIA-RDP02T06251R000900300002-4, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom). Both are cited on the Senate Judiciary Committee and Daniel O. Graham pages. -[^16]: Kevin C. Ruffner, review of Richard W. Cutler, *Counterspy: Memoirs of a Counterintelligence Officer in World War II and the Cold War* (Washington: Brassey's, 2004), *Studies in Intelligence* 49, no. 3. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/volume-49-no-3/counterspy-memoirs-of-a-counterintelligence-officer-in-world-war-ii-and-the-cold-war -[^17]: David Robarge, "'Cunning Passages, Contrived Corridors': Wandering in the Angletonian Wilderness," *Studies in Intelligence* 53, no. 4 (2009), biographical backdrop. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Cunning-Passages-Contrived-Corridors.pdf -[^18]: Tom Mangold, *Cold Warrior: James Jesus Angleton, the CIA's Master Spy Hunter* (Simon & Schuster, 1991). -[^19]: Robarge, "'Cunning Passages, Contrived Corridors,'" *Studies in Intelligence* 53, no. 4 (2009), sections on Winks, *Cloak and Gown*, and on Holzman. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Cunning-Passages-Contrived-Corridors.pdf -[^20]: Donald P. Steury, ed., *Sherman Kent and the Board of National Estimates: Collected Essays* (CIA History Staff, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1994), foreword, the essay on Kent's biography, and Harold P. Ford, "A Tribute to Sherman Kent." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/sherman-kent-and-the-board-of-national-estimates-collected-essays.pdf -[^21]: Steury, *Sherman Kent and the Board of National Estimates*, the essay on *Strategic Intelligence* ("before returning to Yale in 1947"; "A year after *Strategic Intelligence* was published, Sherm left Yale for the CIA") and editor's note 6 to the Kent biography essay. The two passages are printed in the same volume. -[^22]: Gregory W. Pedlow and Donald E. Welzenbach, *The CIA and the U-2 Program, 1954-1974* (CIA History Staff, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1998), biographical passage on Richard M. Bissell. https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA355539 -[^23]: Evan Thomas, *The Very Best Men: Four Who Dared: The Early Years of the CIA* (Simon & Schuster, 1995). -[^24]: Howard L. Bevis to Allen W. Dulles, February 7, 1958, with program, campus map and list of participants, "America's Human Resources: To Meet the Scientific Challenge," Yale University, February 3-4, 1958, sponsored by the President's Committee on Scientists and Engineers, CIA-RDP80B01676R003800020106-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003800020106-4 -[^25]: Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, "Guide to the Mark Arthur May papers," MS 1447, biographical/historical note and scope and contents. https://ead-pdfs.library.yale.edu/3894.pdf -[^26]: Deutsche Biographie, "Kris, Ernst" (NDB 13, 1982). https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/sfz46084.html ; Library of Congress Manuscript Division, Ernst Kris Papers (MSS84824), register; Daniel M. Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State," Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 2013, p. 190 note 88 (attendee list of RAND R-106). Cited as the Ernst Kris page cites them. -[^27]: "'Truth' Drugs in Interrogation," material supplied by Admiral Stansfield Turner for the record, *Project MKULTRA, the CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification*, Joint Hearing before the Select Committee on Intelligence and the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research of the Committee on Human Resources, U.S. Senate, 95th Cong., 1st sess., August 3, 1977; reference 25, F. C. Redlich, L. J. Ravitz and G. H. Dession, "Narcoanalysis and truth," *American Journal of Psychiatry* 107 (1951): 586-593. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/hearings/95mkultra.pdf -[^28]: Stanley Milgram, "Behavioral Study of Obedience," *Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology* 67, no. 4 (1963): 371-378, author's note 1 and 2, methods, "Preliminary Notions" and "Result of Experiment I." https://archive.org/details/milgram370551 -[^29]: *The Nervous System and Electric Currents*, Volume 2, Proceedings of the Fourth Annual National Conference of the Neuroelectric Society, San Antonio, Texas, March 10-12, 1971, edited by Norman L. Wulfsohn and Anthony Sances, Jr. CIA-RDP96-00787R000500200005-2, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom). -[^30]: Edgar D. Mitchell (submitter) and Henry (Andrija) Puharich, M.D. (editor), "Direct Brain Perception" research proposal, biographical sketches of the researchers. CIA-RDP96-00787R000100190001-2, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom). -[^31]: Edwin C. May and Wanda L. W. Luke, "Phenomenological Research and Analysis Technical Volume," Science Applications International Corporation, Cognitive Sciences Laboratory, May 8, 1992, Contract MDA908-91-C-0037 (Scientific Oversight Committee and Institutional Review Board sections; Section IV curricula vitae). CIA-RDP96-00789R003100170001-9, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom). -[^32]: Annie Jacobsen, *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis* (Little, Brown, 2017). -[^33]: H. S. Burr, "Diurnal Potentials in the Maple Tree," *Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine* 17, no. 6 (July 1945): 727-734. PMC2601777. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2601777/ -[^34]: Harold E. Puthoff and Marsha Adams, "Geophysical Effects Study," Interim Report, July 1984, SRI Project 6600, prepared for the Department of the Army, USAINSCOM, Center Lane special access program, text and reference list. 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NCJ 65411. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/65411NCJRS.pdf -[^43]: *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*, NCJ 65411, prepared statement of Robert Byck ("My name is Robert Byck ..."), printed in the volume. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/65411NCJRS.pdf -[^44]: Gary Webb, *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion* (Seven Stories Press, 1998), chapter 15. -[^45]: Aurelia Dochnal, "120th anniversary of Yale-China: the beginnings," *China Hands Magazine*, February 10, 2021. https://chinahandsmagazine.org/2021/02/10/120th-anniversary-of-yale-china-the-beginnings/ -[^46]: Yale Center Beijing, "Yale-China History Timeline" (entries for 1854, 1872 and 1909). https://centerbeijing.yale.edu/node/365 -[^47]: Federal Judicial Center, "Cabranes, Jose Alberto," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/cabranes-jose-alberto -[^48]: Federal Judicial Center, "Sweet, Robert Workman," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/sweet-robert-workman -[^49]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, "Stephen M. 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Draper III To Be President and Chairman of the Export-Import Bank of the United States," March 18, 1981, American Presidency Project. https://presidency.ucsb.edu/node/247393 -[^65]: The Thiel Foundation, Form 990-PF for 2006, Part VIII and Statement A, grants paid (line 3, Yale University, Education, $25,000). https://990s.foundationcenter.org/990pf_pdf_archive/203/203846597/203846597_200612_990PF.pdf -[^66]: Yale Daily News, "Stanford appoints son of former Yale president Rick Levin as president," April 5, 2024. https://yaledailynews.com/blog/2024/04/05/stanford-appoints-son-of-former-yale-president-rick-levin-as-president/ -[^67]: "Larry Summers banned for life from American Economic Association," Associated Press via *Fortune*, December 3, 2025. https://fortune.com/2025/12/03/larry-summers-banned-for-life-from-american-economic-association -[^68]: Nick Bostrom, "A History of Transhumanist Thought," *Journal of Evolution and Technology* 14, no. 1 (April 2005), section 4. https://jetpress.org/volume14/bostrom.pdf -[^69]: American Institutes for Research, "The American Institutes for Research Honors the Life and Legacy of David Goslin," January 6, 2025. -[^70]: "Paul Mellon: Founder," Yale Center for British Art. https://britishart.yale.edu/stories/paul-mellon-founder -[^71]: Ariana Eunjung Cha, "Cari Tuna and Dustin Moskovitz: Young Silicon Valley billionaires pioneer new approach to philanthropy," *The Washington Post*, December 26, 2014; "Billionaire from Evansville to spread the wealth," WFIE 14 News, December 2014. Cited on the Cari Tuna page. -[^72]: *National Bank of Detroit v. Shelden*, 730 F.2d 421 (6th Cir. 1984) (Nos. 82-1737, 82-1905), on the Amsterdam deposition of 1982. https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/433085/national-bank-of-detroit-v-francis-d-shelden-the-trust-company-of-the/ -[^73]: *Harvard Law School Year Book*, 1963, entry "Frederic Jennings Truslow, B.A. Yale '61." https://books.google.com/books?id=8oc8AAAAIAAJ -[^74]: Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, "Alvin Saunders Johnson papers," MS 615. https://archives.yale.edu/repositories/12/resources/3846 -[^75]: "Unholy Alliance?" *Roll Call*, February 12, 2003. https://rollcall.com/2003/02/12/unholy-alliance/ -[^76]: Rob Reich, curriculum vitae, Department of Political Science, Stanford University. https://robreich.people.stanford.edu/files/reich-cv.pdf +[^5]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, Connecticut Business Registry - Business Master, open data set n7gp-d28j, record "RUSSELL TRUST ASSOCIATION, THE" (business type Special Chartered; status Active; citizenship Domestic; account number 0269315); record "RTA INCORPORATED" (account number 0059060, registered April 14, 1961, 64 High Street, New Haven), the successor corporation. https://data.ct.gov/resource/n7gp-d28j.json +[^6]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1950-1951 (New Haven: Yale University, 1951), entry "Henry Lewis Stimson, B.A. 1888," p. 11. http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1950-51.pdf +[^7]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977 +[^8]: "Mac Bundy," *The Harvard Crimson*, November 10, 1956. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1956/11/10/mac-bundy-pwhen-mcgeorge-bundy-became/ +[^9]: FBI headquarters file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 1, memorandum L. B. Nichols to Mr. Tolson, October 20, 1950, and summary memoranda. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1 +[^10]: White House, "Biography of President George W. Bush" (archived). Born July 6, 1946, in New Haven; bachelor's degree in history from Yale University in 1968. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov ; Biography.com, "George W. Bush" (Yale enrollment in 1964). https://www.biography.com/us-president/george-w-bush +[^11]: Jacques Leslie, "Smirk from the past" ("Yale"), *Salon*, March 1, 2000. https://www.salon.com/2000/03/01/yale/ +[^12]: George H. W. Bush Presidential Library, "Records on Skull and Bones Society," FOIA 2009-0116-F, processed August 2009 (Records of the White House Office of Policy Development, Emily Mead Subject Files, 23348-002; Press Office of the Vice President, Subject Files, 14925-046; White House Social Office, Cathy Fenton Subject Files, 07104, "10/20/89 Skull and Bones Tea"). The library text describes the Geronimo rumor and does not endorse it. https://www.bush41library.gov/download/file/4777 +[^13]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 248, executed October 20, 1942 (Leo T. Crowley, Alien Property Custodian), 7 Fed. Reg. 9097-9098 (November 7, 1942), F.R. Doc. 42-11567 series. Federal Register, vol. 7, no. 220. +[^14]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, certified copies (March 28, 2001) of the 1856 act incorporating the Russell Trust Association and the 1943 amending act, as reprinted in Kris Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2003), pp. 694 to 696. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones +[^15]: Certificate of Incorporation of RTA Incorporated (1961), as reprinted in Millegan (2003), pp. 697 to 700; Connecticut Business Registry, account 0059060 (registered April 14, 1961). https://data.ct.gov/resource/n7gp-d28j.json?accountnumber=0059060 +[^16]: RTA Incorporated, IRS Form 990 for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021, Schedule A. https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/60768741 +[^17]: Internal Revenue Service, Exempt Organizations Business Master File extract for Connecticut, EIN 060768741, tax period 2025-06. https://www.irs.gov/charities-non-profits/exempt-organizations-business-master-file-extract-eo-bmf +[^18]: Carole Bass, "Apaches sue to recover Geronimo's skull," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2009. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/2421-apaches-sue-to-recover-geronimo-s-skull +[^19]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on access to the Russell Trust papers at the Sterling Library. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^20]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977 +[^21]: *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340 (S.D. Tex.), docket entries 1, 6, 7, 8 and 17. https://archive.org/details/gov.uscourts.txsd.1463674 +[^22]: *Geronimo et al. v. Obama et al.*, No. 09-303 (RWR) (D.D.C. July 27, 2010). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303/pdf/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303-0.pdf +[^23]: Kathrin Day Lassila and Mark Alden Branch, "Whose Skull and Bones?," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20060614215733/http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/2006_05/notebook.html +[^24]: Judith Ann Schiff, "The library at war," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, Nov/Dec 2019. https://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4991-the-library-at-war +[^25]: Robin W. Winks, *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* (New York: William Morrow, 1987), cited in the Schiff article. +[^26]: Letter from the chief investigator of the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee to Walter Pforzheimer, May 9, 1955, CIA-RDP58-00597A000100240018-8, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp58-00597a000100240018-8 ; Daniel O. Graham to Walter Pforzheimer, September 23, 1980, enclosing a partial membership list of the National Strategy Committee, CIA-RDP02T06251R000900300002-4, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom). Both are cited on the Senate Judiciary Committee and Daniel O. Graham pages. +[^27]: Kevin C. Ruffner, review of Richard W. 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Steury, ed., *Sherman Kent and the Board of National Estimates: Collected Essays* (CIA History Staff, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1994), foreword, the essay on Kent's biography, and Harold P. Ford, "A Tribute to Sherman Kent." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/sherman-kent-and-the-board-of-national-estimates-collected-essays.pdf +[^32]: Steury, *Sherman Kent and the Board of National Estimates*, the essay on *Strategic Intelligence* ("before returning to Yale in 1947"; "A year after *Strategic Intelligence* was published, Sherm left Yale for the CIA") and editor's note 6 to the Kent biography essay. The two passages are printed in the same volume. +[^33]: Gregory W. Pedlow and Donald E. Welzenbach, *The CIA and the U-2 Program, 1954-1974* (CIA History Staff, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1998), biographical passage on Richard M. Bissell. https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA355539 +[^34]: Evan Thomas, *The Very Best Men: Four Who Dared: The Early Years of the CIA* (Simon & Schuster, 1995). +[^35]: Howard L. Bevis to Allen W. Dulles, February 7, 1958, with program, campus map and list of participants, "America's Human Resources: To Meet the Scientific Challenge," Yale University, February 3-4, 1958, sponsored by the President's Committee on Scientists and Engineers, CIA-RDP80B01676R003800020106-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003800020106-4 +[^36]: Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, "Guide to the Mark Arthur May papers," MS 1447, biographical/historical note and scope and contents. https://ead-pdfs.library.yale.edu/3894.pdf +[^37]: Deutsche Biographie, "Kris, Ernst" (NDB 13, 1982). https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/sfz46084.html ; Library of Congress Manuscript Division, Ernst Kris Papers (MSS84824), register; Daniel M. Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State," Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 2013, p. 190 note 88 (attendee list of RAND R-106). Cited as the Ernst Kris page cites them. +[^38]: "'Truth' Drugs in Interrogation," material supplied by Admiral Stansfield Turner for the record, *Project MKULTRA, the CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification*, Joint Hearing before the Select Committee on Intelligence and the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research of the Committee on Human Resources, U.S. Senate, 95th Cong., 1st sess., August 3, 1977; reference 25, F. C. Redlich, L. J. Ravitz and G. H. Dession, "Narcoanalysis and truth," *American Journal of Psychiatry* 107 (1951): 586-593. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/hearings/95mkultra.pdf +[^39]: Stanley Milgram, "Behavioral Study of Obedience," *Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology* 67, no. 4 (1963): 371-378, author's note 1 and 2, methods, "Preliminary Notions" and "Result of Experiment I." https://archive.org/details/milgram370551 +[^40]: *The Nervous System and Electric Currents*, Volume 2, Proceedings of the Fourth Annual National Conference of the Neuroelectric Society, San Antonio, Texas, March 10-12, 1971, edited by Norman L. Wulfsohn and Anthony Sances, Jr. CIA-RDP96-00787R000500200005-2, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom). +[^41]: Edgar D. Mitchell (submitter) and Henry (Andrija) Puharich, M.D. (editor), "Direct Brain Perception" research proposal, biographical sketches of the researchers. CIA-RDP96-00787R000100190001-2, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom). +[^42]: Edwin C. May and Wanda L. W. Luke, "Phenomenological Research and Analysis Technical Volume," Science Applications International Corporation, Cognitive Sciences Laboratory, May 8, 1992, Contract MDA908-91-C-0037 (Scientific Oversight Committee and Institutional Review Board sections; Section IV curricula vitae). CIA-RDP96-00789R003100170001-9, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom). +[^43]: Annie Jacobsen, *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis* (Little, Brown, 2017). +[^44]: H. S. Burr, "Diurnal Potentials in the Maple Tree," *Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine* 17, no. 6 (July 1945): 727-734. PMC2601777. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2601777/ +[^45]: Harold E. Puthoff and Marsha Adams, "Geophysical Effects Study," Interim Report, July 1984, SRI Project 6600, prepared for the Department of the Army, USAINSCOM, Center Lane special access program, text and reference list. 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Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapter 12. +[^50]: Encyclopedia.com, "Rostow, Walt Whitman (1916-2003)," Gale biography. https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/us-history-biographies/walt-whitman-rostow +[^51]: Rockefeller Brothers Fund, *Prospect for America: The Rockefeller Panel Reports* (Garden City: Doubleday, 1961), Panel IV member list. https://archive.org/details/prospect-for-america +[^52]: MIT Libraries, Department of Distinctive Collections, Max F. Millikan papers (MC-0188), biographical note. https://archivesspace.mit.edu/repositories/2/resources/722 +[^53]: *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*, Hearings before the Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control, House of Representatives, Ninety-sixth Congress, first session, July 24, 26 and October 10, 1979, Thursday, July 26, 1979, testimony of Robert Byck, M.D., Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine. 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Cited on the Porter Goss page. +[^67]: Boies Schiller Flexner LLP, "David Boies," firm biography. https://www.bsfllp.com/people/david-boies.html +[^68]: Harvard Law School, "Alan M. Dershowitz, Felix Frankfurter Professor of Law, Emeritus," faculty biography. https://hls.harvard.edu/faculty/alan-m-dershowitz/ +[^69]: "Biography of Hillary Rodham Clinton," The White House, Office of the First Lady (Clinton administration archive, National Archives). https://clintonwhitehouse4.archives.gov/WH/EOP/First_Lady/html/HILLARY_Bio.html +[^70]: "About Cory," Office of U.S. Senator Cory Booker. https://www.booker.senate.gov/about-cory +[^71]: Office of Representative Ro Khanna, "About Rep. Khanna," official biography. https://khanna.house.gov/about/about-rep-khanna +[^72]: J. D. Vance, *Hillbilly Elegy: A Memoir of a Family and Culture in Crisis* (Harper, 2016). +[^73]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, "Mariano-Florentino (Tino) Cuellar," biography. https://carnegieendowment.org/people/mariano-florentino-tino-cuellar +[^74]: Anthropic, "The Long-Term Benefit Trust," September 19, 2023. https://www.anthropic.com/news/the-long-term-benefit-trust +[^75]: Ronald Reagan, "Nomination of William H. Draper III To Be President and Chairman of the Export-Import Bank of the United States," March 18, 1981, American Presidency Project. https://presidency.ucsb.edu/node/247393 +[^76]: The Thiel Foundation, Form 990-PF for 2006, Part VIII and Statement A, grants paid (line 3, Yale University, Education, $25,000). https://990s.foundationcenter.org/990pf_pdf_archive/203/203846597/203846597_200612_990PF.pdf +[^77]: Yale Daily News, "Stanford appoints son of former Yale president Rick Levin as president," April 5, 2024. https://yaledailynews.com/blog/2024/04/05/stanford-appoints-son-of-former-yale-president-rick-levin-as-president/ +[^78]: "Larry Summers banned for life from American Economic Association," Associated Press via *Fortune*, December 3, 2025. https://fortune.com/2025/12/03/larry-summers-banned-for-life-from-american-economic-association +[^79]: Nick Bostrom, "A History of Transhumanist Thought," *Journal of Evolution and Technology* 14, no. 1 (April 2005), section 4. https://jetpress.org/volume14/bostrom.pdf +[^80]: American Institutes for Research, "The American Institutes for Research Honors the Life and Legacy of David Goslin," January 6, 2025. +[^81]: "Paul Mellon: Founder," Yale Center for British Art. https://britishart.yale.edu/stories/paul-mellon-founder +[^82]: Ariana Eunjung Cha, "Cari Tuna and Dustin Moskovitz: Young Silicon Valley billionaires pioneer new approach to philanthropy," *The Washington Post*, December 26, 2014; "Billionaire from Evansville to spread the wealth," WFIE 14 News, December 2014. Cited on the Cari Tuna page. +[^83]: *National Bank of Detroit v. Shelden*, 730 F.2d 421 (6th Cir. 1984) (Nos. 82-1737, 82-1905), on the Amsterdam deposition of 1982. https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/433085/national-bank-of-detroit-v-francis-d-shelden-the-trust-company-of-the/ +[^84]: *Harvard Law School Year Book*, 1963, entry "Frederic Jennings Truslow, B.A. Yale '61." https://books.google.com/books?id=8oc8AAAAIAAJ +[^85]: Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, "Alvin Saunders Johnson papers," MS 615. https://archives.yale.edu/repositories/12/resources/3846 +[^86]: "Unholy Alliance?" *Roll Call*, February 12, 2003. https://rollcall.com/2003/02/12/unholy-alliance/ +[^87]: Rob Reich, curriculum vitae, Department of Political Science, Stanford University. https://robreich.people.stanford.edu/files/reich-cv.pdf diff --git a/40 - EVENTS/HISTORICAL_PHENOMENA/Business Plot.md b/40 - EVENTS/HISTORICAL_PHENOMENA/Business Plot.md index 02b6b618..23c29df9 100644 --- a/40 - EVENTS/HISTORICAL_PHENOMENA/Business Plot.md +++ b/40 - EVENTS/HISTORICAL_PHENOMENA/Business Plot.md @@ -19,15 +19,20 @@ In 1933 members of the DuPont family became involved in what has since been euph In November 1934 Major General Smedley Butler informed a congressional committee that he had been approached by Grayson Murphy, a director at the [[Guaranty Trust Company]], to lead a paramilitary force composed of American military veterans. The purpose of this force was to provide the muscle for a coup that would install [[Hugh S. Johnson]], then head of the National Recovery Administration, as dictator of the United States. Butler, a decorated Marine who would later denounce war as a racket, testified that the conspirators envisioned relegating the presidency to a ceremonial role while real power rested with a military-industrial cabal. +The committee's public statement of November 1934, released by [[John W. McCormack]] and [[Samuel Dickstein]] as a subcommittee, describes [[Gerald P. MacGuire|Gerald MacGuire]] as a bond salesman with [[Grayson M.-P. Murphy & Co.]] It states that MacGuire testified that he had bought and sold bonds worth about nine million dollars for [[Robert Sterling Clark]] through the Murphy firm, and it records that Paul Conley French, a reporter who had been told of the plan by Butler, testified that he went to the Murphy firm's offices at 52 Broadway on September 13, 1934, where MacGuire received him.[^1] + ### Financial and Industrial Backing -The plot was financed through the Guaranty Trust Company, a J.P. Morgan financial institution with ties to City of London financiers. Armaments for the prospective paramilitary units were to be supplied by Remington Arms Co., a firearms subsidiary controlled by the DuPont family. The DuPonts were not merely passive investors; they were literally fascists in the author's assessment, having maintained cartel arrangements with the Nazi chemicals conglomerate I.G. Farben throughout the 1920s and 1930s. S. Dovey wrote in 2023 that [[Alfred P. Sloan]], who managed [[General Motors]] on behalf of the DuPonts from 1923 to 1966, personally authorized the transfer of Ethyl lead to the [[Luftwaffe]] as late as 1938.[^1] Dovey also wrote that the largest tank manufacturer in Nazi Germany was Opel, a wholly owned GM subsidiary that continued operating under the American corporate umbrella throughout the Second World War.[^1] General Motors' 1974 correspondence to the Senate states that the Nazi government took over the Opel works in November 1939, before the United States entered the war.[^2] The Foreign Claims Settlement Commission recorded that the Russelsheim plant was placed under the control of the German Enemy Property Custodian on November 25, 1942, and that it "sustained severe war damage as a result of allied bombing raids in 1942 and 1944."[^3] The 1974 Senate hearing described Russelsheim as a war plane factory and the Brandenburg works as a truck plant.[^4] +The plot was financed through the Guaranty Trust Company, a J.P. Morgan financial institution with ties to City of London financiers. Armaments for the prospective paramilitary units were to be supplied by Remington Arms Co., a firearms subsidiary controlled by the DuPont family. The DuPonts were not merely passive investors; they were literally fascists in the author's assessment, having maintained cartel arrangements with the Nazi chemicals conglomerate I.G. Farben throughout the 1920s and 1930s. S. Dovey wrote in 2023 that [[Alfred P. Sloan]], who managed [[General Motors]] on behalf of the DuPonts from 1923 to 1966, personally authorized the transfer of Ethyl lead to the [[Luftwaffe]] as late as 1938.[^2] Dovey also wrote that the largest tank manufacturer in Nazi Germany was Opel, a wholly owned GM subsidiary that continued operating under the American corporate umbrella throughout the Second World War.[^2] General Motors' 1974 correspondence to the Senate states that the Nazi government took over the Opel works in November 1939, before the United States entered the war.[^3] The Foreign Claims Settlement Commission recorded that the Russelsheim plant was placed under the control of the German Enemy Property Custodian on November 25, 1942, and that it "sustained severe war damage as a result of allied bombing raids in 1942 and 1944."[^4] The 1974 Senate hearing described Russelsheim as a war plane factory and the Brandenburg works as a truck plant.[^5] ### Legacy and Connections The DuPont family's political influence did not end with the exposure of the Business Plot. Decades later, Joe Biden's first senatorial campaign was fully funded and staffed by DuPont employees in Delaware, and his family moved into an old DuPont mansion following his victory. The corporate culture instilled at General Motors during the DuPont-Sloan era persisted into the 1970s, when executives at the company were accused of participation in organized child abuse rings in Michigan. Francis Shelden and his North Fox Island operation intersected with this same nexus of old money and impunity. -[^1]: Dovey, S. (2023). *Eye of the Chickenhawk*. United States: Thehotstar. -[^2]: Copelin, Philip W., letter to Richard C. Gerstenberg, April 5, 1974, Exhibit 2, pp. 2385-2387; Mooney, Michael M., letter to Senator Philip A. Hart, Exhibit 3, pp. 2387-2389; *The Industrial Reorganization Act: Hearings on S. 1167, Part 4, Ground Transportation Industries* (1974), https://archive.org/details/industrialreorga04unit. -[^3]: Foreign Claims Settlement Commission of the United States, *Annual Report to the Congress for the Period January 1-December 31, 1967*, excerpt re General Motors Corporation and General Motors Overseas Corporation, Exhibit 9, *Hearings on S. 1167, Part 4*, pp. 2396-2397, https://archive.org/details/industrialreorga04unit. -[^4]: Stradella, C. G., letter to Richard C. Gerstenberg, April 10, 1974, Exhibit 4, *Hearings on S. 1167, Part 4*, pp. 2390-2392, quoting the Snell report, https://archive.org/details/industrialreorga04unit. +### Footnotes + +[^1]: Special Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, Seventy-third Congress, second session, "Public Statement" released by John W. McCormack and Samuel Dickstein as a subcommittee, November 1934, in *Investigation of Nazi Propaganda Activities and Investigation of Certain Other Propaganda Activities*. https://archive.org/details/CommitteeOnUnamericanActivitiesReport +[^2]: Dovey, S. (2023). *Eye of the Chickenhawk*. United States: Thehotstar. +[^3]: Copelin, Philip W., letter to Richard C. Gerstenberg, April 5, 1974, Exhibit 2, pp. 2385-2387; Mooney, Michael M., letter to Senator Philip A. Hart, Exhibit 3, pp. 2387-2389; *The Industrial Reorganization Act: Hearings on S. 1167, Part 4, Ground Transportation Industries* (1974), https://archive.org/details/industrialreorga04unit. +[^4]: Foreign Claims Settlement Commission of the United States, *Annual Report to the Congress for the Period January 1-December 31, 1967*, excerpt re General Motors Corporation and General Motors Overseas Corporation, Exhibit 9, *Hearings on S. 1167, Part 4*, pp. 2396-2397, https://archive.org/details/industrialreorga04unit. +[^5]: Stradella, C. G., letter to Richard C. Gerstenberg, April 10, 1974, Exhibit 4, *Hearings on S. 1167, Part 4*, pp. 2390-2392, quoting the Snell report, https://archive.org/details/industrialreorga04unit. diff --git a/40 - EVENTS/MAJOR_CONFLICTS/World War II.md b/40 - EVENTS/MAJOR_CONFLICTS/World War II.md index 5fa4c69a..17015a25 100644 --- a/40 - EVENTS/MAJOR_CONFLICTS/World War II.md +++ b/40 - EVENTS/MAJOR_CONFLICTS/World War II.md @@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ aliases: - WW2 summary: "World War II (1939-1945) produced the Office of Strategic Services, the predecessor of the Central Intelligence Agency, and the postwar recruitment of German scientists and intelligence officers." created: 2026-05-14 -updated: 2026-10-14 +updated: 2026-10-26 relations: - type: participant_in with: "[[Office of Strategic Services]]" @@ -141,17 +141,19 @@ A Treasury Department memorandum of August 18, 1941, from Mr. May to Mr. [[J. W. The memorandum does not name [[Prescott Bush]]. On October 20, 1942 the Alien Property Custodian, Leo T. Crowley, signed Vesting Order Number 248 under the [[Trading with the Enemy Act]], published in the Federal Register on November 7, 1942. It vested "all of the capital stock of Union Banking Corporation, a New York corporation," consisting of 4,000 shares of $100 par value common stock, and listed the registered owners and their shares: E. Roland Harriman, 3,991; Cornelius Lievense, 4; Harold D. Pennington, 1; Ray Morris, 1; Prescott S. Bush, 1; H. J. Kouwenhoven, 1; and Johann G. Groeninger, 1. The order states "all of which shares are held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N. V., Rotterdam, The Netherlands, which bank is owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family, nationals of Germany and/or Hungary." A second paragraph vested all claims of that bank and of the August Thyssen-Bank, Berlin, against the corporation for indebtedness.[^48] -The Office of Alien Property Custodian's annual report for March 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943 lists property vested from German interests. Its schedules include the interests of I.G. Farbenindustrie in two patent contracts, one with the Pennsylvania Salt Manufacturing Company and one with Pen-Chlor, Inc., and the profits resulting from them.[^49] +Of the seven registered holders in the vesting order, four were connected with Brown Brothers Harriman. [[E. Roland Harriman]] became a partner of the Harriman bank on October 30, 1926 and of the merged firm on January 1, 1931. Prescott Bush was a partner of Harriman Brothers & Co. on January 1, 1930 and of the merged firm on January 1, 1931. [[Ray Morris]] was a partner from January 1, 1921 to 1956. [[Harold D. Pennington]] was a partner of Harriman Brothers during 1930, manager in charge of operations of the merged firm from its start, and a partner from January 1, 1945 to December 31, 1956.[^49] -The prosecution's opening statement in the Farben case before the American Military Tribunal at Nuremberg described the agreements between I.G. Farben and [[Standard Oil]] of New Jersey. The statement says that a 1929 agreement recognized Farben's priority in chemicals and Standard's priority in oil outside Germany, that a 1930 agreement created the jointly owned Joint American Study Company (Jasco) to develop new processes "on a basis of equality (50-50)," and that Frank A. Howard of the Standard Oil Development Company wrote in 1936 that "the IG may be said to be our general partner in the chemical business." It states that Standard turned over its butyl rubber process to Farben while Farben delayed the transfer of its buna rubber processes, and that after the outbreak of war in September 1939 Howard met Farben representatives at The Hague, where Farben transferred its Jasco interest to Standard but not the necessary know-how.[^50] The indictment charged that the cartel agreements delayed the development and production of buna rubber in the United States until 1940.[^51] The Tribunal's judgment in the Farben case describes the 1939 Hague transactions as having been held by the U.S. Federal courts in Standard Oil Co. v. Markham (S.D.N.Y.) and Standard Oil Co. v. Clark (2d Cir., September 22, 1947) to be "sham transactions designed to create an appearance of Jersey ownership of property interests which, nevertheless, continued to be regarded by the parties as IG owned."[^52] +The Office of Alien Property Custodian's annual report for March 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943 lists property vested from German interests. Its schedules include the interests of I.G. Farbenindustrie in two patent contracts, one with the Pennsylvania Salt Manufacturing Company and one with Pen-Chlor, Inc., and the profits resulting from them.[^50] -The New York law firm [[Sullivan & Cromwell]] had German clients in the 1930s, according to Nancy Lisagor and Frank Lipsius's history of the firm, and [[John Foster Dulles]] and [[Allen Dulles]] were partners of the firm.[^53] [[IBM]]'s German subsidiary, Deutsche Hollerith Maschinen Gesellschaft ([[Dehomag]]), is the subject of [[Edwin Black]]'s account. Black wrote that Dehomag, "with the knowledge of its New York headquarters," custom-designed devices and applications for the Reich as an official corporate undertaking, and that IBM's New York management understood from 1933 that it was doing business with the upper echelon of the Nazi Party.[^54] +The prosecution's opening statement in the Farben case before the American Military Tribunal at Nuremberg described the agreements between I.G. Farben and [[Standard Oil]] of New Jersey. The statement says that a 1929 agreement recognized Farben's priority in chemicals and Standard's priority in oil outside Germany, that a 1930 agreement created the jointly owned Joint American Study Company (Jasco) to develop new processes "on a basis of equality (50-50)," and that Frank A. Howard of the Standard Oil Development Company wrote in 1936 that "the IG may be said to be our general partner in the chemical business." It states that Standard turned over its butyl rubber process to Farben while Farben delayed the transfer of its buna rubber processes, and that after the outbreak of war in September 1939 Howard met Farben representatives at The Hague, where Farben transferred its Jasco interest to Standard but not the necessary know-how.[^51] The indictment charged that the cartel agreements delayed the development and production of buna rubber in the United States until 1940.[^52] The Tribunal's judgment in the Farben case describes the 1939 Hague transactions as having been held by the U.S. Federal courts in Standard Oil Co. v. Markham (S.D.N.Y.) and Standard Oil Co. v. Clark (2d Cir., September 22, 1947) to be "sham transactions designed to create an appearance of Jersey ownership of property interests which, nevertheless, continued to be regarded by the parties as IG owned."[^53] + +The New York law firm [[Sullivan & Cromwell]] had German clients in the 1930s, according to Nancy Lisagor and Frank Lipsius's history of the firm, and [[John Foster Dulles]] and [[Allen Dulles]] were partners of the firm.[^54] [[IBM]]'s German subsidiary, Deutsche Hollerith Maschinen Gesellschaft ([[Dehomag]]), is the subject of [[Edwin Black]]'s account. Black wrote that Dehomag, "with the knowledge of its New York headquarters," custom-designed devices and applications for the Reich as an official corporate undertaking, and that IBM's New York management understood from 1933 that it was doing business with the upper echelon of the Nazi Party.[^55] ### War crimes trials and the disclosure record -The International Military Tribunal sat at [[Nuremberg]] from November 14, 1945 to October 1, 1946.[^55] The United States tried about 1,700 German and other Axis nationals at [[Dachau]] for concentration camp crimes.[^43] +The International Military Tribunal sat at [[Nuremberg]] from November 14, 1945 to October 1, 1946.[^56] The United States tried about 1,700 German and other Axis nationals at [[Dachau]] for concentration camp crimes.[^43] -The Nazi War Crimes Disclosure Act, Public Law 105-246 of October 8, 1998, directed the release of Nazi war criminal records and established the Nazi War Criminal Records Interagency Working Group.[^56] The Working Group's 2007 report is the principal government account of how those records were handled, including the Gehlen files and the Draganovic memorandum.[^57] +The Nazi War Crimes Disclosure Act, Public Law 105-246 of October 8, 1998, directed the release of Nazi war criminal records and established the Nazi War Criminal Records Interagency Working Group.[^57] The Working Group's 2007 report is the principal government account of how those records were handled, including the Gehlen files and the Draganovic memorandum.[^58] ### Footnotes @@ -203,12 +205,13 @@ The Nazi War Crimes Disclosure Act, Public Law 105-246 of October 8, 1998, direc [^46]: Sheldon H. Harris, *Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932-45, and the American Cover-Up* (Routledge, rev. ed. 2002), p. 63. [^47]: Treasury Department memorandum, Mr. May to Mr. Pehle, August 18, 1941, "Re: Union Banking Corporation," ref. 9-151, with handwritten notation by J. W. Pehle, declassified by NARA (authority NND 960103). Copy held in an archive.org collection of Bush-related documents. [^48]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 248, "All of the Capital Stock of Union Banking Corporation and Certain Indebtedness Owing by It," executed October 20, 1942, signed Leo T. Crowley, F.R. Doc. 42-11568, filed November 6, 1942, 7 *Federal Register* 9097 (November 7, 1942). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf -[^49]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, *Annual Report for the period March 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943*, schedule of vested interests (I.G. Farbenindustrie patent contracts with Pennsylvania Salt Manufacturing Co. and Pen-Chlor, Inc.). https://archive.org/details/officeofalienpro00unit -[^50]: *Trials of War Criminals Before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals*, vol. VII (The Farben Case), prosecution opening statement, pp. 162-167 (1929 and 1930 Standard Oil agreements, Jasco, Howard's letter of 1936, butyl and buna, the Hague conference of September 1939; documents NI-10550, NI-10433, NI-10431, NI-10455). https://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/Military_Law/NT_war-criminals.html -[^51]: *Trials of War Criminals Before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals*, vol. VII, indictment, paragraph 57. -[^52]: *Trials of War Criminals Before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals*, vol. VIII (The Farben Case), Decision and Judgment of the Tribunal, pp. 1273-1290 (Standard Oil agreements; *Standard Oil Co. v. Markham*, 64 F. Supp. 656 (S.D.N.Y.), and *Standard Oil Co. v. Clark*, 163 F.2d 917 (2d Cir. 1947), as quoted by the Tribunal). -[^53]: Nancy Lisagor and Frank Lipsius, *A Law Unto Itself: The Untold Story of the Law Firm Sullivan & Cromwell* (New York: William Morrow, 1988), pp. 95, 120-127, 132-133, 141 and 144. -[^54]: Edwin Black, *IBM and the Holocaust: The Strategic Alliance between Nazi Germany and America's Most Powerful Corporation* (Crown, 2001), introduction. -[^55]: *Trial of the Major War Criminals Before the International Military Tribunal*, Proceedings Volumes, The Avalon Project, Yale Law School. https://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/imt.asp -[^56]: Nazi War Crimes Disclosure Act, Public Law 105-246, 112 Stat. 1859 (October 8, 1998), Section 2. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-105publ246/pdf/PLAW-105publ246.pdf -[^57]: Nazi War Crimes and Japanese Imperial Government Records Interagency Working Group, *Final Report to Congress* (April 2007), pp. 48 and 56. https://www.archives.gov/files/iwg/reports/final-report-2007.pdf +[^49]: John A. Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking: An Historical Portrait of a Great Private Bank, Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., 1818-1968* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1968), partner table pp. 231 to 235 and caption of the Pennington photograph pp. 197 to 198. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb +[^50]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, *Annual Report for the period March 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943*, schedule of vested interests (I.G. Farbenindustrie patent contracts with Pennsylvania Salt Manufacturing Co. and Pen-Chlor, Inc.). https://archive.org/details/officeofalienpro00unit +[^51]: *Trials of War Criminals Before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals*, vol. VII (The Farben Case), prosecution opening statement, pp. 162-167 (1929 and 1930 Standard Oil agreements, Jasco, Howard's letter of 1936, butyl and buna, the Hague conference of September 1939; documents NI-10550, NI-10433, NI-10431, NI-10455). https://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/Military_Law/NT_war-criminals.html +[^52]: *Trials of War Criminals Before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals*, vol. VII, indictment, paragraph 57. +[^53]: *Trials of War Criminals Before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals*, vol. VIII (The Farben Case), Decision and Judgment of the Tribunal, pp. 1273-1290 (Standard Oil agreements; *Standard Oil Co. v. Markham*, 64 F. Supp. 656 (S.D.N.Y.), and *Standard Oil Co. v. Clark*, 163 F.2d 917 (2d Cir. 1947), as quoted by the Tribunal). +[^54]: Nancy Lisagor and Frank Lipsius, *A Law Unto Itself: The Untold Story of the Law Firm Sullivan & Cromwell* (New York: William Morrow, 1988), pp. 95, 120-127, 132-133, 141 and 144. +[^55]: Edwin Black, *IBM and the Holocaust: The Strategic Alliance between Nazi Germany and America's Most Powerful Corporation* (Crown, 2001), introduction. +[^56]: *Trial of the Major War Criminals Before the International Military Tribunal*, Proceedings Volumes, The Avalon Project, Yale Law School. https://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/imt.asp +[^57]: Nazi War Crimes Disclosure Act, Public Law 105-246, 112 Stat. 1859 (October 8, 1998), Section 2. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-105publ246/pdf/PLAW-105publ246.pdf +[^58]: Nazi War Crimes and Japanese Imperial Government Records Interagency Working Group, *Final Report to Congress* (April 2007), pp. 48 and 56. https://www.archives.gov/files/iwg/reports/final-report-2007.pdf diff --git a/50 - CONCEPTS & TECHNOLOGY/Eugenics.md b/50 - CONCEPTS & TECHNOLOGY/Eugenics.md index 201d6aee..3f75a28a 100644 --- a/50 - CONCEPTS & TECHNOLOGY/Eugenics.md +++ b/50 - CONCEPTS & TECHNOLOGY/Eugenics.md @@ -10,7 +10,7 @@ tags: summary: "Eugenics is the project of improving the human species through controlled reproduction, named by Francis Galton in 1883, which drove sterilization and immigration laws and the Holocaust, was repackaged after the war as race-and-intelligence research, and is identified by critics as a root of the transhumanist and longtermist worldview." location: "United Kingdom; United States" created: 2026-06-20 -updated: 2026-06-20 +updated: 2026-10-26 --- Eugenics is the project of improving the genetic quality of the human population through the controlled breeding of people judged superior and the prevention of reproduction by those judged inferior. The word was coined in 1883 by the Victorian polymath [[Francis Galton]], a cousin of Charles Darwin, from the Greek for "well-born." As a movement it produced compulsory-sterilization and marriage laws, racially based immigration restriction, and ultimately the Nazi program of mass murder; discredited after 1945, its hereditarian claims about race and intelligence were repackaged and sustained through the postwar decades, and critics identify the same logic operating in the contemporary [[Transhumanism|transhumanist]] and longtermist movements.[^1][^2] @@ -19,40 +19,42 @@ Eugenics is the project of improving the genetic quality of the human population Galton set out the idea in *Hereditary Genius* (1869), arguing that talent and character are inherited and that the human stock could be improved by encouraging the able to have more children. The movement he founded split into "positive" eugenics, promoting reproduction among the favored, and "negative" eugenics, preventing it among the unfit, and it spread rapidly through the British and American professional classes in the early twentieth century. In Britain the [[Eugenics Society]], founded in 1907 as the Eugenics Education Society, gathered scientists and reformers, and Galton endowed a chair and laboratory at [[University College London]].[^1][^3] -In the United States the movement acquired the machinery of the state. The biologist [[Charles Davenport]] established the Eugenics Record Office at [[Cold Spring Harbor]] in 1910, funded by the Harriman and Carnegie fortunes, to catalog American family pedigrees for "defective" traits. Eugenic argument shaped the [[Immigration Act of 1924]], which set national-origin quotas to limit southern and eastern European and Asian immigration, and underwrote compulsory-sterilization laws in more than thirty states. In *Buck v. Bell* (1927) the Supreme Court upheld the sterilization of Carrie Buck, with Justice [[Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.|Oliver Wendell Holmes]] writing "three generations of imbeciles are enough"; an estimated sixty thousand Americans were sterilized under such laws.[^2][^4] +In the United States the movement acquired the machinery of the state. The biologist [[Charles Davenport]] established the Eugenics Record Office at [[Cold Spring Harbor]] in 1910, funded by Mrs. E. H. Harriman, widow of the railroad financier [[E. H. Harriman]] and mother of [[W. Averell Harriman]], and later maintained by the [[Carnegie Institution of Washington]], which accepted the office from her as a gift,[^4][^5] to catalog American family pedigrees for "defective" traits. Eugenic argument shaped the [[Immigration Act of 1924]], which set national-origin quotas to limit southern and eastern European and Asian immigration, and underwrote compulsory-sterilization laws in more than thirty states. In *Buck v. Bell* (1927) the Supreme Court upheld the sterilization of Carrie Buck, with Justice [[Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.|Oliver Wendell Holmes]] writing "three generations of imbeciles are enough"; an estimated sixty thousand Americans were sterilized under such laws.[^2][^6] ### Nazi Germany and the Postwar Discrediting -Germany's eugenicists drew directly on the American model. The 1933 Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring, which authorized the sterilization of some four hundred thousand people, was modeled in part on the California statute, and American eugenicists praised the German program before the war. The Nazi regime escalated from sterilization to the "T4" murder of disabled people and then to the racial extermination of the Holocaust, carried out in the name of racial hygiene.[^2][^5] +Germany's eugenicists drew directly on the American model. The 1933 Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring, which authorized the sterilization of some four hundred thousand people, was modeled in part on the California statute, and American eugenicists praised the German program before the war. The Nazi regime escalated from sterilization to the "T4" murder of disabled people and then to the racial extermination of the Holocaust, carried out in the name of racial hygiene.[^2][^7] -The association with Nazi crimes discredited open eugenics after 1945, and the field publicly dissolved: the American Eugenics Society renamed itself the Society for the Study of Social Biology in 1972, and the British Eugenics Society became the Galton Institute. [[Julian Huxley]], who served as president of the British Eugenics Society from 1959 to 1962, argued for a reformed "evolutionary humanist" eugenics and, in 1957, coined the modern usage of "transhumanism" for the project of the species transcending itself through deliberate effort.[^3][^6] +The association with Nazi crimes discredited open eugenics after 1945, and the field publicly dissolved: the American Eugenics Society renamed itself the Society for the Study of Social Biology in 1972, and the British Eugenics Society became the Galton Institute. [[Julian Huxley]], who served as president of the British Eugenics Society from 1959 to 1962, argued for a reformed "evolutionary humanist" eugenics and, in 1957, coined the modern usage of "transhumanism" for the project of the species transcending itself through deliberate effort.[^3][^8] ### Postwar Repackaging as Race Science -The hereditarian study of race and intelligence continued through a small, well-funded network. The [[Pioneer Fund]], established in 1937 to promote "race betterment," financed researchers including [[Arthur Jensen]], whose 1969 article argued that the black-white IQ gap was substantially genetic, the physicist [[William Shockley]], who advocated paying low-IQ people to be sterilized, and later [[Richard Lynn]] and [[J. Philippe Rushton]], and it supported the journal [[Mankind Quarterly]]. [[Charles Murray]] and [[Richard Herrnstein]]'s *[[The Bell Curve]]* (1994) brought the race-and-IQ thesis to a mass audience, citing thirteen Pioneer Fund-funded scholars.[^7][^8] +The hereditarian study of race and intelligence continued through a small, well-funded network. The [[Pioneer Fund]], established in 1937 to promote "race betterment," financed researchers including [[Arthur Jensen]], whose 1969 article argued that the black-white IQ gap was substantially genetic, the physicist [[William Shockley]], who advocated paying low-IQ people to be sterilized, and later [[Richard Lynn]] and [[J. Philippe Rushton]], and it supported the journal [[Mankind Quarterly]]. [[Charles Murray]] and [[Richard Herrnstein]]'s *[[The Bell Curve]]* (1994) brought the race-and-IQ thesis to a mass audience, citing thirteen Pioneer Fund-funded scholars.[^9][^10] -The same claims circulated under the euphemism [[Human Biodiversity|human biodiversity]], popularized by [[Steve Sailer]], and through the secret [[London Conference on Intelligence]] held at University College London from 2014 to 2017. Mainstream genetics and psychology reject the genetic-gap thesis, holding that race is not a valid biological category for the claims made and that group differences in test scores reflect environmental and social factors.[^8][^9] +The same claims circulated under the euphemism [[Human Biodiversity|human biodiversity]], popularized by [[Steve Sailer]], and through the secret [[London Conference on Intelligence]] held at University College London from 2014 to 2017. Mainstream genetics and psychology reject the genetic-gap thesis, holding that race is not a valid biological category for the claims made and that group differences in test scores reflect environmental and social factors.[^10][^11] ### The New Eugenics -A "liberal eugenics" reappeared in academic bioethics, framed as private parental choice rather than state coercion. The Oxford bioethicist [[Julian Savulescu]] argued in 2001 for "procreative beneficence," the claim that parents using in-vitro fertilization have a moral reason to select the embryo expected to have the best life, including for non-disease traits. Companies such as [[Genomic Prediction]] began offering polygenic-score screening of embryos for traits including predicted intelligence, and in 2018 the Chinese scientist [[He Jiankui]] announced the birth of the first gene-edited human babies, made with CRISPR, drawing global condemnation.[^10][^11] +A "liberal eugenics" reappeared in academic bioethics, framed as private parental choice rather than state coercion. The Oxford bioethicist [[Julian Savulescu]] argued in 2001 for "procreative beneficence," the claim that parents using in-vitro fertilization have a moral reason to select the embryo expected to have the best life, including for non-disease traits. Companies such as [[Genomic Prediction]] began offering polygenic-score screening of embryos for traits including predicted intelligence, and in 2018 the Chinese scientist [[He Jiankui]] announced the birth of the first gene-edited human babies, made with CRISPR, drawing global condemnation.[^12][^13] ### The TESCREAL Argument -The philosopher [[Émile P. Torres]] and the computer scientist [[Timnit Gebru]] argue that the bundle of ideologies they label [[TESCREAL]], spanning transhumanism, [[Extropianism|extropianism]], singularitarianism, cosmism, rationalism, [[Effective Altruism|effective altruism]], and longtermism, descends from the same Anglo-American eugenics tradition and reproduces its logic of ranking and improving human cognitive capacity. They point to the recurrence of hereditarian and race-science claims among prominent figures in the movement, including the 1996 email in which [[Nick Bostrom]] asserted that black people are less intelligent than white people, and to the project, common across the bundle, of engineering a superior posthuman successor to current humanity.[^12][^13] +The philosopher [[Émile P. Torres]] and the computer scientist [[Timnit Gebru]] argue that the bundle of ideologies they label [[TESCREAL]], spanning transhumanism, [[Extropianism|extropianism]], singularitarianism, cosmism, rationalism, [[Effective Altruism|effective altruism]], and longtermism, descends from the same Anglo-American eugenics tradition and reproduces its logic of ranking and improving human cognitive capacity. They point to the recurrence of hereditarian and race-science claims among prominent figures in the movement, including the 1996 email in which [[Nick Bostrom]] asserted that black people are less intelligent than white people, and to the project, common across the bundle, of engineering a superior posthuman successor to current humanity.[^14][^15] ### Footnotes [^1]: Galton, Francis. *Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development.* Macmillan, 1883, on the coinage of "eugenics"; and *Hereditary Genius* (1869). [^2]: "Eugenics," *Encyclopaedia Britannica,* on the positive and negative programs, the sterilization laws, Buck v. Bell, the 1924 Immigration Act, and the Nazi program. https://www.britannica.com/science/eugenics-genetics [^3]: "A History of Eugenics," the Galton Institute (formerly the British Eugenics Society), on Galton, the 1907 founding, and the postwar renaming. https://www.galtoninstitute.org.uk/ -[^4]: *Buck v. Bell,* 274 U.S. 200 (1927), Holmes, J.; and "Three Generations, No Imbeciles," Paul A. Lombardo, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008. -[^5]: Black, Edwin. *War Against the Weak: Eugenics and America's Campaign to Create a Master Race.* Four Walls Eight Windows, 2003, on the American model for the 1933 German sterilization law. -[^6]: Huxley, Julian. *New Bottles for New Wine.* Chatto and Windus, 1957, on "transhumanism"; and his presidency of the British Eugenics Society, 1959 to 1962. -[^7]: "Pioneer Fund," Southern Poverty Law Center, on the 1937 founding, the "race betterment" mission, and the funding of Jensen, Shockley, Lynn, and Rushton. https://www.splcenter.org/resources/extremist-files/pioneer-fund/ -[^8]: Herrnstein, Richard J., and Charles Murray. *The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life.* Free Press, 1994, with the afterword acknowledging the Pioneer Fund-funded sources. -[^9]: "Bad Science Revisited: 'The Bell Curve' Turns 30," *Mad in America,* March 2024, on the scientific rejection of the hereditarian race-IQ thesis. https://www.madinamerica.com/2024/03/bad-science-bell-curve/ -[^10]: Savulescu, Julian. "Procreative Beneficence: Why We Should Select the Best Children." *Bioethics,* vol. 15, no. 5-6, 2001. -[^11]: "Chinese scientist who edited babies' genes jailed for three years," *The Guardian,* December 30, 2019, on He Jiankui and the 2018 CRISPR births. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/dec/30/gene-editing-chinese-scientist-he-jiankui-jailed-three-years -[^12]: Gebru, Timnit, and Émile P. Torres. "The TESCREAL bundle: Eugenics and the promise of utopia through artificial general intelligence." *First Monday,* April 2024. https://firstmonday.org/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/13636 -[^13]: "Prominent AI Philosopher and 'Father' of Longtermism Sent Very Racist Email to a 90s Philosophy Listserv," *Vice,* January 2023, on the Bostrom email. https://www.vice.com/en/article/prominent-ai-philosopher-and-father-of-longtermism-sent-very-racist-email-to-a-90s-philosophy-listserv/ +[^4]: "Harriman philanthropy to have a board of scientific directors," *The New York Times*, Sunday issue, as transcribed by the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory DNA Learning Center: the office "was established at Cold Spring Harbor, L. I., in October, 1910, by Mrs. E. H. Harriman"; her contributions over an eight-year period "amounted to more than $500,000"; "additional assistance of John D. Rockefeller and others." https://dnalc.cshl.edu/view/10495-%2DHarriman-philanthropy-to-have-a-board-of-scientific-directors-The-New-York-Times.html +[^5]: Image Archive on the American Eugenics Movement, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, ERO theme: Davenport persuaded "the widow of railroad baron E.H Harriman to donate $10,000" in 1910; items "Charles Davenport letter to Mrs. E.H. Harriman" and "Transfer of ERO," *Eugenical News* vol. 3 (Carnegie Institution accepts gift of the office from Mrs. E.H. Harriman). https://www.eugenicsarchive.org/html/eugenics/static/themes/20.html +[^6]: *Buck v. Bell,* 274 U.S. 200 (1927), Holmes, J.; and "Three Generations, No Imbeciles," Paul A. Lombardo, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008. +[^7]: Black, Edwin. *War Against the Weak: Eugenics and America's Campaign to Create a Master Race.* Four Walls Eight Windows, 2003, on the American model for the 1933 German sterilization law. +[^8]: Huxley, Julian. *New Bottles for New Wine.* Chatto and Windus, 1957, on "transhumanism"; and his presidency of the British Eugenics Society, 1959 to 1962. +[^9]: "Pioneer Fund," Southern Poverty Law Center, on the 1937 founding, the "race betterment" mission, and the funding of Jensen, Shockley, Lynn, and Rushton. https://www.splcenter.org/resources/extremist-files/pioneer-fund/ +[^10]: Herrnstein, Richard J., and Charles Murray. *The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life.* Free Press, 1994, with the afterword acknowledging the Pioneer Fund-funded sources. +[^11]: "Bad Science Revisited: 'The Bell Curve' Turns 30," *Mad in America,* March 2024, on the scientific rejection of the hereditarian race-IQ thesis. https://www.madinamerica.com/2024/03/bad-science-bell-curve/ +[^12]: Savulescu, Julian. "Procreative Beneficence: Why We Should Select the Best Children." *Bioethics,* vol. 15, no. 5-6, 2001. +[^13]: "Chinese scientist who edited babies' genes jailed for three years," *The Guardian,* December 30, 2019, on He Jiankui and the 2018 CRISPR births. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/dec/30/gene-editing-chinese-scientist-he-jiankui-jailed-three-years +[^14]: Gebru, Timnit, and Émile P. Torres. "The TESCREAL bundle: Eugenics and the promise of utopia through artificial general intelligence." *First Monday,* April 2024. https://firstmonday.org/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/13636 +[^15]: "Prominent AI Philosopher and 'Father' of Longtermism Sent Very Racist Email to a 90s Philosophy Listserv," *Vice,* January 2023, on the Bostrom email. https://www.vice.com/en/article/prominent-ai-philosopher-and-father-of-longtermism-sent-very-racist-email-to-a-90s-philosophy-listserv/ diff --git a/60 - PLACES/COUNTRIES/Nicaragua.md b/60 - PLACES/COUNTRIES/Nicaragua.md index 9f68d209..91cc26bd 100644 --- a/60 - PLACES/COUNTRIES/Nicaragua.md +++ b/60 - PLACES/COUNTRIES/Nicaragua.md @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ title: Nicaragua aliases: - Nicaragua created: 2026-05-17 -updated: 2026-09-22 +updated: 2026-10-26 category: "Country" tags: - Geography @@ -17,6 +17,10 @@ location: "Central America" --- Nicaragua is a [[Central America|Central American]] nation that was ruled by the [[Anastasio Somoza|Somoza]] family dictatorship for forty-six years until the [[Sandinistas|Sandinista]] revolution in July 1979.[^1] The country became the focal point of the Contra war and the [[Dark Alliance]] drug trafficking network.[^2] +### Customs Loans, 1911 to 1912 + +[[Brown Brothers Harriman|Brown Brothers & Co.]] and J. & W. Seligman & Co. made a temporary loan of $1,500,000 to the Republic under an agreement of September 1, 1911, nominated [[Clifford D. Ham]] as Collector General of Customs, and on August 2, 1912 wrote the Secretary of State that the entire capital stock of the National Bank of Nicaragua was pledged to them and that "the Bank is under our management and control."[^3] A 1914 Senate Committee on Foreign Relations hearing printed a list of five agreements between the Republic and the two houses, the National Bank of Nicaragua, the Ferrocarril del Pacifico de Nicaragua and the United States Mortgage and Trust Company.[^4] James Brown, senior partner of Brown Brothers & Co., signed 1912 Nicaraguan banknotes as "Presidente" of the Banco Nacional de Nicaragua; Thatcher M. Brown wrote that the loans were paid off, principal and interest, in 1924.[^5] + ### Somoza Era For the forty-six years the Somoza family ruled Nicaragua, they served as reliable allies of the [[United States|U.S.]] government. Anastasio Somoza personally participated in the [[Central Intelligence Agency]]'s 1954 overthrow of the [[Guatemala|Guatemalan]] government, provided the staging base for the [[Bay of Pigs]] invasion of [[Cuba]] in 1961, sent troops to the [[Dominican Republic]] in 1965, and contributed Nicaraguan forces to [[Vietnam]].[^1] @@ -39,3 +43,6 @@ The journalist Gary Webb described Norwin Meneses as the [[Cali Drug Cartel|Cali [^1]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Chapter 1: "A Pretty secret kind of thing" [^2]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Prologue: "It was like they didn't want to know" +[^3]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, documents 1482 and 1512. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1482 and https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1512 +[^4]: *Convention between the United States and Nicaragua*, Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, 63d Cong., 2d sess. (1914). https://archive.org/details/conventionbetwee00unitrich +[^5]: John A. Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (Doubleday, 1968), pp. 189 to 190. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb