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30
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Abu Nidal.md
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@ -4,16 +4,38 @@ tags:
- Person
- ArmsDealer
- Israel
summary: "Palestinian terrorist and target of Israeli intelligence operations, connected to the Achille Lauro attack and arms trafficking networks."
- BCCI
- Terrorism
alias:
- Sabri al-Banna
- Sabri Al-Bannah
summary: "Palestinian terrorist and target of Israeli intelligence operations, connected to the Achille Lauro attack and arms trafficking networks, whose organization was financed through BCCI in London."
born: 1937
died: 2002
location: "Jaffa, British Mandate Palestine"
relations:
- type: head_of
with: "[[Abu Nidal Organization]]"
fn: 2
created: 2026-09-23
updated: 2026-09-23
---
[[Abu Nidal]] was a Palestinian terrorist. He was a target of [[Israel|Israeli]] intelligence operations. Arms dealers like [[John Knight]] and [[Sidem International Limited]] acquired arms from [[Yugoslavia]] and sold them to [[Mohammed Radi Abdullah]], who in turn sold them to [[Abu Nidal|Nidal]] and other Palestinian groups. [[Mohammed Radi Abdullah|Radi]] was unaware of [[Anthony Pearson|Pearson's]] [[Israel|Israeli]] connection.[^1]
Abu Nidal, whose real name was Sabri al-Banna, was a Palestinian terrorist and the leader of the [[Abu Nidal Organization]]. He was a target of [[Israel|Israeli]] intelligence operations. According to the former Israeli intelligence officer [[Ari Ben-Menashe]], arms dealers like [[John Knight]] and [[Sidem International Limited]] acquired arms from [[Yugoslavia]] and sold them to [[Mohammed Radi Abdullah]], who in turn sold them to Nidal and other Palestinian groups. Radi was unaware of [[Anthony Pearson|Pearson's]] Israeli connection.[^1]
[[Mohammed Radi Abdullah|Radi]] later presented his case to [[Abu Nidal|Nidal]] in [[Baghdad]], claiming he had been unwittingly used by [[Anthony Pearson|Pearson]]. [[Abu Nidal|Nidal]] believed his story and put out the word that [[Mohammed Radi Abdullah|Radi]] was "clean," placing the blame on [[Yasser Arafat|Yasser Arafat's]] group.[^1]
Ben-Menashe wrote that Radi later presented his case to Nidal in [[Baghdad]], claiming he had been unwittingly used by Pearson. Nidal believed his story and put out the word that Radi was "clean," placing the blame on [[Yasser Arafat|Yasser Arafat's]] group.[^1]
[[Abu Nidal|Nidal]] was also involved in the [[Achille Lauro]] attack in 1985, which was an [[Israel|Israeli]] "black" propaganda operation. [[Rafi]] passed instructions to [[Mohammed Radi Abdullah|Radi]], who then relayed orders to [[Abul Abbas]] to carry out a cruel attack. [[Abul Abbas|Abbas]] was reportedly receiving millions from [[Israel|Israeli]] intelligence officers posing as Sicilian dons.[^1]
Ben-Menashe also wrote that Nidal was involved in the [[Achille Lauro]] attack in 1985, which he described as an Israeli "black" propaganda operation. In his account, [[Rafi]] passed instructions to Radi, who then relayed orders to [[Abul Abbas]] to carry out a cruel attack. Abbas was reportedly receiving millions from Israeli intelligence officers posing as Sicilian dons.[^1] These accounts rest on Ben-Menashe's book alone.
### BCCI
Abu Nidal's accounts were held at the Sloane Street branch in [[London]] of the [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International]] (BCCI), whose manager, [[Ghassan Qassem]], passed information on them to British and American intelligence. A [[State Department]] report of July 1987, "Abu Nidal's Terror Network," stated that the organization's commercial network was run from the [[INTRACO]] building in [[Warsaw]] by [[Samir Najmeddin|Samir Hasan Najm al-Din (Samir Najmeddin)]], who held "a general account at a major West European Bank [BCCI in London]" and was "responsible for forwarding all major contracts to Sabri al-Banna for final approval."[^2] The [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] learned, in an operation against BCCI that ran from 1986 to 1990, of the bank's role in "handling the finances of Sabri Al-Bannah or Abu Nidal, and his terrorist organization."[^3] According to the [[BCCI Kerry-Brown Senate Report|Kerry-Brown Senate Report]], by 1986 "the State Department knew that the terrorist Abu Nidal was using the bank to finance his operations in Europe."[^4]
After BCCI's closure in July 1991, a British judge, on the application of the bank's liquidators, refused to let the Senate subcommittee receive BCCI documents held in the [[United Kingdom]] without the written "permission" of the depositors concerned, "such as Abu Nidal." In July 1991 *[[The Guardian]]*, quoting what it described as a confidential French intelligence document of February 1988, reported that the Kuwaiti embassy in London had paid 60 million dollars into Abu Nidal's BCCI account in 1987.[^3][^5]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Ben-Menashe, Ari. *Profits of War: Inside the Secret U.S.-Israeli Arms Network*. TrineDay, 1992.
[^2]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 4, "BCCI's Criminality" (quoting "Abu Nidal's Terror Network," U.S. Department of State, July 1987). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/04crime.htm
[^3]: Kerry and Brown, *The BCCI Affair,* ch. 11, "BCCI, the CIA and Foreign Intelligence." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm
[^4]: Kerry and Brown, *The BCCI Affair,* ch. 16, "BCCI and Georgia Politicians." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/16ga.htm
[^5]: "Daily Says Kuwait Put $60 Million Into Nidal's BCCI Account." *Deseret News* (wire report), July 25, 1991. https://www.deseret.com/1991/7/25/18932483/daily-says-kuwait-put-60-million-into-nidal-s-bcci-account/

38
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Alec Stapp.md Normal file
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@ -0,0 +1,38 @@
---
category: "AI & Effective Altruism"
tags:
- Person
- InstituteForProgress
- OpenPhilanthropy
- ThinkTank
- Biosecurity
- PermittingReform
- Immigration
summary: "Former Progressive Policy Institute and Niskanen Center technology policy fellow who co-founded the Open Philanthropy-funded Institute for Progress in 2021 and became its sole chief executive in 2026."
relations:
- type: head_of
with: "[[Institute for Progress]]"
role: "co-chief executive, then chief executive"
start: 2021
fn: 2
created: 2026-09-23
updated: 2026-09-23
---
Alec Stapp received a bachelor's degree from the [[University of Arizona]] and a master's degree in economics from [[George Mason University]], where he was a graduate research fellow at the [[Mercatus Center]]. He was a technology policy fellow at the [[Niskanen Center]], a research fellow at the [[International Center for Law and Economics]] and director of technology policy at the [[Progressive Policy Institute]], and wrote for *[[The Washington Post]]*, *[[The Atlantic]]*, *[[MIT Technology Review]]* and *[[Politico]]*.[^1]
### Institute for Progress
Stapp and [[Caleb Watney]] co-founded the [[Institute for Progress]] (IFP) in 2021 and announced it on January 20, 2022, with the mission "to accelerate scientific, technological, and industrial progress while safeguarding humanity's future," applying "a framework we like to borrow from the effective altruism community" of choosing issues "that are important, neglected, and tractable."[^2][^3] [[Open Philanthropy]] (later renamed Coefficient Giving)[^4] granted IFP 1.6 million dollars in October 2021, "to conduct research and advocacy on policies relevant to a number of our grantmaking areas," and 9 million dollars over three years in March 2023.[^5] IFP's returns report Stapp's pay as co-chief executive as 54,231 dollars for 2021, 163,125 dollars for 2022, 202,500 dollars for 2023 and 246,008 dollars for 2024.[^6] After Watney left in 2026 to become managing director of public policy at Coefficient Giving, Stapp was listed as IFP's sole chief executive.[^3][^7]
His IFP writing includes "Why [[SpaceX]] Is an Underrated Strategic National Asset for the U.S." (March 2022); "The Case for High-Skilled Immigration Reform (And How to Make It Happen)" (August 2022, with Jeremy Neufeld); papers on permitting reform and environmental review with [[Brian Potter]], Arnab Datta and Aidan Mackenzie (2022 to 2024); responses to the [[Office of Science and Technology Policy]] on research with dangerous pathogens (October 2023) and to the [[Environmental Protection Agency]] on far-UVC systems for pandemic prevention (December 2022); a January 2024 paper urging Congress to strengthen the [[Federal Select Agent Program]]; and "Biosecurity in the Trump Era" (November 2024).[^1]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Institute for Progress, "Alec Stapp," author biography and publications. https://ifp.org/author/alec-stapp/
[^2]: Institute for Progress, "Caleb Watney," author biography. https://ifp.org/author/caleb-watney/
[^3]: Institute for Progress, "About," and Stapp, Alec, and Caleb Watney, "Progress Is a Policy Choice," January 20, 2022. https://ifp.org/about/ ; https://ifp.org/progress-is-a-policy-choice/
[^4]: Tarbell Center for AI Journalism, "Ethics and Standards policies," February 20, 2026, referring to "Coefficient Giving (formerly known as Open Philanthropy)." https://www.tarbellcenter.org/ethics-and-standards
[^5]: Open Philanthropy, "Institute for Progress, Policy Research," grant of October 2021, archived July 1, 2022, http://web.archive.org/web/20220701180156/https://www.openphilanthropy.org/grants/institute-for-progress-policy-research/ ; "Institute for Progress, General Support (2023)," archived August 26, 2023. http://web.archive.org/web/20230826080214/https://www.openphilanthropy.org/grants/institute-for-progress-general-support-2023/
[^6]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer, "Institute For Progress," EIN 87-2449729, Form 990 filings for fiscal years 2021 through 2024. https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/872449729
[^7]: Coefficient Giving, "Introducing Our New Managing Director of Public Policy, Caleb Watney," July 9, 2026, archived July 14, 2026. http://web.archive.org/web/20260714172124/https://coefficientgiving.org/research/introducing-our-new-managing-director-of-public-policy/

18
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/James Riady.md
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@ -13,7 +13,17 @@ alias:
summary: "Indonesian banker, son of Lippo Group founder Mochtar Riady, who interned at Stephens Inc., ran Worthen Bank's international division in Little Rock, and in 2001 paid the largest campaign finance fine in American history."
location: "Jakarta, Indonesia"
created: 2026-09-21
updated: 2026-09-21
updated: 2026-09-23
relations:
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Stephens Inc.]]"
role: "intern"
fn: 1
- type: prosecuted
with: "[[Department of Justice]]"
reverse: true
start: 2001-01-11
fn: 3
---
James Tjahaja Riady is an [[Indonesia|Indonesian]] banker and the son of [[Mochtar Riady]], founder of the [[Lippo Group]]. His father met [[Jackson Stephens]] and [[Witt Stephens]] in 1976 while looking for a stake in an American bank, and the two families formed [[Stephens Finance Ltd.]] in [[Hong Kong]] in 1978. James Riady served an internship at [[Stephens Inc.]] in [[Little Rock, Arkansas|Little Rock]].[^1]
@ -30,8 +40,14 @@ On June 23, 1994, Riady had breakfast at the [[Hay-Adams Hotel]] with [[Webster
On January 11, 2001, Riady agreed to plead guilty in the federal court in Los Angeles to a felony charge of conspiring to defraud the [[United States]] by reimbursing campaign donors with foreign corporate funds, and to pay 8.61 million dollars, which the Justice Department called the largest fine in the history of campaign finance law. LippoBank pleaded guilty to 86 misdemeanor counts covering 1988 to 1994. Indonesia has no extradition treaty with the United States, and Riady surrendered voluntarily after about six sessions with prosecutors. He agreed to 400 hours of community service and to stay out of the country for two years. The benefits the charge said he sought included "[[Community Reinvestment Act]] exemptions for LippoBank," "a repeal of the [[Glass-Steagall Act]]," and "Most Favored Nation status for [[China]]."[^3]
### Leaving Worthen
The House Government Reform and Oversight Committee, drawing on the depositions of [[Vernon Weaver|Arthur Vernon Weaver]] and C. Joseph Giroir, gave the reason for the family's departure from Worthen: "The Riadys were bought out of Worthen by the Stephens family after the bank experienced a major defalcation by Bevil Bressler in 1986. After the defalcation, regulators investigated the quality of Worthen's assets and determined there were problems. Allegations were made against Worthen's loan practices and asset quality. Eventually, the Riadys traded their interest in the Worthen Bank for the Stephens' interest in the Hong Kong Chinese Bank, and also traded their interests in other joint ventures." Riady and Huang then "focused their attention on a bank they previously had purchased in San Francisco, California. Soon thereafter they established the Bank of Trade in Los Angeles, which later became LippoBank."[^4] Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation records show that the Bank of Trade, chartered in [[San Francisco]] in 1961, moved its main office to Los Angeles on October 31, 1989 and took the name Lippo Bank on January 18, 1990.[^5]
### Footnotes
[^1]: House Committee on Government Reform and Oversight, *Investigation of Political Fundraising Improprieties and Possible Violations of Law,* H. Rept. 105-829, 1998, vol. 2. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CRPT-105hrpt829/html/CRPT-105hrpt829-vol2.htm ; Hubbell, Webster. *Friends in High Places*. William Morrow, 1997.
[^2]: Truell, Peter, and Larry Gurwin. *False Profits: The Inside Story of BCCI, the World's Most Corrupt Financial Empire*. Houghton Mifflin, 1992.
[^3]: Department of Justice, "James Riady Pleads Guilty, Will Pay Largest Fine in Campaign Finance History for Violating Federal Election Law," press release 01-17, January 11, 2001.
[^4]: House Committee on Government Reform and Oversight, *Investigation of Political Fundraising Improprieties and Possible Violations of Law,* H. Rept. 105-829, 1998, vol. 2, footnotes 14-15. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CRPT-105hrpt829/html/CRPT-105hrpt829-vol2.htm
[^5]: Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, BankFind Suite, institution history for certificate 18453 (Lippo Bank), queried September 23, 2026. https://api.fdic.gov/banks/history?filters=CERT:18453&limit=50

78
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Kemal Shoaib.md Normal file
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@ -0,0 +1,78 @@
---
category: "BCCI Scandal"
tags:
- Person
- BCCI
- Banker
- Pakistan
summary: "BCCI officer whom Agha Hasan Abedi installed as chairman of the secretly acquired Independence Bank of Encino; the Federal Reserve fined him 20 million dollars in 1991."
born: 1936
died: 2020
location: "Karachi, Pakistan"
relations:
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Bank of Credit and Commerce International]]"
role: "senior officer; continued to report to BCCI while heading Independence Bank"
fn: 1
- type: appointed
with: "[[Agha Hasan Abedi]]"
reverse: true
role: "chairman, Independence Bank of Encino"
start: 1985-10
fn: 2
- type: reported_to
with: "[[Swaleh Naqvi]]"
role: "while chairman of Independence Bank"
start: 1986
fn: 2
- type: investigated
with: "[[Federal Reserve Board]]"
reverse: true
role: "20 million dollar civil money penalty"
start: 1991-07
fn: 5
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Nafis Sadik]]"
role: "brother"
fn: 3
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Muhammad Shoaib]]"
role: "son"
fn: 3
created: 2026-09-23
updated: 2026-09-23
---
Kemal Shoaib was a Pakistani banker and officer of the [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International]] (BCCI) who chaired the [[Independence Bank of Encino]] in [[California]] after BCCI secretly acquired it in October 1985 through [[Ghaith R. Pharaon]].[^1][^2]
### Family and Education
Shoaib was born in [[Jaunpur]], [[India]], in 1936, to Iffat Ara and [[Muhammad Shoaib]], a civil servant who later became Finance Minister of [[Pakistan]] and an adviser to the [[World Bank]]. He was the fifth of six children; his eldest sister, [[Nafis Sadik]], later headed the [[United Nations Population Fund]]. The family moved from Delhi to [[Karachi]] at Partition. He studied chemical engineering at [[Imperial College London]] and the [[Catholic University of America|Catholic University]] in Washington, went on to the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], and later took a master's degree in Islamic history at the [[School of Oriental and African Studies]] in London. His first job, in [[Lahore]], was designing a chemicals factory for [[Wyeth]].[^3]
In September 1965 he married, in [[Rawalpindi]], the daughter of [[Syed Hashim Raza]], the first administrator of Karachi and later Governor of East Pakistan. President [[Ayub Khan]] and the whole cabinet attended the wedding, at which news arrived that war with India had begun.[^3]
### BCCI
A memorandum of July 25, 1983, from the BCCI employee [[Aijaz Afridi]] to BCCI's second in command, [[Swaleh Naqvi]], with copies to Shoaib and [[K. K. Elley]], set out BCCI's plan for the New York bank of [[First American Bank|First American]]; it described the bank as operating independently of the other First American banks while drawing on them as sources of funds and for "their entire international business," so that First American New York would "become their Central Treasury."[^1][^4]
According to the [[Federal Reserve Board|Federal Reserve]], Shoaib had been general manager of BCCI's United Kingdom Group in [[London]] and head of its Group Planning Division. In 1983 and 1984, after Abedi expressed interest in acquiring a medium-sized California bank, BCCI officials including Shoaib investigated at least three possible targets, and in November 1984 BCCI employees recommended Independence. The Federal Reserve found that Shoaib, "who had been instrumental in the acquisition of Independence, was appointed its chairman immediately following the acquisition," that he "had solicited the position as chairman of Independence from Abedi, rather than from Pharaon," and that he "was not interviewed by Pharaon prior to becoming chairman." Regulators knew a former BCCI officer would chair the bank but were not told that BCCI had made the decision.[^2] The Senate report describes Abedi's appointment of Shoaib, "a high-level BCCI official," as chief operating officer, and records that BCCI abandoned an earlier plan to place [[Roy P. M. Carlson|Roy Carlson]], president of the [[National Bank of Georgia]], on the board as well.[^1]
The Federal Reserve found that while chairman he "continued to act on behalf of BCCI, reported to senior BCCI officials concerning Independence, and continued to receive benefits, including a subsidized home mortgage loan and accrual of pension benefits, from BCCI," benefits conditioned on his remaining at Independence. In March 1986 he wrote to Naqvi listing "points that need to be discussed" about the bank's budget, capital, strategy and planning, and urged that new managers and a treasury officer come from BCCI. In June 1986 he sent Naqvi the resume of a proposed director for approval before forwarding it to Pharaon, and in July 1987 the resume of a candidate for executive vice president, who then met Abedi and Naqvi. In November 1987, when the bank needed capital, he attached his letter asking Pharaon for 7.5 million dollars to a note asking Naqvi to "forward [the letter] to Dr. Pharaon after you have examined and agreed." He was paid as chairman from October 1985 to January 15, 1989.[^2]
The [[Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation]] knew that Pharaon had selected a former BCCI officer to chair the bank. Its enforcement chief, [[John W. Stone]], testified that "Mr. Shoaib had embarked on a program of investing in joint ventures involving acquisition, development and construction of real estate projects, primarily in southern California. In 1988, FDIC examiners discovered improper account of these projects which resulted in the understatement of total assets and liabilities, and the overstatement of the bank's capital." The FDIC required further capital from Pharaon and the resignation of Shoaib, who left the bank in January 1989.[^5]
### Enforcement
On July 12, 1991, the Federal Reserve issued a notice of intent to bar Pharaon, Abedi, Naqvi and Shoaib permanently from banking.[^2] On July 29, 1991, it assessed a 200 million dollar fine against BCCI, 37 million dollars against Pharaon and 20 million dollars against Shoaib.[^5]
### Later Life
Shoaib and his family lived in London while he worked for BCCI and in [[Los Angeles]] while he chaired Independence Bank. In 1990 they returned to Karachi, where he was chairman of [[International Industries]], [[International Steels]] and [[Century Paper]]. He represented Pakistan at bridge, captained its bridge team, and had been national table tennis champion as a young man. He died in 2020.[^3]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 7, "BCCI in the United States: Part Two." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/07later.htm
[^2]: Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, *In the Matter of Ghaith R. Pharaon, Agha Hasan Abedi, Swaleh Naqvi, and Kemal Shoaib,* Docket Nos. 91-037-E-I1 to I4, Notice of Intent to Prohibit, July 12, 1991. https://www.federalreserve.gov/supervisionreg/files/19910712.pdf
[^3]: Shoaib, Alia. "Kemal Shoaib, 1936-2020." *The Friday Times* (Lahore), December 25, 2020 (a tribute by his granddaughter). https://www.thefridaytimes.com/25-Dec-2020/kemal-shoaib-1936-2020
[^4]: Kerry and Brown, *The BCCI Affair,* ch. 13, "Clark Clifford and Robert Altman." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/13clifford.htm
[^5]: Kerry and Brown, *The BCCI Affair,* ch. 12, "The Regulators" (Stone's testimony and the July 29, 1991 assessments). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/12reg.htm

7
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Mochtar Riady.md
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@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ created: 2026-09-22
updated: 2026-09-23
---
Mochtar Riady is an Indonesian of Chinese descent who built the [[Lippo Group]]; according to the House Government Reform and Oversight Committee, citing *Forbes,* he found it necessary to "Indonesianize" his name, which had been Li Mo Tie. He first met [[Jackson Stephens]] and [[Witt Stephens]] of [[Little Rock, Arkansas|Little Rock]] in 1976, when he was looking into buying [[Bert Lance]]'s share of the [[National Bank of Georgia]]; that purchase fell through, and in 1978 the two families formed Stephens Finance Ltd. in [[Hong Kong]].[^1] The Riady and Stephens families later controlled [[Worthen Bank]] in Little Rock together.[^1][^2]
Mochtar Riady is an Indonesian of Chinese descent who built the [[Lippo Group]]; according to the House Government Reform and Oversight Committee, citing *Forbes,* he found it necessary to "Indonesianize" his name, which had been Li Mo Tie. He first met [[Jackson Stephens]] and [[Witt Stephens]] of [[Little Rock, Arkansas|Little Rock]] in 1976, when he was looking into buying [[Bert Lance]]'s share of the [[National Bank of Georgia]]; that purchase fell through, and in 1978 the two families formed [[Stephens Finance Ltd.]] in [[Hong Kong]].[^1] The Riady and Stephens families later controlled [[Worthen Bank]] in Little Rock together.[^1][^2]
### Clinton
@ -40,6 +40,10 @@ The Riadys gave more than 450,000 dollars to the [[Democratic National Committee
In 1998 the Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs, in its report on the 1996 campaign-finance investigation, stated: "James and Mochtar Riady have had a long-term relationship with a Chinese intelligence agency." It also noted that they had known Clinton since the mid-1980s, when they held a controlling interest in Worthen Bank.[^4] His son [[James Riady]] pleaded guilty in January 2001 to violating federal election law.[^5]
### Hong Kong Chinese Bank
After a defalcation at Worthen Bank in 1986 and the regulatory review of its assets that followed, the Riadys, according to the House Government Reform and Oversight Committee, "traded their interest in the Worthen Bank for the Stephens' interest in the [[Hong Kong Chinese Bank]], and also traded their interests in other joint ventures." In late 1992 [[China Resources]], described by the committee as "a Chinese Government owned company which is a joint venture partner with the Lippo Group," bought 15 percent of that bank, and it later "infused the failing LippoLand with tens of millions of dollars, effectively bailing the Riady family out of a precarious financial situation." In 1993 Riady and Huang also arranged a meeting between Shen Jueren of China Resources and Vice President [[Al Gore]].[^6]
### Footnotes
[^1]: House Committee on Government Reform and Oversight. *Investigation of Political Fundraising Improprieties and Possible Violations of Law,* H. Rept. 105-829, vol. 2, 1998. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CRPT-105hrpt829/html/CRPT-105hrpt829-vol2.htm
@ -47,3 +51,4 @@ In 1998 the Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs, in its report on the 1996
[^3]: Office of the Independent Counsel. *Final Report of the Independent Counsel In Re: Madison Guaranty Savings & Loan Association,* vol. 3, part C, on Webster Hubbell. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-ICREPORT-MADISON/pdf/GPO-ICREPORT-MADISON-3-2.pdf
[^4]: Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs. *Investigation of Illegal or Improper Activities in Connection with 1996 Federal Election Campaigns,* S. Rept. 105-167, 1998, "The China Connection." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1998_rpt/sgo-sir/2-18.htm
[^5]: U.S. Department of Justice. "James Riady Pleads Guilty, Will Pay Largest Fine in Campaign Finance History for Violating Federal Election Law." Press release 01-17, January 11, 2001.
[^6]: House Committee on Government Reform and Oversight. *Investigation of Political Fundraising Improprieties and Possible Violations of Law,* H. Rept. 105-829, vol. 2, 1998, footnotes 14 and 115-119. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CRPT-105hrpt829/html/CRPT-105hrpt829-vol2.htm