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---
category: "U.S. Government"
tags:
- Organization
- USArmy
- ChemicalWarfare
- BiologicalWarfare
- MKULTRA
- MKNAOMI
- HumanExperimentation
- FortDetrick
- EdgewoodArsenal
alias:
- Chemical Corps
- U.S. Army Chemical Corps
- United States Army Chemical Corps
- Chemical Warfare Service
summary: "Army branch, the Chemical Warfare Service until 1946, whose Special Operations Division at Fort Detrick worked with the CIA under MKNAOMI and whose contract drug killed Harold Blauer in 1953."
start: 1918-06-02
location: "United States"
relations:
- type: head_of
with: "[[William M. Creasy]]"
reverse: true
role: "Chief Chemical Officer"
end: 1958
fn: 7
- type: contractor_to
with: "[[New York State Psychiatric Institute]]"
reverse: true
role: "testing of mescaline derivatives for chemical warfare"
fn: 11
- type: funded
with: "[[Central Intelligence Agency]]"
reverse: true
role: "about 200,000 dollars a year to the Corps' Special Operations Division through MKNAOMI"
fn: 4
- type: investigated
with: "[[Church Committee]]"
reverse: true
role: "CIA retention of Fort Detrick shellfish toxin"
start: 1975
fn: 13
created: 2026-09-24
updated: 2026-09-24
---
The Army Chemical Corps is the branch of the [[U.S. Army]] responsible for chemical, biological and radiological warfare and defense. During [[World War I]] the German use of chemical weapons led General [[John J. Pershing]] to press for a specialized gas unit for the [[American Expeditionary Forces|American Expeditionary Force]]; the War Department created a Gas Service and, according to the Corps' regimental association, renamed it the Chemical Warfare Service (CWS) on June 2, 1918. The [[First Gas Regiment]] fought in the Meuse-Argonne and St. Mihiel campaigns.[^1] The [[National Defense Act of 1920]] made the CWS a permanent branch of the Army.[^1][^2] The regimental association dates its redesignation as the Chemical Corps to 1946.[^1]
### Biological warfare
In the Second World War the CWS developed the 4.2-inch mortar's high explosive round, smoke generator battalions and flame weapons for the Pacific. "Although not used in WWII, the CWS was given the lead for the development of biological weapons, and as a result, then-Camp Detrick was created exclusively for biological warfare experimentation."[^1] [[Fort Detrick]] remained the center of the American offensive germ warfare program until 1969.[^3]
The [[Special Operations Division]] (SOD) at Fort Detrick was a secret unit of the Chemical Corps that developed biological weapons and delivery systems for the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]. [[John D. Marks]] dates its founding to 1950 under [[John Schwab]]; [[Ed Regis]] and [[Stephen Kinzer]] place it in 1949. Under the [[MKNAOMI]] program the CIA's [[Office of Technical Service|Technical Services Staff]] (TSS) paid SOD about 200,000 dollars a year. Entry to the SOD building required a clearance, a "need to know" authorization and a shot card of ten to twenty immunizations, and at one point the general who headed the Chemical Corps decided against inspecting SOD. An SOD veteran told Marks: "That's the way we kept them out. Those [military] types didn't need to know."[^4][^5] Lieutenant Colonel [[Vincent Ruwet]] of the Chemical Corps was chief of SOD and the immediate superior of [[Frank Olson]], who died in November 1953 days after the CIA covertly gave him [[LSD]].[^6]
### Psychochemicals
Major General [[William M. Creasy]], a 1926 graduate of the [[United States Military Academy]], served as Chief Chemical Officer of the U.S. Army. The [[Ordnance Corps]] Hall of Fame, which inducted him in 1978, credits him with "innovations in the field of psychochemical agents and radiological defense" and with establishing "the managerial and organizational elements to develop a deterrent biological warfare capability for the U.S. Army." He retired in 1958 and died on March 22, 1987.[^7] [[Martin A. Lee]] and [[Bruce Shlain]] wrote that Creasy considered psychochemical weapons preferable to fire bombs or nuclear weapons because they could incapacitate without permanent injury, and that the Army tested LSD, designated EA-1729, in war games at [[Fort Bragg]] (command-post maneuvers, tank driving, radar operation and antiaircraft tracking) and at [[Aberdeen Proving Ground]], [[Fort Benning]], [[Fort Leavenworth]], [[Dugway Proving Ground]] and [[Edgewood Arsenal]], with nearly 1,500 military personnel tested by the mid-1960s. They also describe an Army interrogation protocol of September 1961 that combined LSD with silent treatment, sustained interrogation, deprivation of food, drink and sleep, isolation, temperature cycling and verbal degradation.[^8] Edgewood Arsenal, "the former chemical center," was merged into Aberdeen Proving Ground on July 1, 1971.[^9]
The allergist [[Harold Abramson]], one of the CIA's principal LSD researchers under [[MKULTRA]], held a consulting position with the Chemical Corps.[^10] TSS officers seeking samples of "highly poisonous or physiologically active drugs" from pharmaceutical companies sometimes claimed to be from the Army Chemical Corps.[^10] After [[Eli Lilly]] synthesized LSD, a TSS memorandum to [[Allen Dulles]] noted that the government could now buy the drug in "tonnage quantities"; Marks observed that the Chemical Corps and the Air Force could then obtain it in bulk.[^10]
### Harold Blauer
The Chemical Corps held a contract with the [[New York State Psychiatric Institute]] (NYSPI) to test mescaline derivatives on humans for their suitability as chemical warfare agents. On January 8, 1953, [[Harold Blauer]], a tennis professional admitted for depression, died after an intravenous injection of about 450 milligrams of EA-1298, a derivative the Corps had designated as a candidate agent, administered under [[Paul Hoch]] without his knowledge or consent. The death certificate read "coronary arteriosclerosis; sudden death after intravenous injection of a mescaline derivative." Within 48 hours the Chemical Corps contract officer [[Amedeo Marrazzi]] directed efforts to conceal the Army's involvement, and at a meeting in July 1954 federal counsel, Hoch and Marrazzi discussed anticipated malpractice claims. The Second Circuit found that Hoch "was well aware that the mescaline derivative was a new compound not being administered for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes but as an experiment to study its effect for chemical warfare purposes." [[James Cattell]], who gave the injection, told Army investigators: "We didn't know whether it was dog piss or what it was we were giving him."[^11]
An initial settlement of 18,000 dollars was paid to Blauer's family, half of it covertly by the federal government. The Army disclosed the circumstances to his daughter, [[Elizabeth Barrett]], in August 1975, and in 1987 a federal judge awarded more than 700,000 dollars to his estate.[^11][^12] Hoch became New York State Commissioner of Mental Hygiene in 1955.[^8]
### 1969 and after
On November 25, 1969, President [[Richard Nixon]] renounced the offensive biological weapons program, and in February 1970 extended the order to toxins. In 1975 the [[Church Committee]] disclosed that the CIA had kept a cache of [[shellfish toxin]] from Fort Detrick in defiance of the destruction order.[^13] In testimony of September 28, 1994, the [[General Accounting Office]] reported that the Defense Department and other national security agencies had conducted "hundreds of experiments in which hundreds of thousands of people were used as test subjects," involving "radiation, blister and nerve agents, biological agents, and LSD," some "done in secret" and others "without their knowledge or consent or their full knowledge of the risks involved."[^14]
After the [[Vietnam War]] the Corps was partially demobilized and much of its function moved from [[Fort McClellan]], [[Alabama]], to Aberdeen. When Fort McClellan closed under base realignment, the Corps moved to [[Fort Leonard Wood]], [[Missouri]], where it forms part of the Maneuver Support Center with the Engineer and Military Police corps.[^1]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Chemical Corps Regimental Association, "US Army Chemical Corps History." https://ccrassn.org/history/
[^2]: National Defense Act of 1920, Pub. L. 66-242, 41 Stat. 759, June 4, 1920.
[^3]: U.S. Army, "History :: U.S. Army Fort Detrick." home.army.mil. https://home.army.mil/detrick/about/history
[^4]: Marks, John D. *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979, Ch. 5. https://bibliotecapleyades.net/sociopolitica/manchurian/marks5.htm
[^5]: Regis, Ed. *The Biology of Doom: The History of America's Secret Germ Warfare Project*. Henry Holt, 1999. https://archive.org/details/biologyofdoomhis00regi; Stephen Kinzer, *Poisoner in Chief: Sidney Gottlieb and the CIA Search for Mind Control*. Henry Holt, 2019.
[^6]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979, Ch. 5. https://www.druglibrary.net/schaffer/lsd/marks5.htm
[^7]: U.S. Army Ordnance Corps, "Major General William M. Creasy," Ordnance Corps Hall of Fame, inductee 1978. https://goordnance.army.mil/HallOfFame/1970/1978/creasy.html
[^8]: Martin A. Lee and Bruce Shlain, *Acid Dreams: The Complete Social History of LSD: The CIA, the Sixties, and Beyond*. Grove Press, 1985. Chapters 1 and 2.
[^9]: U.S. Army Aberdeen Proving Ground, "History," home.army.mil. https://home.army.mil/apg/about/history
[^10]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979. Chapters 4 and 5.
[^11]: *Barrett v. United States*, 798 F.2d 565 (2d Cir. 1986); *Barrett v. United States*, 646 F. Supp. 1345 (S.D.N.Y. 1986); John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979. Chapter 4.
[^12]: *Los Angeles Times*, May 5, 1987; UPI Archives, May 5, 1987.
[^13]: Horrock, Nicholas M. "Colby Describes C.I.A. Poison Work," *New York Times,* Sept. 17, 1975. https://merylnass.substack.com/p/colby-describes-cia-poison-work-by
[^14]: U.S. General Accounting Office, *Human Experimentation: An Overview on Cold War Era Programs,* testimony, GAO/T-NSIAD-94-266, September 28, 1994, abstract. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GAOREPORTS-T-NSIAD-94-266/html/GAOREPORTS-T-NSIAD-94-266.htm

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---
category: "U.S. Government"
tags:
- Organization
- USArmy
- SystemsAnalysis
- AberdeenProvingGround
- GrillFlame
- RemoteViewing
- StargateProject
alias:
- AMSAA
- USAMSAA
- U.S. Army Materiel Systems Analysis Activity
summary: "Army Materiel Command systems-analysis activity at Aberdeen Proving Ground, formed in 1968, which ran its own replication of the SRI remote-viewing protocol under Grill Flame in 1978 and 1979."
start: 1968
location: "Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland"
relations:
- type: reported_to
with: "[[Army Materiel Command]]"
role: "separate reporting activity under the Commanding General"
start: 1968
fn: 1
- type: head_of
with: "[[James Amato]]"
reverse: true
role: "director, as of September 2016"
fn: 1
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Stargate Project]]"
role: "Grill Flame replication of the SRI remote-viewing protocol"
start: 1978
end: 1980
fn: 3
- type: funded
with: "[[Stanford Research Institute]]"
role: "230,000 dollars for remote viewing, 1978 to 1980, in SRI's accounting"
start: 1978
end: 1980
fn: 5
- type: investigated
with: "[[Grill Flame Scientific Evaluation Committee]]"
reverse: true
start: 1979
end: 1979
fn: 12
created: 2026-09-24
updated: 2026-09-24
---
The Army Materiel Systems Analysis Activity (AMSAA) was formed in 1968 from the Weapon Systems Laboratory of the [[Ballistic Research Laboratory|Ballistic Research Laboratories]] at [[Aberdeen Proving Ground]], [[Maryland]], "to enhance the decision-making process through broad-based systems analysis of the Army materiel systems." It was created "as a separate reporting activity under the Commanding General (CG), Army Materiel Command (AMC)," and its work combined operations research, mathematical and computer modeling and statistics to "predict performance, analyze effectiveness, identify shortfalls, compare alternatives, and recommend potential courses of action."[^1] In 1978 and 1979 it ran the [[U.S. Army]]'s own test of the remote-viewing protocol of [[Stanford Research Institute]] under the program named Grill Flame.[^2][^3]
### Mission and reorganizations
The activity's published chronology lists, for 1968, both its formation from the BRL Weapons Systems Lab and a formal charter for the [[Joint Technical Coordinating Group for Munitions Effectiveness]] (JTCG/ME), with AMSAA in the chair. Its narrative history dates the addition of the role of "independent technical evaluator of major Army programs" to 1974; the same page's timeline places the assumption of the "Technical Independent Evaluation mission for DT" in 1975. In 1990 the Army's Deputy Chief of Staff for Logistics designated AMSAA "the Army's independent logistician." The timeline records the acquisition of the Inventory Research and Logistics Studies Offices in 1981, designation as "Army focal point for systems performance data" in 1988 and as "Army Exec Agent for Reliability Standards" in 1995.[^1]
On June 12, 1996, the Vice Chief of Staff of the Army consolidated the Army evaluation mission into the Operational Test and Evaluation Command, renamed the [[Army Test and Evaluation Command]] (ATEC), a decision "based on a reengineering study performed by AMSAA." On October 1, 1996, evaluators of AMSAA, the Test and Evaluation Command and the Survivability and Lethality Analysis Directorate of the [[Army Research Laboratory]] were transferred to ATEC's Army Evaluation Center; AMSAA kept the independent evaluation of chemical demilitarization. The Industrial Engineering Activity and the Management Engineering Activity were consolidated into it. It became part of the [[Research, Development and Engineering Command]] (RDECOM) in 2002 and was realigned in 2012 as a separate reporting activity of the headquarters of [[Army Materiel Command]]. As of September 2016 its director was [[James Amato]], at Aberdeen Proving Ground.[^1]
### Grill Flame
At a meeting in [[Jack Vorona]]'s conference room on August 24, 1978, called "to establish a unified DoD effort in the development of remote viewing technology for intelligence purposes," Vorona stated that the [[Defense Intelligence Agency|DIA]], the [[Foreign Technology Division]] and AMSAA "have contractual funds at the Stanford Research Institute (SRI) for some preliminary investigations into remote viewing feasibility."[^4] SRI's later accounting of its sponsors lists AMSAA for 230,000 dollars over 1978 to 1980;[^5] the funding table in DIA's 1995 history of the service programs gives AMSAA 220,000 dollars for remote viewing in 1978.[^6]
After lectures by [[Hal Puthoff]] on March 21, 1978, AMSAA ran twenty sessions of its own to test "confirmation and/or rejection of the SRI remote viewing protocol," renaming "subject" as "remote viewer" and "experiment" as "session," and reported that "our replication of the protocol did not result in statistical significance."[^3] [[Ingo Swann]] visited AMSAA on October 17, 1978.[^7] [[John Kramar]], chief of AMSAA's Ground Warfare Division, and Colonel [[Albert De Prospero]] of AMSAA were named as discussants, with [[Dale Graff]] of the Foreign Technology Division, in the "Sensory Technology Assessment" of November 14, 1978,[^2] and both attended the first meeting of the Defense Department's Grill Flame committee on November 28, 1978.[^8] On January 12, 1979, Major [[Murray Watt]] and Lieutenant [[Frederick Atwater]] of [[United States Army Intelligence and Security Command|INSCOM]] visited AMSAA at Aberdeen, then running its own tests of the SRI protocol.[^9]
On February 15, 1979, the Army general counsel found that Grill Flame involved testing on human subjects and halted the AMSAA work.[^3] AMSAA's Interim Note No. 15 of July 1979, "Project Grill Flame AMSAA Phase I Efforts," listed "Mr. John Kramar," "Dr. [[Evan Harris Walker]]" and General [[Lewis Walt]] among its acknowledged participants and stated that "the identification of the specific roles played by specific individuals in the AMSAA GRILL FLAME program must be protected."[^10] On August 8, 1979, the military assistant to the Under Secretary of the Army wrote to [[Manfred Gale]] that "Dr. LaBerge discussed your proposed change in test design with USAMSAA. They are taking action to implement the proposal at this time."[^11]
### The Gale committee
The [[Grill Flame Scientific Evaluation Committee]], chaired by Gale, reviewed AMSAA's replication trials along with the SRI research, the psychokinesis contract of the Army Missile Command (MICOM) at [[Redstone Arsenal]] and the INSCOM unit at [[Fort Meade]], and visited AMSAA on November 6, 1979. Its report of December 1979 stated: "Examination of SRI findings by this Committee has not resulted in a finding that SRI has proven anything of military operational value... The SRI effort should be terminated for the convenience of the government. The current AMSAA effort should also be terminated." The AMSAA and MICOM work "should be discontinued and terminated in the most cost-effective manner."[^12] An unsigned paper of findings in the committee's file recommended terminating "efforts at MICOM, AMSAA, and FTD."[^11]
Kramar, as AMSAA's Grill Flame project officer, wrote for the record on February 13, 1980, that the report, "transmitted to AMSAA January 1980, was found to be somewhat ambiguous and confusing," and took "exception" to the recommendation to "Terminate all AMSAA GRILL FLAME efforts": "This recommendation, as best as can be determined, is based only on a partial understanding of AMSAA's initial effort, which was terminated before the SEC came into being. There is an apparent mistake by the SEC in considering the AMSAA challenge/validation efforts to be an integral part of the SRI contract." He copied Gale and DARCOM.[^13] DIA's 1995 table lists DARCOM for 700,000 dollars for remote viewing in fiscal 1981.[^6]
### Footnotes
[^1]: U.S. Army Materiel Systems Analysis Activity, "History," amsaa.army.mil, page last updated September 13, 2016, archived November 23, 2016. http://web.archive.org/web/20161123141731/https://www.amsaa.army.mil/History.html
[^2]: "Sensory Technology Assessment," November 14, 1978, CIA-RDP96-00787R000500120001-5. Read in the archive.org mirror of the CIA FOIA Reading Room STARGATE collection.
[^3]: US Army Intelligence and Security Command, "The US Army's Interest in Psychoenergetics," undated, CIA-RDP96-00788R001100370005-6. US Army Materiel Systems Analysis Activity, "Project Grill Flame AMSAA Phase I Efforts," Interim Note No. 15, July 1979, CIA-RDP96-00788R001100080005-8. "Human Use Review of Project Grill Flame," memoranda of 1979 to 1980, CIA-RDP96-00788R001100440028-3. Read in the archive.org mirror of the CIA FOIA Reading Room STARGATE collection.
[^4]: Defense Intelligence Agency, "Minutes of the Meeting of the DoD Committee on Remote Viewing Activities," August 24, 1978, CIA-RDP96-00788R002000140009-7. Read in the archive.org mirror of the CIA FOIA Reading Room STARGATE collection.
[^5]: Puthoff, H. E., and L. A. Lavelle, "Project Grill Flame Operational Tasks," SRI International for DIA/DT-5A, 1983, CIA-RDP96-00788R001100340001-3. Puthoff, H. E. "CIA-Initiated Remote Viewing Program at Stanford Research Institute," *Journal of Scientific Exploration,* vol. 10, no. 1, 1996, pp. 63-76.
[^6]: Defense Intelligence Agency, "Senate Appropriations Committee Congressionally Directed Action, Star Gate," retrospective review, technical analysis and declassification status, with transmittal memorandum signed Letitia A. Long, Director, DMI Staff, faxed March 15, 1995, CIA-RDP96-00791R000300010002-3, -003-2 and -004-1, and CIA-RDP96-00791R000100040003-1. Read in the archive.org mirror of the CIA FOIA Reading Room STARGATE collection.
[^7]: "Visit of Ingo Swann to AMSAA, 17 October 1978," CIA-RDP96-00788R001200240010-3, title only. Read in the archive.org mirror of the CIA FOIA Reading Room STARGATE collection.
[^8]: Defense Intelligence Agency, S-1004/DT-1, "Minutes of the Meeting, DoD Grill Flame Committee," November 28, 1978, CIA-RDP96-00788R002000140013-2; Watt, Murray B., "Summary of Working Group Meeting, DoD Committee on Special Sensors (C), 28 Nov 78," November 29, 1978, CIA-RDP96-00788R001200240006-8. Read in the archive.org mirror of the CIA FOIA Reading Room STARGATE collection.
[^9]: US Army Intelligence and Security Command, "INSCOM Project Grill Flame: Progress Report #1," February 21, 1979, with enclosures, CIA-RDP96-00788R001100070001-3. Read in the archive.org mirror of the CIA FOIA Reading Room STARGATE collection.
[^10]: U.S. Army Materiel Systems Analysis Activity, "Project Grill Flame AMSAA Phase I Efforts," Interim Note No. 15, July 1979, acknowledgements, CIA-RDP96-00788R001100080005-8. Read in the archive.org mirror of the CIA FOIA Reading Room STARGATE collection.
[^11]: K. Lytle, Major, Military Assistant, memorandum for Mr. Gale, Advisor for RDA Analysis, ODCSRDA, "Briefing for Dr. Ruth Davis and Mr. Nealsen," August 8, 1979, CIA-RDP96-00788R001200230013-1; "Findings," "Recommendations," "Estimated Costs," unsigned, CIA-RDP96-00788R001200230043-8. Read in the archive.org mirror of the CIA FOIA Reading Room STARGATE collection.
[^12]: *Report by the Grill Flame Scientific Evaluation Committee,* December 1979, Manfred Gale, chairman, CIA-RDP96-00788R001300120001-5. Read in the archive.org mirror of the CIA FOIA Reading Room STARGATE collection.
[^13]: Kramar, John W., AMSAA Grill Flame Project Officer, memorandum for record, "Scientific Evaluation Committee (SEC) GRILL FLAME Report, Dated November 1979," February 13, 1980, CIA-RDP96-00788R001200230026-7 (copies at R002000250025-7 and R001100080007-6). Read in the archive.org mirror of the CIA FOIA Reading Room STARGATE collection.

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---
category: "U.S. Government"
tags:
- Organization
- CIA
- CovertAction
- LatinAmerica
- Chile
- Guatemala
- ColdWar
alias:
- Western Hemisphere Division
- WHD
summary: "The CIA's clandestine service division for Latin America, which ran the 1954 Guatemala coup under J.C. King and the 1970 Chile task force under William Broe and David Atlee Phillips."
location: "Langley, Virginia"
created: 2026-09-24
updated: 2026-09-24
relations:
- type: member_of
with: "[[Central Intelligence Agency]]"
role: "division of the Directorate for Plans, later the Directorate of Operations"
fn: 5
- type: head_of
with: "[[J.C. King]]"
reverse: true
end: 1964-03
fn: 8
- type: head_of
with: "[[Desmond FitzGerald]]"
reverse: true
start: 1964
role: "chief during the 1964 Chilean election"
fn: 9
- type: head_of
with: "[[William Broe]]"
reverse: true
start: 1970
role: "chief during the 1970 Chilean election and Track II"
fn: 10
- type: head_of
with: "[[Ted Shackley]]"
reverse: true
start: 1972-04
end: 1973-11
fn: 14
- type: head_of
with: "[[David Atlee Phillips]]"
reverse: true
start: 1973-06
end: 1975
fn: 14
- type: contractor_to
with: "[[Wackenhut Corporation]]"
reverse: true
start: 1961
end: 1967
role: "cover for division officers in the Miami area"
fn: 17
---
The Western Hemisphere Division was the division of the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]'s clandestine service responsible for [[Latin America]]. It sat in the Directorate for Plans, later the Directorate of Operations. Its own historical staff wrote a classified history of its first two decades, "Western Hemisphere Division, 1946-1965," in December 1973; the study was released under the [[JFK Records Act|President John F. Kennedy Assassination Records Collection Act]].[^1]
### J.C. King
[[J.C. King]], formerly an executive of [[Johnson and Johnson]] and an officer of [[Nelson Rockefeller]]'s [[CIAA|Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs]], headed the division through the 1950s. On November 20, 1953, as chief of the division, he attended a meeting in [[New York City|New York]] on reducing oil supplies to [[Guatemala]] as pressure on President [[Jacobo Arbenz]], and afterward met an oil company executive about cutting fuel to the country.[^2] The overthrow of Arbenz in 1954, [[Operation PBSUCCESS]], was carried out under King's overall authority, with [[Tracy Barnes]] as its coordinator in Washington.[^3]
In August 1960, when [[Richard Bissell]] asked the [[CIA Office of Security|Office of Security]] for assets for "a sensitive mission requiring gangster-type action" against [[Fidel Castro]], King was told of the plan and the [[JMWAVE]] station was not. The office's candidate, [[Robert Maheu]], brought in [[Johnny Roselli]], who brought in [[Sam Giancana]] and [[Santos Trafficante, Jr.|Santos Trafficante]].[^4] During the [[Bay of Pigs Invasion|Bay of Pigs]] operation King was bypassed by Bissell; a memorandum of the Green Study Group of April 24, 1961, gives his title as "Chief of the Western Hemisphere Division, Directorate for Plans" and records that the task force commander, Jacob Esterline, had taken his complaints to him, and that King passed them upward without effect.[^5]
The division oversaw the operations against [[Cheddi Jagan]]'s government in [[British Guiana]], which ended in its fall in 1964. "Western Hemisphere was under long-time chief Joseph C. King," with Virginia Hall Goillot as the branch chief for British Guiana.[^6] In [[Peru]] its officers were unsympathetic to the reform movement of [[Haya de la Torre]] of [[APRA]], and the station did nothing to deter the military coup of July 1962.[^7] King was among the recipients of Ambassador [[Lincoln Gordon]]'s telegram of March 28, 1964, on the military movement against [[Joao Goulart]] in [[Brazil]], with [[Dean Rusk]], [[Thomas Mann]], [[Robert McNamara]], [[Maxwell Taylor]], [[John McCone]], and [[Desmond FitzGerald]]; the document identifies him as chief of the division "until March 1964."[^8]
### Chile, 1964
For the Chilean presidential election of 1964 an electoral committee was established in Washington, consisting of the Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs, Thomas Mann; "the Western Hemisphere Division Chief of the CIA, Desmond Fitzgerald"; [[Ralph Dungan]] and [[McGeorge Bundy]] from the [[White House]]; and "the Chief of the Western Hemisphere Division Branch Four, the branch that has jurisdiction over Chile." The agency "spent three million dollars in an effort to influence the outcome of the 1964 Chilean presidential elections," which were won by [[Eduardo Frei Montalva|Eduardo Frei]].[^9]
### Chile, 1970
In July 1970, after John McCone, a director of [[ITT Corporation|ITT]], telephoned Director [[Richard Helms]], [[William Broe]], chief of the division, met ITT's chairman, [[Harold Geneen]], at the [[Sheraton-Carlton Hotel]] in Washington on July 16. Geneen "offered to assemble a substantial election fund" for [[Jorge Alessandri]], "controlled and channeled through the C.I.A.," which Broe refused.[^10] On September 9 Broe cabled the [[Santiago]] station chief, [[Henry Hecksher]], that "the only prospect with any chance of success whatsoever is a military golpe either before or immediately after Allende's assumption of power."[^11] On September 29 he met [[Edward Gerrity]] of ITT to "explore the feasibility of possible actions to apply some economic pressure on Chile," and gave him a list of companies that could "participate."[^10] The division chief also sat on an interagency working group, with representatives from State, the [[National Security Council|NSC]], and the Treasury, that coordinated overt economic measures toward Chile.[^9]
After President [[Richard Nixon]] ordered the agency on September 15 to keep [[Salvador Allende]] from office, a task force was formed under the deputy director for plans, [[Thomas Karamessines]]. [[David Atlee Phillips]] ran it from day to day with Broe. The operation was [[Project FUBELT]].[^12] Broe and Phillips told the station on September 28 that "it is our task to create such a climate climaxing with a solid pretext that will force the military and the president to take some action in the desired direction," and ordered Hecksher "not, repeat not," to tell Ambassador [[Edward Korry]] of the "impending coup." General [[Rene Schneider|René Schneider]] was shot on October 22. The two then cabled that "absolute denial will be the order of the day even with Ambassador and other embassy colleagues."[^11]
After Allende took office, Richard Helms told the division that it might "exceed the authorized $700,000 and go up to, and even over, $1,000,000 provided it was warranted to keep" the newspaper [[El Mercurio]] going.[^11] When the Senate's subcommittee on multinational corporations took testimony on ITT and Chile in March 1973, the text of the hearings was sent in a memorandum "for Chief, Western Hemisphere Division."[^13]
### Shackley and Phillips
The *[[Foreign Relations of the United States]]* volume on Chile for 1969 to 1973 lists [[Ted Shackley]], previously station chief in [[Saigon]], as chief of the division "from April 1972 until November 1973," and Phillips as chief "from June 1973."[^14] On September 11, 1973, as the coup was under way, Phillips sent [[Henry Kissinger]] a memorandum reporting that an officer of the group planning it had asked "if the U.S. government would come to the aid of the Chilean military if the situation became difficult." On October 3 he cabled Santiago that "Agency operational activities in Chile are now prime target for Congressional investigations" and that the agency "cannot assist Junta."[^11] Phillips retired in 1975 as head of the division.[^15]
### DINA
The agency told [[Manuel Contreras]], head of the Chilean secret police [[DINA]], at the outset that it would not support activities of his service "which might be construed as 'internal political repression.'" According to its report to Congress of 2000, "by April 1975, intelligence reporting showed that Contreras was the principal obstacle to a reasonable human rights policy within the Junta, but an interagency committee directed the CIA to continue its relationship with Contreras." A proposal for a paid relationship in May and June 1975 was overruled, but "given miscommunications in the timing of this exchange, a one-time payment was given to Contreras."[^16] The agency gave him a long lunch with the deputy director of central intelligence, [[Vernon Walters]], and officers of the Western Hemisphere Division.[^11]
### Miami
From 1961 to 1967 the agency used the [[Wackenhut Corporation]] of [[Coral Gables, Florida]], to give cover to officers of the division stationed in the Miami area.[^17] On April 24, 1968, the chief of the JMWAVE station sent headquarters a dispatch on Wackenhut's purchase of the Reliable Reporting Service, which went to the chief of the division "as a matter of information."[^17]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Central Intelligence Agency, Historical Staff. "Western Hemisphere Division, 1946-1965." DDO HP 324, December 1973. NARA JFK record 104-10301-10001, released 2025. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/sites/default/files/documents/19731200-104-10301-10001-2025.pdf
[^2]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954, Guatemala,* document 71, memorandum, November 20, 1953. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54Guat/d71
[^3]: Kinzer, Stephen, and Stephen Schlesinger. *Bitter Fruit: The Story of the American Coup in Guatemala.* Harvard University Press, 1983; Central Intelligence Agency, "Guatemala: History of PBSUCCESS," declassified internal history.
[^4]: Central Intelligence Agency, "Family Jewels," memorandum of Howard J. Osborn, Director of Security, to the Executive Secretary, CIA Management Committee, May 16, 1973, with attachments, pp. 00012-00014. Released June 25, 2007.
[^5]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963,* vol. X, *Cuba,* document 174, memorandum for the record, "Second Meeting of the Green Study Group," April 24, 1961. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d174
[^6]: National Security Archive, "CIA Covert Operations: The 1964 Overthrow of Cheddi Jagan in British Guiana," April 6, 2020. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/intelligence/2020-04-06/cia-covert-operations-overthrow-cheddi-jagan-british-guiana-1964
[^7]: Colby, Gerard, and Charlotte Dennett. *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon: Nelson Rockefeller and Evangelism in the Age of Oil.* HarperCollins, 1995, chapters 8, 23 and 27-29.
[^8]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968,* vol. XXXI, document 187, telegram from Ambassador Gordon to the Department of State, March 28, 1964. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v31/d187
[^9]: Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, staff report, *Covert Action in Chile, 1963-1973,* December 1975, sections I.A and "U.S. Government Organization for the 1964 Chilean Election." https://archive.org/details/CovertActionInChile196373
[^10]: Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations. *Multinational Corporations and United States Foreign Policy,* part 1, The International Telephone and Telegraph Company and Chile, 1970-71. 93rd Cong., 1st sess., 1973, pp. 250-252. https://archive.org/details/MultinationalCorporationsAndUSForeignPolicyUSSenateHearings
[^11]: Kornbluh, Peter. *The Pinochet File: A Declassified Dossier on Atrocity and Accountability.* New Press, 2003, pp. 10, 13, 17-22, 29-31, 91-93, 107, 112, 158-167, 206-207.
[^12]: Kornbluh, Peter, ed. "The CIA and Chile: Anatomy of an Assassination," National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 728, October 22, 2020. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/chile/2020-10-22/cia-chile-anatomy-assassination
[^13]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum for Chief, Western Hemisphere Division, "Text of Senate ITT Hearings: 20, 21 and 22 March 1973," March 26, 1973.
[^14]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976,* vol. XXI, *Chile, 1969-1973,* list of persons. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v21/persons
[^15]: Phillips, David Atlee. *The Night Watch: 25 Years of Peculiar Service.* Atheneum, 1977.
[^16]: Central Intelligence Agency, "CIA Activities in Chile," report to Congress (the Hinchey Report), September 18, 2000.
[^17]: Central Intelligence Agency, "Wackenhut Corporation, SF# 493 364," memorandum for the record, July 28, 1975, JFK record 104-10130-10454; Chief of Station, JMWAVE, telepouch dispatch UFGT-21770, April 24, 1968, JFK record 104-10130-10474.

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---
category: "U.S. Government"
tags:
- Organization
- Government
- USA
- DepartmentOfAgriculture
- CommodityCreditCorporation
- GSM102
- Iraq
- BNLScandal
alias:
- "CCC"
summary: "Federally chartered corporation within the Department of Agriculture that supports farm prices and guarantees export credit, whose guarantees financed about five billion dollars of Iraqi purchases from 1983 to 1990."
start: 1948-06-29
location: "Washington, D.C."
created: 2026-09-24
updated: 2026-09-24
relations:
- type: member_of
with: "[[United States Department of Agriculture]]"
role: "agency and instrumentality within the Department"
start: 1948-06-29
fn: 1
- type: funded
with: "[[Iraq]]"
role: "GSM-102 and GSM-103 export credit guarantees"
start: 1983
end: 1990-08-02
fn: 2
---
The Commodity Credit Corporation holds a federal charter under the Commodity Credit Corporation Charter Act, Public Law 80-806 (chapter 704, 62 Stat. 1070), "An Act To provide a Federal charter for the Commodity Credit Corporation," approved on June 29, 1948. The Act dissolved an earlier corporation of the same name organized under the laws of [[Delaware]] and transferred its rights, duties, assets and liabilities to the new body, as the [[Government Corporation Control Act]] of 1945 required of wholly owned government corporations.[^1]
### Charter
Section 2 of the Act sets out its purpose and form: "For the purpose of stabilizing, supporting, and protecting farm income and prices, of assisting in the maintenance of balanced and adequate supplies of agricultural commodities... and of facilitating the orderly distribution of agricultural commodities, there is hereby created a body corporate to be known as Commodity Credit Corporation... which shall be an agency and instrumentality of the [[United States]], within the Department of Agriculture, subject to the general direction and control of its Board of Directors."[^1]
Section 4(i) limited its borrowing: "the total of all money borrowed by the Corporation, other than trust deposits and advances received on sales, shall not at any time exceed in the aggregate $4,750,000,000."[^1]
### Export Credit Guarantees and Iraq
Under its [[GSM-102]] and [[GSM-103]] programs the corporation guarantees repayment to American banks that finance foreign purchases of American farm products. [[Iraq]] became eligible after the administration of [[Ronald Reagan]] removed it from the list of state sponsors of terrorism in 1982. Iraq's share of the guarantees rose from 8 percent in fiscal 1983 to 26 percent in fiscal 1988, when it received more than a billion dollars and was the second largest recipient. Guarantees for Iraq under the [[Commodity Credit Corporation Iraq Program]] from 1983 to 1990 came to about five billion dollars. The principal lender under them was the [[Atlanta]] branch of [[Banca Nazionale del Lavoro]]. The trade embargo of August 2, 1990, ended the program with about two billion dollars of Iraqi guarantees outstanding.[^2]
Representative [[Henry B. Gonzalez]] told the House on May 18, 1992, that after the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] raided the Atlanta branch in August 1989, "investigators uncovered massive fraud, placing the entire CCC Program for Iraq in jeopardy," and that the [[White House]] and the [[National Security Council]], "armed with [[National Security Directive 26]], sprang into action in order to save the CCC Program for Iraq."[^3]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Commodity Credit Corporation Charter Act, Pub. L. 80-806, ch. 704, 62 Stat. 1070-1071, June 29, 1948. National Agricultural Law Center. https://nationalaglawcenter.org/wp-content/uploads/assets/farmbills/ccc1948.pdf
[^2]: General Accounting Office, report on Iraq's participation in the Commodity Credit Corporation's GSM-102 and GSM-103 export credit guarantee programs, GAO/NSIAD-91-76, November 1990, with chronology at appendix I.
[^3]: Gonzalez, Henry B. "Continuing Saga of Attempts to Thwart BNL Investigation," *Congressional Record,* House, May 18, 1992, pp. H3370-H3373.

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@ -10,9 +10,11 @@ tags:
- USA
description: The Department of Defense (DoD) is an executive branch department of the U.S. federal government charged with coordinating and supervising all agencies and functions of the government concerned directly with national security and the United States Armed Forces.
category: "U.S. Government"
summary: "The Department of Defense (DoD) is an executive branch department of the U.S. federal government charged with coordinating and supervising all agencies and functions of the government concerned directly with national security and the United States..."
summary: "Executive department of the U.S. federal government that coordinates and supervises all agencies and functions concerned directly with national security and the armed forces."
start: 1947
location: "Arlington, Virginia"
alias:
- "United States Department of Defense"
---
The [[Department of Defense]] (DoD) is an executive branch department of the U.S. federal government charged with coordinating and supervising all agencies and functions of the government concerned directly with national security and the [[United States]].[^1]

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---
category: "U.S. Government"
aliases:
- "DHS"
- "U.S. Department of Homeland Security"
- "United States Department of Homeland Security"
tags:
- Organization
- USGovernment
- HomelandSecurity
- IntelligenceCommunity
- CabinetDepartment
summary: "Cabinet department created by the Homeland Security Act of 2002, which took over the Secret Service from the Treasury in 2003 and houses the statutory Office of Intelligence and Analysis."
start: 2003-01-24
location: "Washington, D.C."
relations:
- type: head_of
with: "[[Tom Ridge]]"
reverse: true
role: "Secretary of Homeland Security"
start: 2003-01-24
end: 2005-02-01
fn: 1
- type: head_of
with: "[[Michael Chertoff]]"
reverse: true
role: "Secretary of Homeland Security"
start: 2005-02-15
end: 2009-01-21
fn: 1
- type: head_of
with: "[[Janet Napolitano]]"
reverse: true
role: "Secretary of Homeland Security"
start: 2009-01-20
end: 2013-09-06
fn: 1
- type: head_of
with: "[[Jeh Johnson]]"
reverse: true
role: "Secretary of Homeland Security"
start: 2013-12-23
end: 2017-01-20
fn: 1
- type: head_of
with: "[[John F. Kelly]]"
reverse: true
role: "Secretary of Homeland Security"
start: 2017-01-20
end: 2017-07-28
fn: 1
- type: head_of
with: "[[Kirstjen Nielsen]]"
reverse: true
role: "Secretary of Homeland Security"
start: 2017-12-06
end: 2019-04-10
fn: 1
- type: head_of
with: "[[Alejandro Mayorkas]]"
reverse: true
role: "Secretary of Homeland Security"
start: 2021-02-01
end: 2025-01-20
fn: 1
- type: head_of
with: "[[Kristi Noem]]"
reverse: true
role: "Secretary of Homeland Security"
start: 2025-01-25
end: 2026-03-24
fn: 1
- type: head_of
with: "[[Markwayne Mullin]]"
reverse: true
role: "Secretary of Homeland Security"
start: 2026-03-24
fn: 1
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Rinaldo Nazzaro]]"
reverse: true
role: "intelligence analysis, confirmed by a DHS spokesperson"
start: 2004
end: 2006
fn: 5
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Dewey Murdick]]"
reverse: true
role: "chief analytics officer and deputy chief scientist"
fn: 10
- type: partner_of
with: "[[In-Q-Tel]]"
role: "limited partner"
start: 2010
fn: 8
created: 2026-09-24
updated: 2026-09-24
---
The Department of Homeland Security is the [[United States]] cabinet department established by the [[Homeland Security Act of 2002]] (Pub. L. 107-296). Its first Secretary, [[Tom Ridge]], took office on January 24, 2003.[^1][^2] Under the Act and the Department of Homeland Security Reorganization Plan of November 25, 2002, operating agencies were moved into the new department, among them the [[United States Secret Service]], which was transferred from the [[United States Department of the Treasury]] on March 1, 2003.[^3][^4]
### Secretaries
The department's official list of Secretaries gives the following dates of service: Tom Ridge, January 24, 2003, to February 1, 2005; [[Michael Chertoff]], February 15, 2005, to January 21, 2009; [[Janet Napolitano]], January 20, 2009, to September 6, 2013; [[Jeh Johnson|Jeh Charles Johnson]], December 23, 2013, to January 20, 2017; [[John F. Kelly]], January 20, 2017, to July 28, 2017; [[Kirstjen Nielsen|Kirstjen M. Nielsen]], December 6, 2017, to April 10, 2019; [[Alejandro Mayorkas]], February 1, 2021, to January 20, 2025; [[Kristi Noem]], January 25, 2025, to March 24, 2026; and [[Markwayne Mullin]], from March 24, 2026. The list names no Secretary for the period between April 10, 2019, and February 1, 2021.[^1]
### Office of Intelligence and Analysis
The department's intelligence office is codified at 6 U.S.C. § 121, which now reads: "There shall be in the Department an Office of Intelligence and Analysis," headed by an "Under Secretary for Intelligence and Analysis." The section originated in the Homeland Security Act of 2002 as the "Directorate for Information Analysis and Infrastructure Protection." Section 531(a)(1) of the [[Implementing Recommendations of the 9/11 Commission Act of 2007]] (Pub. L. 110-53) added subsections (a) through (c), which created a separate [[Office of Intelligence and Analysis]] and a separate Office of Infrastructure Protection. In 2018, Pub. L. 115-278 struck "and Infrastructure Protection" from the section heading, leaving the Office of Intelligence and Analysis as the only entity codified there.[^2]
The department confirmed, through an unnamed spokesperson, that "[[Rinaldo Nazzaro]] worked at DHS from 2004 to 2006." Nazzaro, later the founder of [[The Base]], posted a letter he attributed to the department that referred to his work in "DHS/Intelligence Analysis." The department would not authenticate the letter, and no job title has been disclosed.[^5] His claimed tenure falls before the 2007 amendment that gave the Office of Intelligence and Analysis its statutory name.[^2] He cited the employment among the credentials of his security firm, [[Omega Solutions International]].[^6] In April 2025 the [[Maryland Coordination and Analysis Center]], a state fusion center affiliated with the department, published an advisory describing Nazzaro as having "for years garnered suspicions of being a Russian intelligence asset."[^7]
### Technology partnerships and clients
[[In-Q-Tel]], the venture fund chartered by the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], lists the Department of Homeland Security as a limited partner from 2010.[^8] An In-Q-Tel spokeswoman named "DHS (specifically [[U.S. Customs and Border Protection|Customs and Border Protection]])" among the fund's clients in 2021.[^9] [[Dewey Murdick]], formerly the department's chief analytics officer and deputy chief scientist and an [[Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity|IARPA]] program manager, joined the founding team of the [[Center for Security and Emerging Technology]] at [[Georgetown University]] in 2019.[^10] The department and [[U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement|ICE]] are among the documented federal clients of the facial recognition company [[Clearview AI]].[^11] The [[Combating Terrorism Center at West Point]] states that it has provided counterterrorism education to the department.[^12]
### Domestic extremism and enforcement
On March 17, 2021, the department, the [[Office of the Director of National Intelligence]] and the [[Department of Justice]] jointly released the unclassified summary "Domestic Violent Extremism Poses Heightened Threat in 2021," which identified white supremacist extremists as the domestic violent extremists with "the most persistent and concerning transnational connections."[^13]
On October 27, 2025, agents of U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement detained the former Chilean intelligence operative [[Armando Fernandez Larios]] in [[Florida]], and in January 2026 the department put him on a published list of the "worst of the worst." He was released on March 19, 2026.[^14]
### Footnotes
[^1]: U.S. Department of Homeland Security, "Secretaries of Homeland Security." https://www.dhs.gov/secretaries-homeland-security
[^2]: 6 U.S.C. § 121, "Office of Intelligence and Analysis," with statutory and amendment notes. Legal Information Institute, Cornell Law School. https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/6/121
[^3]: 18 U.S.C. § 3056, editorial notes on the 2002 amendments. Legal Information Institute, Cornell Law School. https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/3056
[^4]: United States Secret Service, "Timeline of Our History." https://www.secretservice.gov/about/history/timeline
[^5]: Wilson, Jason. "Department of Homeland Security Confirms Neo-Nazi Leader Used to Work For It." *VICE News*, February 2021. https://www.vice.com/en/article/department-of-homeland-security-confirms-neo-nazi-leader-used-to-work-for-it/
[^6]: Wilson, Jason. "Neo-Nazi Terror Leader Said to Have Worked With U.S. Special Forces." *VICE News*, January 2020. https://www.vice.com/en/article/neo-nazi-terror-leader-said-to-have-worked-with-us-special-forces/
[^7]: Maryland Coordination and Analysis Center (MCAC), "US Neo-Nazi Group with Russia-Based Leader Calls for Targeted Ukraine Attacks," April 2025. https://mcac.maryland.gov/2025/04/us-neo-nazi-group-with-russia-based-leader-calls-for-targeted-ukraine-attacks/
[^8]: In-Q-Tel, "Our Milestones." https://www.iqt.org/about/our-milestones
[^9]: Cox, Joseph. "CIA Funding Arm Gave Encrypted App Wickr $1.6 Million," *Vice,* October 12, 2021. https://www.vice.com/en/article/wickr-cia-funding-inqtel/
[^10]: Open Philanthropy, "Georgetown University, Center for Security and Emerging Technology," grant of January 2019, archived January 2, 2025. http://web.archive.org/web/20250102035307/https://www.openphilanthropy.org/grants/georgetown-university-center-for-security-and-emerging-technology/
[^11]: Consumer Watchdog. "Clearview AI" report, December 2023. https://consumerwatchdog.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/Clearview-AI-Cover-Letter-and-Report.pdf
[^12]: Combating Terrorism Center at West Point, "History." https://ctc.westpoint.edu/history/
[^13]: ODNI, DOJ and DHS. "Domestic Violent Extremism Poses Heightened Threat in 2021." Unclassified Summary. March 17, 2021. https://www.dni.gov/files/ODNI/documents/assessments/UnclassSummaryofDVEAssessment-17MAR21.pdf
[^14]: Kornbluh, Peter, and Sebastian Santana. "'Worst of the Worst': ICE and the Case of Chilean Intelligence Operative Armando Fernandez Larios," National Security Archive, July 10, 2026. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/chile/2026-07-10/worst-worst-ice-and-case-chilean-intelligence-operative-armando

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@ -0,0 +1,146 @@
---
category: "U.S. Government"
aliases:
- "Office of the Director of National Intelligence"
- "ODNI"
- "DNI"
- "Office of the DNI"
tags:
- Organization
- USGovernment
- IntelligenceCommunity
- ODNI
- FISA
- UAP
summary: "Post and supporting office created by the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 to head the Intelligence Community, replacing the Director of Central Intelligence in that role."
start: 2005-04-22
location: "Northern Virginia"
relations:
- type: director_of
with: "[[John Negroponte]]"
reverse: true
role: "first Director of National Intelligence"
start: 2005
end: 2007
fn: 3
- type: director_of
with: "[[Mike McConnell]]"
reverse: true
role: "Director of National Intelligence"
start: 2007
end: 2009
fn: 3
- type: director_of
with: "[[Dennis Blair]]"
reverse: true
role: "Director of National Intelligence"
start: 2009
end: 2010
fn: 3
- type: director_of
with: "[[James Clapper]]"
reverse: true
role: "Director of National Intelligence"
start: 2010
end: 2017
fn: 3
- type: director_of
with: "[[Dan Coats]]"
reverse: true
role: "Director of National Intelligence"
start: 2017
end: 2019
fn: 3
- type: director_of
with: "[[John Ratcliffe]]"
reverse: true
role: "Director of National Intelligence"
start: 2020
end: 2021
fn: 3
- type: director_of
with: "[[Avril Haines]]"
reverse: true
role: "Director of National Intelligence"
start: 2021
end: 2025
fn: 3
- type: director_of
with: "[[Tulsi Gabbard]]"
reverse: true
role: "Director of National Intelligence"
start: 2025
fn: 3
- type: director_of
with: "[[Jay Clayton]]"
reverse: true
role: "ninth Director of National Intelligence"
start: 2026-08-03
fn: 9
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Christopher Fonzone]]"
reverse: true
role: "general counsel"
fn: 6
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Luis Elizondo]]"
reverse: true
role: "positions within ODNI, by his own account"
fn: 7
created: 2026-09-24
updated: 2026-09-24
---
The Director of National Intelligence heads the [[United States Intelligence Community]] and directs the Office of the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI). Both were created by the [[Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004]] (Pub. L. 108-458), signed on December 17, 2004. "There is a Director of National Intelligence who shall be appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate"; nominees must have "extensive national security expertise," and the Director "shall not be located within the Executive Office of the President."[^1] The first Director and Principal Deputy Director were sworn in on April 21, 2005, and "the ODNI began operations at 7 a.m. on April 22, 2005."[^2]
### Creation
Before 2005 the [[Director of Central Intelligence]] managed the intelligence agencies while also leading the [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. The [[9/11 Commission]] "recommended replacing the triple-hatted position of DCI." "With the passage of IRTPA, Congress abolished the position of DCI... The Director of the CIA now reports to the DNI."[^3] The Director is responsible for "the oversight and direction of the 18 elements of the intelligence community."[^3]
### Statutory authorities
Under 50 U.S.C. § 3024 the Director directs "the 'allotment or allocation' of congressionally appropriated funds for the NIP to elements of the IC," manages "the tasking, collection, analysis, production, and dissemination of national intelligence," must "ensure the elimination of waste and unnecessary duplication within the intelligence community," sets policies for "sound analytic methods and tradecraft, independent of political considerations," protects intelligence sources and methods from "unauthorized disclosure," and is the "exclusive milestone decision authority" for major intelligence system acquisitions funded through the [[National Intelligence Program]].[^3]
Under [[FISA Section 702|Section 702]] of the [[Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act]], the Attorney General and the Director jointly certify to the [[Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court]] that collection targets non-U.S. persons outside the [[United States]].[^4] Authority to establish [[Special Access Programs]] rests with the Secretary of Defense, the Director and certain other senior officials.[^5]
### Organization
The ODNI (50 U.S.C. § 3025) is staffed by permanent federal employees, contractors and personnel detailed from other agencies under a Chief Operating Officer. The Principal Deputy Director is appointed by the President with Senate confirmation and "shall act for, and exercise the powers of" the Director when the post is vacant (50 U.S.C. § 3026(a)). The Director may appoint up to four deputies; in 2025 there were two, a Deputy for Mission Integration, who oversees the [[National Intelligence Council]] and the [[President's Daily Brief]], and a Deputy for Policy and Capabilities, whose portfolio includes the [[Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity]]. The office also contains the Inspector General of the Intelligence Community, the Office of the General Counsel and the office for Civil Liberties, Privacy and Transparency.[^3]
[[Christopher Fonzone]], later head of the [[Department of Justice]]'s [[Office of Legal Counsel]], was the office's general counsel under President [[Joe Biden]].[^6] [[Luis Elizondo]] wrote that he held positions within the ODNI, as well as the [[Office of the National Counterintelligence Executive]] and the [[Department of Defense]], and managed Special Access Programs.[^7]
### Directors
The Senate-confirmed Directors have been [[John Negroponte]] (2005 to 2007), [[Mike McConnell|J. Michael McConnell]] (2007 to 2009), [[Dennis Blair]] (2009 to 2010), [[James Clapper]] (2010 to 2017), [[Dan Coats|Daniel Coats]] (2017 to 2019), [[John Ratcliffe|John L. Ratcliffe]] (2020 to 2021), [[Avril Haines|Avril D. Haines]] (2021 to 2025) and [[Tulsi Gabbard]] (from 2025).[^3] Clapper had been director of the [[Defense Intelligence Agency]] in the early 1990s, when the agency ran the remote viewing program later known as the [[Stargate Project]].[^8] "[[Jay Clayton]] was sworn in as the ninth Director of National Intelligence on August 3, 2026."[^9]
### Reorganization under Gabbard
On May 14, 2025, CNN reported, Gabbard removed the acting chair of the National Intelligence Council, [[Mike Collins (intelligence officer)|Mike Collins]], and his deputy, [[Maria Langan-Riekhof]], and moved the council's offices from the CIA to the ODNI. An ODNI spokesperson said: "The director is working alongside President Trump to end the weaponization and politicization of the intelligence community."[^10]
"In August 2025, the most recent changes to the ODNI were announced, aimed at streamlining the office and reducing redundancies. They include elimination of three Mission Centers (integrating their core functions with the National Intelligence Council [NIC]), elimination of global health as an ODNI core mission area, closing the [[National Intelligence University]] (NIU), and reducing staff by over 40% by the end of FY2025." The centers eliminated were the National Counterproliferation and Biosecurity Center, the [[Foreign Malign Influence Center]] and the [[Cyber Threat Intelligence Integration Center]]; the [[National Counterterrorism Center]] and the [[National Counterintelligence and Security Center]] remained as the office's only mission centers.[^3]
*[[Politico]]* reported on March 23, 2026, citing six people, that Gabbard was completing a plan to move oversight of [[In-Q-Tel]] from the CIA to her office. Her spokeswoman said "the entire story is false."[^11]
### Publications
On March 17, 2021, the ODNI, the Department of Justice and the [[Department of Homeland Security]] jointly released "Domestic Violent Extremism Poses Heightened Threat in 2021," which identified white supremacist extremists as having "the most persistent and concerning transnational connections."[^12]
On February 14, 2024, the ODNI published "FISA Section 702 Value Vignettes," which described a 2023 [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] investigation in which a query of Section 702 data showed that "a person located inside the U.S. was in regular contact with an unspecified foreign terrorist group, had acquired the means to conduct an attack and had already identified specific targets in the U.S." On June 10, 2024, lawyers for [[Brandon Russell]], charged in the [[2023 Baltimore Power Grid Conspiracy]], moved for notice of Section 702 surveillance, arguing that his was the only open case that matched the vignette.[^13]
According to Luis Elizondo, a provision drafted by the former intelligence official [[Christopher Mellon]] and sponsored by Senator [[Marco Rubio]] directed the Director to produce an unclassified report on unidentified aerial phenomena; it was carried in the committee report accompanying the Intelligence Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2021, and the ODNI issued the "Preliminary Assessment: Unidentified Aerial Phenomena" in June 2021.[^7]
### Footnotes
[^1]: 50 U.S.C. § 3023, "Director of National Intelligence," with historical notes. Legal Information Institute, Cornell Law School. https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/50/3023
[^2]: Office of the Director of National Intelligence, "History." https://www.odni.gov/index.php/who-we-are/history
[^3]: DeVine, Michael E. "The Director of National Intelligence (DNI)." Congressional Research Service, In Focus IF10470, updated September 25, 2025. https://www.congress.gov/crs_external_products/IF/PDF/IF10470/IF10470.19.pdf
[^4]: 50 U.S.C. § 1881a, "Procedures for targeting certain persons outside the United States other than United States persons."
[^5]: U.S. House of Representatives. *Hearing on Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena: Implications on National Security, Public Safety, and Government Transparency.* Subcommittee on National Security, the Border, and Foreign Affairs, July 26, 2023.
[^6]: Anthropic, "Introducing the Anthropic National Security and Public Sector Advisory Council," August 27, 2025. https://www.anthropic.com/news/introducing-the-anthropic-national-security-and-public-sector-advisory-council
[^7]: Elizondo, Luis. *Imminent*. William Morrow, 2024.
[^8]: Schnabel, Jim. *Remote Viewers*. Dell, 1997.
[^9]: Office of the Director of National Intelligence, "Leadership." https://www.odni.gov/index.php/who-we-are/leadership
[^10]: CNN, report on the removal of the National Intelligence Council's leadership, May 14, 2025. https://www.cnn.com/2025/05/14/politics/gabbard-fires-senior-intelligence-officials
[^11]: Sakellariadis, John. "Gabbard plans to shift coveted, CIA-backed high-tech fund to her office," *Politico,* March 23, 2026.
[^12]: ODNI, DOJ and DHS. "Domestic Violent Extremism Poses Heightened Threat in 2021." Unclassified Summary. March 17, 2021. https://www.dni.gov/files/ODNI/documents/assessments/UnclassSummaryofDVEAssessment-17MAR21.pdf
[^13]: ODNI, "FISA Section 702 Value Vignettes," February 14, 2024. https://www.intelligence.gov/assets/documents/702-documents/FISA_Section_702_Vignettes-20240214_Final.pdf ; *Baltimore Sun,* "Prosecutors will say in secret whether they used controversial spying tool against neo-Nazi accused in Baltimore power grid plot," June 27, 2024. https://www.baltimoresun.com/2024/06/27/prosecutors-will-say-in-secret-whether-they-used-controversial-spying-tool-against-neo-nazi-accused-in-baltimore-power-grid-plot/

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---
category: "U.S. Government"
aliases:
- "FEC"
- "U.S. Federal Election Commission"
tags:
- Organization
- USGovernment
- CampaignFinance
- Elections
- RegulatoryAgency
summary: "Six-member independent federal commission created by the 1974 amendments to the Federal Election Campaign Act to administer and enforce federal campaign finance law; it opened in 1975."
start: 1975
location: "Washington, D.C."
relations:
- type: investigated
with: "[[National Congressional Club]]"
role: "civil enforcement suit, FEC v. National Congressional Club; consent order and 10,000 dollar penalty"
start: 1985-02-07
end: 1986-05-15
fn: 4
- type: investigated
with: "[[Carter Wrenn]]"
role: "defendant as treasurer of the National Congressional Club; consent order"
start: 1985-02-07
end: 1986-05-15
fn: 4
- type: investigated
with: "[[Jefferson Marketing]]"
role: "defendant; consent order"
start: 1985-02-07
end: 1986-05-15
fn: 4
- type: investigated
with: "[[Thomas F. Ellis]]"
role: "consent order required his resignation as a director of the Educational Support Foundation"
start: 1985-02-07
end: 1986-05-15
fn: 4
created: 2026-09-24
updated: 2026-09-24
---
The Federal Election Commission is the independent agency that administers and enforces federal campaign finance law in the [[United States]]. It was established by "section 309 of the [[Federal Election Campaign Act|Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971]], as amended (52 U.S.C. 30106)," through amendments enacted in 1974 after "reports of serious financial abuses in the 1972 presidential campaign." "The FEC opened its doors in 1975."[^1]
### Composition and voting rules
52 U.S.C. § 30106 provides: "There is established a commission to be known as the Federal Election Commission." The commission is composed "of the Secretary of the Senate and the Clerk of the House of Representatives or their designees, ex officio," who do not vote, "and 6 members appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate." "No more than 3 members of the Commission appointed under this paragraph may be affiliated with the same political party," and "Members of the Commission shall serve for a single term of 6 years." For enforcement actions, rulemaking, advisory opinions and the other enumerated matters, "the affirmative vote of 4 members of the Commission shall be required in order for the Commission to take any action." The commissioners appoint three statutory officers: a staff director, a general counsel and an inspector general.[^2]
On April 30, 2025, CNN reported that the departure of Commissioner [[Allen Dickerson]] at the end of his term left the commission with three of six seats filled, below the four votes required to act, and described it as "the fourth time in the FEC's history" the agency had lost its quorum and "the third loss of a quorum under a Trump presidency." Commissioner [[Sean Cooksey]] had resigned on January 20, 2025, to become counsel to Vice President [[JD Vance]]. Commissioner [[Ellen Weintraub]] stated on February 6, 2025, that President [[Donald Trump]] had sent her a letter on January 31 "purporting to remove me," and disputed its legality.[^3]
### Enforcement
On February 7, 1985, the commission sued the [[National Congressional Club]], its treasurer [[Carter Wrenn|R. E. Carter Wrenn]] and [[Jefferson Marketing|Jefferson Marketing, Inc.]] in the United States District Court for the [[Eastern District of North Carolina]]. The commission alleged that "Wrenn, [[Thomas F. Ellis|Ellis]] and other NCC officials exercised control of Jefferson Marketing," with Wrenn exercising "domination and control over the day-to-day operations of Jefferson Marketing," so that the club and the company operated as a single entity for reporting purposes. Under a consent order of May 15, 1986, the club and Wrenn were found to have violated the reporting provisions (section 434) by failing to disclose Jefferson Marketing's financial activity; the claim that the company had underpriced its services to candidates (section 441b) was not contested. The order imposed a "$10,000 civil penalty to the U.S. Treasury," required Ellis and Wrenn to resign as directors of the [[Educational Support Foundation]], Jefferson Marketing's shareholder, and required the club to amend its reports to disclose Jefferson Marketing's financial activity "from December 1978 to the present."[^4]
In June 2022 the [[Campaign Legal Center]] filed a complaint alleging that the super PAC [[Protect Ohio Values]] had illegally coordinated with the Senate campaign of JD Vance. The commission dismissed the complaint in 2024.[^5] The *[[Arizona Mirror]]* reported that the commission had raised questions about how the [[Saving Arizona PAC]], which backed [[Blake Masters]], was disclosing its spending.[^6]
### Litigation
In *[[FEC v. Ted Cruz for Senate]]*, decided May 16, 2022, "the United States Supreme Court affirmed the District Court's judgment," holding that "Section 304 of the [[Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act]]... is unconstitutional." The suit concerned [[Ted Cruz]]'s 2018 Senate campaign.[^7]
### Disclosure records
The commission maintains a public database of committee registrations and of itemized receipts and disbursements. [[Real Justice PAC]] registered on February 7, 2017, as committee C00632554, a hybrid PAC with a non-contribution account.[^8] Its 2019 year-end report records a 750,000 dollar receipt from the [[Open Philanthropy Action Fund]], the only itemized receipt from that fund in the commission's records.[^9] The super PAC [[Leading the Future]] registered on August 15, 2025, as C00916114,[^10] and the political action committee of [[Americans for Responsible Innovation]] registered on December 11, 2024, as C00893883.[^11] The commission's records show that Cruz's 2016 presidential campaign paid [[Cambridge Analytica]] more than 5.8 million dollars during that cycle.[^12]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Federal Election Commission, "Mission and History." https://www.fec.gov/about/mission-and-history/
[^2]: 52 U.S.C. § 30106, "Federal Election Commission." Office of the Law Revision Counsel, U.S. House of Representatives. https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid%3AUSC-prelim-title52-section30106&num=0&edition=prelim
[^3]: CNN, report on the Federal Election Commission's loss of quorum, April 30, 2025. https://www.cnn.com/2025/04/30/politics/federal-election-commissions-resignations-quorum
[^4]: Federal Election Commission, "FEC v. National Congressional Club," court case summary, citing the FEC *Record,* July 1986. https://www.fec.gov/legal-resources/court-cases/fec-v-national-congressional-club
[^5]: Campaign Legal Center. FEC complaint against JD Vance for Senate and Protect Ohio Values PAC, June 2022. https://campaignlegal.org/sites/default/files/2022-06/Vance%2520POV%2520Complaint%2520%2528Final%2529.pdf ; "FEC Lets Peter Thiel-Funded Super PAC Off the Hook." *Business Insider,* May 2024. https://www.businessinsider.com/peter-thiel-super-pac-jd-vance-ohio-fec-ruling-2024-5
[^6]: "The FEC has questions about how a PAC backing Blake Masters is disclosing its spending." *Arizona Mirror.* https://azmirror.com/briefs/the-fec-has-questions-about-how-a-pac-backing-blake-masters-is-disclosing-its-spending/
[^7]: Federal Election Commission, "Ted Cruz for Senate, et al. v. FEC," court case summary. https://www.fec.gov/legal-resources/court-cases/ted-cruz-for-senate-et-al-v-fec
[^8]: Federal Election Commission, committee C00632554, "Real Justice PAC," Form 1 statement of organization first filed February 7, 2017, and committee record, retrieved September 23, 2026. https://www.fec.gov/data/committee/C00632554/
[^9]: Federal Election Commission, Schedule A receipt from "Open Philanthropy Action Fund," 750,000 dollars, October 29, 2019, reported by Real Justice PAC (C00632554) on its 2019 year-end Form 3X, filed July 7, 2020, image 202007029244274196, retrieved September 23, 2026. http://docquery.fec.gov/cgi-bin/fecimg/?202007029244274196
[^10]: Federal Election Commission, committee C00916114, "Leading the Future," statement of organization and itemized receipts (Schedule A), retrieved September 23, 2026. https://www.fec.gov/data/committee/C00916114/
[^11]: Federal Election Commission, committee C00893883, "Americans for Responsible Innovation Ltd. Political Action Committee," registration and financial totals through the report of July 15, 2026. https://www.fec.gov/data/committee/C00893883/
[^12]: "Before Trump, Cambridge Analytica was on team Cruz." *OpenSecrets,* March 2018. https://www.opensecrets.org/news/2018/03/before-trump-cambridge-analytica-was-on-team-cruz

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---
category: "Law Enforcement & Legal"
tags:
- Organization
- Government
- Judiciary
- FISA
- FISACourt
- Surveillance
- NationalSecurity
alias:
- "FISC"
- "FISA Court"
- "FISA court"
summary: "Court of federal district judges designated by the Chief Justice under the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978 to hear government applications for foreign intelligence surveillance orders."
start: 1978-10-25
location: "Washington, D.C."
created: 2026-09-24
updated: 2026-09-24
relations:
- type: member_of
with: "[[Royce Lamberth]]"
reverse: true
role: "judge; presiding judge"
start: 1995
end: 2002
fn: 3
---
The Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court was created by section 103 of the [[Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act]] of 1978. The statute directed the [[Chief Justice of the United States]] to "publicly designate seven district court judges from seven of the United States judicial circuits who shall constitute a court which shall have jurisdiction to hear applications for and grant orders approving electronic surveillance anywhere within the United States under the procedures set forth in this Act."[^1]
### Composition
Each judge was to serve "for a maximum of seven years" and was not "eligible for redesignation." The first terms were staggered so that one of the seven expired each year. A judge who denied an application was to set out a "written statement of each reason for his decision," to be sealed and sent to the court of review, and no other judge of the court could hear an application once denied.[^1]
The same section created a court of review: "The Chief Justice shall publicly designate three judges, one of whom shall be publicly designated as the presiding judge, from the United States district courts or courts of appeals who together shall comprise a court of review which shall have jurisdiction to review the denial of any application." A government appeal from the court of review went "under seal to the [[Supreme Court]]." The court's records were to be kept under security measures set by the Chief Justice "in consultation with the Attorney General and the [[Director of Central Intelligence]]."[^1]
The [[USA PATRIOT Act]] (Public Law 107-56) of 2001 substituted "11 district court judges" for "seven district court judges" and added that "no fewer than 3 shall reside within 20 miles of the District of Columbia." The [[Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act]] of 2004 (Public Law 108-458) put the [[Director of National Intelligence]] in place of the Director of Central Intelligence in the record-keeping provision. The [[FISA Amendments Act of 2008]] (Public Law 110-261) restructured subsection (a) and added an en banc procedure; the [[USA FREEDOM Act]] of 2015 (Public Law 114-23) added subsections (i) through (k) on amicus curiae; and the [[Reforming Intelligence and Securing America Act]] of 2024 (Public Law 118-49) added a transcription requirement.[^2]
### Judges
[[Frederick Lacey|Frederick Bernard Lacey]] served as a judge of the court from 1979 to 1985. [[Royce Lamberth|Royce C. Lamberth]] served from 1995 to 2002 and was presiding judge for the whole of that period.[^3] Lacey, a district judge in [[New Jersey]], was appointed special counsel by Attorney General [[William Barr]] on October 16, 1992, to review the [[BNL Scandal|Banca Nazionale del Lavoro]] affair.[^4][^5] Lamberth was a judge of the [[United States District Court for the District of Columbia]], appointed by [[Ronald Reagan]] in 1987.[^6]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978, Pub. L. 95-511, sec. 103, 92 Stat. 1783, 1788, October 25, 1978. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-92/pdf/STATUTE-92-Pg1783.pdf
[^2]: 50 U.S.C. 1803, with statutory notes on amendments, Office of the Law Revision Counsel, U.S. House of Representatives. https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=(title:50%20section:1803%20edition:prelim)
[^3]: Federal Judicial Center. "Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court: Judges." https://www.fjc.gov/history/courts/foreign-intelligence-surveillance-court-judges
[^4]: Federal Judicial Center, "Lacey, Frederick Bernard," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/lacey-frederick-bernard
[^5]: Lacey, Frederick B. "The Banca Nazionale del Lavoro Investigation: Report of the Independent Counsel," reproduced in House Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs, Serial No. 103-95, 1993, pp. 514-15. https://archive.org/details/testimonyofforme1994unit
[^6]: Federal Judicial Center, "Lamberth, Royce C.," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/lamberth-royce-c

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---
category: "U.S. Government"
aliases:
- "HSI"
- "ICE Homeland Security Investigations"
tags:
- Organization
- USGovernment
- LawEnforcement
- HomelandSecurity
- ChildExploitation
- FederalCase
summary: "Investigative directorate of U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement, formed in 2010, which works through regional field offices and led the 2025 CVLT child exploitation prosecution."
start: 2010-06
location: "Washington, D.C."
relations:
- type: reported_to
with: "[[U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement]]"
role: "directorate"
start: 2010-06
fn: 1
- type: investigated
with: "[[CVLT]]"
role: "HSI Los Angeles, Cherry Hill and Honolulu"
start: 2025
fn: 3
- type: investigated
with: "[[Collin Walker]]"
role: "arrested by HSI Cherry Hill"
start: 2025-02
fn: 3
- type: investigated
with: "[[Clint Borge]]"
role: "arrested by HSI Honolulu"
start: 2025-02
fn: 4
- type: investigated
with: "[[R. Seth Williams]]"
role: "with the FBI and IRS Criminal Investigation"
start: 2017
fn: 6
created: 2026-09-24
updated: 2026-09-24
---
Homeland Security Investigations is the investigative directorate of [[U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement]] (ICE), a component of the [[Department of Homeland Security]]. ICE describes it as "the principal investigative component of DHS," responsible for "investigating, disrupting, and dismantling transnational criminal organizations (TCOs) and terrorist networks that threaten or seek to exploit the customs and immigration laws of the [[United States]]."[^1]
### Formation
According to ICE, the directorate's lineage runs to 1789, when Congress established the [[U.S. Customs|United States Customs Service]], and its investigative elements descend from "the investigative functions of the former United States Customs Service and the former [[Immigration and Naturalization Service]]," which were merged into ICE when it began operations on March 1, 2003, under the [[Homeland Security Act of 2002]]. ICE states that in June 2010 it "underwent a structural realignment," set out in a memorandum of June 9, 2010, from [[John Morton]], then the Assistant Secretary in charge of ICE, which combined its Offices of Investigations, Intelligence and International Affairs into a directorate "known as Homeland Security Investigations, or HSI." The reorganization was internal and not made by statute.[^1]
ICE gives the directorate's size as "more than 8,700 employees, including special agents, criminal analysts, mission support personnel and contract staff," assigned to more than 237 offices in the United States and more than 93 abroad.[^1] In testimony in September 2024, HSI's [[Katrina W. Berger]] gave its fiscal 2023 output as "approximately 29,500 criminal investigations producing more than 33,000 criminal arrests, 16,500 indictments, and 11,250 convictions."[^2]
### CVLT prosecution
HSI [[Los Angeles]], HSI Cherry Hill in [[New Jersey]] and HSI Honolulu conducted the federal investigation of [[CVLT]], an online network charged with operating a child exploitation enterprise, with the [[Los Angeles Police Department]], the [[San Bernardino County Sheriff's Office]], the [[Henry County Sheriff's Office]] in Virginia, the [[Iowa State University Police Department]] and the French [[Police Nationale]].[^3] A federal grand jury in the [[Central District of California]] returned the indictment in [[United States v. Rane et al. (2-25-cr-00040)|United States v. Rane et al.]] on January 17, 2025. When it was unsealed in early February 2025, HSI Cherry Hill arrested [[Collin Walker]] in New Jersey, and HSI Honolulu arrested [[Clint Borge]] in [[Pahoa, Hawaii|Pahoa]]; a federal magistrate in Los Angeles denied Borge bail on February 6, 2025.[^3][^4] HSI had identified three of the four core leaders before Borge's identity was established through the inquiry of Iowa State University police officer [[Kami Feld]].[^5]
### Other investigations and data systems
In March 2017 HSI, the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]]'s Philadelphia Division and [[Internal Revenue Service|IRS]] Criminal Investigation were the investigating agencies in the bribery and extortion indictment of Philadelphia District Attorney [[R. Seth Williams|Rufus Seth Williams]], brought by the [[United States Attorney for the District of New Jersey|United States Attorney's Office for the District of New Jersey]].[^6]
ICE's [[FALCON]] analytical platform, built by [[Palantir Technologies]] and in use from 2013, integrates data from federal and state sources, including HSI and state motor vehicle records. In 2014 ICE awarded Palantir the [[Investigative Case Management]] contract, worth more than 41 million dollars, which the [[Electronic Privacy Information Center]] documented through [[Freedom of Information Act|FOIA]] litigation.[^7]
### Footnotes
[^1]: U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement, "Who We Are," Homeland Security Investigations, and "History." https://www.ice.gov/hsi/who-we-are ; https://www.ice.gov/history
[^2]: Statement of Katrina W. Berger, Homeland Security Investigations, September 18, 2024. https://www.ice.gov/doclib/news/library/speeches/240918berger.pdf
[^3]: HSI. "HSI Los Angeles, Cherry Hill, and Honolulu special agents arrest members of online neo-Nazi group on child exploitation enterprise charges." ICE.gov, February 2025. https://www.ice.gov/news/releases/hsi-los-angeles-cherry-hill-and-honolulu-special-agents-arrest-members-online-neo ; U.S. Department of Justice, OPA. "Four Members of Online Neo-Nazi Group that Exploited Minors Charged with Producing Child Sexual Abuse Material." February 2025. https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/four-members-online-neo-nazi-group-exploited-minors-charged-producing-child-sexual-abuse
[^4]: Hawaii Tribune-Herald. "Judge: No bail for alleged CVLT member from Pahoa." February 6, 2025. https://www.hawaiitribune-herald.com/2025/02/06/hawaii-news/judge-no-bail-for-alleged-cvlt-member-from-pahoa/
[^5]: Iowa State Daily. "How ISUPD uncovered a Neo-Nazi sexual predator ring." 2025. https://iowastatedaily.com/335620/news/how-the-isupd-uncovered-a-neo-nazi-sexual-predator-ring/ ; Iowa State University News Service. "A call for help leads ISU Police to sexual predator, international investigation." February 12, 2025. https://www.news.iastate.edu/news/2025/02/12/isu-police-exploitation
[^6]: United States Attorney's Office, District of New Jersey, "Philadelphia District Attorney Rufus Seth Williams Indicted On Bribery And Extortion Charges," press release, March 21, 2017, archived. http://web.archive.org/web/20260524023339/https://www.justice.gov/usao-nj/pr/philadelphia-district-attorney-rufus-seth-williams-indicted-bribery-and-extortion-charges
[^7]: EPIC v. ICE FOIA litigation, https://epic.org/documents/epic-v-ice-palantir-databases/ ; ICE contract HSCETC-15-C-00001, https://www.ice.gov/doclib/foia/contracts/palantirTechHSCETC15C00001.pdf

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---
category: "U.S. Government"
tags:
- Organization
- IntelligenceCommunity
- ODNI
- IARPA
- Forecasting
- ArtificialIntelligence
- QuantumComputing
alias:
- IARPA
summary: "Research agency of the Office of the Director of National Intelligence, launched October 1, 2007, from NSA, NGA and CIA technology offices, whose ACE forecasting tournament produced the Good Judgment superforecasters."
start: 2007-10-01
location: "Office of the Director of National Intelligence"
relations:
- type: reported_to
with: "[[Director of National Intelligence]]"
start: 2007
fn: 1
- type: head_of
with: "[[Steven Nixon]]"
reverse: true
role: "first acting director"
start: 2007-06-01
end: 2007-10-01
fn: 1
- type: head_of
with: "[[Tim Murphy]]"
reverse: true
role: "second acting director"
start: 2007-10-01
end: 2008-02-01
fn: 1
- type: head_of
with: "[[Lisa Porter]]"
reverse: true
role: "first director"
start: 2008-02-01
end: 2012-07-01
fn: 1
- type: head_of
with: "[[Peter Highnam]]"
reverse: true
role: "second director"
start: 2012-08-30
end: 2015-07-15
fn: 1
- type: head_of
with: "[[Stacey Dixon]]"
reverse: true
role: "fourth director"
start: 2018-09-05
end: 2019-06-01
fn: 1
- type: head_of
with: "[[Catherine Cotell]]"
reverse: true
role: "third acting director"
start: 2019-07-01
end: 2019-11-19
fn: 1
- type: head_of
with: "[[Catherine Marsh]]"
reverse: true
role: "fifth director"
start: 2019-11-19
end: 2024-05
fn: 1
- type: head_of
with: "[[Rick Muller]]"
reverse: true
role: "sixth director"
start: 2024-04-17
end: 2025-07
fn: 1
- type: head_of
with: "[[Russell Miller]]"
reverse: true
role: "seventh director"
start: 2025-12
fn: 1
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Adam Russell]]"
reverse: true
role: "program manager"
fn: 4
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Dewey Murdick]]"
reverse: true
role: "program manager"
fn: 5
created: 2026-09-24
updated: 2026-09-24
---
The Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity (IARPA) is the research agency of the [[Director of National Intelligence|Office of the Director of National Intelligence]] (ODNI). The Director of National Intelligence authorized it in 2006, modeled on [[DARPA]] "but focused on national intelligence rather than military needs," as a consolidation of the [[NSA|National Security Agency]]'s [[Disruptive Technology Office]], the [[National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency]]'s [[National Technology Alliance]] and the [[Central Intelligence Agency]]'s [[Intelligence Technology Innovation Center]]. "In 2007, IARPA was stood-up in the aftermath of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, as part of the 100-day plan establishing the Office of the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI)," and it was officially launched on October 1, 2007. It does not deploy technology to the field; it transitions the results of its research programs "to our IC customers for operational implementation."[^1] Within ODNI it falls under the Deputy Director for Policy and Capabilities.[^2]
### Directors
[[Steven Nixon]] was appointed first acting director on June 1, 2007, and served until the launch on October 1, 2007, when [[Tim Murphy]] became second acting director. [[Lisa Porter]], later deputy under secretary of defense for research and engineering and co-founder of the consulting firm LogiQ, was the first director, from February 1, 2008, to July 1, 2012. [[Peter Highnam]], formerly director of research at the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, followed from August 30, 2012, to July 15, 2015. [[Jason Matheny]], "a former PM," was director from August 3, 2015, to September 5, 2018, and later President [[Joe Biden]]'s senior advisor on technology and national security and president of the [[RAND Corporation]]. [[Stacey Dixon]], previously deputy director of the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, served from September 5, 2018, to June 1, 2019, and was confirmed in 2021 as Principal Deputy Director of National Intelligence. The deputy director for research, [[Catherine Cotell]], was third acting director from July 1 to November 19, 2019, and [[Catherine Marsh]], a power-sources specialist, was director from November 19, 2019, to May 2024. [[Rick Muller]] of [[Sandia National Laboratories]] was appointed on April 17, 2024, and served until July 2025; [[Russell Miller]] was appointed seventh director in December 2025.[^1]
### Program managers
"Since all IARPA PMs serve on a term-limited appointment, we have a constant influx of new PMs," the agency states, with more than 100 program managers and about 90 research programs since its founding. Former staff it names include [[Jill Crisman]], later principal director for AI in the office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Research and Engineering; [[Jinendra Ranka]], who became director of DARPA's Defense Sciences Office in February 2022; and [[Chris Reed]], later chief innovation officer at [[Raytheon]] Applied Signal Technology.[^1]
[[Jeff Alstott]] was an IARPA program manager with a portfolio covering artificial intelligence, analytic methods, biosecurity, and science and technology forecasting, before posts at the [[National Science Foundation]], the [[National Security Council]] and the [[Office of Science and Technology Policy]] and at RAND.[^3] [[Adam Russell]], a program manager at DARPA and IARPA who helped establish [[ARPA-H]], was named chief vision officer of the [[U.S. AI Safety Institute]] on April 16, 2024.[^4] [[Dewey Murdick]], an IARPA program manager and chief analytics officer and deputy chief scientist of the [[Department of Homeland Security]], was on the founding team of the [[Center for Security and Emerging Technology]] (CSET) at [[Georgetown University]], which [[Open Philanthropy]] launched in January 2019 with a 55 million dollar grant recommendation; the grant page described its leader, Matheny, as "former director of the Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity."[^5]
### Forecasting
The Aggregative Contingent Estimation (ACE) program, solicited under broad agency announcement IARPA-BAA-10-05, sought "to dramatically enhance the accuracy, precision, and timeliness of intelligence forecasts for a broad range of event types, through the development of advanced techniques that elicit, weight, and combine the judgments of many intelligence analysts." Its prime performers were [[Applied Research Associates]], the [[Charles Stark Draper Laboratory]], [[George Mason University]], Jacobs Strategic Solutions Group and the [[University of California, Berkeley]].[^6] Run from April 23, 2011, to December 31, 2017, ACE "initiated a massive competition to identify cutting-edge methods to forecast geopolitical events," with millions of forecasts over four years. "The clear winner from this effort was Team Good Judgment, which went on to build the forecasting business, Good Judgment," the [[Good Judgment Project]], and its principal investigator, [[Philip Tetlock]], wrote *Superforecasting* on the basis of it. IARPA credits ACE with contributing "to the launch of an entire Superforecasting industry" and with the spin-off programs Open Source Indicators (OSI), CREATE and HFC; "the IC prediction market preceded ACE." A team in OSI, introduced in 2011, was the first to notify U.S. public health officials of the 2014 to 2016 Ebola outbreak in West Africa.[^1]
### Other programs
IARPA's first program, Coherent Superconducting Qubits, ran from September 2009 to October 2014; *[[Science]]* named research of its Multi-Qubit Coherent Operations program the "Breakthrough of the Year" for 2010, and later quantum programs include Entangled Logical Qubits and LogiQ. Babel (2011 to about 2017) built speech recognition for underserved languages such as Pashto, Tamil and Igbo and produced the open-source Kaldi toolkit. High Frequency Geolocation (HFGeo), begun in 2011, improved the geolocation of high-frequency emitters, and its "classified sister program," Signal Location in Complex Environments (SLICE), launched the same year. IARPA joined the [[White House]] [[BRAIN Initiative]] announced in April 2013, was named in July 2015 to lead foundational research for the National Strategic Computing Initiative, and contributed its Machine Intelligence from Cortical Networks (MICrONS) program, which sought to reverse-engineer "the brain's algorithms," to the Nanotechnology-Inspired Grand Challenge for Future Computing of October 2015. Its artificial intelligence programs include Trojans in Artificial Intelligence (TrojAI) and Microelectronics for AI (MicroE4AI). On August 1, 2026, it launched a Solutions Marketplace.[^1]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity, "History," iarpa.gov, archived September 20, 2026. http://web.archive.org/web/20260920105040/https://www.iarpa.gov/who-we-are/history
[^2]: DeVine, Michael E. "The Director of National Intelligence (DNI)." Congressional Research Service, In Focus IF10470, updated September 25, 2025. https://www.congress.gov/crs_external_products/IF/PDF/IF10470/IF10470.19.pdf
[^3]: RAND Corporation, "Jeff Alstott," staff profile and publications list, archived September 17, 2026. http://web.archive.org/web/20260917062102/https://www.rand.org/about/people/a/alstott_jeffrey.html
[^4]: National Institute of Standards and Technology, "U.S. Commerce Secretary Gina Raimondo Announces Expansion of U.S. AI Safety Institute Leadership Team," April 16, 2024. https://www.nist.gov/news-events/news/2024/04/us-commerce-secretary-gina-raimondo-announces-expansion-us-ai-safety
[^5]: Open Philanthropy, "Georgetown University, Center for Security and Emerging Technology," grant of January 2019, archived January 2, 2025. http://web.archive.org/web/20250102035307/https://www.openphilanthropy.org/grants/georgetown-university-center-for-security-and-emerging-technology/
[^6]: Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity, "Aggregative Contingent Estimation (ACE)," program page, iarpa.gov, archived September 20, 2026. http://web.archive.org/web/20260920105028/https://www.iarpa.gov/research-programs/ace

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---
category: "U.S. Government"
tags:
- Organization
- Intelligence
- NRO
- Satellites
- Reconnaissance
- USGovernment
alias:
- NRO
summary: "Joint Defense Department and CIA agency for reconnaissance satellites, founded by memorandum in September 1961, whose existence stayed classified until 1992 and whose director resigned over 3.7 billion dollars in unspent funds."
start: 1961-09-06
location: "Chantilly, Virginia"
created: 2026-09-24
updated: 2026-09-24
relations:
- type: member_of
with: "[[Department of Defense]]"
start: 1963-03-13
role: "separate operating agency"
fn: 1
- type: partner_of
with: "[[Central Intelligence Agency]]"
start: 1961-09-06
fn: 1
- type: head_of
with: "[[Richard Bissell]]"
reverse: true
start: 1961-09
end: 1962-04
role: "co-director with Joseph V. Charyk"
fn: 1
- type: head_of
with: "[[Hans M. Mark]]"
reverse: true
start: 1977-08
end: 1979-10
role: "Director"
fn: 1
- type: employed_by
with: "[[David Grusch]]"
reverse: true
role: "NRO representative on the UAP Task Force"
fn: 6
- type: partner_of
with: "[[In-Q-Tel]]"
start: 2009
fn: 5
---
The National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) builds and operates the reconnaissance satellites of the [[United States]]. It was created without a statute: "acting CIA Director, Gen Charles Cabell established the National Reconnaissance Office by concurring with Deputy Secretary of Defense, Roswell Gilpatric's 6 September 1961 memorandum." [[Richard Bissell]] of the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] and [[Joseph V. Charyk]] of the [[United States Air Force|Air Force]] were its first co-directors.[^1]
### Agreements Between the Pentagon and the CIA
The office's authority was set by a sequence of agreements between the [[Department of Defense]] and the CIA. The second, of May 2, 1962, gave it a single director appointed by the Secretary of Defense with the concurrence of the [[Director of Central Intelligence]]. The third, of March 13, 1963, made it "a separate operating agency with the Defense Department," with a deputy director appointed by the DCI. A fourth, of August 11, 1965, signed by DCI [[William Raborn]] and Deputy Secretary of Defense [[Cyrus Vance]], removed the requirement for the DCI's concurrence in the choice of director.[^1]
On July 23, 1962, Charyk organized the satellite and aircraft work into lettered programs: Program A for Air Force satellites, Program B for CIA satellites, Program C for [[United States Navy|Navy]] satellites, and Program D for Air Force and CIA reconnaissance aircraft. Its programs included [[Corona (satellite)|Corona]], whose first imagery, of a Soviet bomber base at Mys Shmidta in Siberia, was taken on August 18, 1960; Grab, the first signals intelligence satellite, launched on June 22, 1960; and the [[U-2 Spy Plane|U-2]].[^1]
On December 22, 1978, [[William Kampiles]], a former CIA employee, was sentenced to 40 years for stealing a manual for the [[KH-11]] satellite and selling it to Soviet officials in [[Athens]] for 3,000 dollars.[^1] The office's support to arms control verification under [[START I|START-1]] and to domestic disaster relief, including after [[Hurricane Katrina]] in 2005, ran through the [[Civil Applications Committee]], chartered by President [[Gerald Ford]] in October 1975.[^1]
### Directors
The office's own history lists its directors as follows:[^1]
- Richard M. Bissell Jr. and Joseph V. Charyk, co-directors, September 1961 to April 1962
- Joseph V. Charyk, April 1962 to March 1963
- [[Brockway McMillan]], March 1963 to October 1965
- [[Alexander H. Flax]], October 1965 to March 1969
- [[John L. McLucas]], March 1969 to December 1973
- [[James W. Plummer]], December 1973 to June 1976
- [[Charles W. Cook]] (acting), June 1976 to August 1976
- [[Thomas C. Reed]], August 1976 to April 1977
- Charles W. Cook (acting), April 1977 to August 1977
- [[Hans M. Mark]], August 1977 to October 1979
- [[Robert J. Hermann]], October 1979 to August 1981
- [[Edward C. Aldridge Jr.]], August 1981 to December 1988
- [[Jimmie D. Hill]] (acting), December 1988 to September 1989
- [[Martin C. Faga]], September 1989 to March 1993
- Jimmie D. Hill (acting), March 1993 to May 1994
- [[Jeffrey K. Harris]], May 1994 to February 1996
- [[Keith R. Hall]], February 1996 to December 2001
- [[Peter B. Teets]], December 2001 to March 2005
- [[Dennis Fitzgerald]] (acting), March 2005 to July 2005
- [[Donald M. Kerr]], July 2005 to October 2007
- [[Scott F. Large]], October 2007 to April 2009
- [[Bruce A. Carlson]], from April 2009
Hans Mark, son of the chemist [[Herman F. Mark]], was also Secretary of the Air Force in the administration of [[Jimmy Carter]].[^2]
### Declassification and Reorganization
A commission chaired by Robert Fuhrman, formerly chief executive of [[Lockheed Aircraft Company|Lockheed]], led to the replacement of the lettered programs with three functional directorates, for signals intelligence systems, imagery systems, and communications, under [[National Security Directive 67]], signed by President [[George H.W. Bush]] on March 30, 1992, and effective December 31, 1992. A fourth directorate, Advanced Systems and Technology, was added in March 1997. The [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]] then "informed the Intelligence Community that it wanted to declassify the existence of the NRO unless the President could certify that it would cause 'serious damage' to the nation." The existence of the office was declassified on September 18, 1992.[^1]
### The Westfields Headquarters
On August 8, 1994, the chairman and vice chairman of the Senate committee, [[Dennis DeConcini]] and [[John Warner]], released a letter saying they were "shocked and dismayed to learn that the cost of the new NRO headquarters at Westfields may reach $350 million by completion, nearly double the amount most recently briefed to the committee." Warner said: "I was absolutely astonished at the magnitude and proportions of this structure." The chairman of the [[House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence|House intelligence committee]], [[Larry Combest]], answered that "charges of CIA or NRO deception are absolutely erroneous." A joint Defense Department and CIA review "found no intent by NRO officials to mislead Congress," and found that "the NRO failed to follow Intelligence Community budgeting guidelines" by carrying the building's funds in its base operating budget.[^3]
### Forward Funding
In September 1995 Senator [[Arlen Specter]], then chairman of the Senate committee, said the office had failed to eliminate excessive forward funding. "An initial survey that summer estimated that carryover funds across the entire NRO totaled $1.7 billion. After further review, this estimate rose to $3.7 billion." Senator [[Richard Bryan]] called it "rampant mismanagement." DCI [[John Deutch]] said he had not known of the surplus, as did the [[White House]] chief of staff, [[Leon Panetta]]. "Secretary of Defense [[William Perry]] and Director of Central Intelligence John Deutch directed Director Harris and Deputy Director Hill to resign." Congress recovered the money and applied it to operations in the Balkans, the [[B-2 Spirit|B-2 bomber]], and other defense projects.[^4]
### The Future Imagery Architecture
[[Boeing]] won the Future Imagery Architecture satellite contract over [[Lockheed Martin]] on September 3, 1999. The program ran into "technical problems, leading to a major spacecraft redesign, resulting in delays and overruns." In May 2003 a joint task force of the [[Defense Science Board]] and the Air Force Scientific Advisory Board found it "significantly underfunded and technically flawed," and in 2005 the [[Director of National Intelligence]], [[John Negroponte]], ended it as originally constituted. The National Commission for the Review of the NRO, chaired by Senator [[Bob Kerrey]] and Representative [[Porter Goss]], had reported in November 2000 that the office was "supporting a growing number of users and missions with a budget that had not grown proportionately," and recommended that it "strike a more nuanced balance between openness and secrecy." Under the [[Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act]], signed on December 17, 2004, the director reports to the Director of National Intelligence as well as to the Secretary of Defense.[^1]
### Later Associations
[[In-Q-Tel]], the CIA's venture fund, lists the office as a partner from 2009.[^5] [[David Grusch]], an intelligence officer of the NRO and of the [[National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency]], served as the NRO's representative on the [[UAP Task Force]].[^6] He testified to a subcommittee of the [[House Committee on Oversight and Accountability|House Oversight Committee]] on July 26, 2023, that officials had told him of waived [[Special Access Programs|special access programs]] for the retrieval and reverse engineering of UAP that had not been disclosed to Congress.[^7]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Berkowitz, Bruce. *The National Reconnaissance Office at 50 Years: A Brief History.* Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance, National Reconnaissance Office, Chantilly, Virginia, September 2011, preface, pp. 20-21, 23-25, 28-29, Appendix A (pp. 36-41) and Appendix B (p. 43). Retrieved via the Wayback Machine snapshot of January 16, 2026. https://web.archive.org/web/20260116035324/https://www.nro.gov/Portals/65/documents/history/csnr/programs/NRO_Brief_History.pdf
[^2]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy.* Random House, 1991, chapter 2.
[^3]: Berkowitz, *The National Reconnaissance Office at 50 Years,* pp. 20-21, citing Thomas, P., "Spy Unit's Spending Stuns Hill," *Washington Post,* August 9, 1994; Weiner, T., "Senators Angered Over Cost of Spy Agency's New Offices," *New York Times,* August 9, 1994; and Pincus, W., "CIA Told Hill of Project, Woolsey Says," *Washington Post,* August 11, 1994.
[^4]: Berkowitz, *The National Reconnaissance Office at 50 Years,* pp. 22-23, citing Weiner, T., "A Spy Agency Admits Accumulating $4 Billion in Secret Money," *New York Times,* May 16, 1996, and Morgan, D., and W. Pincus, "$1.6 Billion in NRO Kitty Helped Appropriators Fund Pet Projects," *Washington Post,* October 5, 1995.
[^5]: In-Q-Tel, "Our Milestones." https://www.iqt.org/about/our-milestones
[^6]: Elizondo, Luis. *Imminent.* William Morrow, 2024.
[^7]: U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Oversight and Accountability, Subcommittee on National Security, the Border, and Foreign Affairs. *Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena: Implications on National Security, Public Safety, and Government Transparency,* hearing, July 26, 2023.

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---
category: "U.S. Government"
aliases:
- "OFAC"
- "Division of Foreign Assets Control"
- "Treasury Office of Foreign Assets Control"
tags:
- Organization
- USGovernment
- Treasury
- Sanctions
- TerroristDesignation
- SDGTDesignation
summary: "Treasury office, founded as the Division of Foreign Assets Control in 1950, that administers United States economic sanctions and maintains the Specially Designated Nationals list, including terrorism designations under Executive Order 13224."
start: 1950-12-17
location: "Washington, D.C."
relations:
- type: reported_to
with: "[[United States Department of the Treasury]]"
start: 1950-12-17
fn: 1
- type: subject_of
with: "[[Russian Imperial Movement]]"
reverse: true
role: "supporters designated SDGTs on June 15, 2022"
start: 2022-06-15
fn: 7
created: 2026-09-24
updated: 2026-09-24
---
The Office of Foreign Assets Control is the office of the [[United States Department of the Treasury]] that administers economic sanctions programs and publishes the [[Specially Designated Nationals and Blocked Persons List]], on which designated persons and entities are entered and their property under American jurisdiction blocked.[^1][^2]
### Origins
The National Archives' guide to the office's records traces it to Foreign Funds Control, "established as a unit of the Office of the Secretary of the Treasury pursuant to Executive Order 8389, April 10, 1940, under authority of the [[Trading with the Enemy Act]] (40 Stat. 411), October 6, 1917, as amended." Foreign Funds Control was given "separate bureau status on September 11, 1942," administered the wartime blacklist of blocked nationals, and was "abolished by Treasury Department Order No. 86 on July 10, 1947." "The Division of Foreign Assets Control was established in the Office of International Finance by Treasury Department order on December 17, 1950." According to the office, the division was created after Chinese intervention in the [[Korean War]], when President [[Harry S. Truman|Harry Truman]] declared a national emergency and Chinese and North Korean assets were blocked, and it was renamed the Office of Foreign Assets Control in 1962.[^1]
The [[Government Accountability Office]] reported that since 2004 the office has operated within Treasury's [[Office of Terrorism and Financial Intelligence]], alongside the [[Financial Crimes Enforcement Network]].[^3]
### Executive Order 13224
President [[George W. Bush]] signed [[Executive Order 13224]], "Blocking Property and Prohibiting Transactions With Persons Who Commit, Threaten To Commit, or Support Terrorism," on September 23, 2001; it was published in the Federal Register on September 25, 2001. The order relies on the [[International Emergency Economic Powers Act]], the [[National Emergencies Act]] and section 5 of the [[United Nations]] Participation Act of 1945.[^4] According to the [[State Department|Department of State]], "Designations are made by the Department of State or by the Treasury's Office of Foreign Assets Control," and designees are entered on the office's list.[^5] A person so designated is a [[Specially Designated Global Terrorist]].
[[Executive Order 13886]] of 2019 amended the order. The State Department described the amendment as "the most significant expansion of federal terrorist sanctions designation authorities since 9/11," which "empowers the State Department to designate groups and individuals that have participated in training to commit acts of terrorism, as well as persons determined to be leaders of such groups."[^6]
### Russian Imperial Movement
In April 2020 the State Department designated the [[Russian Imperial Movement]] and its leaders [[Stanislav Vorobyev|Stanislav Anatolyevich Vorobyev]], [[Denis Gariyev|Denis Valiullovich Gariyev]] and [[Nikolay Trushchalov|Nikolay Nikolayevich Trushchalov]] as Specially Designated Global Terrorists, "the first time in history the Department has designated a white supremacist terrorist group." The release stated that the movement had "two training facilities in St. Petersburg" and that Gariyev headed "RIM's paramilitary arm, the Imperial Legion."[^6]
The Office of Foreign Assets Control made its own designations on June 15, 2022, under "section 1(b) of Executive Order 13224, as amended by Executive Order 13886," naming [[Stanislav Shevchuk]] and [[Alexander Zhuchkovsky]], both linked to the movement, and the Swedish national [[Anton Thulin]].[^7][^8]
### Terrorgram Collective
On January 13, 2025, "the Department of State is designating The [[Terrorgram Collective]] (Terrorgram) and three of its leaders as Specially Designated Global Terrorists pursuant to E.O. 13224, as amended." The three were [[Ciro Daniel Amorim Ferreira]], "a Terrorgram channel administrator" residing in [[Brazil]]; [[Noah Licul]], "a senior member of Terrorgram" residing in [[Croatia]]; and [[Hendrik-Wahl Muller]], a channel administrator residing in [[South Africa]].[^9] The designations were published in the Federal Register on January 15, 2025, and entered on the office's list; Ferreira was assigned SDN entry 52486.[^10]
The office has made no listing for [[The Base]], the American accelerationist group, or its founder [[Rinaldo Nazzaro]].[^11]
### Footnotes
[^1]: National Archives and Records Administration, "Records of the Office of Foreign Assets Control (Record Group 265)," Guide to Federal Records. https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/265.html ; Office of Foreign Assets Control, Frequently Asked Questions, no. 2. https://ofac.treasury.gov/faqs/2
[^2]: Federal Register, document 01-24205, Executive Order 13224, signed September 23, 2001, published September 25, 2001. https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2001/09/25/01-24205/blocking-property-and-prohibiting-transactions-with-persons-who-commit-threaten-to-commit-or-support
[^3]: U.S. Government Accountability Office, GAO-09-794. https://www.gao.gov/assets/a295926.html
[^4]: Office of Foreign Assets Control, Executive Order 13224, text. https://ofac.treasury.gov/media/20296/download?inline=
[^5]: U.S. Department of State, "Executive Order 13224." https://www.state.gov/executive-order-13224/
[^6]: U.S. Department of State, "United States Designates Russian Imperial Movement and Leaders as Global Terrorists," April 2020, via the Wayback Machine. https://web.archive.org/web/20211115221559id_/https://2017-2021.state.gov/united-states-designates-russian-imperial-movement-and-leaders-as-global-terrorists/index.html
[^7]: Office of Foreign Assets Control, "Recent Actions," June 15, 2022. https://ofac.treasury.gov/recent-actions/20220615
[^8]: U.S. Department of the Treasury, "U.S. Sanctions Members of Russian Violent Extremist Group," press release jy0817, June 15, 2022. https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/jy0817
[^9]: U.S. Department of State, "Terrorist Designations of The Terrorgram Collective and Three Leaders," January 13, 2025, via the Wayback Machine. https://web.archive.org/web/20260101055556id_/https://2021-2025.state.gov/office-of-the-spokesperson/releases/2025/01/terrorist-designations-of-the-terrorgram-collective-and-three-leaders/
[^10]: Federal Register, Vol. 90, No. 10, Document 2025-00756, "Specially Designated Global Terrorist Designations of The Terrorgram Collective, Ciro Daniel Amorim Ferreira, Noah Licul, and Hendrik-Wahl Muller," January 15, 2025. https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2025/01/15/2025-00756/specially-designated-global-terrorist-designations-of-the-terrorgram-collective-ciro-daniel-amorim ; OFAC SDN Entry 52486, sanctionssearch.ofac.treas.gov/Details.aspx?id=52486
[^11]: Foundation for Defense of Democracies, "Combat white supremacist violence using sanctions," May 30, 2022. https://www.fdd.org/analysis/2022/05/30/combat-white-supremacist-violence-sanctions/

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---
category: "U.S. Government"
tags:
- Organization
- Intelligence
- NavalIntelligence
- USNavy
- USGovernment
alias:
- Naval Intelligence
- ONI
summary: "United States Navy intelligence office created by a general order of March 23, 1882, without an act of Congress, which later housed the UAP Task Force."
start: 1882-03-23
location: "Washington, D.C."
created: 2026-09-24
updated: 2026-09-24
relations:
- type: head_of
with: "[[Theodorus B. M. Mason]]"
reverse: true
start: 1882-06-15
end: 1885-04-02
fn: 1
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Karl Baarslag]]"
reverse: true
role: "wartime officer"
fn: 2
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Morse Allen]]"
reverse: true
role: "wartime service in naval intelligence"
fn: 3
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Letitia Long]]"
reverse: true
start: 1988
end: 1994
role: "staff of the Director of Naval Intelligence, research and development programs"
fn: 7
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Letitia Long]]"
reverse: true
start: 2000
end: 2003
role: "Deputy Director of Naval Intelligence"
fn: 7
- type: contractor_to
with: "[[Christopher Mellon]]"
reverse: true
start: 2017
role: "unpaid consultant"
fn: 11
---
The Office of Naval Intelligence (ONI) is the intelligence office of the [[United States Navy]]. It was created on March 23, 1882, by General Order No. 292 of the [[Department of the Navy|Navy Department]], signed by Secretary of the Navy [[William H. Hunt]]: "An 'Office of Naval Intelligence' is hereby established in the Bureau of Navigation for the purpose of collecting and recording such naval information as may be useful to the department in the time of war, as well as in peace." The order combined the department library with the new office under the chief of the [[Bureau of Navigation]] and directed "commanding and all other officers" to "avail themselves of all opportunities which may arise to collect and forward to the 'Office of Intelligence' professional matter likely to serve the object in view."[^1]
The office's own 1920 history groups it with the [[Naval War College]] and the naval apprentice system as institutions created "by general order of the Navy Department, with no legislative action by Congress and no appropriation to make them effective."[^1]
### Directors, 1882 to 1898
Lieutenant [[Theodorus B. M. Mason]] "reported for duty June 15, 1882, and until his death, on October 15, 1899, was its leading spirit." The 1920 history lists the Directors of Naval Intelligence as follows:[^1]
- Theodorus B. M. Mason, June 15, 1882, to April 2, 1885
- [[Raymond P. Rodgers]], April 2, 1885, to July 22, 1889
- [[Charles H. Davis]], September 16, 1889, to August 31, 1892
- [[French E. Chadwick]], September 2, 1892, to June 20, 1893
- [[Frederic Singer]], June 30, 1893, to April 4, 1896
- [[Richard Wainwright]], April 4, 1896, to November 15, 1897
- [[Richardson Clover]], November 15, 1897, to May 1, 1898
- [[John R. Bartlett]], from May 1898
### Organization and the First World War
In 1920 Rear Admiral [[Albert P. Niblack]], then Director of Naval Intelligence, described the office as "simplicity itself in that it consists of four sections: Section A, administrative; Section B, intelligence (or manufacturing department); Section C, compiling (or manufacturing department); Section D, historical section (or by-products)." At the beginning of the [[World War I|First World War]] it had 18 civil service clerks and messengers. "When the armistice came there were 306 reservists in the Office of Naval Intelligence additional to the 18 civil service clerks and messengers serving at the beginning of the war, or a total of 324. This force will be reduced on July 1, 1920, to 18 of the statutory roll and 24 former reservists, or a total of 42."[^1]
### The Second World War and After
During [[World War II]] the office employed [[Karl Baarslag]], who afterward "worked as a professional anti-communist researcher for Senator [[Joseph McCarthy]], the [[American Legion]], and the [[Church League of America]]" and transferred many of his research files to the [[Wackenhut Corporation]].[^2] [[Morse Allen]], who had set up the [[Civil Service Commission]]'s first security files on communists in the late 1930s, served in wartime naval intelligence "pursuing leftists in New York" before landing with the Marines on [[Okinawa]]; he later joined the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]'s [[CIA Office of Security|Office of Security]] and in late 1950 was made head of [[Project Bluebird and Project Artichoke|BLUEBIRD]].[^3] In the summer of 1952 "a Naval Intelligence man" traveled to [[Frankfurt]] with [[Samuel Thompson]] and [[G. Richard Wendt|Wendt]] to join the ARTICHOKE team led by Allen and his superior [[Paul Gaynor]].[^4]
[[Hal Puthoff]] wrote that the two CIA officers who visited him at [[Stanford Research Institute]] in 1972 "knew of my previous background as a Naval Intelligence Officer and then civilian employee at the [[National Security Agency]]."[^5] When the [[Defense Intelligence Agency]] sought to fund a unified Defense Department remote viewing effort in 1978, the commander of the Naval Intelligence Command replied on September 14 that it was "unable at this time to pledge a specific level of funding support." Rear Admiral S. Shapiro, commander of the Naval Intelligence Command, sat on the Grill Flame oversight committee formed on November 28, 1978.[^6]
[[Letitia Long]] joined the staff of the Director of Naval Intelligence in 1988 to manage its research and development programs. From 1994 to 1996 she was "on rotational assignment from ONI to the Defense Intelligence Agency" as director of the Military Intelligence Staff, and in that capacity signed, in March 1995, the DIA transmittal of its [[Stargate Project|Star Gate]] review to the CIA. She was Deputy Director of Naval Intelligence from 2000 to 2003 and later director of the [[National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency]].[^7][^8]
[[Peter Zokosky]] claimed to have served in ONI in submarines during the Second World War; the claim is recorded by [[Cheri Seymour]] alone.[^9] [[Marion Pettie]] told the *[[Washington City Paper]]* in 1996 that he had studied intelligence agencies since the 1930s, following the line from ONI through the [[Office of Strategic Services]] to the CIA.[^10]
### Unidentified Aerial Phenomena
In early 2017, while an unpaid consultant to ONI, [[Christopher Mellon]] was introduced by [[Jim Semivan]] to [[Luis Elizondo]], who was then running the [[Advanced Aerospace Threat Identification Program]]. The [[UAP Task Force]], established in 2020 as the successor to that program under [[Jay Stratton]], was a program within ONI.[^11]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Niblack, A. P., Rear Admiral, USN, Director of Naval Intelligence. *The Office of Naval Intelligence: Its History and Aims.* Division of Operations, Navy Department. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1920, pp. 1-2 and table of directors. Naval History and Heritage Command Online Reading Room, retrieved via the Wayback Machine snapshot of December 8, 2025. https://web.archive.org/web/20251208161849/https://www.history.navy.mil/research/library/online-reading-room/title-list-alphabetically/h/history-and-aims-of-the-office-of-naval-intelligence.html
[^2]: Tamiment Library and Robert F. Wagner Labor Archives, New York University, finding aid to the Church League of America Collection of the Research Files of Counterattack, the Wackenhut Corporation, and Karl Baarslag, TAM 148. https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/tamwag/tam_148/
[^3]: Marks, John D. *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate.* Times Books, 1979, chapter 2.
[^4]: Marks, John D. *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate.* Times Books, 1979, chapter 3.
[^5]: Puthoff, H. E. "CIA-Initiated Remote Viewing Program at Stanford Research Institute," *Journal of Scientific Exploration,* vol. 10, no. 1, 1996, pp. 63-76.
[^6]: Commander, Naval Intelligence Command, to Defense Intelligence Agency, September 14, 1978, CIA-RDP96-00788R001200410025-8; US Army Intelligence and Security Command, "INSCOM Project Grill Flame: Progress Report #1," February 21, 1979, with enclosures, CIA-RDP96-00788R001100070001-3.
[^7]: "Letitia A. Long," National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency. https://www.nga.mil/about/Letitia_Long.html
[^8]: Defense Intelligence Agency, transmittal memorandum signed Letitia A. Long, Director, DMI Staff, faxed March 15, 1995, CIA-RDP96-00791R000300010002-3.
[^9]: Seymour, Cheri. *The Last Circle: Danny Casolaro's Investigation into the Octopus and the PROMIS Software Scandal.* TrineDay, 2010.
[^10]: Dean, Eddie. "Finders' Keeper." *Washington City Paper,* May 24, 1996. https://washingtoncitypaper.com/article/287890/finders-keeper/
[^11]: Elizondo, Luis. *Imminent.* William Morrow, 2024.

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@ -7,6 +7,7 @@ aliases:
- Technical Services Staff
- Technical Services Division
- TSD
- "CIA Office of Technical Service"
tags:
- organization
- intelligence
@ -14,7 +15,7 @@ tags:
- technology
description: The Office of Technical Service (OTS) was a division within the CIA responsible for technical assistance to spying and covert-action operations, often referred to as the "Q Branch" of the CIA.
category: "U.S. Government"
summary: "The Office of Technical Service (OTS) was a CIA division responsible for technical support to covert-action operations, previously known as the Technical Services Division (TSD), often described as the agency's 'Q Branch' for developing spy tradecraft and surveillance tools."
summary: "CIA division, formerly the Technical Services Division, that provided technical support to covert operations and developed tradecraft and surveillance tools."
---
The [[Office of Technical Service]] (OTS) was a division within the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] responsible for technical assistance to spying and covert-action operations. It was previously known as the Technical Services Division (TSD). OTS was often referred to as the "Q Branch" of the CIA, akin to the gadget-strewn division in the James Bond films.[^1]

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---
category: "U.S. Government"
tags:
- Organization
- Government
- USA
- ForeignAid
- PoliticalRiskInsurance
- ITT
- Chile
- BCCI
alias:
- "OPIC"
summary: "Federal corporation created by the Foreign Assistance Act of 1969 to insure and finance American private investment in less developed countries, which paid ITT for its expropriated Chilean telephone company."
start: 1969-12-30
location: "Washington, D.C."
created: 2026-09-24
updated: 2026-09-24
relations:
- type: funded
with: "[[Maurice Sarfati]]"
role: "two million dollar loan for an Antigua melon farm"
start: 1983
fn: 3
---
The Overseas Private Investment Corporation was established by the [[Foreign Assistance Act of 1969]] (Public Law 91-175), signed by President [[Richard Nixon]] on December 30, 1969, as an amendment to the [[Foreign Assistance Act of 1961]] and codified at 22 U.S.C. 2191. The statute made it an agency of the [[United States]] "under the policy guidance of the Secretary of State," charged "to mobilize and facilitate the participation of United States private capital and skills in the economic and social development of less developed countries." Its first authorization ran to June 30, 1974. It began operating after "the President transferred rights and responsibilities... to OPIC" by Executive Order 11579 of January 19, 1971, taking over investment guaranty and promotion work previously done by the [[Agency for International Development]].[^1]
### Structure
The President and Executive Vice President of the corporation and the presidentially appointed members of its board of directors required Senate confirmation. The statute directed it to operate "on a self-sustaining basis" from its own fees and interest, while [[Congress]] set an annual cap on its administrative spending (62.8 million dollars for fiscal 2016). Its accounts followed the [[Federal Credit Reform Act of 1990]].[^1]
### ITT and Chile
The [[Salvador Allende|Allende]] government of [[Chile]] took over the Chilean telephone company of the [[ITT Corporation]] on September 29, 1971. ITT filed an investment insurance claim with the corporation for 92.5 million dollars. On March 16, 1973, the [[State Department]]'s Executive Secretary, [[Theodore Eliot]], informed [[Henry A. Kissinger|Henry Kissinger]] that "OPIC's management" intended to recommend rejection of the claim on the ground that ITT's conduct, as disclosed in the papers published by [[Jack Anderson]] in March 1972, had been a "breach [of] its contract and prejudiced OPIC's rights." ITT was expected to answer that it had "done nothing improper in Chile" or had acted "at the request of the USG." The board, due to decide on March 19, 1973, deferred the decision.[^2]
In the settlement of 1975 ITT received "$34,706,917 in cash and $59,384,697 in OPIC-guaranteed Chilean Government obligations."[^2]
### Antigua
In 1983 the corporation lent two million dollars to finance a melon farm established in [[Antigua and Barbuda|Antigua]] by [[Maurice Sarfati]], an Israeli businessman operating from [[Miami]] and [[Paris]]. The application was submitted by Roydan (Antigua) Limited. Before lending, the corporation asked for financial references, and Sarfati supplied them from his principal bank, the Miami office of the [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International]], which wrote on June 14, 1983, that Sarfati, "who is one of our valued customers," held a number of major accounts there. The corporation lost its entire investment, concluded that it "had been defrauded by Sarfati," sued him, and sold its remaining interest in the farm, at a loss of 50 cents on the dollar, to [[Bruce Rappaport]] and his [[Swiss American Bank]]. The [[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]]'s report described Rappaport as "a confidante of former [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] director [[William Casey]]" who was in frequent contact in the same period with [[Bert Lance]], and noted that [[Alfred Hartmann]], a principal BCCI director and chairman of its Swiss affiliate [[Banque de Commerce et de Placements|BCP]], sat on the board of another Rappaport bank.[^3]
In April 1989 a network of Israeli arms traffickers operating from Miami shipped 500 Israeli machine guns through Antigua, whose foreign minister had ordered them, for the use of members of the [[Medellin Cartel|Medellin cartel]]. One was later used in the assassination of the Colombian presidential candidate [[Luis Carlos Galan]], and several others were found in the possession of [[Jose Gonzalo Rodriguez Gacha]] after his death. The principals were [[Yair Klein]], [[Pinchas Shahar]] and Sarfati. An inquiry for the government of Antigua was conducted by the Washington attorney [[E. Lawrence Barcella, Jr.|Lawrence Barcella]]. The Senate report found that "the Antigua project had been outgrowth of the establishment of a 'melon farm' by Sarfati in Antigua in 1983." When the subcommittee sought BCCI's records on Sarfati in 1990, the bank's lawyers said the accounts were "missing." Most of the accounts of a partner in the venture, [[Haim Polani]], were later located; those of Sarfati and his businesses were not.[^3]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Congressional Research Service. *The Overseas Private Investment Corporation: Background and Legislative Issues.* Report 98-567, updated December 22, 2016. https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/98-567.html
[^2]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian. *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976, Volume XXI, Chile, 1969-1973,* Document 322, memorandum from Executive Secretary Theodore L. Eliot Jr. to Henry Kissinger, March 16, 1973, with editorial footnotes. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v21/d322
[^3]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, Chapter 4, "BCCI's Criminality," notes 71-72. https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/04crime.htm

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---
category: "Intelligence & Government"
tags:
- Organization
- Government
- WhiteHouse
- IntelligenceOversight
- CIA
- CovertAction
- ColdWar
alias:
- "PFIAB"
- "President's Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities"
- "President's Intelligence Advisory Board"
summary: "White House board of private citizens created by Eisenhower in 1956 to review foreign intelligence and the CIA, renamed by Kennedy in 1961, abolished by Carter in 1977 and later re-established."
start: 1956-01-13
location: "Washington, D.C."
created: 2026-09-24
updated: 2026-09-24
relations:
- type: founded
with: "[[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]"
reverse: true
start: 1956-02-06
fn: 1
- type: head_of
with: "[[James Killian]]"
reverse: true
role: "chairman"
start: 1956-01-13
fn: 2
- type: member_of
with: "[[James Doolittle]]"
reverse: true
start: 1956-01-13
fn: 2
- type: member_of
with: "[[Joseph P. Kennedy]]"
reverse: true
start: 1956-01-13
fn: 2
- type: member_of
with: "[[Robert Lovett]]"
reverse: true
start: 1956-01-13
fn: 2
- type: member_of
with: "[[Maxwell Taylor]]"
reverse: true
start: 1961-05-04
fn: 2
- type: member_of
with: "[[Clark Clifford]]"
reverse: true
start: 1961-05-15
fn: 2
- type: member_of
with: "[[Gordon Gray]]"
reverse: true
start: 1961-05-15
fn: 2
- type: reported_to
with: "[[Richard Helms]]"
reverse: true
role: "briefing on covert action operations"
start: 1963-09-10
fn: 4
- type: head_of
with: "[[Maxwell Taylor]]"
reverse: true
role: "chairman"
end: 1970-04-30
fn: 2
- type: member_of
with: "[[Nelson Rockefeller]]"
reverse: true
start: 1969
fn: 2
- type: member_of
with: "[[Edwin Land]]"
reverse: true
start: 1969
fn: 2
- type: head_of
with: "[[George W. Anderson]]"
reverse: true
role: "chairman"
start: 1970-05-01
fn: 2
- type: head_of
with: "[[Brent Scowcroft]]"
reverse: true
role: "chairman"
start: 2001-10-05
fn: 7
- type: member_of
with: "[[Ray Hunt]]"
reverse: true
start: 2001-10-05
fn: 7
- type: member_of
with: "[[Stephen Friedman]]"
reverse: true
start: 2001-10-05
fn: 7
---
President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] created the President's Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities by Executive Order 10656, issued on February 6, 1956, printed in the *[[Federal Register]]* on February 8 (21 Fed. Reg. 859) and effective from January 13, 1956. Its members were drawn from persons "outside government" chosen for their "ability, experience, and knowledge" in matters of national defense and security, and served without pay beyond travel and per diem. The order directed the board to review the foreign intelligence work of the government and the performance of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] and to report to the President "twice yearly (or more often if needed)."[^1][^2]
### Board of Consultants
A White House release of January 13, 1956, named the first members: [[James Killian|James R. Killian, Jr.]], president of the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], as chairman; Admiral [[Richard L. Conolly]] (retired); Lieutenant General [[James Doolittle|James H. Doolittle]]; [[Benjamin Fairless|Benjamin F. Fairless]] of [[U.S. Steel|United States Steel]]; General [[John E. Hull]] (retired); [[Joseph P. Kennedy]], former ambassador to [[United Kingdom|Great Britain]]; [[Robert Lovett|Robert A. Lovett]], former [[Secretary of Defense]]; and [[Edward L. Ryerson]] of [[Inland Steel]].[^2]
### Kennedy and Johnson
President [[John F. Kennedy]] issued Executive Order 10938 on May 4, 1961, "Establishing the President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board," with the function "to advise the President with respect to the objectives and conduct of the foreign intelligence and related activities." The board was to "conduct a continuing review and assessment of all functions of the Central Intelligence Agency" and report twice a year. Section 4 revoked Executive Order 10656.[^3]
The White House announcement of May 4 listed Killian as chairman, with [[William O. Baker]] of [[Bell Labs]], Doolittle, [[William L. Langer]] of [[Harvard University]], [[Robert D. Murphy]], former Under Secretary of State, and General [[Maxwell Taylor|Maxwell D. Taylor]] (retired). J. Patrick Coyne continued as executive secretary. On May 15 two more members were added: [[Gordon Gray]], former [[Secretary of the Army]] and Eisenhower's assistant for national security affairs, and [[Clark Clifford]], special counsel to [[Harry S. Truman]].[^2]
On September 10, 1963, [[Richard Helms]], the CIA's Deputy Director for Plans, briefed a panel of the board in a session recorded as "Board Panel on Covert Action Operations," classified Top Secret. The briefing covered operations in [[British Guiana]], [[Haiti]], [[Italy]], [[Bolivia]], [[Brazil]], [[Cuba]] and [[Vietnam]]. Operations against Cuba were described as shifting "from external raids to internal sabotage operations," at about ten such operations a month, and the record states that in British Guiana the agency had secretly financed, through the [[AFL-CIO]], a 79-day general strike against the government of [[Cheddi Jagan]].[^4]
At a press conference on January 19, 1968, President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] said of Clifford's chairmanship of the board: "when I became President... I continued him in that capacity as I did most of the men serving with President Kennedy."[^2]
### Nixon
President [[Richard Nixon]] reconstituted the board by Executive Order 11460 of March 20, 1969. Its members included Taylor, Admiral [[George W. Anderson]] (retired), Baker, Gray, [[Edwin Land|Edwin H. Land]], [[Franklin B. Lincoln Jr.]], [[Franklin D. Murphy]], Robert D. Murphy, [[Frank Pace|Frank Pace Jr.]] and [[Nelson Rockefeller|Nelson A. Rockefeller]]. Taylor resigned as chairman effective April 30, 1970. Anderson, [[Chief of Naval Operations]] from 1961 to 1963 and ambassador to [[Portugal]] from 1963 to 1966, succeeded him as chairman effective May 1, 1970.[^2]
### Abolition and Re-establishment
President [[Jimmy Carter]] abolished the board on May 4, 1977, by Executive Order 11984, whose operative text reads in full: "Executive Order No. 11460 of March 20, 1969, is hereby revoked."[^5]
Executive Order 12863, issued by President [[Bill Clinton]], provided: "There is hereby established within the White House Office, Executive Office of the President, the President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board (PFIAB). The PFIAB shall consist of not more than 16 members, who shall serve at the pleasure of the President." One third of the members at any time were, "to the extent practicable," to serve terms of no more than two years, and the President was to designate a chairman and vice chairman from among them.[^6]
### 2001 Appointments
On October 5, 2001, the [[White House]] announced that President [[George W. Bush]] intended to appoint members "for a term of two years": Lieutenant General [[Brent Scowcroft]] as chairman, with [[Cresencio Arcos|Cresencio S. Arcos]], [[Jim Barksdale]], Robert Addison Day, [[Stephen Friedman]], [[Alfred Lerner]], [[Ray Hunt|Ray Lee Hunt]], [[Rita Hauser|Rita E. Hauser]], [[David E. Jeremiah]], [[Arnold Kanter|Arnold Lee Kanter]], James Calhoun Langdon, Jr., Marie Elizabeth Pate-Cornell, John Harrison Streicker and Peter Barton Wilson.[^7]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Eisenhower, Dwight D. Executive Order 10656, "Establishing the President's Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities," February 6, 1956. The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-10656-establishing-the-presidents-board-consultants-foreign-intelligence
[^2]: Congressional Research Service. *The President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board: An Historical and Contemporary Analysis (1955-1975).* November 13, 1975, pp. CRS-9 to CRS-14. CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP02T06251R000900290008-0, declassified June 4, 2012. https://archive.org/download/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp02t06251r000900290008-0/cia-rdp02t06251r000900290008-0.pdf
[^3]: Kennedy, John F. Executive Order 10938, "Establishing the President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board," May 4, 1961. The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-10938-establishing-the-presidents-foreign-intelligence-advisory-board
[^4]: White House, President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board, "Board Panel on Covert Action Operations," Top Secret, September 10, 1963. National Security Archive, Document 6. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/document/32956-document-6-white-house-pfiab-board-panel-covert-action-operations-top-secret
[^5]: Carter, Jimmy. Executive Order 11984, "President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board," May 4, 1977. The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-11984-presidents-foreign-intelligence-advisory-board
[^6]: Clinton, William J. Executive Order 12863, "President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board." The White House, archived. https://clintonwhitehouse5.archives.gov/textonly/WH/EOP/pfiab/eo12863.html
[^7]: The White House, Office of the Press Secretary. "Personnel Announcement," October 5, 2001. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2001/10/text/20011005-8.html

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---
category: "U.S. Government"
tags:
- Organization
- Government
- USA
- Propaganda
- PublicDiplomacy
- ColdWar
- VoiceOfAmerica
alias:
- "USIA"
- "U.S. Information Agency"
- "United States Information Service"
- "U.S. Information Service"
- "USIS"
- "International Communication Agency"
summary: "Federal agency created by Reorganization Plan No. 8 of 1953 to run the government's overseas information and cultural programs, including the Voice of America, known abroad as the U.S. Information Service."
start: 1953-08-01
location: "Washington, D.C."
created: 2026-09-24
updated: 2026-09-24
relations:
- type: head_of
with: "[[Theodore C. Streibert]]"
reverse: true
role: "director"
start: 1953-08-04
end: 1956-11-15
fn: 2
- type: head_of
with: "[[Arthur Larson]]"
reverse: true
role: "director"
start: 1956-11-14
end: 1957-10-27
fn: 2
- type: head_of
with: "[[George V. Allen]]"
reverse: true
role: "director"
start: 1957-11-15
end: 1960-12-01
fn: 2
- type: head_of
with: "[[Edward R. Murrow]]"
reverse: true
role: "director"
start: 1961-03-15
end: 1964-01-20
fn: 2
- type: head_of
with: "[[Carl Rowan]]"
reverse: true
role: "director"
start: 1964-02-27
end: 1965-07-10
fn: 2
- type: head_of
with: "[[Leonard Marks]]"
reverse: true
role: "director"
start: 1965-09-01
end: 1968-12-06
fn: 2
- type: head_of
with: "[[Frank Shakespeare]]"
reverse: true
role: "director"
start: 1969-02-07
end: 1973-02-07
fn: 2
- type: head_of
with: "[[James Keogh]]"
reverse: true
role: "director"
start: 1973-02-08
end: 1976-11-30
fn: 2
- type: head_of
with: "[[John E. Reinhardt]]"
reverse: true
role: "director"
start: 1977-03-23
end: 1980-08-29
fn: 2
- type: head_of
with: "[[Charles Z. Wick]]"
reverse: true
role: "director"
start: 1981-06-09
end: 1989-01-20
fn: 2
- type: head_of
with: "[[Bruce Gelb]]"
reverse: true
role: "director"
start: 1989-04-14
end: 1991-03-20
fn: 2
- type: head_of
with: "[[Henry Catto]]"
reverse: true
role: "director"
start: 1991-05-09
end: 1993-01
fn: 2
- type: head_of
with: "[[Joseph Duffey]]"
reverse: true
role: "director"
start: 1993-06-03
fn: 2
---
The United States Information Agency was created by Reorganization Plan No. 8 of 1953, which President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] sent to [[Congress]] on June 1, 1953, and which took effect on August 1, 1953. Section 1(a) reads: "There is hereby established a new agency which shall be known as the United States Information Agency, hereinafter referred to as the Agency." The Director was to be "appointed by the President by and with the advice and consent of the Senate" at 17,500 dollars a year, and "The Secretary of State shall advise with the President concerning the appointment and tenure of the Director." Section 1(c) created a Deputy Director at 16,000 dollars.[^1]
### Functions
Section 2 of the plan transferred to the Director "the functions vested in the Secretary of State by Title V of the [[Smith-Mundt Act|United States Information and Educational Exchange Act of 1948]], as amended," with related functions on the interchange of books and periodicals, aid to libraries, and the information programs in [[Germany]] and [[Austria]] previously run by the [[Mutual Security Agency]]. Section 2(c)(1) kept content with the [[State Department]]: "The Secretary of State shall direct the policy and control the content of a program, for use abroad, on official United States positions."[^1]
The agency was "known overseas as the U.S. Information Service" and was "responsible for the U.S. Government's overseas information and cultural programs, including the [[Voice of America]]."[^2]
[[National Security Action Memorandum 124]] of January 18, 1962, established the [[NSC Special Group|Special Group (Counterinsurgency)]], on which representatives of the agency sat with officials of the [[Agency for International Development]] and [[Robert Kennedy]].[^3]
### Names
Reorganization Plan No. 2 of 1977 (91 Stat. 1636) abolished the agency and established in its place the International Communication Agency, effective April 1, 1978. Public Law 97-241 of August 24, 1982 (96 Stat. 291), restored the earlier name.[^2]
### Directors
Directors and their dates of service were:[^2]
- [[Theodore C. Streibert]], August 4, 1953, to November 15, 1956
- [[Arthur Larson]], November 14, 1956, to October 27, 1957
- [[George V. Allen]], November 15, 1957, to December 1, 1960
- [[Edward R. Murrow]], March 15, 1961, to January 20, 1964
- [[Carl Rowan|Carl T. Rowan]], February 27, 1964, to July 10, 1965
- [[Leonard Marks|Leonard H. Marks]], appointed July 22, 1965, entered on duty September 1, 1965, to December 6, 1968
- [[Frank Shakespeare|Frank J. Shakespeare Jr.]], February 7, 1969, to February 7, 1973
- [[James Keogh]], February 8, 1973, to November 30, 1976
- [[John E. Reinhardt]], from March 23, 1977; retitled Director of the International Communication Agency on March 27, 1978; to August 29, 1980
- [[Charles Z. Wick]], June 9, 1981, to January 20, 1989
- [[Bruce Gelb|Bruce S. Gelb]], April 14, 1989, to March 20, 1991
- [[Henry Catto|Henry E. Catto]], May 9, 1991, to January 1993
- [[Joseph Duffey|Joseph D. Duffey]], appointed May 25, 1993, entered on duty June 3, 1993
[[Mark W. Everson]] began his service in the [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] administration at the agency in 1982, during Wick's directorship.[^4]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Reorganization Plan No. 8 of 1953, 67 Stat. 642-643, effective August 1, 1953. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-67/pdf/STATUTE-67-Pg642.pdf
[^2]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian. "Director of the U.S. Information Agency." Archived February 11, 2026. https://web.archive.org/web/20260211080812/https://1997-2001.state.gov/about_state/history/officers/usia.html
[^3]: NSAM No. 124, January 18, 1962. Department of Defense Mandatory Declassification Review release 12-M-3087, "The Special Group (Counterinsurgency) from January 18, 1962, to November 21, 1963." https://www.esd.whs.mil/Portals/54/Documents/FOID/Reading%20Room/MDR_Releases/FY12/12-M-3087
[^4]: National Archives and Records Administration. Catalog Record ID 3936205. catalog.archives.gov.

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---
category: "U.S. Government"
aliases:
- "Secret Service"
- "U.S. Secret Service"
- "USSS"
- "Secret Service Division"
tags:
- Organization
- USGovernment
- LawEnforcement
- Counterfeiting
- ExecutiveProtection
- Treasury
- HomelandSecurity
summary: "Federal law enforcement agency founded in 1865 inside the Treasury to suppress counterfeiting, given full-time presidential protection in 1902, and transferred to the Department of Homeland Security in 2003."
start: 1865-07-05
location: "Washington, D.C."
relations:
- type: reported_to
with: "[[United States Department of the Treasury]]"
start: 1865-07-05
end: 2003-03-01
fn: 1
- type: reported_to
with: "[[Department of Homeland Security]]"
role: "director reports directly to the Secretary of Homeland Security"
start: 2003-03-01
fn: 2
- type: director_of
with: "[[William P. Wood]]"
reverse: true
role: "first chief"
start: 1865-07-05
fn: 1
- type: director_of
with: "[[James Rowley]]"
reverse: true
role: "director"
start: 1961-09
end: 1973
fn: 3
- type: director_of
with: "[[Julia Pierson]]"
reverse: true
role: "23rd director"
start: 2013-03-27
fn: 1
- type: director_of
with: "[[Joseph Clancy]]"
reverse: true
role: "24th director"
start: 2015-02-18
fn: 1
- type: director_of
with: "[[Randolph Alles]]"
reverse: true
role: "25th director"
start: 2017-04-25
fn: 1
- type: director_of
with: "[[James M. Murray]]"
reverse: true
role: "26th director"
start: 2019
fn: 1
- type: director_of
with: "[[Kimberly Cheatle]]"
reverse: true
role: "27th director"
start: 2022
fn: 1
- type: director_of
with: "[[Sean Curran]]"
reverse: true
role: "28th director"
start: 2025
fn: 1
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Michael Mastrovito]]"
reverse: true
role: "agent"
start: 1972
fn: 7
created: 2026-09-24
updated: 2026-09-24
---
The [[United States]] Secret Service is a federal law enforcement agency with two statutory functions: the protection of the President, the Vice President, their families, former Presidents, visiting heads of state and major candidates, and the investigation of offenses against the currency and of a list of financial fraud statutes. It was a unit of the [[United States Department of the Treasury]] from 1865 to 2003 and has since been a component of the [[Department of Homeland Security]].[^1][^2]
### Founding
"The Secret Service Division was formed on July 5, 1865 as part of the Department of the Treasury." Its first chief, [[William P. Wood]], was sworn in by Treasury Secretary [[Hugh McCulloch]]. The division was organized to suppress counterfeiting at the end of the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], when "nearly one-third of all currency in circulation was counterfeit."[^1]
After the assassination of President [[William McKinley]] in 1901, "Congress requested Secret Service protection of U.S. presidents." In 1902 "the Secret Service assumed full-time responsibility for protection of the President," with two agents assigned to the [[White House]] Detail.[^1]
### Statutory basis
The agency's powers are codified at 18 U.S.C. § 3056, "Powers, authorities, and duties of United States Secret Service," first enacted on June 25, 1948 (ch. 645, 62 Stat. 818) and amended repeatedly through 2022. Subsection (a) lists the protectees: "The President, the Vice President (or other officer next in the order of succession to the Office of President)," their immediate families, "Former Presidents and their spouses for their lifetimes," "Visiting heads of foreign states or foreign governments," and "Major Presidential and Vice Presidential candidates," among others; protection under paragraphs 2 through 8 "may be declined." Subsection (b) grants arrest and investigative authority over "any of the laws of the United States relating to coins, obligations, and securities of the United States and of foreign governments" and over enumerated financial fraud offenses. Subsection (d) makes it a federal offense to "knowingly and willfully obstruct, resist, or interfere with" the agency's protective functions.[^2]
Under the [[Homeland Security Act of 2002]] and the Department of Homeland Security Reorganization Plan of November 25, 2002, the statute was amended to substitute "of Homeland Security" for "of the Treasury" wherever it appeared. "On March 1, 2003, the Secret Service was transferred from the Department of the Treasury to the new Department of Homeland Security."[^1][^2] The statute now provides that "No personnel and operational elements of the United States Secret Service shall report to an individual other than the Director of the United States Secret Service, who shall report directly to the Secretary of Homeland Security without being required to report through any other official of the Department."[^2]
### Directors
[[James Rowley|James J. Rowley]] "joined the Secret Service in New York in 1938, transferred to Washington the next year, and was named chief of its presidential protective division in 1947." He was sworn in as director in September 1961 by Treasury Secretary [[Douglas Dillon]], while President [[John F. Kennedy]] "dropped in to greet Mr. Rowley's family," and he served until 1973. As director he "became head of not just the presidential security detail but also a force that investigated crimes." The Executive Protective Service, later the agency's Uniformed Division, was established during his tenure with responsibility for "physical security of the White House and American security at foreign diplomatic missions," and he was "instrumental in establishing the Consolidated [[Federal Law Enforcement Training Center]]." He died on November 1, 1992, at his home in Leisure World, [[Maryland]].[^3] Rowley later sat on the board of the [[Wackenhut Corporation]] alongside the former [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] director [[Stansfield Turner]], the former [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] director [[Clarence Kelley]] and the former DIA director [[Joseph Carroll]].[^4]
The agency's own list of recent directors records [[Julia Pierson|Julia A. Pierson]], 23rd director, sworn in on March 27, 2013, the first woman to hold the post; [[Joseph Clancy|Joseph P. Clancy]], 24th, appointed February 18, 2015; [[Randolph Alles|Randolph D. "Tex" Alles]], 25th, appointed April 25, 2017; [[James M. Murray]], 26th, appointed in 2019; [[Kimberly Cheatle|Kimberly A. Cheatle]], 27th, appointed in 2022; and [[Sean Curran|Sean M. Curran]], 28th, appointed in 2025.[^1]
### Counterfeiting investigations
The counterfeiting jurisdiction in § 3056(b) was the basis for the arrests in [[Bucks County, Pennsylvania|Bucks County]] in December 1974. On December 10, 1974, [[Hatboro, Pennsylvania|Hatboro]] police detained Raymond Hoersch, later known as [[R.C. Horsch]], after a card shop reported a suspicious ten-dollar bill. Secret Service agents with a search warrant found 630 dollars in counterfeit notes in his car, seized printing equipment in a building on Taylor Street in [[Doylestown, Pennsylvania|Doylestown]], and arrested [[Charles Griffith]] there. "U.S. Secret Service Agent [[James D'Amelio]] identified the suspects," the Associated Press reported. Accounts of the face value of the notes seized ranged from 180,000 dollars to more than one million dollars.[^5][^6]
### Watergate and the Kennedy records
On June 17, 1972, the day of the arrests at the [[Watergate scandal|Watergate]], CIA cables recorded that [[Michael Mastrovito]] of the Secret Service "agreed to downplay McCord's Agency employment," referring to the arrested former CIA security officer [[James McCord]].[^7]
In January 1995, after the [[President John F. Kennedy Assassination Records Collection Act of 1992|JFK Records Act]] had taken effect, the Secret Service destroyed protection survey reports for some of Kennedy's trips in the fall of 1963. The [[Assassination Records Review Board]] learned of the destruction about a week later.[^8]
### Cartagena inquiry (2012)
In April 2012, CNN reported, "United States Secret Service employees were in Cartagena, Colombia, preparing for a Presidential visit to the Summit of the Americas," and "several USSS employees were suspected of soliciting prostitutes."[^9] The [[Department of Homeland Security Office of Inspector General|DHS Office of Inspector General]] reviewed the agency's internal investigation in report OIG-13-24, "Adequacy of USSS' Internal Investigation of Alleged Misconduct in Cartagena, Colombia," released January 24, 2013.[^10] CBS News, summarizing the report, stated that thirteen employees had been suspected, that "three returned to duty, six resigned or retired," and that four "had their clearances revoked and were removed," and that the inspector general made "14 recommendations to improve the Secret Service's processes for identifying, mitigating, and addressing instances of misconduct."[^11]
### Protective details
Reporting on the flight logs of [[Jeffrey Epstein]]'s Boeing 727 in 2016 noted that former President [[Bill Clinton]] traveled on at least some legs without his Secret Service detail. A 2019 statement from Clinton's spokesman said his Secret Service detail had traveled on every leg.[^12][^13] The writer S. Dovey described a May 1978 photograph of [[John Wayne Gacy]] with First Lady [[Rosalynn Carter]] in which Gacy wore a Secret Service clearance button.[^14]
### Footnotes
[^1]: United States Secret Service, "Timeline of Our History." https://www.secretservice.gov/about/history/timeline
[^2]: 18 U.S.C. § 3056, "Powers, authorities, and duties of United States Secret Service," with historical and editorial notes. Legal Information Institute, Cornell Law School. https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/3056
[^3]: "Former Secret Service Chief James Rowley, 84, Dies," *The Washington Post,* November 2, 1992, via the Wayback Machine. https://web.archive.org/web/2015id_/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1992/11/02/former-secret-service-chief-james-rowley-84-dies/35e571de-8e2f-4fc9-9534-c2f7c1286fa2/
[^4]: Seymour, Cheri. *The Last Circle: Danny Casolaro's Investigation into the Octopus and the PROMIS Software Scandal*. First Edition. TrineDay, 2010.
[^5]: "Phony Bill Suspects Held," Associated Press, *Gloucester County Times* (Woodbury, N.J.), December 11, 1974, p. 2. https://www.newspapers.com/image/1105967385/
[^6]: [Counterfeiting arrests], *The Morning Call* (Allentown), December 11, 1974, p. 5. https://www.newspapers.com/image/275702319/
[^7]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, minority staff, "CIA Investigation," memorandum of Senator Howard H. Baker Jr., 1974, later printed in *Final Report,* S. Rept. 93-981, pp. 1115-1165. CIA Reading Room copy, document 01481990.
[^8]: Assassination Records Review Board. *Final Report of the Assassination Records Review Board,* September 1998. https://www.archives.gov/research/jfk/review-board/report/arrb-final-report.txt
[^9]: "Investigation revisits Secret Service prostitution scandal," CNN, October 19, 2012. https://www.cnn.com/2012/10/19/us/secret-service-prostitution-scandal/index.html
[^10]: Department of Homeland Security, Office of Inspector General, "Adequacy of USSS' Internal Investigation of Alleged Misconduct in Cartagena, Colombia," OIG-13-24, January 24, 2013. https://www.oig.dhs.gov/reports/2013-01/adequacy-usss-internal-investigation-alleged-misconduct-cartagena-colombia/oig13
[^11]: CBS News, report on the inspector general's review of the Cartagena investigation, January 2013. https://cbsnews.com/news/ig-no-evidence-of-widespread-secret-service-misconduct
[^12]: "Flight logs show Bill Clinton flew on sex offender's jet much more than previously known," *Fox News,* 2016. https://www.foxnews.com/us/flight-logs-show-bill-clinton-flew-on-sex-offenders-jet-much-more-than-previously-known
[^13]: "Timeline: Bill Clinton's interactions with Jeffrey Epstein," *ABC News,* 2025. https://abcnews.com/US/timeline-bill-clintons-interactions-jeffrey-epstein/story?id=130567229
[^14]: Dovey, S. (2023). *Eye of the Chickenhawk*. United States: Thehotstar.