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---
title: Barack Obama
aliases:
- Barack Obama
- Barack Hussein Obama
- Barack H. Obama
- President Obama
- President Barack Obama
category: "Political Figure"
created: 2026-10-15
updated: 2026-10-15
tags:
- KeyFigure
- Person
- Presidency
- JonathanPollard
- JeffreyEpstein
- ChelseaManning
- UAP
- NSASurveillance
- Clemency
summary: "44th U.S. president who commuted Chelsea Manning's sentence, declassified the 28 pages, and said in 2026 that aliens are real but that he had not seen them."
relations:
- type: head_of
with: "[[United States]]"
role: "44th President of the United States"
start: 2009-01-20
end: 2017-01-20
fn: 1
- type: appointed
with: "[[Paul Engelmayer]]"
reverse: true
role: "U.S. District Judge, Southern District of New York"
start: 2011-07-27
fn: 25
- type: appointed
with: "[[Alison Nathan]]"
reverse: true
role: "U.S. District Judge, Southern District of New York"
start: 2011-10-17
fn: 28
- type: appointed
with: "[[Kathryn Ruemmler]]"
reverse: true
role: "White House Counsel"
start: 2011
end: 2014
fn: 15
- type: appointed
with: "[[Larry Summers]]"
reverse: true
role: "Director of the National Economic Council"
end: 2010
fn: 18
- type: appointed
with: "[[Leon Panetta]]"
reverse: true
role: "Director of the Central Intelligence Agency"
start: 2009-02-13
fn: 40
- type: appointed
with: "[[James Clapper]]"
reverse: true
role: "Director of National Intelligence"
start: 2010-08-05
fn: 41
- type: appointed
with: "[[John Brennan]]"
reverse: true
role: "Director of the Central Intelligence Agency"
start: 2013-03-08
fn: 42
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Ann Dunham]]"
role: "son"
fn: 3
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Business International Corporation]]"
role: "researcher and writer"
start: 1983
end: 1984
fn: 10
---
Barack Obama is an American politician who served as the 44th President of the United States from January 2009 to January 2017.[^1] He was awarded the 2009 [[Nobel Peace Prize]] by the [[Norwegian Nobel Committee]].[^2]
### Ann Dunham, Lolo Soetoro and Indonesia
[[Ann Dunham]], Obama's mother, was born in Wichita, Kansas on November 29, 1942 and earned her bachelor's degree in anthropology at the [[University of Hawaii]] in 1967. She held a grant from the Technology and Development Institute of the [[East-West Center]] from 1973 to 1978, received a master's degree in 1975 and a doctorate in 1992, both in anthropology, and died in Honolulu on November 7, 1995.[^3] The chronology in her papers at the [[National Anthropological Archives]] lists a consultancy on international development for the [[U.S. Agency for International Development]] in 1979 and 1980, service from 1981 to 1984 as Program Officer for Women and Employment at the [[Ford Foundation]]'s Regional Office for Southeast Asia in Jakarta, a rural development consultancy to the Agricultural Development Bank of Pakistan in 1986 and 1987, and work from 1988 to 1992 as research coordinator and consultant to [[Bank Rakyat Indonesia]] under three contracts funded by the [[World Bank]] and USAID in microfinance.[^3] [[Duke University Press]] published her dissertation research on rural metalworkers in Java in December 2009 as Surviving against the Odds: Village Industry in Indonesia, edited by Alice G. Dewey and Nancy I. Cooper.[^4]
Her second husband, [[Lolo Soetoro]], was an Indonesian student; [[Janny Scott]] reported in the New York Times in 2008 that he was summoned home in 1966 after the turmoil surrounding the rise of [[Suharto]], and that Dunham and her son followed him.[^5] [[Foreign Policy]] described Soetoro as a geologist for the Indonesian army who later became a consultant for a Western oil company.[^6] Scott's 2008 article states that Dunham became a consultant for USAID on setting up a village credit program, then a Ford Foundation program officer in Jakarta, and later joined Indonesia's oldest bank to work on a microfinance program.[^5]
The journalist [[Wayne Madsen]], who has said he formerly worked for the [[National Security Agency]], stated in a 2010 interview with [[Press TV]], translated by the Indonesian outlet Rakyat Merdeka Online, that Obama's father, mother and Obama himself had deep connections to the [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. In the interview Madsen said that the Ford Foundation program in Indonesia during Dunham's years there was essentially the responsibility of Peter Geithner, father of Treasury Secretary [[Timothy Geithner]], and that in CIA files he had found that the official responsible for microcredit payments to Javanese farmers, at the place where Obama's mother worked, held a cover post as an economic officer at the US Embassy in Jakarta.[^7] The outlet noted errors elsewhere in the interview, among them Madsen's statements about the ethnicity of those killed in Indonesia in 1965 and 1966 and about where Obama's grandmother died.[^7] A critical essay published by Berghahn Books describes Madsen's later book as partly relying on Scott's 2011 biography of Dunham, A Singular Woman.[^8]
### Business International, Occidental and Columbia
Obama attended [[Occidental College]] for his first two years of college and then transferred to [[Columbia University]], where he took his degree in 1983.[^9][^10] In the Columbia magazine Sundial of March 10, 1983 he published an article on the campus groups Arms Race Alternatives and Students Against Militarism, writing that the "military-industrial interests" benefited from the narrow focus of the nuclear freeze movement and kept "adding to their billion dollar erector sets."[^11]
In 1983 he took a job with [[Business International Corporation]] in New York. The New York Times, as quoted by FactCheck.org in 2008, described the company as "a small newsletter-publishing and research firm, with about 250 employees worldwide, that helped companies with foreign operations" and said Obama was a researcher and writer for the firm for about a year before he moved on to the New York Public Interest Research Group.[^10] On December 27, 1977 the New York Times, in an article by [[John M. Crewdson]] based on a three-month inquiry, reported that at least 22 American news organizations had employed American journalists who were also working for the CIA, and listed Business International among the lesser known organizations. The article quoted Elliott Haynes, whose father [[Eldridge Haynes]] had co-founded the company, as saying that his father had provided cover for four CIA employees in various countries between 1955 and 1960.[^12]
Madsen stated in the same 2010 interview that Obama had worked after Columbia for Business International, a company that used journalists as cover, and that CIA documents he had examined showed an active CIA recruitment program at Occidental College while Obama studied there from 1979 to 1981, with a recruiter reporting about 70 students in attendance.[^7]
### The Nobel Committee and the Epstein Calendar
[[Thorbjørn Jagland]] chaired the Norwegian Nobel Committee from 2009 to 2015, the years in which it awarded the peace prize to Obama and, in 2012, to the [[European Union]].[^13][^2] In 2014 [[Jeffrey Epstein]] told [[Bill Gates]] that Jagland "had been reelected as head of the Council of Europe," and Gates answered "That is good" and asked whether "his peace prize committee job is also up in the air?"[^14] In February 2026 lawyers said that Jagland had been charged after a Norwegian probe into alleged Epstein ties.[^14]
### Kathryn Ruemmler and the White House Counsel's Office
[[Kathryn Ruemmler]] served as [[White House Counsel]] to Obama from 2011 to 2014, then joined [[Latham & Watkins]] as a partner and in 2020 became general counsel of [[Goldman Sachs]].[^15] Epstein telephoned her within weeks of her departure from the White House in 2014, and his calendars record more than three dozen appointments with her through 2019.[^15] Epstein's staff asked him twice whether young women should be kept out of the townhouse while she was there.[^15] On January 8, 2015 she wrote to Epstein: "John Brennan gave me the CIA Agency Medal (the CIA's highest award) this morning. How cool is that?"[^16] Telling the Journal, she said: "I regret ever knowing Jeffrey Epstein."[^15] She announced in February 2026 that she would resign from Goldman Sachs effective June 30, 2026, after her name recurred in the [[Department of Justice]]'s Epstein releases.[^17]
### Larry Summers and the Economic Team
[[Larry Summers]] directed the [[National Economic Council]] in Obama's first term. In September 2010 he announced that he would leave at the end of that year and return to his professorship at [[Harvard University]].[^18] Summers resigned from the board of [[OpenAI]] in November 2025 after backlash over Epstein emails, was banned for life by the [[American Economic Association]] in December 2025, and resigned from Harvard on February 25, 2026.[^19] On November 14, 2025, at the request of [[Donald Trump]], Attorney General [[Pam Bondi]] assigned [[Jay Clayton]] to investigate Epstein's dealings with [[Bill Clinton]], Summers, [[Reid Hoffman]] and [[JPMorgan Chase]].[^20]
### William Burns
[[William Burns]] served as deputy secretary of state in the Obama administration. The [[Wall Street Journal]]'s reporting on Epstein's recovered calendar recorded three meetings between Burns and Epstein in 2014, the year Burns was preparing to leave government.[^21] When the reporting appeared in May 2023, Burns was director of the Central Intelligence Agency. The agency's spokeswoman, [[Tammy Kupperman Thorp]], said that Burns remembered "meeting Epstein once briefly in New York." The calendar records three meetings and the agency's statement describes one. The mutual friend who made the introduction was not named.[^22]
### The Epstein Files Transparency Act
The [[Epstein Files Transparency Act]] (H.R. 4405, Public Law 119-38) passed the House 427 to 1 on November 18, 2025 after a discharge petition by [[Thomas Massie]] and [[Ro Khanna]], and Trump signed it on November 19.[^23] The Justice Department missed the act's December 19, 2025 deadline, reported on December 24 that it had found more than a million additional documents, and on January 30, 2026 published the bulk of the material.[^24]
### Judges Appointed Under Obama
Obama appointed [[Paul Engelmayer]] to the [[U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York]], and the commission is dated July 27, 2011.[^25] Engelmayer later took over the criminal case of [[Ghislaine Maxwell]], [[United States v. Maxwell]], after [[Alison Nathan]] was elevated to the [[Second Circuit]]. In 2025 he first refused and then granted a request by [[Todd Blanche]], then the Deputy Attorney General, to unseal the case's grand jury record, the latter under the Epstein Files Transparency Act.[^26] In February 2025, sitting in emergency Part I, he barred political appointees and special government employees from Treasury payment systems.[^27]
Obama nominated Nathan on March 31, 2011, the Senate confirmed her on October 13, 2011, and her commission issued on October 17, 2011.[^28] She had been an associate White House counsel to Obama. She presided over the Maxwell prosecution from its unsealing in July 2020 through her sentencing of Maxwell to 20 years in prison on June 28, 2022.[^29]
### The 2016 Intelligence Record
The [[Durham report]] by special counsel [[John Durham]] devotes a section to intelligence received in late July 2016 about the purported "approval by Hillary Clinton on July 26, 2016 of a proposal from one of her foreign policy advisors to vilify Donald Trump by stirring up a scandal claiming interference by the Russian security services." The report calls it the Clinton Plan intelligence and reproduces the text that Director of National Intelligence [[John Ratcliffe]] declassified in September 2020: "The IC does not know the accuracy of this allegation or the extent to which the Russian intelligence analysis may reflect exaggeration or fabrication."[^30]
The report states that John Brennan, then director of the Central Intelligence Agency, met Obama and other White House personnel on July 28, 2016 to discuss the 2016 election and the creation of an interagency Fusion Cell on Russian influence, and that Brennan told the Office that the cell was put in motion after that meeting. Email traffic and witness interviews, the report says, reflect that at least some CIA personnel believed the Clinton Plan intelligence led to the decision to set up the cell.[^31] On August 3, 2016, according to the report, Brennan met the President, the Vice President and other senior officials, including the Attorney General (remotely) and the FBI Director, in the White House Situation Room, and Brennan's declassified handwritten notes reflect that he briefed the "alleged approval by Hillary Clinton on 26 July of a proposal from one of her [campaign] advisors to vilify Donald Trump by stirring up a scandal claiming interference by the Russian security services."[^32] On September 7, 2016, the report states, intelligence officials forwarded an investigative referral to FBI Director [[James Comey]] and Deputy Assistant Director of Counterintelligence [[Peter Strzok]].[^33]
In a closing discussion of compartmentation the report quotes Brennan as telling the Office that "[t]here was no effort at the CIA to restrict information because it was potentially embarrassing for Hillary Clinton .... Obama just wanted the right people involved."[^34] A footnote records notes taken by Deputy FBI Director [[Andrew McCabe]], who was not at the meeting, that "President Obama stated that the FBI should think about doing defensive briefs."[^35]
The Durham report states that the [[Perkins Coie]] lawyer [[Michael Sussmann]] gave the FBI's general counsel, [[James Baker]], data purporting to show a covert communications channel between the [[Trump Organization]] and [[Alfa Bank]], representing that he was not acting for any client; the Office's investigation, the report says, showed those representations were false because Sussmann was representing the Clinton campaign, as evidenced by his law firm's billing records and internal communications.[^36] A jury acquitted Sussmann of the false statement charge after a two-week trial.[^37] The report records that at the trial the campaign manager [[Robby Mook]] and the lawyer [[Marc Elias]] said the campaign did not authorize Sussmann to take the Alfa Bank allegations to the FBI, and that Mook testified that top campaign officials were aware of the allegations and that Clinton approved their dissemination to the media before questions about their accuracy had been resolved.[^38]
### Intelligence Appointees and the 2008 FISA Vote
On July 9, 2008, as a senator from Illinois, Obama voted for H.R. 6304, the bill amending the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978, which passed the Senate 69 to 28.[^39] As president he named [[Leon Panetta]] Director of the CIA (sworn in February 13, 2009), [[James Clapper]] [[Director of National Intelligence]] (confirmed August 5, 2010) and Brennan Director of the CIA (sworn in March 8, 2013, the day after the Senate confirmed him following a nearly 13-hour filibuster by [[Rand Paul]]).[^40][^41][^42]
### Surveillance, Section 215 and the Snowden Disclosures
On August 9, 2013 Obama told a press conference that he would "work with Congress to pursue appropriate reforms to Section 215 of the Patriot Act," the program that collected telephone records. He also said the Justice Department would make public its legal rationale for collection under that section.[^1]
The [[Guardian]] reported on June 27, 2013, publishing a top-secret draft report by the National Security Agency's inspector general, that the agency had collected US email records in bulk for more than two years under Obama.[^43] On March 12, 2013 [[Ron Wyden]] asked James Clapper, then Director of National Intelligence, at an open hearing of the Senate Intelligence Committee whether the NSA collected "any type of data at all on millions or hundreds of millions of Americans." Clapper later apologized for testimony that [[NBC News]] and the [[Associated Press]] described as "clearly erroneous."[^44]
On January 17, 2014 Obama issued [[Presidential Policy Directive 28]] on signals intelligence. The directive says that "all persons should be treated with dignity and respect, regardless of their nationality or wherever they might reside." It also says that the collection of signals intelligence in bulk "may consequently result in the collection of information about persons whose activities are not of foreign intelligence or counterintelligence value," and that "The United States will therefore impose new limits on its use of signals intelligence collected in bulk."[^45] The directive followed the disclosures of [[Edward Snowden]], which began in June 2013.
### The bin Laden Raid and the Drone Program
On May 2, 2011 Obama announced the operation against [[Osama bin Laden]]: "Today, at my direction, the United States launched a targeted operation against that compound in Abbottabad, Pakistan." He said that bin Laden had "escaped across the Afghan border into Pakistan" and that "I met repeatedly with my national security team as we developed more information about the possibility that we had located bin Laden hiding within a compound deep inside of Pakistan."[^46]
In a speech at the [[National Defense University]] on May 23, 2013, Obama said that "From our use of drones to the detention of terrorist suspects, the decisions that we are making now will define the type of nation" the country would leave to its children. He described "lethal, targeted action against al Qaeda and its associated forces, including with remotely piloted aircraft commonly referred to as drones," and said that "the use of drones is heavily constrained."[^47]
### Stuxnet and the Olympic Games Program
In June 2012 [[David Sanger]] reported in the [[New York Times]] that Obama had accelerated cyberattacks against the uranium enrichment program at [[Natanz]] in [[Iran]]. The program had begun under the Bush administration and was code-named Olympic Games. A worm had escaped the plant in 2010 and spread across the internet. The last attack in the later series, Sanger reported, "temporarily took out nearly 1,000 of the 5,000 centrifuges Iran had spinning at the time to purify uranium."[^48] The account drew on interviews with current and former American, European and Israeli officials, none of whom would allow their names to be used. Sanger's 2012 book Confront and Conceal covers the same program.[^49] The article states that in a meeting at the White House days before his inauguration, [[George W. Bush]] urged Obama to preserve two classified programs, Olympic Games and the drone program in Pakistan, and that Obama took the advice. It states that Panetta, General James Cartwright, vice chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and [[Michael Morell]], deputy director of the CIA, told Obama in the summer of 2010 that the worm had escaped, and that the collaboration with [[Unit 8200]] of the Israeli military was driven in part by the American aim of dissuading Israel from a pre-emptive strike.[^48]
Cartwright pleaded guilty in October 2016 to making false statements to federal investigators in the leak inquiry; prosecutors said he had falsely told them he had not provided information that appeared in a news article and a book by Sanger.[^50]
### Executive Order 13581 and Transnational Criminal Organizations
On July 24, 2011 Obama signed [[Executive Order 13581]], "Blocking Property of Transnational Criminal Organizations." The order took effect at 12:01 a.m. eastern daylight time on July 25, 2011, was published in the Federal Register on July 27, 2011 and blocks the property of the organizations listed in its Annex, which names four entities: the Brothers' Circle, the [[Camorra]], the [[Yakuza]] (also called Boryokudan or Gokudo) and [[Los Zetas]].[^51]
### The 28 Pages
The [[Joint Inquiry]] into the September 11 attacks ended with a section that was classified after its 2002 publication. On July 15, 2016 the [[House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence]], under Chairman [[Devin Nunes]] and Ranking Member [[Adam Schiff]], approved publication of the section. The committee's release states that after a declassification review "the Obama Administration decided to declassify" the section, which was sent to congressional leadership with redactions to protect sources and methods.[^52] The release also says that the section "does not put forward vetted conclusions, but rather unverified leads that were later fully investigated by the Intelligence Community."[^52]
### Jonathan Pollard
[[Jonathan Pollard]] applied for commutation of his sentence on October 15, 2010. A letter from the [[Office of the Pardon Attorney]] dated March 14, 2011 stated that the application remained pending.[^53] On December 21, 2010 former Attorney General [[Michael Mukasey]] wrote to Obama asking that he commute the sentence. Mukasey wrote that former CIA director [[James Woolsey]] and former Senate Intelligence Committee chairman [[Dennis DeConcini]] had expressed "firmly their belief that his sentence should be commuted." He called the submission to the sentencing court of affidavits from [[Caspar Weinberger]], seeking a heavier sentence than the prosecutors requested, "deeply disturbing," and wrote that "a life sentence can only be considered utterly disproportionate to the crime."[^54] Mukasey also cited a submission by former Assistant Secretary of Defense [[Lawrence Korb]] on the affidavits.[^54] Pollard was released from prison on November 20, 2015 and placed on parole. The conditions included a curfew, an electronic monitor, limits on the jobs he could take, and a prohibition on leaving the United States.[^55] Israel had granted him citizenship in 1995.[^55]
### Chelsea Manning
On January 17, 2017 Obama commuted the sentence of [[Chelsea Manning]], who had been serving a 35-year term for the [[WikiLeaks]] disclosures. Release was set for May 17, 2017.[^56] The commutation was part of a clemency action that the White House counted as 209 commutations and 64 pardons.[^57] Among those pardoned that day was the retired Marine general [[James Cartwright]], who had pleaded guilty in October 2016 to making false statements in the investigation of a leak about the cyberattack on Iran's nuclear facilities.[^50]
### Unidentified Aerial Phenomena
On May 17, 2021 Obama appeared on [[The Late Late Show with James Corden]]. When [[James Corden]] handed the interview to the bandleader [[Reggie Watts]], the conversation turned to extraterrestrial life. Obama asked, "Is there a lab somewhere where we're keeping the alien specimens and spaceships?" and said the answer was no. He then said: "But what is true is that there is footage and records of objects in the sky that we don't know exactly what they are."[^58]
In an interview with the podcast host [[Brian Tyler Cohen]] published on February 14, 2026, Obama said of aliens, "They're real but I haven't seen them," and that they are not "being kept in... what is it? Area 51." On February 15 he posted a statement on Instagram: "I saw no evidence during my presidency that extraterrestrials have made contact with us. Really!"[^59] On February 19, 2026 Trump posted on Truth Social that he would direct the [[Pentagon]] to begin releasing government files on UAP, and told a reporter that Obama had given classified information when he said aliens were "real."[^60] On May 8, 2026 the Department of Defense began posting files at war.gov/UFO, with more than 160 files covering more than 400 incidents.[^61]
[[Leslie Kean]] wrote that in August 2014 she met [[John Podesta]], then an adviser to Obama, in the West Wing and proposed that one person in the [[Office of Science and Technology Policy]] be assigned to the subject of UFOs. In her account the proposal went nowhere.[^62] Podesta had written the foreword to her 2010 book, and in June 2011 he invited her to make a confidential presentation at the [[Center for American Progress]], which he had founded. Kean's public records effort began in 2002, when [[Larry Landsman]] of the [[Syfy]] channel invited her to lead it on the [[Kecksburg incident]] of December 9, 1965, and the drive was "bankrolled by" the Sci Fi Channel.[^63]
[[Daniel Correa]], chief executive of the [[Federation of American Scientists]], was the Office of Science and Technology Policy's assistant director for innovation policy for four years under Obama.[^64]
### Campaign Money and Donors
Employees listing Goldman Sachs as their employer gave 553,638.39 dollars in 764 itemized contributions to [[Obama for America]] in the 2008 cycle. Employees listing [[Credit Suisse]] gave 256,403.03 dollars in 485 contributions, and employees listing [[UBS]] gave 267,344.97 dollars in 518.[^65]
On October 2, 2008 the Judicial Confirmation Network, later known as the [[Judicial Crisis Network]], filed a 24-hour notice of electioneering communications with the [[Federal Election Commission]]. The disbursements, dated September 29, 2008, included a placement with the [[Pittsburgh]] firm [[BrabenderCox]] for an advertisement titled "Chose" that named Obama. The notice reported 548,063 dollars in total. The persons listed as sharing or exercising control of the filing were [[Neil Corkery]], [[Gary Marx]], whose employer was [[Century Strategies]], and [[Dan Casey]], whose employer was [[DC Strategies]]. Marx signed the form.[^66]
The [[Horowitz Family Foundation]] gave 250,000 dollars to the [[Barack Obama Foundation]] in the year ended June 2019, according to its Form 990-PF filings.[^67] In April 2026 [[Kalshi]] announced [[Stephanie Cutter]], a former deputy campaign manager for Obama's 2012 campaign, as a policy adviser.[^68]
### Advisers, Appointees and Nominees
The 2014 board of the [[Counter Extremism Project]] included [[Dennis Ross]], whom the [[Jewish Telegraphic Agency]] described as an adviser on Middle East affairs to Presidents Clinton and Obama.[^69] The report states that the project declined to identify its sources of funding except for [[Thomas Kaplan]], a billionaire commodities investor, and that the project was "backed by a host of pro-Israel stalwarts."[^69] [[Brian Quintenz]] was nominated to the [[Commodity Futures Trading Commission]] by both Obama and Trump and served as a commissioner from August 15, 2017 to August 31, 2021.[^70] [[Mariano-Florentino Cuéllar]] led the [[Domestic Policy Council]]'s teams on civil and criminal justice, public health, immigration and regulatory reform in Obama's first term, and had co-chaired the Obama-Biden transition's immigration working group. He later served on the [[President's Intelligence Advisory Board]].[^71] Ro Khanna served as a deputy assistant secretary of commerce in the Obama administration.[^72]
The papers of [[C.B. Scott Jones]] at the University of Colorado include drafts of letters to Presidents George W. Bush, Clinton and Obama.[^73] On May 25, 2016 in [[Ho Chi Minh City]], Obama thanked [[Bob Kerrey]], a former senator, for being "one of the key people to help lead this effort" on [[Fulbright University Vietnam]].[^74] Kerrey had been named chairman of the board of trustees of the university in May 2016. The [[Trust for University Innovation in Vietnam]], whose chairman [[Thomas J. Vallely]] called him "the ideal candidate for the job," promoted the project, and [[Asia Times]] reported that the appointment angered some people in Vietnam after the online outlet [[Zing]] published a story on Kerrey's role at Thanh Phong.[^75]
[[Charles C. Johnson]] promoted the claim that [[Susan Rice]], then Obama's national security adviser, had directed surveillance of the Trump campaign.[^76] Rice denied using intelligence to spy on Trump advisers.[^77] The New York Times described Johnson as a "notorious conservative provocateur" who played a pivotal early role alongside [[Peter Thiel]] in the formation of [[Clearview AI]].[^78] A business partner later sued Johnson, as reported by [[Semafor]], for falsely presenting himself as an intelligence agent.[^79]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Barack Obama, "Remarks by the President in a Press Conference," The White House, August 9, 2013. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2013/08/09/remarks-president-press-conference
[^2]: "The Nobel Peace Prize 2009," NobelPrize.org, announcement of the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize to Barack H. Obama. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/2009/summary/
[^3]: S. Ann Dunham papers, NAA.2011-04, National Anthropological Archives, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, biographical note and chronology. https://sova.si.edu/record/naa.2011-04
[^4]: S. Ann Dunham, *Surviving against the Odds: Village Industry in Indonesia,* edited by Alice G. Dewey and Nancy I. Cooper (Durham: Duke University Press, December 2009). https://www.dukeupress.edu/surviving-against-the-odds
[^5]: Janny Scott, "A Free-Spirited Wanderer Who Set Obama's Path," *The New York Times,* March 14, 2008. https://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/14/us/politics/14obama.html
[^6]: Blake Hounshell, "Dreams From His Stepfather," *Foreign Policy,* June 4, 2010. https://foreignpolicy.com/2010/06/04/dreams-from-his-stepfather/
[^7]: Teguh Santosa, "Wayne Madens: Obama dan Keluarganya Dibesarkan CIA," *Rakyat Merdeka Online,* August 27, 2010, translating the Press TV interview with Wayne Madsen titled "White House happy with CIA-trained Obama." https://rmol.id/read/2010/08/27/2317/wayne-madens-obama-dan-keluarganya-dibesarkan-cia
[^8]: "Anthropological Issues and US President Obama," Berghahn Books blog. https://berghahnbooks.com/blog/the-presidents-mother-the-anthropologist-and-the-anthropologists-son
[^9]: "Obama earned his stripes during time as Tiger," *The Occidental,* January 1, 2016, quoting the Columbia alumni newsletter. https://theoccidentalnews.com/opinions/2016/01/01/obama-earned-his-stripes-during-time-as-tiger/2883082
[^10]: FactCheck.org, "Obama Polishes His Resume," June 2008, quoting *The New York Times* and *The Washington Post.* https://www.factcheck.org/2008/06/obama-polishes-his-resume-2/
[^11]: Barack Obama, "Breaking the War Mentality," *Sundial* (Columbia University), March 10, 1983, as reprinted by *Origins of Our Time,* May 1, 2024. https://ourtime.substack.com/p/breaking-the-war-mentality-guest
[^12]: John M. Crewdson, "C.I.A. Established Many Links to Journalists in U.S. and Abroad," *The New York Times,* December 27, 1977 (with reporting by Joseph B. Treaster). https://www.nytimes.com/1977/12/27/archives/cia-established-many-links-to-journalists-in-us-and-abroad.html
[^13]: Lewis, Mark. "How Epstein leveraged the Nobel Peace Prize to connect with the world's most powerful," *Yahoo News,* February 14, 2026. https://www.yahoo.com/news/articles/epstein-levaraged-nobel-peace-prize-230549753.html
[^14]: "Thorbjørn Jagland: Norwegian ex-prime minister charged after probe into alleged Epstein ties, lawyers say," *CNN,* February 13, 2026. http://web.archive.org/web/20260420203121/https://www.cnn.com/2026/02/13/europe/norway-pm-jagland-charged-epstein-ties-intl-hnk
[^15]: "The Former Biglaw Partner In Jeffrey Epstein's Private Calendar," *Above the Law,* May 2023, summarizing the *Wall Street Journal*'s "Jeffrey Epstein's Private Calendar" series. https://abovethelaw.com/2023/05/the-former-biglaw-partner-in-jeffrey-epsteins-private-calendar/
[^16]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library: Kathy Ruemmler to Jeffrey Epstein, January 8, 2015, EFTA02386175 (DataSet 11). https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2011/EFTA02386175.pdf
[^17]: CBS News, February 2026, on Ruemmler's resignation as Goldman Sachs general counsel. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/kathryn-ruemmler-resigning-from-goldman-sachs-epstein-files/
[^18]: PBS NewsHour, "Obama economic team turning over as Larry Summers departs," September 21, 2010. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/economy/obama-economic-team-turning-over-as-larry-summers-departs
[^19]: "Summers Resigns From OpenAI Board Amid Backlash Over Epstein Emails." *The Harvard Crimson,* November 19, 2025. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2025/11/19/summers-resigns-open-ai/ ; "Larry Summers banned for life from American Economic Association." Associated Press via *Fortune,* December 3, 2025. https://fortune.com/2025/12/03/larry-summers-banned-for-life-from-american-economic-association
[^20]: "Bondi taps acting U.S. Attorney Jay Clayton to probe Democrats' ties to Epstein," *The Washington Times,* November 14, 2025. https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2025/nov/14/bondi-taps-acting-us-attorney-jay-clayton-probe-democrats-ties/
[^21]: Ponieman, Natan. *Benzinga,* May 2023, on Epstein's private calendar, summarizing the *Wall Street Journal.* https://www.benzinga.com/news/23/05/32134015/private-calendar-reveals-jeffrey-epsteins-meetings-with-cia-director-noamchomsky-and-goldman-sachs
[^22]: *The Daily Beast,* May 2023, on Epstein's calendar meetings with Noam Chomsky and William Burns. https://www.thedailybeast.com/epstein-calendar-reveals-meetings-with-noam-chomsky-and-former-cia-chief-william-burns/
[^23]: Epstein Files Transparency Act, Pub. L. No. 119-38, § 2(c)(1)(C), 139 Stat. 656. https://www.congress.gov/119/plaws/publ38/PLAW-119publ38.pdf ; Office of the Clerk, Roll Call 289, November 18, 2025. https://clerk.house.gov/Votes/2025289
[^24]: U.S. Department of Justice, Press Release No. 26-84, January 30, 2026. https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/department-justice-publishes-35-million-responsive-pages-compliance-epstein-files
[^25]: Federal Judicial Center, "Engelmayer, Paul Adam," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/engelmayer-paul-adam
[^26]: United States v. Maxwell, No. 1:20-cr-00330 (S.D.N.Y.), ECF Nos. 784, 785 (July 18, 2025); Opinion and Order, ECF No. 809 (Aug. 11, 2025), reported at 794 F. Supp. 3d 215, 225-29; Opinion and Order, ECF No. 820 (Dec. 9, 2025). https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/17318376/united-states-v-maxwell/
[^27]: Order, State of New York et al. v. Trump et al., No. 25 Civ. 1144 (JAV) (S.D.N.Y. Feb. 8, 2025), ECF No. 6 (Engelmayer, J., sitting in Part I). https://nysd.uscourts.gov/sites/default/files/2025-02/25cv1144%20Order%20on%20TRO%202%208%2025_0.pdf
[^28]: Federal Judicial Center, "Nathan, Alison Julie," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/nathan-alison-julie
[^29]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA02842688, Court Records (United States v. Maxwell, No. 1:20-cr-00330 (S.D.N.Y. 2020)), opinion, United States v. Maxwell, No. 22-1426-cr (2d Cir. Sept. 17, 2024). https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/Court%20Records/United%20States%20v.%20Maxwell%2C%20No.%20120-cr-00330%20(S.D.N.Y.%202020)/EFTA02842688.pdf
[^30]: John H. Durham, Special Counsel, *Report on Matters Related to Intelligence Activities and Investigations Arising Out of the 2016 Presidential Campaigns*, U.S. Department of Justice, May 12, 2023, p. 81 (Clinton Plan intelligence; Ratcliffe letter of September 29, 2020 and Brennan Notes declassified October 6, 2020). https://www.justice.gov/storage/durhamreport.pdf
[^31]: John H. Durham, Special Counsel, *Report on Matters Related to Intelligence Activities and Investigations Arising Out of the 2016 Presidential Campaigns*, U.S. Department of Justice, May 12, 2023, p. 84. https://www.justice.gov/storage/durhamreport.pdf
[^32]: John H. Durham, Special Counsel, *Report on Matters Related to Intelligence Activities and Investigations Arising Out of the 2016 Presidential Campaigns*, U.S. Department of Justice, May 12, 2023, p. 85 (Brennan White House briefing). https://www.justice.gov/storage/durhamreport.pdf
[^33]: John H. Durham, Special Counsel, *Report on Matters Related to Intelligence Activities and Investigations Arising Out of the 2016 Presidential Campaigns*, U.S. Department of Justice, May 12, 2023, p. 82. https://www.justice.gov/storage/durhamreport.pdf
[^34]: John H. Durham, Special Counsel, *Report on Matters Related to Intelligence Activities and Investigations Arising Out of the 2016 Presidential Campaigns*, U.S. Department of Justice, May 12, 2023, p. 297. https://www.justice.gov/storage/durhamreport.pdf
[^35]: John H. Durham, Special Counsel, *Report on Matters Related to Intelligence Activities and Investigations Arising Out of the 2016 Presidential Campaigns*, U.S. Department of Justice, May 12, 2023, p. 298, n. 1721. https://www.justice.gov/storage/durhamreport.pdf
[^36]: John H. Durham, Special Counsel, *Report on Matters Related to Intelligence Activities and Investigations Arising Out of the 2016 Presidential Campaigns*, U.S. Department of Justice, May 12, 2023, p. 16. https://www.justice.gov/storage/durhamreport.pdf
[^37]: John H. Durham, Special Counsel, *Report on Matters Related to Intelligence Activities and Investigations Arising Out of the 2016 Presidential Campaigns*, U.S. Department of Justice, May 12, 2023, p. 287. https://www.justice.gov/storage/durhamreport.pdf
[^38]: John H. Durham, Special Counsel, *Report on Matters Related to Intelligence Activities and Investigations Arising Out of the 2016 Presidential Campaigns*, U.S. Department of Justice, May 12, 2023, pp. 265-266. https://www.justice.gov/storage/durhamreport.pdf
[^39]: U.S. Senate, Roll Call Vote 168, 110th Congress, 2nd Session, H.R. 6304, July 9, 2008. https://www.senate.gov/legislative/LIS/roll_call_votes/vote1102/vote_110_2_00168.xml
[^40]: "CIA Director Sworn In, Emphasizes Importance of 'Honesty'," *ABC News,* February 13, 2009. https://abcnews.go.com/TheLaw/LawPolitics/story?id=6874727
[^41]: "Senate confirms Clapper as intell chief," *Defense Systems,* August 6, 2010. https://www.defenseone.com/defense-systems/2010/08/senate-confirms-clapper-as-intell-chief/189665
[^42]: Eyder Peralta, "John Brennan Is Sworn In As CIA Director," *NPR,* March 8, 2013. https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2013/03/08/173826021/john-brennan-is-sworn-in-as-cia-director
[^43]: Glenn Greenwald and Spencer Ackerman, "NSA collected US email records in bulk for more than two years under Obama," *The Guardian,* June 27, 2013, publishing a top-secret draft report by the NSA inspector general. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/27/nsa-data-mining-authorised-obama
[^44]: NBC News / Associated Press, "Director of National Intelligence apologizes for his 'clearly erroneous' NSA testimony," July 2, 2013. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/amp/wbna52381116
[^45]: Presidential Policy Directive 28, "Signals Intelligence Activities," January 17, 2014, The White House. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2014/01/17/presidential-policy-directive-signals-intelligence-activities
[^46]: Barack Obama, "Remarks by the President on Osama Bin Laden," The White House, May 2, 2011. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2011/05/02/remarks-president-osama-bin-laden
[^47]: Barack Obama, "Remarks by the President at the National Defense University," The White House, May 23, 2013. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2013/05/23/remarks-president-national-defense-university
[^48]: David E. Sanger, "Obama Ordered Wave of Cyberattacks Against Iran," *The New York Times,* June 1, 2012. https://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/01/world/middleeast/obama-ordered-wave-of-cyberattacks-against-iran.html
[^49]: David E. Sanger, *Confront and Conceal: Obama's Secret Wars and Surprising Use of American Power* (2012), excerpt as reported by *The Register,* June 1, 2012. https://www.theregister.com/2012/06/01/stuxnet_joint_us_israeli_op/
[^50]: "Obama pardons retired Gen. James Cartwright for lying during leak probe," *CBS News* (AP), January 17, 2017. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/james-cartwright-president-obama-pardons-lying-leak-probe
[^51]: Executive Order 13581 of July 24, 2011, "Blocking Property of Transnational Criminal Organizations," 76 Fed. Reg. 44757 (July 27, 2011). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2011-07-27/pdf/2011-19156.pdf
[^52]: House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, "Intel Committee publishes declassified '28 pages,'" press release, July 15, 2016. https://intelligence.house.gov/2016/07/15/intel-committee-publishes-declassified-28-pages/
[^53]: Office of the Pardon Attorney, U.S. Department of Justice, letter to Grant F. Smith, FOIA Request No. 2011-036, March 14, 2011. https://www.israellobby.org/pollard/03142011Pollard_release.pdf
[^54]: Michael B. Mukasey to President Barack Obama, letter of December 21, 2010. https://www.israellobby.org/pollard/12212010Mukasey.pdf
[^55]: Matthew S. Schwartz, "Jonathan Pollard, Who Sold Cold War Secrets To Israel, Completes Parole," NPR, carried by *Georgia Public Broadcasting,* November 21, 2020. https://www.gpb.org/news/2020/11/21/jonathan-pollard-who-sold-cold-war-secrets-israel-completes-parole
[^56]: "Obama Commutes Chelsea Manning's Prison Sentence for Leak," *Bloomberg,* January 17, 2017. https://www.bloomberg.com/politics/articles/2017-01-17/obama-commutes-sentences-of-chelsea-manning-and-former-general
[^57]: "President Barack Obama commutes sentence of Chelsea Manning," ABC30, January 17, 2017. https://abc30.com/post/president-barack-obama-commutes-sentence-of-chelsea-manning/1706866/
[^58]: "Obama says government doesn't have alien specimens but UFOs are real," *Vice,* May 18, 2021, on Obama's appearance on *The Late Late Show with James Corden,* May 17, 2021. https://vice.com/en/article/obama-says-government-doesnt-have-alien-specimens-but-ufos-are-real
[^59]: "Obama clarifies alien comments after telling podcast they're real," *KRDO,* February 16, 2026, on Obama's interview with Brian Tyler Cohen and his Instagram statement of February 15, 2026. https://krdo.com/news/2026/02/16/obama-clarifies-alien-comments-after-telling-podcast-theyre-real/
[^60]: "Trump says he's directing the Pentagon to release files related to UFOs and aliens." *NBC News,* February 19, 2026 (quoting Trump's Truth Social post). https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/trump-administration/trump-says-directing-pentagon-release-files-related-ufos-aliens-rcna259833
[^61]: "Pentagon releases declassified UFO files including videos and photos held by the government for decades." *NBC News,* May 8, 2026. https://www.nbcnews.com/science/ufos-and-anomalous-phenomena/ufo-uap-files-pentagon-release-trump-rcna344204
[^62]: Lewis-Kraus, Gideon. "How the Pentagon Started Taking U.F.O.s Seriously." *The New Yorker,* May 10, 2021. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2021/05/10/how-the-pentagon-started-taking-ufos-seriously
[^63]: Gibb, Tom. "Reality 'X-file': People in Kecksburg want to resolve what fell from the sky in 1965." *Pittsburgh Post-Gazette,* March 9, 2003, p. 21.
[^64]: Federation of American Scientists, "Daniel Correa," biography. https://fas.org/expert/daniel-correa/
[^65]: Federal Election Commission, OpenFEC API, schedule A contributions by employer, committee C00431445 (Obama for America), 2008 cycle, retrieved October 15, 2026. https://api.open.fec.gov/v1/schedules/schedule_a/by_employer/?committee_id=C00431445&cycle=2008
[^66]: Federal Election Commission, FEC Form 9, 24 Hour Notice of Disbursements/Obligations for Electioneering Communications, Judicial Confirmation Network, received October 2, 2008 (committee C30001242), Schedule 9-B, pages 2 to 4. https://docquery.fec.gov/pdf/424/28039843424/28039843424.pdf
[^67]: Horowitz Family Foundation (EIN 35-7050910), Form 990-PF for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2019 (IRS object 201903169349101270).
[^68]: PR News, "Kalshi Taps Precision's Cutter," *O'Dwyer's,* April 3, 2026. https://www.odwyerpr.com/story/public/24567/2026-04-03/kalshi-taps-precisions-cutter.html
[^69]: Uriel Heilman, "Backers of anti-Iran group create mirror group against violent Islamists," *Jewish Telegraphic Agency,* September 22, 2014, as published by the *AZ Jewish Post.* https://azjewishpost.com/2014/backers-of-anti-iran-group-create-mirror-group-against-violent-islamists/
[^70]: Commodity Futures Trading Commission, "Former Commissioners." https://www.cftc.gov/About/Commissioners/FormerCommissioners/index.htm
[^71]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, "Mariano-Florentino (Tino) Cuéllar," former president (2021 to 2026), biography. https://carnegieendowment.org/people/mariano-florentino-tino-cuellar
[^72]: Office of Representative Ro Khanna, "About Rep. Khanna," official biography. https://khanna.house.gov/about/about-rep-khanna
[^73]: University of Colorado Boulder Libraries, Rare and Distinctive Collections, "C. B. 'Scott' Jones papers," COU:4004, biographical note and scope note. https://archives.colorado.edu/repositories/2/resources/346
[^74]: Barack Obama, "Remarks by the President at YSEALI Town Hall," Ho Chi Minh City, May 25, 2016, The White House. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2016/05/25/remarks-president-obama-yseali-town-hall
[^75]: "Vietnam’s Kerrey dilemma: Fulbright U appointment is lightning rod for US ties," *Asia Times,* June 2016. https://asiatimes.com/2016/06/vietnams-kerrey-dilemma-fulbright-u-appointment-is-lightning-rod-for-us-ties/
[^76]: ABC30, "Susan Rice denies using intel to spy on Trump advisers," April 2017. https://abc30.com/post/susan-rice-denies-using-intel-to-spy-on-trump-advisers/1839001/
[^77]: MPR News, "Rice denies unmasking for political purposes," April 4, 2017. https://www.mprnews.org/story/2017/04/04/rice-denies-unmasking-for-political-purposes
[^78]: "What We Learned About Clearview AI's Hidden 'Co-Founder.'" *The New York Times,* March 18, 2021. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/18/technology/clearview-facial-recognition-ai.html
[^79]: "Business Partner Sues Chuck Johnson for Falsely Presenting as Intelligence Agent." *Semafor,* October 16, 2024. https://www.semafor.com/article/10/16/2024/business-partner-sues-chuck-johnson-for-falsely-presenting-as-intelligence-agent

55
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Claiborne Pell.md
View file

@ -16,16 +16,16 @@ relations:
- type: director_of
with: "[[Institute of Noetic Sciences]]"
role: "board member as of August 1994, per Jones"
fn: 13
fn: 14
- type: director_of
with: "[[International Association for Near-Death Studies]]"
role: "advisory board, 1988"
fn: 7
fn: 8
- type: head_of
with: "[[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]]"
role: "chairman as of July 1988 per UPI; term dates not verified"
fn: 7
updated: 2026-10-03
fn: 8
updated: 2026-10-15
---
Claiborne Pell (1918-2009) was a powerful [[Democratic Party|Democratic]] Senator from [[Rhode Island]] and a ranking member of the [[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]]. A former [[Foreign Service]] officer who had worked behind enemy lines in Nazi-occupied [[Hungary]], Pell was a firm supporter and proponent of [[Extrasensory Perception|extrasensory perception]] and the [[Remote Viewing]] program[^1].
@ -38,45 +38,46 @@ Pell also played a role in the 1987 [[Geneva]] disarmament talks. He was present
### Education and Public Service
Pell was born in [[New York City]] on November 22, 1918, graduated from [[Princeton University]] in 1940 and took a master's degree at [[Columbia University]] in 1946. He served in the [[United States Coast Guard|Coast Guard]] from 1941, spent seven years as a Foreign Service officer, was elected to the Senate from Rhode Island in 1960, served from 1961 to 1996, and died on January 1, 2009.[^2]
Pell was born in [[New York City]] on November 22, 1918, graduated from [[Princeton University]] in 1940 and took a master's degree at [[Columbia University]] in 1946. He served in the [[United States Coast Guard|Coast Guard]] from 1941, spent seven years as a Foreign Service officer, was elected to the Senate from Rhode Island in 1960, served from January 3, 1961, to January 3, 1997,[^2] and died on January 1, 2009.[^3]
### The Briefing of September 29, 1982
From five to six that afternoon, in his office at the Capitol, Pell received "a GRILL FLAME information briefing" arranged by [[Jack Vorona]] of the [[Defense Intelligence Agency|DIA]] and given with Major [[Gerald Fox]] of the Army staff and representatives of [[United States Army Intelligence and Security Command|INSCOM]], whose project manager, Lieutenant Colonel [[Robert Jachim]], wrote the record, with two of his aides present; "although Senator Pell had invited 8 members of the [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]] to attend the briefing none were present." The Army's part covered the history of its involvement, "how remote viewing is used for intelligence collection," and four projects whose names are redacted. "The briefing was well received. Senator Pell had had previous briefings concerning parapsychology from Dr. Vorona. He was also acquainted with the work of Dr. [[Robert Jahn]], Dean, College of Engineering, Princeton University. Senator Pell stated that while he could not assist in FY83, he offered to try to help in the future." Two days later the Army's operations lost their funding in the [[National Foreign Intelligence Program]]. In November 1983 INSCOM's chief of staff "asked for a status report on the Senator Pell project," and the [[Center Lane]] manager answered "that we were developing an operational plan to support the project, but as yet we had not collected any information."[^3]
From five to six that afternoon, in his office at the Capitol, Pell received "a GRILL FLAME information briefing" arranged by [[Jack Vorona]] of the [[Defense Intelligence Agency|DIA]] and given with Major [[Gerald Fox]] of the Army staff and representatives of [[United States Army Intelligence and Security Command|INSCOM]], whose project manager, Lieutenant Colonel [[Robert Jachim]], wrote the record, with two of his aides present; "although Senator Pell had invited 8 members of the [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]] to attend the briefing none were present." The Army's part covered the history of its involvement, "how remote viewing is used for intelligence collection," and four projects whose names are redacted. "The briefing was well received. Senator Pell had had previous briefings concerning parapsychology from Dr. Vorona. He was also acquainted with the work of Dr. [[Robert Jahn]], Dean, College of Engineering, Princeton University. Senator Pell stated that while he could not assist in FY83, he offered to try to help in the future." Two days later the Army's operations lost their funding in the [[National Foreign Intelligence Program]]. In November 1983 INSCOM's chief of staff "asked for a status report on the Senator Pell project," and the [[Center Lane]] manager answered "that we were developing an operational plan to support the project, but as yet we had not collected any information."[^4]
The chief of staff who asked Buzby for the status report on November 30, 1983, was Colonel Partridge; no later record in Buzby's memoranda names the project again. An undated DIA letter to Pell, S-22,600/DTI-S, refers to "your recent visit to DIA," at which "you raised the issue of the accuracy and reliability of certain journalistic claims regarding the possible existence of Russian psychoenergetic devices," and encloses "Psychoenergetics Devices: A Review and Assessment," with "a list of possible options and recommendations for your consideration" should "the journalist decide to go public with his allegations."[^4]
The chief of staff who asked Buzby for the status report on November 30, 1983, was Colonel Partridge; no later record in Buzby's memoranda names the project again. An undated DIA letter to Pell, S-22,600/DTI-S, refers to "your recent visit to DIA," at which "you raised the issue of the accuracy and reliability of certain journalistic claims regarding the possible existence of Russian psychoenergetic devices," and encloses "Psychoenergetics Devices: A Review and Assessment," with "a list of possible options and recommendations for your consideration" should "the journalist decide to go public with his allegations."[^5]
### Scott Jones and the Human Potential Foundation
From January 1985 to March 1991 Pell employed [[C. B. Scott Jones]], a retired [[United States Navy|Navy]] intelligence officer, as special assistant, "with the purpose of investigating consciousness research being conducted in other countries, primarily the USSR," according to the finding aid to Jones's papers.[^5] The [[Washington Times]] reported in 1989 that Pell, "perhaps Capitol Hill's most unabashed believer, has urged the [[National Science Foundation]], the [[Department of Defense|Defense Department]] and other government agencies to increase psychic research funding" and had a full-time staff member whose exclusive job was monitoring reports of psychic activities.[^6] [[United Press International]], summarizing the [[Providence Journal|Providence Sunday Journal]] of July 17, 1988, reported that Pell attended a national symposium on abduction in 1987, that Jones kept a top secret clearance and earned nearly 50,000 dollars a year, that Pell sat on the advisory board of the [[International Association for Near-Death Studies]] and had helped organize a Washington symposium on near-death experiences two years earlier, and that the psychologist [[Ray Hyman]] of the [[University of Oregon]], who had evaluated military applications of psychic research for the Army, said Pell had "been arguing very forcefully" for a "Manhattan Project-style effort" to catch up with the Russians, which Pell called "vastly exaggerated," saying he favored "a modest increase in financial support" for "intelligent, skeptical" research; the report adds that in 1987 Pell invited Geller to Washington for a demonstration before about 30 congressional and [[Pentagon]] aides.[^7] The version of Emery's Providence Journal story printed in *The [[San Francisco Examiner]]* of August 13, 1988 called Pell "Capitol Hill's best-known student of psychic phenomena, near-death experiences and other areas on the fringes of science," stated that he had had a full-time assistant for three years who promotes "developing human potential," and gave Jones's pay as $48,853 a year with a top-secret clearance (the UPI summary above says "nearly 50,000 dollars" and "top secret"). In that article Pell is reported to have invited Geller in April 1987 with at least one other member of Congress in the audience, and Pell described Hyman's account as "correct but vastly exaggerated."[^8] The *[[Winston-Salem Journal]]* of July 18, 1988, summarizing the same story, reported that Pell, then 69, told the Providence Journal he would "probably spend more time with this" if he were not in the Senate.[^9] The Pell papers at the [[University of Rhode Island]] list three files, "Human Potential Foundation: [[C.B. Scott Jones|Scott Jones]] File" (1987; 1987 to 1994; 1988 to 1991), in the subject file series, box 42, folders 464 to 466.[^10]
From January 1985 to March 1991 Pell employed [[C. B. Scott Jones]], a retired [[United States Navy|Navy]] intelligence officer, as special assistant, "with the purpose of investigating consciousness research being conducted in other countries, primarily the USSR," according to the finding aid to Jones's papers.[^6] The [[Washington Times]] reported in 1989 that Pell, "perhaps Capitol Hill's most unabashed believer, has urged the [[National Science Foundation]], the [[Department of Defense|Defense Department]] and other government agencies to increase psychic research funding" and had a full-time staff member whose exclusive job was monitoring reports of psychic activities.[^7] [[United Press International]], summarizing the [[Providence Journal|Providence Sunday Journal]] of July 17, 1988, reported that Pell attended a national symposium on abduction in 1987, that Jones kept a top secret clearance and earned nearly 50,000 dollars a year, that Pell sat on the advisory board of the [[International Association for Near-Death Studies]] and had helped organize a Washington symposium on near-death experiences two years earlier, and that the psychologist [[Ray Hyman]] of the [[University of Oregon]], who had evaluated military applications of psychic research for the Army, said Pell had "been arguing very forcefully" for a "Manhattan Project-style effort" to catch up with the Russians, which Pell called "vastly exaggerated," saying he favored "a modest increase in financial support" for "intelligent, skeptical" research; the report adds that in 1987 Pell invited Geller to Washington for a demonstration before about 30 congressional and [[Pentagon]] aides.[^8] The version of Emery's Providence Journal story printed in *The [[San Francisco Examiner]]* of August 13, 1988 called Pell "Capitol Hill's best-known student of psychic phenomena, near-death experiences and other areas on the fringes of science," stated that he had had a full-time assistant for three years who promotes "developing human potential," and gave Jones's pay as $48,853 a year with a top-secret clearance (the UPI summary above says "nearly 50,000 dollars" and "top secret"). In that article Pell is reported to have invited Geller in April 1987 with at least one other member of Congress in the audience, and Pell described Hyman's account as "correct but vastly exaggerated."[^9] The *[[Winston-Salem Journal]]* of July 18, 1988, summarizing the same story, reported that Pell, then 69, told the Providence Journal he would "probably spend more time with this" if he were not in the Senate.[^10] The Pell papers at the [[University of Rhode Island]] list three files, "Human Potential Foundation: [[C.B. Scott Jones|Scott Jones]] File" (1987; 1987 to 1994; 1988 to 1991), in the subject file series, box 42, folders 464 to 466.[^11]
Pell created the [[Human Potential Foundation]] in 1989, according to the Jones papers finding aid, and a white paper of February 20, 1992 by [[Robert J. Durant]] states that Pell and the lawyer [[Mark Sandground]] sat on its board and that it was "reportedly funded by [[Laurance Rockefeller]]."[^5][^11] The same paper states that Pell's office was visited by Major General [[Michael Kerby]] of the [[United States Air Force|Air Force]] legislative liaison office, who told Jones of a 1987 visit to [[Lee Graham]]; Jones is quoted as saying "Kerby knew of my interest in these matters."[^11] (The paper is hostile to Jones.)
Pell created the [[Human Potential Foundation]] in 1989, according to the Jones papers finding aid, and a white paper of February 20, 1992 by [[Robert J. Durant]] states that Pell and the lawyer [[Mark Sandground]] sat on its board and that it was "reportedly funded by [[Laurance Rockefeller]]."[^6][^12] The same paper states that Pell's office was visited by Major General [[Michael Kerby]] of the [[United States Air Force|Air Force]] legislative liaison office, who told Jones of a 1987 visit to [[Lee Graham]]; Jones is quoted as saying "Kerby knew of my interest in these matters."[^12] (The paper is hostile to Jones.)
### Rockefeller, Gibbons and the Clinton White House
Rockefeller's letter of May 7, 1993 to [[Billy Graham]] listed [[Maurice Strong]], possibly [[Javier Perez de Cuellar]], former President [[Jimmy Carter]] and several senators, among them Pell and [[Ted Stevens]], as possible co-signers of a letter to President [[Bill Clinton]] on UFO information; Graham declined on May 20, 1993.[^12] Jones's letter to [[John Gibbons|John H. Gibbons]] of August 11, 1994 notes that Pell sat on the board of the [[Institute of Noetic Sciences]], whose founder [[Edgar Mitchell]] would meet Gibbons.[^13] Gibbons wrote in a handwritten note to Rockefeller in August 1994, "Incidentally, I told C. Pell about this situation yesterday," referring to the Air Force Roswell report; a second note, to "Clay," indexed September 19, 1994 and dated 8/19/94, thanks him for lunch and encloses the report's summary text and Gibbons's Zuckerman lecture.[^14] In the memorandum for the President of August 4, 1995 Gibbons wrote that Rockefeller's interests "are related to those of Senator Pell" and that "Senator Pell and others have supported the funding of research in social science to focus more on these phenomena."[^15]
Rockefeller's letter of May 7, 1993 to [[Billy Graham]] listed [[Maurice Strong]], possibly [[Javier Perez de Cuellar]], former President [[Jimmy Carter]] and several senators, among them Pell and [[Ted Stevens]], as possible co-signers of a letter to President [[Bill Clinton]] on UFO information; Graham declined on May 20, 1993.[^13] Jones's letter to [[John Gibbons|John H. Gibbons]] of August 11, 1994 notes that Pell sat on the board of the [[Institute of Noetic Sciences]], whose founder [[Edgar Mitchell]] would meet Gibbons.[^14] Gibbons wrote in a handwritten note to Rockefeller in August 1994, "Incidentally, I told C. Pell about this situation yesterday," referring to the Air Force Roswell report; a second note, to "Clay," indexed September 19, 1994 and dated 8/19/94, thanks him for lunch and encloses the report's summary text and Gibbons's Zuckerman lecture.[^15] In the memorandum for the President of August 4, 1995 Gibbons wrote that Rockefeller's interests "are related to those of Senator Pell" and that "Senator Pell and others have supported the funding of research in social science to focus more on these phenomena."[^16]
### Series 6 container titles in the Scott Jones papers
Series 6 of the [[C. B. Scott Jones]] papers at the University of Colorado Boulder is titled "Special Assistant to Senator Claiborne Pell." Its Legislation subseries lists drafts and correspondence for Senate Joint Resolutions 135 and 368 and House Joint Resolution 646, a Fetzer Foundation conference of June 23 to 25, 1988, International Forgiveness Day, Peace Contingency Planning, the Sadat Peace Foundation, "National Applications Office drafts" and a "Commission or Task Force on Maximizing Individual Potential draft." The Symposium on Consciousness and Survival of October 26 and 27, 1985 has files for the proceedings edited by John Shelby Spong, invitations, fundraising and event planning. The Soviet-American Relations subseries has files titled "[[Esalen Institute]]," "Russia Trip 1990," "Soviet Psychotronics correspondence and memos," "Intelligence," "Pell Trip to Soviet Union 1985" and "Russia Trip 1989."[^16]
Series 6 of the [[C. B. Scott Jones]] papers at the University of Colorado Boulder is titled "Special Assistant to Senator Claiborne Pell." Its Legislation subseries lists drafts and correspondence for Senate Joint Resolutions 135 and 368 and House Joint Resolution 646, a Fetzer Foundation conference of June 23 to 25, 1988, International Forgiveness Day, Peace Contingency Planning, the Sadat Peace Foundation, "National Applications Office drafts" and a "Commission or Task Force on Maximizing Individual Potential draft." The Symposium on Consciousness and Survival of October 26 and 27, 1985 has files for the proceedings edited by John Shelby Spong, invitations, fundraising and event planning. The Soviet-American Relations subseries has files titled "[[Esalen Institute]]," "Russia Trip 1990," "Soviet Psychotronics correspondence and memos," "Intelligence," "Pell Trip to Soviet Union 1985" and "Russia Trip 1989."[^17]
The Paranormal Aide subseries lists "Reverse Speech Scandal" files, "Challenger Incident," "Vorona Project," four "Uri Geller Scandal" files, "Uri Geller Associates" and "1990 [[United States]] Senate Election in Rhode Island." The Reports and organizations subseries has files on the [[Office of Science and Technology Policy]], the National Research Council report (five files), the Office of Technology Assessment (including "Workshop on Experimental Parapsychology" and "Maintaining the Defense Technology Base"), National Institute of Mental Health workshops at Airlie in 1987 and 1988, and the National Science Foundation, including "[[Andrija Puharich]] reports and correspondence." The Unidentified Flying Objects subseries lists files on the Fund for UFO Research, Richard F. Haines, Ed Komarek Jr., "Air Force Document of Mid-Air Collision 1953," "Howard J. Hoffman Government Liaison Project" and Donald R. Todd, and "A Model of Government Preparation for ET Contact and Cooperation" by Jones. The Speeches subseries includes an *OMNI* "First Word" column by Pell of February 1988 and speeches drafted by Jones and Pell. The tree gives titles only, without dates or box numbers.[^16]
The Paranormal Aide subseries lists "Reverse Speech Scandal" files, "Challenger Incident," "Vorona Project," four "Uri Geller Scandal" files, "Uri Geller Associates" and "1990 [[United States]] Senate Election in Rhode Island." The Reports and organizations subseries has files on the [[Office of Science and Technology Policy]], the National Research Council report (five files), the Office of Technology Assessment (including "Workshop on Experimental Parapsychology" and "Maintaining the Defense Technology Base"), National Institute of Mental Health workshops at Airlie in 1987 and 1988, and the National Science Foundation, including "[[Andrija Puharich]] reports and correspondence." The Unidentified Flying Objects subseries lists files on the Fund for UFO Research, Richard F. Haines, Ed Komarek Jr., "Air Force Document of Mid-Air Collision 1953," "Howard J. Hoffman Government Liaison Project" and Donald R. Todd, and "A Model of Government Preparation for ET Contact and Cooperation" by Jones. The Speeches subseries includes an *OMNI* "First Word" column by Pell of February 1988 and speeches drafted by Jones and Pell. The tree gives titles only, without dates or box numbers.[^17]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Jacobsen, Annie. *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis*. Little, Brown and Company, 2017.
[^2]: University of Rhode Island Library, "Register to the Senatorial Papers of Claiborne Pell: Subject File," Mss. Gr. 71.4, biographical note, https://webarchives.apps.uri.edu/Pell%20XML%20Files/pell/Mss.%20Gr.%2071.4b.html.
[^3]: Jachim, Robert J., memorandum "Information Briefing for Senator Clairborne Pell," October 6, 1982, CIA-RDP96-00788R001100320001-5; Buzby, Brian, information paper "GRILL FLAME Briefing Presented to Senator Pell," February 6, 1985, CIA-RDP96-00788R001100320004-2. Read in the archive.org mirror of the CIA FOIA Reading Room STARGATE collection. Jachim, Robert J., memorandum "Briefing for MG A.N. Stubblebine III," October 8, 1982, CIA-RDP96-00788R001700220022-7; Buzby, Brian, memoranda "CENTER LANE Briefing for CG, USAINSCOM," August 29, 1983 (CIA-RDP96-00788R001700220011-9), "Meeting With MG Stubblebine on 30 November 1983," December 6, 1983 (CIA-RDP96-00788R001700220010-0), and "Meeting with MG Stubblebine on 6 January 1984," January 17, 1984 (CIA-RDP96-00788R001700220009-2); letter of the ACSI to Stubblebine, "CENTER LANE," April 1983 (CIA-RDP96-00788R001700220002-9). Read in the archive.org mirror of the CIA FOIA Reading Room STARGATE collection.
[^4]: Buzby, Brian, "Meeting With MG Stubblebine on 30 November 1983," memorandum for record, December 6, 1983, CIA-RDP96-00788R001700220010-0; Defense Intelligence Agency, S-22,600/DTI-S, letter to Senator Claiborne Pell, undated, with enclosure "Psychoenergetics Devices: A Review and Assessment," CIA-RDP96-00789R002600010004-9. Read in the archive.org mirror of the CIA FOIA Reading Room STARGATE collection.
[^5]: University of Colorado Boulder Libraries, "C. B. 'Scott' Jones papers," COU:4004, https://archives.colorado.edu/repositories/2/resources/346.
[^6]: Tom Kelly, "In search of modern Merlins: Psychics gain wider credibility," Washington Times, June 26, 1989 (date per archive metadata), CIA-RDP96-00787R000200080027-5, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp96-00787r000200080027-5.
[^7]: United Press International, "Pell keen on psychic research," July 17, 1988, https://www.upi.com/Archives/1988/07/17/Pell-keen-on-psychic-research/3613585115200/.
[^8]: C. Eugene Emery Jr., "Sen. Pell flirts with phenomena on the fringe, UFOs, psychics," *The San Francisco Examiner* (from the Providence Journal), August 13, 1988, p. B-12 (newspapers.com p. 22), https://www.newspapers.com/image/461248717/.
[^9]: "Pell Probing Psychic Phenomena," *Winston-Salem Journal*, July 18, 1988, p. 2, https://www.newspapers.com/image/939997164/.
[^10]: University of Rhode Island Library, "Register to the Senatorial Papers of Claiborne Pell: Subject File," Mss. Gr. 71.4, box 42, folders 464 to 466, https://webarchives.apps.uri.edu/Pell%20XML%20Files/pell/Mss.%20Gr.%2071.4b.html.
[^11]: Robert J. Durant, "Will the Real Scott Jones Please Stand Up?" (February 20, 1992), CIA-RDP96-00792R000400300004-7, https://cia.gov/readingroom/node/1697635.
[^12]: Rockefeller to Billy Graham, May 7, 1993, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-23-95.htm.
[^13]: C. B. Scott Jones to John H. Gibbons, August 11, 1994, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-11-94.htm.
[^14]: Gibbons, handwritten notes, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-17-94.htm and RID-9-19-94.htm.
[^15]: Gibbons, memorandum for the President, August 4, 1995, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-4-95.htm.
[^16]: University of Colorado Boulder Libraries, Rare and Distinctive Collections, collection COU:4004 (the C. B. 'Scott' Jones papers), ArchivesSpace resource 346, https://archives.colorado.edu/repositories/2/resources/346, container tree for Series 6, fetched October 3, 2026 from the vault owner's browser (titles only; no dates or box numbers in the saved tree).
[^2]: "PELL, Claiborne de Borda," Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. https://web.archive.org/web/2012/http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=P000193
[^3]: University of Rhode Island Library, "Register to the Senatorial Papers of Claiborne Pell: Subject File," Mss. Gr. 71.4, biographical note, https://webarchives.apps.uri.edu/Pell%20XML%20Files/pell/Mss.%20Gr.%2071.4b.html.
[^4]: Jachim, Robert J., memorandum "Information Briefing for Senator Clairborne Pell," October 6, 1982, CIA-RDP96-00788R001100320001-5; Buzby, Brian, information paper "GRILL FLAME Briefing Presented to Senator Pell," February 6, 1985, CIA-RDP96-00788R001100320004-2. Jachim, Robert J., memorandum "Briefing for MG A.N. Stubblebine III," October 8, 1982, CIA-RDP96-00788R001700220022-7; Buzby, Brian, memoranda "CENTER LANE Briefing for CG, USAINSCOM," August 29, 1983 (CIA-RDP96-00788R001700220011-9), "Meeting With MG Stubblebine on 30 November 1983," December 6, 1983 (CIA-RDP96-00788R001700220010-0), and "Meeting with MG Stubblebine on 6 January 1984," January 17, 1984 (CIA-RDP96-00788R001700220009-2); letter of the ACSI to Stubblebine, "CENTER LANE," April 1983 (CIA-RDP96-00788R001700220002-9).
[^5]: Buzby, Brian, "Meeting With MG Stubblebine on 30 November 1983," memorandum for record, December 6, 1983, CIA-RDP96-00788R001700220010-0; Defense Intelligence Agency, S-22,600/DTI-S, letter to Senator Claiborne Pell, undated, with enclosure "Psychoenergetics Devices: A Review and Assessment," CIA-RDP96-00789R002600010004-9.
[^6]: University of Colorado Boulder Libraries, "C. B. 'Scott' Jones papers," COU:4004, https://archives.colorado.edu/repositories/2/resources/346.
[^7]: Tom Kelly, "In search of modern Merlins: Psychics gain wider credibility," Washington Times, June 26, 1989, CIA-RDP96-00787R000200080027-5, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp96-00787r000200080027-5.
[^8]: United Press International, "Pell keen on psychic research," July 17, 1988, https://www.upi.com/Archives/1988/07/17/Pell-keen-on-psychic-research/3613585115200/.
[^9]: C. Eugene Emery Jr., "Sen. Pell flirts with phenomena on the fringe, UFOs, psychics," *The San Francisco Examiner* (from the Providence Journal), August 13, 1988, p. B-12 (newspapers.com p. 22), https://www.newspapers.com/image/461248717/.
[^10]: "Pell Probing Psychic Phenomena," *Winston-Salem Journal*, July 18, 1988, p. 2, https://www.newspapers.com/image/939997164/.
[^11]: University of Rhode Island Library, "Register to the Senatorial Papers of Claiborne Pell: Subject File," Mss. Gr. 71.4, box 42, folders 464 to 466, https://webarchives.apps.uri.edu/Pell%20XML%20Files/pell/Mss.%20Gr.%2071.4b.html.
[^12]: Robert J. Durant, "Will the Real Scott Jones Please Stand Up?" (February 20, 1992), CIA-RDP96-00792R000400300004-7, https://cia.gov/readingroom/node/1697635.
[^13]: Rockefeller to Billy Graham, May 7, 1993, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-23-95.htm.
[^14]: C. B. Scott Jones to John H. Gibbons, August 11, 1994, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-11-94.htm.
[^15]: Gibbons, handwritten notes, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-17-94.htm and RID-9-19-94.htm.
[^16]: Gibbons, memorandum for the President, August 4, 1995, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-4-95.htm.
[^17]: University of Colorado Boulder Libraries, Rare and Distinctive Collections, collection COU:4004 (the C. B. 'Scott' Jones papers), ArchivesSpace resource 346, https://archives.colorado.edu/repositories/2/resources/346, container tree for Series 6, fetched October 3, 2026 from the vault owner's browser (titles only; no dates or box numbers in the saved tree).

21
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/David Sacks.md
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@ -14,26 +14,27 @@ summary: "David Sacks is a South African-born entrepreneur who was chief operati
born: 1972-05-25
location: "Cape Town, South Africa (born)"
created: 2026-06-18
updated: 2026-10-14
updated: 2026-10-15
---
[[David Sacks|David Sacks]] (born May 25, 1972, in [[Cape Town|Cape Town]], [[South Africa|South Africa]]) is a [[PayPal Mafia|PayPal Mafia]] principal who served as chief operating officer of [[PayPal]], founded [[Yammer|Yammer]] (the enterprise social network, acquired by [[Microsoft|Microsoft]] in 2012 for 1.2 billion dollars), produced the film *[[Thank You for Smoking|Thank You for Smoking]]* (2005), and was appointed Special Advisor on Artificial Intelligence and Cryptocurrency (the "AI and crypto czar") under the second [[Donald Trump|Trump]] administration. Sacks cohosted the [[All-In Podcast|All-In Podcast]], which became a media channel for the PayPal Mafia cohort's political positions during the 2022-2025 period.[^1][^2]
[[David Sacks|David Sacks]] (born May 25, 1972, in [[Cape Town|Cape Town]], [[South Africa|South Africa]]) is a [[PayPal Mafia|PayPal Mafia]] principal who served as chief operating officer of [[PayPal]], founded [[Yammer|Yammer]] (the enterprise social network, acquired by [[Microsoft|Microsoft]] in 2012 for 1.1 billion dollars in cash)[^1], produced the film *[[Thank You for Smoking|Thank You for Smoking]]* (2005), and was appointed Special Advisor on Artificial Intelligence and Cryptocurrency (the "AI and crypto czar") under the second [[Donald Trump|Trump]] administration. Sacks cohosted the [[All-In Podcast|All-In Podcast]], which became a media channel for the PayPal Mafia cohort's political positions during the 2022-2025 period.[^2][^3]
### The PayPal COO Role and the Post-PayPal Ventures
Sacks joined PayPal in November 1999. The company's registration statement of September 2001 describes him as executive vice president of product since May 2000.[^3] Sacks became chief operating officer of PayPal in February 2002.[^4] He served in that role through the 2002 eBay acquisition, managing the company's operations alongside [[Peter Thiel|Thiel]] (chief executive) and [[Max Levchin|Levchin]] (chief technology officer). The COO role placed Sacks in operational control of the company's day-to-day execution during the period when the anti-fraud architecture was built and the PayPal Mafia cohort was formed. After the eBay sale, Sacks founded Yammer, the enterprise social network that applied consumer-social-networking patterns to corporate communications. Microsoft acquired Yammer in 2012.[^1]
Sacks joined PayPal in November 1999. The company's registration statement of September 2001 describes him as executive vice president of product since May 2000.[^4] Sacks became chief operating officer of PayPal in February 2002.[^5] He served in that role through the 2002 eBay acquisition, managing the company's operations alongside [[Peter Thiel|Thiel]] (chief executive) and [[Max Levchin|Levchin]] (chief technology officer). The COO role placed Sacks in operational control of the company's day-to-day execution during the period when the anti-fraud architecture was built and the PayPal Mafia cohort was formed. After the eBay sale, Sacks founded Yammer, the enterprise social network that applied consumer-social-networking patterns to corporate communications. Microsoft acquired Yammer in 2012.[^2]
Sacks subsequently founded [[Craft Ventures|Craft Ventures]], a venture capital firm whose portfolio overlaps with the PayPal Mafia and Thiel-network commercial ecosystem. Sacks also produced the film *Thank You for Smoking* (2005), an adaptation of the [[Christopher Buckley|Christopher Buckley]] satirical novel about tobacco-industry lobbying.[^1]
Sacks subsequently founded [[Craft Ventures|Craft Ventures]], a venture capital firm whose portfolio overlaps with the PayPal Mafia and Thiel-network commercial ecosystem. Sacks also produced the film *Thank You for Smoking* (2005), an adaptation of the [[Christopher Buckley|Christopher Buckley]] satirical novel about tobacco-industry lobbying.[^2]
### The All-In Podcast and the Trump AI/Crypto Role
The All-In Podcast, cohosted by Sacks with [[Chamath Palihapitiya|Chamath Palihapitiya]], [[Jason Calacanis|Jason Calacanis]], and [[David Friedberg|David Friedberg]], became a media channel for the PayPal Mafia cohort's political positions during the 2022-2025 period. The podcast's audience overlaps with the [[Dialog]] invitation list and the [[Founders Fund|Founders Fund]] portfolio community. Sacks used the platform to advance the positions on AI regulation, cryptocurrency policy, and defense procurement that he subsequently entered the government to implement.[^2]
The All-In Podcast, cohosted by Sacks with [[Chamath Palihapitiya|Chamath Palihapitiya]], [[Jason Calacanis|Jason Calacanis]], and [[David Friedberg|David Friedberg]], became a media channel for the PayPal Mafia cohort's political positions during the 2022-2025 period. The podcast's audience overlaps with the [[Dialog]] invitation list and the [[Founders Fund|Founders Fund]] portfolio community. Sacks used the platform to advance the positions on AI regulation, cryptocurrency policy, and defense procurement that he subsequently entered the government to implement.[^3]
In the second Trump administration, Sacks received the Special Advisor on Artificial Intelligence and Cryptocurrency appointment. The role covers federal AI policy, cryptocurrency regulation, and the broader technology-policy agenda. Sacks's appointment placed a PayPal Mafia principal in the executive branch with authority over the technology sectors that the Thiel-network commercial infrastructure operates in.[^2]
In the second Trump administration, Sacks received the Special Advisor on Artificial Intelligence and Cryptocurrency appointment. The role covers federal AI policy, cryptocurrency regulation, and the broader technology-policy agenda. Sacks's appointment placed a PayPal Mafia principal in the executive branch with authority over the technology sectors that the Thiel-network commercial infrastructure operates in.[^3]
### Footnotes
[^1]: For Sacks's PayPal COO role and the post-PayPal ventures, see the PayPal Mafia page and the contemporaneous Silicon Valley press.
[^2]: For the All-In Podcast and the Trump AI/crypto czar role, see the contemporaneous press coverage of the second Trump administration appointments.
[^3]: PayPal, Inc. Form S-1 registration statement, filed September 28, 2001, "Management," biography of David O. Sacks. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1103415/000091205701533855/a2059025zs-1.htm
[^4]: PayPal, Inc. Form 10-K405 for fiscal 2001, filed March 13, 2002, "Management": "David O. Sacks has served as our Chief Operating Officer since February 2002." https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1103415/000091205702009834/a2073071z10-k405.htm
[^1]: Microsoft Corporation, Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2013, Item 1 (acquisition of Yammer, Inc. "for $1.1 billion in cash"). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/789019/000119312513310206/d527745d10k.htm
[^2]: For Sacks's PayPal COO role and the post-PayPal ventures, see the PayPal Mafia page and the contemporaneous Silicon Valley press.
[^3]: For the All-In Podcast and the Trump AI/crypto czar role, see the contemporaneous press coverage of the second Trump administration appointments.
[^4]: PayPal, Inc. Form S-1 registration statement, filed September 28, 2001, "Management," biography of David O. Sacks. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1103415/000091205701533855/a2059025zs-1.htm
[^5]: PayPal, Inc. Form 10-K405 for fiscal 2001, filed March 13, 2002, "Management": "David O. Sacks has served as our Chief Operating Officer since February 2002." https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1103415/000091205702009834/a2073071z10-k405.htm

9
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Donald Rumsfeld.md
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@ -185,7 +185,7 @@ relations:
role: "inquiry into the treatment of detainees in u.s. custody; conclusions 13 and 19"
fn: 36
created: 2026-10-01
updated: 2026-10-14
updated: 2026-10-15
---
Donald Henry Rumsfeld was born on July 9, 1932, in [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]].[^1] He was a member of the [[United States House of Representatives]] from 1963 to 1969, an assistant to [[Richard Nixon]], ambassador to [[NATO]], [[White House]] chief of staff and Secretary of Defense under [[Gerald R. Ford]], chief executive of [[G.D. Searle & Co.]] from 1977 to 1985 and of [[General Instrument Corporation]] from 1990 to 1993, and chairman of [[Gilead Sciences]] until January 2001.[^1] He served a second time as Secretary of Defense from 2001 to 2006 under [[George W. Bush]], and died on June 29, 2021, at 88; his family's statement said he "was surrounded by family in his beloved Taos, [[New Mexico]]."[^2]
@ -278,11 +278,11 @@ On September 10, 2001, at the Pentagon, Rumsfeld said: "According to some estima
On December 2, 2002, Rumsfeld signed a one-page recommendation from the Defense Department general counsel, [[William J. Haynes II]], to approve all but three of 18 interrogation techniques requested by [[Guantanamo Bay detention camp|Guantanamo]], adding by hand: "I stand for 8-10 hours a day. Why is standing limited to 4 hours?" Haynes's memorandum said he had discussed the matter with Wolfowitz, Under Secretary [[Douglas Feith]] and General [[Richard Myers]]. After Navy General Counsel [[Alberto Mora]] told Haynes he would sign a memorandum of legal concerns, Rumsfeld rescinded the authority on January 15, 2003; on August 13, 2003, he approved an interrogation plan for the detainee [[Mohamedou Ould Slahi]].[^36] The Senate Armed Services Committee concluded that Haynes's review "was grossly deficient" (conclusion 12), that Rumsfeld's authorization "was a direct cause of detainee abuse" at Guantanamo and "influenced and contributed to the use of abusive techniques" in [[Afghanistan]] and Iraq (conclusion 13), and that the techniques used at [[Abu Ghraib]] "appeared in Iraq only after they had been approved for use in Afghanistan and at GTMO" (conclusion 19).[^36] The Associated Press reported that Rumsfeld twice offered his resignation to Bush in 2004 after the Abu Ghraib disclosures; he left office in December 2006 and was replaced by [[Robert Gates]].[^2]
On June 29, 2006, in [[Hamdan v. Rumsfeld]], the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] held that the military commission convened to try the Guantanamo detainee Hamdan, a Yemeni national, "lacks the power to proceed because its structure and procedures violate both the UCMJ and the four Geneva Conventions signed in 1949."[^37]
On June 29, 2006, in [[Hamdan v. Rumsfeld]], the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] held that the military commission convened to try the Guantanamo detainee Hamdan, a Yemeni national, "lacks power to proceed because its structure and procedures violate both the UCMJ and the Geneva Conventions."[^37][^38]
### Rumsfeld Foundation
After 2008 Rumsfeld headed the Rumsfeld Foundation.[^2] The foundation, a Washington private foundation (EIN 26-0580915) with an [[Internal Revenue Service|IRS]] ruling date of August 2007, reported assets of $9,727,763 at the end of 2011, $11,418,376 at the end of 2012 and $1,515,771 at the end of 2023.[^38] His 2001 Senate form lists him as president of a DHR Foundation of Chicago from December 1985, annotated "Possibly without investment control."[^4]
After 2008 Rumsfeld headed the Rumsfeld Foundation.[^2] The foundation, a Washington private foundation (EIN 26-0580915) with an [[Internal Revenue Service|IRS]] ruling date of August 2007, reported assets of $9,727,763 at the end of 2011, $11,418,376 at the end of 2012 and $1,515,771 at the end of 2023.[^39] His 2001 Senate form lists him as president of a DHR Foundation of Chicago from December 1985, annotated "Possibly without investment control."[^4]
### Footnotes
@ -323,4 +323,5 @@ After 2008 Rumsfeld headed the Rumsfeld Foundation.[^2] The foundation, a Washin
[^35]: Department of Defense, notes from Donald Rumsfeld, [Iraq war planning], November 27, 2001, annotated, pp. 1-3, National Security Archive EBB No. 326, Document 8, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB326/doc08.pdf
[^36]: U.S. Senate Committee on Armed Services, "Inquiry into the Treatment of Detainees in U.S. Custody," Executive Summary and Conclusions, released December 11, 2008, pp. xix-xxi (Haynes memorandum, December 2, 2002 note, Mora, January 15, 2003 rescission, Slahi plan) and pp. xxviii-xxix (conclusions 12, 13 and 19), https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/torturingdemocracy/documents/20081211.pdf
[^37]: Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 548 U.S. 557 (2006), No. 05-184, decided June 29, 2006, syllabus, https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/05-184.ZS.html
[^38]: ProPublica, Nonprofit Explorer, Rumsfeld Foundation, EIN 26-0580915, organization API record and Form 990-PF data for tax years 2011, 2012 and 2023, https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/api/v2/organizations/260580915.json
[^38]: *Hamdan v. Rumsfeld*, 548 U.S. 557 (2006), decided June 29, 2006, text as published (static.case.law copy). https://static.case.law/us/548/cases/0557-01.json
[^39]: ProPublica, Nonprofit Explorer, Rumsfeld Foundation, EIN 26-0580915, organization API record and Form 990-PF data for tax years 2011, 2012 and 2023, https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/api/v2/organizations/260580915.json

8
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Edward Snowden.md
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@ -13,6 +13,7 @@ tags:
summary: "Edward Snowden (born 1983) was an NSA contractor who disclosed classified mass surveillance programs including PRISM, XKeyscore, and bulk telephone metadata collection to journalists in June 2013, fled to Russia where he received asylum, and was charged under the Espionage Act."
born: 1983-06-21
location: "Elizabeth City, North Carolina"
updated: 2026-10-15
---
Edward Joseph Snowden was born June 21, 1983, in Elizabeth City, [[North Carolina]], and grew up in the Washington D.C. area. He joined the CIA in 2006 and later worked as a contractor for the National Security Agency through Dell Inc. and then Booz Allen Hamilton. In May 2013 he traveled to [[Hong Kong]] with a cache of classified NSA documents. Beginning June 5, 2013, he authorized the publication of a series of disclosures through journalists Glenn Greenwald, Laura Poitras, and Barton Gellman of the Washington Post that revealed the existence and scope of NSA's mass surveillance programs operating under the authority of the USA PATRIOT Act and the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act.[^1]
@ -21,7 +22,7 @@ Edward Joseph Snowden was born June 21, 1983, in Elizabeth City, [[North Carolin
The Snowden disclosures revealed several major NSA programs:
PRISM was a program under Section 702 of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act Amendments Act through which NSA directly accessed servers of major American internet companies - including Microsoft, Yahoo, Google, Facebook, PalTalk, YouTube, Skype, AOL, and Apple - to collect communications content. The companies were compelled to provide access under court orders from the [[Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court]] (FISC). The disclosures triggered significant legal challenges and the companies' denials or minimizations of their participation, along with subsequent government clarifications about the court-compelled nature of the program.[^1]
PRISM was a program under Section 702 of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act Amendments Act through which NSA directly accessed servers of major American internet companies - including Microsoft, Yahoo, Google, Facebook, PalTalk, YouTube, Skype, AOL, and Apple - to collect communications content. The companies were compelled to provide access under court orders from the [[Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court]] (FISC). The disclosures triggered significant legal challenges and the companies' denials or minimizations of their participation, along with subsequent government clarifications about the court-compelled nature of the program.[^1] The Guardian's July 11, 2013 reporting on documents supplied by Snowden described NSA access to Outlook.com and SkyDrive data through cooperation with the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]], and quoted the company's statement that it provides customer data "only in response to government demands."[^2]
XKeyscore was a global internet traffic analysis system that allowed NSA analysts to search communications content and metadata collected from surveillance equipment positioned at internet exchange points, ISPs, and foreign partner collection facilities. Internal NSA documents described it as the agency's widest-reaching collection system.[^1]
@ -41,11 +42,12 @@ After meeting with journalists in Hong Kong in June 2013, Snowden attempted to t
### Policy Consequences
The Snowden disclosures triggered significant legislative and judicial responses. The USA FREEDOM Act (2015) modified Section 215 to prohibit bulk telephone metadata collection and required the government to seek specific court orders for targeted collection from telecommunications companies. Federal courts found aspects of NSA's bulk metadata collection program unlawful. The NSA's programs were subjected to review by a presidential review group and the Privacy and Civil Liberties Oversight Board, both of which recommended reforms.[^2]
The Snowden disclosures triggered significant legislative and judicial responses. The USA FREEDOM Act (2015) modified Section 215 to prohibit bulk telephone metadata collection and required the government to seek specific court orders for targeted collection from telecommunications companies. Federal courts found aspects of NSA's bulk metadata collection program unlawful. The NSA's programs were subjected to review by a presidential review group and the Privacy and Civil Liberties Oversight Board, both of which recommended reforms.[^3]
Internationally, the disclosures damaged U.S. relationships with allied governments and populations who learned that NSA had collected communications of their leaders. German Chancellor Angela Merkel's personal mobile phone was disclosed to have been a monitored NSA target, producing a significant bilateral diplomatic crisis. Several countries began routing internet traffic away from U.S.-based infrastructure in response.[^1]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Greenwald, Glenn. *No Place to Hide: Edward Snowden, the NSA, and the U.S. Surveillance State*. Metropolitan Books, 2014. Snowden, Edward. *Permanent Record*. Metropolitan Books, 2019.
[^2]: Privacy and Civil Liberties Oversight Board. *Report on the Telephone Records Program Conducted under Section 215 of the USA PATRIOT Act and on the Operations of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court*. January 23, 2014. Presidential Review Group on Intelligence and Communications Technologies. *Liberty and Security in a Changing World*. December 12, 2013.
[^2]: Greenwald, Glenn, Ewen MacAskill, Laura Poitras, Spencer Ackerman and Dominic Rushe, "Microsoft handed the NSA access to encrypted messages," *The Guardian,* July 11, 2013. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/11/microsoft-nsa-collaboration-user-data
[^3]: Privacy and Civil Liberties Oversight Board. *Report on the Telephone Records Program Conducted under Section 215 of the USA PATRIOT Act and on the Operations of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court*. January 23, 2014. Presidential Review Group on Intelligence and Communications Technologies. *Liberty and Security in a Changing World*. December 12, 2013.

2
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@ -34,7 +34,7 @@ relations:
fn: 12
---
Eugene M. Propper was the assistant [[United States Attorney]] in Washington assigned in September 1976 to the murder of [[Orlando Letelier]] and [[Ronni Moffitt]]. His deputy was [[E. Lawrence Barcella]], and the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] agents were [[Carter Cornick|C. Carter Cornick]] in Washington and [[Robert Scherrer]], the bureau's representative in [[Buenos Aires]].[^1]
Eugene M. Propper was the assistant [[U.S. Attorney's office|United States Attorney]] in Washington assigned in September 1976 to the murder of [[Orlando Letelier]] and [[Ronni Moffitt]]. His deputy was [[E. Lawrence Barcella]], and the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] agents were [[Carter Cornick|C. Carter Cornick]] in Washington and [[Robert Scherrer]], the bureau's representative in [[Buenos Aires]].[^1]
### The Investigation

6
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@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ relations:
start: 1956-05
fn: 3
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Lockheed]]"
with: "[[Lockheed Aircraft Company]]"
role: "U-2 test pilot"
end: 1969-09
fn: 20
@ -67,7 +67,7 @@ relations:
role: "father"
fn: 17
created: 2026-10-01
updated: 2026-10-01
updated: 2026-10-15
---
Francis Gary Powers was an American pilot whose [[U-2 Spy Plane]] was shot down over the [[Soviet Union]] on May 1, 1960, leading to a major international incident. [[Seymour Hersh]] wrote that Powers and his colleagues continued intermittently to overfly the [[Middle East]], and were steadily back at work in the area in 1958, when the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]'s photo interpreters began seeing significant activity at an Israeli Air Force practice bombing range south of [[Beersheba]], which turned out to be the early signs of the [[Dimona]] nuclear reactor.[^1]
@ -102,7 +102,7 @@ A memorandum for the record by the CIA's Legislative Counsel [[John S. Warner]]
After the return the CIA reconvened the Damage Assessment Team that had met for two months in the summer of 1960. In 1960 the team had concluded that Powers' knowledge was extensive and that he had probably revealed most of it. After two weeks of debriefing in February 1962 it found the damage much less than estimated.[^11] Dulles, who had left the directorship in November 1961, told Powers "We are proud of what you have done." The new Director, [[John McCone]], appointed a Board of Inquiry.[^11]
The General Counsel, [[Lawrence Houston]], proposed the terms in a February 1962 memorandum to the Director. He wrote that the [[Department of Justice]] favored a retired federal judge as chairman, that the first choice was [[E. Barrett Prettyman]] and the second [[Harold R. Medina]], that he recommended Lieutenant General [[Harold R. Bull]] (retired) and [[John A. Bross]] as members, that no Air Force officer should sit in view of the efforts to disassociate the Air Force from the U-2 project, and that he himself would be counsel to the Board. The question put to the Board was whether Powers acted in accordance with the terms of his employment, his instructions and briefings, and his obligations as an American citizen from the start of the mission until his release.[^14] In the Board's hearing of February 22, Houston examined witnesses and entered as Exhibit 17 a cable of February 21 from [[Kelly Johnson]] of [[Lockheed]], who had spoken with Powers about the flight.[^15]
The General Counsel, [[Lawrence Houston]], proposed the terms in a February 1962 memorandum to the Director. He wrote that the [[Department of Justice]] favored a retired federal judge as chairman, that the first choice was [[E. Barrett Prettyman]] and the second [[Harold R. Medina]], that he recommended Lieutenant General [[Harold R. Bull]] (retired) and [[John A. Bross]] as members, that no Air Force officer should sit in view of the efforts to disassociate the Air Force from the U-2 project, and that he himself would be counsel to the Board. The question put to the Board was whether Powers acted in accordance with the terms of his employment, his instructions and briefings, and his obligations as an American citizen from the start of the mission until his release.[^14] In the Board's hearing of February 22, Houston examined witnesses and entered as Exhibit 17 a cable of February 21 from [[Kelly Johnson]] of [[Lockheed Aircraft Company|Lockheed]], who had spoken with Powers about the flight.[^15]
The Board reported on February 27, 1962, that Powers had acted in accordance with his instructions and obligations and recommended that he receive his back pay. The findings rested on the testimony of debriefing experts, a review of his background by doctors, psychiatrists, former Air Force colleagues and his commander at Adana, his own testimony, a polygraph examination he had volunteered to undergo, and analysis by Kelly Johnson of photographs of the wreckage. McCone remained skeptical and had the Air Force convene its own panel, which supported Johnson. He then relied on a report of the [[National Security Agency]] suggesting that Powers had descended to a lower altitude and turned back toward Sverdlovsk before being hit, and ordered the Board to reconvene on March 1. It adhered to its findings.[^11] On March 7, 1962, the [[NSA]] Deputy Director, [[Louis W. Tordella]], told Houston that he wished to place on the record that, contrary to Bross's statement in the transcript, it had not taken questioning and cross-examination to bring out the evidence contradicting the account, and that Bross's description of the NSA briefing as "very vehemently and very positively" presented was not accepted; Houston recorded the points to be filed with the transcript.[^16] [[David A. Foy]], reviewing a 2019 book by Powers' son in Studies in Intelligence, wrote that the Board authorized $52,500 in back pay.[^17]

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10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Galo Plaza.md
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@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ born: 1906-02-17
died: 1987-01-28
location: "Quito, Ecuador"
created: 2026-06-05
updated: 2026-06-05
updated: 2026-10-15
---
Galo Lincoln Plaza Lasso de la Vega (February 17, 1906 - January 28, 1987) served as president of [[Ecuador]] from 1948 to 1952 and as secretary-general of the [[Organization of American States]] from 1968 to 1975, and was one of [[Nelson Rockefeller]]'s most consistent Latin American allies from the [[Act of Chapultepec|Chapultepec conference]] of 1945 onward. At Chapultepec and at the San Francisco founding conference of the [[United Nations]], Plaza served as Rockefeller's parliamentary agent among the Latin American delegations, shuttling instructions and delivering votes. As Ecuador's president he accepted [[Summer Institute of Linguistics]] operations in his country, co-authored a study of [[United Fruit Company]] operations with a Rockefeller-linked analyst, and promoted a banana export strategy shaped by U.S. developmental priorities; as OAS secretary-general he provided institutional continuity for the regional architecture Rockefeller had built. He was the son of [[Leónidas Plaza Gutiérrez]], who had served as Ecuador's president in 1901-1905 and again in 1912-1916, making them one of few father-son pairs to lead the country.
@ -25,73 +25,76 @@ Plaza was born on February 17, 1906, in New York City, at the Marlton House, dur
### Education and Early Career
Plaza studied agriculture at the [[University of Maryland]], economics at the [[University of California, Berkeley]], and diplomacy at the [[Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service]] at [[Georgetown University]]. He returned to Ecuador and managed the family property, [[Hacienda Zuleta]] in [[Imbabura Province]], importing Holstein cattle and introducing systematic seed selection and mechanized tractors to Ecuadorian highland agriculture.
Plaza studied agriculture at the [[University of Maryland]], economics at the [[University of California, Berkeley]], and diplomacy at the [[Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service]] at [[Georgetown University]].[^1] He returned to Ecuador and managed the family property, [[Hacienda Zuleta]] in [[Imbabura Province]], importing Holstein cattle and introducing systematic seed selection and mechanized tractors to Ecuadorian highland agriculture.
He entered politics in 1937, elected as a councilman of [[Quito]], then as mayor in 1938. In December 1938 he was appointed Minister of National Defense, a post he held through 1939. In 1929 he had served as attaché at the Ecuadorian legation in Washington. In July 1944, President [[José María Velasco Ibarra]] appointed him ambassador to the United States, a posting that placed him in Washington precisely as the major inter-American and international conferences of 1945 were being organized.[^1]
He entered politics in 1937, elected as a councilman of [[Quito]], then as mayor in 1938. In December 1938 he was appointed Minister of National Defense, a post he held through 1939. In 1929 he had served as attaché at the Ecuadorian legation in Washington. In July 1944, President [[José María Velasco Ibarra]] appointed him ambassador to the United States, a posting that placed him in Washington precisely as the major inter-American and international conferences of 1945 were being organized.[^2]
### Chapultepec and Early Rockefeller Alliance
Plaza first emerged as a key actor in Rockefeller's inter-American network at the Inter-American Conference on Problems of War and Peace, held at Chapultepec Castle in Mexico City from February 21 to March 8, 1945. Rockefeller, then serving as FDR's [[Assistant Secretary of State for Latin American Affairs]], assembled a small group of Latin American leaders who acted in concert with the U.S. delegation. Plaza, representing Ecuador as ambassador, was among the most cooperative, shuttling back and forth to Rockefeller for instructions to pass on to other Latin American delegations. Rockefeller's management of the conference through these allies was, in the formulation of researchers Colby and Dennett, "shamelessly blatant, but it got results."[^2]
Plaza first emerged as a key actor in Rockefeller's inter-American network at the Inter-American Conference on Problems of War and Peace, held at Chapultepec Castle in Mexico City from February 21 to March 8, 1945. Rockefeller, then serving as FDR's [[Assistant Secretary of State for Latin American Affairs]], assembled a small group of Latin American leaders who acted in concert with the U.S. delegation. Plaza, representing Ecuador as ambassador, was among the most cooperative, shuttling back and forth to Rockefeller for instructions to pass on to other Latin American delegations. Rockefeller's management of the conference through these allies was, in the formulation of researchers Colby and Dennett, "shamelessly blatant, but it got results."[^3]
Plaza's connection to Rockefeller deepened through the [[United Nations Conference on International Organization]] in San Francisco later that year, where he again served as part of Rockefeller's parliamentary apparatus for managing the Latin American bloc's votes. Both postings were made while Plaza served as Ecuador's ambassador to Washington (1944-1946).[^1]
Plaza's connection to Rockefeller deepened through the [[United Nations Conference on International Organization]] in San Francisco later that year, where he again served as part of Rockefeller's parliamentary apparatus for managing the Latin American bloc's votes. Both postings were made while Plaza served as Ecuador's ambassador to Washington (1944-1946).[^2]
Later, Plaza himself suggested that Rockefeller be asked to lead a Latin American mission, reflecting the mutual confidence the two men had built during these formative conferences. A photograph documenting a subsequent Pan American Society dinner showing Plaza alongside Rockefeller during the Truman years is preserved in the Harry S. Truman Library.[^3]
Later, Plaza himself suggested that Rockefeller be asked to lead a Latin American mission, reflecting the mutual confidence the two men had built during these formative conferences. A photograph documenting a subsequent Pan American Society dinner showing Plaza alongside Rockefeller during the Truman years is preserved in the Harry S. Truman Library.[^4]
### Presidency of Ecuador (1948-1952)
Plaza was elected president and inaugurated on August 31, 1948. U.S. Ambassador John F. Simmons, reporting to the State Department in Despatch No. 710 of September 3, 1948, analyzed Plaza's inaugural address as signaling a meaningful reorientation of Ecuadorian foreign policy toward closer alignment with the United States, noting that the United States was "the only foreign country mentioned expressly by name" in Plaza's speech.[^4]
Plaza was elected president and inaugurated on August 31, 1948. U.S. Ambassador John F. Simmons, reporting to the State Department in Despatch No. 710 of September 3, 1948, analyzed Plaza's inaugural address as signaling a meaningful reorientation of Ecuadorian foreign policy toward closer alignment with the United States, noting that the United States was "the only foreign country mentioned expressly by name" in Plaza's speech.[^5]
Plaza served his full four-year term, completing it in 1952, the first Ecuadorian president in twenty-eight years to do so. Velasco Ibarra's subsequent administration, Simmons's successor noted, "turned viciously on President Galo Plaza, completely disregarding that the latter had guaranteed free elections and pacifically turned over the power."[^5]
Plaza served his full four-year term, completing it in 1952, the first Ecuadorian president in twenty-eight years to do so. Velasco Ibarra's subsequent administration, Simmons's successor noted, "turned viciously on President Galo Plaza, completely disregarding that the latter had guaranteed free elections and pacifically turned over the power."[^6]
On the [[Rio Protocol of 1942]], Plaza's record was more complicated than a simple acceptance. His predecessor had formally ratified the protocol in February 1942, ceding approximately 200,000 square kilometers of disputed [[Amazonian]] territory to [[Peru]]. As president, Plaza initially proceeded with demarcation but in 1949 halted Ecuadorian participation in the boundary work. In 1951 he publicly announced that Ecuador would not accept any border that did not guarantee the country an outlet to the [[Marañón River]], effectively staking out a revisionist position on the protocol while stopping short of formal repudiation. The ceded territories were believed to contain oil reserves.
The banana boom dominated Plaza's economic legacy. When he took office in 1948, Ecuador was exporting approximately 3.8 million banana clusters annually; by 1952, exports had reached 16.7 million clusters, a 421 percent increase, driven in part by diseases devastating Central American plantations and redirecting United States market demand to Ecuador. Plaza promoted this expansion actively, with [[IBEC]] (International Basic Economy Corporation), a [[Rockefeller Brothers]] venture, advising on development programs. The [[Standard Fruit and Steamship Company]], whose stock [[Chase Manhattan Bank]] transferred, expanded its Ecuadorian operations as a result.[^2]
The banana boom dominated Plaza's economic legacy. When he took office in 1948, Ecuador was exporting approximately 3.8 million banana clusters annually; by 1952, exports had reached 16.7 million clusters, a 421 percent increase, driven in part by diseases devastating Central American plantations and redirecting United States market demand to Ecuador. Plaza promoted this expansion actively, with [[IBEC]] (International Basic Economy Corporation), a [[Rockefeller Brothers]] venture, advising on development programs. The [[Standard Fruit and Steamship Company]], whose stock [[Chase Manhattan Bank]] transferred, expanded its Ecuadorian operations as a result.[^3]
Plaza's connection to the banana industry extended beyond his presidency. In 1958, alongside [[National Planning Association]] researcher [[Stacy May]], he co-authored "The United Fruit Company in [[Latin America]]," a study published by the National Planning Association that drew on access to United Fruit's internal records. May had run the Statistics Division of the U.S. War Production Board during World War II. The book covered United Fruit's operations in Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama, Ecuador, and Colombia, and was regarded as relatively factual rather than promotional in character.[^6]
Plaza's connection to the banana industry extended beyond his presidency. In 1958, alongside [[National Planning Association]] researcher [[Stacy May]], he co-authored "The United Fruit Company in [[Latin America]]," a study published by the National Planning Association that drew on access to United Fruit's internal records. May had run the Statistics Division of the U.S. War Production Board during World War II. The book covered United Fruit's operations in Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama, Ecuador, and Colombia, and was regarded as relatively factual rather than promotional in character.[^7]
### Summer Institute of Linguistics
SIL missionaries first arrived in Ecuador in 1952, with the formal invitation of the Ecuadorian government attributed to Plaza. One SIL account states that SIL entered Ecuador "in response to the expressed invitation of then President Galo Plaza to study, record and work on translation of materials into indigenous languages." SIL maintained a formal reporting relationship with Ecuador's Ministry of Education through 1982, when its agreement was terminated. The Summer Institute of Linguistics had been actively promoted in Latin America by [[William Cameron Townsend]], and both Plaza and the Colombian leader [[Alberto Lleras Camargo]] (who became the OAS's first secretary-general) helped Townsend establish SIL's South American operations.[^7]
SIL missionaries first arrived in Ecuador in 1952, with the formal invitation of the Ecuadorian government attributed to Plaza. One SIL account states that SIL entered Ecuador "in response to the expressed invitation of then President Galo Plaza to study, record and work on translation of materials into indigenous languages." SIL maintained a formal reporting relationship with Ecuador's Ministry of Education through 1982, when its agreement was terminated. The Summer Institute of Linguistics had been actively promoted in Latin America by [[William Cameron Townsend]], and both Plaza and the Colombian leader [[Alberto Lleras Camargo]] (who became the OAS's first secretary-general) helped Townsend establish SIL's South American operations.[^8]
### Interlude: International Mediation (1958-1966)
Between his presidency and his OAS tenure, Plaza built a substantial record as a multilateral mediator. In 1958 he presided over meetings of the Special Committee of the [[Economic Commission for Latin America]] (CEPAL) that laid the foundations for the Latin American common market. In the same year, he headed a United Nations observer mission sent to Lebanon.
In late 1958, as the [[Batista]] regime in Cuba was collapsing, Plaza was approached through ex-President [[Roberto Arias]] of Panama to participate in an offer of good offices to the Cuban people, potentially joining a panel of two or three Latin American ex-presidents to seek a peaceful transition. The State Department had prompted this initiative; a December 23, 1958 State Department communication records that the United States was "in touch with ex-President Galo Plaza of Ecuador to see whether the latter would be interested in joining" the mediation panel.[^8]
In late 1958, as the [[Batista]] regime in Cuba was collapsing, Plaza was approached through ex-President [[Roberto Arias]] of Panama to participate in an offer of good offices to the Cuban people, potentially joining a panel of two or three Latin American ex-presidents to seek a peaceful transition. The State Department had prompted this initiative; a December 23, 1958 State Department communication records that the United States was "in touch with ex-President Galo Plaza of Ecuador to see whether the latter would be interested in joining" the mediation panel.[^9]
In 1960 Plaza presided over the United Nations committee charged with managing the evacuation of Belgian military forces from the Congo during the independence crisis.
From September 16, 1964 through the end of 1965, Plaza served as the personal representative of the UN Secretary-General and as mediator in Cyprus under [[UNFICYP]]. He submitted a formal mediation report on March 26, 1965, which proposed resolving the Cyprus dispute primarily as a Cypriot internal matter rather than a Greco-Turkish bilateral affair. Greek Cypriot representative [[Glafcos Clerides]] described the report as "bold and welcome"; the Turkish side rejected it. The episode became known in UN peacekeeping literature as the "Plaza moment."[^9]
From September 16, 1964 through the end of 1965, Plaza served as the personal representative of the UN Secretary-General and as mediator in Cyprus under [[UNFICYP]]. He submitted a formal mediation report on March 26, 1965, which proposed resolving the Cyprus dispute primarily as a Cypriot internal matter rather than a Greco-Turkish bilateral affair. Greek Cypriot representative [[Glafcos Clerides]] described the report as "bold and welcome"; the Turkish side rejected it. The episode became known in UN peacekeeping literature as the "Plaza moment."[^10]
### At the OAS (1968-1975)
Plaza was elected secretary-general of the OAS on February 13, 1968, and took office on May 18, 1968. He served two terms before stepping down in 1975. His tenure at the OAS coincided with accelerating fragmentation of Cold War-era inter-American consensus, including growing pressure from member states to lift collective sanctions against Cuba that had been imposed in 1964. The OAS ultimately passed a "Freedom of Action Resolution" in July 1975, allowing member states to resume relations with Havana, effectively nullifying earlier OAS resolutions on Cuba. Plaza presided over the organization during the period when this change was being debated and ultimately enacted.
Alberto Lleras Camargo had served as the OAS's first secretary-general; Plaza succeeded [[José A. Mora]] of Uruguay as the third person to hold the position. Both Plaza and Lleras Camargo had helped William Cameron Townsend establish SIL operations in South America.[^7]
Alberto Lleras Camargo had served as the OAS's first secretary-general; Plaza succeeded [[José A. Mora]] of Uruguay as the third person to hold the position. Both Plaza and Lleras Camargo had helped William Cameron Townsend establish SIL operations in South America.[^8]
The State Department's Foreign Relations volumes for 1969-1976 (FRUS 1969-76) and the persons index for FRUS 1977-80, Vol. XV document Plaza's continued engagement with U.S. officials during and after his OAS tenure, identifying him in the index as having also served as President of Ecuador's Supreme Electoral Tribunal.[^10]
The State Department's Foreign Relations volumes for 1969-1976 (FRUS 1969-76) and the persons index for FRUS 1977-80, Vol. XV document Plaza's continued engagement with U.S. officials during and after his OAS tenure, identifying him in the index as having also served as President of Ecuador's Supreme Electoral Tribunal.[^11]
### Rockefeller Foundation Trusteeship
Plaza served as a trustee of the [[Rockefeller Foundation]] and remained in Rockefeller's personal diplomatic orbit through the 1960s. His willingness to act as Washington's parliamentary agent in Latin American venues, first at Chapultepec, then through his OAS tenure, placed him at the operational center of the inter-American system Rockefeller had designed.[^11]
Plaza served as a trustee of the [[Rockefeller Foundation]] and remained in Rockefeller's personal diplomatic orbit through the 1960s. His willingness to act as Washington's parliamentary agent in Latin American venues, first at Chapultepec, then through his OAS tenure, placed him at the operational center of the inter-American system Rockefeller had designed.[^12]
### Inter-American Dialogue
In 1982, Plaza co-founded the [[Inter-American Dialogue]] think tank with U.S. diplomat [[Sol M. Linowitz]], former U.S. ambassador to the OAS. Linowitz had conceived the idea of assembling citizens from across the hemisphere to set a new regional agenda and proposed it to Plaza as a natural co-chair given his history at the OAS. The Dialogue held its first meeting in 1982 under the auspices of the [[Aspen Institute]], with Plaza serving as the organization's first Latin American co-chair. The Dialogue positioned itself as an independent hemispheric policy forum distinct from official OAS channels.[^12]
In 1982, Plaza co-founded the [[Inter-American Dialogue]] think tank with U.S. diplomat [[Sol M. Linowitz]], former U.S. ambassador to the OAS. Linowitz had conceived the idea of assembling citizens from across the hemisphere to set a new regional agenda and proposed it to Plaza as a natural co-chair given his history at the OAS. The Dialogue held its first meeting in 1982 under the auspices of the [[Aspen Institute]], with Plaza serving as the organization's first Latin American co-chair. The Dialogue positioned itself as an independent hemispheric policy forum distinct from official OAS channels.[^13]
### Death
Galo Plaza died of a heart attack on January 28, 1987, at a hospital in Quito. He was 80 years old. He was survived by his wife Rosario Pallares, whom he had married in 1933, and six children. The family's Hacienda Zuleta in Imbabura Province continued as a working agricultural estate; in 1995 the family established the Galo Plaza Lasso Foundation, a non-governmental organization focused on cultural preservation and community development in the Angochagua region.
[^1]: Encyclopedia.com, "Galo Plaza Lasso," citing George I. Blanksten, *Ecuador: Constitutions and Caudillos* (1951). Plaza's role at Chapultepec and San Francisco is confirmed in multiple biographical sources: he attended both as Ecuador's ambassador to Washington (1944-1946).
[^2]: Gerard Colby and Charlotte Dennett, *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon*. HarperCollins, 1995. Ch. 12, 27.
[^3]: Harry S. Truman Library, Photograph Record 66-8157: "The President of Ecuador, Galo Plaza and Nelson Rockefeller at a Pan American Society Dinner."
[^4]: FRUS 1948, Vol. IX (The Western Hemisphere), Document 433: Despatch No. 710 from Ambassador John F. Simmons to the Department of State, September 3, 1948. Available at history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1948v09/d433.
[^5]: FRUS 1952-54, Vol. IV, Document 231: Miller memorandum comparing political transitions in Ecuador, Chile, and Brazil, 1952-1953.
[^6]: Stacy May and Galo Plaza, *The United Fruit Company in Latin America*. Washington: National Planning Association, 1958.
[^7]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 12. SIL's own account of its Ecuador entry appears in SIL activity reports; the Middlebury College summary of "The Summer Institute of Linguistics and Indigenous Movements" (2018) confirms the 1952-1953 entry under Plaza's invitation.
[^8]: FRUS 1958-60, Vol. VI (Cuba), Document 189: State Department communication, approximately December 23, 1958, regarding ex-President Arias of Panama and ex-President Plaza of Ecuador in contact about good offices for Cuba. Available at history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1958-60v06/d189.
[^9]: Cambridge University Journal of Global History article: "Reputation on the (green) line: revisiting the 'Plaza moment' in United Nations peacekeeping practice, 1964-1966." Plaza's appointment as UN mediator for Cyprus dated to September 16, 1964; his report submitted March 26, 1965.
[^10]: FRUS 1977-80, Vol. XV (Central America), persons index entry for Plaza Lasso, Galo.
[^11]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 12, 19.
[^12]: Inter-American Dialogue, founding history. Sol M. Linowitz, former U.S. ambassador to the OAS, co-chaired with Plaza. First meeting held 1982 under Aspen Institute auspices.
### Footnotes
[^1]: Obituary of Galo Plaza Lasso, *The New York Times*, January 29, 1987 (accessed at findagrave.com/memorial/199014200). The obituary states that he was sent to the University of California, "then to the University of Maryland, where he received a degree in agronomy, and to the Georgetown University School of Foreign Service in Washington, where he got a degree in Diplomacy."
[^2]: Encyclopedia.com, "Galo Plaza Lasso," citing George I. Blanksten, *Ecuador: Constitutions and Caudillos* (1951). Plaza's role at Chapultepec and San Francisco is confirmed in multiple biographical sources: he attended both as Ecuador's ambassador to Washington (1944-1946).
[^3]: Gerard Colby and Charlotte Dennett, *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon*. HarperCollins, 1995. Ch. 12, 27.
[^4]: Harry S. Truman Library, Photograph Record 66-8157: "The President of Ecuador, Galo Plaza and Nelson Rockefeller at a Pan American Society Dinner."
[^5]: FRUS 1948, Vol. IX (The Western Hemisphere), Document 433: Despatch No. 710 from Ambassador John F. Simmons to the Department of State, September 3, 1948. Available at history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1948v09/d433.
[^6]: FRUS 1952-54, Vol. IV, Document 231: Miller memorandum comparing political transitions in Ecuador, Chile, and Brazil, 1952-1953.
[^7]: Stacy May and Galo Plaza, *The United Fruit Company in Latin America*. Washington: National Planning Association, 1958.
[^8]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 12. SIL's own account of its Ecuador entry appears in SIL activity reports; the Middlebury College summary of "The Summer Institute of Linguistics and Indigenous Movements" (2018) confirms the 1952-1953 entry under Plaza's invitation.
[^9]: FRUS 1958-60, Vol. VI (Cuba), Document 189: State Department communication, approximately December 23, 1958, regarding ex-President Arias of Panama and ex-President Plaza of Ecuador in contact about good offices for Cuba. Available at history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1958-60v06/d189.
[^10]: Cambridge University Journal of Global History article: "Reputation on the (green) line: revisiting the 'Plaza moment' in United Nations peacekeeping practice, 1964-1966." Plaza's appointment as UN mediator for Cyprus dated to September 16, 1964; his report submitted March 26, 1965.
[^11]: FRUS 1977-80, Vol. XV (Central America), persons index entry for Plaza Lasso, Galo.
[^12]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 12, 19.
[^13]: Inter-American Dialogue, founding history. Sol M. Linowitz, former U.S. ambassador to the OAS, co-chaired with Plaza. First meeting held 1982 under Aspen Institute auspices.

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@ -18,9 +18,12 @@ Gerald G. Oplinger was an aide to [[Zbigniew Brzezinski]] for global issues. He
In a memorandum of January 23, 1980 to Owen, Oplinger wrote that he had told the State Department to put the press release and congressional consultations on hold, and that the [[Department of Energy]], the [[Department of Defense]] and technical people within the intelligence community had "sufficient doubts about the Press panel report to make it very dangerous to proceed without another look." He wrote that [[John Deutch]] and Dan Murphy felt strongly that unless the questions were given "a further airing, there will be continued internal dissent and an appearance that policy people (including the White House) did a whitewash for political reasons."[^4]
The "Press panel" that the memorandum criticizes was the review that the presidential science adviser, [[Frank Press]], had convened under [[Jack P. Ruina|Jack Ruina]]. The National Security Archive's briefing book on the Vela incident identifies it in those terms and describes the memorandum as Oplinger's report that the intelligence community was dissatisfied with the review's treatment of the Vela signals and of an ionospheric disturbance.[^5] The memorandum records the intelligence community's view on the Arecibo ionospheric signals in the words "DoE and DoD say no."[^5] The Press panel is the Vela review and is not the psychic research panel.
### Footnotes
[^1]: Richelson, Jeffrey T., ed., "The Vela Incident: Nuclear Test or Meteoroid?" National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 190, May 5, 2006, narrative. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB190/index.htm
[^2]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991. Chapter 20.
[^3]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980, vol. XVI, Southern Africa, Document 361. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v16/d361
[^4]: Oplinger, Jerry, memorandum to Henry Owen, "South Atlantic Event," January 23, 1980, Secret. Jimmy Carter Presidential Library, NLC-28-32-4-16-5; Document 33 in Burr, William, and Avner Cohen, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 570, December 6, 2016. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/nuclear-vault/2016-12-06/vela-incident-south-atlantic-mystery-flash-september-1979-raised-questions-about-nuclear-test
[^5]: William Burr and Avner Cohen, "The Vela Incident," National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 570, narrative and document 33 (Jerry Oplinger to Henry Owen, "South Atlantic Event," January 23, 1980, Secret, Jimmy Carter Presidential Library, NLC-28-32-4-16-5).

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@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ aliases:
- Jonathan J. Pollard
- Pollard
created: 2026-10-12
updated: 2026-10-12
updated: 2026-10-15
born: 1954-08-07
location: "Galveston, Texas"
summary: "Jonathan Jay Pollard was a Navy civilian intelligence analyst who spied for Israel from 1984 to 1985, was sentenced to life imprisonment in 1987, and was paroled in 2015."
@ -164,33 +164,35 @@ Ben-Menashe's claim that Robert McFarlane had been recruited by Rafael Eitan and
The opinion describes Ben-Menashe as "a self-professed former Israeli spy and a major source for conspiracy theorists," and records that the Esquire article quoted intelligence officials and journalists calling him a "fake" and a "con man."[^62] The same opinion notes that "[i]n Pollard's case there were persistent allegations about another, unnamed American who secretly worked for the Israelis."[^63]
In *McFarlane v. Sheridan Square Press*, decided August 16, 1996, the same court affirmed summary judgment for the publisher of Ben-Menashe's 1992 book *Profits of War* on the ground that McFarlane could not show actual malice. The opinion summarizes the book's allegation that McFarlane played an important role in the October Surprise negotiations and was an Israeli spy, and states that "the entire October Surprise story was thoroughly discredited" in the joint report of the House task force that investigated the allegations, H.R. Rep. No. 102-1102 (1993).[^64]
### Israeli Inquiries
After Pollard's arrest, the top Israeli leadership denied having any knowledge of his activities. Pollard himself argued that his Israeli handlers told him that "Israel's dependence upon a 'special source'" had been mentioned at Israeli cabinet meetings. He also stated that he was routinely provided with lists of intelligence items wanted, coordinated and prioritized by the heads of all the various military intelligence services. Much of the material he supplied, such as satellite photographs and communication intercepts, was clearly not being transferred through official channels.[^64]
After Pollard's arrest, the top Israeli leadership denied having any knowledge of his activities. Pollard himself argued that his Israeli handlers told him that "Israel's dependence upon a 'special source'" had been mentioned at Israeli cabinet meetings. He also stated that he was routinely provided with lists of intelligence items wanted, coordinated and prioritized by the heads of all the various military intelligence services. Much of the material he supplied, such as satellite photographs and communication intercepts, was clearly not being transferred through official channels.[^65]
The [[Los Angeles Times]] reported on November 29, 1985 that Prime Minister [[Shimon Peres]], Defense Minister [[Yitzhak Rabin]] and Foreign Minister Shamir had been meeting daily to review the internal investigation, and that the essential elements of the case were believed to be clear to the three.[^65] In late February 1987 the Israeli embassy spokesman [[Yossi Gal]] said that Shamir had reiterated on a recent visit to Washington "that this was a rogue operation that was not authorized and against the will of the government."[^66] In a report from Jerusalem published March 11, 1987, [[Thomas L. Friedman]] quoted Shamir: "The State of Israel has no connection with Pollard or his family."[^67]
The [[Los Angeles Times]] reported on November 29, 1985 that Prime Minister [[Shimon Peres]], Defense Minister [[Yitzhak Rabin]] and Foreign Minister Shamir had been meeting daily to review the internal investigation, and that the essential elements of the case were believed to be clear to the three.[^66] In late February 1987 the Israeli embassy spokesman [[Yossi Gal]] said that Shamir had reiterated on a recent visit to Washington "that this was a rogue operation that was not authorized and against the will of the government."[^67] In a report from Jerusalem published March 11, 1987, [[Thomas L. Friedman]] quoted Shamir: "The State of Israel has no connection with Pollard or his family."[^68]
The Knesset's intelligence subcommittee, chaired by [[Abba Eban]], and a two-member cabinet panel chaired by Tel Aviv lawyer [[Yehoshua Rotenstreich]] reported on May 26, 1987. The Post reported that neither panel found evidence that the leadership knew of the operation, but that both found the senior political leadership responsible for failing to uncover and end it. The seven-member subcommittee singled out Defense Minister Yitzhak Rabin and his predecessor [[Moshe Arens]], and said that Shimon Peres, Shamir and Rabin shared responsibility for the government's failure to live up to commitments made to the United States after Pollard's arrest. The Post reported that, contrary to government statements at the time, the subcommittee's report said the affair was "not a rogue operation" but one conducted by Israeli officials using official resources.[^68] The subcommittee accused Eitan of "a gross excess of authority" and said Sella "excessively involved himself on his own initiative." It indicated that Sella may have lied in his testimony about the extent of his role, and it criticized the Army Chief of Staff, [[Moshe Levy]], and [[Amos Lapidot]] for allowing Sella leave to take part in what they surmised was a sensitive espionage mission.[^69] The Rotenstreich panel contended that the "ruling troika" of Peres, Shamir and Rabin "did not take care to clarify facts sufficiently before transferring them to the U.S. authorities." The Post reported that the troika had reportedly pressed Rotenstreich to hand in his report after learning that Eban's was to be released, in the hope that his findings would be milder.[^70] Shamir told reporters that the government had no intention of resigning and that "the mountain was really a molehill and the earth did not move."[^71]
The Knesset's intelligence subcommittee, chaired by [[Abba Eban]], and a two-member cabinet panel chaired by Tel Aviv lawyer [[Yehoshua Rotenstreich]] reported on May 26, 1987. The Post reported that neither panel found evidence that the leadership knew of the operation, but that both found the senior political leadership responsible for failing to uncover and end it. The seven-member subcommittee singled out Defense Minister Yitzhak Rabin and his predecessor [[Moshe Arens]], and said that Shimon Peres, Shamir and Rabin shared responsibility for the government's failure to live up to commitments made to the United States after Pollard's arrest. The Post reported that, contrary to government statements at the time, the subcommittee's report said the affair was "not a rogue operation" but one conducted by Israeli officials using official resources.[^69] The subcommittee accused Eitan of "a gross excess of authority" and said Sella "excessively involved himself on his own initiative." It indicated that Sella may have lied in his testimony about the extent of his role, and it criticized the Army Chief of Staff, [[Moshe Levy]], and [[Amos Lapidot]] for allowing Sella leave to take part in what they surmised was a sensitive espionage mission.[^70] The Rotenstreich panel contended that the "ruling troika" of Peres, Shamir and Rabin "did not take care to clarify facts sufficiently before transferring them to the U.S. authorities." The Post reported that the troika had reportedly pressed Rotenstreich to hand in his report after learning that Eban's was to be released, in the hope that his findings would be milder.[^71] Shamir told reporters that the government had no intention of resigning and that "the mountain was really a molehill and the earth did not move."[^72]
The Israeli Cabinet adopted the Rotenstreich findings, which held the entire government collectively responsible for failure to know that a secret spy unit in the Defense Ministry had hired Pollard.[^72] Rabin and Peres attacked the subcommittee as politically tainted. The subcommittee's report accused Rabin of failing "to follow up or increase supervision as he should have done" during the fourteen months when Pollard was active, and the Post reported that it criticized the promotions of Sella and Eitan, who became chairman of the country's largest state-owned company.[^70]
The Israeli Cabinet adopted the Rotenstreich findings, which held the entire government collectively responsible for failure to know that a secret spy unit in the Defense Ministry had hired Pollard.[^73] Rabin and Peres attacked the subcommittee as politically tainted. The subcommittee's report accused Rabin of failing "to follow up or increase supervision as he should have done" during the fourteen months when Pollard was active, and the Post reported that it criticized the promotions of Sella and Eitan, who became chairman of the country's largest state-owned company.[^71]
The Post reported that Sella had been indicted by a federal grand jury in Washington in March 1987 for his role in the affair.[^73] Hersh wrote that after American protests Sella was instead named head of the Israel Defense Forces staff college, and that he later retired from the air force.[^74] The Post reported that Sella's promotion to command one of Israel's largest air bases had set off a storm of controversy in the United States, and that he eventually resigned from the new post, citing his concern for U.S.-Israeli relations.[^75]
The Post reported that Sella had been indicted by a federal grand jury in Washington in March 1987 for his role in the affair.[^74] Hersh wrote that after American protests Sella was instead named head of the Israel Defense Forces staff college, and that he later retired from the air force.[^75] The Post reported that Sella's promotion to command one of Israel's largest air bases had set off a storm of controversy in the United States, and that he eventually resigned from the new post, citing his concern for U.S.-Israeli relations.[^76]
The Israeli officials most tarnished by the affair were Eitan and Sella. Eitan did not suffer financially. He was subsequently named to a high administrative position with the Israel Chemicals Company, an appointment authorized by Ariel Sharon.[^76] Hersh wrote that Sella was promoted to brigadier general after his return from the United States and assigned as commander of [[Tel Nof]], the site of Israel's nuclear-ready air force squadron.[^77] The Christian Science Monitor reported that the committees criticized the government for appointing Sella commander of Tel Nof Air Force Base after his involvement in the affair became known.[^78]
The Israeli officials most tarnished by the affair were Eitan and Sella. Eitan did not suffer financially. He was subsequently named to a high administrative position with the Israel Chemicals Company, an appointment authorized by Ariel Sharon.[^77] Hersh wrote that Sella was promoted to brigadier general after his return from the United States and assigned as commander of [[Tel Nof]], the site of Israel's nuclear-ready air force squadron.[^78] The Christian Science Monitor reported that the committees criticized the government for appointing Sella commander of Tel Nof Air Force Base after his involvement in the affair became known.[^79]
### Aftermath and Sella's Account
Pollard refused to cooperate with the U.S. Attorney's Office in Washington for six months before finally giving up Sella's name as part of a plea bargain. It is not known whether prosecutors realized at the time that Sella's mission was linked to nuclear intelligence. Hersh wrote that Sella was indicted in absentia in March 1987 and declared a fugitive from justice in June 1990, and that the Israeli government refused U.S. demands for his extradition.[^79]
Pollard refused to cooperate with the U.S. Attorney's Office in Washington for six months before finally giving up Sella's name as part of a plea bargain. It is not known whether prosecutors realized at the time that Sella's mission was linked to nuclear intelligence. Hersh wrote that Sella was indicted in absentia in March 1987 and declared a fugitive from justice in June 1990, and that the Israeli government refused U.S. demands for his extradition.[^80]
Sella has given friends and colleagues an account of his involvement that is more credible, but still far short of the whole story. He claimed he was recruited to try to control Pollard, who was drowning the Israeli intelligence bureaucracy in documents. Sella, who had almost completed his Ph.D. in computer science at [[New York University]], believed his technical training would be an asset in evaluating and perhaps winnowing down Pollard's materials. He knew that Pollard had been recruited long before 1984, but was eager for the assignment, believing it would advance his career. He checked with his superior, Major General Lapidot, who assured him that Pollard was not a rogue and that clearance for his new assignment had been obtained from the defense minister, Yitzhak Rabin. Once involved, Sella complained that Pollard "was running crazy" and "was giving him things he didn't want and didn't need."[^80]
Sella has given friends and colleagues an account of his involvement that is more credible, but still far short of the whole story. He claimed he was recruited to try to control Pollard, who was drowning the Israeli intelligence bureaucracy in documents. Sella, who had almost completed his Ph.D. in computer science at [[New York University]], believed his technical training would be an asset in evaluating and perhaps winnowing down Pollard's materials. He knew that Pollard had been recruited long before 1984, but was eager for the assignment, believing it would advance his career. He checked with his superior, Major General Lapidot, who assured him that Pollard was not a rogue and that clearance for his new assignment had been obtained from the defense minister, Yitzhak Rabin. Once involved, Sella complained that Pollard "was running crazy" and "was giving him things he didn't want and didn't need."[^81]
[[Leonard Garment]], hired by Israel to represent Sella, attempted to resolve the affair. He was pressured by a six-man Israeli delegation, including [[Chaim Joseph Zadok]], [[Meir Rosenne]], [[Elyakim Rubinstein]], [[Ram Caspi]], [[Avraham Shalom]], and [[Hanan Bar-on]], to file a factual proffer that downplayed Sella's involvement. Garment eventually withdrew from the case, stating he was unsure whether his client was Sella or the Israeli government. With his withdrawal, the Israeli government ended its attempt to protect Sella, effectively ending Sella's career.[^81]
[[Leonard Garment]], hired by Israel to represent Sella, attempted to resolve the affair. He was pressured by a six-man Israeli delegation, including [[Chaim Joseph Zadok]], [[Meir Rosenne]], [[Elyakim Rubinstein]], [[Ram Caspi]], [[Avraham Shalom]], and [[Hanan Bar-on]], to file a factual proffer that downplayed Sella's involvement. Garment eventually withdrew from the case, stating he was unsure whether his client was Sella or the Israeli government. With his withdrawal, the Israeli government ended its attempt to protect Sella, effectively ending Sella's career.[^82]
### Parole and Departure
Pollard was released from prison on November 20, 2015 and placed on parole. His conditions included a curfew, an electronic monitor that tracked his location, limits on the jobs he could take, and a prohibition on leaving the United States.[^56][^82] On November 20, 2020 the Justice Department announced that he had completed his parole. The Parole Commission said there was "no evidence to conclude that he is likely to violate the law." His lawyers, Eliot Lauer and Jacques Semmelman, said that he was "now a free man in all respects."[^83]
Pollard was released from prison on November 20, 2015 and placed on parole. His conditions included a curfew, an electronic monitor that tracked his location, limits on the jobs he could take, and a prohibition on leaving the United States.[^56][^83] On November 20, 2020 the Justice Department announced that he had completed his parole. The Parole Commission said there was "no evidence to conclude that he is likely to violate the law." His lawyers, Eliot Lauer and Jacques Semmelman, said that he was "now a free man in all respects."[^84]
On December 30, 2020 Pollard and his wife Esther arrived at Ben Gurion International Airport on a private plane provided by the casino owner [[Sheldon Adelson]]. Prime Minister [[Benjamin Netanyahu]] greeted them and presented them with Israeli identity cards. Pollard said, "We are ecstatic to be home at last after 35 years."[^84]
On December 30, 2020 Pollard and his wife Esther arrived at Ben Gurion International Airport on a private plane provided by the casino owner [[Sheldon Adelson]]. Prime Minister [[Benjamin Netanyahu]] greeted them and presented them with Israeli identity cards. Pollard said, "We are ecstatic to be home at last after 35 years."[^85]
### Footnotes
@ -257,24 +259,25 @@ On December 30, 2020 Pollard and his wife Esther arrived at Ben Gurion Internati
[^61]: *McFarlane v. Esquire Magazine*, 74 F.3d 1296 (D.C. Cir. 1996), No. 94-7137, decided January 30, 1996. https://static.case.law/f3d/74/cases/1296-01.json Affirmance of the judgment for Esquire and the dismissal of the claim against Unger.
[^62]: *McFarlane v. Esquire Magazine*, 74 F.3d 1296 (D.C. Cir. 1996), No. 94-7137, decided January 30, 1996. https://static.case.law/f3d/74/cases/1296-01.json Description of Ben-Menashe and of the Esquire article's treatment of his credibility.
[^63]: *McFarlane v. Esquire Magazine*, 74 F.3d 1296 (D.C. Cir. 1996), No. 94-7137, decided January 30, 1996. https://static.case.law/f3d/74/cases/1296-01.json The opinion's note on persistent allegations about an unnamed second American.
[^64]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapters 21 and 22. Pollard's account of what his handlers told him about cabinet discussion and intelligence priorities.
[^65]: "Pollard" report, *Los Angeles Times*, November 29, 1985. CIA CREST copy: https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp90-00965r000504890020-7
[^66]: *The Washington Post*, February 28, 1987. CIA CREST copy: https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp90-00965r000403620005-5
[^67]: Thomas L. Friedman, "Shamir Says Pollard's Fate Is No Concern of Israel," *The New York Times*, March 11, 1987. CIA CREST copy: https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp90-00965r000302120009-8
[^68]: Glenn Frankel, "Israeli Spy Probes Fault Leadership," *Washington Post*, May 27, 1987 (Jerusalem dateline May 26). CIA CREST copy: https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000302080002-0 The two reports of May 26, 1987; the subcommittee's statement that the affair was not a rogue operation.
[^69]: Glenn Frankel, "Israeli Spy Probes Fault Leadership," *Washington Post*, May 27, 1987 (Jerusalem dateline May 26). CIA CREST copy: https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000302080002-0 The subcommittee's findings on Eitan and Sella, and its criticism of Levy and Lapidot.
[^70]: Glenn Frankel, "Israeli Spy Probes Fault Leadership," *Washington Post*, May 27, 1987 (Jerusalem dateline May 26). CIA CREST copy: https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000302080002-0 The Rotenstreich report's statement on the troika; the pressure to file it; Rabin and Peres's response to the subcommittee; criticism of Rabin's supervision and of the Sella and Eitan promotions.
[^71]: Glenn Frankel, "Israeli Spy Probes Fault Leadership," *Washington Post*, May 27, 1987 (Jerusalem dateline May 26). CIA CREST copy: https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000302080002-0 Shamir's remark to reporters.
[^72]: "Israel hopes that book is now closed on Pollard spy case," *Christian Science Monitor*, May 28, 1987. https://www.csmonitor.com/1987/0528/omary.html Cabinet adoption of the Rotenstreich findings and the collective-responsibility finding.
[^73]: Glenn Frankel, "Israeli Spy Probes Fault Leadership," *Washington Post*, May 27, 1987 (Jerusalem dateline May 26). CIA CREST copy: https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000302080002-0 Indictment of Sella by a federal grand jury in Washington in March 1987.
[^74]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapters 21 and 22. Sella's assignment to the staff college after American protests, and his later retirement.
[^75]: Glenn Frankel, "Israeli Spy Probes Fault Leadership," *Washington Post*, May 27, 1987 (Jerusalem dateline May 26). CIA CREST copy: https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000302080002-0 Sella's promotion and his resignation from the Tel Nof post.
[^76]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapters 21 and 22. Eitan's post at the Israel Chemicals Company and the Sharon authorization.
[^77]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapters 21 and 22. Sella's promotion to brigadier general and his assignment to Tel Nof.
[^78]: "Israel hopes that book is now closed on Pollard spy case," *Christian Science Monitor*, May 28, 1987. https://www.csmonitor.com/1987/0528/omary.html Committees' criticism of Sella's appointment to command Tel Nof Air Force Base.
[^79]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapters 21 and 22. Sella's fugitive status in June 1990 and the Israeli refusal of extradition.
[^80]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapters 21 and 22. Sella's account of his role as Hersh relates it, and Pollard's conduct once Sella was involved.
[^81]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapters 21 and 22. Garment's engagement, the Israeli delegation, and his withdrawal.
[^82]: National Security Archive, "Jonathan Pollard: Revisiting a Still Sensitive Case," Electronic Briefing Book (Richelson, December 14, 2012; reposted November 24, 2020). https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/intelligence/2012-12-14/jonathan-pollard-spy-case-cias-1987-damage-assessment-declassified Parole conditions, including the travel restriction, as stated in the November 24, 2020 posting.
[^83]: Matthew S. Schwartz, "Jonathan Pollard, Who Sold Cold War Secrets To Israel, Completes Parole," NPR, carried by *Georgia Public Broadcasting*, November 21, 2020. https://www.gpb.org/news/2020/11/21/jonathan-pollard-who-sold-cold-war-secrets-israel-completes-parole Parole Commission statement and the lawyers' statement.
[^84]: Associated Press, "Reports convicted US spy Pollard arrives in Israel," December 30, 2020. https://www.clickondetroit.com/news/world/2020/12/30/reports-convicted-us-spy-pollard-arrives-in-israel/ Arrival on December 30, 2020, the reception and Israeli identity cards.
[^64]: *McFarlane v. Sheridan Square Press, Inc.*, 91 F.3d 1501 (D.C. Cir. Aug. 16, 1996), Williams, Ginsburg and Rogers, JJ. https://static.case.law/f3d/91/cases/1501-01.json
[^65]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapters 21 and 22. Pollard's account of what his handlers told him about cabinet discussion and intelligence priorities.
[^66]: "Pollard" report, *Los Angeles Times*, November 29, 1985. CIA CREST copy: https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp90-00965r000504890020-7
[^67]: *The Washington Post*, February 28, 1987. CIA CREST copy: https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp90-00965r000403620005-5
[^68]: Thomas L. Friedman, "Shamir Says Pollard's Fate Is No Concern of Israel," *The New York Times*, March 11, 1987. CIA CREST copy: https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp90-00965r000302120009-8
[^69]: Glenn Frankel, "Israeli Spy Probes Fault Leadership," *Washington Post*, May 27, 1987 (Jerusalem dateline May 26). CIA CREST copy: https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000302080002-0 The two reports of May 26, 1987; the subcommittee's statement that the affair was not a rogue operation.
[^70]: Glenn Frankel, "Israeli Spy Probes Fault Leadership," *Washington Post*, May 27, 1987 (Jerusalem dateline May 26). CIA CREST copy: https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000302080002-0 The subcommittee's findings on Eitan and Sella, and its criticism of Levy and Lapidot.
[^71]: Glenn Frankel, "Israeli Spy Probes Fault Leadership," *Washington Post*, May 27, 1987 (Jerusalem dateline May 26). CIA CREST copy: https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000302080002-0 The Rotenstreich report's statement on the troika; the pressure to file it; Rabin and Peres's response to the subcommittee; criticism of Rabin's supervision and of the Sella and Eitan promotions.
[^72]: Glenn Frankel, "Israeli Spy Probes Fault Leadership," *Washington Post*, May 27, 1987 (Jerusalem dateline May 26). CIA CREST copy: https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000302080002-0 Shamir's remark to reporters.
[^73]: "Israel hopes that book is now closed on Pollard spy case," *Christian Science Monitor*, May 28, 1987. https://www.csmonitor.com/1987/0528/omary.html Cabinet adoption of the Rotenstreich findings and the collective-responsibility finding.
[^74]: Glenn Frankel, "Israeli Spy Probes Fault Leadership," *Washington Post*, May 27, 1987 (Jerusalem dateline May 26). CIA CREST copy: https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000302080002-0 Indictment of Sella by a federal grand jury in Washington in March 1987.
[^75]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapters 21 and 22. Sella's assignment to the staff college after American protests, and his later retirement.
[^76]: Glenn Frankel, "Israeli Spy Probes Fault Leadership," *Washington Post*, May 27, 1987 (Jerusalem dateline May 26). CIA CREST copy: https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000302080002-0 Sella's promotion and his resignation from the Tel Nof post.
[^77]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapters 21 and 22. Eitan's post at the Israel Chemicals Company and the Sharon authorization.
[^78]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapters 21 and 22. Sella's promotion to brigadier general and his assignment to Tel Nof.
[^79]: "Israel hopes that book is now closed on Pollard spy case," *Christian Science Monitor*, May 28, 1987. https://www.csmonitor.com/1987/0528/omary.html Committees' criticism of Sella's appointment to command Tel Nof Air Force Base.
[^80]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapters 21 and 22. Sella's fugitive status in June 1990 and the Israeli refusal of extradition.
[^81]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapters 21 and 22. Sella's account of his role as Hersh relates it, and Pollard's conduct once Sella was involved.
[^82]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapters 21 and 22. Garment's engagement, the Israeli delegation, and his withdrawal.
[^83]: National Security Archive, "Jonathan Pollard: Revisiting a Still Sensitive Case," Electronic Briefing Book (Richelson, December 14, 2012; reposted November 24, 2020). https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/intelligence/2012-12-14/jonathan-pollard-spy-case-cias-1987-damage-assessment-declassified Parole conditions, including the travel restriction, as stated in the November 24, 2020 posting.
[^84]: Matthew S. Schwartz, "Jonathan Pollard, Who Sold Cold War Secrets To Israel, Completes Parole," NPR, carried by *Georgia Public Broadcasting*, November 21, 2020. https://www.gpb.org/news/2020/11/21/jonathan-pollard-who-sold-cold-war-secrets-israel-completes-parole Parole Commission statement and the lawyers' statement.
[^85]: Associated Press, "Reports convicted US spy Pollard arrives in Israel," December 30, 2020. https://www.clickondetroit.com/news/world/2020/12/30/reports-convicted-us-spy-pollard-arrives-in-israel/ Arrival on December 30, 2020, the reception and Israeli identity cards.

2
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Karl Nell.md
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@ -58,7 +58,7 @@ Nell was a keynote speaker at the first [[Sol Foundation]] symposium, held Novem
### Statements and later appearances
At a May 21, 2024 SALT iConnections session in [[New York]], Nell and [[Alex Klokus]] appeared under the title "'Zero Doubt' Non-Human Intelligence on Earth."[^3] The same catalogue lists a March 9, 2025 question-and-answer session after the [[South by Southwest]] premiere of the film "The Age of Disclosure," with the producer [[Dan Farah]], [[Jim Semivan]], [[Tim Gallaudet]], [[Hal Puthoff]] and Nolan, and a 2025 appearance at the [[Archives of the Impossible]] conference.[^3]
At a May 21, 2024 SALT iConnections session in [[New York City|New York]], Nell and [[Alex Klokus]] appeared under the title "'Zero Doubt' Non-Human Intelligence on Earth."[^3] The same catalogue lists a March 9, 2025 question-and-answer session after the [[South by Southwest]] premiere of the film "The Age of Disclosure," with the producer [[Dan Farah]], [[Jim Semivan]], [[Tim Gallaudet]], [[Hal Puthoff]] and Nolan, and a 2025 appearance at the [[Archives of the Impossible]] conference.[^3]
Nell does not appear among the signatories of the November 12, 2024 letter urging the review-board provisions of the [[Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena Disclosure Act]].[^8] His Sol paper of May 2025 argues for enactment of the Act's review-board and eminent-domain provisions "or by executive order."[^2]

2
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Kurt Riezler.md
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@ -93,7 +93,7 @@ created: 2026-10-09
updated: 2026-10-09
---
Kurt Riezler (February 11, 1882 to September 5, 1955) was a German diplomat, political adviser and philosopher of history. He served as secretary and adviser to Chancellor [[Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg]] during the First World War, headed the Russian section of the German legation in [[Stockholm]] in 1917, acted as head of the German mission in [[Moscow]] after the murder of Count [[Wilhelm von Mirbach-Harff]] in 1918, and after emigrating in 1938 taught at the [[New School for Social Research]] in [[New York]].[^1][^2]
Kurt Riezler (February 11, 1882 to September 5, 1955) was a German diplomat, political adviser and philosopher of history. He served as secretary and adviser to Chancellor [[Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg]] during the First World War, headed the Russian section of the German legation in [[Stockholm]] in 1917, acted as head of the German mission in [[Moscow]] after the murder of Count [[Wilhelm von Mirbach-Harff]] in 1918, and after emigrating in 1938 taught at the [[New School for Social Research]] in [[New York City|New York]].[^1][^2]
### Adviser to the Chancellor

45
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Larry Summers.md
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@ -53,38 +53,44 @@ relations:
with: "[[Elisa New]]"
role: "husband"
fn: 1
- type: appointed
with: "[[Barack Obama]]"
reverse: true
role: "Director of the National Economic Council"
end: 2010
fn: 4
- type: member_of
with: "[[Minerva Project]]"
role: "chairman, advisory board"
start: 2012-04-04
fn: 5
fn: 6
created: 2026-09-25
updated: 2026-10-09
updated: 2026-10-15
---
Lawrence H. Summers (born November 30, 1954, in [[New Haven]], [[Connecticut]]) is an American economist who served as [[United States Department of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]] under [[Bill Clinton]] from 1999 to 2001 and as president of [[Harvard University]] from 2001 to 2006.[^1] In 2003, during his presidency, Harvard established the [[Program for Evolutionary Dynamics]] with a 6.5 million dollar gift from [[Jeffrey Epstein]], the largest Epstein gift Harvard received.[^2] Emails released by the [[House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform|House Oversight Committee]] in November 2025 showed Summers seeking Epstein's advice on his pursuit of a woman who regarded him as a mentor, in messages running until the day before Epstein's July 2019 arrest. Within three weeks Summers had resigned from the board of [[OpenAI]], taken leave from his Harvard center, and been banned for life by the [[American Economic Association]].[^1][^3]
### Treasury and Harvard
Summers was Treasury secretary for the last two years of the Clinton administration and became Harvard's president in 2001, serving five years.[^1] He remained on the faculty afterward with the rank of University Professor, Harvard's highest, and directed the [[Mossavar-Rahmani Center for Business and Government]] at the [[Harvard Kennedy School]].[^3]
Summers was Treasury secretary for the last two years of the Clinton administration and became Harvard's president in 2001, serving five years.[^1] He remained on the faculty afterward with the rank of University Professor, Harvard's highest, and directed the [[Mossavar-Rahmani Center for Business and Government]] at the [[Harvard Kennedy School]].[^3] Summers directed the [[National Economic Council]] in the first [[Barack Obama]] administration and announced in September 2010 that he would leave at the end of that year and return to his professorship at Harvard.[^4]
### The Program for Evolutionary Dynamics
Harvard had courted Epstein as a donor from 1992 and received his first gift in 1998. Between 1998 and 2006 he made 22 gifts totaling 8,443,000 dollars, most between 10,000 and 200,000 dollars, with one exception: 6.5 million dollars in 2003 for the Program for Evolutionary Dynamics, led by the mathematical biologist [[Martin Nowak]], whom Harvard recruited from the [[Institute for Advanced Study]] in Princeton, where Epstein had already funded his work.[^2] The program's original website stated: "The Program for Evolutionary Dynamics was established in 2003 by Harvard University President Lawrence H. Summers following an imaginative proposal by Jeffrey Epstein and [[Benedict Gross]]."[^2] The gift paid for a separate research facility in a leased building in [[Harvard Square]].[^2]
Press reports at the time described the gift as part of a 30 million dollar pledge; Harvard's 2020 review "found no Harvard record of such a pledge."[^2] Epstein's own foundation website was still claiming in 2020 that he had established the program "with a $35 million gift."[^2] Harvard stopped accepting Epstein's gifts under Summers's successor, [[Drew Faust]], no later than November 2008.[^2] The review found that Epstein kept a keycard, a passcode, and an office at the program's building into 2018, visiting more than forty times after his 2008 conviction.[^2] Epstein used the suite for dinner parties organized by Nowak's assistants, among them the celebration of Summers's sixtieth birthday.[^4]
Press reports at the time described the gift as part of a 30 million dollar pledge; Harvard's 2020 review "found no Harvard record of such a pledge."[^2] Epstein's own foundation website was still claiming in 2020 that he had established the program "with a $35 million gift."[^2] Harvard stopped accepting Epstein's gifts under Summers's successor, [[Drew Faust]], no later than November 2008.[^2] The review found that Epstein kept a keycard, a passcode, and an office at the program's building into 2018, visiting more than forty times after his 2008 conviction.[^2] Epstein used the suite for dinner parties organized by Nowak's assistants, among them the celebration of Summers's sixtieth birthday.[^5]
### Minerva advisory board
On April 4, 2012 the [[Minerva Project]], a for-profit education company founded by [[Ben Nelson]], announced that Summers had joined as "Chairman of Advisory Board" in the same release that announced a $25 million seed investment from [[Benchmark Capital]]. Summers is quoted: "I was excited by Ben Nelson's bold vision for Minerva" and "am proud to be a part of it."[^5] The company's release of January 14, 2013, which announced [[Bob Kerrey]] as executive chairman of The Minerva Institute for Research and Scholarship, describes Summers as "Former Harvard University President" who "serves as chairman of Minerva's Advisory Board," and its release of March 12, 2013 naming [[Stephen Kosslyn|Stephen M. Kosslyn]] Founding Dean quotes Summers as "chairman of the Minerva Project Advisory Board."[^6][^7] An undated company overview in the Epstein files gives the same description and lists the other members as [[Patrick Harker]], Bob Kerrey and [[Lee Shulman]].[^8] On July 26, 2013 the educator [[Roger Schank]] wrote to Epstein under the subject "minerva project" that "now I see your buddy summers on it."[^9]
On April 4, 2012 the [[Minerva Project]], a for-profit education company founded by [[Ben Nelson]], announced that Summers had joined as "Chairman of Advisory Board" in the same release that announced a $25 million seed investment from [[Benchmark Capital]]. Summers is quoted: "I was excited by Ben Nelson's bold vision for Minerva" and "am proud to be a part of it."[^6] The company's release of January 14, 2013, which announced [[Bob Kerrey]] as executive chairman of The Minerva Institute for Research and Scholarship, describes Summers as "Former Harvard University President" who "serves as chairman of Minerva's Advisory Board," and its release of March 12, 2013 naming [[Stephen Kosslyn|Stephen M. Kosslyn]] Founding Dean quotes Summers as "chairman of the Minerva Project Advisory Board."[^7][^8] An undated company overview in the Epstein files gives the same description and lists the other members as [[Patrick Harker]], Bob Kerrey and [[Lee Shulman]].[^9] On July 26, 2013 the educator [[Roger Schank]] wrote to Epstein under the subject "minerva project" that "now I see your buddy summers on it."[^10]
### The 2014 Philanthropy Contact
Epstein's calendars show Summers meeting him more than a dozen times between 2013 and 2016, in the years after Harvard had stopped accepting Epstein's money; a Summers spokesperson said in 2023 that he "deeply regrets being in contact with Epstein."[^10] The *[[The Wall Street Journal|Wall Street Journal]]*'s 2023 reporting on Epstein's calendars recorded that in April 2014 Summers sought Epstein's advice on small-scale philanthropy, to help raise one million dollars for an online poetry project developed by his wife, the Harvard literature professor [[Elisa New]].[^10] New later emailed Epstein herself, including a 2015 message thanking him for arranging financial support for the poetry project she directs.[^1] On November 17, 2014, six years after Harvard stopped taking his gifts, Epstein wrote to Summers: "harvard ok with donation?"[^11]
Epstein's calendars show Summers meeting him more than a dozen times between 2013 and 2016, in the years after Harvard had stopped accepting Epstein's money; a Summers spokesperson said in 2023 that he "deeply regrets being in contact with Epstein."[^11] The *[[The Wall Street Journal|Wall Street Journal]]*'s 2023 reporting on Epstein's calendars recorded that in April 2014 Summers sought Epstein's advice on small-scale philanthropy, to help raise one million dollars for an online poetry project developed by his wife, the Harvard literature professor [[Elisa New]].[^11] New later emailed Epstein herself, including a 2015 message thanking him for arranging financial support for the poetry project she directs.[^1] On November 17, 2014, six years after Harvard stopped taking his gifts, Epstein wrote to Summers: "harvard ok with donation?"[^12]
### The Churkin Meeting
On January 13, 2016, Epstein arranged by iMessage a meeting for the next day with [[Vitaly Churkin]], Russia's ambassador to the [[United Nations]]. After Churkin proposed Thursday, Epstein wrote "2?", then "Larry summers will be here as well," and then "Or 12 if you prefer privacy." Churkin replied, "2OK." On January 14 Epstein wrote to Churkin, "Running 15 minutes late."[^12] Eleven days earlier Epstein had offered Churkin a meal with [[Ehud Barak]], who was "in town this week."[^12]
On January 13, 2016, Epstein arranged by iMessage a meeting for the next day with [[Vitaly Churkin]], Russia's ambassador to the [[United Nations]]. After Churkin proposed Thursday, Epstein wrote "2?", then "Larry summers will be here as well," and then "Or 12 if you prefer privacy." Churkin replied, "2OK." On January 14 Epstein wrote to Churkin, "Running 15 minutes late."[^13] Eleven days earlier Epstein had offered Churkin a meal with [[Ehud Barak]], who was "in town this week."[^13]
### The 2018 and 2019 Emails
@ -92,22 +98,23 @@ The House Oversight Committee released more than 20,000 documents from Epstein's
### Resignations and the Lifetime Ban
On November 17, 2025, Summers announced that he would step back from public commitments: "I am deeply ashamed of my actions and recognize the pain they have caused. I take full responsibility for my misguided decision to continue communicating with Mr. Epstein."[^13] He then left his advisory role at the Yale Budget Lab and his fellowship at the [[Center for American Progress]], and the [[New York Times]] declined to renew his contributor contract.[^1][^13] On November 19 he resigned from the OpenAI board, where he had sat since November 2023, when he was added after the brief ouster of [[Sam Altman]]. The board said it respected his decision and appreciated "the perspective he brought to the Board."[^3][^13] The same day he took leave from the Mossavar-Rahmani Center; a Harvard Kennedy School spokesman, Steven Goldberg, said co-teachers would finish his courses and that "he is not scheduled to teach next semester." Harvard said it was "conducting a review of information concerning individuals at Harvard included in the newly released Jeffrey Epstein documents to evaluate what actions may be warranted."[^3]
On November 17, 2025, Summers announced that he would step back from public commitments: "I am deeply ashamed of my actions and recognize the pain they have caused. I take full responsibility for my misguided decision to continue communicating with Mr. Epstein."[^14] He then left his advisory role at the Yale Budget Lab and his fellowship at the [[Center for American Progress]], and the [[New York Times]] declined to renew his contributor contract.[^1][^14] On November 19 he resigned from the OpenAI board, where he had sat since November 2023, when he was added after the brief ouster of [[Sam Altman]]. The board said it respected his decision and appreciated "the perspective he brought to the Board."[^3][^14] The same day he took leave from the Mossavar-Rahmani Center; a Harvard Kennedy School spokesman, Steven Goldberg, said co-teachers would finish his courses and that "he is not scheduled to teach next semester." Harvard said it was "conducting a review of information concerning individuals at Harvard included in the newly released Jeffrey Epstein documents to evaluate what actions may be warranted."[^3]
On December 2, 2025, the American Economic Association accepted Summers's resignation and barred him for life from "attending, speaking at, or otherwise participating" in its events, calling his conduct "fundamentally inconsistent with its standards of professional integrity and with the trust placed in mentors within the economics profession." Summers declined to comment on the ban; the previous week he had called his association with Epstein a "major error in judgement."[^1] In February 2026, after further [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]] releases, Summers resigned from Harvard.[^4] No legal proceeding has named him.
On December 2, 2025, the American Economic Association accepted Summers's resignation and barred him for life from "attending, speaking at, or otherwise participating" in its events, calling his conduct "fundamentally inconsistent with its standards of professional integrity and with the trust placed in mentors within the economics profession." Summers declined to comment on the ban; the previous week he had called his association with Epstein a "major error in judgement."[^1] In February 2026, after further [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]] releases, Summers resigned from Harvard.[^5] No legal proceeding has named him.
### Footnotes
[^1]: "Larry Summers banned for life from American Economic Association." Associated Press via *Fortune,* December 3, 2025. https://fortune.com/2025/12/03/larry-summers-banned-for-life-from-american-economic-association
[^2]: Lopez, Diane E., Ara B. Gershengorn, and Martin F. Murphy. *Report Concerning Jeffrey E. Epstein's Connections to Harvard University.* Harvard University Office of the General Counsel, May 2020, pp. 3-5, 13, 20-22. https://ogc.harvard.edu/report-concerning-Epstein
[^3]: "Summers Resigns From OpenAI Board Amid Backlash Over Epstein Emails." *The Harvard Crimson,* November 19, 2025. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2025/11/19/summers-resigns-open-ai/
[^4]: Fernandes, Deirdre, and Tricia L. Nadolny. "Introductions to women. Free flights. Business deals. Jeffrey Epstein's ties to Harvard run deeper than previously known." *The Boston Globe,* February 25, 2026. https://www.bostonglobe.com/2026/02/25/metro/jeffrey-epstein-harvard-spotlight-report/
[^5]: Minerva Project, "The Minerva Project Redefines Elite Higher Education for Students Worldwide; Secures $25 Million from Benchmark Capital," April 4, 2012. https://s3.minervaproject.com/press-releases/Minerva-Project-Redefines-Higher-Education-Secures-25-Million.pdf
[^6]: PR Newswire, "Minerva Project Launches The Minerva Institute for Research and Scholarship; Appoints Former Senator of Nebraska Bob Kerrey as Executive Chairman of the Institute," January 14, 2013. https://prnewswire.com/news-releases/minerva-project-launches-the-minerva-institute-for-research-and-scholarship-appoints-former-senator-of-nebraska-bob-kerrey-as-executive-chairman-of-the-institute-186768111.html
[^7]: Minerva Project, "Minerva Project Names Dr. Stephen M. Kosslyn as Founding Dean," March 12, 2013. https://s3.minervaproject.com/press-releases/Minerva_Project_Annouces_Stephen_M._Kosslyn.pdf
[^8]: The Minerva Project, "An Overview," undated, EFTA01144731, U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, Data Set 9. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA01144731.pdf
[^9]: Jeffrey Epstein and Roger Schank, "Re: minerva project," July 26, 2013, EFTA00966277, U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, Data Set 9. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00966277.pdf
[^10]: Bohannon, Molly. "New Documents Reveal How Frequently Larry Summers, Woody Allen And More Met With Jeffrey Epstein." *Forbes,* May 3, 2023, summarizing the *Wall Street Journal*'s "Jeffrey Epstein's Private Calendar" series. https://www.forbes.com/sites/mollybohannon/2023/05/03/new-documents-reveal-how-frequently-larry-summers-woody-allen-and-more-met-with-jeffrey-epstein/
[^11]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA02594668, DataSet 11, email from Jeffrey Epstein to Larry Summers, November 17, 2014. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2011/EFTA02594668.pdf
[^12]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01619434, DataSet 10, iMessage log between Jeffrey Epstein and Vitaly Churkin, November 16, 2015 to February 23, 2016 (entries of January 2, 13 and 14, 2016). https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2010/EFTA01619434.pdf
[^13]: *CBS News,* November 2025, on Summers's resignation from the OpenAI board. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/larry-summers-resigns-openai-board-jeffrey-epstein-emails/
[^4]: PBS NewsHour, "Obama economic team turning over as Larry Summers departs," September 21, 2010. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/economy/obama-economic-team-turning-over-as-larry-summers-departs
[^5]: Fernandes, Deirdre, and Tricia L. Nadolny. "Introductions to women. Free flights. Business deals. Jeffrey Epstein's ties to Harvard run deeper than previously known." *The Boston Globe,* February 25, 2026. https://www.bostonglobe.com/2026/02/25/metro/jeffrey-epstein-harvard-spotlight-report/
[^6]: Minerva Project, "The Minerva Project Redefines Elite Higher Education for Students Worldwide; Secures $25 Million from Benchmark Capital," April 4, 2012. https://s3.minervaproject.com/press-releases/Minerva-Project-Redefines-Higher-Education-Secures-25-Million.pdf
[^7]: PR Newswire, "Minerva Project Launches The Minerva Institute for Research and Scholarship; Appoints Former Senator of Nebraska Bob Kerrey as Executive Chairman of the Institute," January 14, 2013. https://prnewswire.com/news-releases/minerva-project-launches-the-minerva-institute-for-research-and-scholarship-appoints-former-senator-of-nebraska-bob-kerrey-as-executive-chairman-of-the-institute-186768111.html
[^8]: Minerva Project, "Minerva Project Names Dr. Stephen M. Kosslyn as Founding Dean," March 12, 2013. https://s3.minervaproject.com/press-releases/Minerva_Project_Annouces_Stephen_M._Kosslyn.pdf
[^9]: The Minerva Project, "An Overview," undated, EFTA01144731, U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, Data Set 9. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA01144731.pdf
[^10]: Jeffrey Epstein and Roger Schank, "Re: minerva project," July 26, 2013, EFTA00966277, U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, Data Set 9. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00966277.pdf
[^11]: Bohannon, Molly. "New Documents Reveal How Frequently Larry Summers, Woody Allen And More Met With Jeffrey Epstein." *Forbes,* May 3, 2023, summarizing the *Wall Street Journal*'s "Jeffrey Epstein's Private Calendar" series. https://www.forbes.com/sites/mollybohannon/2023/05/03/new-documents-reveal-how-frequently-larry-summers-woody-allen-and-more-met-with-jeffrey-epstein/
[^12]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA02594668, DataSet 11, email from Jeffrey Epstein to Larry Summers, November 17, 2014. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2011/EFTA02594668.pdf
[^13]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01619434, DataSet 10, iMessage log between Jeffrey Epstein and Vitaly Churkin, November 16, 2015 to February 23, 2016 (entries of January 2, 13 and 14, 2016). https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2010/EFTA01619434.pdf
[^14]: *CBS News,* November 2025, on Summers's resignation from the OpenAI board. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/larry-summers-resigns-openai-board-jeffrey-epstein-emails/

240
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Laurance Rockefeller.md
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@ -28,276 +28,284 @@ relations:
- type: relative_of
with: "[[John D. Rockefeller Jr.]]"
role: "son"
fn: 1
fn: 3
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Nelson Rockefeller]]"
role: "brother"
fn: 2
fn: 4
- type: relative_of
with: "[[David Rockefeller]]"
role: "brother"
fn: 2
fn: 4
- type: spouse_of
with: "[[Mary French Rockefeller]]"
start: 1934-08-15
role: "husband"
fn: 1
fn: 3
- type: member_of
with: "[[United States Navy]]"
start: 1942
end: 1945
role: "lieutenant commander, Bureau of Aeronautics"
fn: 1
fn: 3
- type: owned
with: "[[Eastern Air Lines]]"
start: 1938
role: "chief stockholder, according to W. David Lewis"
fn: 3
fn: 5
- type: funded
with: "[[Itek]]"
role: "60,000 dollars according to Peter O. Crisp"
fn: 4
fn: 6
- type: funded
with: "[[Venrock]]"
start: 1969
role: "family venture capital group through which his investments were made from August 1969"
fn: 1
fn: 3
- type: head_of
with: "[[Rockefeller Brothers Fund]]"
start: 1958
end: 1980
role: "president, then chairman"
fn: 1
fn: 3
- type: head_of
with: "[[Special Studies Project]]"
start: 1958-05-26
role: "chairman of the planning committee"
fn: 8
fn: 10
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Special Studies Project]]"
role: "member of Panel II, International Security: The Military Aspect"
fn: 8
fn: 10
- type: appointed
with: "[[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]"
reverse: true
start: 1958
role: "chairman of the Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission"
fn: 1
fn: 3
- type: represented
with: "[[Henry L. Diamond]]"
reverse: true
start: 1993-03-29
role: "Washington attorney and long-time associate"
fn: 23
fn: 25
- type: head_of
with: "[[Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission]]"
start: 1958
role: "chairman"
fn: 11
fn: 13
- type: head_of
with: "[[Jackson Hole Preserve]]"
role: "president"
fn: 1
fn: 3
- type: founded
with: "[[American Conservation Association]]"
start: 1958
fn: 1
fn: 3
- type: head_of
with: "[[Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center]]"
start: 1960
end: 1982
role: "chairman"
fn: 1
fn: 3
- type: director_of
with: "[[Alfred P. Sloan Foundation]]"
start: 1960
end: 1982
role: "trustee"
fn: 1
fn: 3
- type: director_of
with: "[[New York Zoological Society]]"
start: 1935
end: 1986
role: "trustee"
fn: 1
fn: 3
- type: funded
with: "[[Virgin Islands National Park]]"
start: 1956
role: "donated more than 5,000 acres"
fn: 12
fn: 14
- type: funded
with: "[[Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research Lab]]"
role: "donor"
fn: 14
fn: 16
- type: funded
with: "[[Program for Extraordinary Experience Research]]"
start: 1993
role: "funder, according to the John E. Mack Institute"
fn: 15
fn: 17
- type: funded
with: "[[Center for Psychology and Social Change]]"
start: 1995-05
role: "reported annual grant of $250,000, per the London Times and the Valley News (May 1995); no source named"
fn: 16
fn: 18
- type: director_of
with: "[[Princeton University]]"
start: 1967
end: 1980
role: "charter trustee"
fn: 1
- type: funded
with: "[[Human Potential Foundation]]"
role: "partial funder, in the belief of John H. Gibbons"
fn: 18
fn: 20
- type: funded
with: "[[Society for Scientific Exploration]]"
start: 1997
role: "funds for the Pocantico UFO workshop, through the LSR Fund"
fn: 55
fn: 57
- type: funded
with: "[[UFO Research Coalition]]"
start: 1995
role: "financed the December 1995 Briefing Document"
fn: 48
fn: 50
created: 2026-10-01
updated: 2026-10-02
updated: 2026-10-15
---
Laurance S. Rockefeller (May 26, 1910, in [[New York City]], to July 11, 2004, at his home on [[Fifth Avenue]]) was the fourth of the six children of [[John D. Rockefeller Jr.]] and [[Abby Aldrich Rockefeller]]. He attended the [[Lincoln School]] of [[Teachers College, Columbia University|Teachers College]], [[Columbia University]], entered [[Princeton University]] in 1928, took a degree in philosophy in 1932 and studied for two years at [[Harvard Law School]]. He married [[Mary French Rockefeller|Mary French]] on August 15, 1934, at [[Woodstock, Vermont]], began work in the family office at [[Rockefeller Center]] in 1935, and served from 1942 to 1945 in the [[United States Navy]]'s [[Bureau of Aeronautics]], rising to lieutenant commander.[^1] His brothers were [[John D. Rockefeller III]], [[Nelson Rockefeller]], [[Winthrop Rockefeller]] and [[David Rockefeller]].[^2]
Laurance S. Rockefeller (May 26, 1910, in [[New York City]], to July 11, 2004, at his home on [[Fifth Avenue]]) was the fourth of the six children of [[John D. Rockefeller Jr.]] and [[Abby Aldrich Rockefeller]]. He attended the [[Lincoln School]] of [[Teachers College, Columbia University|Teachers College]], [[Columbia University]], entered [[Princeton University]] in 1928, took a degree in philosophy in 1932 and studied for two years at [[Harvard Law School]]. He was chairman of the pictorial board of the *Princetonian* and a charter trustee of Princeton from 1967 to 1980; his gifts included the University Center for Human Values and the Department of Molecular Biology, and he invested in McDonnell Aircraft Corporation.[^1] In December 1952 [[Clarence Dillon]] and Rockefeller purchased the diaries of [[James Forrestal]] from the *New York Herald Tribune* and donated them to Princeton.[^2] He married [[Mary French Rockefeller|Mary French]] on August 15, 1934, at [[Woodstock, Vermont]], began work in the family office at [[Rockefeller Center]] in 1935, and served from 1942 to 1945 in the [[United States Navy]]'s [[Bureau of Aeronautics]], rising to lieutenant commander.[^3] His brothers were [[John D. Rockefeller III]], [[Nelson Rockefeller]], [[Winthrop Rockefeller]] and [[David Rockefeller]].[^4]
### Eastern Air Lines
The historian [[W. David Lewis]] wrote that in 1938 [[Eddie Rickenbacker]], seeking financing to take over [[Eastern Air Lines]], "secured enough backing ... from a syndicate including Laurance S. Rockefeller, who became the chief stockholder in a new corporate entity known as Eastern Air Lines," and that Rickenbacker became chief executive in April 1938.[^3] In Lewis's account Eastern's directors moved Rickenbacker up to chairman in 1953 and named [[Malcolm A. MacIntyre]] president and chief executive, and Rickenbacker interfered with MacIntyre's management. Lewis wrote that Rockefeller "decided that the only way out of its problems was a merger with one of the country's two largest carriers, [[American Airlines]]." The industry, led by [[Delta Air Lines]], opposed the merger, and it became clear that [[Robert F. Kennedy]], as attorney general, would veto it on antitrust grounds even if the [[Civil Aeronautics Board]] did not; the plan was scuttled.[^3] Rockefeller had hoped the merger would let him replace Rickenbacker and MacIntyre with the chief executive of American, [[C. R. Smith]]. When it failed he appointed a search committee, which chose [[Floyd D. Hall]] of [[Trans World Airlines]]; MacIntyre was fired, and Rickenbacker was summoned to a meeting and asked to retire. Rickenbacker took the news badly and agreed only after a second meeting, which Rockefeller attended, and he left his office at Rockefeller Center and did not return.[^3]
The historian [[W. David Lewis]] wrote that in 1938 [[Eddie Rickenbacker]], seeking financing to take over [[Eastern Air Lines]], "secured enough backing ... from a syndicate including Laurance S. Rockefeller, who became the chief stockholder in a new corporate entity known as Eastern Air Lines," and that Rickenbacker became chief executive in April 1938.[^5] In Lewis's account Eastern's directors moved Rickenbacker up to chairman in 1953 and named [[Malcolm A. MacIntyre]] president and chief executive, and Rickenbacker interfered with MacIntyre's management. Lewis wrote that Rockefeller "decided that the only way out of its problems was a merger with one of the country's two largest carriers, [[American Airlines]]." The industry, led by [[Delta Air Lines]], opposed the merger, and it became clear that [[Robert F. Kennedy]], as attorney general, would veto it on antitrust grounds even if the [[Civil Aeronautics Board]] did not; the plan was scuttled.[^5] Rockefeller had hoped the merger would let him replace Rickenbacker and MacIntyre with the chief executive of American, [[C. R. Smith]]. When it failed he appointed a search committee, which chose [[Floyd D. Hall]] of [[Trans World Airlines]]; MacIntyre was fired, and Rickenbacker was summoned to a meeting and asked to retire. Rickenbacker took the news badly and agreed only after a second meeting, which Rockefeller attended, and he left his office at Rockefeller Center and did not return.[^5]
The Civil Aeronautics Board regulated routes and mail pay throughout this period. In a transcontinental route case decided in 1961 the Board gave Delta and [[National Airlines]] access to [[San Diego]], [[Los Angeles]] and [[San Francisco]] and denied Eastern's application; Rickenbacker had attacked President [[John F. Kennedy]] in a speech while the case was pending.[^3]
The Civil Aeronautics Board regulated routes and mail pay throughout this period. In a transcontinental route case decided in 1961 the Board gave Delta and [[National Airlines]] access to [[San Diego]], [[Los Angeles]] and [[San Francisco]] and denied Eastern's application; Rickenbacker had attacked President [[John F. Kennedy]] in a speech while the case was pending.[^5]
### Venture Investments
[[Peter O. Crisp]] joined Rockefeller's staff in 1960 and sat on the board of [[Apple Computer]] for sixteen years; in an oral history recorded on October 21, 2008 he described the origin of the family's venture investing. After the war, Crisp said, Rockefeller hired "these three guys" to look for small technology companies: [[Randy Marston]], "who had worked for the [[Chase Manhattan Bank|Chase Bank]] for many years"; [[Harper Woodward]], "General Arnold's assistant in [[World War II]] in the [[Pentagon]] for procurement matters"; and [[Teddy Walkowicz]], "a lieutenant colonel in the [[United States Air Force|Air Force]]" and "an [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] guy"; he named a fourth man, [[Jay Richardson Dilworth]], as "kind of the senior advisor to the [[Rockefeller family]]." Crisp said he screened proposals "for Marston, Woodward and Walkowicz," the "big shots" who then joined the boards.[^4] Among the investments Crisp listed since 1946 were [[New York Airways]], Eastern Air Lines, the [[Glenn L. Martin Company]], [[Reaction Motors]] (later bought by [[Thiokol]]), the [[Marquardt Aircraft Company]] (ramjet engines for missiles), [[Island Packers]] ("a tuna factory in the Pacific"), [[Flight Refueling]], the [[Piasecki Helicopter Company]] (merged with [[Vertol]] and later acquired by [[Boeing]]) and [[Aircraft Radio Corporation|Aircraft Radio]] (bought by [[Cessna]]); he also named [[Itek]] and [[Scantlin Electronics]], maker of the Quotron.[^4] Crisp said the staff passed on [[Haloid Company|Haloid]], which became [[Xerox]], after a former staff member's memorandum found no future in its copier technology, on which Marston wrote "I concur."[^4] From August 1969 Rockefeller's investments were channeled through [[Venrock]], which Crisp said was formed in 1969 and given its name because "we didn't want to be confused with philanthropy."[^1][^4]
[[Peter O. Crisp]] joined Rockefeller's staff in 1960 and sat on the board of [[Apple Computer]] for sixteen years; in an oral history recorded on October 21, 2008 he described the origin of the family's venture investing. After the war, Crisp said, Rockefeller hired "these three guys" to look for small technology companies: [[Randy Marston]], "who had worked for the [[Chase Manhattan Bank|Chase Bank]] for many years"; [[Harper Woodward]], "General Arnold's assistant in [[World War II]] in the [[Pentagon]] for procurement matters"; and [[Teddy Walkowicz]], "a lieutenant colonel in the [[United States Air Force|Air Force]]" and "an [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] guy"; he named a fourth man, [[Jay Richardson Dilworth]], as "kind of the senior advisor to the [[Rockefeller family]]." Crisp said he screened proposals "for Marston, Woodward and Walkowicz," the "big shots" who then joined the boards.[^6] Among the investments Crisp listed since 1946 were [[New York Airways]], Eastern Air Lines, the [[Glenn L. Martin Company]], [[Reaction Motors]] (later bought by [[Thiokol]]), the [[Marquardt Aircraft Company]] (ramjet engines for missiles), [[Island Packers]] ("a tuna factory in the Pacific"), [[Flight Refueling]], the [[Piasecki Helicopter Company]] (merged with [[Vertol]] and later acquired by [[Boeing]]) and [[Aircraft Radio Corporation|Aircraft Radio]] (bought by [[Cessna]]); he also named [[Itek]] and [[Scantlin Electronics]], maker of the Quotron.[^6] Crisp said the staff passed on [[Haloid Company|Haloid]], which became [[Xerox]], after a former staff member's memorandum found no future in its copier technology, on which Marston wrote "I concur."[^6] From August 1969 Rockefeller's investments were channeled through [[Venrock]], which Crisp said was formed in 1969 and given its name because "we didn't want to be confused with philanthropy."[^3][^6]
The record on Itek carries three dates. The [[Boston Globe]] obituary of [[Richard Leghorn|Dick Leghorn]] states that he cofounded Itek in 1957, and quotes him that the company was known as "the mystery company. It was very hush-hush."[^5] The [[Central Intelligence Agency]]'s history of the [[CORONA]] satellite program, by [[Kenneth E. Greer]], published in a classified supplement to [[Studies in Intelligence]] in spring 1973, states that in late March and April 1958 "interest shifted to a competitive design submitted by Itek Corporation, a spin-off of Boston University," that the project proposal completed on April 9, 1958 was rewritten twice, "retaining the Itek configuration," and that the final proposal was forwarded on April 16, 1958 to the President's staff secretary and approved, "although not in writing"; Itek "was made responsible for the design and development of the camera subsystem, Fairchild producing the camera under subcontract to Itek."[^6] Crisp, who joined the staff in 1960, dated Leghorn's approach to Rockefeller to "around 1960": Leghorn said Eastman Kodak's cameras were heavy and inefficient, and Rockefeller told him to show he could leave [[Eastman Kodak]] without being sued, and put up 60,000 dollars in 1960 together with [[William A. Burden and Company]] and "the [[Walker Brothers]], Elisha and Bayard Walker, who had an investment company called the [[Long Island Company]]." Crisp said Itek was later bought by [[Litton Industries]] and that the product "which made them famous" was "the camera which was in the U-2 plane that was flown by [[Francis Gary Powers]]."[^4]
The record on Itek carries three dates. The [[Boston Globe]] obituary of [[Richard Leghorn|Dick Leghorn]] states that he cofounded Itek in 1957, and quotes him that the company was known as "the mystery company. It was very hush-hush."[^7] The [[Central Intelligence Agency]]'s history of the [[CORONA]] satellite program, by [[Kenneth E. Greer]], published in a classified supplement to [[Studies in Intelligence]] in spring 1973, states that in late March and April 1958 "interest shifted to a competitive design submitted by Itek Corporation, a spin-off of Boston University," that the project proposal completed on April 9, 1958 was rewritten twice, "retaining the Itek configuration," and that the final proposal was forwarded on April 16, 1958 to the President's staff secretary and approved, "although not in writing"; Itek "was made responsible for the design and development of the camera subsystem, Fairchild producing the camera under subcontract to Itek."[^8] Crisp, who joined the staff in 1960, dated Leghorn's approach to Rockefeller to "around 1960": Leghorn said Eastman Kodak's cameras were heavy and inefficient, and Rockefeller told him to show he could leave [[Eastman Kodak]] without being sued, and put up 60,000 dollars in 1960 together with [[William A. Burden and Company]] and "the [[Walker Brothers]], Elisha and Bayard Walker, who had an investment company called the [[Long Island Company]]." Crisp said Itek was later bought by [[Litton Industries]] and that the product "which made them famous" was "the camera which was in the U-2 plane that was flown by [[Francis Gary Powers]]."[^6]
On Apple, Crisp said that [[Mike Markkula]], who had advised the founders, called Venrock when Markkula's 110,000-dollar loan guarantee ran out, and [[Steve Jobs]] and [[Steve Wozniak]] came to New York. Venrock bought 10 percent of the company for 300,000 dollars, valuing it at 3 million dollars, and put in 200,000 dollars more about eight months later; at the initial public offering the 500,000 dollars was worth 110 million dollars. When Apple prepared to go public the company wanted the managing partner on the board, and Crisp took the seat of his partner [[Hank Smith]], who "made a lot of money in [[Intel]] and in Apple."[^4]
On Apple, Crisp said that [[Mike Markkula]], who had advised the founders, called Venrock when Markkula's 110,000-dollar loan guarantee ran out, and [[Steve Jobs]] and [[Steve Wozniak]] came to New York. Venrock bought 10 percent of the company for 300,000 dollars, valuing it at 3 million dollars, and put in 200,000 dollars more about eight months later; at the initial public offering the 500,000 dollars was worth 110 million dollars. When Apple prepared to go public the company wanted the managing partner on the board, and Crisp took the seat of his partner [[Hank Smith]], who "made a lot of money in [[Intel]] and in Apple."[^6]
### Special Studies Project
The [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund]]'s [[Special Studies Project]] began in 1956 under its president, Nelson Rockefeller, who chaired it for two years; when Nelson became governor of New York in 1958 Laurance became chairman.[^7] The published planning committee lists "Laurance S. Rockefeller, (Chairman since May 26, 1958)" and "Nelson A. Rockefeller, (Chairman, resigned May 26, 1958)," with [[Dana S. Creel]], [[Nancy Hanks]], [[Emmet John Hughes]], [[Francis A. Jamieson]], [[Henry A. Kissinger]], [[John E. Lockwood]] and [[Oscar M. Ruebhausen]].[^8]
The [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund]]'s [[Special Studies Project]] began in 1956 under its president, Nelson Rockefeller, who chaired it for two years; when Nelson became governor of New York in 1958 Laurance became chairman.[^9] The published planning committee lists "Laurance S. Rockefeller, (Chairman since May 26, 1958)" and "Nelson A. Rockefeller, (Chairman, resigned May 26, 1958)," with [[Dana S. Creel]], [[Nancy Hanks]], [[Emmet John Hughes]], [[Francis A. Jamieson]], [[Henry A. Kissinger]], [[John E. Lockwood]] and [[Oscar M. Ruebhausen]].[^10]
Panel II, "International Security: The Military Aspect," first published on January 6, 1958, had been meeting since November 1956 and was the first panel to report.[^8] Its members, as listed in the 1961 volume, were [[Frank Altschul]], General [[Frederick L. Anderson]], [[Karl R. Bendetsen]], [[Detlev W. Bronk]], [[Gordon E. Dean]], [[James B. Fisk]], [[Bradley Gaylord]], [[Roswell L. Gilpatric]], [[Townsend W. Hoopes]] of [[J. H. Whitney and Company]], [[Ellis A. Johnson]] of the [[Operations Research Office]], Colonel [[George A. Lincoln]], [[Henry R. Luce]], General [[James McCormack Jr.]] (chairman until October 1957), [[Frank C. Nash]], "Laurance S. Rockefeller, president, [[Rockefeller Brothers, Inc.]]," [[Arthur Smithies]], [[Edward Teller]], "T. F. Walkowicz, aeronautical engineer," [[Carroll L. Wilson]], and [[John F. Floberg]] until his appointment to the [[Atomic Energy Commission]] in June 1957.[^8] The panel reports were published as *[[Prospect for America]]* by [[Doubleday]] in 1961 and sold over 400,000 copies, and participants later served in the Kennedy, Johnson, Nixon and Ford administrations.[^7]
Panel II, "International Security: The Military Aspect," first published on January 6, 1958, had been meeting since November 1956 and was the first panel to report.[^10] Its members, as listed in the 1961 volume, were [[Frank Altschul]], General [[Frederick L. Anderson]], [[Karl R. Bendetsen]], [[Detlev W. Bronk]], [[Gordon E. Dean]], [[James B. Fisk]], [[Bradley Gaylord]], [[Roswell L. Gilpatric]], [[Townsend W. Hoopes]] of [[J. H. Whitney and Company]], [[Ellis A. Johnson]] of the [[Operations Research Office]], Colonel [[George A. Lincoln]], [[Henry R. Luce]], General [[James McCormack Jr.]] (chairman until October 1957), [[Frank C. Nash]], "Laurance S. Rockefeller, president, [[Rockefeller Brothers, Inc.]]," [[Arthur Smithies]], [[Edward Teller]], "T. F. Walkowicz, aeronautical engineer," [[Carroll L. Wilson]], and [[John F. Floberg]] until his appointment to the [[Atomic Energy Commission]] in June 1957.[^10] The panel reports were published as *[[Prospect for America]]* by [[Doubleday]] in 1961 and sold over 400,000 copies, and participants later served in the Kennedy, Johnson, Nixon and Ford administrations.[^9]
The Central Intelligence Agency's files hold correspondence on two of the releases. [[Allen Dulles]], [[Director of Central Intelligence]], wrote to Rockefeller on September 16, 1960: "I have found this study, like the other reports in your special studies project, most interesting." The study was *[[The Power of the Democratic Idea]]*, and a copy of it in the agency's files carries a notice that it was sent "in advance of the RELEASE DATE, Wednesday, September 7, 1960" and was to be treated as confidential until then.[^9] On February 20, 1961 Rockefeller wrote to Dulles on Rockefeller Brothers Fund stationery that lists him as president, enclosing an advance copy of *Prospect for America*, which was to be published on March 17; his letter states that the Trustees of the Fund organized the project "in the belief that there was real merit in a group of citizens making an effort to look at America as it is." Dulles replied on March 1, 1961 that the book would be "a welcome and valuable addition to my private library."[^10]
The Central Intelligence Agency's files hold correspondence on two of the releases. [[Allen Dulles]], [[Director of Central Intelligence]], wrote to Rockefeller on September 16, 1960: "I have found this study, like the other reports in your special studies project, most interesting." The study was *[[The Power of the Democratic Idea]]*, and a copy of it in the agency's files carries a notice that it was sent "in advance of the RELEASE DATE, Wednesday, September 7, 1960" and was to be treated as confidential until then.[^11] On February 20, 1961 Rockefeller wrote to Dulles on Rockefeller Brothers Fund stationery that lists him as president, enclosing an advance copy of *Prospect for America*, which was to be published on March 17; his letter states that the Trustees of the Fund organized the project "in the belief that there was real merit in a group of citizens making an effort to look at America as it is." Dulles replied on March 1, 1961 that the book would be "a welcome and valuable addition to my private library."[^12]
### Conservation Commissions, Jackson Hole and the Virgin Islands
In 1958 President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] appointed Rockefeller chairman of the [[Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission]].[^1] He later served as a special emissary for President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] on the creation of [[Redwood National Park]] and chaired President [[Richard Nixon]]'s Citizens' Advisory Committee on Environmental Quality. He was president, then chairman, of the Fund from 1958 to 1980, chairman of [[Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center|Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center]] from 1960 to 1982, a trustee of the [[Alfred P. Sloan Foundation]] from 1960 to 1982, and a trustee of the [[New York Zoological Society]] from 1935 to 1986. In 1958 he established the [[American Conservation Association]], Inc., a philanthropy to function as a conservation service agency, assisting other agencies and initiating projects of its own.[^1] The commission's members were Senators [[Clinton P. Anderson]], [[Henry C. Dworshak]], [[Henry M. Jackson]] and [[Jack Miller]]; Representatives [[John P. Saylor]], [[Gracie Pfost]], [[Ralph J. Rivers]] and [[John H. Kyl]]; and presidential commissioners [[Samuel T. Dana]], [[Marian S. Dryfoos]], [[Bernard L. Orell]], [[Joseph W. Penfold]], [[M. Frederick Smith]] and [[Chester S. Wilson]]. The report was presented to President Kennedy and Congress on the Wednesday before the [[United States Department of the Interior|Interior Department]]'s release of February 1, 1962, and Secretary of the Interior [[Stewart Udall]] gave priority to the creation of a [[Bureau of Outdoor Recreation]].[^11]
In 1958 President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] appointed Rockefeller chairman of the [[Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission]].[^3] He later served as a special emissary for President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] on the creation of [[Redwood National Park]] and chaired President [[Richard Nixon]]'s Citizens' Advisory Committee on Environmental Quality. He was president, then chairman, of the Fund from 1958 to 1980, chairman of [[Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center|Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center]] from 1960 to 1982, a trustee of the [[Alfred P. Sloan Foundation]] from 1960 to 1982, and a trustee of the [[New York Zoological Society]] from 1935 to 1986. In 1958 he established the [[American Conservation Association]], Inc., a philanthropy to function as a conservation service agency, assisting other agencies and initiating projects of its own.[^3] The commission's members were Senators [[Clinton P. Anderson]], [[Henry C. Dworshak]], [[Henry M. Jackson]] and [[Jack Miller]]; Representatives [[John P. Saylor]], [[Gracie Pfost]], [[Ralph J. Rivers]] and [[John H. Kyl]]; and presidential commissioners [[Samuel T. Dana]], [[Marian S. Dryfoos]], [[Bernard L. Orell]], [[Joseph W. Penfold]], [[M. Frederick Smith]] and [[Chester S. Wilson]]. The report was presented to President Kennedy and Congress on the Wednesday before the [[United States Department of the Interior|Interior Department]]'s release of February 1, 1962, and Secretary of the Interior [[Stewart Udall]] gave priority to the creation of a [[Bureau of Outdoor Recreation]].[^13]
As president of [[Jackson Hole Preserve]], Inc., Rockefeller made the 1949 gift of [[Jackson Hole]] land to the federal government on his father's behalf.[^1] [[Virgin Islands National Park]] "was created through a donation of more than 5,000 acres of land in 1956 ... from Laurance Rockefeller"; in the mid-1950s he established the [[Caneel Bay]] Resort on [[Saint John, U.S. Virgin Islands|St. John]], which operated until [[Hurricane Irma]] and [[Hurricane Maria]] closed it in 2017; and in 1983 Jackson Hole Preserve, Inc., "an organization established by Laurance Rockefeller," donated the roughly 150 acres of the resort to the Park Service, subject to a retained use estate allowing its operator to use the property as a resort until September 30, 2023.[^12] The corporation, with an [[Internal Revenue Service]] ruling date of 1942, still files returns from Woodstock, Vermont, and reported assets of 5,327,031 dollars for 2023.[^13]
As president of [[Jackson Hole Preserve]], Inc., Rockefeller made the 1949 gift of [[Jackson Hole]] land to the federal government on his father's behalf.[^3] [[Virgin Islands National Park]] "was created through a donation of more than 5,000 acres of land in 1956 ... from Laurance Rockefeller"; in the mid-1950s he established the [[Caneel Bay]] Resort on [[Saint John, U.S. Virgin Islands|St. John]], which operated until [[Hurricane Irma]] and [[Hurricane Maria]] closed it in 2017; and in 1983 Jackson Hole Preserve, Inc., "an organization established by Laurance Rockefeller," donated the roughly 150 acres of the resort to the Park Service, subject to a retained use estate allowing its operator to use the property as a resort until September 30, 2023.[^14] The corporation, with an [[Internal Revenue Service]] ruling date of 1942, still files returns from Woodstock, Vermont, and reported assets of 5,327,031 dollars for 2023.[^15]
### Consciousness Research
The [[Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research Lab|Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research]] laboratory, established in 1979 by [[Robert Jahn]], announced its closure on February 10, 2007, stating that its research "was funded by gifts from Princeton alumni [[James S. McDonnell]], patriarch of the [[McDonnell Douglas]] Aerospace empire, Laurance Rockefeller, [[Donald C. Webster]], and by numerous other philanthropic benefactors."[^14] According to the [[John E. Mack Institute]], in 1993 the [[Center for Psychology and Social Change]] formed the [[Program for Extraordinary Experience Research]] "with funding from Laurence Rockefeller" to study reported "alien encounters"; the program's own page states that as of 2002 it was no longer an active research project.[^15] Two newspaper reports of May 1995 state a figure for his support of Mack's Center itself. [[Ben MacIntyre]] of the London *[[The Times|Times]]* wrote, in a story on [[Harvard University|Harvard]]'s review of Mack, that the Center "is supported by an annual grant of $250,000 from Laurance S. Rockefeller." The [[Valley News]] of May 20, 1995 wrote that Mack's work had "received generous subsidies" from Rockefeller, "patriarch of Woodstock, who reportedly donates a quarter million dollars a year" to the Center, and that a spokesman for Rockefeller said his policy was not to comment publicly on Mack's projects. Neither article names a source for the figure.[^16][^17]
The [[Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research Lab|Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research]] laboratory, established in 1979 by [[Robert Jahn]], announced its closure on February 10, 2007, stating that its research "was funded by gifts from Princeton alumni [[James S. McDonnell]], patriarch of the [[McDonnell Douglas]] Aerospace empire, Laurance Rockefeller, [[Donald C. Webster]], and by numerous other philanthropic benefactors."[^16] According to the [[John E. Mack Institute]], in 1993 the [[Center for Psychology and Social Change]] formed the [[Program for Extraordinary Experience Research]] "with funding from Laurence Rockefeller" to study reported "alien encounters"; the program's own page states that as of 2002 it was no longer an active research project.[^17] Two newspaper reports of May 1995 state a figure for his support of Mack's Center itself. [[Ben MacIntyre]] of the London *[[The Times|Times]]* wrote, in a story on [[Harvard University|Harvard]]'s review of Mack, that the Center "is supported by an annual grant of $250,000 from Laurance S. Rockefeller." The [[Valley News]] of May 20, 1995 wrote that Mack's work had "received generous subsidies" from Rockefeller, "patriarch of Woodstock, who reportedly donates a quarter million dollars a year" to the Center, and that a spokesman for Rockefeller said his policy was not to comment publicly on Mack's projects. Neither article names a source for the figure.[^18][^19]
[[C. B. Scott Jones]] wrote to the presidential science adviser, [[John H. Gibbons]], on the letterhead of the [[Human Potential Foundation]] of [[Falls Church, Virginia]].[^18] A handwritten note of February 24, 1994 on one of those letters, initialed by Gibbons, concerns Jones's association with Senator [[Claiborne Pell]] and reads: "Scott Jones used to be associated with Senator Pell. He was formerly a Navy pilot. The Human Potential Foundation is funded in part, I believe, by L.R."[^18] In the same office's memorandum for the President of August 4, 1995, Gibbons wrote that Rockefeller's interests "are related to those of Senator Pell."[^19] The writer [[Grant Cameron]], in a paper on the documents below, wrote that Pell founded the foundation and Jones was its president, that [[Common Cause Magazine]] had reported Rockefeller put more than 700,000 dollars through it from 1991 to 1994, and that [[Richard Farley]], who worked for the foundation for about three years, gave the same figure and "claimed" that Rockefeller's interest was in "alternative religious and psychiatric/psychological paradigms, including so-called 'UFOs' and 'abductions,' having 'Global Mind Change' potentials."[^20]
[[C. B. Scott Jones]] wrote to the presidential science adviser, [[John H. Gibbons]], on the letterhead of the [[Human Potential Foundation]] of [[Falls Church, Virginia]].[^20] A handwritten note of February 24, 1994 on one of those letters, initialed by Gibbons, concerns Jones's association with Senator [[Claiborne Pell]] and reads: "Scott Jones used to be associated with Senator Pell. He was formerly a Navy pilot. The Human Potential Foundation is funded in part, I believe, by L.R."[^20] In the same office's memorandum for the President of August 4, 1995, Gibbons wrote that Rockefeller's interests "are related to those of Senator Pell."[^21] The writer [[Grant Cameron]], in a paper on the documents below, wrote that Pell founded the foundation and Jones was its president, that [[Common Cause Magazine]] had reported Rockefeller put more than 700,000 dollars through it from 1991 to 1994, and that [[Richard Farley]], who worked for the foundation for about three years, gave the same figure and "claimed" that Rockefeller's interest was in "alternative religious and psychiatric/psychological paradigms, including so-called 'UFOs' and 'abductions,' having 'Global Mind Change' potentials."[^22]
The finding aid to the C. B. Scott Jones papers at the [[University of Colorado Boulder]] states that the Human Potential Foundation's primary donor in its first two and a half years was Laurance Rockefeller, "whose support was conditional with a program designed to get the [[United States]] government to acknowledge the existence of alien life," and lists correspondence between Jones and Rockefeller in the collection.[^21] The Center's newsletter *CenterPiece* of September 1993 announced the PEER research on UFO abductions as "Funded by a grant from the Human Potential Foundation."[^22]
The finding aid to the C. B. Scott Jones papers at the [[University of Colorado Boulder]] states that the Human Potential Foundation's primary donor in its first two and a half years was Laurance Rockefeller, "whose support was conditional with a program designed to get the [[United States]] government to acknowledge the existence of alien life," and lists correspondence between Jones and Rockefeller in the collection.[^23] The Center's newsletter *CenterPiece* of September 1993 announced the PEER research on UFO abductions as "Funded by a grant from the Human Potential Foundation."[^24]
### Approach to the Science Adviser, 1993
The [[Office of Science and Technology Policy]], where Gibbons was Assistant to the President for Science and Technology, released 991 pages of correspondence on UFOs and extraterrestrial intelligence to Cameron in January 2001, according to Cameron.[^20] The earliest is a memorandum of March 29, 1993 from [[Henry L. Diamond]] to Gibbons (attention [[Mike Kowalok]]), concerning an approach by Rockefeller to President [[Bill Clinton]] and asking for a meeting with Rockefeller on April 12 or 13. It describes Rockefeller as "a leading U.S. conservationist, businessman, and philanthropist" who, "with other leading citizens, is planning to make an approach to President Clinton" on "the potential availability of government information about unidentified flying objects and extraterrestrial life," and gives the basic message as "a belief in many quarters that the government has long held classified information regarding UFOs which has not been released and that the failure to do so has brought about unnecessary suspicion and distrust." It states that Rockefeller would be accompanied by Jones, "President of the Human Potential Foundation," and by Diamond, "a [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] attorney and long-time associate of Mr. Rockefeller, known to Dr. Gibbons." A handwritten note adds "+ Scott Jones."[^23]
The [[Office of Science and Technology Policy]], where Gibbons was Assistant to the President for Science and Technology, released 991 pages of correspondence on UFOs and extraterrestrial intelligence to Cameron in January 2001, according to Cameron.[^22] The earliest is a memorandum of March 29, 1993 from [[Henry L. Diamond]] to Gibbons (attention [[Mike Kowalok]]), concerning an approach by Rockefeller to President [[Bill Clinton]] and asking for a meeting with Rockefeller on April 12 or 13. It describes Rockefeller as "a leading U.S. conservationist, businessman, and philanthropist" who, "with other leading citizens, is planning to make an approach to President Clinton" on "the potential availability of government information about unidentified flying objects and extraterrestrial life," and gives the basic message as "a belief in many quarters that the government has long held classified information regarding UFOs which has not been released and that the failure to do so has brought about unnecessary suspicion and distrust." It states that Rockefeller would be accompanied by Jones, "President of the Human Potential Foundation," and by Diamond, "a [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] attorney and long-time associate of Mr. Rockefeller, known to Dr. Gibbons." A handwritten note adds "+ Scott Jones."[^25]
On April 21, 1993, on stationery of 30 Rockefeller Plaza, Room 5600, Rockefeller thanked Gibbons for seeing him "so early Wednesday morning." He wrote that Gibbons had said that in three months as science adviser he had "not learned that the United States Government has a body of knowledge on UFOs or ETI that is being withheld from the public," and had made it clear that "initially our most fruitful avenue of approach, most likely, will be within the [[Department of Defense]]." Rockefeller would report on the meeting to [[Melvin Laird]] and hoped to follow up with Secretary of Defense [[Les Aspin]]; he planned a letter to President Clinton urging "a reassessment of government policy regarding UFO and ETI information" and a small group, convened with Jones's help, to discuss UFOs "in an informal, non-public way."[^24] On May 26, 1993 Gibbons, signing as Director of the Office of Science and Technology Policy, thanked Jones for "the materials," noted that the books "came from the Foundation's library," and sent "best wishes and regards to Lawrence."[^25]
On April 21, 1993, on stationery of 30 Rockefeller Plaza, Room 5600, Rockefeller thanked Gibbons for seeing him "so early Wednesday morning." He wrote that Gibbons had said that in three months as science adviser he had "not learned that the United States Government has a body of knowledge on UFOs or ETI that is being withheld from the public," and had made it clear that "initially our most fruitful avenue of approach, most likely, will be within the [[Department of Defense]]." Rockefeller would report on the meeting to [[Melvin Laird]] and hoped to follow up with Secretary of Defense [[Les Aspin]]; he planned a letter to President Clinton urging "a reassessment of government policy regarding UFO and ETI information" and a small group, convened with Jones's help, to discuss UFOs "in an informal, non-public way."[^26] On May 26, 1993 Gibbons, signing as Director of the Office of Science and Technology Policy, thanked Jones for "the materials," noted that the books "came from the Foundation's library," and sent "best wishes and regards to Lawrence."[^27]
On May 7, 1993 he wrote to the evangelist [[Billy Graham]], proposing that Graham co-sign a letter to Clinton asking for a review of the classification of UFO information, and stated that "we are working closely with Mel Laird, former Secretary of Defense, and a great good friend of the present Secretary, Les Aspin," and had met Gibbons. The other co-signers under consideration were [[Maurice Strong]], the former [[United Nations]] secretary general [[Javier Pérez de Cuéllar]], possibly former President [[Jimmy Carter]], and Senators Pell and [[Ted Stevens]]. Graham replied on May 20, 1993 that he thought Rockefeller was "exactly right, that since they are reviewing the whole classification process, many documents will probably become available that have not previously," and declined, writing that he had "made it a policy not to co-sign such letters" and kept his contacts with presidents "on a purely personal, one-on-one, private basis."[^26]
On May 7, 1993 he wrote to the evangelist [[Billy Graham]], proposing that Graham co-sign a letter to Clinton asking for a review of the classification of UFO information, and stated that "we are working closely with Mel Laird, former Secretary of Defense, and a great good friend of the present Secretary, Les Aspin," and had met Gibbons. The other co-signers under consideration were [[Maurice Strong]], the former [[United Nations]] secretary general [[Javier Pérez de Cuéllar]], possibly former President [[Jimmy Carter]], and Senators Pell and [[Ted Stevens]]. Graham replied on May 20, 1993 that he thought Rockefeller was "exactly right, that since they are reviewing the whole classification process, many documents will probably become available that have not previously," and declined, writing that he had "made it a policy not to co-sign such letters" and kept his contacts with presidents "on a purely personal, one-on-one, private basis."[^28]
On August 4, 1993 Rockefeller invited Gibbons or a representative to an informal roundtable he was hosting from September 13 to 15 at the [[JY Ranch]], in the [[Grand Teton National Park]] near [[Jackson, Wyoming]]. The letter gives the purpose as assessing "the extent of information which may or may not be in the hands of the federal government" and developing "productive ways to encourage the Administration to include information of UFO and ETI phenomena in its current review of previously classified information." The six presenters were [[Steven Greer]], [[Linda Moulton Howe]], [[Bruce Maccabee]], [[R. Leo Sprinkle]], [[Jill Tarter]] of the [[NASA]] Ames Research Center and [[Keith Thompson]]; [[John Mack]], [[Peter Sturrock]], "a representative of the Science Advisor to the President" and "several of my associates" were also invited. The four themes included "strategies for influencing government policy in the direction of openness," "assessment of alleged psychological, economic and other barriers to a government policy of openness on the subject," and "spiritual and other dimensional aspects of UFO and ETI phenomena." The roundtable "will not be publicized but, of course will not be secret" and would be off the record.[^27] The [[Paradigm Research Group]] reproduces a photograph that it captions as the September 14 to 15, 1993 meeting at the JY Ranch and labels, left to right, Diamond, Greer, Maccabee, [[George Lamb]], [[Robert Bigelow]], Howe, Sprinkle, Thompson, Mack, Rockefeller, Jones, [[Johnie Jones]] and [[Robert Teets]], with [[Marie Galbraith|Marie "Bootsie" Galbraith]] and Farley behind the camera.[^28] On November 12, 1993 Diamond, on the letterhead of [[Beveridge and Diamond]], wrote to a Gibbons staff member that he had seen Gibbons at the [[Environmental Law Institute]] dinner on October 20 and that Rockefeller wished to see him again between December 10 and 23.[^29]
On August 4, 1993 Rockefeller invited Gibbons or a representative to an informal roundtable he was hosting from September 13 to 15 at the [[JY Ranch]], in the [[Grand Teton National Park]] near [[Jackson, Wyoming]]. The letter gives the purpose as assessing "the extent of information which may or may not be in the hands of the federal government" and developing "productive ways to encourage the Administration to include information of UFO and ETI phenomena in its current review of previously classified information." The six presenters were [[Steven Greer]], [[Linda Moulton Howe]], [[Bruce Maccabee]], [[R. Leo Sprinkle]], [[Jill Tarter]] of the [[NASA]] Ames Research Center and [[Keith Thompson]]; [[John Mack]], [[Peter Sturrock]], "a representative of the Science Advisor to the President" and "several of my associates" were also invited. The four themes included "strategies for influencing government policy in the direction of openness," "assessment of alleged psychological, economic and other barriers to a government policy of openness on the subject," and "spiritual and other dimensional aspects of UFO and ETI phenomena." The roundtable "will not be publicized but, of course will not be secret" and would be off the record.[^29] The [[Paradigm Research Group]] reproduces a photograph that it captions as the September 14 to 15, 1993 meeting at the JY Ranch and labels, left to right, Diamond, Greer, Maccabee, [[George Lamb]], [[Robert Bigelow]], Howe, Sprinkle, Thompson, Mack, Rockefeller, Jones, [[Johnie Jones]] and [[Robert Teets]], with [[Marie Galbraith|Marie "Bootsie" Galbraith]] and Farley behind the camera.[^30] On November 12, 1993 Diamond, on the letterhead of [[Beveridge and Diamond]], wrote to a Gibbons staff member that he had seen Gibbons at the [[Environmental Law Institute]] dinner on October 20 and that Rockefeller wished to see him again between December 10 and 23.[^31]
### Roswell, 1994
After a meeting on February 4, 1994, Rockefeller wrote to Gibbons on February 14 that "your approach of starting by addressing a specific incident is an important and reasonable way to begin the process of declassification," that the July 1947 [[Roswell Incident]] "would be a logical and challenging place to start," and that if the effort succeeded it "will become an important prototype for the release of all UFO related information." He proposed amnesty "on an individual basis" for those with knowledge, and, "in the light of your proposed initiative," said "we shall defer writing to the President."[^30] In a letter of the same date to [[Anne Bartley]], who had arranged his Washington meetings, he wrote that Gibbons's suggestion to treat the 1947 event as a test case "was a very good one."[^31] On May 24, 1994 Secretary of the Air Force [[Sheila Widnall]] sent Gibbons a cover memorandum, "As you and I discussed earlier, we are researching Air Force material on UFOs in general, and Roswell in particular," with an interim report to her of May 20 from the office designated SAF/AAZ. The report stated that "in early Feb 94, upon learning of the projected GAO audit," the Air Force had stood up elements of its Declassification Review Team to begin preliminary research, and that the offices tasked had "reported no records were located to indicate anything unusual happened at Roswell in July 1947." Widnall wrote: "My policy is that we are declassifying everything even remotely related, and anything our people think still needs to be classified will have to be justified to me." A handwritten note on the cover, initialed "JG," reads: "Skip - for your scanning. After you and I have a chance to discuss, I'll be ready to communicate w/ L.R. + his niece."[^32]
After a meeting on February 4, 1994, Rockefeller wrote to Gibbons on February 14 that "your approach of starting by addressing a specific incident is an important and reasonable way to begin the process of declassification," that the July 1947 [[Roswell Incident]] "would be a logical and challenging place to start," and that if the effort succeeded it "will become an important prototype for the release of all UFO related information." He proposed amnesty "on an individual basis" for those with knowledge, and, "in the light of your proposed initiative," said "we shall defer writing to the President."[^32] In a letter of the same date to [[Anne Bartley]], who had arranged his Washington meetings, he wrote that Gibbons's suggestion to treat the 1947 event as a test case "was a very good one."[^33] On May 24, 1994 Secretary of the Air Force [[Sheila Widnall]] sent Gibbons a cover memorandum, "As you and I discussed earlier, we are researching Air Force material on UFOs in general, and Roswell in particular," with an interim report to her of May 20 from the office designated SAF/AAZ. The report stated that "in early Feb 94, upon learning of the projected GAO audit," the Air Force had stood up elements of its Declassification Review Team to begin preliminary research, and that the offices tasked had "reported no records were located to indicate anything unusual happened at Roswell in July 1947." Widnall wrote: "My policy is that we are declassifying everything even remotely related, and anything our people think still needs to be classified will have to be justified to me." A handwritten note on the cover, initialed "JG," reads: "Skip - for your scanning. After you and I have a chance to discuss, I'll be ready to communicate w/ L.R. + his niece."[^34]
Jones wrote to Gibbons on February 17 enclosing a chronology compiled by the [[Fund for UFO Research]] and press clippings on the inquiry by Representative [[Steven Schiff]], and reporting that a Pentagon spokesman had told a [[Government Accountability Office|General Accounting Office]] investigator "Go shit in your hat." He had spent time after the February 4 meeting with [[Edward J. Reese]] of the Modern Military Branch of the [[National Archives and Records Administration]] on where Roswell documentation might be located. The letter's second page reads: "Whatever Roswell turns out to be, it is only the opening round. ... My mention of mind-control technology at the February 4 meeting was quite deliberate. Please be careful about this. There are reasons to believe that some government group has interwoven research about this technology with alleged UFO phenomena. If that [is] correct, you can expect to run into early resistance when inquiring about UFOs, not because of the UFO subject, but because that has been used to cloak research and applications of mind-control activity."[^18]
Jones wrote to Gibbons on February 17 enclosing a chronology compiled by the [[Fund for UFO Research]] and press clippings on the inquiry by Representative [[Steven Schiff]], and reporting that a Pentagon spokesman had told a [[Government Accountability Office|General Accounting Office]] investigator "Go shit in your hat." He had spent time after the February 4 meeting with [[Edward J. Reese]] of the Modern Military Branch of the [[National Archives and Records Administration]] on where Roswell documentation might be located. The letter's second page reads: "Whatever Roswell turns out to be, it is only the opening round. ... My mention of mind-control technology at the February 4 meeting was quite deliberate. Please be careful about this. There are reasons to believe that some government group has interwoven research about this technology with alleged UFO phenomena. If that [is] correct, you can expect to run into early resistance when inquiring about UFOs, not because of the UFO subject, but because that has been used to cloak research and applications of mind-control activity."[^20]
Rockefeller's letter of April 26, 1994 reports that his group had gone to [[Cornell University]] earlier that month to meet [[Carl Sagan]], who "expressed considerable skepticism" but strongly supported release of government information, and that Representative Schiff had asked for a General Accounting Office inquiry and "the publication of John Mack's book has brought renewed attention to the abduction phenomenon."[^33]
Rockefeller's letter of April 26, 1994 reports that his group had gone to [[Cornell University]] earlier that month to meet [[Carl Sagan]], who "expressed considerable skepticism" but strongly supported release of government information, and that Representative Schiff had asked for a General Accounting Office inquiry and "the publication of John Mack's book has brought renewed attention to the abduction phenomenon."[^35]
On June 1, 1994 Rockefeller wrote that "it was Mel Laird who suggested that you should be the logical point of contact and coordination with the federal government," asked whether there were developments in the survey of information among federal agencies on Roswell that Gibbons had suggested, attached a letter from Laird, and mentioned "preliminary talks with those who might be interested in bringing about a United Nations Conference on extraterrestrial intelligence."[^34] Laird's letter, dated May 9, 1994 and replying to one from Rockefeller of April 25, stated that "you are proceeding properly by going through the President's Science Advisor," and that "any review will certainly disappoint some individuals who have built up some rather extreme antidotal and uncollaborated accounts."[^34] On July 27, 1994 Anne Bartley wrote to Gibbons about "follow-up on our meeting with Laurance S. Rockefeller and his associates," recalling that Gibbons had suggested "an informal inquiry into the availability of information within federal agencies about the 1947 Roswell, [[New Mexico]], event," asking about "prospects for a relaxation of the classification system," and stating that Rockefeller "has begun to wonder whether a U.N. Conference would be useful."[^35]
On June 1, 1994 Rockefeller wrote that "it was Mel Laird who suggested that you should be the logical point of contact and coordination with the federal government," asked whether there were developments in the survey of information among federal agencies on Roswell that Gibbons had suggested, attached a letter from Laird, and mentioned "preliminary talks with those who might be interested in bringing about a United Nations Conference on extraterrestrial intelligence."[^36] Laird's letter, dated May 9, 1994 and replying to one from Rockefeller of April 25, stated that "you are proceeding properly by going through the President's Science Advisor," and that "any review will certainly disappoint some individuals who have built up some rather extreme antidotal and uncollaborated accounts."[^36] On July 27, 1994 Anne Bartley wrote to Gibbons about "follow-up on our meeting with Laurance S. Rockefeller and his associates," recalling that Gibbons had suggested "an informal inquiry into the availability of information within federal agencies about the 1947 Roswell, [[New Mexico]], event," asking about "prospects for a relaxation of the classification system," and stating that Rockefeller "has begun to wonder whether a U.N. Conference would be useful."[^37]
On August 11, 1994 Jones wrote to Gibbons that [[Edgar Mitchell]], founder of the [[Institute of Noetic Sciences]], on whose board Pell sat, would be glad to meet Gibbons "in the area that Laurance, you and I have been discussing," and that Gibbons "may want to talk to [[R. James Woolsey|James Woolsey]] about what you are doing." The next lines say that Woolsey "has a document search project under way" and "has not discovered anything of significance," and Jones adds: "If I had the responsibility to run a super safe black program on this subject, I would take it completely out of the government's" bureaucracy "and run it from the private sector, probably somewhere within" the aerospace community "or perhaps [[General Motors]]."[^36] On September 5, 1994 Rockefeller thanked Gibbons for a note that he had received a report from the Air Force; after the Air Force released the results of its Roswell investigation (in July 1994 in the General Accounting Office's account, and publicly available in September in Gibbons's)[^19][^37] he wrote on December 9 thanking Gibbons for "your initiative in stimulating the recent Air Force Review of the Roswell incident," adding that "we are continuing our citizens' reconnaissance of the extraterrestrial intelligence phenomenon."[^38] On February 9, 1995 Jones wrote that "there is some shadowy evidence that the administration is in the process of modifying the government's policy concerning secrecy and denial about UFO phenomena," that "Laurance mentioned that he was also considering a public relations approach" and that "he can afford a rather aggressive and expensive effort implementing that strategy, e.g., full page ads in major newspapers," and that after Rockefeller's last meeting with Gibbons "we are not going to get feedback from our attempts to get the [[White House]] to open the books on this subject."[^39] On April 11, 1995 Rockefeller wrote that he had reviewed the draft executive order revising national classification policy and that "my concern with government information involving extraterrestrial intelligence was stimulated by the widespread public belief that the government was withholding information about UFO incidents."[^40]
On August 11, 1994 Jones wrote to Gibbons that [[Edgar Mitchell]], founder of the [[Institute of Noetic Sciences]], on whose board Pell sat, would be glad to meet Gibbons "in the area that Laurance, you and I have been discussing," and that Gibbons "may want to talk to [[R. James Woolsey|James Woolsey]] about what you are doing." The next lines say that Woolsey "has a document search project under way" and "has not discovered anything of significance," and Jones adds: "If I had the responsibility to run a super safe black program on this subject, I would take it completely out of the government's" bureaucracy "and run it from the private sector, probably somewhere within" the aerospace community "or perhaps [[General Motors]]."[^38] On September 5, 1994 Rockefeller thanked Gibbons for a note that he had received a report from the Air Force; after the Air Force released the results of its Roswell investigation (in July 1994 in the General Accounting Office's account, and publicly available in September in Gibbons's)[^21][^39] he wrote on December 9 thanking Gibbons for "your initiative in stimulating the recent Air Force Review of the Roswell incident," adding that "we are continuing our citizens' reconnaissance of the extraterrestrial intelligence phenomenon."[^40] On February 9, 1995 Jones wrote that "there is some shadowy evidence that the administration is in the process of modifying the government's policy concerning secrecy and denial about UFO phenomena," that "Laurance mentioned that he was also considering a public relations approach" and that "he can afford a rather aggressive and expensive effort implementing that strategy, e.g., full page ads in major newspapers," and that after Rockefeller's last meeting with Gibbons "we are not going to get feedback from our attempts to get the [[White House]] to open the books on this subject."[^41] On April 11, 1995 Rockefeller wrote that he had reviewed the draft executive order revising national classification policy and that "my concern with government information involving extraterrestrial intelligence was stimulated by the widespread public belief that the government was withholding information about UFO incidents."[^42]
On December 2, 1994 Jones sent Gibbons critiques of the Air Force Roswell report and told him that the Foundation's conference would invite President and Mrs. Clinton; on December 13, 1994 he sent Gibbons the manuscript of [[Whitley Strieber]]'s *Breakthrough* with a copy to Rockefeller. The White House declined for Mrs. Clinton on December 15, 1994 ([[Patti Solis]], scheduling director for the First Lady) and for the President on December 21, 1994 ([[William M. Webster IV]], director of scheduling and advance).[^41] The Clinton Library's collection 2008-1575-F holds the invitations and brochures; none are scanned.[^42]
On December 2, 1994 Jones sent Gibbons critiques of the Air Force Roswell report and told him that the Foundation's conference would invite President and Mrs. Clinton; on December 13, 1994 he sent Gibbons the manuscript of [[Whitley Strieber]]'s *Breakthrough* with a copy to Rockefeller. The White House declined for Mrs. Clinton on December 15, 1994 ([[Patti Solis]], scheduling director for the First Lady) and for the President on December 21, 1994 ([[William M. Webster IV]], director of scheduling and advance).[^43] The Clinton Library's collection 2008-1575-F holds the invitations and brochures; none are scanned.[^44]
The General Accounting Office wrote to Gibbons on April 12, 1995, at Schiff's request, that it was determining what records existed on Roswell. Gibbons replied on April 26 to the GAO's director of federal management issues that the Office of Science and Technology Policy had "no direct knowledge of what occurred at Roswell and no records, except for the information I received from the Air Force."[^37] An internal OSTP message of June 9, 1995 reports a call from the GAO about its eight-page report, which would state that the agency had asked OSTP and other agencies whether they held records and that "DOE and OSTP had no records"; a handwritten reply of June 12, signed "Sue B.," reads "Tanya, OK w/ JHG."[^43]
The General Accounting Office wrote to Gibbons on April 12, 1995, at Schiff's request, that it was determining what records existed on Roswell. Gibbons replied on April 26 to the GAO's director of federal management issues that the Office of Science and Technology Policy had "no direct knowledge of what occurred at Roswell and no records, except for the information I received from the Air Force."[^39] An internal OSTP message of June 9, 1995 reports a call from the GAO about its eight-page report, which would state that the agency had asked OSTP and other agencies whether they held records and that "DOE and OSTP had no records"; a handwritten reply of June 12, signed "Sue B.," reads "Tanya, OK w/ JHG."[^45]
### The Draft Letter to the President, 1995 and 1996
On August 4, 1995 Gibbons sent President Clinton a memorandum headed "Inquiry from Laurance Rockefeller." It begins: "You will probably see Mr. Rockefeller on your vacation in the Tetons. He will want to talk with you about his interest in extrasensory perception, paranormal phenomena, and UFO's. His interests are related to those of Senator Pell." Gibbons wrote that "Les Aspin and Mel Laird referred Laurance to me," that Rockefeller had sought "the Administration's help in 'declassifying the information'," that "I persuaded Rockefeller to not bother you with this issue but instead to let me talk with defense officials," that Secretary of the Air Force Widnall had "arranged for a full revisiting by the Air Force of pertinent records, guaranteed 'amnesty' to anyone who felt constrained to talk," and that "the bottom line is that all evidence points to a failed U.S. Air Force balloon experiment, and no evidence of a 'flying saucer' or cover-up conspiracy. (However, the UFO 'community' persists in believing that the Air Force report is flawed.)" A "second rubric" was "human potential" research: "Senator Pell and others have supported the funding of research in social science to focus more on these phenomena." Gibbons closed: "I've made no secret about my conviction that we must not be too diverted from more earthly imperatives."[^19]
On August 4, 1995 Gibbons sent President Clinton a memorandum headed "Inquiry from Laurance Rockefeller." It begins: "You will probably see Mr. Rockefeller on your vacation in the Tetons. He will want to talk with you about his interest in extrasensory perception, paranormal phenomena, and UFO's. His interests are related to those of Senator Pell." Gibbons wrote that "Les Aspin and Mel Laird referred Laurance to me," that Rockefeller had sought "the Administration's help in 'declassifying the information'," that "I persuaded Rockefeller to not bother you with this issue but instead to let me talk with defense officials," that Secretary of the Air Force Widnall had "arranged for a full revisiting by the Air Force of pertinent records, guaranteed 'amnesty' to anyone who felt constrained to talk," and that "the bottom line is that all evidence points to a failed U.S. Air Force balloon experiment, and no evidence of a 'flying saucer' or cover-up conspiracy. (However, the UFO 'community' persists in believing that the Air Force report is flawed.)" A "second rubric" was "human potential" research: "Senator Pell and others have supported the funding of research in social science to focus more on these phenomena." Gibbons closed: "I've made no secret about my conviction that we must not be too diverted from more earthly imperatives."[^21]
The Clintons began a vacation in Jackson Hole on August 15, 1995, with Senator [[Jay Rockefeller]] and his wife, Sharon, as hosts at a Rockefeller family estate.[^44] The [[William J. Clinton Presidential Library]] holds photographs, in a set processed for a [[Freedom of Information Act]] request, of a visit by President Clinton and [[Hillary Clinton|Hillary Rodham Clinton]] to Laurance Rockefeller's JY Ranch on August 21, 1995.[^44] On August 17 Jones, writing on Human Potential Foundation letterhead to Representative Schiff, described a conference, "When Cosmic Cultures Meet," held in Washington over the Memorial Day weekend: "The conference was part of a process to make it politically safe for Congress to get involved in a subject that from all available evidence has been the secret purview of the executive department for nearly fifty years."[^45]
The Clintons began a vacation in Jackson Hole on August 15, 1995, with Senator [[Jay Rockefeller]] and his wife, Sharon, as hosts at a Rockefeller family estate.[^46] The [[William J. Clinton Presidential Library]] holds photographs, in a set processed for a [[Freedom of Information Act]] request, of a visit by President Clinton and [[Hillary Clinton|Hillary Rodham Clinton]] to Laurance Rockefeller's JY Ranch on August 21, 1995.[^46] On August 17 Jones, writing on Human Potential Foundation letterhead to Representative Schiff, described a conference, "When Cosmic Cultures Meet," held in Washington over the Memorial Day weekend: "The conference was part of a process to make it politically safe for Congress to get involved in a subject that from all available evidence has been the secret purview of the executive department for nearly fifty years."[^47]
On August 17, 1995 the Human Potential Foundation mailed every member of Congress a packet; letters to the House and Senate leadership stated that "the Human Potential Foundation has been supported by Mr. Laurance S. Rockefeller and others." Jones's letter to Gibbons of August 23, 1995 stated that Rockefeller "was a guest at the President's birthday party a few days ago in Jackson Hole" and enclosed a draft full-page newspaper advertisement.[^46]
On August 17, 1995 the Human Potential Foundation mailed every member of Congress a packet; letters to the House and Senate leadership stated that "the Human Potential Foundation has been supported by Mr. Laurance S. Rockefeller and others." Jones's letter to Gibbons of August 23, 1995 stated that Rockefeller "was a guest at the President's birthday party a few days ago in Jackson Hole" and enclosed a draft full-page newspaper advertisement.[^48]
On August 23, 1995 Rockefeller's office faxed Gibbons five pages plus a cover sheet: a draft letter to President Clinton, headed "Lifting Secrecy on Information About Extraterrestrial Intelligence as Part of the Current Classification Review," and the 1993 exchange with Graham. The draft states that Rockefeller has "been interested in the enhancement of spirituality and holistic healing as well as the development of a new paradigm of consciousness," and asks the President to direct that information on extraterrestrial intelligence and UFOs "be given priority in the current classification review," to appoint a coordinator for government information about those subjects, to bring together information "from all federal agencies involved, such as the Department of Defense, the Air Force, NASA and the CIA" ("Your Science Advisor, Jack Gibbons, might be the right person for this role"), and to make known that anyone with information "will be granted amnesty from relevant oaths or other government constraints."[^26] On November 1, 1995 Diamond, writing from 30 Rockefeller Plaza, Room 5600, sent Gibbons "a draft letter to the President which Laurance has been discussing with Mrs. Clinton and her staff" and a draft report on the "best evidence" about UFOs; a letter of November 8 identified [[Don Berliner]] as its principal author.[^47]
On August 23, 1995 Rockefeller's office faxed Gibbons five pages plus a cover sheet: a draft letter to President Clinton, headed "Lifting Secrecy on Information About Extraterrestrial Intelligence as Part of the Current Classification Review," and the 1993 exchange with Graham. The draft states that Rockefeller has "been interested in the enhancement of spirituality and holistic healing as well as the development of a new paradigm of consciousness," and asks the President to direct that information on extraterrestrial intelligence and UFOs "be given priority in the current classification review," to appoint a coordinator for government information about those subjects, to bring together information "from all federal agencies involved, such as the Department of Defense, the Air Force, NASA and the CIA" ("Your Science Advisor, Jack Gibbons, might be the right person for this role"), and to make known that anyone with information "will be granted amnesty from relevant oaths or other government constraints."[^28] On November 1, 1995 Diamond, writing from 30 Rockefeller Plaza, Room 5600, sent Gibbons "a draft letter to the President which Laurance has been discussing with Mrs. Clinton and her staff" and a draft report on the "best evidence" about UFOs; a letter of November 8 identified [[Don Berliner]] as its principal author.[^49]
The *Unidentified Flying Objects Briefing Document: The Best Available Evidence* (December 1995), by Don Berliner with Marie Galbraith and [[Antonio Huneeus]], presented by the [[Center for UFO Studies]], the Fund for UFO Research and the [[Mutual UFO Network]] with copyright held by the [[UFO Research Coalition]], thanks "Laurance S. Rockefeller, for his vision and support, financial and otherwise," and George Lamb "for serving so effectively as liaison for Mr. Rockefeller," and thanks [[Sandra Wright]] for making her [[BSW Foundation]] "available as the umbrella under which all the work could be done."[^48]
The *Unidentified Flying Objects Briefing Document: The Best Available Evidence* (December 1995), by Don Berliner with Marie Galbraith and [[Antonio Huneeus]], presented by the [[Center for UFO Studies]], the Fund for UFO Research and the [[Mutual UFO Network]] with copyright held by the [[UFO Research Coalition]], thanks "Laurance S. Rockefeller, for his vision and support, financial and otherwise," and George Lamb "for serving so effectively as liaison for Mr. Rockefeller," and thanks [[Sandra Wright]] for making her [[BSW Foundation]] "available as the umbrella under which all the work could be done."[^50]
On February 5, 1996 Rockefeller told Gibbons that the "Best Evidence Report (the report written by Don Berliner and coordinated by Marie Galbraith which we have referred to as the 'Bootsie report')" was an "unusual combined effort of the three major UFO organizations." He wrote that Gibbons's "willingness to approach the Air Force, the Central Intelligence Agency and NASA on this project is extremely important," and that the group would put forward names for a pilot project on an expanded amnesty program. The draft letter to the President, he wrote, "might receive attention in a second term. You indicated that you will keep the First Lady's Office informed, and we shall as well."[^49] On February 27, 1996 Widnall wrote to Gibbons, after "our recent dinner conversation," enclosing "the full Roswell Report to pass on to Lawrence Rockefeller" and noting that a second volume was in preparation; on February 29 Rockefeller sent Gibbons the "Best Available Evidence" report, writing "I sponsored this report" and, "while I do not necessarily agree with every finding and conclusion," that "the evidence presented indicates that this subject merits serious scientific study," with a new draft of the letter to the President.[^50] In a letter of August 8, 1996 to [[Julia Marton-Lefevre]] of the [[International Council of Scientific Unions]], written on the suggestion of Maurice Strong, he wrote of his interest in "expanding man's spiritual and intellectual potential" and proposed a small international group on extraterrestrial intelligence and UFOs.[^31] On October 17, 1996 he proposed an international conference. "At the suggestion of Maurice Strong," he had contacted Julia Marton Lefevre, executive director of what the letter calls the International Scientific Union, and he forwarded a letter from Carl Sagan, writing that he was "puzzled by Carl's enthusiastic support of the search for extraterrestrial intelligence by radio telescope while he maintains a high degree of skepticism about other means of inquiry."[^51] Sagan replied on November 6, 1996 that "no amount of anecdotal evidence, unsubstantiated by physical evidence, is worth a single substantive bit of physical evidence"; the letters are in the Sagan papers at the [[Library of Congress]] and were reported by [[Robert Sheaffer]].[^52] In a letter of January 2, 1997 to Gibbons, Maccabee wrote that in April 1993, "at the request of Dr. [[Ronald Pandolfi]] of the CIA," he had faxed Gibbons an information paper on UFOs.[^53] On June 20, 1997 the Secretary of the Air Force sent Gibbons the second volume of *The Roswell Report: Case Closed*, to be released on the following Tuesday.[^54]
On February 5, 1996 Rockefeller told Gibbons that the "Best Evidence Report (the report written by Don Berliner and coordinated by Marie Galbraith which we have referred to as the 'Bootsie report')" was an "unusual combined effort of the three major UFO organizations." He wrote that Gibbons's "willingness to approach the Air Force, the Central Intelligence Agency and NASA on this project is extremely important," and that the group would put forward names for a pilot project on an expanded amnesty program. The draft letter to the President, he wrote, "might receive attention in a second term. You indicated that you will keep the First Lady's Office informed, and we shall as well."[^51] On February 27, 1996 Widnall wrote to Gibbons, after "our recent dinner conversation," enclosing "the full Roswell Report to pass on to Lawrence Rockefeller" and noting that a second volume was in preparation; on February 29 Rockefeller sent Gibbons the "Best Available Evidence" report, writing "I sponsored this report" and, "while I do not necessarily agree with every finding and conclusion," that "the evidence presented indicates that this subject merits serious scientific study," with a new draft of the letter to the President.[^52] In a letter of August 8, 1996 to [[Julia Marton-Lefevre]] of the [[International Council of Scientific Unions]], written on the suggestion of Maurice Strong, he wrote of his interest in "expanding man's spiritual and intellectual potential" and proposed a small international group on extraterrestrial intelligence and UFOs.[^33] On October 17, 1996 he proposed an international conference. "At the suggestion of Maurice Strong," he had contacted Julia Marton Lefevre, executive director of what the letter calls the International Scientific Union, and he forwarded a letter from Carl Sagan, writing that he was "puzzled by Carl's enthusiastic support of the search for extraterrestrial intelligence by radio telescope while he maintains a high degree of skepticism about other means of inquiry."[^53] Sagan replied on November 6, 1996 that "no amount of anecdotal evidence, unsubstantiated by physical evidence, is worth a single substantive bit of physical evidence"; the letters are in the Sagan papers at the [[Library of Congress]] and were reported by [[Robert Sheaffer]].[^54] In a letter of January 2, 1997 to Gibbons, Maccabee wrote that in April 1993, "at the request of Dr. [[Ronald Pandolfi]] of the CIA," he had faxed Gibbons an information paper on UFOs.[^55] On June 20, 1997 the Secretary of the Air Force sent Gibbons the second volume of *The Roswell Report: Case Closed*, to be released on the following Tuesday.[^56]
### Pocantico Workshop, 1997
In December 1996, in Sturrock's words in the introduction to the published proceedings, "Mr. Laurance S. Rockefeller, Chairman of the [[LSR Fund]], invited me to review with him the status of our understanding of the problem posed by UFO reports." Rockefeller, Diamond and Sturrock conceived a workshop; Sturrock submitted a proposal to the LSR Fund in February 1997 with administrative support from the [[Society for Scientific Exploration]], and "the necessary funds were transferred from the Fund to the Society." The workshop met at the [[Pocantico Conference Center]] at [[Tarrytown, New York]], from September 29 to October 4, 1997, and Sturrock thanked Rockefeller "for his interest in and support of this project" and Diamond and [[Charles Tolbert]] for administrative support.[^55] A report of June 1998 by the panel was, in *PEER Perspectives* of Winter 1998/99, described as "funded by the Laurance S. Rockefeller Fund."[^56]
In December 1996, in Sturrock's words in the introduction to the published proceedings, "Mr. Laurance S. Rockefeller, Chairman of the [[LSR Fund]], invited me to review with him the status of our understanding of the problem posed by UFO reports." Rockefeller, Diamond and Sturrock conceived a workshop; Sturrock submitted a proposal to the LSR Fund in February 1997 with administrative support from the [[Society for Scientific Exploration]], and "the necessary funds were transferred from the Fund to the Society." The workshop met at the [[Pocantico Conference Center]] at [[Tarrytown, New York]], from September 29 to October 4, 1997, and Sturrock thanked Rockefeller "for his interest in and support of this project" and Diamond and [[Charles Tolbert]] for administrative support.[^57] A report of June 1998 by the panel was, in *PEER Perspectives* of Winter 1998/99, described as "funded by the Laurance S. Rockefeller Fund."[^58]
### Rockefeller Funds
The Laurance S. Rockefeller Fund of New York, which received its Internal Revenue Service ruling in June 2006, reported assets of 35,533,812 dollars for 2023. The Fund for UFO Research of [[Fairfax County, Virginia|Fairfax, Virginia]], to which the letters of 1994 and 1996 refer, has been tax-exempt since April 1982.[^13]
The Laurance S. Rockefeller Fund of New York, which received its Internal Revenue Service ruling in June 2006, reported assets of 35,533,812 dollars for 2023. The Fund for UFO Research of [[Fairfax County, Virginia|Fairfax, Virginia]], to which the letters of 1994 and 1996 refer, has been tax-exempt since April 1982.[^15]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Rockefeller Archive Center, "Laurance S. Rockefeller," biography, https://rockarch.org/resources/about-the-rockefellers/laurance-s-rockefeller/ (birth, death, education, marriage, Navy service, family office, Venrock from August 1969, Jackson Hole Preserve, American Conservation Association, Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission, Fund presidency and chairmanship 1958 to 1980, Sloan-Kettering, Sloan Foundation, Zoological Society).
[^2]: Rockefeller Archive Center, "John D. Rockefeller, Jr., 1874-1960," biography (children of John D. Rockefeller Jr. and Abby Aldrich Rockefeller), https://rockarch.org/resources/about-the-rockefellers/john-d-rockefeller-jr/.
[^3]: W. David Lewis, "A Man Born Out of Season: Eddie Rickenbacker, Eastern Airlines, and the Civil Aeronautics Board," *Business and Economic History* 25, no. 1 (Fall 1996), pp. 157-163, https://thebhc.org/sites/default/files/beh/BEHprint/v025n1/p0154-p0164.pdf.
[^4]: Peter O. Crisp, "Venture Capital Greats: A Conversation with Peter O. Crisp," interviewed by Carole Kolker, October 21, 2008, National Venture Capital Association Venture Capital Oral History Project, pp. 8, 24-28, 38 and 45-47, https://digitalassets.lib.berkeley.edu/roho/ucb/text/vcg-crisp.pdf.
[^5]: "Richard Leghorn, 98, pioneer of Cold War aerial espionage photography," *Boston Globe*, February 5, 2018, https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/obituaries/2018/02/05/richard-leghorn-pioneer-cold-war-aerial-espionage-photography/C6PlYAATiFZNKx2P1La8JJ/story.html.
[^6]: Kenneth E. Greer, "Corona," *Studies in Intelligence*, Supplement, 17 (Spring 1973), pp. 1-37, reproduced in Kevin C. Ruffner, ed., *CORONA: America's First Satellite Program* (Washington: Central Intelligence Agency, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1995), https://www.cia.gov/static/Corona-Between-the-Sun-and-the-Earth.pdf.
[^7]: Rockefeller Brothers Fund, "In Depth: The Special Studies Project," Wayback Machine capture of October 5, 2021, https://web.archive.org/web/20211005203914/https://www.rbf.org/about/our-history/timeline/special-studies-project/in-depth.
[^8]: Rockefeller Brothers Fund, *Prospect for America: The Rockefeller Panel Reports* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1961), list of the Special Studies Project planning committee and introduction by Panel II, https://archive.org/details/prospect-for-america-the-rockefeller-panel-reports-rockefeller-brothers-fund-1961.
[^9]: Allen W. Dulles to Laurance S. Rockefeller, September 16, 1960, CIA-RDP80B01676R003700050029-8, and the advance copy of Special Studies Project report VI, *The Power of the Democratic Idea*, with release notice, CIA-RDP80B01676R003700050028-9, CIA Reading Room, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003700050029-8 and https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003700050028-9.
[^10]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to Allen W. Dulles, February 20, 1961, and Dulles to Rockefeller, March 1, 1961, CIA-RDP80B01676R003500230010-0, CIA Reading Room, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003500230010-0.
[^11]: U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of the Secretary, news release, "Secretary Udall Pledges Support of ORRRC Proposals," February 1, 1962, https://www.fws.gov/sites/default/files/documents/historic-news-releases/1962/19620201B.PDF.
[^12]: National Park Service, *Caneel Bay Area Redevelopment and Management Environmental Assessment*, Virgin Islands National Park (January 2023), chapter 1, https://npshistory.com/publications/viis/caneel-bay-redev-mgt-ea-2023.pdf.
[^13]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer API, organization records for Jackson Hole Preserve Inc (EIN 13-1813818), Laurance S Rockefeller Fund (EIN 20-4192256) and Fund For UFO Research (EIN 52-1164176), https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/api/v2/organizations/131813818.json, https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/api/v2/organizations/204192256.json and https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/api/v2/organizations/521164176.json.
[^14]: Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research, press release, "Princeton's PEAR Laboratory to Close," February 10, 2007, http://pearlab.icrl.org/press-statement.html.
[^15]: John E. Mack Institute, "History," https://johnemackinstitute.org/history/, and "Program for Extraordinary Experience Research (PEER)," http://johnemackinstitute.org/2003/01/program-for-extraordinary-experience-research-peer/.
[^16]: Ben MacIntyre, "Harvard professor's stories of close encounters, other-world sex, embarrass university," *The San Francisco Examiner* (London *Times* credit), May 5, 1995, p. 16, https://www.newspapers.com/image/461595501/.
[^17]: "Harvard's Mack: The Subject Is Aliens," *Valley News* (West Lebanon, N.H.), May 20, 1995, p. 23, https://www.newspapers.com/image/833962083/.
[^18]: C. B. Scott Jones, Human Potential Foundation, to John H. Gibbons, February 17, 1994, with Gibbons's handwritten note dated 2/24/94, Office of Science and Technology Policy file, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-2-17-94.htm.
[^19]: John H. Gibbons, memorandum for the President, "Inquiry from Laurance Rockefeller," August 4, 1995, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-4-95.htm.
[^20]: Grant Cameron, "Extraterrestrial Politics in the Clinton White House (1993-2001) and the Laurance Rockefeller Initiative," introduction and notes iii and xiii, http://www.x-ppac.org/OSTP.html. The index of the scanned documents is at http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller_Initiative_Documents.htm.
[^21]: University of Colorado Boulder Libraries, "C. B. 'Scott' Jones papers," COU:4004, https://archives.colorado.edu/repositories/2/resources/346.
[^22]: Center for Psychology and Social Change, *CenterPiece*, September 1993, p. 2, "Center Welcomes PEER Research on UFO Abductions," https://johnemackinstitute.org/CenterPiece_1993_0900.pdf.
[^23]: Henry L. Diamond, memorandum to John H. Gibbons, attention Mike Kowalok, "Request for Meeting with Dr. Gibbons for Laurance S. Rockefeller, April 12 or 13, 1993," March 29, 1993, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-3-29-93.htm.
[^24]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, April 21, 1993, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-4-21-93.htm.
[^25]: John H. Gibbons, Director, Office of Science and Technology Policy, to C. B. Scott Jones, May 26, 1993, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-5-26-93.htm.
[^26]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to Billy Graham, May 7, 1993, and Graham to Rockefeller, May 20, 1993, attached to Rockefeller's fax to Gibbons of August 23, 1995, with the undated draft letter to President Clinton, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-23-95.htm.
[^27]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, August 4, 1993, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-4-93.htm.
[^28]: Paradigm Research Group, "September 14-15, 1993 Meeting at Rockefeller's JY Ranch in Wyoming," photograph and caption, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/9-14-93_Meeting.htm.
[^29]: Henry L. Diamond, Beveridge and Diamond, P.C., memorandum to Sue Bachtel, November 12, 1993, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-11-12-93.htm.
[^30]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, February 14, 1994, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-2-14-94.htm.
[^31]: Rockefeller to Julia Marton-Lefevre, August 8, 1996, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-10-17-96.htm; Rockefeller to Anne Bartley, February 14, 1994, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-2-14-94-2.htm.
[^32]: Sheila E. Widnall, Secretary of the Air Force, memorandum for John H. Gibbons, "UFO Research," May 24, 1994, with Gibbons's handwritten note, and the enclosed memorandum for the Secretary of the Air Force from SAF/AAZ, "Status Report on Search Efforts Regarding 'the Roswell Incident,'" May 20, 1994, p. 1, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-5-24-94.htm (the memorandum of May 24 is listed among the enclosures to Gibbons's letter to the General Accounting Office of April 26, 1995).
[^33]: Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, April 26, 1994, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/2-26-94%20LR%20Letter%20to%20JG/Letter.jpg (indexed as RID-2-26-94.htm).
[^34]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, June 1, 1994, with the attached letter from Melvin R. Laird to Rockefeller, May 9, 1994, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-6-1-94.htm.
[^35]: Anne Bartley, memorandum for Jack Gibbons, "Laurance S. Rockefeller Interest in Extraterrestrial Intelligence," July 27, 1994, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-7-27-94.htm.
[^36]: C. B. Scott Jones, Human Potential Foundation, to John H. Gibbons, August 11, 1994, pp. 1-2, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-11-94.htm.
[^37]: U.S. General Accounting Office, General Government Division, to John H. Gibbons, April 12, 1995, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-4-12-95.htm; John H. Gibbons to William Hunt, Director, Federal Management Issues, U.S. General Accounting Office, April 26, 1995, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-4-26-95.htm.
[^38]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, September 5, 1994, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-9-5-94.htm, and December 9, 1994, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-12-9-94.htm.
[^39]: C. B. Scott Jones to John H. Gibbons, February 9, 1995, pp. 1-2, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-2-9-95.htm.
[^40]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, April 11, 1995 (the scan is filed under 4-11-94 and the letter is dated April 11, 1995), http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-4-11-94.htm.
[^41]: C. B. Scott Jones to Gibbons, December 2 and 13, 1994; Patti Solis to Jones, December 15, 1994; William M. Webster IV to Jones, December 21, 1994, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-12-2-94.htm, RID-12-13-94.htm, RID-12-15-94.htm, RID-12-21-94.htm.
[^42]: William J. Clinton Presidential Library, "When Cosmic Cultures Meet - Collection Finding Aid," FOIA 2008-1575-F, https://clinton.presidentiallibraries.us/items/show/36409.
[^43]: Tanya M. Felder, OSTP electronic message to Susanne Bachtel, Barbara A. Ferguson and Holly L. Gwin, "GAO Report on UFOs," June 9, 1995, with handwritten reply of June 12, 1995, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-6-9-95.htm.
[^44]: "Clintons to Vacation in Wyoming Mountains," *Spokesman-Review*, August 15, 1995, https://www.spokesman.com/stories/1995/aug/15/clintons-to-vacation-in-wyoming-mountains/; William J. Clinton Presidential Library, "White House Photos - Laurance Rockefeller - Philanthropist," finding aid 2006-0546-F (contact sheet book 312, frame P31195, August 21, 1995), https://www.clintonlibrary.gov/research/archives/finding-aids/white-house-photos-laurance-rockefeller-philanthropist.
[^45]: C. B. Scott Jones, Human Potential Foundation, to Representative Steven Schiff, August 17, 1995, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-17-95.htm.
[^46]: Jones to Gibbons, August 23, 1995, with attached Jones letters to Newt Gingrich (August 17, 1995) and to members of the House (May 16, 1995), http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-23-95-2.htm.
[^47]: Henry L. Diamond to John H. Gibbons, November 1, 1995, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-11-1-95.htm, and November 8, 1995, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-11-8-95.htm.
[^48]: Don Berliner et al., *Unidentified Flying Objects Briefing Document: The Best Available Evidence* (UFO Research Coalition, December 1995), acknowledgments, https://archive.org/details/rockefeller-briefing-document.
[^49]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, February 5, 1996, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-2-5-96.htm.
[^50]: Sheila E. Widnall, Secretary of the Air Force, to John H. Gibbons, February 27, 1996, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-2-27-96.htm; Laurance S. Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, February 29, 1996, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-2-29-96.htm.
[^51]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, October 17, 1996, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-10-17-96.htm.
[^52]: Robert Sheaffer, "Carl Sagan, Laurance Rockefeller, and UFOs," *Skeptical Inquirer* 38, no. 5 (September/October 2014), pp. 19-20, https://skepticalinquirer.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/29/2014/09/p19.pdf.
[^53]: Bruce Maccabee to John H. Gibbons, January 2, 1997, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-1-2-97.htm.
[^54]: Secretary of the Air Force to John H. Gibbons, June 20, 1997, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-6-20-97.htm.
[^55]: Peter A. Sturrock et al., "Physical Evidence Related to UFO Reports: The Proceedings of a Workshop Held at the Pocantico Conference Center, Tarrytown, New York, September 29 - October 4, 1997," *Journal of Scientific Exploration* 12, no. 2 (1998), pp. 179-229, introduction as reproduced at http://www.ufoevidence.org/documents/doc535.htm.
[^56]: *PEER Perspectives* no. 2 (Winter 1998/99), p. 1, https://johnemackinstitute.org/PEER_Perspectives_2.pdf.
[^1]: "Laurance S. Rockefeller '32," memorial, *Princeton Alumni Weekly*. https://paw.princeton.edu/memorial/laurance-s-rockefeller-32
[^2]: Princeton University Library, Mudd Manuscript Library, finding aid for the James V. Forrestal Papers (MC051): the diaries "were purchased from the New York Herald Tribune and donated to Princeton University by Clarence Dillon and Laurance S. Rockefeller in December 1952." https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/PRIN_MUDD_MC051
[^3]: Rockefeller Archive Center, "Laurance S. Rockefeller," biography, https://rockarch.org/resources/about-the-rockefellers/laurance-s-rockefeller/ (birth, death, education, marriage, Navy service, family office, Venrock from August 1969, Jackson Hole Preserve, American Conservation Association, Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission, Fund presidency and chairmanship 1958 to 1980, Sloan-Kettering, Sloan Foundation, Zoological Society).
[^4]: Rockefeller Archive Center, "John D. Rockefeller, Jr., 1874-1960," biography (children of John D. Rockefeller Jr. and Abby Aldrich Rockefeller), https://rockarch.org/resources/about-the-rockefellers/john-d-rockefeller-jr/.
[^5]: W. David Lewis, "A Man Born Out of Season: Eddie Rickenbacker, Eastern Airlines, and the Civil Aeronautics Board," *Business and Economic History* 25, no. 1 (Fall 1996), pp. 157-163, https://thebhc.org/sites/default/files/beh/BEHprint/v025n1/p0154-p0164.pdf.
[^6]: Peter O. Crisp, "Venture Capital Greats: A Conversation with Peter O. Crisp," interviewed by Carole Kolker, October 21, 2008, National Venture Capital Association Venture Capital Oral History Project, pp. 8, 24-28, 38 and 45-47, https://digitalassets.lib.berkeley.edu/roho/ucb/text/vcg-crisp.pdf.
[^7]: "Richard Leghorn, 98, pioneer of Cold War aerial espionage photography," *Boston Globe*, February 5, 2018, https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/obituaries/2018/02/05/richard-leghorn-pioneer-cold-war-aerial-espionage-photography/C6PlYAATiFZNKx2P1La8JJ/story.html.
[^8]: Kenneth E. Greer, "Corona," *Studies in Intelligence*, Supplement, 17 (Spring 1973), pp. 1-37, reproduced in Kevin C. Ruffner, ed., *CORONA: America's First Satellite Program* (Washington: Central Intelligence Agency, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1995), https://www.cia.gov/static/Corona-Between-the-Sun-and-the-Earth.pdf.
[^9]: Rockefeller Brothers Fund, "In Depth: The Special Studies Project," Wayback Machine capture of October 5, 2021, https://web.archive.org/web/20211005203914/https://www.rbf.org/about/our-history/timeline/special-studies-project/in-depth.
[^10]: Rockefeller Brothers Fund, *Prospect for America: The Rockefeller Panel Reports* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1961), list of the Special Studies Project planning committee and introduction by Panel II, https://archive.org/details/prospect-for-america-the-rockefeller-panel-reports-rockefeller-brothers-fund-1961.
[^11]: Allen W. Dulles to Laurance S. Rockefeller, September 16, 1960, CIA-RDP80B01676R003700050029-8, and the advance copy of Special Studies Project report VI, *The Power of the Democratic Idea*, with release notice, CIA-RDP80B01676R003700050028-9, CIA Reading Room, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003700050029-8 and https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003700050028-9.
[^12]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to Allen W. Dulles, February 20, 1961, and Dulles to Rockefeller, March 1, 1961, CIA-RDP80B01676R003500230010-0, CIA Reading Room, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003500230010-0.
[^13]: U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of the Secretary, news release, "Secretary Udall Pledges Support of ORRRC Proposals," February 1, 1962, https://www.fws.gov/sites/default/files/documents/historic-news-releases/1962/19620201B.PDF.
[^14]: National Park Service, *Caneel Bay Area Redevelopment and Management Environmental Assessment*, Virgin Islands National Park (January 2023), chapter 1, https://npshistory.com/publications/viis/caneel-bay-redev-mgt-ea-2023.pdf.
[^15]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer API, organization records for Jackson Hole Preserve Inc (EIN 13-1813818), Laurance S Rockefeller Fund (EIN 20-4192256) and Fund For UFO Research (EIN 52-1164176), https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/api/v2/organizations/131813818.json, https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/api/v2/organizations/204192256.json and https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/api/v2/organizations/521164176.json.
[^16]: Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research, press release, "Princeton's PEAR Laboratory to Close," February 10, 2007, http://pearlab.icrl.org/press-statement.html (archived copy: https://web.archive.org/web/2007/http://pearlab.icrl.org/press-statement.html).
[^17]: John E. Mack Institute, "History," https://johnemackinstitute.org/history/, and "Program for Extraordinary Experience Research (PEER)," http://johnemackinstitute.org/2003/01/program-for-extraordinary-experience-research-peer/.
[^18]: Ben MacIntyre, "Harvard professor's stories of close encounters, other-world sex, embarrass university," *The San Francisco Examiner* (London *Times* credit), May 5, 1995, p. 16, https://www.newspapers.com/image/461595501/.
[^19]: "Harvard's Mack: The Subject Is Aliens," *Valley News* (West Lebanon, N.H.), May 20, 1995, p. 23, https://www.newspapers.com/image/833962083/.
[^20]: C. B. Scott Jones, Human Potential Foundation, to John H. Gibbons, February 17, 1994, with Gibbons's handwritten note dated 2/24/94, Office of Science and Technology Policy file, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-2-17-94.htm.
[^21]: John H. Gibbons, memorandum for the President, "Inquiry from Laurance Rockefeller," August 4, 1995, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-4-95.htm.
[^22]: Grant Cameron, "Extraterrestrial Politics in the Clinton White House (1993-2001) and the Laurance Rockefeller Initiative," introduction and notes iii and xiii, http://www.x-ppac.org/OSTP.html. The index of the scanned documents is at http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller_Initiative_Documents.htm.
[^23]: University of Colorado Boulder Libraries, "C. B. 'Scott' Jones papers," COU:4004, https://archives.colorado.edu/repositories/2/resources/346.
[^24]: Center for Psychology and Social Change, *CenterPiece*, September 1993, p. 2, "Center Welcomes PEER Research on UFO Abductions," https://johnemackinstitute.org/CenterPiece_1993_0900.pdf.
[^25]: Henry L. Diamond, memorandum to John H. Gibbons, attention Mike Kowalok, "Request for Meeting with Dr. Gibbons for Laurance S. Rockefeller, April 12 or 13, 1993," March 29, 1993, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-3-29-93.htm.
[^26]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, April 21, 1993, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-4-21-93.htm.
[^27]: John H. Gibbons, Director, Office of Science and Technology Policy, to C. B. Scott Jones, May 26, 1993, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-5-26-93.htm.
[^28]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to Billy Graham, May 7, 1993, and Graham to Rockefeller, May 20, 1993, attached to Rockefeller's fax to Gibbons of August 23, 1995, with the undated draft letter to President Clinton, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-23-95.htm.
[^29]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, August 4, 1993, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-4-93.htm.
[^30]: Paradigm Research Group, "September 14-15, 1993 Meeting at Rockefeller's JY Ranch in Wyoming," photograph and caption, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/9-14-93_Meeting.htm.
[^31]: Henry L. Diamond, Beveridge and Diamond, P.C., memorandum to Sue Bachtel, November 12, 1993, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-11-12-93.htm.
[^32]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, February 14, 1994, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-2-14-94.htm.
[^33]: Rockefeller to Julia Marton-Lefevre, August 8, 1996, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-10-17-96.htm; Rockefeller to Anne Bartley, February 14, 1994, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-2-14-94-2.htm.
[^34]: Sheila E. Widnall, Secretary of the Air Force, memorandum for John H. Gibbons, "UFO Research," May 24, 1994, with Gibbons's handwritten note, and the enclosed memorandum for the Secretary of the Air Force from SAF/AAZ, "Status Report on Search Efforts Regarding 'the Roswell Incident,'" May 20, 1994, p. 1, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-5-24-94.htm (the memorandum of May 24 is listed among the enclosures to Gibbons's letter to the General Accounting Office of April 26, 1995).
[^35]: Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, April 26, 1994, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/2-26-94%20LR%20Letter%20to%20JG/Letter.jpg (indexed as RID-2-26-94.htm).
[^36]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, June 1, 1994, with the attached letter from Melvin R. Laird to Rockefeller, May 9, 1994, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-6-1-94.htm.
[^37]: Anne Bartley, memorandum for Jack Gibbons, "Laurance S. Rockefeller Interest in Extraterrestrial Intelligence," July 27, 1994, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-7-27-94.htm.
[^38]: C. B. Scott Jones, Human Potential Foundation, to John H. Gibbons, August 11, 1994, pp. 1-2, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-11-94.htm.
[^39]: U.S. General Accounting Office, General Government Division, to John H. Gibbons, April 12, 1995, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-4-12-95.htm; John H. Gibbons to William Hunt, Director, Federal Management Issues, U.S. General Accounting Office, April 26, 1995, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-4-26-95.htm.
[^40]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, September 5, 1994, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-9-5-94.htm, and December 9, 1994, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-12-9-94.htm.
[^41]: C. B. Scott Jones to John H. Gibbons, February 9, 1995, pp. 1-2, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-2-9-95.htm.
[^42]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, April 11, 1995 (the scan is filed under 4-11-94 and the letter is dated April 11, 1995), http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-4-11-94.htm.
[^43]: C. B. Scott Jones to Gibbons, December 2 and 13, 1994; Patti Solis to Jones, December 15, 1994; William M. Webster IV to Jones, December 21, 1994, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-12-2-94.htm, RID-12-13-94.htm, RID-12-15-94.htm, RID-12-21-94.htm.
[^44]: William J. Clinton Presidential Library, "When Cosmic Cultures Meet - Collection Finding Aid," FOIA 2008-1575-F, https://clinton.presidentiallibraries.us/items/show/36409.
[^45]: Tanya M. Felder, OSTP electronic message to Susanne Bachtel, Barbara A. Ferguson and Holly L. Gwin, "GAO Report on UFOs," June 9, 1995, with handwritten reply of June 12, 1995, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-6-9-95.htm.
[^46]: "Clintons to Vacation in Wyoming Mountains," *Spokesman-Review*, August 15, 1995, https://www.spokesman.com/stories/1995/aug/15/clintons-to-vacation-in-wyoming-mountains/; William J. Clinton Presidential Library, "White House Photos - Laurance Rockefeller - Philanthropist," finding aid 2006-0546-F (contact sheet book 312, frame P31195, August 21, 1995), https://www.clintonlibrary.gov/research/archives/finding-aids/white-house-photos-laurance-rockefeller-philanthropist.
[^47]: C. B. Scott Jones, Human Potential Foundation, to Representative Steven Schiff, August 17, 1995, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-17-95.htm.
[^48]: Jones to Gibbons, August 23, 1995, with attached Jones letters to Newt Gingrich (August 17, 1995) and to members of the House (May 16, 1995), http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-23-95-2.htm.
[^49]: Henry L. Diamond to John H. Gibbons, November 1, 1995, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-11-1-95.htm, and November 8, 1995, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-11-8-95.htm.
[^50]: Don Berliner et al., *Unidentified Flying Objects Briefing Document: The Best Available Evidence* (UFO Research Coalition, December 1995), acknowledgments, https://archive.org/details/rockefeller-briefing-document.
[^51]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, February 5, 1996, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-2-5-96.htm.
[^52]: Sheila E. Widnall, Secretary of the Air Force, to John H. Gibbons, February 27, 1996, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-2-27-96.htm; Laurance S. Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, February 29, 1996, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-2-29-96.htm.
[^53]: Laurance S. Rockefeller to John H. Gibbons, October 17, 1996, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-10-17-96.htm.
[^54]: Robert Sheaffer, "Carl Sagan, Laurance Rockefeller, and UFOs," *Skeptical Inquirer* 38, no. 5 (September/October 2014), pp. 19-20, https://skepticalinquirer.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/29/2014/09/p19.pdf.
[^55]: Bruce Maccabee to John H. Gibbons, January 2, 1997, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-1-2-97.htm.
[^56]: Secretary of the Air Force to John H. Gibbons, June 20, 1997, http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-6-20-97.htm.
[^57]: Peter A. Sturrock et al., "Physical Evidence Related to UFO Reports: The Proceedings of a Workshop Held at the Pocantico Conference Center, Tarrytown, New York, September 29 - October 4, 1997," *Journal of Scientific Exploration* 12, no. 2 (1998), pp. 179-229, introduction as reproduced at http://www.ufoevidence.org/documents/doc535.htm.
[^58]: *PEER Perspectives* no. 2 (Winter 1998/99), p. 1, https://johnemackinstitute.org/PEER_Perspectives_2.pdf.

2
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Lee Harvey Oswald.md
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@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ Lee Harvey Oswald (October 18, 1939 - November 24, 1963) was the man arrested fo
### Background and Soviet Defection
Oswald was born in [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]] and raised in Texas and [[New York]]. He enlisted in the [[United States Marine Corps|Marine Corps]] in 1956 and was assigned to Marine Air Control Squadron 1 (MACS-1) at Atsugi Air Base in [[Japan]] - a facility of particular intelligence significance. Atsugi's MACS-1 unit included height-finding radars (the MPS-16 radar among them), and Atsugi simultaneously hosted CIA Detachment C of the [[U-2]] reconnaissance program, which conducted overflights of the [[Soviet Union]] whose existence was concealed from Soviet authorities until Gary Powers was shot down in May 1960. A Japanese-American technical intelligence unit, JTAG, was also co-located at the base. As a radar operator, Oswald had access to data from high-altitude U-2 operations - information CIA counterintelligence chief [[James Angleton]] later assessed as potentially significant given Oswald's subsequent defection.
Oswald was born in [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]] and raised in Texas and [[New York City|New York]]. He enlisted in the [[United States Marine Corps|Marine Corps]] in 1956 and was assigned to Marine Air Control Squadron 1 (MACS-1) at Atsugi Air Base in [[Japan]] - a facility of particular intelligence significance. Atsugi's MACS-1 unit included height-finding radars (the MPS-16 radar among them), and Atsugi simultaneously hosted CIA Detachment C of the [[U-2]] reconnaissance program, which conducted overflights of the [[Soviet Union]] whose existence was concealed from Soviet authorities until Gary Powers was shot down in May 1960. A Japanese-American technical intelligence unit, JTAG, was also co-located at the base. As a radar operator, Oswald had access to data from high-altitude U-2 operations - information CIA counterintelligence chief [[James Angleton]] later assessed as potentially significant given Oswald's subsequent defection.
Oswald received a hardship discharge in September 1959. Within two weeks, he traveled to the Soviet Union and, in October 1959, walked into the U.S. Embassy in Moscow to renounce his American citizenship. Soviet authorities initially denied him permanent residency but eventually allowed him to remain, settling him in [[Minsk]], where he worked in a factory under [[KGB]] surveillance. He married Marina Prusakova, a Soviet citizen, in April 1961. Soviet defectors were routinely debriefed by the KGB; given Oswald's Atsugi assignment, the extent of any debriefing and what he disclosed has never been established.

4
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Michael Whitney Straight.md
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@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
---
created: 2026-10-09
updated: 2026-10-09
updated: 2026-10-15
title: Michael Whitney Straight
aliases:
- Michael Whitney Straight
@ -107,7 +107,7 @@ Straight told the FBI that he entered Cambridge in the fall of 1934 and was domi
Straight told the FBI that after Cornford's death became known, Blunt invited him to his rooms and suggested that Straight make a comparable sacrifice. Blunt asked him to give up Communist work in England and turn to the international field, and said the [[Communist International]] wanted a man at Morgan and Company to supply economic reports. Straight protested that he was not cut out to be a banker; about three weeks later Blunt told him that his protests had been rejected, and he sailed for the United States, where he wrote a further letter of protest to Blunt from the ship. Before he left, Blunt tore a small ink drawing of Straight's sweetheart in half and kept one piece. Straight could not recall whether an oral parole was also arranged. He told the FBI that he believed Burgess was the person directing Blunt, although Blunt declined to say so.[^6]
In a 1981 telephone interview with [[United Press International]], Straight placed Blunt's approach in February 1937 and said: "Blunt tried to recruit me as a Soviet agent and have me return to United States and join the J.P. Morgan company." He added: "I flatly refused. I said I didn't want any part."[^7] [[The [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] Post]] reported the same month that Blunt had tried to recruit him at Cambridge in 1937, and quoted him that "they" had decided to accelerate their timetable "because of the death of my closest friend."[^8] [[The Washington Star]] reported on March 28, 1981 that the approach came less than two weeks after Cornford's death and that Blunt wanted him to "infiltrate" Wall Street.[^9] In a January 1983 radio interview he described the instruction in nearly the same terms: "What they wanted me to do was not to go into government, but to go to Wall Street, go back to my father's old firm, J.P. Morgan & Company."[^10]
In a 1981 telephone interview with [[United Press International]], Straight placed Blunt's approach in February 1937 and said: "Blunt tried to recruit me as a Soviet agent and have me return to United States and join the J.P. Morgan company." He added: "I flatly refused. I said I didn't want any part."[^7] [[Washington Post|The Washington Post]] reported the same month that Blunt had tried to recruit him at Cambridge in 1937, and quoted him that "they" had decided to accelerate their timetable "because of the death of my closest friend."[^8] [[The Washington Star]] reported on March 28, 1981 that the approach came less than two weeks after Cornford's death and that Blunt wanted him to "infiltrate" Wall Street.[^9] In a January 1983 radio interview he described the instruction in nearly the same terms: "What they wanted me to do was not to go into government, but to go to Wall Street, go back to my father's old firm, J.P. Morgan & Company."[^10]
### Contact with Michael Green

6
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Rene Schneider.md
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@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ summary: "Commander of the Chilean army who held that the military must respect
died: 1970-10-25
location: "Santiago, Chile"
created: 2026-09-21
updated: 2026-10-14
updated: 2026-10-15
---
General René Schneider was commander in chief of the Chilean army from 1969. In an interview with [[El Mercurio]] on May 8, 1970, he stated that the army would respect the constitutional process and the outcome of that year's presidential election, a position that became known as the [[Schneider Doctrine]]. He was shot in [[Santiago]] on the morning of October 22, 1970, two days before the [[National Congress of Chile|Chilean Congress]] was to confirm [[Salvador Allende]], and died on October 25.[^1]
@ -45,7 +45,7 @@ Congress ratified Allende on October 24 by 153 votes to 37.[^5]
### Schneider v. Kissinger
René and Raúl Schneider and other members of the family sued Kissinger and the [[United States]] in the federal court in Washington on November 12, 2002. The complaint alleged that on September 15, 1970, Nixon ordered that the CIA "play a direct role in organizing a military coup d'etat in [[Chile]]," said he was "not concerned" about the risks, authorized ten million dollars, and required a plan within 48 hours. The district court dismissed the case in 2004, and the [[United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit|court of appeals]] affirmed in 2005, holding that the decision to support a coup in a foreign country was a political question that courts could not review.[^6]
René and Raúl Schneider and other members of the family sued [[Henry Kissinger|Kissinger]], the [[United States]] and [[Richard Helms]] in the federal court in Washington on September 10, 2001, and filed an amended complaint against Kissinger and the United States on November 11, 2002, according to the opinion of the court of appeals; the National Security Archive catalogues the complaint under November 12, 2002. The complaint alleged that on September 15, 1970, Nixon ordered that the CIA "play a direct role in organizing a military coup d'etat in [[Chile]]," said he was "not concerned" about the risks, authorized ten million dollars, and required a plan within 48 hours. The district court dismissed the case on March 30, 2004, and the [[United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit|court of appeals]] affirmed on June 28, 2005, holding that the decision to support a coup in a foreign country was a political question that courts could not review.[^6]
### Footnotes
@ -54,6 +54,6 @@ René and Raúl Schneider and other members of the family sued Kissinger and the
[^3]: Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Covert Action in Chile 1963-1973,* staff report, 1975.
[^4]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Price of Power: Kissinger in the Nixon White House*. Summit Books, 1983, pp. 275, 289-290.
[^5]: Kornbluh, Peter. *The Pinochet File: A Declassified Dossier on Atrocity and Accountability*. New Press, 2003, p. 29.
[^6]: Schneider v. Kissinger, 310 F. Supp. 2d 251 (D.D.C. 2004), affirmed, 412 F.3d 190 (D.C. Cir. 2005); complaint, November 12, 2002, National Security Archive document 23606.
[^6]: Schneider v. Kissinger, 310 F. Supp. 2d 251 (D.D.C. 2004), affirmed, 412 F.3d 190 (D.C. Cir. June 28, 2005), https://cite.case.law/f3d/412/190/ ; complaint, November 12, 2002, National Security Archive document 23606.
[^7]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, Volume XXI, Chile, 1969-1973, document 162, Briefing Notes Prepared in the Central Intelligence Agency, Washington, October 23, 1970, "Track II." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v21/d162
[^8]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, Volume XXI, document 168, Briefing Notes Prepared in the Central Intelligence Agency, Washington, October 28, 1970, "Recent Developments: Track II." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v21/d168

4
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Richard Secord.md
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@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ aliases:
- Dick Secord
- General Secord
created: 2026-05-17
updated: 2026-10-14
updated: 2026-10-15
category: "Military"
tags:
- Person
@ -114,7 +114,7 @@ In his 1987 testimony he said he served in [[Vietnam War|Vietnam]] and in Laos o
### Naval War College and the Pentagon
From 1971 to 1972 Secord attended a one-year George Washington University graduate program at the [[Naval War College]] in Newport, Rhode Island, one of 16 Air Force officers in a class of 203.[^1] His 1972 master's thesis, "Unconventional warfare/covert operations as an instrument of U.S. foreign policy," was directed by the CIA adviser to the head of the college. In the first pages of its 55 pages he wrote that the CIA should be given "the authority" to run such operations and that the Pentagon should be "removed from the chain of command."[^1]
From 1971 to 1972 Secord attended a one-year [[George Washington University]] graduate program at the [[Naval War College]] in Newport, Rhode Island, one of 16 Air Force officers in a class of 203.[^1] His 1972 master's thesis, "Unconventional warfare/covert operations as an instrument of U.S. foreign policy," was directed by the CIA adviser to the head of the college. In the first pages of its 55 pages he wrote that the CIA should be given "the authority" to run such operations and that the Pentagon should be "removed from the chain of command."[^1]
Promoted to colonel in 1972, he became the Pentagon desk officer for Southeast Asia, and in 1973 he became aide to the director of the Defense Security Assistance Agency, which manages foreign military sales and assistance.[^1] The joint congressional report states that when Secord returned from Laos and was stationed at the Pentagon, Clines introduced him to a number of Clines's CIA associates, including [[Rafael Quintero]], and to [[Edwin Wilson]].[^9] [[Newsweek]] reported that Secord received his first general's star at the age of 43.[^6]

2
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Robert Booth Nichols.md
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@ -70,7 +70,7 @@ In a telephone interview with the FBI on January 11, 1994, Nichols said that whe
### The Bayou Fee
In the spring of 2004 Nichols offered [[Samuel Israel III]], manager of the Bayou hedge funds, access to what British investigators later described as programs with "all of the hallmarks of fraudulent prime bank note programs." After more than 150 million dollars of Bayou money passed through a London account of the "Humanitarian Coalition Aid Foundation" and back in April 2004, Nichols and Israel signed a "Financial and Security Consultancy Agreement" on July 11, 2004, and on July 19 Israel wired ten million dollars to accounts in Germany, Liechtenstein, Singapore and the [[United Kingdom]] in the name of or controlled by Nichols, about eight million of which ended in a London account in the names of Nichols and his wife, Ellen. The Bayou funds' liquidating entity sued the couple in 2008 to recover the fee as a fraudulent transfer; they answered that he had received it "for value, in good faith and without knowledge of the alleged voidability of the transfer." Nichols was deposed on video at the [[U.S. Attorney's office]] in Manhattan on December 16, 2008, and the case was closed on April 28, 2010.[^1][^13] At the time his address was in Honolulu.[^1]
In the spring of 2004 Nichols offered [[Samuel Israel III]], manager of the Bayou hedge funds, access to what British investigators later described as programs with "all of the hallmarks of fraudulent prime bank note programs." After more than 150 million dollars of Bayou money passed through a London account of the "Humanitarian Coalition Aid Foundation" and back in April 2004, Nichols and Israel signed a "Financial and Security Consultancy Agreement" on July 11, 2004, and on July 19 Israel wired ten million dollars to accounts in Germany, Liechtenstein, Singapore and the [[United Kingdom]] in the name of or controlled by Nichols, about eight million of which ended in a London account in the names of Nichols and his wife, Ellen. The Bayou funds' liquidating entity sued the couple in 2008 to recover the fee as a fraudulent transfer; they answered that he had received it "for value, in good faith and without knowledge of the alleged voidability of the transfer." Nichols was deposed on video at the [[U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of New York|U.S. Attorney's office]] in Manhattan on December 16, 2008, and the case was closed on April 28, 2010.[^1][^13] At the time his address was in Honolulu.[^1]
### Footnotes

31
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Spencer Oliver.md
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@ -5,16 +5,41 @@ tags:
- IranContra
- Israel
summary: "Chief counsel of the House Foreign Affairs Committee who in 1992 sought leniency for the arms dealer Dirk Stoffberg, and whom Ari Ben-Menashe described as calling the Iran-Contra hearings a cover-up."
relations:
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Democratic National Committee]]"
start: 1966
end: 1976
role: "senior positions; Executive Director of the State Chairmens Association in 1972"
fn: 4
- type: employed_by
with: "[[United States House of Representatives Committee on Foreign Affairs]]"
end: 1993
role: "chief counsel"
fn: 4
- type: head_of
with: "[[OSCE Parliamentary Assembly]]"
start: 1992
end: 2015
role: "Secretary General"
fn: 4
---
[[Spencer Oliver]] was the chief counsel for the [[United States House of Representatives Committee on Foreign Affairs|House Foreign Affairs Committee]]. He was involved in the [[Iran-Contra Affair]] hearings. In 1991, he discussed the events of 1987 with [[Ari Ben-Menashe]], admitting that the Democrats knew the witnesses were lying and that the hearings were a cover-up to avoid impeaching the president.[^1]
### The 1972 telephone tap
The Senate Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities names R. Spencer Oliver Jr. as the Democratic National Committee official, the son of Robert Oliver, the Mullen and Company lobbyist for Hughes Tool, whose telephone [[James McCord]] bugged in the first Watergate entry of May 27, 1972.[^2] A 1976 memorandum by [[Bruce Solie]], chief of the Central Intelligence Agency's Security Analysis Group, identifies the "Spencer Oliver" named in a Freedom of Information request from McCord as, according to a 1972 newspaper article, the Executive Director of the State Chairmens Association of the Democratic National Committee, in whose office telephone "an alleged listening device was found."[^3] The Wilson Center's biography of Oliver lists senior positions at the Democratic National Committee from 1966 to 1976, followed by service as Chief of Staff of the Helsinki Commission (1976 to 1985) and as chief counsel of the House Foreign Affairs Committee until 1993; the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly's biography lists him as its Secretary General from 1992 to 2015.[^4]
### Stoffberg letter (1992)
On January 10, 1992, Oliver, chief counsel of the House Foreign Affairs Committee, wrote to the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York requesting leniency for [[Dirk Stoffberg]], a convicted arms dealer, on the ground that Stoffberg had provided the committee with information about the 1980 hostage events. Judge [[Jack Weinstein]] cited the request in an amended sentencing memorandum and reduced the sentence.[^2] On February 4, 1992, Representative McEwen of Ohio announced that he would offer a privileged resolution on the letter before the House debated House Resolution 258, which created the October Surprise task force.[^2] A reprinted newspaper account quotes Representative Henry Hyde: "By what authority did Spencer Oliver intervene in this case, and why wasn't the minority notified?"[^3]
On January 10, 1992, Oliver, chief counsel of the House Foreign Affairs Committee, wrote to the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York requesting leniency for [[Dirk Stoffberg]], a convicted arms dealer, on the ground that Stoffberg had provided the committee with information about the 1980 hostage events. Judge [[Jack Weinstein]] cited the request in an amended sentencing memorandum and reduced the sentence.[^5] On February 4, 1992, Representative McEwen of Ohio announced that he would offer a privileged resolution on the letter before the House debated House Resolution 258, which created the October Surprise task force.[^5] A reprinted newspaper account quotes Representative Henry Hyde: "By what authority did Spencer Oliver intervene in this case, and why wasn't the minority notified?"[^6]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Ben-Menashe, Ari. *Profits of War: Inside the Secret U.S.-Israeli Arms Network*. Sheridan Square Press, 1992 (TrineDay reprint, 2015).
[^2]: U.S. House of Representatives, *Congressional Record*, February 4, 1992, pp. H253 and following (announcement by Representative McEwen; reprinted letter of January 10, 1992; amended memorandum and order of the Eastern District of New York). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_cr/h920204-october.htm
[^3]: Reprinted article quoted in the same Congressional Record volume (Stoffberg defense account), above.
[^2]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), section "Robert Bennett and the Mullen and Company", pp. 1122-1123 (Robert Oliver and R. Spencer Oliver Jr.); the first entry of May 27, 1972 and the placement of the telephone devices, Part I. https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities
[^3]: Solie, Bruce L., Chief, Security Analysis Group, memorandum for the file, "McCord, James Walter, Jr.," June 23, 1976, JFK record 104-10123-10362.
[^4]: Wilson Center, "Spencer Oliver," expert biography. https://wilsoncenter.org/person/spencer-oliver ; OSCE Parliamentary Assembly, "R. Spencer Oliver," former Secretary General. https://www.oscepa.org/en/about-osce-pa/international-secretariat/former-secretary-general/former-secretary-general
[^5]: U.S. House of Representatives, *Congressional Record*, February 4, 1992, pp. H253 and following (announcement by Representative McEwen; reprinted letter of January 10, 1992; amended memorandum and order of the Eastern District of New York). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_cr/h920204-october.htm
[^6]: Reprinted article quoted in the same Congressional Record volume (Stoffberg defense account), above.

18
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Toby Ord.md
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@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ summary: "Toby Ord is an Australian moral philosopher at Oxford who cofounded Gi
born: 1979
location: "Oxford, England"
created: 2026-06-19
updated: 2026-06-19
updated: 2026-10-15
---
Toby Ord (born July 1979) is an Australian moral philosopher at the [[University of Oxford]] who cofounded the [[Effective Altruism]] movement and became one of the leading academic theorists of existential risk. He founded [[Giving What We Can]], the pledge society that anchored the movement's early growth, was a senior research fellow at the [[Future of Humanity Institute]], and wrote *The Precipice*, a 2020 book arguing that humanity faces a roughly one-in-six chance of an existential catastrophe within the next hundred years.[^1][^2]
@ -23,17 +23,17 @@ Toby Ord (born July 1979) is an Australian moral philosopher at the [[University
Ord was born in [[Melbourne]] and studied computer science before switching to philosophy at the [[University of Melbourne]], then moved to Oxford for graduate work. There he calculated that he could earn roughly 1.5 million pounds over his career and give away about a million of it while keeping a graduate student's standard of living, and he pledged to donate everything above a fixed personal income. In 2009 he and the philosopher [[William MacAskill]] founded Giving What We Can, an international society whose members pledge at least ten percent of their income to the most cost-effective charities; its members have collectively pledged well over a billion dollars. The pledge model, paired with the charity-evaluation work of [[GiveWell]] and [[Holden Karnofsky]], formed the practical core of effective altruism.[^3][^4]
Ord launched Giving What We Can in November 2009 alongside his wife, the physician Bernadette Young, with whom he committed to capping his own annual spending and donating the rest. He set his personal living allowance at about 18,000 pounds a year, giving away everything earned above it toward a lifetime target of one million pounds, with the bulk going to the SCI Foundation and Deworm the World (both deworming programs), the [[Against Malaria Foundation]], and the poverty-research lab J-PAL. The society grew from a handful of Oxford members to more than 9,000, and by March 2022 the pledges of its members totaled more than 2.5 billion dollars in expected lifetime giving.[^3][^7]
Ord launched Giving What We Can in November 2009 alongside his wife, the physician Bernadette Young, with whom he committed to capping his own annual spending and donating the rest. He set his personal living allowance at about 18,000 pounds a year, giving away everything earned above it toward a lifetime target of one million pounds, with the bulk going to the SCI Foundation and Deworm the World (both deworming programs), the [[Against Malaria Foundation]], and the poverty-research lab J-PAL. The society grew from a handful of Oxford members to more than 9,000, and by March 2022 the pledges of its members totaled more than 2.5 billion dollars in expected lifetime giving.[^3][^5]
### Future of Humanity Institute and Existential Risk
Ord was a senior research fellow at the Future of Humanity Institute, the Oxford center founded by [[Nick Bostrom]] in 2005 that became the academic headquarters of [[Longtermism|longtermism]]. His research moved from the ethics of global poverty toward existential risk, the danger of events that would permanently destroy humanity's long-term potential, the same focus that animated Bostrom's work and the AI-safety concerns of the [[Rationalist Community]]. Ord has advised the [[World Health Organization]], the [[World Bank]], the [[World Economic Forum]], the U.S. National Intelligence Council, and the UK Prime Minister's Office.[^1][^2]
The Future of Humanity Institute closed on April 16, 2024 after nineteen years, with Oxford's Faculty of Philosophy declining to renew the remaining staff contracts following a 2020 freeze on its hiring and fundraising; Bostrom called it "death by bureaucracy." The shutdown followed a period of reputational damage, including the 2023 resurfacing of a 1996 email in which Bostrom had used a racial slur, for which he apologized and which prompted an Oxford inquiry. Ord had by then moved to the Oxford Martin School's AI Governance Initiative, continuing the existential-risk work the institute had housed.[^8][^9]
The Future of Humanity Institute closed on April 16, 2024 after nineteen years, with Oxford's Faculty of Philosophy declining to renew the remaining staff contracts following a 2020 freeze on its hiring and fundraising; Bostrom called it "death by bureaucracy." The shutdown followed a period of reputational damage, including the 2023 resurfacing of a 1996 email in which Bostrom had used a racial slur, for which he apologized and which prompted an Oxford inquiry. Ord had by then moved to the Oxford Martin School's AI Governance Initiative, continuing the existential-risk work the institute had housed.[^6][^7]
### The Precipice
*The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity*, published in 2020, surveyed the catastrophes that could end the human story, natural and anthropogenic, and assigned probabilities to each. Ord judged engineered pandemics and unaligned artificial intelligence the gravest near-term threats and estimated the combined chance of an existential catastrophe this century at about one in six. The book argued that reducing such risks should rank among the highest global priorities, the central claim of the longtermist program that MacAskill later developed in *What We Owe the Future* and that the [[FTX Future Fund]] of [[Sam Bankman-Fried]] funded before its 2022 collapse.[^5][^6]
*The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity*, published in 2020, surveyed the catastrophes that could end the human story, natural and anthropogenic, and assigned probabilities to each. Ord judged engineered pandemics and unaligned artificial intelligence the gravest near-term threats and estimated the combined chance of an existential catastrophe this century at about one in six. The book argued that reducing such risks should rank among the highest global priorities, the central claim of the longtermist program that MacAskill later developed in *What We Owe the Future* and that the [[FTX Future Fund]] of [[Sam Bankman-Fried]] funded before its 2022 collapse.[^8][^9]
Ord's Table 6.1 gave per-century estimates that placed unaligned artificial intelligence at roughly one in ten, engineered pandemics at one in thirty, nuclear war and climate change at one in a thousand each, and all natural risks combined (asteroids, supervolcanoes, naturally arising pandemics) at only about one in ten thousand. He stressed that the anthropogenic figures were order-of-magnitude judgments that could "easily be a factor of 3 higher or lower," and that the era of human-made existential risk had begun only with the atomic bomb in 1945, which he called the start of the "Precipice." His framing of AI as the single largest source of extinction risk became a load-bearing premise for the AI-safety funding that flowed from [[Open Philanthropy]] and the FTX Future Fund into the labs and research centers.[^2][^10]
@ -43,9 +43,9 @@ Ord's Table 6.1 gave per-century estimates that placed unaligned artificial inte
[^2]: Ord, Toby. *The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity.* Bloomsbury, 2020.
[^3]: "Toby Ord: Why I'm giving £1m to charity," *BBC News,* 2010, on the career-earnings calculation and the pledge. https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-11950843
[^4]: "Our history," Giving What We Can, on the 2009 founding with William MacAskill and the cumulative pledge total. https://www.givingwhatwecan.org/about-us/history
[^5]: "The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity," Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews, on the one-in-six estimate and the book's argument. https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/the-precipice-existential-risk-and-the-future-of-humanity/
[^6]: "Existential risk and the future of humanity (Toby Ord)," EA Forum, on the book's risk taxonomy and probability estimates. https://forum.effectivealtruism.org/posts/BAfEgTaK5BsperQEc/existential-risk-and-the-future-of-humanity-toby-ord
[^7]: "Toby Ord: Why I'm giving £1m to charity," *BBC News,* 2010, on the 18,000-pound living allowance and the named charities; "Oxford-based charity receives more than $2.5 billion in pledges," University of Oxford, March 1, 2022. https://www.ox.ac.uk/news/2022-03-01-oxford-based-charity-receives-more-25-billion-pledges-community-effective-givers
[^8]: "Oxford shuts down institute run by Elon Musk-backed philosopher," *The Guardian,* April 20, 2024, on the April 16, 2024 closure and "death by bureaucracy." https://www.oxfordstudent.com/2024/04/20/oxford-shuts-down-elon-musk-funded-future-of-humanity-institute/
[^9]: "Looking Back at the Future of Humanity Institute," *Asterisk,* on the 2020 hiring freeze, the contract non-renewals, and the institute's nineteen-year run. https://asteriskmag.com/issues/08/looking-back-at-the-future-of-humanity-institute
[^5]: "Toby Ord: Why I'm giving £1m to charity," *BBC News,* 2010, on the 18,000-pound living allowance and the named charities; "Oxford-based charity receives more than $2.5 billion in pledges," University of Oxford, March 1, 2022. https://www.ox.ac.uk/news/2022-03-01-oxford-based-charity-receives-more-25-billion-pledges-community-effective-givers
[^6]: "Oxford shuts down Elon Musk-funded Future of Humanity Institute," *The Oxford Student,* April 20, 2024, Internet Archive capture dated April 28, 2024, on the April 16, 2024 closure; Bostrom's "death by bureaucracy" statement appears there as an emailed statement to *The Guardian.* https://web.archive.org/web/20240428172104/https://www.oxfordstudent.com/2024/04/20/oxford-shuts-down-elon-musk-funded-future-of-humanity-institute/
[^7]: "Looking Back at the Future of Humanity Institute," *Asterisk,* on the 2020 hiring freeze, the contract non-renewals, and the institute's nineteen-year run. https://asteriskmag.com/issues/08/looking-back-at-the-future-of-humanity-institute
[^8]: "The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity," Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews, on the one-in-six estimate and the book's argument. https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/the-precipice-existential-risk-and-the-future-of-humanity/
[^9]: "Existential risk and the future of humanity (Toby Ord)," EA Forum, on the book's risk taxonomy and probability estimates. https://forum.effectivealtruism.org/posts/BAfEgTaK5BsperQEc/existential-risk-and-the-future-of-humanity-toby-ord
[^10]: "Some thoughts on Toby Ord's existential risk estimates," EA Forum, reproducing Table 6.1 with the one-in-ten AI figure and the order-of-magnitude caveat. https://forum.effectivealtruism.org/posts/Z5KZ2cui8WDjyF6gJ/some-thoughts-on-toby-ord-s-existential-risk-estimates

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10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Yitzhak Shamir.md
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@ -110,7 +110,7 @@ Shamir became prime minister on October 10, 1983.[^2] A December 1983 Central In
### Foreign minister, 1980 to 1983
Shamir was foreign minister from March 10, 1980.[^2] On October 4, 1982 [[George P. Shultz]], then secretary of state, told the Soviet foreign minister [[Andrei Gromyko]] in [[New York]] that he had put the question of Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon to Shamir. Shamir had said that once the Syrians were out, Israel would leave all of Lebanon and "not occupy any part of it."[^20]
Shamir was foreign minister from March 10, 1980.[^2] On October 4, 1982 [[George P. Shultz]], then secretary of state, told the Soviet foreign minister [[Andrei Gromyko]] in [[New York City|New York]] that he had put the question of Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon to Shamir. Shamir had said that once the Syrians were out, Israel would leave all of Lebanon and "not occupy any part of it."[^20]
In February 1981 Prime Minister Menachem Begin sent Shamir to Washington to see [[Alexander Haig]], the secretary of state, because Begin was unhappy with the American position set out in a February 4 cable. According to Haig, Shamir was told that the [[United States]] could not prohibit Israeli sales of non-American items to Iran but opposed any arms deal with Iran and prohibited sales of American-origin arms. The [[Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force]] (1993) records that "Foreign Minister Shamir apparently heard Haig's message differently," and that he told Begin the United States objected to the sale of American-origin equipment.[^21] An affidavit by [[William Northrop]] asserted that Haig had authorized Israel to ship American weapons to Iran. The Task Force's review of the cable traffic and the participants' notes found that "no green light was ever given for the shipment of American-made weapons between Israel and Iran."[^21]