vault backup: 2026-10-16 01:25:00

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/INTERNATIONAL/GRU.md

@@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ tags:
 summary: "The military intelligence directorate of the Soviet and Russian General Staff, whose officers the United States indicted for the 2016 election hacks and the WhisperGate attack and Britain charged over the Salisbury poisoning."
 location: "Moscow, Russia"
 created: 2026-09-24
-updated: 2026-09-24
+updated: 2026-10-15
 relations:
   - type: informant_for
     with: "[[Robert Hanssen]]"
@@ -51,15 +51,15 @@ In 1979 [[Robert Hanssen]], a special agent of the [[Federal Bureau of Investiga
 
 On July 13, 2018, a grand jury in the District of Columbia returned an indictment presented by the [[Special Counsel]]'s Office charging twelve GRU officers, [[Viktor Netyksho]], [[Boris Antonov]], [[Dmitriy Badin]], [[Ivan Yermakov]], [[Aleksey Lukashev]], [[Sergey Morgachev]], [[Nikolay Kozachek]], [[Pavel Yershov]], [[Artem Malyshev]], [[Aleksandr Osadchuk]], [[Aleksey Potemkin]] and [[Anatoliy Kovalev]], "officials in [[Unit 26165]] and [[Unit 74455]] of the Russian government's Main Intelligence Directorate." Deputy Attorney General [[Rod Rosenstein]] announced the charges.[^1]
 
-According to the indictment, officers of Unit 26165 began in 2016 to spearphish volunteers and employees of the presidential campaign of [[Hillary Clinton]], including its chairman, and through stolen credentials entered the networks of the [[Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee]] and the [[Democratic National Committee]], where they monitored the computers of dozens of employees and implanted hundreds of files of malicious code. Unit 26165 coordinated with Unit 74455 on releasing the stolen material. The officers registered [[DCLeaks|DCLeaks.com]], presented themselves as "American hacktivists," and promoted the site through fictitious [[Facebook]] and [[Twitter]] accounts. After public accusations that the Russian government was behind the intrusions they created the persona [[Guccifer 2.0]]; on the evening of June 15, 2016, between 4:19 and 4:56 PM, they used a Moscow-based server to search for English words and phrases that later appeared in Guccifer 2.0's first blog post, "falsely claiming to be a lone Romanian hacker." Unit 74455 also conspired to hack the computers of state boards of elections, secretaries of state, and companies that supplied election software. The operation was paid for with cryptocurrency, including bitcoin mining, and the same mining operation that paid for the DCLeaks.com registration funded the servers and domains of the spearphishing campaign.[^1]
+According to the indictment, officers of Unit 26165 began in 2016 to spearphish volunteers and employees of the presidential campaign of [[Hillary Clinton]], including its chairman, and through stolen credentials entered the networks of the [[Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee]] and the [[Democratic National Committee]], where they monitored the computers of dozens of employees and implanted hundreds of files of malicious code. Unit 26165 coordinated with Unit 74455 on releasing the stolen material. The officers registered [[DCLeaks|DCLeaks.com]], presented themselves as "American hacktivists," and promoted the site through fictitious [[Facebook]] and [[Twitter]] accounts. On June 8, 2016 they created a DCLeaks Facebook page using a preexisting social media account under the fictitious name "Alice Donovan," used accounts in the names of fictitious U.S. persons such as "Jason Scott" and "Richard Gingrey" to promote the site, and created the Twitter account @dcleaks_ the same day.[^4] After public accusations that the Russian government was behind the intrusions they created the persona [[Guccifer 2.0]]; on the evening of June 15, 2016, between 4:19 and 4:56 PM, they used a Moscow-based server to search for English words and phrases that later appeared in Guccifer 2.0's first blog post, "falsely claiming to be a lone Romanian hacker." Unit 74455 also conspired to hack the computers of state boards of elections, secretaries of state, and companies that supplied election software. The operation was paid for with cryptocurrency, including bitcoin mining, and the same mining operation that paid for the DCLeaks.com registration funded the servers and domains of the spearphishing campaign.[^1]
 
 The indictment contained eleven counts, including conspiracy against the [[United States]], aggravated identity theft, and a conspiracy to launder the equivalent of more than $95,000. The [[Department of Justice]] stated that there was no allegation that any American was a knowing participant or that the conduct altered the vote count.[^1]
 
 ### Salisbury
 
-In March 2018 [[Sergei Skripal]] and his daughter [[Yulia Skripal|Yulia]] were poisoned in [[Salisbury]] with a military-grade nerve agent of a type developed by Russia, known as [[Novichok]]. Two [[Wiltshire Police]] officers who searched their home were also poisoned. In July 2018 two members of the public in [[Amesbury]] were exposed to the same agent, and one of them, [[Dawn Sturgess]], died. On September 5, 2018, the [[Director of Public Prosecutions]] announced charges against two Russian nationals traveling as [[Alexander Petrov]] and [[Ruslan Boshirov]], and the Prime Minister, [[Theresa May]], announced that the government had concluded that the two men "were members of the Russian Military Intelligence Service, the GRU," and that the operation "was almost certainly approved outside the GRU at a senior level of the Russian state." Britain expelled 23 undeclared Russian intelligence officers, and 28 other countries and [[NATO]] joined in an expulsion of more than 150.[^4]
+In March 2018 [[Sergei Skripal]] and his daughter [[Yulia Skripal|Yulia]] were poisoned in [[Salisbury]] with a military-grade nerve agent of a type developed by Russia, known as [[Novichok]]. Two [[Wiltshire Police]] officers who searched their home were also poisoned. In July 2018 two members of the public in [[Amesbury]] were exposed to the same agent, and one of them, [[Dawn Sturgess]], died. On September 5, 2018, the [[Director of Public Prosecutions]] announced charges against two Russian nationals traveling as [[Alexander Petrov]] and [[Ruslan Boshirov]], and the Prime Minister, [[Theresa May]], announced that the government had concluded that the two men "were members of the Russian Military Intelligence Service, the GRU," and that the operation "was almost certainly approved outside the GRU at a senior level of the Russian state." Britain expelled 23 undeclared Russian intelligence officers, and 28 other countries and [[NATO]] joined in an expulsion of more than 150.[^5]
 
-On September 21, 2021, the Home Secretary, [[Priti Patel]], told Parliament that the police could now evidence that Petrov and Boshirov were aliases for [[Alexander Mishkin]] and [[Anatoliy Chepiga]], "both members of the GRU," and that the [[Crown Prosecution Service]] had authorized charges against a third man, known as Sergey Fedotov, who had flown from Moscow to [[Heathrow Airport|Heathrow]], stayed at a central London hotel from March 2 to 4, 2018, and met the other two more than once. Fedotov was [[Denis Sergeev]], "also a member of the GRU," and "all 3 individuals previously worked together for the GRU as part of additional operations outside Russia." On the same day the [[European Court of Human Rights]] ruled that Russia was responsible for the assassination of [[Alexander Litvinenko]].[^4]
+On September 21, 2021, the Home Secretary, [[Priti Patel]], told Parliament that the police could now evidence that Petrov and Boshirov were aliases for [[Alexander Mishkin]] and [[Anatoliy Chepiga]], "both members of the GRU," and that the [[Crown Prosecution Service]] had authorized charges against a third man, known as Sergey Fedotov, who had flown from Moscow to [[Heathrow Airport|Heathrow]], stayed at a central London hotel from March 2 to 4, 2018, and met the other two more than once. Fedotov was [[Denis Sergeev]], "also a member of the GRU," and "all 3 individuals previously worked together for the GRU as part of additional operations outside Russia." On the same day the [[European Court of Human Rights]] ruled that Russia was responsible for the assassination of [[Alexander Litvinenko]].[^5]
 
 ### Unit 29155 and WhisperGate
 
@@ -69,12 +69,13 @@ The same officers were charged with probing systems in 26 NATO countries from Au
 
 ### The Buma Allegation
 
-In May 2025 [[Jonathan Buma]], a former FBI counterintelligence special agent of sixteen years, alleged in a documentary broadcast by the German broadcaster [[ZDF]] that the GRU had targeted [[Elon Musk]] for exploitation and offered him direct contact with [[Vladimir Putin]], and that Russian intelligence ran special operations to influence [[Silicon Valley]] executives such as Musk and [[Peter Thiel]], including gathering damaging information that could later be used as blackmail. "Musk's susceptibility to promiscuous women and drug use, particularly ketamine," Buma said, was "seen by Russian intelligence as an opportunity for an agent to exploit." Buma had been arrested in March 2025 and charged with one count of disclosure of confidential information for sharing material with a publishing company, and was free on $100,000 bail.[^5]
+In May 2025 [[Jonathan Buma]], a former FBI counterintelligence special agent of sixteen years, alleged in a documentary broadcast by the German broadcaster [[ZDF]] that the GRU had targeted [[Elon Musk]] for exploitation and offered him direct contact with [[Vladimir Putin]], and that Russian intelligence ran special operations to influence [[Silicon Valley]] executives such as Musk and [[Peter Thiel]], including gathering damaging information that could later be used as blackmail. "Musk's susceptibility to promiscuous women and drug use, particularly ketamine," Buma said, was "seen by Russian intelligence as an opportunity for an agent to exploit." Buma had been arrested in March 2025 and charged with one count of disclosure of confidential information for sharing material with a publishing company, and was free on $100,000 bail.[^6]
 
 ### Footnotes
 
 [^1]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Public Affairs. "Grand Jury Indicts 12 Russian Intelligence Officers for Hacking Offenses Related to the 2016 Election." Press release 18-923, July 13, 2018. Archived at http://web.archive.org/web/20200104195032/https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/grand-jury-indicts-12-russian-intelligence-officers-hacking-offenses-related-2016-election
 [^2]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Public Affairs. "Five Russian GRU Officers and One Civilian Charged for Conspiring to Hack Ukrainian Government." Press release, September 5, 2024. Archived at http://web.archive.org/web/20250207071434/https://www.justice.gov/archives/opa/pr/five-russian-gru-officers-and-one-civilian-charged-conspiring-hack-ukrainian-government
 [^3]: U.S. Department of Justice. *United States v. Robert Philip Hanssen: Affidavit in Support of Criminal Complaint.* United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia, February 2001.
-[^4]: Patel, Priti, Home Secretary. "The new Salisbury charging decision." Oral statement to Parliament, Home Office, September 21, 2021. https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/the-new-salisbury-charging-decision
-[^5]: Pehlman, Nick. "Russian Intelligence Used Sex, Drugs to Target Elon Musk: Former FBI Agent." *Kyiv Post,* May 15, 2025. https://www.kyivpost.com/post/52742
+[^4]: Indictment, *United States v. Netyksho et al.,* No. 1:18-cr-215-ABJ (D.D.C. July 13, 2018), paragraphs 38 and 39. https://www.justice.gov/file/1080281/download
+[^5]: Patel, Priti, Home Secretary. "The new Salisbury charging decision." Oral statement to Parliament, Home Office, September 21, 2021. https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/the-new-salisbury-charging-decision
+[^6]: Pehlman, Nick. "Russian Intelligence Used Sex, Drugs to Target Elon Musk: Former FBI Agent." *Kyiv Post,* May 15, 2025. https://www.kyivpost.com/post/52742

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Army Chemical Corps.md

@@ -29,7 +29,7 @@ relations:
     with: "[[New York State Psychiatric Institute]]"
     reverse: true
     role: "testing of mescaline derivatives for chemical warfare"
-    fn: 11
+    fn: 12
   - type: funded
     with: "[[Central Intelligence Agency]]"
     reverse: true
@@ -40,15 +40,15 @@ relations:
     reverse: true
     role: "CIA retention of Fort Detrick shellfish toxin"
     start: 1975
-    fn: 13
+    fn: 14
   - type: participant_in
     with: "[[MKSEARCH]]"
     start: 1967
     end: 1973
     role: "through Edgewood Arsenal Research Laboratories, three Army programs under the MKCHICKWIT and MKOFTEN labels, including the testing of EA 3167"
-    fn: 15
+    fn: 16
 created: 2026-09-24
-updated: 2026-10-03
+updated: 2026-10-15
 ---
 
 The Army Chemical Corps is the branch of the [[U.S. Army]] responsible for chemical, biological and radiological warfare and defense. During [[World War I]] the German use of chemical weapons led General [[John J. Pershing]] to press for a specialized gas unit for the [[American Expeditionary Forces|American Expeditionary Force]]; the War Department created a Gas Service and, according to the Corps' regimental association, renamed it the Chemical Warfare Service (CWS) on June 2, 1918. The [[First Gas Regiment]] fought in the Meuse-Argonne and St. Mihiel campaigns.[^1] The [[National Defense Act of 1920]] made the CWS a permanent branch of the Army.[^1][^2] The regimental association dates its redesignation as the Chemical Corps to 1946.[^1]
@@ -67,19 +67,19 @@ The allergist [[Harold Abramson]], one of the CIA's principal LSD researchers un
 
 ### Harold Blauer
 
-The Chemical Corps held a contract with the [[New York State Psychiatric Institute]] (NYSPI) to test mescaline derivatives on humans for their suitability as chemical warfare agents. On January 8, 1953, [[Harold Blauer]], a tennis professional admitted for depression, died after an intravenous injection of about 450 milligrams of EA-1298, a derivative the Corps had designated as a candidate agent, administered under [[Paul Hoch]] without his knowledge or consent. The death certificate read "coronary arteriosclerosis; sudden death after intravenous injection of a mescaline derivative." Within 48 hours the Chemical Corps contract officer [[Amedeo Marrazzi]] directed efforts to conceal the Army's involvement, and at a meeting in July 1954 federal counsel, Hoch and Marrazzi discussed anticipated malpractice claims. The Second Circuit found that Hoch "was well aware that the mescaline derivative was a new compound not being administered for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes but as an experiment to study its effect for chemical warfare purposes." [[James Cattell]], who gave the injection, told Army investigators: "We didn't know whether it was dog piss or what it was we were giving him."[^11]
+The Chemical Corps held a contract with the [[New York State Psychiatric Institute]] (NYSPI) to test mescaline derivatives on humans for their suitability as chemical warfare agents. On January 8, 1953, [[Harold Blauer]], a tennis professional admitted for depression, died after an intravenous injection of about 450 milligrams of EA-1298, a derivative the Corps had designated as a candidate agent, administered under [[Paul Hoch]] without his knowledge or consent. The death certificate read "coronary arteriosclerosis; sudden death after intravenous injection of a mescaline derivative." Within 48 hours the Chemical Corps contract officer [[Amedeo Marrazzi]] directed efforts to conceal the Army's involvement, and at a meeting in July 1954 federal counsel, Hoch and Marrazzi discussed anticipated malpractice claims. The Second Circuit's opinion in *Barrett v. United States* recites the estate's allegation that Hoch "was well aware that the mescaline derivative was a new compound not being administered for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes but as an experiment to study its effect for chemical warfare purposes."[^11] The same opinion places a conference of federal counsel and medical personnel in early July 1954, at which, according to records relied on by the estate, Dr. Amedeo Marazzi of the Chemical Corps and Hoch expressed apprehension about anticipated malpractice claims, and a meeting in Washington on July 12, 1954 at which Hoch stated that he would not have used the new compound for experimental purposes but for the institute's contract with the Army.[^11] [[James Cattell]], who gave the injection, told Army investigators: "We didn't know whether it was dog piss or what it was we were giving him."[^12]
 
-An initial settlement of 18,000 dollars was paid to Blauer's family, half of it covertly by the federal government. The Army disclosed the circumstances to his daughter, [[Elizabeth Barrett]], in August 1975, and in 1987 a federal judge awarded more than 700,000 dollars to his estate.[^11][^12] Hoch became New York State Commissioner of Mental Hygiene in 1955.[^8]
+An initial settlement of 18,000 dollars was paid to Blauer's family, half of it covertly by the federal government. The Army disclosed the circumstances to his daughter, [[Elizabeth Barrett]], in August 1975, and in 1987 a federal judge awarded more than 700,000 dollars to his estate.[^12][^13] Hoch became New York State Commissioner of Mental Hygiene in 1955.[^8]
 
 ### 1969 and after
 
-On November 25, 1969, President [[Richard Nixon]] renounced the offensive biological weapons program, and in February 1970 extended the order to toxins. In 1975 the [[Church Committee]] disclosed that the CIA had kept a cache of [[shellfish toxin]] from Fort Detrick in defiance of the destruction order.[^13] In testimony of September 28, 1994, the [[General Accounting Office]] reported that the Defense Department and other national security agencies had conducted "hundreds of experiments in which hundreds of thousands of people were used as test subjects," involving "radiation, blister and nerve agents, biological agents, and LSD," some "done in secret" and others "without their knowledge or consent or their full knowledge of the risks involved."[^14]
+On November 25, 1969, President [[Richard Nixon]] renounced the offensive biological weapons program, and in February 1970 extended the order to toxins. In 1975 the [[Church Committee]] disclosed that the CIA had kept a cache of [[shellfish toxin]] from Fort Detrick in defiance of the destruction order.[^14] In testimony of September 28, 1994, the [[General Accounting Office]] reported that the Defense Department and other national security agencies had conducted "hundreds of experiments in which hundreds of thousands of people were used as test subjects," involving "radiation, blister and nerve agents, biological agents, and LSD," some "done in secret" and others "without their knowledge or consent or their full knowledge of the risks involved."[^15]
 
 After the [[Vietnam War]] the Corps was partially demobilized and much of its function moved from [[Fort McClellan]], [[Alabama]], to Aberdeen. When Fort McClellan closed under base realignment, the Corps moved to [[Fort Leonard Wood]], [[Missouri]], where it forms part of the Maneuver Support Center with the Engineer and Military Police corps.[^1]
 
 ### Edgewood programs in the 1977 Defense Department search
 
-The [[Department of Defense]] General Counsel's memorandum of September 20, 1977 on CIA-sponsored drug experiments lists three Army programs from 1969 to 1973, all through the Edgewood Arsenal Research Laboratories: a drug-identification project of 1967 to 1973 (CIA payments of 12,084 dollars in 1967 and 5,000 dollars in 1969, passed to a California contractor), computer data bases on pharmacological products (about 1968 to 1971) and, from 1971 to 1973, clinical tests of a glycolate-class compound, EA 3167, which Edgewood had already tested on animals and on human volunteers at Holmesburg State Prison in Philadelphia and among military personnel at Edgewood. The CIA transferred 37,000 dollars to Edgewood in 1971 for further work, and two military volunteers were "apparently tested" in June 1973. The search covered the files of Edgewood, [[Dugway Proving Ground]], the Defense Investigative Service as to the Special Operations Division at Fort Detrick, the Army Inspector General and the [[Army Intelligence Agency]]; the memorandum describes the Army and Navy programs under [[MKSEARCH]].[^15]
+The [[Department of Defense]] General Counsel's memorandum of September 20, 1977 on CIA-sponsored drug experiments lists three Army programs from 1969 to 1973, all through the Edgewood Arsenal Research Laboratories: a drug-identification project of 1967 to 1973 (CIA payments of 12,084 dollars in 1967 and 5,000 dollars in 1969, passed to a California contractor), computer data bases on pharmacological products (about 1968 to 1971) and, from 1971 to 1973, clinical tests of a glycolate-class compound, EA 3167, which Edgewood had already tested on animals and on human volunteers at Holmesburg State Prison in Philadelphia and among military personnel at Edgewood. The CIA transferred 37,000 dollars to Edgewood in 1971 for further work, and two military volunteers were "apparently tested" in June 1973. The search covered the files of Edgewood, [[Dugway Proving Ground]], the Defense Investigative Service as to the Special Operations Division at Fort Detrick, the Army Inspector General and the [[Army Intelligence Agency]]; the memorandum describes the Army and Navy programs under [[MKSEARCH]].[^16]
 
 ### Footnotes
 
@@ -93,8 +93,9 @@ The [[Department of Defense]] General Counsel's memorandum of September 20, 1977
 [^8]: Martin A. Lee and Bruce Shlain, *Acid Dreams: The Complete Social History of LSD: The CIA, the Sixties, and Beyond*. Grove Press, 1985. Chapters 1 and 2.
 [^9]: U.S. Army Aberdeen Proving Ground, "History," home.army.mil. https://home.army.mil/apg/about/history
 [^10]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979. Chapters 4 and 5.
-[^11]: *Barrett v. United States*, 798 F.2d 565 (2d Cir. 1986); *Barrett v. United States*, 646 F. Supp. 1345 (S.D.N.Y. 1986); John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979. Chapter 4.
-[^12]: *Los Angeles Times*, May 5, 1987; UPI Archives, May 5, 1987.
-[^13]: Horrock, Nicholas M. "Colby Describes C.I.A. Poison Work," *New York Times,* Sept. 17, 1975. https://merylnass.substack.com/p/colby-describes-cia-poison-work-by
-[^14]: U.S. General Accounting Office, *Human Experimentation: An Overview on Cold War Era Programs,* testimony, GAO/T-NSIAD-94-266, September 28, 1994, abstract. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GAOREPORTS-T-NSIAD-94-266/html/GAOREPORTS-T-NSIAD-94-266.htm
-[^15]: General Counsel of the Department of Defense, memorandum for the Secretary of Defense, September 20, 1977, pp. 3 to 5 and Appendix A, release file 02-A-0846, as described on the MKSEARCH page.
+[^11]: *Barrett v. United States,* 798 F.2d 565 (2d Cir. July 31, 1986). https://static.case.law/f2d/798/cases/0565-01.json
+[^12]: *Barrett v. United States*, 798 F.2d 565 (2d Cir. 1986); *Barrett v. United States*, 646 F. Supp. 1345 (S.D.N.Y. 1986); John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979. Chapter 4.
+[^13]: *Los Angeles Times*, May 5, 1987; UPI Archives, May 5, 1987.
+[^14]: Horrock, Nicholas M. "Colby Describes C.I.A. Poison Work," *New York Times,* Sept. 17, 1975. https://merylnass.substack.com/p/colby-describes-cia-poison-work-by
+[^15]: U.S. General Accounting Office, *Human Experimentation: An Overview on Cold War Era Programs,* testimony, GAO/T-NSIAD-94-266, September 28, 1994, abstract. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GAOREPORTS-T-NSIAD-94-266/html/GAOREPORTS-T-NSIAD-94-266.htm
+[^16]: General Counsel of the Department of Defense, memorandum for the Secretary of Defense, September 20, 1977, pp. 3 to 5 and Appendix A, release file 02-A-0846, as described on the MKSEARCH page.

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Atomic Energy Commission.md

@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 ---
 created: 2025-03-05
-updated: 2026-10-09
+updated: 2026-10-15
 title: Atomic Energy Commission
 aliases:
   - Atomic Energy Commission
@@ -78,7 +78,7 @@ The same file of CIA press clippings contains the Washington Star and Washington
 
 ### Groom Lake
 
-In April 1955 [[Richard Bissell]] and Colonel [[Osmund Ritland]] of the [[Air Force]], with [[Lockheed]]'s [[Kelly Johnson]] and test pilot [[Tony LeVier]], spotted an airstrip at Groom Lake "near the northeast corner of the Atomic Energy Commission's Nevada Proving Ground." The CIA's official history of the U-2 program records that Bissell discovered the strip lay outside the proving ground and that the Agency asked the commission to add the Groom Lake area to its holdings; the partly legible passage refers to "AEC Chairman Adm.," and Lewis Strauss was McCone's predecessor as chairman.[^12] The strip became the site later known as [[Area 51]].
+In April 1955 [[Richard Bissell]] and Colonel [[Osmund Ritland]] of the [[Air Force]], with [[Lockheed Aircraft Company|Lockheed]]'s [[Kelly Johnson]] and test pilot [[Tony LeVier]], spotted an airstrip at Groom Lake "near the northeast corner of the Atomic Energy Commission's Nevada Proving Ground." The CIA's official history of the U-2 program records that Bissell discovered the strip lay outside the proving ground and that the Agency asked the commission to add the Groom Lake area to its holdings; the partly legible passage refers to "AEC Chairman Adm.," and Lewis Strauss was McCone's predecessor as chairman.[^12] The strip became the site later known as [[Area 51]].
 
 ### The Los Alamos conference on green fireballs
 

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Democratic National Committee.md

@@ -0,0 +1,253 @@
+---
+aliases:
+  - DNC
+  - DNC Services Corp.
+  - DNC Services Corporation
+  - Democratic National Committee
+category: "U.S. Government"
+tags:
+  - Organization
+  - PoliticalParty
+  - Watergate
+  - CampaignFinance
+  - LippoGroup
+  - EmailHack2016
+  - SethRich
+summary: "The Democratic National Committee is the governing body of the Democratic Party, whose Watergate headquarters was burgled in 1972 and whose finances and email systems later drew federal investigations."
+location: "Washington, D.C."
+created: 2026-10-15
+updated: 2026-10-15
+relations:
+  - type: investigated
+    with: "[[Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs]]"
+    start: 1998
+    role: "final report on illegal or improper activities in connection with 1996 federal election campaigns, S. Rept. 105-167"
+    fn: 43
+    reverse: true
+  - type: funded
+    with: "[[Lippo Group]]"
+    start: 1992
+    end: 1993
+    role: "contributions through Hip Hing Holdings, San Jose Holdings and Toy Center Holdings"
+    fn: 45
+    reverse: true
+  - type: funded
+    with: "[[Bernard L. Schwartz]]"
+    start: 1995
+    end: 1998
+    role: "itemized contributions to non-federal accounts, several with Loral Corporation as employer"
+    fn: 59
+    reverse: true
+  - type: funded
+    with: "[[Shayne Coplan]]"
+    start: 2024
+    end: 2024
+    role: "allocation of a Harris Victory Fund receipt, 41,300 dollars"
+    fn: 74
+    reverse: true
+  - type: funded
+    with: "[[Christopher Mellon]]"
+    start: 2020
+    end: 2020
+    role: "Biden Victory Fund memo entries, 32,200 dollars, employer A&E Networks"
+    fn: 61
+    reverse: true
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Watergate]]"
+    start: 1972
+    end: 1974
+    role: "entries into the headquarters on May 27 and June 17, 1972, and the Senate Select Committee report S. Rept. 93-981"
+    fn: 3
+  - type: represented
+    with: "[[Perkins Coie]]"
+    start: 2016
+    end: 2016
+    role: "counsel to the DNC and Hillary for America; DNC payments of 849,407.97 dollars, July 15 to August 26, 2016"
+    fn: 69
+    reverse: true
+  - type: investigated
+    with: "[[Federal Election Commission]]"
+    start: 2019
+    end: 2022
+    role: "MURs 7291 and 7449, reason to believe vote of July 23, 2019, and conciliation agreement"
+    fn: 70
+    reverse: true
+---
+The Democratic National Committee is the national committee of the [[Democratic Party]]. Its Federal Election Commission record is filed under the name "DNC Services Corp / Democratic National Committee," committee number C00010603, with a first filing date of March 10, 1975.[^1] The committee's origin is set out in the call for the party's 1852 national convention, issued over the signature of its chairman, B. F. Hallett, which describes the body as "consisting of one from each State, appointed by the Democratic National Convention of 1848."[^2] Its headquarters in the [[Watergate]] office complex in [[Washington, D.C.]] was entered on June 17, 1972, by five men.
+
+### The headquarters and the 1972 break-in
+
+The committee's headquarters occupied the sixth floor of the Watergate Office Building. In the early morning hours of June 17, 1972, [[James McCord]], [[Bernard L. Barker]], [[Frank Sturgis]], [[Eugenio Martinez]] and [[Virgilio Gonzalez]] illegally entered the headquarters, according to the final report of the [[Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities]]. [[Howard Hunt]] and [[G. Gordon Liddy]] supervised the operation from a room in the [[Watergate Hotel]], and [[Alfred Baldwin]] served as lookout from the [[Howard Johnson Motor Lodge]] across the street.[^3]
+
+The headquarters was entered twice. The Senate report states that the team's first entry was made late on May 27, 1972, when Gonzalez picked the lock of a ground floor door of the Watergate Office Building. The team went to the sixth floor, where McCord placed electronic bugging devices in the telephones of DNC chairman O'Brien and of another official, [[Spencer Oliver]], and where Barker and his team photographed papers from DNC files.[^4] After the telephones were tapped, Alfred Baldwin, a former FBI agent recruited by McCord, monitored the intercepted conversations from a room in the Howard Johnson Motor Lodge, typed them almost verbatim and gave the logs to McCord, who gave them to Liddy. Liddy had several retyped on stationery with the word "Gemstone" printed at the top by his secretary, [[Sally Harmony]], who testified that she also saw a stack of 8 by 10 photographs of documents from the DNC headquarters held by fingers in rubber gloves.[^5] On the night of June 17 the Watergate guard [[Frank Wills]], who had earlier removed a piece of tape from a door, found it retaped and telephoned the police. Sergeant Beeper's plainclothes squad entered the sixth floor and apprehended the team while it was setting up photographic equipment. Police found 4,200 dollars in $100 bills, all in sequence, in the rooms the burglars had occupied.[^6]
+
+The break-in was the last stage of a plan that had been reduced in cost. The Senate committee recorded that the budget for the plan had been "stripped down" to 500,000 dollars, and that [[Jeb Stuart Magruder]] testified that [[John N. Mitchell]] discussed targets beyond the headquarters, including the headquarters at the convention and the headquarters of the Democratic nominee. Magruder testified that Mitchell also suggested as additional targets the committee's chairman, [[Larry O'Brien]], and the Las Vegas publisher [[Hank Greenspun]], who allegedly held explosive material damaging to [[Edmund Muskie]] in his office safe.[^7] The committee's treasurer, [[Hugh Sloan]], testified to the payments that reached Liddy, who had received 199,000 dollars, and the Senate report calls the plan Gemstone.[^8]
+
+Magruder testified that before his meeting with Mitchell at [[Key Biscayne, Florida]] on March 30, 1972, he received a call from [[Charles Colson]], then special counsel to the President, who told him to "get on the stick and get the Liddy project approved so we can get the information from O'Brien."[^9] The committee wrote that Magruder's account "provides some evidence that Colson was doing more than simply being helpful to Liddy and Hunt."[^10]
+
+The Senate committee stated that it had received no evidence suggesting complicity in wrongdoing on the part of the Republican National Committee or the Democratic National Committee, or their principal officers, during the 1972 campaign. The report identifies O'Brien as the Democratic chairman at the time.[^11]
+
+After the arrests, Hunt's wife, [[Dorothy Hunt]], died in an airplane crash in Chicago on December 8, 1972. On December 31 Hunt wrote to Colson that "There is a limit to the endurance of any man trapped in a hostile situation and mine was reached on December 8," and Colson sent a copy to Dean with a note asking, "Now what the hell do I do?"[^12]
+
+The report's conclusion on the intelligence material before it is that the material did not answer "what the President or other individuals knew or when they knew it," and did not explain "why the Democratic National Committee headquarters twice was the target of an illegal entry."[^13] Senator [[Lowell Weicker]], in his individual views printed with the report, wrote that the break-in itself, according to Magruder, was an attempt to find embarrassing information about O'Brien, because "Mr. O'Brien had been a very effective spokesman against our position on the ITT case," and that "we had hope that information (from the illegal break-in and wiretap) might discredit him."[^14]
+
+### The DNC's civil suits and the counteroffensive
+
+The DNC also litigated. The Senate report cites the civil case *Democratic National Committee, et al. v. James McCord, et al.* (D.D.C. Civ. No. 1233-72), in which McCord's deposition was taken on April 30, 1973.[^15] The report describes the civil suits brought by the DNC against the Committee for the Re-election of the President. It records that around September 9 or 10, 1972, Haldeman and Colson relayed to Dean a request from the President that a counteraction be filed against the Democrats "as quickly as humanly possible." On September 13 the committee filed a 2,500,000 dollar countersuit against the DNC for abuse of process, and on September 14 a 5 million dollar libel suit was brought against O'Brien. Dean testified that the various civil cases were discussed with the President on September 15, and that the committee's lawyers were handling both the DNC suit and another. Dean told the President that Judge Ritchie, to whom the Stans libel action was assigned, had been helpful in slowing down the civil cases.[^16] A memorandum entitled "Counter Actions," dated September 11, 1972, noted that depositions could be taken in a civil suit against O'Brien, covering "everything from Larry O'Brien's sources of income while Chairman of the DNC to certain sexual activities of employees of the DNC."[^17]
+
+The Senate report prints excerpts of a purported transcript of the President's September 15, 1972, meeting with Haldeman and Dean, prepared by the House Judiciary Committee and published in the Washington Post on May 17, 1974. In the excerpts Haldeman says that Dean is working the matter through the IRS, and the President says he would not want to be in the position of the DNC's counsel, [[Edward Bennett Williams]], after the election. Haldeman is recorded as saying, "That is a guy we've got to ruin."[^18] According to information provided to the Senate minority counsel by Special Counsel Fred Buzhardt, Dean reported at that meeting on the IRS investigation of O'Brien.[^18]
+
+### The CIA's links to the burglars
+
+The Senate report describes Hunt as "a former CIA agent" when it explains how he came to the White House staff.[^19] It records that [[Robert R. Mullen Company|Mullen and Company]] had maintained a relationship with the agency since its incorporation in 1959 and provided cover for an agent in Europe and an agent in the Far East at the time of the break-in. Hunt left the agency in 1970 and joined the firm with what its founder, [[Robert Mullen]], understood to be the blessing of Director [[Richard Helms]]; Hunt's covert security clearance was extended by the agency, and he remained witting of the Mullen cover and negotiated with the agency about it even after he joined the White House, according to agency records.[^20]
+
+[[Robert F. Bennett]], the son of Senator [[Wallace F. Bennett]], became president of the firm in 1971 and was introduced to the Mullen case officer in April of that year. He brought the [[Howard Hughes|Hughes]] Tool Company account with him. The committee wrote that agency records indicated consideration was given to using Mullen's Hughes relationship for a cover arrangement in South America and to garner information on [[Robert Maheu]].[^21] Its staff listed Bennett's activities in relation to Hunt and Liddy: he suggested and coordinated the DeMott interview regarding Chappaquiddick, coordinated the release of [[Dita Beard]]'s statement from Denver, suggested that Greenspun's safe contained information of interest to both Hughes and the Committee for the Re-election of the President, asked for and received from Hunt a price estimate for bugging [[Clifford Irving]] for Hughes, coordinated Hunt's employment of the political spy [[Thomas Gregory]], received a scrambler from Hughes personnel for use on Mullen telephones, set up dummy committees with Liddy as a conduit for Hughes campaign contributions, and served as the point of contact between Hunt and Liddy in the two weeks after the break-in.[^22] The same passage states that Robert Oliver, Mullen's Washington lobbyist for Hughes Tool, is the father of R. Spencer Oliver Jr., "whose telephone was tapped at the Democratic National Committee," and that Bennett met with the Olivers after the break-in to discuss the bugging.[^22]
+
+According to a CIA case officer's memorandum of July 10, 1972, forwarded to Helms on or before July 14, Bennett had established a "back door entry" to E. B. Williams, the DNC's attorney, in order to "kill off" revelations of the agency's relationship with Mullen and Company in the course of the DNC lawsuit, and agreed to check with the CIA before contacting Williams. The committee staff confirmed that Bennett funneled information to Williams through the attorney [[Hobart Taylor]], and that it was more extensive than what Bennett had given the grand jury. The CIA acknowledged paying one-half of Bennett's attorney fee for his grand jury appearance.[^23] The same memorandum contains a reference to a "WH flap" which the committee called mysterious, and a July 24, 1972, contact report shows that the agency persuaded Mullen to withdraw its Far East cover through an "agreed upon scenario" that included a falsified Watergate publicity crisis. The agency told the committee that the "WH flap" referred to a matter, deleted at its request, that threatened Western Hemisphere operations; the committee wrote that the agency had not explained why the information was withheld from Mullen nor its significance to Watergate.[^24] A CIA memorandum of March 1, 1973, notes that Bennett felt he could handle the Ervin Committee if the agency could handle Hunt, and that he was feeding stories to [[Bob Woodward]], who was "suitably grateful," without attribution to Bennett.[^25]
+
+The report also describes the case of [[Lee Pennington]], a paid CIA operative retained at 250 dollars a month until December 1973. The committee wrote that the agency had information as early as June 1972 that Pennington entered the McCord residence shortly after the break-in and destroyed documents which might show a link between McCord and the agency, that the agency answered an FBI inquiry about a "Pennington" in August 1972 with information about a former employee with a similar name, and that in January 1974 the Pennington materials were ordered removed from the agency's Watergate files before review by its Inspector General. The report adds that the CIA's Director of Security retired early in 1974.[^26]
+
+On Martinez, the report states that Helms had testified to little more than the fact that Martinez was on a 100 dollar monthly retainer with the agency as an informant on Cubans of interest to it. The committee wrote that its own investigation had revealed information about the Martinez relationship "not previously brought forward in testimony by CIA officials," and it asked whether the agency was aware of Hunt's activities in early 1972, when Hunt was recruiting Cubans for the break-in.[^27] The report also notes that newspaper articles since June 1972 had pointed out that many of those involved were former CIA employees, that CIA equipment was used by Hunt, and that other possible CIA links to Watergate had been reported.[^28]
+
+The House Armed Services Committee's Special Subcommittee on Intelligence, whose report is known as the [[Lucien Nedzi|Nedzi]] report, issued its findings on October 23, 1973.[^29] It found that alias identification gear, disguises and other technical materials had been provided improperly by the CIA to Hunt, then on the White House staff, for use by non-CIA personnel. The material included wigs, speech-altering devices, alias materials, a tape recorder, a clandestine camera, one-way tinted spectacles and film developing facilities. The subcommittee listed the abortive break-in at the Democratic National Committee headquarters in the Watergate complex among the improper purposes for which the material was used. It also found continued CIA dealings with Hunt after General Cushman first questioned Hunt's judgment in requesting additional agency assistance. The subcommittee further found that Haldeman, Ehrlichman and Dean made efforts to deflect the FBI investigation of the break-in by invoking nonexistent conflicts with CIA operations, and that Dean made substantial efforts to involve the agency in the break-in without foundation in fact.[^30]
+
+The Senate report names R. Spencer Oliver Jr. as one of the DNC officials whose telephone McCord bugged. A 1976 memorandum by [[Bruce Solie]], chief of the agency's Security Analysis Group, identified for the agency's privacy staff the "Spencer Oliver" named in a Freedom of Information request from McCord, "who according to a newspaper article in 1972 was the Executive Director of the State Chairmens Association of the Democratic National Committee," and in whose office telephone "an alleged listening device was found."[^31] The DNC official is the Spencer Oliver who afterward served as Chief of Staff of the Helsinki Commission (1976 to 1985), as chief counsel of the House Foreign Affairs Committee until 1993 and as Secretary General of the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly (1992 to 2015); the Wilson Center's biography of him lists senior positions at the Democratic National Committee from 1966 to 1976.[^32]
+
+### Larry O'Brien and the Hughes retainer
+
+O'Brien was the committee's chairman during the 1972 campaign, and the record ties him to Howard Hughes through a contract with the Hughes organization. The Senate report states that a sensitive case report of the IRS, brought to the attention of the Treasury Secretary, stated that the Hughes Tool Company had made substantial payments to Lawrence F. O'Brien and Associates during 1970. [[Roger Barth]], an assistant to the IRS commissioner, testified that he received that report in May 1972. The report also says that IRS policy did not prohibit continued investigation of O'Brien after communications from [[John Ehrlichman]] were received.[^33] The sensitive case reports reflected on a continuing basis the amounts paid to O'Brien by the Hughes Tool Company "pursuant to a contract."[^34] Barth testified that Ehrlichman asked how the payments would be treated for tax purposes, and that he obtained O'Brien's returns, which showed enough gross income to cover the amounts Hughes reported having paid. Ehrlichman testified that there were good political reasons to go after O'Brien, that Nixon was especially interested in the fact that O'Brien was on retainer to the Hughes organization, and that Haldeman told him the retainer was quite significant. The IRS interviewed O'Brien on August 17, 1972. Ehrlichman testified: "I wanted them to turn up something and send [O'Brien] to jail before the election and unfortunately it didn't materialize."[^35] The Senate report states that Dean and Haldeman discussed the IRS investigation of O'Brien with Nixon on September 15, 1972, and that this conversation was deleted from the tapes provided to the Special Prosecutor and the House Judiciary Committee.[^36]
+
+The Senate report further states that an audit of O'Brien was encouraged by White House officials in the summer of 1972, and that O'Brien's tax returns were specially inspected by IRS personnel at Ehrlichman's direction.[^37] The White House record of the Hughes matter includes a January 15, 1971, memorandum by Colson which states that Robert Bennett had taken over the Robert R. Mullen Company and that one of its new clients was Hughes, and which describes O'Brien as "the principal Hughes man in Washington."[^38] In a series of memoranda to [[John Dean]] beginning January 22, 1971, [[Jack Caulfield]] wrote that negotiations had taken place in 1969 for O'Brien's firm to represent Hughes's interests in Washington, with "knowledgeable sources" putting the fee at 100,000 dollars. Caulfield wrote that the retainer could be documented only indirectly, and Dean reported that Bennett told him there was "no doubt" that O'Brien had been retained by Hughes and that the contract was still in existence.[^39] Caulfield also wrote that Maheu's "tentacles touch many extremely sensitive areas of government."[^39]
+
+[[Richard Danner]], who joined the Hughes organization in February 1969, testified that in the spring of 1969 [[Bebe Rebozo]] was "needling" him about Hughes's favoritism toward the Democrats, citing a large contribution made available to then Vice President [[Hubert Humphrey]] in 1968, "Larry O'Brien on retainer," and the employment of Humphrey's son.[^40] The report also records Robert Bennett's suggestion that Greenspun's safe contained information of interest to both Hughes and the Committee for the Re-election of the President.[^41] An FCC application for approval of the sale of [[KLAS-TV]] by Greenspun to Hughes, reported by [[Broadcasting]] on October 23, 1967, gave the price as about 4.5 million dollars.[^42]
+
+### The 1992 to 1996 fundraising inquiries
+
+The Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs, in its final report on illegal or improper activities in connection with the 1996 federal election campaigns, stated that "the Committee has established that Huang funneled foreign-source monies through three different Riady-controlled entities to the DNC during 1992 and 1993."[^43] The report describes [[John Huang]] as a former [[Lippo Group]] executive who later worked at the [[United States Department of Commerce|Commerce Department]]. [[Juliana Utomo]], who worked for the companies from 1988 through late 1996, testified that the holding companies [[Hip Hing Holdings]] and [[San Jose Holdings]] were owned or controlled by [[James Riady]] and managed by Huang, and that Huang made all decisions about political contributions and approved requests to the Lippo Group in Jakarta for operating funds.[^44]
+
+The first contribution was a 50,000 dollar check from Hip Hing dated August 12, 1992, payable to the "DNC Victory Fund." Huang requested reimbursement from Jakarta in an August 17, 1992, memorandum, and a wire from LippoBank Jakarta arrived several weeks later. In 1992 Hip Hing lost 482,395.33 dollars, and Utomo testified that the shortfall was made up with funds transferred from Jakarta. In September 1993 Huang wrote three checks of 15,000 dollars each to the DNC, drawn on Hip Hing, San Jose Holdings and [[Toy Center Holdings]], and the report describes the checks as paid with foreign money.[^45]
+
+The report states that in 1996 Huang solicited some 3.4 million dollars in contributions to the DNC, and that nearly half of that amount was returned after the DNC determined that the contributions had been made with actual or suspected foreign funds.[^46] The minority views of Senators [[John Glenn]], [[Carl Levin]], [[Joseph Lieberman]] and others state that the DNC returned over 1.6 million dollars in contributions attributable to Huang, that there was no evidence that DNC officials knowingly took part in his misdeeds, that the DNC "did not adequately supervise Huang's fundraising," and that the evidence did not establish that Huang served as a spy or a conduit for any foreign government.[^47]
+
+The minority views record how Huang came to the DNC. In the summer of 1995 the Arkansas lawyer [[C. Joseph Giroir]] arranged a meeting with DNC chairman [[Donald Fowler]] to suggest that Fowler hire Huang, with finance director [[Richard Sullivan]] attending. On September 13, 1995, Huang, James Riady and Giroir met Sullivan and Fowler at the Four Seasons Hotel in Washington, and the same day went to the White House. Huang was interviewed at DNC headquarters in November 1995 and hired under the title Vice Chair of Finance, a title normally reserved for volunteer fundraisers.[^48] The same chapter records a DNC coffee at the White House on June 18, 1996, attended by the Thai businesswoman [[Pauline Kanchanalak]], whose account Huang handled and who had been giving to the DNC since at least 1991, together with several business associates who were foreign nationals.[^49] A Senate chapter on the PRC's efforts to influence elections records that Huang escorted [[Shen Jueren]], chairman of [[China Resources]], to the White House in 1993, where Shen met [[Jack Quinn]] and may have met [[Al Gore]]. The same chapter places a September 27, 1993, check from Huang to the DNC alongside a Santa Monica event at which Shen may have met Gore again.[^50] The report's Lippo chapter quotes a White House audio tape of a DNC function in Los Angeles and finds that Gore "may have met with Shen Jueren in the White House and also exchanged words with him at a subsequent DNC event."[^50] The same chapter states that Huang's 45,000 dollars in DNC contributions were made in close proximity to occasions when he may have arranged for Gore to meet Shen, who was the head of a commercial enterprise wholly owned and operated by the People's Republic of China's Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation.[^50]
+
+The same chapter describes [[Charlie Trie]] as a business partner of [[Ng Lap Seng]], a Macao businessman with alleged ties to the People's Republic of China. Trie had brought nearly half a million dollars in small-denomination checks and money orders to the Presidential Legal Expense Trust in March 1994. The checks were written by followers of the [[Suma Ching Hai]] Buddhist sect, and the reimbursement money came from accounts in Taiwan and Cambodia.[^51] Trie was indicted on January 28, 1998, on fifteen counts, including conspiracy to defraud the DNC and the United States. The indictment charged that he purchased access to high-level government officials through contributions made to the committee.[^51] The report states that Trie initially left the country, then returned and was arrested.[^51]
+
+On August 12, 1999, Huang pleaded guilty in federal court in Los Angeles to charges that he conspired to defraud the Federal Election Commission by causing fellow employees to make campaign contributions and reimbursing them with corporate funds or with funds from Jakarta. The Justice Department stated that the conspiracy lasted from approximately 1992 through June 1994, that Huang was responsible for arranging approximately 156,000 dollars in illegal contributions from the Lippo Group overseas to Democratic and Republican committees, and that he was sentenced to one year of probation, 500 hours of community service and a 10,000 dollar fine. The same release lists Huang as one of 19 persons prosecuted by the Campaign Financing Task Force, including [[Robert Lee]], who pleaded guilty on April 26, 1999, to making an illegal foreign contribution to the DNC, and Kanchanalak and her associate [[Georgie Kronenberg]], charged on July 13, 1998.[^52] A Justice Department press release dated January 11, 2001, carries the headline "James Riady Pleads Guilty, Will Pay Largest Fine in Campaign Finance History for Violating Federal Election Law."[^53] The Senate report identifies 465,000 dollars in contributions from James and Aileen Riady to the DNC and to Democratic state party organizations in the 1992 cycle.[^54]
+
+C. Joseph Giroir, a lawyer and Lippo joint venturer, testified that in 1996 he contributed close to 200,000 dollars to the DNC in connection with fundraisers that Huang organized.[^55] [[Mochtar Riady]] wrote to [[Bill Clinton]] shortly after Clinton took office, advocating most-favored-nation trade status for China, and thanked him for the personal time he spent with the Riady family on Inauguration Day 1993. The Riadys gave more than 450,000 dollars to the DNC and state Democratic parties in the 1992 cycle.[^56] James Riady hired the former associate attorney general [[Webster Hubbell]] in June 1994, after Hubbell's resignation from the Justice Department; the House report states that Hubbell was paid a lump sum of 100,000 dollars for unknown services between June 27 and December 6, 1994, that the Lippo Group also paid for a trip to Jakarta and Bali for Hubbell and his wife, and that both Riady and Hubbell refused to describe what services Hubbell performed.[^57] In the Independent Counsel's account, [[Hong Kong China Limited]], a Lippo company, engaged Hubbell as a consultant, and in September 1994 he traveled to Jakarta, where he met Mochtar Riady.[^58]
+
+### Donors in the 1990s and after
+
+Itemized FEC receipts under the name [[Bernard L. Schwartz]] list contributions to the DNC's non-federal accounts from 1995 through 1998. They include 25,000 dollars on April 24, 1995, 250,000 dollars on August 11, 1998, and 50,000 dollars on October 26, 1998, with Loral Corporation given as employer on several entries.[^59] The House Select Committee on U.S. National Security and Military/Commercial Concerns with the People's Republic of China, the [[Cox Report]], attributes to the New York Times the description of Schwartz as "the largest individual donor to the Democratic Party in 1997."[^60] Later FEC records under the name Bernard Schwartz, employer BLS Investments, list the DNC committee as recipient of entries including 41,300 dollars on June 22, 2023, and 25,000 dollars on February 6, 2024, each marked with the Biden Victory Fund memo.[^59]
+
+FEC entries under the name [[Christopher Mellon]], with A&E Networks as employer, list 25,000 dollars on August 27, 2020, and 7,200 dollars on August 25, 2020, each with the memo "Biden Victory Fund," for the DNC committee's record.[^61] The FEC entries do not state whether this contributor is the former Pentagon official of that name.
+
+Individual contribution records under the name [[Philip Scaturro]] total 41 entries from June 1983 to December 2012, and include a 1992 contribution to the DNC among contributions to presidential and Senate committees.[^62] The FBI applicant file of Robert Maheu for 1940 records endorsements from [[Richard C. Durham]], identified there as assistant secretary of the Democratic National Committee.[^63]
+
+### The 2016 email compromise
+
+The indictment of [[GRU]] officers, filed July 13, 2018, charges officers of the Russian military intelligence directorate with intrusions into the computer networks of the DNC and the [[Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee]]. It states that officers of GRU Unit 26165 spearphished volunteers and employees of the presidential campaign of [[Hillary Clinton]], and that through stolen credentials they entered the DCCC and DNC networks.[^64]
+
+The indictment states that the conspirators covertly monitored the computers of dozens of DCCC and DNC employees, implanted hundreds of files containing malicious computer code, and stole emails and other documents from both committees.[^65]
+
+The indictment states that on or about April 18, 2016, the conspirators hacked into the DNC's computers through their access to the DCCC network, and that by June 2016 they had gained access to approximately thirty-three DNC computers. Between May 25 and June 1, 2016, the conspirators hacked the DNC Microsoft Exchange Server and stole thousands of emails from the work accounts of DNC employees. The indictment says the conspirators cleared event logs from a DNC computer on May 13, 2016, and deleted logs and files to cover their tracks.[^64]
+
+The indictment also describes the release of stolen material. It states that Unit 74455 assisted in releasing the stolen documents through the [[DCLeaks]] and [[Guccifer 2.0]] personas and in promoting those releases.[^66] It states that on June 14, 2016, the DNC, through a cybersecurity company it designates Company 1, publicly announced that it had been hacked by Russian government actors; that in response the conspirators created the Guccifer 2.0 persona and falsely claimed to be a lone Romanian hacker; and that the conspirators transferred stolen documents to an entity it designates Organization 1, discussing the timing of the releases with it. According to the indictment, Organization 1 wrote to Guccifer 2.0 on July 6, 2016, that "if you have anything hillary related we want it in the next tweo [sic] days prefable [sic] because the DNC [Democratic National Convention] is approaching," and on July 22, 2016, about three days before the start of the Democratic National Convention, released over 20,000 emails and other documents stolen from the DNC network.[^67] The indictment further states that in September 2016 the conspirators gained access to DNC computers hosted on a third-party cloud service and copied snapshots of the DNC's analytics test applications.[^68]
+
+### Counsel, Fusion GPS and the FEC
+
+The Durham report states that in the spring of 2016 the law firm [[Perkins Coie]], counsel to [[Hillary for America]] and the Democratic National Committee, retained [[Fusion GPS]], whose co-founder [[Glenn Simpson]] in mid-May 2016 retained the former British intelligence officer [[Christopher Steele]] and his firm [[Orbis Business Intelligence]]. The same report states that Steele was then also a confidential human source for the FBI.[^69]
+
+The DNC paid Perkins Coie 849,407.97 dollars between July 15 and August 26, 2016, of which it reported 782,907.97 dollars as "legal and compliance consulting." On a complaint by the [[Coolidge Reagan Foundation]], the [[Federal Election Commission]] voted 4 to 0 on July 23, 2019, to find reason to believe that both committees had misreported the purpose of the payments. The Commission later reached conciliation agreements with DNC Services Corporation/Democratic National Committee and with Hillary for America, following votes in December 2021 and in February and March 2022.[^70]
+
+### The Seth Rich claims
+
+In May 2017 [[Fox News]] published a story by the reporter [[Malia Zimmerman]] claiming that [[Seth Rich]], a DNC staffer who had been slain, was killed for leaking emails to [[WikiLeaks]]. Fox News later retracted the article.[^71]
+
+In March 2018 Rich's parents, [[Joel Rich]] and [[Mary Rich]], sued Fox News, Zimmerman and [[Ed Butowsky]], a Texas businessman, alleging that the reporter worked with the businessman to develop a "sham" story about their son's death.[^72] On August 2, 2018, Judge [[George B. Daniels]] of the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York dismissed the suit. He found that the parents had failed to prove intentional infliction of emotional distress, and wrote that defamatory statements to news outlets "fall well short of meeting the high standards for extreme and outrageous conduct."[^71] On September 13, 2019, the Second U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals vacated the dismissal and remanded the case, holding that the allegations, taken together, plausibly rose to the level of extreme and outrageous conduct.[^73]
+
+Both sides confirmed a settlement on Tuesday, November 24, 2020. The Riches said they were "pleased with the settlement of this matter and sincerely hope that the media will take genuine caution in the future." Fox said it was pleased with the resolution of the claims and hoped it would enable the Riches "to find a small degree of peace and solace moving forward." Neither side disclosed the financial terms. The Associated Press added that theories that Rich had been assassinated for leaking emails were contradicted by U.S. intelligence reports.[^72]
+
+### Donors in 2020 and 2024
+
+FEC Schedule A records for [[Shayne Coplan]] list a 50,000 dollar contribution to the [[Harris Victory Fund]] on October 21, 2024. The joint fundraising committee's allocations of that money include 41,300 dollars to the Democratic National Committee under the entry name DNC Services Corp.[^74] [[Matthew Modabber]], the chief marketing officer of [[Polymarket]], gave 50,000 dollars to the Harris Victory Fund on September 19, 2024, with the same allocations.[^75] [[Garry Tan]], with [[Y Combinator]] as employer, gave 25,000 dollars on September 25, 2024, and 100,000 dollars on October 3, 2024, to the Harris Victory Fund, with attributed amounts of 21,700 and 19,600 dollars to the DNC.[^76]
+
+### Footnotes
+
+[^1]: Federal Election Commission, committee record for C00010603, "DNC Services Corp / Democratic National Committee," first file date March 10, 1975, OpenFEC API. https://api.open.fec.gov/v1/committee/C00010603/
+[^2]: Democratic National Committee, call for the Democratic National Convention to be held at Baltimore on June 1, 1852, signed by B. F. Hallett, Chairman, with W. F. Ritchie and R. H. Stanton, Secretaries, printed in *Proceedings of the Democratic National Convention, held at Baltimore, June 1-5, 1852* (1852). https://archive.org/details/proceedingsofde00demo
+[^3]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), Part I, "The Watergate Break-In and Its Prelude." https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities
+[^4]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), Part I, section on the first entry of May 27, 1972, and the placement of the telephone devices. https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities
+[^5]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), Part I, "The Watergate Break-In and Its Prelude," pp. 29-30, citing 1 Hearings and the testimony of Sally Harmony. https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities
+[^6]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), Part I, section on the June 17, 1972 arrests and the search of the rooms occupied by the burglars. https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities
+[^7]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), testimony of Jeb Stuart Magruder on the Liddy intelligence plan, text at notes 61 to 63. https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities
+[^8]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), Part I, discussion of the funding of the Liddy plan and of the Sloan testimony, and the report's use of the codename Gemstone. https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities
+[^9]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), section on the approval of the Liddy plan, text at notes 80 and 90, testimony of Jeb Stuart Magruder. https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities
+[^10]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), section on the approval of the Liddy plan, text at note 90. https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities
+[^11]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), preliminary statement of findings and footnote 10, identifying Lawrence F. O'Brien as chairman of the Democratic National Committee. https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities
+[^12]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), Part I, section "Representations to Howard Hunt," p. 66, quoting Hunt's letter to Charles Colson of December 31, 1972, and Colson's note to John Dean. https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities
+[^13]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), section on the intelligence-related material and the committee's conclusions. https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities
+[^14]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), Individual Views of Senator Lowell P. Weicker Jr., "Constitutional Democracy in the Era of Watergate," p. 1190, quoting the testimony of Jeb Stuart Magruder, 2 Hearings 790. https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities
+[^15]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), section "The civil suits," note 68, citing *Democratic National Committee, et al. v. James McCord, et al.* (D.D.C. Civ. No. 1233-72), deposition of James McCord, pp. 70-71, April 30, 1973. https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities
+[^16]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), section "The civil suits," text at notes 94 and following, testimony of John Dean. https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities
+[^17]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), Individual Views of Senator Lowell P. Weicker Jr., section III, "The Political System," p. 1219, memorandum "Counter Actions" of September 11, 1972. https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities
+[^18]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), Part I, pp. 9-11, excerpts of the purported transcript of the September 15, 1972, meeting prepared by the House Judiciary Committee and published in the *Washington Post*, May 17, 1974, pp. A26-28, and information furnished by Fred Buzhardt to minority counsel (note 59). https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities
+[^19]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), Part I, discussion of the recruitment of Hunt and Liddy to the White House, footnote 65. https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities
+[^20]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), section "Robert Bennett and the Mullen and Company," p. 1121, citing the executive session testimony of Robert R. Mullen (February 5, 1974), pp. 3, 8-9, and the CIA memorandum "Wrap-Up of Agency's Association with Robert R. Mullen and Company." https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities
+[^21]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), section "Robert Bennett and the Mullen and Company," pp. 1121-1122, citing the executive session testimony of Robert R. Mullen (February 5, 1974) and Robert F. Bennett (February 1, 1974), the CIA memorandum "Wrap-Up of Agency's Association with Robert R. Mullen and Company," and the Mullen case officer's memorandum of April 30, 1971. https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities
+[^22]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), section "Robert Bennett and the Mullen and Company," pp. 1122-1123, citing executive session testimony of Bennett and E. Howard Hunt (December 18, 1973) and staff interviews of Thomas J. Gregory and Linda Jones. https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities
+[^23]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), section "Robert Bennett and the Mullen and Company," p. 1124, citing the Mullen case officer's memorandum for record of July 10, 1972 (CIA Supplemental Material, Volume IV) and the Hobart Taylor interview report of February 11, 1974. https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities
+[^24]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), section "Robert Bennett and the Mullen and Company," pp. 1125-1126, citing the case officer's memoranda of July 10 and July 24, 1972 (CIA Supplemental Material, Volumes IV and V). https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities
+[^25]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), section "Robert Bennett and the Mullen and Company," p. 1126, citing the Memorandum for Deputy Director for Plans of March 1, 1973 (CIA Supplemental Material, Volume IV). https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities
+[^26]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), section "Pennington Matter," pp. 1127-1128, citing the CIA Director of Security's memorandum of February 22, 1974, and the executive session testimony of Lee R. Pennington Jr. (February 23, 1974). https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities
+[^27]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), section "Hunt - Martinez - CIA." https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities
+[^28]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), section on the CIA's involvement in the Watergate affair, paragraph on newspaper articles and possible CIA links. https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities
+[^29]: U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Armed Services, Special Subcommittee on Intelligence, *Inquiry into the Alleged Involvement of the Central Intelligence Agency in the Watergate and Ellsberg Matters*, H.A.S.C. No. 93-25 (Washington, October 23, 1973). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01495r000500030007-0
+[^30]: U.S. House of Representatives, Special Subcommittee on Intelligence, *Inquiry into the Alleged Involvement of the Central Intelligence Agency in the Watergate and Ellsberg Matters* (October 23, 1973), "Basic Observations," items (1), (2)(d), (3) and (4). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01495r000500030007-0
+[^31]: Solie, Bruce L., Chief, Security Analysis Group, memorandum for the file, "McCord, James Walter, Jr.," June 23, 1976, JFK record 104-10123-10362.
+[^32]: Wilson Center, "Spencer Oliver," expert biography (senior positions at the Democratic National Committee, 1966 to 1976; Chief of Staff, Helsinki Commission, 1976 to 1985; Chief Counsel, House Foreign Affairs Committee; Secretary General, OSCE Parliamentary Assembly). https://wilsoncenter.org/person/spencer-oliver ; OSCE Parliamentary Assembly, "R. Spencer Oliver," former Secretary General. https://www.oscepa.org/en/about-osce-pa/international-secretariat/former-secretary-general/former-secretary-general
+[^33]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), chapter 8, "The Hughes-Rebozo Investigation and Related Matters," section "IRS Audit of Larry O'Brien," p. 1025. https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities
+[^34]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), chapter 8, "The Hughes-Rebozo Investigation and Related Matters," p. 1018. https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities
+[^35]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), chapter 8, "The Hughes-Rebozo Investigation and Related Matters," section "IRS Audit of Larry O'Brien," pp. 1025-1030, citing 23 Hearings 11224-11231, 24 Hearings 11638-11645, 21 Hearings 9683-9684, and the Ehrlichman interview of January 10, 1974. https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities
+[^36]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), chapter 8, "The Hughes-Rebozo Investigation and Related Matters," p. 1030. https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities
+[^37]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), section on the Internal Revenue Service and the White House requests, p. 137. https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities
+[^38]: Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Book 23: The Hughes-Rebozo Investigation and Related Matters* (GPO, 1974), Higby Exhibits 5-A to 5-I, pp. 11123-11135: Colson memorandum of January 15, 1971.
+[^39]: Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Book 23: The Hughes-Rebozo Investigation and Related Matters* (GPO, 1974), Higby Exhibits 5-A to 5-I, pp. 11123-11135: Caulfield to Dean, January 22, January 25, February 1 and February 3, 1971, and Dean's report of Bennett's statement.
+[^40]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), chapter 8, "The Hughes-Rebozo Investigation and Related Matters," pp. 948-949, testimony of Richard Danner. https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities
+[^41]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), testimony of Jeb Stuart Magruder with footnotes 61 to 63, and the section on Robert Bennett's suggestion regarding Greenspun's safe. https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities
+[^42]: "Application for FCC approval of the sale of KLAS-TV Las Vegas by H. M. Greenspun to industrialist Howard R. Hughes ... for about $4.5 million," *Broadcasting*, October 23, 1967. https://www.worldradiohistory.com/Archive-BC/BC-1967/1967-10-23-BC.pdf
+[^43]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Governmental Affairs, *Investigation of Illegal or Improper Activities in Connection with 1996 Federal Election Campaigns*, S. Rept. 105-167 (1998), chapter 13, "John Huang's Years at Lippo." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1998_rpt/sgo-sir/1-13.htm
+[^44]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Governmental Affairs, S. Rept. 105-167 (1998), chapter 13, "John Huang's Years at Lippo," testimony of Juliana Utomo (July 15, 1997), pp. 14-15. https://irp.fas.org/congress/1998_rpt/sgo-sir/1-13.htm
+[^45]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Governmental Affairs, S. Rept. 105-167 (1998), chapter 13, "John Huang's Years at Lippo," checks of August 12, 1992 (Ex. 4), the August 17, 1992 memorandum (Ex. 5), the 1992 earnings statement (Ex. 6), and the composite of 1993 checks (Ex. 7); chapter "The China Connection," section on the 1993 checks. https://irp.fas.org/congress/1998_rpt/sgo-sir/1-13.htm ; https://irp.fas.org/congress/1998_rpt/sgo-sir/2-18.htm
+[^46]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Governmental Affairs, S. Rept. 105-167 (1998), chapter "The China Connection: Summary of the Committee's Findings Relating to Efforts of the People's Republic of China to Influence U.S. Policies and Elections." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1998_rpt/sgo-sir/2-18.htm
+[^47]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Governmental Affairs, S. Rept. 105-167 (1998), Minority Views of Senators Glenn, Levin, Lieberman, Akaka, Durbin, Torricelli and Cleland, chapter 4, "John Huang," introduction and findings, p. 4788. https://irp.fas.org/congress/1998_rpt/sgo-sir/4-4.htm
+[^48]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Governmental Affairs, S. Rept. 105-167 (1998), Minority Views, chapter 4, "John Huang," section "Hiring Huang to Work at the DNC," p. 4811, citing the depositions of C. Joseph Giroir, Richard Sullivan and Donald Fowler. https://irp.fas.org/congress/1998_rpt/sgo-sir/4-4.htm
+[^49]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Governmental Affairs, S. Rept. 105-167 (1998), Minority Views, chapter 4, "John Huang," section "June 18, 1996, DNC Coffee at the White House," p. 4836. https://irp.fas.org/congress/1998_rpt/sgo-sir/4-4.htm
+[^50]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Governmental Affairs, S. Rept. 105-167 (1998), chapter 13, "John Huang's Years at Lippo," section on the Lippo contributions and the Shen Jueren meetings, footnote 15 (White House audio tape of the Los Angeles function); chapter "The China Connection," account of September 1993 meetings. https://irp.fas.org/congress/1998_rpt/sgo-sir/1-13.htm ; https://irp.fas.org/congress/1998_rpt/sgo-sir/2-18.htm
+[^51]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Governmental Affairs, S. Rept. 105-167 (1998), chapter "The China Connection," sections on Ng Lap Seng, the Presidential Legal Expense Trust, and the indictment of Trie on January 28, 1998. https://irp.fas.org/congress/1998_rpt/sgo-sir/2-18.htm
+[^52]: U.S. Department of Justice, "John Huang Pleads Guilty to Violating Federal Campaign Finance Laws," press release, August 12, 1999. https://www.justice.gov/archive/opa/pr/1999/August/357crm.htm
+[^53]: U.S. Department of Justice, "James Riady Pleads Guilty, Will Pay Largest Fine in Campaign Finance History for Violating Federal Election Law," press release 01-17, January 11, 2001.
+[^54]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Governmental Affairs, S. Rept. 105-167 (1998), chapter "John Huang's Years at Lippo," sections "Lippo Group," "LippoBank California," and "Lippo and Riady Political Contributions," footnote 37. https://irp.fas.org/congress/1998_rpt/sgo-sir/1-13.htm
+[^55]: House Committee on Government Reform and Oversight, *Investigation of Political Fundraising Improprieties and Possible Violations of Law*, H. Rept. 105-829, vol. 2, 1998, Part A, section III, "Arkansas International Development Corporation," footnotes 55 through 60, citing the deposition of C. Joseph Giroir (April 30, 1997). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CRPT-105hrpt829/html/CRPT-105hrpt829-vol2.htm
+[^56]: House Committee on Government Reform and Oversight, *Investigation of Political Fundraising Improprieties and Possible Violations of Law*, H. Rept. 105-829, vol. 2, 1998, footnotes 14 and 115-119, and the Mochtar Riady letter to Clinton. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CRPT-105hrpt829/html/CRPT-105hrpt829-vol2.htm
+[^57]: House Committee on Government Reform and Oversight, *Investigation of Political Fundraising Improprieties and Possible Violations of Law*, H. Rept. 105-829, vol. 2 (1998), section on Webster Hubbell, footnotes 91 to 93, citing the deposition of Webster L. Hubbell, June 4, 1996, and NationsBank account records. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CRPT-105hrpt829/html/CRPT-105hrpt829-vol2.htm
+[^58]: Independent Counsel, *Final Report of the Independent Counsel In Re: Madison Guaranty Savings & Loan Association*, vol. 3, part C, "Webster L. Hubbell's Billing Practices and Tax Filings," pp. 28 to 29, footnotes 153 through 156, and pp. 33 to 35, footnotes 177 through 192. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-ICREPORT-MADISON/pdf/GPO-ICREPORT-MADISON-3-2.pdf
+[^59]: Federal Election Commission, itemized receipts (Schedule A, OpenFEC) for contributor names "SCHWARTZ, BERNARD L" and "SCHWARTZ, BERNARD" with New York addresses, two-year periods 1996 and 1998 (January 1995 through December 1998), and for contributor name "SCHWARTZ, BERNARD" with employer BLS Investments, recipient committee C00010603, 2020 to 2024. https://api.open.fec.gov/v1/schedules/schedule_a/?committee_id=C00010603&contributor_name=SCHWARTZ%2C+BERNARD
+[^60]: House Select Committee on U.S. National Security and Military/Commercial Concerns with the People's Republic of China (the Cox Committee), *Report*, H. Rept. 105-851, vol. III, ch. 9, p. 51, citing the New York Times report of April 13, 1998. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRPT-105hrpt851/pdf/GPO-CRPT-105hrpt851.pdf
+[^61]: Federal Election Commission, itemized receipts (Schedule A, OpenFEC) for contributor "MELLON, CHRISTOPHER," employer A&E Networks, recipient committee C00010603, August 25 and 27, 2020, memo "Biden Victory Fund." https://api.open.fec.gov/v1/schedules/schedule_a/?committee_id=C00010603&contributor_name=MELLON%2C+CHRISTOPHER
+[^62]: Federal Election Commission, Schedule A individual contributions, contributor name "SCATURRO, PHILIP" (41 results, June 28, 1983 to December 31, 2012). https://api.open.fec.gov/v1/schedules/schedule_a/?contributor_name=SCATURRO%2C%20PHILIP
+[^63]: Federal Bureau of Investigation, file on Robert A. Maheu, FOI/PA no. 1342370-0, applicant investigation, 1940, endorsements by Richard C. Durham, assistant secretary of the Democratic National Committee.
+[^64]: *United States v. Netyksho et al.*, No. 1:18-cr-00215 (D.D.C.), indictment filed July 13, 2018, ¶¶ 26, 29 and 31, pp. 10-12. https://www.justice.gov/file/1080281/download
+[^65]: *United States v. Netyksho et al.*, No. 1:18-cr-00215 (D.D.C.), indictment filed July 13, 2018, introductory paragraph 4. https://www.justice.gov/file/1080281/download
+[^66]: *United States v. Netyksho et al.*, No. 1:18-cr-00215 (D.D.C.), indictment filed July 13, 2018, paragraphs on the DCLeaks and Guccifer 2.0 personas and on the role of Unit 74455 in releasing and promoting stolen documents. https://www.justice.gov/file/1080281/download
+[^67]: *United States v. Netyksho et al.*, No. 1:18-cr-00215 (D.D.C.), indictment filed July 13, 2018, ¶¶ 40, 47 and 48. https://archive.org/details/netyksho-et-al-indictment-1
+[^68]: *United States v. Netyksho et al.*, No. 1:18-cr-00215 (D.D.C.), indictment filed July 13, 2018, ¶ 34. https://archive.org/details/netyksho-et-al-indictment-1
+[^69]: Durham, John H., Special Counsel. *Report on Matters Related to Intelligence Activities and Investigations Arising Out of the 2016 Presidential Campaigns*, U.S. Department of Justice, May 12, 2023, pp. 11-12, 16-17, 81-85, 266 and 287. https://www.justice.gov/storage/durhamreport.pdf
+[^70]: Federal Election Commission, MURs 7291 and 7449: certification of the July 23, 2019 vote, conciliation agreements with DNC Services Corporation/Democratic National Committee and with Hillary for America, and the letter of Richard L. Weiss to Graham Wilson, February 22, 2022; Commission votes of December 16, 2021, February 17, 2022, and March 25, 2022. https://www.fec.gov/files/legal/murs/7449/7449_64.pdf ; https://www.fec.gov/files/legal/murs/7449/7449_20.pdf ; https://www.fec.gov/data/legal/matter-under-review/7449/
+[^71]: CBS News, "Seth Rich case against Fox News dismissed by federal judge," August 2, 2018, reporting the ruling of Judge George B. Daniels, the May 2017 article by Malia Zimmerman, and the article's retraction. https://www.cbsnews.com/amp/news/seth-rich-case-dismissed-by-federal-judge
+[^72]: Associated Press, "Fox News, family of slain DNC staffer Seth Rich settle suit," November 25, 2020, reporting the March 2018 filing against Fox News, Zimmerman and Butowsky, the reinstatement of the suit by the Second U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals, the settlement confirmed on Tuesday, and the statements of the Riches and Fox News. https://www.ky3.com/2020/11/25/fox-news-family-of-slain-dnc-staffer-seth-rich-settle-suit/
+[^73]: *Rich v. Fox News Network, LLC*, No. 18-2321-cv (2d Cir. decided Sept. 13, 2019), vacating the judgment of August 2, 2018, and remanding. https://www.steptoe.com/a/web/pcMf4NwhvnkzdJNxEs5dmm/3ZFvRt/no-18-2321-91319-opinion.pdf
+[^74]: Federal Election Commission, Schedule A itemized receipts, contributor-name search "COPLAN, SHAYNE," October 21, 2024 entries, and Harris Victory Fund allocations to the Democratic National Committee (DNC Services Corp.). https://api.open.fec.gov/v1/schedules/schedule_a/?contributor_name=COPLAN%2C%20SHAYNE
+[^75]: Federal Election Commission, Schedule A receipts for contributor Matthew Modabber, employer Polymarket, September 19, 2024, Harris Victory Fund filing. https://docquery.fec.gov/cgi-bin/fecimg/?202505089760714379
+[^76]: Federal Election Commission, Schedule A itemized receipts, contributor "Tan, Garry," employer Y Combinator, 2024 entries to the Harris Victory Fund and allocations to the Democratic National Committee; committee record for Abundant Future (C00922229). https://api.open.fec.gov/v1/schedules/schedule_a/ ; https://api.open.fec.gov/v1/committee/C00922229/

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Department of Energy.md

@@ -0,0 +1,372 @@
+---
+aliases:
+  - "United States Department of Energy"
+  - "U.S. Department of Energy"
+  - "Energy Department"
+category: "U.S. Government"
+tags:
+  - Department
+  - NuclearWeapons
+  - Energy
+  - UAP
+  - GreenFireballs
+  - Stargate
+  - RemoteViewing
+  - Intelligence
+  - Counterintelligence
+  - NuclearIntelligence
+  - Wackenhut
+  - EGG
+created: 2026-10-15
+updated: 2026-10-15
+location: "Washington, D.C."
+summary: "Cabinet department created in 1977 that administers the nuclear weapons laboratories, the Nevada Test Site and the contractors that figure in psi, UAP and nuclear-intelligence records."
+relations:
+  - type: head_of
+    with: "[[James R. Schlesinger]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1977-08-06
+    end: 1979-08-23
+    role: "first Secretary of Energy"
+    fn: 4
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Ralph E. Caudle]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1975
+    end: 1984
+    role: "Director, Division of Operations, Office of Military Application (1975); head of the Office of Safeguards and Security (1981 to 1984)"
+    fn: 23
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Donald M. Kerr]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1979
+    end: 1980
+    role: "acting director of defense programs, according to the National Security Archive's account"
+    fn: 70
+  - type: contractor_to
+    with: "[[Wackenhut Corporation]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "the department accounted for about 20 percent of the company's revenue in its fiscal year ended January 1, 1995"
+    fn: 27
+  - type: contractor_to
+    with: "[[Wackenhut Services]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "held department contracts including DE-AC08-87NV10559 (Nevada Operations Office) and DE-AC09-99SR18950 (Savannah River)"
+    fn: 28
+  - type: contractor_to
+    with: "[[Wackenhut Advanced Technologies Corporation]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1980
+    role: "department listed among the clients of the Security Programs and Computer Security Divisions of its predecessor NUSAC in spring 1980"
+    fn: 26
+  - type: contractor_to
+    with: "[[EG&G]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "held five Department of Energy contracts in the fiscal year ended January 2, 1994"
+    fn: 11
+  - type: contractor_to
+    with: "[[Science Applications International Corporation]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "department accounted for 11 percent of revenue in the fiscal year ended January 31, 1995"
+    fn: 13
+  - type: contractor_to
+    with: "[[Lockheed Martin]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1993
+    end: 2017
+    role: "operated Sandia National Laboratories through Sandia Corporation, a Lockheed Martin company"
+    fn: 14
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Ruth Davis]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1979-09
+    role: "nominated September 12, 1979 as Assistant Secretary of Energy for Resource Applications"
+    fn: 84
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Gregory H. Woods]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2012
+    end: 2013
+    role: "general counsel"
+    fn: 120
+---
+
+The United States Department of Energy is the cabinet department that administers the nuclear weapons program, the national laboratories and test sites, and much of federal energy research. Its predecessors include the [[Atomic Energy Commission]], which ran the weapons complex from January 1, 1947, and the Energy Research and Development Administration. The department's laboratories, contractors and officials recur in records of green fireballs and other aerial phenomena over atomic installations, psychic research, nuclear intelligence and counterintelligence, and the sections below follow those appearances.
+
+### Establishment and predecessor agencies
+
+The Manhattan Project's postwar successor, the Atomic Energy Commission, was established by Public Law 79-585 of 1946 and set up an Office of Security and Intelligence to liaise with the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy and with agencies of the intelligence community.[^1] The Energy Reorganization Act of 1974, approved October 11, 1974, provides in section 101(a): "The Atomic Energy Commission is hereby abolished." It created the Energy Research and Development Administration, which inherited the commission's weapons and research functions and, according to the Congressional Research Service, its foreign intelligence and counterintelligence responsibilities under an assistant administrator for national security.[^1][^2]
+
+Congress created the department by Public Law 95-91, approved August 4, 1977. Section 201 establishes it "at the seat of government" as "an executive department to be known as the Department of Energy."[^3] Section 102(18) transfers to it "the functions of the Energy Research and Development Administration related to nuclear weapons and national security," and section 203 lists "management and implementation of the nuclear weapons program" among the duties of its assistant secretaries. Section 208 provides for an Office of Inspector General.[^3] The Congressional Research Service describes the act as bringing together 40 existing government organizations.[^1]
+
+[[James R. Schlesinger]], who had chaired the Atomic Energy Commission from 1971 to 1973, was confirmed as the first Secretary of Energy on August 4, 1977 and served from August 6, 1977 to August 23, 1979.[^4][^5] The department's Office of Legacy Management lists the secretaries who followed. [[Charles Duncan]] was confirmed on July 31, 1979 and served from August 24, 1979 to January 20, 1981. [[James B. Edwards]] served from January 23, 1981 to November 5, 1982, [[Donald P. Hodel]] from November 5, 1982 to February 7, 1985, and [[John S. Herrington]] from February 7, 1985 to January 20, 1989. [[James Watkins]] served from March 1, 1989 to January 20, 1993, and [[Hazel R. O'Leary]] from January 22, 1993 to January 20, 1997.[^6] [[Federico Peña]] served from March 12, 1997 to June 30, 1998, and [[Bill Richardson]] from August 18, 1998 to January 20, 2001.[^6] [[Spencer Abraham]] served from January 20, 2001 to January 31, 2005, [[Samuel W. Bodman]] from February 2005 to January 2009, [[Steven Chu]] from January 21, 2009 to April 22, 2013, and [[Ernest Moniz]] from May 21, 2013 to January 20, 2017.[^6] [[Rick Perry]] served from March 2, 2017 to December 1, 2019, and [[Dan Brouillette]] from December 11, 2019 to January 20, 2021.[^6] [[Jennifer M. Granholm]] was sworn in as the sixteenth secretary on February 25, 2021.[^7] [[Chris Wright]] was confirmed on February 3, 2025 by a Senate vote of 59 to 38.[^8]
+
+### Weapons laboratories and the contractor network
+
+The nuclear weapons laboratories that the department runs include [[Los Alamos]], [[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]] and [[Sandia National Laboratories]]. In January 2025 the Los Alamos laboratory published a release on a partnership with OpenAI.[^9] In August 2025 it announced that frontier AI models had been launched on its Venado supercomputer.[^10]
+
+Most of the work at the laboratories and test sites is done under contract. [[EG&G]] reported in its annual report for the fiscal year ended January 2, 1994 that it held five Department of Energy contracts. Two related to the [[Nevada Test Site]]: Energy Measurements, under which the company "provides scientific and engineering services for the DOE's underground nuclear weapons test program" in cooperation with the Sandia, Los Alamos and Livermore laboratories, and the [[Reynolds Electrical and Engineering Company]] contract for support and maintenance, construction at the [[Tonopah Test Range]] and work at the [[Yucca Mountain Project]]. The other three were at [[Rocky Flats]], the [[Idaho National Engineering Laboratory]] and the [[Mound Laboratory]].[^11] The company decided in 1994 not to seek renewal of four of the contracts; the Rocky Flats contract ended in June 1995 and the Reynolds and Energy Measurements contracts expired on December 31, 1995.[^12] In its report for the fiscal year ended January 31, 1995, [[Science Applications International Corporation]] (SAIC) reported that the department accounted for 11 percent of its revenue, and listed [[Donald M. Kerr]], formerly president of EG&G, as its corporate executive vice president.[^13]
+
+[[Lockheed Martin]] operated Sandia through Sandia Corporation from 1993 to 2017, after which management passed to a subsidiary of [[Honeywell]].[^14] Its 1995 filing places Sandia, the Oak Ridge facilities (under a contract extended through March 31, 1998 at an estimated Department of Energy budget of $3.5 billion) and Nevada Test Site support services (as subcontractor to Bechtel National) in the company's Energy and Environment sector.[^15] [[Battelle Memorial Institute]] managed the Hanford laboratories for the Atomic Energy Commission. The Pacific Northwest National Laboratory's history gives January 4, 1965 as the date on which the "key" to the [[Hanford Laboratories]] was transferred to Battelle, and dates the laboratory's renaming to 1995.[^16] A company history records that the department selected Battelle in 1978 to manage a program on commercial nuclear waste isolation.[^17]
+
+A patent application publication, US 2020/0407525 A1, records a confirmatory license to the department from [[Lawrence Livermore National Security]] dated July 27, 2020, and names [[Chasm Technologies]] in the same record.[^18] The White House fact sheet of February 22, 2006 on the [[DP World]] port transaction noted that Dubai was "the first Middle Eastern entity" to join the [[Container Security Initiative]] and the department's Megaports Initiative.[^19] A lobbying registrant of [[Scale AI]], Ariel Marshall, lists service as chief of staff to the Under Secretary for Science and Innovation at the department from 2023 to 2025.[^20] The department also appears among the agencies with which the [[U.S. AI Safety Institute]] coordinates under the Commerce Department's description of the center's tasks.[^21] [[Garrison Rapmund]], a retired Army major general who served on the Star Gate Scientific Oversight Committee, was described in a 2018 alumni memorial as a scientific adviser to the [[National Institutes of Health]], the [[Federal Aviation Administration]] and the department.[^22]
+
+### Safeguards, security and the Nevada Test Site
+
+[[Ralph E. Caudle]], a retired Air Force colonel, joined the department in 1975 as Director, Division of Operations, in the Office of Military Application, and in 1981 was promoted to head the Office of Safeguards and Security, with responsibility for protection of nuclear weapons materials and facilities and all department classified information. The Journal of the Institute of Nuclear Materials Management reported in its spring 1984 issue that he had been named president of [[Wackenhut Advanced Technologies Corporation]], a subsidiary formed from the Systems Division, the Advanced Technologies Division, the Security Programs Division and NUSAC, Incorporated.[^23] His obituary states that from 1975 to 1981 he was program director and director of operations for development and production of nuclear weapons, that he was Director of Safeguards and Securities of Nuclear Weapons at the department from 1981 to 1984, and that earlier, as an Atomic Energy Commission employee, he had been Director of Safeguard and Security of Nuclear Weapons at Germantown, Maryland.[^24] The Wackenhut annual reports for 1985 and 1986 state that the company's Security Programs Division was selected to design the security system of the nuclear device assembly facility at the Nevada Test Site, and the report covering 1984 states that the department chose [[Wackenhut Services]] in 1984 to establish and operate a Safeguards and Security Central Training Academy at Albuquerque.[^25]
+
+The predecessor firm NUSAC listed the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, the department and the Navy among the clients of its security divisions by spring 1980, and [[David G. Schofield]] was senior vice president over those divisions.[^26] The Wackenhut Corporation's annual report for the fiscal year ended January 1, 1995 states that the department accounted for about 20 percent of its revenue, with the Savannah River Site contract at 9 percent and the Rocky Flats Plant contract at 5 percent, and that Wackenhut Services' revenues were $8.1 million lower in 1994 because the department reduced manpower requirements.[^27] Wackenhut Services appears in the federal procurement records under department contracts including DE-AC08-87NV10559 for the Nevada Operations Office and DE-AC09-99SR18950 for Savannah River, the latter with obligations of about $901.6 million.[^28] Senator [[Edward J. Markey]] wrote to Secretary Bodman on February 17, 2005 that a force-on-force exercise at the Test Site in August 2004 had ended in failure for the guard force, and cited a department Office of Inspector General report of February 11, 2005 that a Wackenhut employee had taken government and personal handguns to a training exercise at the site in 2003.[^29]
+
+The department's history of the Nevada Test Site, DOE/MA-0518, describes about 1,375 square miles of terrain "owned and controlled by the Department of Energy."[^30] The site was carved from the Nellis Air Force Gunnery and Bombing Range. President Truman authorized a 680-square-mile section of the range as the Nevada Proving Grounds on December 18, 1950, and the name became Nevada Test Site in 1955.[^31] The same history records the early use of the range: "The Army set up four emergency landing strips on the range. One was on Groom Lake east of the site."[^30] The Groom Lake airfield is the location of [[Area 51]]. EG&G's radar test facility moved to the former U-2 testing site at Area 51 of the Atomic Energy Commission's Nevada Proving Grounds on September 10, 1959, according to the CIA's history of the U-2 program.[^32]
+
+The department also administers the [[Strategic Petroleum Reserve]], which its page on the reserve calls "the world's largest supply of emergency crude oil."[^33] The Energy Policy and Conservation Act of December 22, 1975 provides: "A Strategic Petroleum Reserve for the storage of up to 1 billion barrels of petroleum products shall be created pursuant to this part."[^34]
+
+### Green fireballs over Los Alamos and Sandia, 1948 to 1951
+
+From December 1948 reports of green fireballs came from the vicinity of Los Alamos and [[Sandia Base]], installations of the Atomic Energy Commission and the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project. The 17th District of the Air Force Office of Special Investigations at [[Kirtland Air Force Base]] collected the reports. In a summary of May 25, 1950 to Brigadier General [[Joseph F. Carroll]], the director of special investigations, the district wrote that its observers included "scientists, Special Agents of the Office of Special Investigations, airline pilots, military pilots, Los Alamos Security Inspectors, military personnel, and many other persons of various occupations whose reliability is not questioned." The summary was distributed to the Director, Security Division, Atomic Energy Commission, at Los Alamos, to the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project at Sandia Base and to the FBI offices at El Paso and Albuquerque.[^35]
+
+A conference on aerial phenomena met at 1300 on February 16, 1949 in room P-162 of the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory. The attendance list records Major Winn, Major Godsoe and Captain Neef of the Fourth Army, Commander Mandelkorn of the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project, [[Lincoln LaPaz]] of the [[University of New Mexico]], Mr. Maxwell of the FBI, Mr. Morgan and Mr. Newburger of the Atomic Energy Commission's Santa Fe Operations Office, and, from the University of California, which ran the laboratory, [[Norris Bradbury]], Holloway, Hoyt, Manley, [[Frederick Reines]] and [[Edward Teller]].[^36] Newburger opened by stating that the subject was classified Secret. Neef said the matter began in December 1948 with reports from airline pilots and that LaPaz had assisted without charge since then.[^36]
+
+LaPaz described the fireball he had observed near Starvation Peak at about 9:02 p.m. on December 12, 1948: it appeared at full intensity instantly, was yellow-green at about 5200 angstroms, followed an almost horizontal path at constant angular velocity for almost exactly two seconds, and broke into fragments that were still bright green. He told the conference that he regarded it as "not a conventional meteorite fall," that the objects made no sound although a fall of January 30, 1949 over Texas had been followed for 1,600 miles by interviewing hundreds of people, and that he counted ten instances that "definitely merit the most serious consideration" and about twenty more.[^36] He added that earlier green fireballs had been reported to him near the Hanford area, and daylight white objects near Memphis in May 1948, "not too far from Oak Ridge."[^36] Asked for an explanation, LaPaz said the only one he had was the one he had given at the start, that the objects were defensive maneuvers of a higher United States command practising in the regions to be defended, and that he had been scolded for saying so, including by Joseph Kaplan.[^36]
+
+Teller worked at the blackboard for about twenty minutes on light output, speed, kinetic energy and shock wave. He then said that putting together what he had heard with what he theoretically believed, "it ought to be a material body" and "might be an electron phenomenon," and estimated that an object producing the observed light without audible sound would be very small. LaPaz replied: "Nothing like this, to my knowledge, has ever been observed in the case of meteorite drops." Teller had earlier remarked that the account "sounds like everything else but meteors" and that the evidence of horizontal flight impressed him. Bradbury closed the discussion: "Still don't feel that the meteor stuff is out. The puzzling thing is the long horizontal path; also, absence of noise is puzzling."[^36] Godsoe said that "most of the military authorities think we are crackpots" except the Army Air Force, which was the gathering and reporting agency. Newburger said the Air Force had classed the flying discs and the fireballs into one category, and Neef read a letter from the Air Materiel Command that the old Project Sign was now Project Grudge, which included the New Mexico phenomena.[^36]
+
+The Atomic Energy Commission's Santa Fe office transmitted a transcript of the minutes on March 22, 1949 under a Secret cover letter signed by Sidney Newburger, Jr., chief of its Security Operations Branch, to Lieutenant Commander Richard Mandelkorn of the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project at Sandia Base. The copy is marked as 24 pages, copy 18 of 25, and carries a Department of Energy declassification review stamp. The department's release program published it on July 10, 2026 as DOE-UAP-D004, in the fourth release of the Department of War's UAP records.[^36][^37] The FBI's San Antonio office reported to the Director on the same date, March 22, 1949, on what Fourth Army intelligence had told it of the conference: that the question was classified Secret, that more than ten incidents analogous to the green fireball and some twenty others had occurred since December 5, 1948, and that the sightings were confined to a triangle of Los Alamos, Las Vegas and west Texas. The memorandum then states: "There appears to be reason to believe that the above-mentioned phenomena may be connected with secret experiments being conducted by some U.S. Government Agency as it is believed that the United States is farther advanced in guided missile development than any foreign power."[^38]
+
+The 17th OSI District's summary of May 1950 gives the dates of the Los Alamos conferences as February 17 and October 14, 1949 and lists as present representatives of the Fourth Army, the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project, the University of New Mexico, the FBI, the Atomic Energy Commission, the University of California, the Air Force Scientific Advisory Board, the Air Materiel Command's Geophysical Research Division and the Office of Special Investigations. It states that no logical explanation was offered but that it was "generally concluded that the phenomena existed and that they should be studied scientifically," and that "the continued occurrence of unexplained phenomena of this nature in the vicinity of sensitive installations is cause for concern."[^35]
+
+The Air Force's Cambridge Research Laboratories then ran Project Twinkle. Its project scientist, Louis Elterman, forwarded the final report on December 11, 1951. The report states that "there is considerable doubt in the minds of some of the project personnel that this is a natural phenomenon," records that on August 28, 1951 LaPaz "expressed disbelief in all aerial phenomena except for the green fire-balls," lists reports from Los Alamos employees on January 12, April 1, June 7 and June 8, 1951 (the June 7 item a pointed cylinder in a vertical position that fell into a canyon, where a search party found nothing), and concludes that the year of vigilance "does not permit a conclusive opinion." Its recommendation was that "no further fiscal expenditure be made in pursuing the problem." The transmittal states that "nothing of a security nature has been discovered."[^39]
+
+[[Edward J. Ruppelt]], who directed [[Project Blue Book]], wrote that the February 1949 conference decided the fireballs were a natural phenomenon of some kind and recommended that the Air Force's Cambridge laboratory photograph them; that Twinkle "was a bust" because one of three planned cameras was available; and that it "silently died" when the Korean War began. He also wrote that at an unofficial lunch discussion at the Los Alamos laboratory scientists and technicians, all of whom had seen a green fireball, theorized that the objects could be test vehicles projected from a "spaceship" hovering several hundred miles above the earth. Ruppelt recorded La Paz's view that the genuine fireballs were not meteors, and wrote that at Los Alamos and again at Sandia Base his briefings on unidentified flying objects to the technical staff drew audiences too large for the theater, so that the briefing was recorded and replayed.[^40]
+
+A page from the Los Alamos Protective Force files released as DOE-UAP-D002 is a handwritten reply of November 23, 1970 to James L. Tuck, the Los Alamos physicist, that recalls sightings of green lights at Los Alamos between 1948 and 1951. DOE-UAP-D003 is a newsletter of the Pajarito Astronomers of Los Alamos dated May 20, 1986 announcing a talk by John Warren titled "Why Should a Scientist be Concerned about UFO's?"[^41]
+
+### Aerial reports over Oak Ridge, Hanford and other atomic sites, 1947 to 1952
+
+The FBI's headquarters file on flying discs, 62-HQ-83894, released in the Department of War's first release of May 8, 2026, contains reports from the Oak Ridge office. In a letter to the Director, the Knoxville special agent in charge wrote that his information came from G. J. Rathman, chief investigator of the Atomic Energy Commission's Security Division at Oak Ridge, and Colonel C. D. Gasser, resident engineer of the Air Materiel Command at the Nuclear Energy for the Propulsion of Aircraft research center at Oak Ridge. Two photographs taken by a resident in July 1947 showed a vapor trail and a ball of fire. Gasser asked Rathman to recover the copies and to tell holders to say nothing about them; Rathman recovered twenty-four copies, and the letter records that Gasser "appeared extremely concerned" and "emphatic that the matter should be given no more publicity than was absolutely necessary."[^42]
+
+Gasser told the FBI that flying discs were believed by the Air Force to be man-made missiles, that it had been learned as much as four years earlier that discs were being experimented on by the Russians, that most approached the United States from the north and returned in the same direction, and that he saw no connection between the objects and Oak Ridge, since they were seen in forty-six of the forty-eight states in July 1947.[^42][^43] On February 10, 1949 Gasser wrote to Rathman that the Air Materiel Command's technical intelligence division had examined the negatives and found that a drop of warm water or developer had rolled across two frames. The Knoxville office's memorandum of February 18, 1949 reports that the photographs "are the result of accident or purposeful hoax and are not actually photographs of a flying saucer," and that Gasser personally advised that his statements on the existence of flying saucers stood as previously made.[^44]
+
+The same file records radar reports over Oak Ridge. A Knoxville radio station operator reported a radar return directly over Oak Ridge on March 1 and 2, 1950, at altitudes he gave as 40,000 and 100,000 feet; Air Force personnel from the propulsion research center examined his equipment and discounted the report.[^45] The Knoxville office forwarded to the Director Air Force reports on radar detection of unidentified objects over Oak Ridge on October 12, 15 and 16, 1950, with the comment that the reports concerned unidentified objects "which to date have not been explained," and reports of October 20, 23, 24 and 26, 1950. A teletype from Director Hoover of December 5, 1950 instructed the office to obtain all facts on "possible radar jamming by ionization of particles in atmosphere" and to determine whether an incident northeast of Oliver Springs, Tennessee, could have been connected with the alleged jamming. In February 1951 the office forwarded Counter Intelligence Corps reports of January 2 and January 20, 1951 on objects sighted over Oak Ridge.[^46]
+
+The file also holds press clippings of July 1947. An Associated Press dispatch quoted Colonel F. J. Clarke, commanding the Hanford Engineering Works, that the saucers were not coming from the atomic plant and that he had been waiting for someone to tie them to Hanford, and reported that David Lilienthal, chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission, told the Denver Post that the saucers were in no way connected with experiments in atomic energy, the transmutation of metals or similar research. The clippings include a statement attributed to an unnamed person described by a Los Angeles newspaper as a California Institute of Technology staff member that disc experiments were under way at Muroc, White Sands and Portland, and the replies of Harold Urey, who said "transmutation of atomic energy sounds like gibberish," and of the Caltech physicist C. C. Lauritsen, who said the discs had nothing to do with nuclear physics.[^47]
+
+Ruppelt wrote that a Ground Observer Corps spotter reported a slow-moving light nearing the Oak Ridge laboratory on the night of June 21, 1952, that an F-47 on combat air patrol was vectored to it and that the light made what seemed to be ramming attacks; and that on December 10, 1952, near Hanford, the pilot and radar observer of an F-94 saw a large round white object with a dim reddish light from two "windows," lost visual contact, obtained a radar lock-on, and found that the object reversed direction and dived away when they tried to close. He wrote that Savannah River reports were not accompanied by publicity, that a report of August 25, 1951 to the 34th Air Defense at Kirtland came from an employee of the Atomic Energy Commission's Sandia Corporation and his wife, who saw a flying-wing shape one and a half times the size of a B-36, and that Blue Book's summary found reports more frequent around areas vital to defense, with the Los Alamos-Albuquerque area, Oak Ridge and White Sands rating high.[^40]
+
+Ruppelt also described a conversation in Los Angeles with two physicists working for the Atomic Energy Commission, who asked for no publicity. They told him of a laboratory, which he did not name, where instruments registered radiation about 100 times background in December 1950 at the time that a group of colleagues, who had told others they were a mineral club, were told of a silvery circular object sighted near their instrument shack, and of earlier incidents there in which an object crossed the sky while Geiger counters registered increases. A report on the earlier incidents concluded that the readings were an equipment malfunction and the objects birds or airplanes, and, Ruppelt wrote, "Project Blue Book never got it."[^40]
+
+The Robertson Panel, convened by the Office of Scientific Intelligence of the CIA, met from January 14 to 18, 1953 and received an Air Technical Intelligence Center map on which, according to the panel's record, sightings "showed clusters in certain strategic areas such as Los Alamos." The record's contents list includes Los Alamos Bird Watchers Association observation series from August 1950 to January 1951, and a Kirtland Air Force Base outline of a UFO investigation, and states that case histories "involving radar or radar and visual sightings were selected for Dr. Alvarez."[^48] A Fourth Army intelligence summary of a sighting from Sandia Base in February 1949 is held by the Internet Archive.[^49]
+
+### Kirtland, Manzano and Sandia, 1980
+
+At Kirtland Air Force Base, which adjoins Sandia's Albuquerque site, an Air Force Office of Special Investigations form of October 28, 1980 (file 8017D93-0/29), titled "Alleged Sightings of Unidentified Aerial Lights in Restricted Test Range" and covering August 8 to September 3, 1980, refers to an earlier AFOSI Form 1 of September 8, 1980 of the same title. It records that on October 24, 1980 Dr. [[Paul Bennewitz]] contacted Special Agent [[Richard Doty]] through Major Ernest E. Edwards, commander of the 1608th Security Police Squadron, and "related he had knowledge and evidence of threats against Manzano Weapons Storage area. The threat was from Aerial phenomena over Manzano." On October 26 Doty, with the assistance of Jerry Miller, GS-15, scientific advisor for the Air Force Test and Evaluation Center, interviewed Bennewitz at his home, "adjacent to the northern boundary of Manzano Base." The form describes Miller as "a former Project Blue Book USAF Investigator who was assigned to Wright-Patterson AFB, OH, with FTD" and as "one of the most knowledgeable and impartial investigators of Aerial Objects in the southwest." Bennewitz produced photographs and over 2,600 feet of 8mm motion picture film "depicting unidentified aerial objects flying over and around Manzano Weapons Storage Area and Coyote Canyon Test area," several electronic recording tapes, and equipment "pointed at Manzano" to record "high frequency electrical beam pulses." Miller related that "the evidence clearly shows that some type of unidentified aerial objects were caught on film; however, no conclusions could be made whether these objects pose a threat to Manzano/Coyote Canyon areas," and that the tapes were inconclusive and could have been gathered from conventional sources. The form states that personnel of the Foreign Technology Division at Wright-Patterson had expressed interest, asks for a DCII check on Bennewitz, states that it is responsive to HQ CR 44, and adds: "Command was briefed but did not request an investigation at this time." It is signed by Major Thomas A. Cseh, commander of the Base Investigative Detachment.[^50]
+
+A second form of November 26, 1980 records a meeting of November 10 in the 1606th Air Base Wing conference room attended by Brigadier General [[William Brooksher]], Colonels Sheppard, Simmons, Baca and Huey (AFOSI District 17), Lieutenant Colonel Lamport, Major Cseh, Dr. Lehman, director of the Air Force Weapons Laboratory, and Ed Breen, instrumentation specialist of that laboratory. Bennewitz presented film and photographs "of alleged unidentified Aerial Objects photographed over KAFB, NM during the last 15 months" and "related he had documented proof that he was in contact with the aliens flying the objects." Lehman advised him to request a USAF grant and said he would help with the documents. On November 17 Doty advised that AFOSI would not become involved; on November 26 a caller who identified himself as Senator Harrison Schmidt of New Mexico asked about AFOSI's role and said he would request that the Secretary of the Air Force determine what agency should investigate. The form notes that Bennewitz had had "a number of conversations" with the senator during the preceding months and that the senator had telephoned Brigadier General Brooksher "since Security Police are responsible for the security of Manzano Storage Area."[^51] A third AFOSI communication of July 30, 1981, signed by Colonel Frank M. Huey, records that Senator [[Pete Domenici]] was at the 1606th Air Base Wing inspector general's office asking to speak with Doty, left immediately to meet Bennewitz, and that his aide was told AFOSI had conducted no formal investigation of him.[^52]
+
+A letter reproduced in the same report was sent to the Aerial Phenomena Research Organization in July 1980 by a writer who described himself as an airman of the 1550th Aircrew Training and Testing Wing at Kirtland. It describes a sighting near Pecos, New Mexico, on July 16, 1980 by a Civil Air Patrol cadet; a visit the next night to the cadet's billets by a man who gave his name as Mr. Huck "from Sandia Laboratories, a secret Depart of Energy Contractor on Kirtland AFB," who said that the craft was "a secret craft from Los Alamos, NM," demanded photographs and warned the cadet not to mention the sighting; and the cadet's report to Kirtland security police, who referred it to AFOSI, where "a Mr. Dody, a special agent with OSI" took the photographs. The writer added that two Sandia Laboratories employees who "also store classified objects in Manzano" had told him that Sandia had examined several UFOs in the previous twenty years and that one that crashed near Roswell in the late 1950s "was examined by Sandia scientists" and "is still being stored in Manzano," and that Colonel Bruce Purvine had told him that AFOSI District 17 had "a special secret detachment" investigating sightings and cattle mutilations.[^53] [[William L. Moore]] said in 1989 that the letter was written by Doty as "bait."[^54]
+
+Doty said in 2005 that the Manzano area "housed nuclear weapons, probably the largest nuclear storage area in the southwest" and that as base counterintelligence officer he had to know the classified projects at Kirtland, the [[Air Force Weapons Laboratory]], Sandia and Los Alamos in order to safeguard them. He said that AFOSI had convinced Bennewitz that signals he intercepted were alien in order to protect what was happening at Kirtland.[^55] The writer Robert Hastings wrote in 1989 that a production team member identified Doty as the source "Falcon" and a recently retired Air Force captain assigned to a plasma physics group at Sandia, [[Robert Collins]], as the source "Condor"; Hastings wrote that both denied involvement.[^56] The Aquarius teletype dated November 17, 1980, reproduced in the MJ-12 material that Moore circulated, is described by Moore as "a retyped version of a real AFOSI message with a few spurious additions."[^54][^57] The [[Black Vault]]'s post of May 20, 2021 on Doty's service record says that Doty "previously worked with" the Air Force Office of Special Investigations, and a National Personnel Records Center release of April 26, 2013 supplied his records; Doty appeared on Coast to Coast AM on February 27, 2005.[^58] A Freedom of Information Act request to the department of June 17, 1985 by [[Lee Graham]], according to the skeptic Philip J. Klass, listed the twelve names of the [[Majestic-12]] papers that Moore had shown him in May 1985.[^59]
+
+### The UAP Disclosure Act, the 2023 hearing and the 2026 releases
+
+At the hearing of July 26, 2023 before the Subcommittee on National Security, the Border, and Foreign Affairs of the House Committee on Oversight and Accountability, Representative Ogles asked: "Is there any indication the Department of Energy is involved in UAP data collection and housing?" Mr. Graves answered "I do not have an answer." [[David Grusch]] answered: "I cannot confirm or deny that in a public setting." Asked whether he could answer in a secure setting, Grusch said "Yes."[^60]
+
+The Senate-passed text of the defense authorization bill, S. 2226, carried as Division G the Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena Disclosure Act, offered by Senators [[Chuck Schumer]] and [[Mike Rounds]]. Section 9003(23) defines an "unidentified anomalous phenomena record" as a record related to unidentified anomalous phenomena, technologies of unknown origin or non-human intelligence "that was created or made available for use by, obtained by, or otherwise came into the possession of" a list of bodies, among them "(F) the Department of Energy and its progenitors, the Manhattan Project, the Atomic Energy Commission, and the Energy Research and Development Administration," and also "(B) the Department of Defense and its progenitors, the Department of War and the Department of the Navy," "(H) the Central Intelligence Agency and its progenitor, the Office of Strategic Services" and "(X) any private sector person or entity formerly or currently under contract or some other agreement with the Federal Government." Section 9003(22) includes among the phenomena what were "previously described as" flying discs, flying saucers and unidentified flying objects.[^61] The enacted National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2024, Public Law 118-31, carries a subtitle on the Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena Records Collection at the National Archives in sections 1841 to 1843. It directs the Archivist to collect "all Government, Government-provided, or Government-funded records" relating to unidentified anomalous phenomena, technologies of unknown origin and non-human intelligence, and places the duty to review and transmit on the head of each "Government office"; it does not list the department or its predecessors.[^62]
+
+The department's own releases followed. In the Department of War's second release of May 22, 2026 the department's records include DOE-UAP-D001, the final pages of a Pantex report with a redacted ground surveillance radar image and two enhanced images of an unidentified object processed by Sandia National Laboratories, and D002 and D003 described above.[^63] In the fourth release of July 10, 2026 the department's records include the minutes of the February 1949 Los Alamos conference (D004) and DOE-UAP-D005, the Pantex Unidentified Object Incident Report of September 1 to 2, 2015, transmitted under cover of a memorandum dated September 9, 2015 that bears the heading of Consolidated Nuclear Security, LLC, which operates the [[Pantex Plant]] near Amarillo, Texas, and the address line Deputy Assistant Manager for Safeguards and Security, NNSA Production Office.[^64] The report states that on September 1, 2015 at approximately 0710 hours the plant's Ground Surveillance Radar detection system identified an unknown object; security officers described it as a "diamond" type shape, more round at the top; two officers followed it in a vehicle, and, in the report's words, "although they were unable to catch up to the object, they stopped their vehicle and got out" and "after viewing it for 1-2 minutes, the object then continued north offsite."[^37][^64] The report lists among those notified the Central Alarm Station, the Secondary Alarm Station, the Carson County Sheriff's office, Sandia National Laboratories and the FBI.[^64]
+
+### The Wilson-Davis notes and the EG&G building
+
+The [[Wilson-Davis Memo]], a fifteen-page document headed "EWD NOTES 10/16/02" and "Eric Davis Meeting with Adm. Wilson," records a meeting between [[Eric Davis]] and [[Thomas R. Wilson]].[^65] The notes quote an instruction on the meeting place: "Rich says to go to EG&G Special Projects building at Grice and Paradise." They also record "Meet at 10 A.M.," and the entry "We sit in his car in back of EG&G building." The conversation ran until 11:20 a.m., according to the notes.[^65] The notes also record: "Came to test site special area to wrap up projects (he began in '98)." They state that the trip was "set up by NNSA (National Nuclear Security Agency)."[^65]
+
+The Black Vault's analysis by [[John Greenewald]] records that the document has no provenance and that the images were uploaded to [[Imgur]] on April 19, 2019.[^66] The company's annual report for fiscal 1995 lists [[EG&G Special Projects]] among its subsidiaries.[^12] A [[Defense Intelligence Agency]] information memorandum of October 30, 2009 on the review of contract deliverables lists Sandia staff among the outside reviewers and states that the program "apparently will fund the contract's option year one at $12 million."[^67] A one-page enclosure titled "BAASS Goals 2011/2012," released by the [[Department of Homeland Security]] in a response to case 2022-HQFO-00386 dated June 20, 2023, was posted online by [[Marc Cecotti]] the same day.[^68]
+
+### Nuclear intelligence and the Vela flash
+
+On September 22, 1979 a Vela satellite recorded a flash over the South Atlantic. The National Security Archive's briefing book of 2016 calls it the Vela incident.[^69] The Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory's Guy Barasch concluded in November 1979 that natural signals would not be confused with those of a nuclear detonation, whose light signature is "unmistakable," and dismissed a lightning superbolt.[^70] A memorandum of the Joint Atomic Energy Intelligence Committee to the director of central intelligence, dated February 14, 1980, forwards the judgments of the Nuclear Intelligence Panel, which met February 11 to 13. It states that the attached summary "was prepared by the Panel Chairman, Mr. Louis H. Roddis, Jr."[^71] The National Security Archive's earlier briefing book describes the panel as chaired by Donald Kerr, who had served in the Carter administration as acting director of defense programs at the Energy Department, and quotes [[Seymour Hersh]]'s account that Kerr stated "We had no doubt it was a bomb."[^70] Kerr is the same Donald M. Kerr who in February 1984 is listed as director of Los Alamos National Laboratory.[^72]
+
+Two laboratory reports of May 1980 reached the opposite conclusion from the White House science adviser's panel. Henry G. Horak of Los Alamos concluded there was "strong evidence that a nuclear explosion actually produced Vela Alert 747," and G. H. Mauth of Sandia found the signal "fully consistent with those expected from a low-yield atmospheric [nuclear detonation]."[^70] The Office of Science and Technology Policy's Ad Hoc Panel, chaired by [[Jack P. Ruina|Jack Ruina]] and including [[Richard Garwin]], [[Luis Alvarez]] and Wolfgang Panofsky, reported on May 23, 1980 that the signal was probably not the result of a nuclear detonation.[^70]
+
+Earlier, on October 10, 1979, Ross E. Cowey, director of strategic affairs in the State Department's Office of Intelligence and Research, wrote a memorandum for the files summarizing the conclusions of three scientists who had reviewed the data under the auspices of the CIA. They were [[Harold M. Agnew]], former director of Los Alamos, Garwin and [[Stephen Lukasik]]. Cowey describes the memorandum as a synopsis of their conclusions, not the full report.[^73]
+
+On January 23, 1980 [[Gerald G. Oplinger]], a nonproliferation specialist on the national security adviser's staff, wrote to [[Henry Owen]], ambassador-at-large, under the subject line "South Atlantic Event." He wrote: "I have talked to John Deutch and Dan Murphy about this matter, and told State to put the press release and Congressional consultations on hold." He added: "Between them, DoE, DoD and technical people within the intelligence community have sufficient doubts about the Press panel report to make it very dangerous to proceed without another look." The memorandum lists four questions: the reliability of the Vela signal, on which "the technical people apparently disagree" with the panel; ionospheric signals picked up at Arecibo, on which the panel found mathematical errors and "DoE and DoD say no"; "new hydro data the panel didn't have," as reported by Deutch; and the lack of fallout. Oplinger continued: "Deutch and Murphy still feel that we should come out with a bottom line that there is no conclusive case for a nuclear source. But they feel strongly that unless these questions are given a further airing, there will be continued internal dissent and an appearance that policy people (including the White House) did a whitewash for political reasons," and added that for Deutch, Murphy and Marcum "it is a c.y.a. operation."[^74] The National Security Archive identifies the "Press panel" as the review that the presidential science adviser, [[Frank Press]], had convened under Ruina, and describes [[John Deutch]] as under secretary of energy at the time.[^69]
+
+### Psychic research and the national laboratories
+
+The most detailed record of the department's laboratories in the psychic research files is the work of the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory scientist [[R. S. Hawke]]. His outline of acoustic emission experiments with "a Person Reputed to Have Paranormal Metal Bending Abilities," dated January 11, 1979, reports: "At least 4 clear instances of A.E. events occurred with one subject during one session."[^75] A routing note in the same file, undated, says: "There is absolutely no reason to believe that the scientist, Hawke, might have manipulated the data/experiment."[^76]
+
+An Army memorandum of October 22, 1979 set a visit to Hawke's laboratory in California for November 6, 1979.[^77] The December 1979 report of the Grill Flame Scientific Evaluation Committee, chaired by [[Manfred Gale]], states in an annex on Hawke's work: "Hawke's experiments are the most objective and scientific of the investigations we have reviewed."[^78] On November 28, 1979, Hawke met Dr. [[Ruth Davis|Ruth M. Davis]], Assistant for Research Applications at the Department of Energy, and Dr. W. LaBerge of the Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Research and Engineering.[^79] On December 26, 1979 Hawke wrote to Davis, whom he identified as "Assistant for Research Applications, Department of Energy." His letter (EMS79-0117) reports that "Dr. Roger Batzel, has been informed that such a project might be suggested by DOE and/or DOD," that "the equivalent of 5-7 full employees would be the optimum," with tasks distributed "among 10-15 researchers, technicians and other consultants and advisors," and that such discrete research was, in the words of the associate directors he had consulted, "within the capability of LLL." Batzel was named as the person to contact, and copies went to Batzel, Henry McDonald, Dale Nielsen and LaBerge.[^79]
+
+Ruth M. Davis, signing as deputy under secretary of defense for research and engineering (research and advanced technology), sent a memorandum to [[Jack Vorona]] on November 20, 1978 concerning a remote-viewing project.[^80] A memorandum of July 9, 1979 over the same signature proposes inviting Frank Press and advising him of the Grill Flame work.[^81] Minutes of a steering committee meeting of October 30, 1979 list "Dr. Ruth Davis (DOE)" among those present and record that "Dr. Perry wants little to do with the subject."[^82] A note in the same file, undated, records that Davis could not attend a meeting because she had to meet Mr Duncan in DOE.[^83] The White House announced on September 12, 1979 the President's intention to nominate Ruth M. Davis, then Deputy Under Secretary of Defense for Research and Advanced Technology, as Assistant Secretary of Energy for Resource Applications.[^84] The signature block thus changes from the Department of Defense in 1978 and July 1979 to the Department of Energy in the October minutes and the December letter.
+
+The Electro/77 conference held a session on the state of the art in psychic research in New York from April 19 to 21, 1977. The session was chaired by "Dr. George Pezdirtz, Director of Energy Storage Div., ERDA," and its papers included two by [[Hal Puthoff]] and [[Russell Targ]] of the [[Stanford Research Institute]].[^85] The Energy Research and Development Administration was the predecessor of the department.
+
+A February 1984 SRI document describes a Psychoenergetics Science Advisory Panel that included "Dr. Donald Kerr, Director, Los Alamos National Laboratory," together with Fred Zachariasen and [[W. Ross Adey|Ross Adey]].[^72] A program review dated March 1, 1984, signed by Adey and Zachariasen, concludes that the work "warrants cautious continued fiscal support, and that the research should be conducted as much as possible in an open unclassified mode."[^86] A letter from the Defense Intelligence Agency to Senator [[William Proxmire]] of May 16, 1984 states that "the Department of Defense has spent $2,515,000 on Psychic research over the past ten years under project GRILL FLAME."[^87] Annie Jacobsen's account of the program places Donald M. Kerr on a panel that reviewed the Sun Streak effort on January 31, 1986.[^88] An undated DIA summary of American psychoenergetics research facilities lists "Lawrence Livermore Laboratories (L3), Livermore, CA (Lab of R. Hawke)," with the note "Not willing to do classified work."[^89] A DIA document of August 1984 lists Livermore among laboratories "under consideration for contracts in FY 1985," together with [[McDonnell Douglas]] and the [[Mind Science Foundation]].[^90]
+
+The Los Alamos laboratory is the most consistent laboratory link in the later program. On August 5, 1987 Edward R. Flynn of Los Alamos wrote to Peter J. McNelis of SRI International's cognitive sciences program that the laboratory's magnetically shielded room could be used to measure the influence of very low frequency magnetic fields on subjects, including by repeating SRI's remote viewing experiments inside the room, and that experiments with evoked responses "would best be done at Los Alamos because we have all of the equipment and paradigms basically available now," with magnetoencephalography to localize sources.[^91] A 1988 SRI report states: "A contract was let to Los Alamos National Laboratory in order to determine whether there are neurophysiological indicators of remote viewing."[^92] It records a classified physiology conference at SRI on July 28, 1987 with two Los Alamos attendees.[^92] The December 1988 report on the neurophysiological correlates of remote viewing states that viewers from SRI and two from Los Alamos took part, and records visits by SRI viewers to the Los Alamos laboratory on June 20 to 24, August 22 to 26 and October 18 to 21, 1988; the protocol followed that of the laboratory's Neuromagnetism Laboratory in its Life Sciences and Physics Divisions.[^93] A 1992 proposal by the Science Applications International Corporation states that "SRI International and the Biophysics Group at Los Alamos National Laboratory conducted an experiment using the magnetoencephalograph (MEG) technique," and that SAIC replicated the study in Los Alamos during 1992.[^94]
+
+A DIA purchase request for fiscal 1991 lists the action office as "HQ DOE/LANL" and describes its purpose as "biophysical research and analysis" at Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL), a noncompetitive contract of $250,000 funded as line item 1.004 of the fiscal 1991 DIA budget for Congressional Directed Programs.[^95] The statement of work states that "the FY 1991 Defense Authorization Act identified DIA as executive agent of a new program for examining anomalous phenomena," that the earlier brain neuromagnetic pilot work was "performed by the Biophysical Group at the Los Alamos National Laboratory" as part of an Army research effort under the Surgeon General's research and development office, and that "direct MIPR action from DIA to LANL would be more appropriate." The interagency transfer was addressed to the department's headquarters, attention IN-40.[^95][^96] A Sandia white paper in the same files, "Brain Disorder Phenomenology Using Noninvasive Brain Analysis," from Sandia's Low Observable Projects Department, proposes a New Mexico center for brain imaging with a 1,000-sensor biomagnetometer, with Sandia, a Veterans Administration laboratory and Los Alamos for sensor research ($500,000) among the participants in a first phase of $16.6 million.[^97]
+
+A DIA monthly activity report records a meeting on September 23, 1994 with representatives of the department and a laboratory. The report says: "Funding would come from them."[^98] A June 1994 research and peer review plan for the program says that contacts with "such national laboratories as Los Alamos, Lawrence Livermore, Oak Ridge, and [redacted] have indicated an interest."[^99] Minutes of the program's oversight panel for April 9, 1991 record that the panel was chaired by [[Michael A. Wartell]] of Sandia National Laboratories, and the Scientific Oversight Committee roster lists Melvin Schwartz as associate director for high energy and nuclear physics at [[Brookhaven National Laboratory]].[^100][^101]
+
+An SRI report on an application-oriented remote viewing experiment, dated April 1988, describes an experiment of May 1987 on the advanced test accelerator at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, and states: "The primary target was the ATA facility."[^102] The Princeton engineer [[Robert Jahn]], in an undated Princeton Alumni Weekly article, refers to "a well-placed officer of the Department of Energy" who had written to him.[^103]
+
+The Advanced Theoretical Physics Working Group that [[John B. Alexander]] organized in 1984 met in the secure facility of [[BDM Corporation]], whose vice president for intelligence was [[Albert Stubblebine]]. A department "Request for Visit or Access Approval" (form DOE F 5631.20) dated May 8, 1985, from a Los Alamos National Laboratory requester and signed by the laboratory's special security officer, asks that three laboratory employees be admitted to the BDM McLean secure facility on May 20 to 25, 1985 for an "Advance Theoretical Physics Conference," at the access level "TOP SECRET/RESTRICTED DATA SIGMAS AS REQUIRED."[^104]
+
+### Human radiation experiments and openness
+
+The Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments, in its final report of October 1995, documents eighteen patients injected with plutonium between 1945 and 1947 to determine how excreta could be used to estimate the plutonium remaining in an exposed worker's body. One patient was injected at Oak Ridge Hospital, eleven at the University of Rochester, three at the University of Chicago and three at the University of California.[^105] The committee found that the patient-subjects at Rochester and California "were never told that the injections were part of a medical experiment for which there was no expectation that they would benefit, and they never consented to this use of their bodies." It also found "no documents that bear directly on what, if anything, the subjects were told about the injections and whether they consented."[^105]
+
+On December 24, 1946 Colonel K. D. Nichols ordered a halt to injections of "certain radioactive substances" into human subjects at the University of California.[^105] The committee wrote that the Atomic Energy Commission, which succeeded the Manhattan Project on January 1, 1947, decided to keep the plutonium injections secret: "It appears that this decision was based on concerns about legal liability and adverse public reaction, not national security."[^105] The committee also records that the department told it that the records of its predecessor's Intelligence Division "had been destroyed mainly during the 1970s, but in some cases as late as 1989."[^105]
+
+The department's own account dates its openness policy to December 7, 1993, when Hazel R. O'Leary announced her Openness Initiative, and describes "an agency whose institutional birth was in the most secret of wartime programs, the Manhattan Project." The 1995 Roadmap states that the records of the department and its predecessors fill 3.2 million cubic feet and calls the project "a prototype for the larger job of identifying, preserving, and making available the historical record of the American nuclear age."[^106] The committee's report says that on reading articles in the [[Albuquerque Tribune]], the secretary "expressed shock," and that she "was particularly concerned because the Department of Energy had its earliest origins in the agencies responsible for building the atomic bomb and sponsoring the plutonium experiments."[^105] The department's list of experiments was released at the secretary's June 1994 press conference.[^106]
+
+### Intelligence, counterintelligence and the Wen Ho Lee case
+
+The intelligence elements of the department are listed in the statutory definition of the intelligence community, 50 U.S.C. 3003(4)(H), added by the Intelligence Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1993 (Public Law 102-496). In February 1998, after reports that China had penetrated the weapons laboratories, President Clinton issued Presidential Decision Directive 61, which split the department's foreign intelligence and counterintelligence functions into two offices reporting to the Secretary and required the counterintelligence office to be headed by a senior FBI official. The National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2000 (Public Law 106-65) codified the directive and created the semi-autonomous [[National Nuclear Security Administration]] with its own Office of Defense Nuclear Counterintelligence; the act for fiscal 2007 (Public Law 109-364) abolished that office, and the department's Office of Intelligence and Counterintelligence resulted.[^1][^107]
+
+In 1999 the government indicted [[Wen Ho Lee]], a physicist at Los Alamos. A joint statement of Attorney General [[Janet Reno]] and FBI Director [[Louis Freeh]] said that "the Department of Justice and the FBI stand by each and every one of the 59 counts."[^108] The statement also says that "The Department of Justice, the Department of Energy, and the FBI also believed strongly that Dr. Lee had to be restricted" from communicating with outsiders during his detention.[^108]
+
+On September 13, 2000 Lee pleaded guilty. The Justice Department's release that day reads: "Today, after denying any wrongdoing for months, Dr. Lee pleaded guilty to the indictment's charge of unlawfully collecting and keeping classified information related to the national defense."[^109] The same release recalls the earlier charge: "Last year, we charged Dr. Wen Ho Lee with downloading classified information about our nuclear arsenal from a secured computer onto 10 unsecured computer tapes," and states that "the fate of 7 of those tapes has never been determined."[^109] Judge James Parker approved a plea to one of the fifty-nine counts with a sentence of time served after 278 days. According to the Senate Judiciary Committee's report he told Lee: "I believe you were terribly wronged by being held in custody pretrial . . . under demeaning, unnecessarily punitive conditions. I am truly sorry that I was led by our Executive Branch of government to order your detention last December," and that "it is only the top decision makers in the Executive Branch, especially the Department of Justice and the Department of Energy and locally, during December, who have caused embarrassment by the way this case began and was handled. They did not embarrass me alone. They have embarrassed our entire nation and each of us who is a citizen of it."[^110]
+
+The House select committee chaired by Representative [[Christopher Cox]] reported in January 1999 that "Counterintelligence programs at the national weapons laboratories today fail to meet even minimal standards," and that "Security at the national weapons laboratories will not be satisfactory until at least sometime in the year 2000."[^111] The report describes a bureaucracy that "buried" counterintelligence staff and left them "without access to senior management or the Secretary of Energy."[^111] The Senate Judiciary report states that "The Department of Energy was wrong to allow Wackenhut contract polygraph examiners to administer a polygraph to Dr. Lee on December 23, 1998."[^110] [[Arlen Specter]]'s interim report on the investigation states that "The investigation of Dr. Lee since 1982 has been characterized by a series of errors and omissions by the Department of Energy and the Department of Justice, including the FBI."[^112]
+
+### NUMEC and the Israel question
+
+The [[Nuclear Materials and Equipment Corporation]] (NUMEC) was a privately owned nuclear plant at Apollo, Pennsylvania, whose owner was [[Zalman Mordecai Shapiro|Zalman Shapiro]]. The National Security Archive posted 42 documents from the NUMEC file in a briefing book of November 2, 2016.[^113]
+
+In a February 1966 letter to [[Chet Holifield]], chairman of the [[Joint Committee on Atomic Energy]], [[Glenn Seaborg]], then chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission, wrote: "In the absence of evidence or suspicion of violation of law, we have determined that an inquiry by the FBI is not now warranted." The same letter states that "it cannot be said unequivocally that theft or diversion has not taken place."[^114] The file refers to 61 kilograms of material for which the government agreed to pay.[^114] [[R. L. Hollingsworth]], the commission's general manager, wrote in a separate letter: "That survey revealed no evidence which would lead us to believe or suspect that the material had been diverted."[^114] A General Accounting Office letter of June 20, 1967 states: "We found no evidence of diversion."[^115]
+
+[[Richard Helms]], then director of central intelligence, asked the attorney general for a discreet FBI investigation of the company.[^114] The file includes a 1976 FBI memorandum concerning the possible diversion (document 20) and an FBI interview report on Shapiro from 1977 that records Shapiro's denials (document 24).[^116][^117] A 1972 CIA memorandum on possible diversion of weapons-grade material from NUMEC to Israel is also in the file.[^118]
+
+### Export controls and Iraq
+
+[[Alan Friedman]] wrote that [[Bryan Siebert]] of the Energy Department "had been waging a lonely and unsuccessful battle to get James Baker and National Security Adviser Brent Scowcroft to do something about the steady flow of U.S. exports that were materially assisting Iraq's nuclear weapons program." Friedman wrote that on May 18, 1990 [[Brent Scowcroft]] telephoned the Secretary of Agriculture and asked him "not to put out any press release today saying we are terminating the program" of credit guarantees, and that Scowcroft's aides "objected to any measures 'that singled out Iraq.'"[^119]
+
+### Officials
+
+James R. Schlesinger is the first Secretary of Energy. Donald M. Kerr appears in the record as acting director of defense programs in the Carter administration according to the National Security Archive, as director of Los Alamos National Laboratory in February 1984 when he sat on the SRI advisory panel, as formerly president of EG&G, and as corporate executive vice president of SAIC in 1995.[^13][^70][^72] [[Gregory H. Woods]], later a judge in the Southern District of New York, was general counsel of the department from 2012 to 2013; he was confirmed by the Senate in April 2012 and nominated to the court on May 9, 2013.[^120][^121]
+
+### Footnotes
+
+[^1]: Congressional Research Service, "Department of Energy's Office of Intelligence and Counterintelligence (OICI)," IF12684, June 7, 2024. https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/IF12684.html
+[^2]: Energy Reorganization Act of 1974, Public Law 93-438, 88 Stat. 1233 (October 11, 1974), sec. 101(a). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-88/pdf/STATUTE-88-Pg1233.pdf
+[^3]: Department of Energy Organization Act, Public Law 95-91, 91 Stat. 565 (August 4, 1977), secs. 102(18), 201, 203 and 208. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-91/pdf/STATUTE-91-Pg565.pdf
+[^4]: U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Legacy Management, "Secretaries of Energy," entry for James R. Schlesinger (confirmed August 4, 1977; term of office August 6, 1977 to August 23, 1979). https://www.energy.gov/lm/secretaries-energy
+[^5]: Central Intelligence Agency, "Biography, James R. Schlesinger," reading room document CIA-RDP75B00380R000400150017-8.
+[^6]: U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Legacy Management, "Secretaries of Energy," entries as listed on the page. https://www.energy.gov/lm/secretaries-energy
+[^7]: U.S. Department of Energy, "Jennifer M. Granholm sworn in as 16th Secretary of Energy," February 25, 2021. https://www.energy.gov/articles/jennifer-m-granholm-sworn-16th-secretary-energy
+[^8]: U.S. Senate, roll call vote no. 30, 119th Congress, 1st session, confirmation of Christopher Wright as Secretary of Energy, February 3, 2025 (yeas 59, nays 38). https://www.senate.gov/legislative/LIS/roll_call_votes/vote1191/vote_119_1_00030.htm
+[^9]: Los Alamos National Laboratory, news release, January 30, 2025. https://www.lanl.gov/media/news/0130-open-ai
+[^10]: Los Alamos National Laboratory, news release, August 28, 2025. https://www.lanl.gov/media/news/0828-venado-ai-models
+[^11]: EG&G, Inc., Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended January 2, 1994, filed April 1, 1994, business description, contract descriptions and list of subsidiaries. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/31791/0000031791-94-000004.txt
+[^12]: EG&G, Inc., Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 1995, filed March 22, 1996, discontinued operations and list of subsidiaries.
+[^13]: Science Applications International Corporation, Form 10-K, fiscal year ended January 31, 1995, including the executive officer listing and the department's share of revenue.
+[^14]: Sandia National Laboratories, "Sandia's Government Owned/Contractor Operated heritage." https://www.sandia.gov/about/history/goco.html
+[^15]: Lockheed Martin Corporation, Form 10-K405 for fiscal 1995, filed March 13, 1996, Item 1 (Energy and Environment Sector) and Exhibit 13. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/936468/0000950109-96-001535.txt
+[^16]: Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, "Moments in Time," entries for January 4, 1965 and for the 1995 renaming. https://www.pnnl.gov/our-history/moments-in-time
+[^17]: "Battelle Memorial Institute, Inc.," company history entry, International Directory of Company Histories.
+[^18]: U.S. Patent Application Publication US 2020/0407525 A1, including its legal events listing for the confirmatory license dated July 27, 2020.
+[^19]: White House, fact sheet on the DP World transaction, February 22, 2006. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2006/02/20060222-11.html
+[^20]: Scale AI, Inc., Lobbying Disclosure Act filings for client Scale AI, 2021 to 2026. https://lda.gov/
+[^21]: National Institute of Standards and Technology, "Center for AI Standards and Innovation (CAISI)." https://www.nist.gov/caisi
+[^22]: Columbia University Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia Medicine, Fall/Winter 2018, "In Memoriam," Class of 1953; Star Gate Scientific Oversight Committee roster, CIA-RDP96-00789R003000330001-2.
+[^23]: Nuclear Materials Management (Journal of the Institute of Nuclear Materials Management), vol. 13, no. 1 (Spring 1984), "Ralph E. Caudle Heads Wackenhut Advanced Technologies Corporation." https://resources.inmm.org/system/files/jnmm/vol_13/V-13_1.pdf
+[^24]: Obituary of Ralph E. Caudle, Sr., Colonel, USAF (Ret.), Pumphrey Funeral Homes, Rockville, Maryland.
+[^25]: The Wackenhut Corporation, annual reports for 1984, 1985 and 1986, Danny Casolaro papers, folder "Wackenhut-CompanyReportsannualQuarterly," Internet Archive item casolaro-notebooks.
+[^26]: Nuclear Materials Management, vol. 9, no. 1 (Spring 1980), announcement of appointments at NUSAC, Incorporated. https://resources.inmm.org/system/files/jnmm/vol_09/V-9_1.pdf
+[^27]: The Wackenhut Corporation, Form 10-K, fiscal year ended January 1, 1995.
+[^28]: Federal Procurement Data System, contract records for DE-AC08-87NV10559 (Nevada Operations Office) and DE-AC09-99SR18950 (Savannah River), including the $901.6 million obligation.
+[^29]: Edward J. Markey, press release and letter to Secretary of Energy Samuel Bodman, February 17, 2005, citing a March 2004 Inspector General report, a January 2004 finding and a February 11, 2005 Inspector General report; Markey's characterizations are his. https://www.markey.senate.gov/news/press-releases/february-17-2005-markey-questions-doe-on-security-failures-at-nuclear-facilities
+[^30]: U.S. Department of Energy, DOE/MA-0518, "Origins of the Nevada Test Site," description of the site (p. 1) and the Groom Lake reference (p. 20).
+[^31]: Nevada National Security Site, history of the Nevada Test Site, including the December 18, 1950 authorization and the 1955 renaming. https://www.nnss.gov/
+[^32]: Gregory W. Pedlow and Donald E. Welzenbach, The CIA and the U-2 Program, 1954-1974, chapter 6, pp. 274 to 275, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 434.
+[^33]: U.S. Department of Energy, "Strategic Petroleum Reserve." https://www.energy.gov/ceser/strategic-petroleum-reserve
+[^34]: Energy Policy and Conservation Act, Public Law 94-163, 89 Stat. 871 (December 22, 1975), sec. 154(a).
+[^35]: Headquarters, 17th District, Office of Special Investigations, Kirtland Air Force Base, "Summary of Observations of Aerial Phenomena in the New Mexico Area, December 1948 to May 1950," May 25, 1950, to the Director of Special Investigations, Headquarters USAF, in FBI file 62-HQ-83894, section 6, Internet Archive item 65-hs-1-834228961-62-hq-83894-section-6; released by the Department of War, May 8, 2026.
+[^36]: Atomic Energy Commission, Santa Fe Directed Operations, transcript of "Conference on Aerial Phenomena," held at 1300, February 16, 1949, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, with cover letter of March 22, 1949 from Sidney Newburger, Jr. to Lt. Cmdr. Richard Mandelkorn, Armed Forces Special Weapons Project, Sandia Base, Secret, declassified under NND 58378, released as DOE-UAP-D004, July 10, 2026. https://www.war.gov/medialink/ufo/071026/release_04/documents/DOE-UAP-D004_Los-Alamos-Conference-on-Aerial-Phenomena_1949.pdf (archived copy: http://web.archive.org/web/20260916001405/https://www.war.gov/medialink/ufo/071026/release_04/documents/DOE-UAP-D004_Los-Alamos-Conference-on-Aerial-Phenomena_1949.pdf).
+[^37]: CBS News, "Pentagon releases new batch of UFO files," July 10, 2026, on the fourth release. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/ufo-files-4th-release-pentagon/
+[^38]: Special agent in charge, San Antonio, to the Director, FBI, "Protection of Vital Installations," March 22, 1949, FBI file 62-HQ-83894, section 4, Internet Archive item 65-hs-1-834228961-62-hq-83894-section-6.
+[^39]: Louis Elterman, Geophysics Research Division, Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories, Project Twinkle final report, with transmittal of December 11, 1951, Internet Archive item project-twinkle-november-1951.
+[^40]: Edward J. Ruppelt, The Report on Unidentified Flying Objects (Doubleday, 1956), chapters 1, 4, 9, 12 and 14 and the text on the Atomic Energy Commission physicists, Project Gutenberg edition 17346.
+[^41]: DOE-UAP-D002 (Los Alamos Protective Force correspondence, November 23, 1970) and DOE-UAP-D003 (Pajarito Astronomers newsletter, May 20, 1986), Department of War UAP release 02, May 22, 2026 (release listing: https://www.war.gov/medialink/ufo/052226/release_02/documents/DOE-UAP-D002_JamesTuck_Correspondence.pdf); the release is reported in Stefan Becket, "Pentagon releases more UFO files," CBS News, May 22, 2026, https://www.cbsnews.com/news/ufo-files-pentagon-videos-documents/. Document text: UAP Archives, https://uap-files.org/documento/324a9795356cc793 (D002) and https://uap-files.org/documento/89ecb1163e42d3e8 (D003).
+[^42]: Special agent in charge, Knoxville, to the Director, FBI, "'Flying Saucers' Observed Over Oak Ridge Area," FBI file 62-HQ-83894, section 4, released by the Department of War, May 8, 2026.
+[^43]: FBI memorandum on the Air Force's flying disc inquiry and Colonel Gasser's confidential advice, FBI file 62-HQ-83894, section 4.
+[^44]: Colonel C. D. Gasser to G. J. Rathman, February 10, 1949; Special agent in charge, Knoxville, to the Director, FBI, February 18, 1949, FBI file 62-HQ-83894, section 4.
+[^45]: Special agent in charge, Knoxville, "Unknown Object Over Oak Ridge, Tennessee, March 1, 1950," FBI file 62-HQ-83894, section 5.
+[^46]: FBI file 62-HQ-83894, section 6: Knoxville letters on radar detection of unidentified objects over Oak Ridge, October 1950; teletype from Hoover, December 5, 1950; Knoxville memorandum of February 10, 1951.
+[^47]: Associated Press dispatch, July 1947, and related press clippings, FBI file 62-HQ-83894, sub-file A.
+[^48]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Scientific Intelligence, Scientific Advisory Panel on Unidentified Flying Objects, meetings of January 14 to 18, 1953, CIA-RDP79B00752A000300100010-4.
+[^49]: Headquarters Fourth Army, Fort Sam Houston, Assistant Chief of Staff G-2, summary on an "Unconventional Aircraft" sighting at Sandia Base, February 1949, Internet Archive item 1949-02-6792613-SandiaBase-N-M.
+[^50]: AFOSI Form 96, Multipurpose Internal OSI Form, file 8017D93-0/29, "Kirtland AFB, NM, 8 Aug - 3 Sep 80, Alleged Sightings of Unidentified Aerial Lights in Restricted Test Range," transmittal date October 28, 1980, signed Thomas A. Cseh, Appendix E, p. 93 to 94, of William L. Moore and Jaime H. Shandera, The MJ-12 Documents: An Analytical Report (Fund for UFO Research, 1990). http://www.openminds.tv/wp-content/uploads/S1-Bennewitz-AFOSI-Visit-Oct-80.pdf
+[^51]: AFOSI Form 96, file 8017D93-0/29, transmittal date November 26, 1980, Appendix E, pp. 95 to 96, Moore and Shandera, MJ-12 Documents. http://www.openminds.tv/wp-content/uploads/S3-Bennewitz-Kirtland-Bennewitz-Meeting-Nov-80.pdf
+[^52]: AFOSI Form 158, AFOSI Communication, "Dr. Paul Fredrick Bennewitz, Congressional Inquiry," July 30, 1981, AFOSI District 17/CC, signed Frank M. Huey, Appendix E, p. 97, Moore and Shandera, MJ-12 Documents. http://www.openminds.tv/wp-content/uploads/S4-Bennewitz-AFOSI-Domenici-July-81.pdf
+[^53]: Anonymous letter to the Aerial Phenomena Research Organization, July 1980, Appendix B, pp. 81 to 82, Moore and Shandera, MJ-12 Documents. http://www.openminds.tv/wp-content/uploads/S17-Weitzel-Letter.pdf
+[^54]: William L. Moore, "UFOs and the U.S. Government, Part I," address to the MUFON International UFO Symposium, Las Vegas, July 1, 1989, quoted in Moore and Shandera, The MJ-12 Documents: An Analytical Report (Fund for UFO Research, 1990), "The Weitzel Letter (July, 1980)," p. 6. http://www.openminds.tv/wp-content/uploads/The-MJ-12-Documents-An-Analytical-Report-Excerpts.pdf
+[^55]: "Greg Bishop and Richard Doty, Coast to Coast AM with host Art Bell," transcript of the broadcast of February 27, 2005. http://www.openminds.tv/wp-content/uploads/S5-Greg-Bishop-and-Richard-Doty-Coast-to-Coast-AM-with-host-Art-Bell-Interview-Transcript.pdf
+[^56]: Robert Hastings, "The MJ-12 Affair: Facts, Questions, Comments," March 1, 1989.
+[^57]: William L. Moore, account of the Aquarius teletype as reproduced in the UFO BBS file on the MJ-12 documents, textfiles.com UFO collection.
+[^58]: The Black Vault, post on the personnel records of Richard C. Doty, May 20, 2021; National Personnel Records Center release to Alejandro Rojas, April 26, 2013, request no. 2-11444310069; Coast to Coast AM, broadcast of February 27, 2005.
+[^59]: Philip J. Klass, Skeptics UFO Newsletter no. 44, March 1997, pp. 1 to 5. https://cdn.centerforinquiry.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/29/docs/SUN/SUN44.pdf
+[^60]: U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Oversight and Accountability, Subcommittee on National Security, the Border, and Foreign Affairs, hearing of July 26, 2023, Serial No. 118-53, transcript pp. 43 to 44.
+[^61]: S. 2226, 118th Congress, as passed by the Senate, Division G, secs. 9003(22) and 9003(23)(B), (F), (H) and (X).
+[^62]: Public Law 118-31, National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2024, div. A, title XVIII, subtitle C, secs. 1841 to 1843, 137 Stat. 699 and following.
+[^63]: DOE-UAP-D001, Pantex image pages 5 and 6 of 6, Department of War UAP release 02, May 22, 2026 (release listing: https://www.war.gov/medialink/ufo/052226/release_02/documents/DOE-UAP-D001_PANTEX_Image.pdf); the Department of Energy files in the release, including one from Pantex, are reported in Stefan Becket, "Pentagon releases more UFO files," CBS News, May 22, 2026, https://www.cbsnews.com/news/ufo-files-pentagon-videos-documents/. Document text: UAP Archives, https://uap-files.org/documento/4c007724fa7325d2.
+[^64]: DOE-UAP-D005, PANTEX Unidentified Object Incident Report, September 2, 2015, 7 pp., Consolidated Nuclear Security, LLC, Pantex Plant, Department of War UAP release 04, July 10, 2026 (release listing: https://www.war.gov/medialink/ufo/071026/release_04/documents/DOE-UAP-D005_Pantex-Unidentified-Object-Incident-Report_2015.pdf); the quoted passages are those printed in CBS News, "Pentagon releases new batch of UFO files," July 10, 2026, https://www.cbsnews.com/news/ufo-files-4th-release-pentagon/. Document text: UAP Archives, https://uap-files.org/documento/249cd9f5b85c4a92.
+[^65]: "EWD NOTES 10/16/02, Eric Davis Meeting with Adm. Wilson," 15 pp., wilsonleak.pdf, The Black Vault.
+[^66]: John Greenewald, The Black Vault analysis of the Wilson-Davis notes, including the April 19, 2019 Imgur upload of the images and the statement that the document has no provenance.
+[^67]: Defense Intelligence Agency information memorandum U-429-09, October 30, 2009, on the review of advanced aerospace contract deliverables.
+[^68]: Department of Homeland Security response of June 20, 2023, case 2022-HQFO-00386, with the enclosure "BAASS Goals 2011/2012," as posted by Marc Cecotti on X.
+[^69]: William Burr and Avner Cohen, "The Vela Incident: South Atlantic Mystery Flash in September 1979 Raised Questions about Nuclear Test," National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 570, December 6, 2016.
+[^70]: Jeffrey T. Richelson, ed., "The Vela Incident: Nuclear Test or Meteoroid?" National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 190, May 5, 2006, documents 2 (Barasch), 6, 7 (Horak), 8 (Mauth) and 9 (Ad Hoc Panel report, May 23, 1980) and the document descriptions. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB190/index.htm
+[^71]: Joint Atomic Energy Intelligence Committee, memorandum for the Director of Central Intelligence, February 14, 1980, "Judgments of the DCI's Nuclear Intelligence Panel on the 22 September 1979 Event," Secret, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 190, doc. 6. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB190/06.pdf
+[^72]: SRI document on the Psychoenergetics Science Advisory Panel, February 1984, CIA-RDP96-00792R000600310001-7.
+[^73]: Ross E. Cowey, director of Strategic Affairs, Office of Intelligence and Research, memorandum for the files, October 10, 1979, Secret, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 570, doc. 10.
+[^74]: Jerry Oplinger to Henry Owen, "South Atlantic Event," January 23, 1980, Secret, Jimmy Carter Presidential Library, NLC-28-32-4-16-5, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 570, doc. 33.
+[^75]: R. S. Hawke, outline of acoustic emission experiments with a person reputed to have paranormal metal bending abilities, January 11, 1979, CIA-RDP96-00788R001100100001-9.
+[^76]: Routing note, undated, CIA-RDP96-00788R001100100002-8.
+[^77]: Army memorandum, October 22, 1979, setting a visit to Hawke at Lawrence Livermore for November 6, 1979, CIA-RDP96-00788R001200230014-0.
+[^78]: Report of the Grill Flame Scientific Evaluation Committee, December 1979, chairman Manfred Gale, annex 7 (Hawke's investigations) and annex 2 (visits), CIA-RDP96-00788R001300120001-5.
+[^79]: R. S. Hawke to Ruth M. Davis, letter EMS79-0117, December 26, 1979, CIA-RDP96-00788R001100100003-7.
+[^80]: Ruth M. Davis, deputy under secretary of defense for research and engineering (research and advanced technology), memorandum to Jack Vorona, November 20, 1978, CIA-RDP96-00787R000500240017-5.
+[^81]: Ruth M. Davis, memorandum, July 9, 1979, signed as deputy under secretary of defense for research and engineering (research and advanced technology), CIA-RDP96-00788R001200230005-0.
+[^82]: Minutes of steering committee meeting, October 30, 1979, CIA-RDP96-00788R002000100007-3 and CIA-RDP96-00788R002000250021-1.
+[^83]: Stoner note, undated, CIA-RDP96-00788R002000250019-4.
+[^84]: Jimmy Carter, "Department of Energy: Nomination of Ruth M. Davis To Be an Assistant Secretary," announcement of September 12, 1979, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/department-energy-nomination-ruth-m-davis-be-assistant-secretary
+[^85]: Electro/77 session on the state of the art in psychic research, New York, April 19 to 21, 1977, CIA-RDP96-00787R000500060001-2.
+[^86]: SRI program review, March 1, 1984, signed by W. Ross Adey and F. Zachariasen, CIA-RDP96-00789R003300170001-7.
+[^87]: Defense Intelligence Agency letter to Senator William Proxmire, May 16, 1984, CIA-RDP96-00788R001100370004-7.
+[^88]: Annie Jacobsen, Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis (Little, Brown, 2017), account of the Sun Streak panel of January 31, 1986.
+[^89]: Undated Defense Intelligence Agency summary of American psychoenergetics research facilities, CIA-RDP96-00788R001100260003-0.
+[^90]: Defense Intelligence Agency document, August 7, 1984, CIA-RDP96-00788R001800210001-0.
+[^91]: Edward R. Flynn, Los Alamos National Laboratory, to Peter J. McNelis, SRI International, August 5, 1987, appended to SRI Final Technical Report, "Enhanced Human Performance Investigation," December 1987, CIA-RDP96-00789R002200150001-1 and CIA-RDP96-00787R000300100001-9.
+[^92]: SRI report, fiscal 1988, CIA-RDP96-00789R002200670001-4; SRI Final Technical Report, "Enhanced Human Performance Investigation," December 1988, CIA-RDP96-00789R002200380001-6.
+[^93]: SRI Final Report, Objective D, Task 1, "Neurophysiological Correlates to Remote Viewing," December 1988, CIA-RDP96-00789R002200320001-2.
+[^94]: Science Applications International Corporation proposal, August 27, 1992, CIA-RDP96-00789R003100200001-5.
+[^95]: Defense Intelligence Agency purchase request, fiscal 1991, for a contract with Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) for biophysical research and analysis, CIA-RDP96-00789R003000420013-9.
+[^96]: Defense Intelligence Agency, "Statement of Work for Biophysical Research and Analysis," fiscal 1991, CIA-RDP96-00789R003000420015-7.
+[^97]: Sandia National Laboratories, Low Observable Projects Department, "White Paper on Brain Disorder Phenomenology Using Noninvasive Brain Analysis," CIA-RDP96-00789R003300190001-5.
+[^98]: Defense Intelligence Agency monthly activity report covering September 1994, CIA-RDP96-00789R002500230016-3 and CIA-RDP96-00789R002500230017-2.
+[^99]: STAR GATE research and peer review plan, June 1994, CIA-RDP96-00789R002700010001-1.
+[^100]: Minutes of the Project Oversight Panel, April 9, 1991, CIA-RDP96-00789R002900550001-0.
+[^101]: Star Gate Scientific Oversight Committee roster, CIA-RDP96-00789R003000330001-2.
+[^102]: SRI report on an application-oriented remote viewing experiment, April 1988, CIA-RDP96-00789R003200160001-9.
+[^103]: Robert G. Jahn, undated Princeton Alumni Weekly article, CIA-RDP96-00787R000500070001-1.
+[^104]: Reproductions of James "Oke" Shannon's handwritten notes and Jack Houck's notes and handouts, including form DOE F 5631.20 dated May 8, 1985, in the appendices of the Loose Threads Report, pp. 15, 166 and 187 to 188. https://anomalyarchives.org/wp-content/uploads/PDF-Loose-Threads.pdf
+[^105]: Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments, Final Report (October 1995), pp. 238 to 239, 245, 249, 252, 266 to 267, and preface pp. 2 to 3 and 8. OSTI biblio 123541.
+[^106]: U.S. Department of Energy, Human Radiation Experiments: The Department of Energy Roadmap to the Story and the Records, DOE/EH-0445 (February 1995), foreword and chapter 1. https://ehss.energy.gov/ohre/roadmap/
+[^107]: 50 U.S.C. 3003(4)(H), definition of "intelligence community." https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/50/3003
+[^108]: Statement by Attorney General Janet Reno and FBI Director Louis Freeh on the Wen Ho Lee case, September 2000. https://sgp.fas.org/congress/2000/freeh.html
+[^109]: U.S. Department of Justice, statement of Attorney General Janet Reno on the guilty plea of Wen Ho Lee, release 537, September 13, 2000. https://www.justice.gov/archive/opa/pr/2000/September/537ag.htm
+[^110]: Senate Judiciary Committee, 2001 report on the Wen Ho Lee investigation, including the transcript passages of Judge Parker's statements of September 13, 2000 and the passage on the polygraph of December 23, 1998. https://irp.fas.org/congress/2001_rpt/whl.html
+[^111]: House Select Committee on U.S. National Security and Military/Commercial Concerns with the People's Republic of China, H. Rept. 105-851, overview p. xi and pp. 92 to 93.
+[^112]: Senator Arlen Specter, interim report on the investigation of Dr. Wen Ho Lee. https://irp.fas.org/congress/2000_rpt/specter.html
+[^113]: National Security Archive, "The NUMEC Affair," Briefing Book No. 565, November 2, 2016, documents 1 to 42.
+[^114]: National Security Archive, NUMEC Briefing Book No. 565, document 3 (Seaborg to Holifield, February 1966), document 4 (Hollingsworth letter, AEC general manager) and document 21 (Shapiro file, 61 kilograms).
+[^115]: General Accounting Office, letter B-157767 to the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, June 20, 1967, National Security Archive Briefing Book No. 565, document 7.
+[^116]: FBI memorandum, 1976, National Security Archive Briefing Book No. 565, document 20.
+[^117]: FBI Washington Field Office report on Zalman Shapiro, 1977, National Security Archive Briefing Book No. 565, document 24.
+[^118]: Central Intelligence Agency memorandum, 1972, on possible diversion of weapons-grade material to Israel from NUMEC, National Security Archive Briefing Book No. 565, document 18.
+[^119]: Alan Friedman, Spider's Web: The Secret History of How the White House Illegally Armed Iraq (Bantam, 1993), pp. 153 to 156, 162, 192, 216 and 221.
+[^120]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, entry for Gregory Howard Woods III (general counsel, U.S. Department of Energy, 2012 to 2013). https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/woods-gregory-howard-iii
+[^121]: White House, "President Obama Nominates Two to Serve on the United States District Court," May 9, 2013. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2013/05/09/president-obama-nominates-two-serve-united-states-district-court

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Department of Justice.md

@@ -25,7 +25,7 @@ start: 1870-07-01
 location: "Washington, D.C."
 ---
 
-The Department of Justice, established in 1870 under the Attorney General, contains the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]], the [[DEA]], the [[Executive Office for United States Attorneys]] and the ninety-odd [[U.S. Attorney's office|United States Attorneys]], the Criminal, Civil and Civil Rights Divisions, the [[Office of Special Investigations]], the Office of Legal Counsel, the [[Office of Professional Responsibility]] and, until the Justice Assistance Act of 1984 replaced its statutory authority, the [[LEAA|Law Enforcement Assistance Administration]], whose grants funded the case-tracking software that became [[PROMIS]]. Its grant programs had ended in practice after fiscal 1980.[^1][^2][^3]
+The Department of Justice, established in 1870 under the Attorney General, contains the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]], the [[DEA]], the [[Executive Office for United States Attorneys]] and the ninety-odd [[United States Attorney|United States Attorneys]], the Criminal, Civil and Civil Rights Divisions, the [[Office of Special Investigations]], the Office of Legal Counsel, the [[Office of Professional Responsibility]] and, until the Justice Assistance Act of 1984 replaced its statutory authority, the [[LEAA|Law Enforcement Assistance Administration]], whose grants funded the case-tracking software that became [[PROMIS]]. Its grant programs had ended in practice after fiscal 1980.[^1][^2][^3]
 
 ### INSLAW and PROMIS
 

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Executive Office for United States Attorneys.md

@@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ created: 2026-09-22
 updated: 2026-09-22
 ---
 
-The Executive Office for United States Attorneys is the [[Department of Justice]] office, established by Attorney General Order No. 8-53 of April 6, 1953, under Herbert Brownell, that provides executive assistance and supervision to the [[U.S. Attorney's office|United States Attorneys]] in the federal districts. It evaluates their performance, coordinates them with other agencies, maintains the United States Attorneys' Manual, runs their legal training, supports the Attorney General's Advisory Committee, sets policy for collecting criminal fines, handles their budgets, Freedom of Information Act responses, congressional liaison, facilities and security. James R. Browning organized the office as its first chief in 1953. Its directors in the years of the INSLAW dispute were William P. Tyson, from 1977 to 1987, Laurence S. McWhorter, from 1987 to 1992, and [[Anthony Moscato]], acting director and then director from 1992 to 1994, followed by Carol DiBattiste.[^1]
+The Executive Office for United States Attorneys is the [[Department of Justice]] office, established by Attorney General Order No. 8-53 of April 6, 1953, under Herbert Brownell, that provides executive assistance and supervision to the [[United States Attorney|United States Attorneys]] in the federal districts. It evaluates their performance, coordinates them with other agencies, maintains the United States Attorneys' Manual, runs their legal training, supports the Attorney General's Advisory Committee, sets policy for collecting criminal fines, handles their budgets, Freedom of Information Act responses, congressional liaison, facilities and security. James R. Browning organized the office as its first chief in 1953. Its directors in the years of the INSLAW dispute were William P. Tyson, from 1977 to 1987, Laurence S. McWhorter, from 1987 to 1992, and [[Anthony Moscato]], acting director and then director from 1992 to 1994, followed by Carol DiBattiste.[^1]
 
 ### The PROMIS Contract
 

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Federal Bureau of Narcotics.md

@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@ location: Washington, D.C.
 created: 2026-06-03
 updated: 2026-06-12
 ---
-The Federal Bureau of Narcotics (FBN) was a U.S. government agency whose agents collaborated closely with the [[CIA]] on behavioral control operations. [[George White]], a [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]] veteran who worked as a narcotics agent, used his Bureau position as cover to operate [[Safehouses|safehouses]] in [[New York]] and [[San Francisco]] where the CIA conducted unwitting drug experiments. The Bureau provided access to drug offenders and prostitutes who became unwitting experimental subjects. Narcotics agent [[Charles Siragusa]] ran a New York safehouse, opened in 1961, while White operated in San Francisco.[^1]
+The Federal Bureau of Narcotics (FBN) was a U.S. government agency whose agents collaborated closely with the [[CIA]] on behavioral control operations. [[George White]], a [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]] veteran who worked as a narcotics agent, used his Bureau position as cover to operate [[Safehouses|safehouses]] in [[New York City|New York]] and [[San Francisco]] where the CIA conducted unwitting drug experiments. The Bureau provided access to drug offenders and prostitutes who became unwitting experimental subjects. Narcotics agent [[Charles Siragusa]] ran a New York safehouse, opened in 1961, while White operated in San Francisco.[^1]
 
 ### Founding and succession
 

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/NSA.md

@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 ---
 created: 2025-03-05
-updated: 2026-10-12
+updated: 2026-10-15
 title: NSA
 aliases:
   - NSA
@@ -118,7 +118,7 @@ The 2022 and 2024 reports described Southall and Paul Abram as two United States
 
 The Panel recorded that Abram, a former United States Air Force security services officer, had said he was attached to an NSA listening post at Iraklion, Greece. It assessed that his claim to have performed special duties at the time appeared to be valid, on the basis of a discharge record describing him as a "voice intercept procedure specialist," but could not confirm that he was posted to Iraklion at the time.[^32] The 2017 report recorded that the United States confirmed his service record only in July 2017, with information that disputed his location at the time he reported hearing the intercept.[^33]
 
-The National Security Archive at George Washington University filed Freedom of Information Act requests on behalf of the 2013 Commission of Jurists for any NSA recording or transcript of radio traffic on the night of September 17 and 18, 1961 appearing to relate to one aircraft firing upon another, and for any message intercepted concerning the approach of an aircraft to Ndola.[^34] The NSA's initial response indicated that two of three responsive documents appeared exempt by reason of "top secret" classification, and that the third was not held by the NSA; an appeal was lodged.[^34] The agency told the commission that releasing the two files "could reasonably be expected to cause exceptionally grave damage to the national security."[^35] The Swedish newspaper SvD Nyheter reported on November 21, 2014 that the United States had given the Swedish foreign minister, Carl Bildt, access to the two files, quoting him as saying that the information was "trivial and unimportant." In 2015 one member of the Independent Panel, of Australian nationality, was given full access to the two files and assessed that they contained no information on the interception of communications about an attack on SE-BDY.[^35] On June 9, 2015 the United States told the Panel that its search of NSA and CIA records had not found documents matching the materials requested.[^35]
+The [[National Security Archive]] at [[George Washington University]] filed Freedom of Information Act requests on behalf of the 2013 Commission of Jurists for any NSA recording or transcript of radio traffic on the night of September 17 and 18, 1961 appearing to relate to one aircraft firing upon another, and for any message intercepted concerning the approach of an aircraft to Ndola.[^34] The NSA's initial response indicated that two of three responsive documents appeared exempt by reason of "top secret" classification, and that the third was not held by the NSA; an appeal was lodged.[^34] The agency told the commission that releasing the two files "could reasonably be expected to cause exceptionally grave damage to the national security."[^35] The Swedish newspaper SvD Nyheter reported on November 21, 2014 that the United States had given the Swedish foreign minister, Carl Bildt, access to the two files, quoting him as saying that the information was "trivial and unimportant." In 2015 one member of the Independent Panel, of Australian nationality, was given full access to the two files and assessed that they contained no information on the interception of communications about an attack on SE-BDY.[^35] On June 9, 2015 the United States told the Panel that its search of NSA and CIA records had not found documents matching the materials requested.[^35]
 
 The 2024 report described Dakota aircraft at Ndola equipped to intercept, transmit and receive communications over long distances, and wrote that there was "a reasonable evidentiary basis" to consider that these aircraft "may have overheard or relayed communications from or about flight SE-BDY."[^31]
 

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Office of Technical Service.md

@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 ---
 created: 2025-07-22
-updated: 2026-10-09
+updated: 2026-10-15
 title: Office of Technical Service
 aliases:
   - OTS
@@ -75,7 +75,7 @@ relations:
     start: 1974-07
     end: 1980-06
     role: "Director of the Office of Technical Service; wrote on February 20, 1976 that he had directed termination of OTS support to the SRI parapsychology work"
-    fn: 28
+    fn: 30
   - type: head_of
     with: "[[Milton C. Wonus]]"
     reverse: true
@@ -128,7 +128,7 @@ relations:
     start: 1971-07
     end: 1971-08
     role: "technical officers supplied alias documents, disguise materials, a tape recorder and a Tessina camera to E. Howard Hunt and G. Gordon Liddy; the assistance was stopped on August 27, 1971"
-    fn: 38
+    fn: 40
 ---
 
 The Office of Technical Service (OTS) is the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]'s technical component, the unit that supplied covert operations with disguises, alias documents, bugs, taps, concealment devices and, in its early years, chemical and biological materials.[^1] It was the [[Technical Services Staff]] (TSS) from 1951 to 1960, the [[Technical Services Division]] (TSD) from 1960 to 1973, and the Office of Technical Service from 1973, when it was moved from the Directorate of Plans to the [[Directorate of Science and Technology]]. The agency's official history dates the TSS's creation to September 7, 1951.[^1] [[Jim Schnabel]] calls the office the "Q Branch" of the CIA, after the gadget-supplying division of the James Bond films.[^2]
@@ -177,13 +177,13 @@ A July 1986 memorandum from the Assistant for Coordination and Strategy of the O
 
 ### Remote viewing at SRI, 1961 to 1976
 
-[[Kenneth A. Kress]] wrote that one of the earliest US Government parapsychology investigations was prompted when the chief of the OTS, then the TSD, became interested in claims of ESP. Technical project officers contacted [[Stephen I. Abrams]], Director of the Parapsychological Laboratory at [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]], who "under the auspices of Project ULTRA" prepared a review article, dated December 14, 1965, claiming that ESP was demonstrated but not understood or controllable; the report "produced no further action for another decade."[^24] An OTS chronology prepared in 1977 gives OTS involvement up to 1961 as "Monitoring only."[^25]
+[[Kenneth A. Kress]] wrote that one of the earliest US Government parapsychology investigations was prompted when the chief of the OTS, then the TSD, became interested in claims of ESP. Technical project officers contacted [[Stephen I. Abrams]], Director of the Parapsychological Laboratory at [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]], who "under the auspices of Project ULTRA" prepared a review article, dated December 14, 1965, claiming that ESP was demonstrated but not understood or controllable; the report "produced no further action for another decade."[^24] An OTS chronology prepared in 1977 gives OTS involvement up to 1961 as "Monitoring only."[^25] A CIA report dated February 1989 dates the start of the agency's work on ESP claims to 1961, and a 1992 Defense Intelligence College thesis by Captain [[Michael E. Zarbo]], US Army, states that the Office of Technical Service commissioned the Oxford review.[^26][^27]
 
 The OTS and ORD sponsorship at SRI was the early funding of the [[Stargate Project]]. In April 1972 [[Russell Targ]] met CIA personnel from the [[Office of Scientific Intelligence]] and described Soviet psychokinesis films and people who had documented Soviet investigations. The Office of Scientific Intelligence then contacted ORD and OTS.[^24] Kress, a physicist then working as a covert employee, wrote in 1977 that in August 1972 an OTS project officer contracted for a demonstration at [[Stanford Research Institute]] (SRI) for $874, with one OTS and one ORD representative present, and that the subject described objects hidden from him by CIA personnel. The Director of OTS reviewed the data and approved another $2,500 work order. Kress wrote: "By October, 1972, I was the Project Officer," for an OTS-funded expanded effort of $50,000 in parapsychology under OTS Contract 8473 of October 1, 1972.[^24] The OTS chronology records that under the October 1972 contract the two subjects produced inconsistent results, one able to change a temperature and the other to reproduce information in a sealed envelope.[^25] Kress wrote that he "began to have serious feelings of being involved with a fraud."[^24]
 
 In February 1973 ORD sent new project officers to SRI, and ORD then asked for an increase in the scope of the effort and transferred funds to OTS, which the chronology records as the point at which the project became a joint OTS and ORD effort. The chronology dates the discovery of a third subject, Pat Price, to March 1973.[^24][^25]
 
-A 1973 memorandum, DD/S&T 3697-73, from [[Carl Duckett]], the Deputy Director for Science and Technology, to the Director of Central Intelligence recommended that the investigation of paranormal perception be carried out at SRI as a jointly funded ORD and OTS project at a cost of $149,555. It proposed that about 50 percent of the effort go to the operational use of "gifted" individuals, 20 percent to characteristics identifying such subjects, 20 percent to neurophysiological correlates and 10 percent to validation. Its first page is stamped December 5, 1973, and its approval block is for [[William Colby]] as Director.[^26] A companion version over the signatures of John N. McMahon, Director of the Office of Technical Service, and [[Sayre Stevens]], Director of the Office of Research and Development, was addressed to the Deputy Director for Science and Technology and describes the objectives as twofold.[^27] Both versions called the work a tightly directed advanced research project, recommended a secret-level contract, and listed the risks as embarrassment at being involved in an assumed fraud, adverse propaganda over psychic mind-altering or control techniques, and the questionable stability of some subjects. They said open association with the CIA would be deleterious to the careers of the investigators and the credibility of the institute.[^26][^27]
+A 1973 memorandum, DD/S&T 3697-73, from [[Carl Duckett]], the Deputy Director for Science and Technology, to the Director of Central Intelligence recommended that the investigation of paranormal perception be carried out at SRI as a jointly funded ORD and OTS project at a cost of $149,555. It proposed that about 50 percent of the effort go to the operational use of "gifted" individuals, 20 percent to characteristics identifying such subjects, 20 percent to neurophysiological correlates and 10 percent to validation. Its first page is stamped December 5, 1973, and its approval block is for [[William Colby]] as Director.[^28] A companion version over the signatures of John N. McMahon, Director of the Office of Technical Service, and [[Sayre Stevens]], Director of the Office of Research and Development, was addressed to the Deputy Director for Science and Technology and describes the objectives as twofold.[^29] Both versions called the work a tightly directed advanced research project, recommended a secret-level contract, and listed the risks as embarrassment at being involved in an assumed fraud, adverse propaganda over psychic mind-altering or control techniques, and the questionable stability of some subjects. They said open association with the CIA would be deleterious to the careers of the investigators and the credibility of the institute.[^28][^29]
 
 Kress wrote that OTS "was then being investigated for involvement in the Watergate affair" when he was told in 1973 to stop expanding the work. Colby, then Deputy Director for Operations, decided on April 24 that the Executive Management Committee should review the project, and the approval memorandum went to Director [[James R. Schlesinger]] in May 1973; the OTS chronology records that the contract was sent to Schlesinger in May, who allowed the existing contract to be completed without a follow-on, and that OTS was told the work was too sensitive and potentially embarrassing.[^24][^25] During the summer of 1973 SRI continued working informally with an Office of Scientific Intelligence officer on a remote viewing experiment, and the chronology states that its results persuaded the new Director of Central Intelligence, Colby, to renew work on ESP.[^25] A jointly funded ORD and OTS program was begun in February 1974. Kress wrote that the OTS funds were to evaluate the operational utility of psychic subjects "without regard to the detailed understanding of paranormal functioning."[^24] The chronology adds that disagreements developed among ORD, OTS and the contractor: ORD wanted strict experimental procedures, OTS wanted practical applications, the contractor wanted fewer security constraints, and ORD and OTS reached different interpretations of the same data. New directors were named to both offices, and neither director felt comfortable with the project.[^25]
 
@@ -193,31 +193,31 @@ Kress also records an OTS challenge to "do something of genuine operational sign
 
 Kress wrote that ORD project officers judged the research "not productive or even competent" and dropped research support to SRI, that the Director of OTS felt the OTS charter would not support research so that all Agency funding in paranormal research stopped, and that a personal services contract with Price was started, with testing and evaluation of Price transferred to an OTS operations psychologist.[^24] The OTS chronology records that responsibility passed to an OTS psychologist who was told to devote no more than two percent of his time to the work, and that two OTS staff officers who had also demonstrated "remote viewing" ability worked with him.[^25]
 
-In the fall of 1974 several OTS engineers who had become aware of the project volunteered to attempt remote viewing, and passed initial tests at SRI with some apparent successes. Kress chose a Libyan Desk requirement to test them further; the Libyan Desk officer was immediately impressed and told Kress that an agent had reported essentially the same story. The OTS psychologist passed a second set of Libyan coordinates to Price, who returned a description of a guerrilla training site and an underwater sabotage training facility several hundred kilometers away on the coast. Kress wrote that Price "died of a heart attack a few days later," and that the program stopped.[^24] On February 20, 1976 Brandwein, as Director of OTS, wrote to the Director of Research and Development: "I directed that OTS support of this effort be terminated. I continue to believe that it would be inappropriate for us to continue it; however, if ORD desires to pick it up, be my guest."[^28] On October 7, 1976 he wrote, after seeing the minutes of the September 20, 1976 meeting of the Research and Development Subcommittee of the Human Resources Committee at which OTS personnel had briefed on past support, that "OTS will not support any further research in parapsychology."[^29] Kress closed his article: "This is not to say that parapsychology is a proven intelligence tool; it is to say that the evaluation is not yet complete and more research is needed."[^24]
+In the fall of 1974 several OTS engineers who had become aware of the project volunteered to attempt remote viewing, and passed initial tests at SRI with some apparent successes. Kress chose a Libyan Desk requirement to test them further; the Libyan Desk officer was immediately impressed and told Kress that an agent had reported essentially the same story. The OTS psychologist passed a second set of Libyan coordinates to Price, who returned a description of a guerrilla training site and an underwater sabotage training facility several hundred kilometers away on the coast. Kress wrote that Price "died of a heart attack a few days later," and that the program stopped.[^24] On February 20, 1976 Brandwein, as Director of OTS, wrote to the Director of Research and Development: "I directed that OTS support of this effort be terminated. I continue to believe that it would be inappropriate for us to continue it; however, if ORD desires to pick it up, be my guest."[^30] On October 7, 1976 he wrote, after seeing the minutes of the September 20, 1976 meeting of the Research and Development Subcommittee of the Human Resources Committee at which OTS personnel had briefed on past support, that "OTS will not support any further research in parapsychology."[^31] Kress closed his article: "This is not to say that parapsychology is a proven intelligence tool; it is to say that the evaluation is not yet complete and more research is needed."[^24]
 
-Price's death is recorded in the CIA's files as follows. The OTS chronology of 1977 has an undated entry, "Before a meeting can be set up, however, Mr. Price dies of a heart attack," followed by entries for September and October 1975, the latter reading "Mr. Price's death effectively ends all official OTS involvement in ESP research."[^25] [[John L. Wilhelm]]'s article of August 7, 1977 refers to "Pat Price, who died two years ago."[^30] An information paper of April 13, 1979 (DAMI-ISH) states: "In July 1975, Libyan coordinates were provided to Price, who came back with a description of a guerrilla training site," and that "the same month Price tragically died of a heart attack."[^31] Admiral Turner is quoted as saying at a breakfast for journalists in 1977 that "this subject died in 1975."[^32] The July 16, 1986 memorandum of the Office of Research and Development states: "Since Pat died in 1977."[^23]
+Price's death is recorded in the CIA's files as follows. The OTS chronology of 1977 has an undated entry, "Before a meeting can be set up, however, Mr. Price dies of a heart attack," followed by entries for September and October 1975, the latter reading "Mr. Price's death effectively ends all official OTS involvement in ESP research."[^25] [[John L. Wilhelm]]'s article of August 7, 1977 refers to "Pat Price, who died two years ago."[^32] An information paper of April 13, 1979 (DAMI-ISH) states: "In July 1975, Libyan coordinates were provided to Price, who came back with a description of a guerrilla training site," and that "the same month Price tragically died of a heart attack."[^33] Admiral Turner is quoted as saying at a breakfast for journalists in 1977 that "this subject died in 1975."[^34] The July 16, 1986 memorandum of the Office of Research and Development states: "Since Pat died in 1977."[^23]
 
 ### The police memorandum
 
-An undated memorandum for the record headed "Operational Use of Paranormals in Police Activities," written by an OTS officer whose name is redacted, reports that two paranormal subjects tested at SRI had produced impressive data on two police cases, the [[Patricia Hearst]] kidnapping and a [[Stanford University]] student homicide. The memorandum says the homicide data was generated spontaneously in an uncontrolled field environment and was witnessed by an OTS officer, and that an evaluation was attached in the form of interviews with the district attorney's office and the police officer in charge of the homicide case. It states that "even the appearance of CIA involvement with domestic police operations is a political explosive association," which had kept the writer from verifying the SRI claims directly.[^33]
+An undated memorandum for the record headed "Operational Use of Paranormals in Police Activities," written by an OTS officer whose name is redacted, reports that two paranormal subjects tested at SRI had produced impressive data on two police cases, the [[Patricia Hearst]] kidnapping and a [[Stanford University]] student homicide. The memorandum says the homicide data was generated spontaneously in an uncontrolled field environment and was witnessed by an OTS officer, and that an evaluation was attached in the form of interviews with the district attorney's office and the police officer in charge of the homicide case. It states that "even the appearance of CIA involvement with domestic police operations is a political explosive association," which had kept the writer from verifying the SRI claims directly.[^35]
 
 ### Wilhelm, the 1977 publicity and the House Intelligence Committee
 
-Wilhelm, a former [[Time (magazine)|Time]] reporter, wrote to the president of SRI in 1974 asking to interview [[Hal Puthoff]] and Targ. A CIA memorandum for the record of April 16, 1974 describes him as a former Time reporter, records that Puthoff telephoned the CIA about the request, and that the SRI investigators would grant the interview and confine the discussions to "the innocuous portions of their studies."[^34] On August 7, 1977 the [[Washington Post]] published "[[Psychic Spying]]?" by Wilhelm, identified in the article as a former national science correspondent for Time magazine and the author of "The Search for Superman," on the military potential of parapsychology.[^30] The [[House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence]] asked the CIA for a briefing. On November 16, 1977 OTS briefed the committee's staff, with Brandwein attending, giving a short oral history of OTS efforts in the field, "dating back to 1961," and left a written outline of the work, an unclassified article on the research at SRI, and "a brief article on Mr. Pat Price."[^35] Turner, the Director of Central Intelligence, had earlier referred to Price in remarks to reporters.[^2]
+Wilhelm, a former [[Time (magazine)|Time]] reporter, wrote to the president of SRI in 1974 asking to interview [[Hal Puthoff]] and Targ. A CIA memorandum for the record of April 16, 1974 describes him as a former Time reporter, records that Puthoff telephoned the CIA about the request, and that the SRI investigators would grant the interview and confine the discussions to "the innocuous portions of their studies."[^36] On August 7, 1977 the [[Washington Post]] published "[[Psychic Spying]]?" by Wilhelm, identified in the article as a former national science correspondent for Time magazine and the author of "The Search for Superman," on the military potential of parapsychology.[^32] The [[House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence]] asked the CIA for a briefing. On November 16, 1977 OTS briefed the committee's staff, with Brandwein attending, giving a short oral history of OTS efforts in the field, "dating back to 1961," and left a written outline of the work, an unclassified article on the research at SRI, and "a brief article on Mr. Pat Price."[^37] Turner, the Director of Central Intelligence, had earlier referred to Price in remarks to reporters.[^2]
 
 ### Scientology
 
-The article on Price left with the committee, described by OTS in its memorandum of November 17, 1977, gives Price as the newly appointed president of the [[Princess Coal Company]] in Huntington, [[West Virginia]]. It states that he credits [[Scientology]] for "opening new vistas and abilities of self to me and which I now use as a matter of fact."[^35] Wilhelm wrote in the Washington Post that Puthoff "is a high-ranking Scientologist," that Price "also was a high-level 'Operating Thetan,'" and that the involvement of Scientologists in the tests at SRI "partially accounts for at least two government agencies pulling back from funding further work there."[^30] Time on March 4, 1974 described Puthoff as "also a promoter of the bizarre and controversial cult of Scientology," and the [[New Scientist]] of October 17, 1974 wrote that Puthoff "is now a Scientologist (as is Ingo Swann)."[^36][^37]
+The article on Price left with the committee, described by OTS in its memorandum of November 17, 1977, gives Price as the newly appointed president of the [[Princess Coal Company]] in Huntington, [[West Virginia]]. It states that he credits [[Scientology]] for "opening new vistas and abilities of self to me and which I now use as a matter of fact."[^37] Wilhelm wrote in the Washington Post that Puthoff "is a high-ranking Scientologist," that Price "also was a high-level 'Operating Thetan,'" and that the involvement of Scientologists in the tests at SRI "partially accounts for at least two government agencies pulling back from funding further work there."[^32] Time on March 4, 1974 described Puthoff as "also a promoter of the bizarre and controversial cult of Scientology," and the [[New Scientist]] of October 17, 1974 wrote that Puthoff "is now a Scientologist (as is Ingo Swann)."[^38][^39]
 
 ### Watergate
 
-In July 1971 [[E. Howard Hunt]], then a White House security consultant, went to the CIA to ask for alias identification and some degree of physical disguise for a one-time operation. On July 22, 1971 he visited [[Robert E. Cushman Jr.|General Robert E. Cushman]], the Deputy Director of Central Intelligence, who had earlier received a call from [[John Ehrlichman]] about Hunt. Cushman directed the appropriate technical service to help. On July 23 Hunt received alias documents in the name "Edward Joseph Warren," a wig, glasses and a speech alteration device. He then arranged several meetings with technical officers through an unlisted telephone number, and received a commercial tape recorder in a typewriter case and a commercial Tessina camera disguised in a tobacco pouch. Hunt also brought in an associate, later identified from press photographs as [[G. Gordon Liddy]], and secured for him a disguise (a wig and glasses) and alias documents in the name "George F. Leonard."[^38]
+In July 1971 [[E. Howard Hunt]], then a White House security consultant, went to the CIA to ask for alias identification and some degree of physical disguise for a one-time operation. On July 22, 1971 he visited [[Robert E. Cushman Jr.|General Robert E. Cushman]], the Deputy Director of Central Intelligence, who had earlier received a call from [[John Ehrlichman]] about Hunt. Cushman directed the appropriate technical service to help. On July 23 Hunt received alias documents in the name "Edward Joseph Warren," a wig, glasses and a speech alteration device. He then arranged several meetings with technical officers through an unlisted telephone number, and received a commercial tape recorder in a typewriter case and a commercial Tessina camera disguised in a tobacco pouch. Hunt also brought in an associate, later identified from press photographs as [[G. Gordon Liddy]], and secured for him a disguise (a wig and glasses) and alias documents in the name "George F. Leonard."[^40]
 
-The technical officers raised their concern with senior officers. On August 27, 1971 Cushman telephoned Ehrlichman to say that further assistance could not be given, and the request for a New York mail address and telephone answering service was not honored. The Tessina camera was returned on August 27 as unsuitable. The Technical Services Division had no further association with Hunt after the end of August 1971. The break-in of the office of [[Lewis Fielding]], the psychiatrist of [[Daniel Ellsberg]], took place on or about September 3, 1971.[^38]
+The technical officers raised their concern with senior officers. On August 27, 1971 Cushman telephoned Ehrlichman to say that further assistance could not be given, and the request for a New York mail address and telephone answering service was not honored. The Tessina camera was returned on August 27 as unsuitable. The Technical Services Division had no further association with Hunt after the end of August 1971. The break-in of the office of [[Lewis Fielding]], the psychiatrist of [[Daniel Ellsberg]], took place on or about September 3, 1971.[^40]
 
-On May 11, 1973 James R. Schlesinger told the [[House Armed Services Committee]]'s Special Subcommittee on Intelligence that the CIA had outlined these events to the acting director of the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] in letters of July 5 and 7, 1972, and he offered the part of Hunt's testimony that bore on his CIA involvement for the record.[^38]
+On May 11, 1973 James R. Schlesinger told the [[House Armed Services Committee]]'s Special Subcommittee on Intelligence that the CIA had outlined these events to the acting director of the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] in letters of July 5 and 7, 1972, and he offered the part of Hunt's testimony that bore on his CIA involvement for the record.[^40]
 
-The [[Senate Watergate Committee]] took executive session testimony in February 1974 from a TSD technician, the Deputy Chief of the TSD and the Chief of the TSD.[^39] The staff report appended to Senator [[Howard Baker]]'s views states that the CIA's assistance to Hunt began on July 22, 1971, that the sequence of events produced "a wealth of conflicting testimony among CIA officials," and that a TSD technician testified that Hunt told him early in August that he would be introducing a second man, whereas CIA officials had said Hunt introduced Liddy unannounced late in August.[^39] It states that a memorandum of the TSD technician dated August 27, 1971 showed that Hunt's request for a New York telephone answering service was about to be implemented, and that the CIA kept a file on Hunt's activities entitled "Mr. Edward" outside the normal filing system, with a restricted-access "bigot list" for his activities.[^40] It states that testimony indicated that film developed for Hunt and Liddy was of Fielding's office, that a CIA supervisory official who reviewed it ordered one photograph blown up, and that the enlargement showed Fielding's name in the parking lot; the same report records that the official denied telling his superiors that he blew up a photograph or that it showed Fielding's name, and that Cushman and his assistant denied ever having been told about the content of the photographs.[^41] It states that testimony showed the technician dealing with Hunt was ordered to cut off all support only after the photographs were developed and examined, and that public CIA testimony claiming "no contact whatsoever with Mr. Hunt subsequent to 31 August, 1971" was contradicted by recent testimony and documents indicating extensive contact after that date.[^41] The Senate committee's final report states that Hunt obtained a driver's license, a wig and a speech-altering device after a meeting with Cushman on July 22, 1971.[^42]
+The [[Senate Watergate Committee]] took executive session testimony in February 1974 from a TSD technician, the Deputy Chief of the TSD and the Chief of the TSD.[^41] The staff report appended to Senator [[Howard Baker]]'s views states that the CIA's assistance to Hunt began on July 22, 1971, that the sequence of events produced "a wealth of conflicting testimony among CIA officials," and that a TSD technician testified that Hunt told him early in August that he would be introducing a second man, whereas CIA officials had said Hunt introduced Liddy unannounced late in August.[^41] It states that a memorandum of the TSD technician dated August 27, 1971 showed that Hunt's request for a New York telephone answering service was about to be implemented, and that the CIA kept a file on Hunt's activities entitled "Mr. Edward" outside the normal filing system, with a restricted-access "bigot list" for his activities.[^42] It states that testimony indicated that film developed for Hunt and Liddy was of Fielding's office, that a CIA supervisory official who reviewed it ordered one photograph blown up, and that the enlargement showed Fielding's name in the parking lot; the same report records that the official denied telling his superiors that he blew up a photograph or that it showed Fielding's name, and that Cushman and his assistant denied ever having been told about the content of the photographs.[^43] It states that testimony showed the technician dealing with Hunt was ordered to cut off all support only after the photographs were developed and examined, and that public CIA testimony claiming "no contact whatsoever with Mr. Hunt subsequent to 31 August, 1971" was contradicted by recent testimony and documents indicating extensive contact after that date.[^43] The Senate committee's final report states that Hunt obtained a driver's license, a wig and a speech-altering device after a meeting with Cushman on July 22, 1971.[^44]
 
 ---
 
@@ -246,20 +246,22 @@ The [[Senate Watergate Committee]] took executive session testimony in February
 [^23]: Memorandum ORD-0733-86, from ACS/ORD to the Director of Research and Development, "SRI/DIA Request for Parapsychological Data," July 16, 1986, CIA-RDP96-00787R000200020040-6. Read in the page image: "The other requested data has been destroyed or has receeded into the mists of OTS archives" and, on page 1, "Since Pat died in 1977."
 [^24]: Kress, Kenneth A., "Parapsychology in Intelligence: A Personal Review and Conclusions," *Studies in Intelligence*, vol. 21, no. 4, Winter 1977, CIA-RDP96-00791R000200030040-0 (declassified 1996), with its notes (S. I. Abrams, "Extrasensory Perception," draft report, December 14, 1965; Office of Technical Service Contract 8473, October 1, 1972).
 [^25]: Memorandum for the record, OTS/BAB Memo #287-77, "Briefing for House Permanent Select Committee re OTS Involvement in ESP Research," November 17, 1977, with its attached chronology "OTS Involvement in ESP Research," CIA-RDP96-00787R000500170001-0, pp. 3-4 of the chronology.
-[^26]: Memorandum, DD/S&T 3697-73, from Carl E. Duckett, Deputy Director for Science and Technology, to the Director of Central Intelligence, "Office of Research and Development and Office of Technical Service Paranormal Perception Research Project," 1973, CIA-RDP96-00787R000200210003-6. The approval block reads "W.E. Colby, Director."
-[^27]: Memorandum, McMahon and Stevens to the Deputy Director for Science and Technology, same subject, CIA-RDP96-00787R000200200031-6 (also CIA-RDP96-00787R000700110005-0).
-[^28]: Memorandum, David S. Brandwein, Director, Office of Technical Service, to the Director of Research and Development, "Stanford Research Institute Parapsychology Research," February 20, 1976, CIA-RDP96-00787R000200090005-8 (also CIA-RDP96-00787R000700090012-5).
-[^29]: Memorandum, David S. Brandwein, "OTS Support to Research in Parapsychology," October 7, 1976, CIA-RDP96-00787R000200020016-3.
-[^30]: Wilhelm, John L., "Psychic Spying? The CIA, the Pentagon and the Russians Probe the Military Potential of Parapsychology," *Washington Post*, August 7, 1977, Outlook section, pp. 1-5 (CIA-RDP96-00788R001700360003-3, enclosure; the section is given as Outlook in the bibliographies of Kress, CIA-RDP96-00791R000200030040-0, and of May, CIA-RDP96-00787R000100250012-3, while OTS/BAB Memo #287-77 calls it the Parade Section). Quotations are Wilhelm's.
-[^31]: Information paper, DAMI-ISH, "GRILL FLAME (U)," April 13, 1979, CIA-RDP96-00788R001200210002-5, para. 1(7)-(8).
-[^32]: Zarbo, Michael E. (Captain, U.S. Army), *Remote Viewing: Parapsychological Potential for Intelligence Collection?*, master's thesis, Defense Intelligence College, November 1992, CIA-RDP96-00789R002600250001-6, quoting Turner.
-[^33]: Memorandum for the record, "Operational Use of Paranormals in Police Activities," undated, author redacted, Office of Technical Service, CIA-RDP96-00787R000200130013-4.
-[^34]: Memorandum for the record, "Request for Information about Stanford Research Institute (SRI) Paranormal Research Project by Mr. Wilhelm former Time Reporter," April 16, 1974, CIA-RDP96-00787R000200200023-5.
-[^35]: Memorandum for the record, OTS/BAB Memo #287-77, "Briefing for House Permanent Select Committee re OTS Involvement in ESP Research," November 17, 1977, CIA-RDP96-00787R000500170001-0 and CIA-RDP96-00787R000200020020-8, para. 2-5, with its attached article on Patrick Price.
-[^36]: "Boom Times on the Psychic Frontier," *Time*, vol. 103, no. 9, March 4, 1974, cover story, CIA-RDP96-00787R000700030001-3.
-[^37]: Joseph Hanlon, "Uri Geller and Science," *New Scientist*, October 17, 1974, CIA-RDP96-00787R000200090024-7.
-[^38]: U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Armed Services, Special Subcommittee on Intelligence, *Inquiry into the Alleged Involvement of the Central Intelligence Agency in the Watergate and Ellsberg Matters*, 93rd Cong., hearings of May 11, 1973 and after (published 1976), statement of Dr. James R. Schlesinger, May 11, 1973, pp. 1-3, and testimony of General Robert E. Cushman, Jr. Copy at archive.org/details/InquiryIntoTheAllegedInvolvementOfCIAInTheWatergateAndEllsbergMatters. The hearing index lists a statement by James McCord, a former CIA employee, at p. 411 and Hunt's testimony at p. 471.
-[^39]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), "Appendix to Views of Senator Baker: Summary of Highlights of Investigation of CIA Activity in Watergate Incident," pp. 1135-1138, citing the executive session testimony of TSD Technician #1 (February 5 and 6, 1974), the Deputy Chief, TSD (February 5, 1974) and the Chief, TSD (February 5, 1974). https://archive.org/details/WatergateErvinCommitteeReport
-[^40]: S. Rept. 93-981, Baker appendix, pp. 1138-1139.
-[^41]: S. Rept. 93-981, Baker appendix, pp. 1139-1141.
-[^42]: S. Rept. 93-981, p. 119 (Hunt's request for an alias, false documents or disguise; Cushman's testimony of the July 7, 1971 call from Ehrlichman; the disguise materials after the July 22, 1971 meeting).
+[^26]: "Government Sponsored Research in Psychoenergetics," CIA report, dated February 1989, CIA-RDP96-00789R002200440001-9, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp96-00789r002200440001-9.
+[^27]: Michael E. Zarbo, Captain, US Army, "Remote Viewing: Parapsychological Potential for Intelligence Collection?" thesis, Defense Intelligence College, November 1992, CIA-RDP96-00789R002600250001-6, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp96-00789r002600250001-6.
+[^28]: Memorandum, DD/S&T 3697-73, from Carl E. Duckett, Deputy Director for Science and Technology, to the Director of Central Intelligence, "Office of Research and Development and Office of Technical Service Paranormal Perception Research Project," 1973, CIA-RDP96-00787R000200210003-6. The approval block reads "W.E. Colby, Director."
+[^29]: Memorandum, McMahon and Stevens to the Deputy Director for Science and Technology, same subject, CIA-RDP96-00787R000200200031-6 (also CIA-RDP96-00787R000700110005-0).
+[^30]: Memorandum, David S. Brandwein, Director, Office of Technical Service, to the Director of Research and Development, "Stanford Research Institute Parapsychology Research," February 20, 1976, CIA-RDP96-00787R000200090005-8 (also CIA-RDP96-00787R000700090012-5).
+[^31]: Memorandum, David S. Brandwein, "OTS Support to Research in Parapsychology," October 7, 1976, CIA-RDP96-00787R000200020016-3.
+[^32]: Wilhelm, John L., "Psychic Spying? The CIA, the Pentagon and the Russians Probe the Military Potential of Parapsychology," *Washington Post*, August 7, 1977, Outlook section, pp. 1-5 (CIA-RDP96-00788R001700360003-3, enclosure; the section is given as Outlook in the bibliographies of Kress, CIA-RDP96-00791R000200030040-0, and of May, CIA-RDP96-00787R000100250012-3, while OTS/BAB Memo #287-77 calls it the Parade Section). Quotations are Wilhelm's.
+[^33]: Information paper, DAMI-ISH, "GRILL FLAME (U)," April 13, 1979, CIA-RDP96-00788R001200210002-5, para. 1(7)-(8).
+[^34]: Zarbo, Michael E. (Captain, U.S. Army), *Remote Viewing: Parapsychological Potential for Intelligence Collection?*, master's thesis, Defense Intelligence College, November 1992, CIA-RDP96-00789R002600250001-6, quoting Turner.
+[^35]: Memorandum for the record, "Operational Use of Paranormals in Police Activities," undated, author redacted, Office of Technical Service, CIA-RDP96-00787R000200130013-4.
+[^36]: Memorandum for the record, "Request for Information about Stanford Research Institute (SRI) Paranormal Research Project by Mr. Wilhelm former Time Reporter," April 16, 1974, CIA-RDP96-00787R000200200023-5.
+[^37]: Memorandum for the record, OTS/BAB Memo #287-77, "Briefing for House Permanent Select Committee re OTS Involvement in ESP Research," November 17, 1977, CIA-RDP96-00787R000500170001-0 and CIA-RDP96-00787R000200020020-8, para. 2-5, with its attached article on Patrick Price.
+[^38]: "Boom Times on the Psychic Frontier," *Time*, vol. 103, no. 9, March 4, 1974, cover story, CIA-RDP96-00787R000700030001-3.
+[^39]: Joseph Hanlon, "Uri Geller and Science," *New Scientist*, October 17, 1974, CIA-RDP96-00787R000200090024-7.
+[^40]: U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Armed Services, Special Subcommittee on Intelligence, *Inquiry into the Alleged Involvement of the Central Intelligence Agency in the Watergate and Ellsberg Matters*, 93rd Cong., hearings of May 11, 1973 and after (published 1976), statement of Dr. James R. Schlesinger, May 11, 1973, pp. 1-3, and testimony of General Robert E. Cushman, Jr. Copy at archive.org/details/InquiryIntoTheAllegedInvolvementOfCIAInTheWatergateAndEllsbergMatters. The hearing index lists a statement by James McCord, a former CIA employee, at p. 411 and Hunt's testimony at p. 471.
+[^41]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), "Appendix to Views of Senator Baker: Summary of Highlights of Investigation of CIA Activity in Watergate Incident," pp. 1135-1138, citing the executive session testimony of TSD Technician #1 (February 5 and 6, 1974), the Deputy Chief, TSD (February 5, 1974) and the Chief, TSD (February 5, 1974). https://archive.org/details/WatergateErvinCommitteeReport
+[^42]: S. Rept. 93-981, Baker appendix, pp. 1138-1139.
+[^43]: S. Rept. 93-981, Baker appendix, pp. 1139-1141.
+[^44]: S. Rept. 93-981, p. 119 (Hunt's request for an alias, false documents or disguise; Cushman's testimony of the July 7, 1971 call from Ehrlichman; the disguise materials after the July 22, 1971 meeting).

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Philadelphia Police Department.md

@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ summary: "Municipal police force of Philadelphia, created by the Act of Consolid
 start: 1854
 location: "Philadelphia, Pennsylvania"
 created: 2026-09-23
-updated: 2026-09-23
+updated: 2026-10-15
 relations:
   - type: head_of
     with: "[[Frank Rizzo]]"
@@ -36,14 +36,14 @@ relations:
     role: "police commissioner"
     start: 2020-02
     end: 2023-09-22
-    fn: 8
+    fn: 9
   - type: head_of
     with: "[[John M. Stanford Jr.]]"
     reverse: true
     role: "interim police commissioner"
     start: 2023-09-22
     end: 2024-01-02
-    fn: 9
+    fn: 10
   - type: investigated
     with: "[[Olney House Investigation]]"
     start: 2026-06-19
@@ -51,7 +51,7 @@ relations:
   - type: investigated
     with: "[[Eugene Horsch]]"
     start: 2013
-    fn: 12
+    fn: 13
 ---
 
 The Philadelphia Police Department is the municipal police force of [[Philadelphia]]. It was created by the Act of Consolidation of 1854, which united the city and county under a single government. Since June 2026 it has conducted, with the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]], the [[Olney House Investigation]] into women connected to the house of the pornographer [[R.C. Horsch]] and his son [[Eugene Horsch]] on West Chew Avenue.[^1][^2]
@@ -74,21 +74,23 @@ In 1978 police surrounded the [[Powelton Village]] base of the group [[MOVE]] to
 
 Commissioner [[Gregore J. Sambor]], a military veteran, had been ordered by Goode to prepare the tactical plan and delegated it to three officers. The plan called for tear gas to be fired into the house and for "a satchel of explosives" to be dropped on a rooftop bunker; Sambor admitted that he "had no backup plan if the tear gas didn't work." When the fire started he allowed it to burn. The MOVE Commission found that the three officers had prepared the plan "hastily and without sufficient information or adequate intelligence." Sambor retired six months later, and gave no interviews afterward except when compelled to testify in a federal case in 1996. "I was told any possibility for injury or death inside the bunker was minimal," he said.[^5]
 
+The Philadelphia Special Investigation Commission found that Sambor chose as planners the head of the Bomb Disposal Unit, a sergeant from the pistol range and a uniformed patrolman, excluding the command structure of the department, and that no written plan was sought or received. The commission found that police fired more than 10,000 rounds in under 90 minutes, that the Police Commissioner and the Fire Commissioner decided between 6:08 and 6:12 P.M. to let the bunker burn, and that the deaths of the five children "appear to be unjustified homicides which should be investigated by a grand jury." Its Finding 21 records that in January 1985 an agent of the Federal Bureau of Investigation's Philadelphia office delivered nearly 38 pounds of C-4 to the police bomb squad, that neither agency kept a record of the transaction, and that FBI officials "unwittingly furnished the Commission with inaccurate and untruthful accounts" of the bureau's involvement.[^6]
+
 In the [[39th District]] scandal, officers were accused of "systematically robbing, beating, and framing suspects in drug cases"; ten were imprisoned and about four million dollars was paid in settlements. In March 2015 the [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]] criticized the department for a "lack of transparency" in use-of-force cases.[^1]
 
 ### Commissioners Since 2008
 
-[[Charles H. Ramsey]], a former chief of police of [[Washington, D.C.]], was appointed by Mayor [[Michael Nutter]] and was commissioner from January 2008 to January 2016; he promoted [[Kevin Bethel]] to deputy commissioner for patrol operations in 2009.[^6][^7] [[Danielle Outlaw]], who had become chief of police in [[Portland, Oregon]], in 2017, was sworn in in February 2020 as the first Black woman to lead the department. She left on September 22, 2023, to become a deputy security chief at the [[Port Authority of New York and New Jersey]], and her top deputy, [[John M. Stanford Jr.]], was named interim commissioner.[^8] Mayor [[Jim Kenney]] appointed Stanford on September 22, 2023, and named [[Frank Vanore]], who had joined the department in 1990, interim first deputy commissioner.[^9] Bethel, who had joined the force in 1986 and retired in 2016, was sworn in as commissioner on January 2, 2024.[^7]
+[[Charles H. Ramsey]], a former chief of police of [[Washington, D.C.]], was appointed by Mayor [[Michael Nutter]] and was commissioner from January 2008 to January 2016; he promoted [[Kevin Bethel]] to deputy commissioner for patrol operations in 2009.[^7][^8] [[Danielle Outlaw]], who had become chief of police in [[Portland, Oregon]], in 2017, was sworn in in February 2020 as the first Black woman to lead the department. She left on September 22, 2023, to become a deputy security chief at the [[Port Authority of New York and New Jersey]], and her top deputy, [[John M. Stanford Jr.]], was named interim commissioner.[^9] Mayor [[Jim Kenney]] appointed Stanford on September 22, 2023, and named [[Frank Vanore]], who had joined the department in 1990, interim first deputy commissioner.[^10] Bethel, who had joined the force in 1986 and retired in 2016, was sworn in as commissioner on January 2, 2024.[^8]
 
 ### Narcotics Bureau and the Nordo Cases
 
-An Internal Affairs report of August 2018 found that, from a meeting in May 2017 called by Inspector [[Raymond Evers]] and Chief Inspector Anthony Boyle, the Narcotics Bureau had developed a practice of running low-level arrestees as informants off the books, falsifying paperwork and withholding information from the [[Philadelphia District Attorney's Office]].[^10] The former homicide detective [[Philip Nordo]], dismissed in 2017, was convicted on June 1, 2022, of rape, sexual assault, stalking, and other offenses, and the district attorney's Conviction Integrity Unit reviewed about 62 homicide convictions in which he had been involved.[^11]
+An Internal Affairs report of August 2018 found that, from a meeting in May 2017 called by Inspector [[Raymond Evers]] and Chief Inspector Anthony Boyle, the Narcotics Bureau had developed a practice of running low-level arrestees as informants off the books, falsifying paperwork and withholding information from the [[Philadelphia District Attorney's Office]].[^11] The former homicide detective [[Philip Nordo]], dismissed in 2017, was convicted on June 1, 2022, of rape, sexual assault, stalking, and other offenses, and the district attorney's Conviction Integrity Unit reviewed about 62 homicide convictions in which he had been involved.[^12]
 
 ### The Horsch Cases
 
-In 2013 the department found about 1.9 million dollars' worth of marijuana in the house on West Chew Avenue in [[Olney, Philadelphia|Olney]], and Eugene Horsch was sentenced to four to eight years. After a fire at the house on May 18, 2025, a fire marshal and a patrolman discovered a marijuana grow and three firearms with destroyed serial numbers.[^12][^13] In December 2014 an assistant United States attorney, [[Elizabeth F. Abrams]], prosecuted a felon-in-possession case investigated by the FBI and the department.[^14]
+In 2013 the department found about 1.9 million dollars' worth of marijuana in the house on West Chew Avenue in [[Olney, Philadelphia|Olney]], and Eugene Horsch was sentenced to four to eight years. After a fire at the house on May 18, 2025, a fire marshal and a patrolman discovered a marijuana grow and three firearms with destroyed serial numbers.[^13][^14] In December 2014 an assistant United States attorney, [[Elizabeth F. Abrams]], prosecuted a felon-in-possession case investigated by the FBI and the department.[^15]
 
-Commissioner Bethel, Deputy Commissioner Vanore, and Special Agent in Charge [[Wayne Jacobs]] of the FBI's Philadelphia Field Office said at a briefing on September 16, 2026, that five women shown in material recovered from the house appeared to be dead; on August 12 Inspector Evers had identified [[Gabrielle Amarando]] and [[Maribel Fresses]] as two of them.[^2][^10]
+Commissioner Bethel, Deputy Commissioner Vanore, and Special Agent in Charge [[Wayne Jacobs]] of the FBI's Philadelphia Field Office said at a briefing on September 16, 2026, that five women shown in material recovered from the house appeared to be dead; on August 12 Inspector Evers had identified [[Gabrielle Amarando]] and [[Maribel Fresses]] as two of them.[^2][^11]
 
 ### Footnotes
 
@@ -97,12 +99,13 @@ Commissioner Bethel, Deputy Commissioner Vanore, and Special Agent in Charge [[W
 [^3]: Finkel, Ken. "The Rise of Rizzo," PhillyHistory Blog, City of Philadelphia Department of Records, September 10, 2018. https://blog.phillyhistory.org/index.php/2018/09/the-rise-of-rizzo/
 [^4]: "Police to Inspect Building: Cinema 16 Shut Down In License Dispute; Owner Is 'Confused'," *The Philadelphia Inquirer,* October 30, 1969, p. 19. https://www.newspapers.com/image/169186622/
 [^5]: Gambacorta, David. "Gregore J. Sambor, police commissioner," *Philadelphia Daily News,* May 6, 2010. https://www.inquirer.com/philly/news/special_packages/dailynews/20100506_Gregore_J__Sambor__police_commissioner.html
-[^6]: "Philadelphia Police Commissioner Charles Ramsey, Former D.C. Police Chief, Announces Retirement," *NBC4 Washington,* October 2015; Center for Evidence-Based Crime Policy, George Mason University, "Charles H. Ramsey." https://www.nbcwashington.com/news/local/philadelphia-police-commissioner-charles-ramsey-announces-retirement/69043/ ; https://cebcp.org/hall-of-fame/charles-ramsey/
-[^7]: "Kevin J. Bethel sworn in as Philadelphia's newest police commissioner," *The Philadelphia Inquirer,* January 2, 2024, and "Kevin Bethel, Philly's new police commissioner, has a 'strong and direct' style," *The Philadelphia Inquirer,* November 22, 2023. https://www.inquirer.com/crime/kevin-bethel-philadelphia-police-commissioner-sworn-in-20240102.html
-[^8]: Palmer, Chris, Anna Orso, and Oona Goodin-Smith. "Danielle Outlaw, Philadelphia Police Commissioner, resigns for a job at Port Authority of New York and New Jersey," *The Philadelphia Inquirer,* September 5, 2023. https://www.inquirer.com/crime/danielle-outlaw-philadephia-police-commissioner-resigns-replacement-20230905.html
-[^9]: Office of the Mayor, City of Philadelphia, "Mayor Jim Kenney Appoints John M. Stanford, Jr. as Interim Police Commissioner for the Philadelphia Police Department, Frank Vanore as Interim 1st Deputy Commissioner," September 22, 2023. https://www.phila.gov/2023-09-22-mayor-jim-kenney-appoints-john-m-stanford-jr-as-interim-police-commissioner-for-the-philadelphia-police-department-frank-vanore-as-interim-1st-deputy-commissioner/
-[^10]: "Report: Philly narcotics cops faked paperwork to hide informants. Hundreds of cases may be challenged," *The Philadelphia Inquirer,* January 13, 2019; Rushing, Ellie, Barbara Laker, Max Marin, and Ryan W. Briggs. "'I knew she was gone': Police say at least two missing women likely killed inside Olney home linked to violent pornography," *The Philadelphia Inquirer,* August 12, 2026. https://www.inquirer.com/news/philadelphia-police-narcotics-drugs-informants-practices-raymond-evers-anthony-boyle-20190113.html ; https://www.inquirer.com/news/eugene-horsch-murder-missing-women-20260812.html
-[^11]: Office of the Philadelphia District Attorney, "Former Homicide Detective Philip Nordo Accused of Sexual Assault, Theft Found Guilty on All Counts," press release, June 1, 2022. https://phillyda.org/news/former-homicide-detective-philip-nordo-accused-of-sexual-assault-theft-found-guilty-on-all-counts/
-[^12]: "Five takeaways from Philly missing women mystery connected to Raymond and Eugene Horsch," *The Philadelphia Inquirer,* August 4, 2026. https://www.inquirer.com/news/raymond-eugene-horsch-olney-missing-women-20260804.html
-[^13]: Marin, Max, Ryan W. Briggs, Ellie Rushing, and Barbara Laker. "Police searched Olney home last summer, but drugs, not missing women, were the focus," *The Philadelphia Inquirer,* July 1, 2026. https://www.inquirer.com/news/eugene-raymond-horsch-olney-home-search-guns-drugs-20260701.html
-[^14]: United States Attorney's Office, Eastern District of Pennsylvania, "Man Charged With Possession Of A Firearm By A Convicted Felon," press release, December 16, 2014, archived. https://web.archive.org/web/20260524074237/https://www.justice.gov/usao-edpa/pr/man-charged-possession-firearm-convicted-felon
+[^6]: Philadelphia Special Investigation Commission, *The Findings, Conclusions and Recommendations of the Philadelphia Special Investigation Commission* (Philadelphia, March 6, 1986), Findings 11, 12, 18, 21, 27 and 29, Special Collections Research Center, Temple University Libraries (published online by *The Philly Declaration*, May 13, 2015), https://phillydeclaration.org/2015/05/13/30-years-later-primary-sources-on-the-move-conflagration/.
+[^7]: "Philadelphia Police Commissioner Charles Ramsey, Former D.C. Police Chief, Announces Retirement," *NBC4 Washington,* October 2015; Center for Evidence-Based Crime Policy, George Mason University, "Charles H. Ramsey." https://www.nbcwashington.com/news/local/philadelphia-police-commissioner-charles-ramsey-announces-retirement/69043/ ; https://cebcp.org/hall-of-fame/charles-ramsey/
+[^8]: "Kevin J. Bethel sworn in as Philadelphia's newest police commissioner," *The Philadelphia Inquirer,* January 2, 2024, and "Kevin Bethel, Philly's new police commissioner, has a 'strong and direct' style," *The Philadelphia Inquirer,* November 22, 2023. https://www.inquirer.com/crime/kevin-bethel-philadelphia-police-commissioner-sworn-in-20240102.html
+[^9]: Palmer, Chris, Anna Orso, and Oona Goodin-Smith. "Danielle Outlaw, Philadelphia Police Commissioner, resigns for a job at Port Authority of New York and New Jersey," *The Philadelphia Inquirer,* September 5, 2023. https://www.inquirer.com/crime/danielle-outlaw-philadephia-police-commissioner-resigns-replacement-20230905.html
+[^10]: Office of the Mayor, City of Philadelphia, "Mayor Jim Kenney Appoints John M. Stanford, Jr. as Interim Police Commissioner for the Philadelphia Police Department, Frank Vanore as Interim 1st Deputy Commissioner," September 22, 2023. https://www.phila.gov/2023-09-22-mayor-jim-kenney-appoints-john-m-stanford-jr-as-interim-police-commissioner-for-the-philadelphia-police-department-frank-vanore-as-interim-1st-deputy-commissioner/
+[^11]: "Report: Philly narcotics cops faked paperwork to hide informants. Hundreds of cases may be challenged," *The Philadelphia Inquirer,* January 13, 2019; Rushing, Ellie, Barbara Laker, Max Marin, and Ryan W. Briggs. "'I knew she was gone': Police say at least two missing women likely killed inside Olney home linked to violent pornography," *The Philadelphia Inquirer,* August 12, 2026. https://www.inquirer.com/news/philadelphia-police-narcotics-drugs-informants-practices-raymond-evers-anthony-boyle-20190113.html ; https://www.inquirer.com/news/eugene-horsch-murder-missing-women-20260812.html
+[^12]: Office of the Philadelphia District Attorney, "Former Homicide Detective Philip Nordo Accused of Sexual Assault, Theft Found Guilty on All Counts," press release, June 1, 2022. https://phillyda.org/news/former-homicide-detective-philip-nordo-accused-of-sexual-assault-theft-found-guilty-on-all-counts/
+[^13]: "Five takeaways from Philly missing women mystery connected to Raymond and Eugene Horsch," *The Philadelphia Inquirer,* August 4, 2026. https://www.inquirer.com/news/raymond-eugene-horsch-olney-missing-women-20260804.html
+[^14]: Marin, Max, Ryan W. Briggs, Ellie Rushing, and Barbara Laker. "Police searched Olney home last summer, but drugs, not missing women, were the focus," *The Philadelphia Inquirer,* July 1, 2026. https://www.inquirer.com/news/eugene-raymond-horsch-olney-home-search-guns-drugs-20260701.html
+[^15]: United States Attorney's Office, Eastern District of Pennsylvania, "Man Charged With Possession Of A Firearm By A Convicted Felon," press release, December 16, 2014, archived. https://web.archive.org/web/20260524074237/https://www.justice.gov/usao-edpa/pr/man-charged-possession-firearm-convicted-felon

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Sandia National Laboratories.md

@@ -6,11 +6,26 @@ tags:
   - USA
 category: "U.S. Government"
 summary: "Sandia National Laboratories is a U.S. national laboratory that conducts research and development in nuclear weapons and other areas."
+relations:
+  - type: contractor_to
+    with: "[[Lockheed Martin]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1993
+    end: 2017
+    role: "management of the laboratory through Sandia Corporation, a Lockheed Martin company"
+    fn: 2
+updated: 2026-10-15
 start: 1945
 location: "Albuquerque, New Mexico"
 ---
 Sandia National Laboratories is a U.S. national laboratory that conducts research and development in nuclear weapons and other areas. By the late 1960s, much of the [[United States]]' primary analysis of nuclear intelligence had shifted to laboratories like Sandia and [[Los Alamos]], where intelligence units dealing with the [[Soviet Union]] and [[China]] had been set up after World War II. These units began monitoring the transfer of nuclear technology and countries viewed as "nth" nations, or near-nuclear countries.[^1]
 
+### Management
+
+From 1993 to 2017 the laboratory was run through Sandia Corporation, which the laboratory's own history describes as "a Lockheed Martin company from 1993-2017." Before that the corporation was a wholly owned subsidiary of Western Electric.[^2] The company's Energy and Environment sector managed the laboratory as part of its [[Department of Energy]] portfolio, and in its 1996 filing the company described the laboratory as a federally funded research and development center with responsibilities for national security programs in defense, energy and the environment.[^3] [[Albert Narath]] was president of Sandia Corporation from April 1989 to August 14, 1995, and then became president and chief operating officer of the company's Energy and Environment sector.[^3] In 2017 management passed to National Technology and Engineering Solutions of Sandia, LLC, a wholly owned subsidiary of [[Honeywell]] International.[^2]
+
 ### Footnotes
 
-[^1]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991. Chapter 11.
+[^1]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991. Chapter 11.
+[^2]: Sandia National Laboratories, "Sandia's Government Owned/Contractor Operated heritage," https://www.sandia.gov/about/history/goco.html
+[^3]: Lockheed Martin Corporation, Form 10-K405 for the fiscal year 1995, filed March 13, 1996, Item 1, Energy and Environment Sector, and Part I, Item 4A, Executive Officers of the Registrant, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/936468/0000950109-96-001535.txt

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Supreme Court of the United States.md

@@ -0,0 +1,256 @@
+---
+title: Supreme Court of the United States
+aliases:
+  - Supreme Court of the United States
+  - Supreme Court
+  - U.S. Supreme Court
+  - United States Supreme Court
+  - SCOTUS
+category: "U.S. Government"
+tags:
+  - Organization
+  - USGovernment
+  - SupremeCourt
+  - Judiciary
+  - Secrecy
+  - StateSecrets
+  - Wiretaps
+  - MKUltra
+  - BankingLaw
+  - Antitrust
+  - ObscenityLaw
+  - TribalGaming
+  - JudicialNominations
+  - LeonardLeo
+  - ClarenceThomas
+  - AbeFortas
+  - DOGE
+  - Epstein
+summary: "The highest federal court, whose rulings on state secrets, CIA secrecy agreements, LSD tests on soldiers, wiretaps and the Epstein litigation recur across the vault."
+location: "Washington, D.C."
+start: 1790-02-01
+created: 2026-10-15
+updated: 2026-10-15
+relations:
+  - type: member_of
+    with: "[[Abe Fortas]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1965-10-04
+    end: 1969-05-14
+    role: "Associate Justice"
+    fn: 52
+  - type: member_of
+    with: "[[William Rehnquist]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1971-12-15
+    role: "Associate Justice, later Chief Justice"
+    fn: 55
+  - type: member_of
+    with: "[[Brett Kavanaugh]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2018-10-06
+    role: "Associate Justice"
+    fn: 49
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Philip Agee]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1981-06-29
+    fn: 10
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Ghislaine Maxwell]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2025-10-06
+    fn: 45
+  - type: represented
+    with: "[[James B. Donovan]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1960-03-28
+    role: "counsel for the petitioner Rudolf Abel"
+    fn: 8
+---
+
+The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest court of the federal judiciary, established by Article III of the Constitution and sitting in Washington, D.C.[^1]
+
+### State secrets and secret agents
+
+The Court's first state secrets decision came out of the Civil War. In [[Totten v. United States]] (1876), Justice [[Stephen Johnson Field]] wrote for the Court that a man hired by President [[Abraham Lincoln]] in July 1861 to enter the Confederate lines, report troop positions and obtain plans of fortifications could not sue for his pay, because "public policy forbids the maintenance of any suit in a court of justice, the trial of which would inevitably lead to the disclosure of matters which the law itself regards as confidential." The opinion treated the existence of a secret-service contract as "itself a fact not to be disclosed."[^2]
+
+On March 9, 1953 the Court decided [[United States v. Reynolds]], an action under the [[Federal Tort Claims Act]] arising from the crash of a B-29 at Waycross, Georgia on October 6, 1948. The aircraft "had taken flight for the purpose of testing secret electronic equipment" with four civilian observers aboard; three of the four and six of the nine crew members died. Plaintiffs sought the Air Force's accident report and the crew statements. The Secretary of the Air Force filed a formal claim of privilege, and Chief Justice [[Fred M. Vinson]] held for the Court that the privilege against revealing military secrets was well established and that the claim could prevail without the judge examining the report.[^3] In 2000 a daughter of one of the dead observers learned that the Air Force had declassified documents on aircraft accidents, ordered the report on the Waycross crash, and brought a claim of fraud on the court. The [[United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit|Third Circuit]] rejected the claim on September 22, 2005, noting that the declassified accident report disclosed that the mission was run by the 3150th Electronics Squadron and required an aircraft capable of operating at altitudes of 20,000 feet and above.[^4]
+
+On March 2, 2005 Chief Justice [[William Rehnquist]] wrote for the Court in [[Tenet v. Doe]] that the rule of Totten barred a suit by two alleged former Cold War spies, a husband and wife who used fictitious names. The husband was described as a high-ranking diplomat of a country then considered an enemy; according to the complaint, [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] agents persuaded the couple to remain at their posts and conduct espionage in return for a promise to "arrange for travel to the United States and ensure financial and personal security for life." The Court reversed the Ninth Circuit.[^5]
+
+On March 3, 2022 the Court reversed the Ninth Circuit in [[United States v. Zubaydah]], the case brought by [[Abu Zubaydah]] (docketed as United States v. Husayn). Justice [[Stephen Breyer]] delivered the opinion; Justice [[Neil Gorsuch]], joined by Justice [[Sonia Sotomayor]], dissented, and Justice [[Elena Kagan]] concurred in part and dissented in part.[^6] The next day, in [[FBI v. Fazaga]], Justice [[Samuel Alito]] wrote for a unanimous Court that section 1806(f) of the [[Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act]] does not displace the state secrets privilege. The respondents were three members of Southern California Muslim communities who alleged that the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] directed a confidential informant to gather information on Muslims indiscriminately, including "hundreds of hours of video recordings" made inside mosques, homes and other private locations.[^7]
+
+### Intelligence officers and the Court
+
+On March 28, 1960 the Court affirmed, five to four, the espionage conviction of [[Rudolf Abel]] in [[Abel v. United States]].[^8] Justice [[Felix Frankfurter]] wrote for the majority. [[James B. Donovan]] argued for the petitioner. Justice [[William J. Brennan Jr.|William J. Brennan]] dissented, joined by Chief Justice [[Earl Warren]], [[Hugo Black]] and [[William O. Douglas]]. Abel was exchanged for the U-2 pilot [[Francis Gary Powers]] at the Glienicke Bridge in Berlin on February 10, 1962, after Powers's aircraft was shot down over the Soviet Union in May 1960; the CIA's account states that Donovan, who had fought the death sentence in the hope of such an exchange, negotiated the trade with the CIA lawyer [[Milan Miskovsky]].[^9]
+
+On June 29, 1981 the Court upheld the State Department's revocation of the passport of former CIA officer [[Philip Agee]] in [[Haig v. Agee]].[^10] Chief Justice [[Warren Burger]] wrote the opinion and Justice [[Harry Blackmun]] concurred. The opinion recorded the Secretary's finding that Agee's activities "were causing or were likely to cause serious damage to the national security or foreign policy of the United States." Two incidents were described in the opinion. In July 1980, two days after a press conference in [[Jamaica]] at which Agee's principal collaborator identified [[Richard Kinsman]] as CIA chief of station there, Kinsman's house "was strafed with automatic gunfire." Four days after the same press conference, three men approached the home of another man identified as an agency officer, and gunfire was exchanged. The opinion also recited Government affidavits showing that during the 1979 seizure of the American Embassy in [[Iran]], Agee "made contact with the captors, urged them to demand certain CIA documents, and offered to travel to Iran to analyze the documents."[^10]
+
+On June 22, 1981 the Court issued a per curiam order in [[Kissinger v. Halperin]], a damages action arising from wiretaps. The judgment as to [[Henry A. Kissinger]], [[Richard Nixon]] and [[John N. Mitchell]] was affirmed by an equally divided Court, and the writ of certiorari as to [[H. R. Haldeman]] was dismissed as improvidently granted.[^11]
+
+### Secrecy agreements and the press
+
+In 1972 the Fourth Circuit decided [[United States v. Marchetti]], the case of former CIA officer [[Victor Marchetti]], whose secrecy agreement had been enforced by a district court order requiring him to submit writings about the agency for review thirty days before release. Chief Judge [[Clement Haynsworth]] wrote that the court would "affirm the substance of the decision below, limiting the order, however to the language of the secrecy agreement Marchetti signed when he joined the Agency," and found the contract "constitutional and otherwise reasonable."[^12] On December 11, 1972 the Supreme Court denied certiorari; Justices Douglas, Brennan and Stewart would have granted it.[^13]
+
+Marchetti and [[John Marks]], a former State Department employee, then wrote a book manuscript that [[Alfred A. Knopf]], Inc. intended to publish. After CIA review, the agency specified 339 deletions, released 114, then 29, then 57 more, and stood on 168. The Fourth Circuit, in [[Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. v. Colby]], decided February 7, 1975, vacated the district court judgment in part and remanded, holding that the burden of proving classification had been set "far too stringent" and adding the element of classifiability.[^14] On May 27, 1975 the Supreme Court denied certiorari in Knopf v. Colby, Justice Douglas dissenting from the denial.[^15] The same day [[William Colby]] told a White House meeting attended by [[Gerald R. Ford]], two days after [[Seymour Hersh]]'s story in the [[New York Times]] about American submarine intercept missions in Soviet waters, that "The Supreme Court refusal to review the Marchetti case is good news." Colby added that in the Marchetti case "we had to prove the material was classified."[^16]
+
+On February 19, 1980 the Court decided [[Snepp v. United States]] per curiam. The former CIA officer [[Frank Snepp]] had published a book about the agency in South Vietnam without submitting it for prepublication review, as his 1968 employment agreement required; the Government conceded the book contained no classified, nonpublic material. The Court imposed a constructive trust on his profits, holding that he had breached a fiduciary obligation. Justice [[John Paul Stevens]], joined by Justices Brennan and [[Thurgood Marshall]], dissented.[^17]
+
+On April 16, 1985 Chief Justice Burger wrote for the Court in [[Central Intelligence Agency v. Sims]], which concerned a [[Freedom of Information Act]] request filed on August 22, 1977 by an attorney, John C. Sims, and Dr. [[Sidney Wolfe|Sidney M. Wolfe]] of the Public Citizen Health Research Group for the grant proposals, contracts and researcher names of [[Project MKUltra|MKULTRA]]. The opinion describes MKULTRA as a project financed between 1953 and 1966 for "the research and development of chemical, biological, and radiological materials capable of employment in clandestine operations to control human behavior," made up of 149 subprojects contracted out to universities, research foundations and similar institutions, with at least 80 institutions and 185 private researchers participating. The agency released the proposals and contracts but withheld the names of all individual researchers and 21 institutions under its duty to protect intelligence sources. The Court held that the Director was authorized to withhold the identities of the individual researchers and need not disclose their institutional affiliations. The opinion also records that during the congressional inquiries Director [[Stansfield Turner]] notified the 80 institutions at which MKULTRA research had been conducted, many of which had not previously been advised of their involvement. Justices Marshall and Brennan concurred in the result.[^18]
+
+On June 30, 1971 the Court decided [[New York Times Co. v. United States]], the [[Pentagon Papers]] case, per curiam, refusing to enjoin the New York Times and the [[Washington Post]] from publishing a classified study titled "History of U. S. Decision-Making Process on Viet Nam Policy." The Court stated that any system of prior restraints "comes to this Court bearing a heavy presumption against its constitutional validity" and that the Government had not carried its burden. Justices Black, Douglas, Brennan, [[Potter Stewart]], [[Byron White]] and Marshall wrote separately in concurrence; Chief Justice Burger, Justice Blackmun and Justice [[John Marshall Harlan II|Harlan]] dissented.[^19]
+
+### Human experimentation
+
+On June 25, 1987 the Court decided [[United States v. Stanley]], in an opinion by Justice [[Antonin Scalia]]. In February 1958 an Army master sergeant at Fort Knox volunteered for what was described as a program to test protective clothing against chemical warfare, was sent to the Army's Chemical Warfare Laboratories at [[Aberdeen Proving Ground]], and there was "secretly administered doses of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)" four times in one month. On December 10, 1975 the Army wrote to him soliciting cooperation in a study of the long-term effects of LSD on "volunteers who participated" in the 1958 tests, the Government's first notification that he had been given the drug. The Court held that no [[Bivens]] damages remedy was available for injuries arising out of activity incident to military service, relying on [[Feres v. United States]] (1950), in which Justice [[Robert H. Jackson]] had held that the Government is not liable under the Federal Tort Claims Act for injuries to servicemen arising out of activity incident to service. Justice Brennan, joined by Justice Marshall, wrote that "the Government of the United States treated thousands of its citizens as though they were laboratory animals, dosing them with this dangerous drug without their consent," and placed the case beside the Nuremberg medical trials. Justice [[Sandra Day O'Connor]], dissenting separately, wrote that "Soldiers ought not be asked to defend a Constitution indifferent to their essential human dignity."[^20][^21]
+
+### Wiretaps and executive immunity
+
+On June 19, 1972 the Court decided [[United States v. United States District Court]] (the Keith case) in an opinion by Justice [[Lewis F. Powell Jr.]], holding that "prior judicial approval is required for the type of domestic security surveillance involved in this case." The opinion recorded that Presidents had for more than a quarter-century authorized such surveillance without guidance from Congress or a decision of the Court, and that the surveillance there was authorized by the Attorney General.[^22]
+
+On June 19, 1985 the Court decided [[Mitchell v. Forsyth]], which arose from a warrantless wiretap on the telephone of [[William Davidon]], a [[Haverford College]] physics professor, authorized by Attorney General John Mitchell on November 6, 1970. Justice Byron White wrote for the Court that the Attorney General was not absolutely immune from damages for his national security functions, and that he was entitled to qualified immunity because the law on warrantless domestic security wiretaps was not clearly established in 1970. The opinion records that during the installation of the tap the Government intercepted three conversations between Davidon and [[Keith Forsyth]], the respondent.[^23]
+
+The [[Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court]] has a route to the Court built into its statute. If the court of review upholds the denial of a government application, "on petition of the United States for a writ of certiorari, the record shall be transmitted under seal to the Supreme Court, which shall have jurisdiction to review such decision." The same section directs the Chief Justice to set security measures for the court's records "in consultation with the Attorney General and the Director of National Intelligence."[^24]
+
+On February 26, 2013 the Court decided, five to four, [[Clapper v. Amnesty International USA]]. Justice Alito held that attorneys and organizations whose work required international communications could not challenge section 702 of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (50 U.S.C. 1881a) because their fear of surveillance was too speculative to meet the requirement that threatened injury be "certainly impending." Justice Breyer dissented.[^25]
+
+### Detention and military commissions
+
+On June 28, 2004 the Court decided two cases on the detention of people held after September 11, 2001. In [[Hamdi v. Rumsfeld]] Justice O'Connor announced the judgment, joined by Chief Justice Rehnquist and Justices [[Anthony Kennedy]] and Breyer, holding that "due process demands that a citizen held in the United States as an enemy combatant be given a meaningful opportunity to contest the factual basis for that detention before a neutral decisionmaker." In [[Rasul v. Bush]] Justice Stevens held that United States courts have jurisdiction to consider challenges to the detention of foreign nationals held at the [[Guantanamo Bay Naval Base]].[^26][^27] On June 12, 2008, in [[Boumediene v. Bush]], Justice Kennedy wrote for a five-justice majority that the detainees at Guantanamo have the constitutional privilege of habeas corpus and that section 7 of the Military Commissions Act of 2006 "operates as an unconstitutional suspension of the writ."[^28]
+
+On June 29, 2006 the Court decided [[Hamdan v. Rumsfeld]], a challenge by the Guantanamo detainee [[Salim Ahmed Hamdan]] to the military commission convened to try him. Justice Stevens wrote that "the military commission convened to try Hamdan lacks power to proceed because its structure and procedures violate both the UCMJ and the Geneva Conventions."[^29] The named respondent was Secretary of Defense [[Donald Rumsfeld]].
+
+### Antitrust and the press
+
+In 1911 the Court, in an opinion by Chief Justice [[Edward Douglass White]], ordered the dissolution of [[Standard Oil]], the petroleum combination founded by [[John D. Rockefeller]], under the [[Sherman Antitrust Act]].[^30]
+
+On June 18, 1945 the Court decided [[Associated Press v. United States]]. Justice Hugo Black wrote that "[t]he publishers of more than 1200 newspapers are members of the Associated Press (AP)." The by-laws, which let members block non-member competitors from membership, had been charged as a violation of the Sherman Act, and the Court affirmed the judgment in the case.[^31]
+
+### Banking claims and antitrust immunity
+
+On April 25, 1938 the Court decided [[Guaranty Trust Co. of New York v. United States]], a suit by the United States as assignee of Russian Soviet claims against [[Morgan Guaranty Trust|Guaranty Trust Company of New York]]. The assignment, made on November 16, 1933 by the Russian Soviet Government to the United States, was the basis of the government's claim. Justice [[Harlan Fiske Stone]] held that the six-year New York statute of limitations applied, and the Court reversed the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit|Second Circuit]]. [[John W. Davis]] argued for the bank.[^32]
+
+On January 10, 1973 the Court, in an opinion by Justice William O. Douglas, reversed the Court of Appeals in [[Hughes Tool Co. v. Trans World Airlines]]. The Court held that the transactions TWA challenged as antitrust violations were "under the control and surveillance" of the [[Civil Aeronautics Board]] and had immunity from the antitrust laws under sections 408 and 414 of the Federal Aviation Act. The complaint alleged damages suffered by [[Trans World Airlines]], and the defendants included [[Hughes Tool Company]], which [[Howard Hughes]] controlled.[^33]
+
+### Searches of sealed luggage
+
+On June 21, 1977 the Court decided [[United States v. Chadwick]], in an opinion by Chief Justice Burger, holding that respondents were entitled to the protection of the Warrant Clause "before their privacy interests in the contents of the footlocker were invaded." The respondents had been arrested in Boston by federal narcotics agents after a train trip from San Diego, and the double-locked footlocker had been loaded in the trunk of their car. [[Martin Weinberg]], of Boston, argued for the respondents.[^34]
+
+### Searches of Bahamian bank records
+
+On June 23, 1980 the Court decided [[United States v. Payner]], in an opinion by Justice Powell, which framed the question as "whether the District Court properly suppressed the fruits of an unlawful search that did not invade the respondent's Fourth Amendment rights." The respondent, [[Jack Payner]], had been indicted for falsely denying that he maintained a foreign bank account, and the account was at the [[Castle Bank and Trust]] Company of Nassau, Bahama Islands. The opinion recited the background of the investigation: "In 1965, the [[Internal Revenue Service]] launched an investigation into the financial activities of American citizens in the Bahamas. The project, known as '[[Operation Tradewinds|Operation Trade Winds]],' was headquartered in [[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville]]."[^35] The Court reversed. Chief Justice Burger concurred, writing that the decision "should not be read as condoning the conduct of the IRS 'private investigators' as disclosed by this record." Justice Marshall, joined by Justices Brennan and Blackmun, dissented, writing that the government "made a conscious decision to forgo any opportunity to prosecute Wolstencroft in order to obtain illegally the evidence against Payner and others."[^35]
+
+### Loyalty riders and bills of attainder
+
+On June 3, 1946 the Court decided [[United States v. Lovett]], in an opinion by Justice Black. The case concerned Section 304 of an appropriations act, which, according to counsel for Congress, "merely cut off respondents' pay." The respondents included [[Goodwin Watson]], whom a congressional subcommittee had found guilty of "subversive activity." Justice Black held that "Section 304 is a bill of attainder against these respondents involving a use of power which the Constitution unequivocally declares Congress can never exercise."[^36]
+
+### Obscenity and child sexual abuse material
+
+On June 21, 1973 Chief Justice Burger wrote the Court's opinion in [[Miller v. California]], the decision that set the modern test for obscenity.[^37] On July 2, 1982 the Court decided [[New York v. Ferber]], upholding a New York statute against a First Amendment challenge as applied to distributors of films of children. Justice Byron White wrote that the Miller standard "for determining what is legally obscene is not a satisfactory solution to the child pornography problem," and treated child pornography as a category to be judged on its own terms.[^38]
+
+On April 16, 2002 the Court decided [[Ashcroft v. Free Speech Coalition]], in an opinion by Justice Kennedy. It affirmed the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit|Ninth Circuit]]'s ruling that the provisions of the [[Child Pornography Prevention Act]] reaching sexually explicit images that "appear to be" of minors, although produced without minors, were overbroad.[^39] The subject is treated in more detail at [[Child sexual abuse material]].
+
+### Tribal gaming
+
+On February 25, 1987 the Court decided [[California v. Cabazon Band of Mission Indians]], in an opinion by Justice Byron White. The Cabazon and Morongo Bands operated bingo and a card club on their reservations in Riverside County, California. The opinion recorded that the card club offered "draw poker and other card games," and that "[t]he gambling games are open to the public and are played predominantly by non-Indians coming onto the reservations."[^40] The card room at the [[Cabazon Indian Casino]] was managed by [[Rocco Zangari]] from September 1980 until November 1981.
+
+### Executive records and the Vice President
+
+On June 24, 2004 the Court decided [[Cheney v. United States District Court for the District of Columbia]], in an opinion by Justice Kennedy that vacated and remanded the Court of Appeals' ruling on discovery directed to the Vice President and other senior officials. The discovery concerned the [[National Energy Policy Development Group]], which [[Dick Cheney]] led.[^41]
+
+On June 6, 2025 the Court granted a stay of a preliminary injunction against the [[Social Security Administration]] pending appeal and any certiorari petition. Justice Kagan would have denied the application. Justice [[Ketanji Brown Jackson]], joined by Justice Sotomayor, dissented. The injunction had concerned access to agency records by members of the [[Department of Government Efficiency]] team.[^42]
+
+### Epstein and the victims' litigation
+
+On February 22, 2022 the Court denied a petition for certiorari, No. 21-351, brought by a victim of [[Jeffrey Epstein]], who challenged the en banc ruling in [[In re Wild]].[^43] The en banc [[United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit|Eleventh Circuit]] ruled seven to four on April 15, 2021 that the [[Crime Victims' Rights Act]] gave the petitioner no freestanding civil action before charges were filed. The majority said it "needn't decide" whether the victims' rights to confer and to fair treatment attached before charges, and the dissenting judges faulted it for that omission.[^44] The dispute arose from the [[Epstein non-prosecution agreement]], negotiated by the [[U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of Florida|Southern District of Florida]] office.
+
+On April 10, 2025 [[Ghislaine Maxwell]] filed a petition for certiorari in [[United States v. Maxwell]], after Justice Sotomayor granted an extension of the filing deadline on January 21, 2025 under Application No. 24A709.[^45] The Court denied the petition on October 6, 2025.[^45]
+
+### Recent decisions
+
+On December 5, 2025 the Court granted certiorari in the case of [[Ahmad Abouammo]], a former [[Twitter]] employee convicted in the [[Twitter Saudi espionage case]], limited to the first question presented. On June 11, 2026 the Court reversed and remanded in a unanimous opinion by Justice Kagan.[^46]
+
+On April 19, 2023 the Court decided [[Turkiye Halk Bankasi A.S. v. United States]], the appeal arising from the prosecution of the state-owned [[Halkbank]] before [[Richard M. Berman]] in the Southern District of New York. Justice [[Brett Kavanaugh]] wrote for the Court, which held that the [[Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act]] does not cover criminal cases and affirmed in part, vacated in part and remanded. Justice Gorsuch, joined by Justice Alito, concurred in part and dissented in part, writing that "Today's decision overcomplicates the law for no good reason."[^47]
+
+### Justices and nominations
+
+[[Leonard Leo]], a figure in the [[Federalist Society]], drew up the lists of potential justices that [[Donald Trump]] released during the 2016 campaign, and advised Trump on the nominations of Justice Gorsuch, Justice Kavanaugh and [[Amy Coney Barrett]].[^48] ProPublica reported that the [[Judicial Confirmation Network]], since rebranded as the [[Judicial Crisis Network]], gave hundreds of thousands of dollars to a campaign against the Missouri Plan, the state's merit-selection system, that Leo's team had organized.[^48] Kavanaugh's service on the [[United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit|D.C. Circuit]] ended on October 5, 2018 on his appointment to the Court, and Barrett's service on the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit|Seventh Circuit]] ended on October 26, 2020 on her appointment to the Court.[^49][^50]
+
+On April 6, 2023 [[ProPublica]] reported that "For more than two decades, Thomas has accepted luxury trips virtually every year from the Dallas businessman without disclosing them." The reporting described a nine-day trip to Indonesia in June 2019, in which [[Clarence Thomas]] and his wife flew on a private jet and then cruised on a superyacht owned by [[Harlan Crow]], and trips to the [[Bohemian Grove]] and to Crow's ranch in East Texas.[^51]
+
+On July 28, 1965 President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] nominated [[Abe Fortas]] to the seat vacated by Arthur Goldberg. The Senate confirmed him on August 11, 1965. On June 26, 1968 Johnson nominated Fortas as Chief Justice; the nomination was withdrawn on October 4, 1968. Fortas's service ended on May 14, 1969 by his resignation.[^52] On May 9, 1969 Life magazine, in an article by William Lambert, reported that on January 3, 1966, three months after Fortas was sworn in, "a check for $20,000 was drawn to him personally on a Jacksonville, Fla. bank account of the Wolfson Family Foundation," the foundation of the financier Louis Wolfson, and that the Securities and Exchange Commission had on March 14, 1966 forwarded to the Justice Department a report recommending criminal prosecution of Wolfson.[^53]
+
+John Marshall Harlan II, later an Associate Justice, sat as a director of the [[Pioneer Fund]] at a board meeting held at 522 Fifth Avenue, New York, at 4:15 p.m. on October 28, 1937, with [[Wickliffe Draper]], Malcolm Donald, [[Harry H. Laughlin]] and [[Frederick Osborn]] also present. The fund's certificate of incorporation had been signed in New York on February 27, 1937 by Draper, Laughlin, Donald, Osborn and Vincent K. Smalley, the first four being the named directors.[^54]
+
+[[Ted Cruz]], later a United States Senator, clerked for Chief Justice William Rehnquist.[^55]
+
+### Criticism of the Court and its docket
+
+Facts Forum, the organization of [[H.L. Hunt|H. L. Hunt]], circulated ballots that asked "Is the Supreme Court limiting its functions to its Constitutional powers?" and "Should the term of office for members of the U. S. Supreme Court be limited?"; an FBI memorandum in the Hunt file describes the later program "Life Line" as "formerly known as Facts Forum."[^56] In October 1957 Hunt's office asked [[J. Edgar Hoover]] for comments and suggestions on the content of the new program; Hoover replied on November 5 that he could offer none, and Hunt's office afterward sent the director tapes of commentary attacking the Supreme Court.[^56]
+
+A 1981 suit alleged that [[Jim Jones]], the leader of [[People's Temple]], had been an employee of the CIA from 1963 until his death.[^57] On October 11, 1983 the Supreme Court refused without comment to review the dismissal of the survivors' suit against the CIA, the State Department, the Justice Department and the House of Representatives. The district judge, Stanley Weigel, had dismissed the case after the survivors' attorney failed to inform all defendants that they had been sued, and the Ninth Circuit rejected the attorney's excuses.[^58]
+
+The [[Fairness in Media]] committee petitioned the [[Federal Communications Commission]] over [[Laurence Tisch]]'s purchases of [[CBS]] stock, and later petitioned the Court for certiorari in No. 88-388. The Court denied the petition on October 11, 1988.[^59]
+
+### Footnotes
+
+[^1]: U.S. Const. art. III, § 1, "The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court."
+[^2]: *Totten v. United States*, 92 U.S. 105 (1876), opinion of Justice Field. https://static.case.law/us/92/cases/0105-01.json
+[^3]: *United States v. Reynolds*, 345 U.S. 1 (1953), decided March 9, 1953; opinion of Chief Justice Vinson. https://static.case.law/us/345/cases/0001-01.json
+[^4]: *Herring v. United States*, 424 F.3d 384 (3d Cir. 2005), decided September 22, 2005. https://static.case.law/f3d/424/cases/0384-01.json
+[^5]: *Tenet v. Doe*, 544 U.S. 1 (2005), decided March 2, 2005; opinion of Chief Justice Rehnquist. https://static.case.law/us/544/cases/0001-01.json
+[^6]: Supreme Court of the United States, docket No. 20-827, *United States v. Husayn (Abu Zubaydah)*, certiorari granted April 26, 2021; argued October 6, 2021; judgment reversed and remanded March 3, 2022 (Breyer, J.; Gorsuch, J., dissenting, joined by Sotomayor, J.); judgment issued April 4, 2022. https://www.supremecourt.gov/docket/docketfiles/html/public/20-827.html
+[^7]: *Federal Bureau of Investigation v. Fazaga*, No. 20-828, argued November 8, 2021, decided March 4, 2022; opinion of Justice Alito for a unanimous Court. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/20-828
+[^8]: *Abel v. United States*, 362 U.S. 217 (1960), decided March 28, 1960; opinion of Justice Frankfurter for the Court; Justice Brennan, with whom the Chief Justice, Justice Black and Justice Douglas join, dissenting. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/362/217
+[^9]: Central Intelligence Agency, "May Day Over Moscow: The Francis Gary Powers Story," April 29, 2020 (exchange of February 10, 1962 at the Glienicke Bridge; Donovan and Miskovsky). https://www.cia.gov/stories/story/may-day-over-moscow-the-francis-gary-powers-story/
+[^10]: *Haig v. Agee*, 453 U.S. 280 (1981), argued January 24, 1981, decided June 29, 1981; opinion of Chief Justice Burger for the Court; Justice Blackmun concurring. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/453/280
+[^11]: *Kissinger v. Halperin*, 452 U.S. 713 (1981), per curiam, decided June 22, 1981. https://static.case.law/us/452/cases/0713-01.json
+[^12]: *United States v. Marchetti*, 466 F.2d 1309 (4th Cir. 1972), decided September 11, 1972; Haynsworth, C.J. https://static.case.law/f2d/466/cases/1309-01.json
+[^13]: *Marchetti v. United States*, 409 U.S. 1063 (1972), certiorari denied December 11, 1972; Mr. Justice Douglas, Mr. Justice Brennan and Mr. Justice Stewart would grant certiorari. https://static.case.law/us/409/cases/1063-04.json
+[^14]: *Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. v. Colby*, 509 F.2d 1362 (4th Cir. 1975), Nos. 74-1478 and 74-1479, decided February 7, 1975; Haynsworth, C.J. https://static.case.law/f2d/509/cases/1362-01.json
+[^15]: *Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. v. Colby*, 421 U.S. 992 (1975), certiorari denied May 27, 1975; Mr. Justice Douglas would grant certiorari. https://static.case.law/us/421/cases/0992-04.json
+[^16]: Memorandum of conversation, May 27, 1975, Ford, Schlesinger, Colby, Rumsfeld, Ingersoll and Scowcroft, National Security Adviser, Memoranda of Conversations, Box 12, Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library. https://www.fordlibrarymuseum.gov/library/document/0314/1553088.pdf
+[^17]: *Snepp v. United States*, 444 U.S. 507 (1980), per curiam, decided February 19, 1980, No. 78-1871; Mr. Justice Stevens, with whom Mr. Justice Brennan and Mr. Justice Marshall join, dissenting. https://static.case.law/us/444/cases/0507-01.json
+[^18]: *Central Intelligence Agency v. Sims*, 471 U.S. 159 (1985), decided April 16, 1985; opinion of Chief Justice Burger; Justice Marshall, with whom Justice Brennan joins, concurring in the result. https://static.case.law/us/471/cases/0159-01.json
+[^19]: *New York Times Co. v. United States*, 403 U.S. 713 (1971), per curiam, decided June 30, 1971. https://static.case.law/us/403/cases/0713-01.json
+[^20]: *United States v. Stanley*, 483 U.S. 669 (1987), No. 86-393, decided June 25, 1987; opinion of Justice Scalia; Justice Brennan, with whom Justice Marshall joins, and with whom Justice Stevens joins as to Part III, and Justice O'Connor, each concurring in part and dissenting in part. https://static.case.law/us/483/cases/0669-01.json
+[^21]: *Feres v. United States*, 340 U.S. 135 (1950), decided December 4, 1950; opinion of Justice Jackson. https://static.case.law/us/340/cases/0135-01.json
+[^22]: *United States v. United States District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan*, 407 U.S. 297 (1972), No. 70-153, decided June 19, 1972; opinion of Justice Powell. https://static.case.law/us/407/cases/0297-01.json
+[^23]: *Mitchell v. Forsyth*, 472 U.S. 511 (1985), argued February 27, 1985, decided June 19, 1985; opinion of Justice White for the Court, including note 3 on the wiretap's installation from late November 1970 to January 6, 1971. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/472/511
+[^24]: 50 U.S.C. § 1803(b). https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/50/1803
+[^25]: *Clapper v. Amnesty International USA*, 568 U.S. 398 (2013), No. 11-1025, decided February 26, 2013; opinion of Justice Alito; Justice Breyer dissenting. https://static.case.law/us/568/cases/0398-01.json
+[^26]: *Hamdi v. Rumsfeld*, 542 U.S. 507 (2004), No. 03-6696, decided June 28, 2004; plurality opinion of Justice O'Connor. https://static.case.law/us/542/cases/0507-01.json
+[^27]: *Rasul v. Bush*, 542 U.S. 466 (2004), No. 03-334, decided June 28, 2004; opinion of Justice Stevens. https://static.case.law/us/542/cases/0466-01.json
+[^28]: *Boumediene v. Bush*, 553 U.S. 723 (2008), No. 06-1195, decided June 12, 2008; opinion of Justice Kennedy; Justice Scalia, with whom the Chief Justice, Justice Thomas and Justice Alito join, dissenting. https://static.case.law/us/553/cases/0723-01.json
+[^29]: *Hamdan v. Rumsfeld*, 548 U.S. 557 (2006), decided June 29, 2006; Justice Stevens announcing the judgment and delivering the opinion of the Court in relevant part. https://static.case.law/us/548/cases/0557-01.json
+[^30]: *Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States*, 221 U.S. 1 (1911); opinion of Chief Justice White. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/221/1
+[^31]: *Associated Press v. United States*, 326 U.S. 1 (1945), decided June 18, 1945; opinion of Justice Black for the Court; judgment affirmed. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/326/1
+[^32]: *Guaranty Trust Co. of New York v. United States*, 304 U.S. 126 (1938), argued March 28-29, 1938, decided April 25, 1938; opinion of Justice Stone; Mr. John W. Davis for the petitioner. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/304/126
+[^33]: *Hughes Tool Co. v. Trans World Airlines, Inc.*, 409 U.S. 363 (1973), decided January 10, 1973; opinion of Justice Douglas for the Court. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/409/363
+[^34]: *United States v. Chadwick*, 433 U.S. 1 (1977), argued April 26, 1977, decided June 21, 1977; opinion of Chief Justice Burger for the Court. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/433/1
+[^35]: *United States v. Payner*, 447 U.S. 727 (1980), argued February 20, 1980, decided June 23, 1980; opinion of Justice Powell for the Court; Chief Justice Burger concurring; Justice Marshall, with whom Justices Brennan and Blackmun join, dissenting. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/447/727
+[^36]: *United States v. Lovett*, 328 U.S. 303 (1946), argued May 3-6, 1946, decided June 3, 1946; opinion of Justice Black for the Court. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/328/303
+[^37]: *Miller v. California*, 413 U.S. 15 (1973), decided June 21, 1973; opinion of Chief Justice Burger. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/413/15
+[^38]: *New York v. Ferber*, 458 U.S. 747 (1982), decided July 2, 1982; opinion of Justice White for the Court. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/458/747
+[^39]: *Ashcroft v. Free Speech Coalition*, 535 U.S. 234 (2002), decided April 16, 2002; opinion of Justice Kennedy for the Court; judgment of the Ninth Circuit, 198 F.3d 1083, affirmed. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/535/234
+[^40]: *California v. Cabazon Band of Mission Indians*, 480 U.S. 202 (1987), argued December 9, 1986, decided February 25, 1987; opinion of Justice White for the Court. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/480/202
+[^41]: *Cheney v. United States District Court for the District of Columbia*, 542 U.S. 367 (2004), decided June 24, 2004; opinion of Justice Kennedy for the Court; judgment of the Court of Appeals, 334 F.3d 1096, vacated and remanded. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/542/367
+[^42]: Supreme Court of the United States, docket No. 24A1063, *Social Security Administration v. American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees*, application for stay granted June 6, 2025; Justice Kagan would deny; Justice Jackson, with whom Justice Sotomayor joins, dissenting. https://www.supremecourt.gov/docket/docketfiles/html/public/24a1063.html
+[^43]: Supreme Court of the United States, docket No. 21-351, petition for certiorari denied February 22, 2022 (docketed September 3, 2021; lower court No. 19-13843). https://www.supremecourt.gov/docket/docketfiles/html/public/21-351.html
+[^44]: *In re Wild*, No. 19-13843, 994 F.3d 1244 (11th Cir. 2021) (en banc), decided April 15, 2021; dissenting opinions by Judges Branch, Martin, Jill Pryor and Hull. https://media.ca11.uscourts.gov/opinions/pub/files/201913843.enb.pdf
+[^45]: Supreme Court of the United States, docket No. 24-1073, *Maxwell v. United States*, with Application No. 24A709 (extension granted January 21, 2025; petition filed April 10, 2025; petition denied October 6, 2025). https://www.supremecourt.gov/docket/docketfiles/html/public/24-1073.html
+[^46]: Supreme Court of the United States, docket No. 25-5146, *Abouammo v. United States*, certiorari granted December 5, 2025 limited to Question 1; argued; judgment reversed and case remanded June 11, 2026, Justice Kagan for a unanimous Court. https://www.supremecourt.gov/docket/docketfiles/html/public/25-5146.html
+[^47]: *Turkiye Halk Bankasi A.S. v. United States*, 598 U.S. 264 (2023), No. 21-1450, argued January 17, 2023, decided April 19, 2023 (Kavanaugh, J., for the Court, in which Roberts, C.J., and Thomas, Sotomayor, Kagan, Barrett and Jackson, JJ., joined; Gorsuch, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part, joined by Alito, J.). https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/22pdf/598us1r13_3e04.pdf
+[^48]: Andy Kroll, Andrea Bernstein and Ilya Marritz, "We Don't Talk About Leonard: The Man Behind the Right's Supreme Court Supermajority," *ProPublica*, October 11, 2023. https://www.propublica.org/article/we-dont-talk-about-leonard-leo-supreme-court-supermajority
+[^49]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, "Kavanaugh, Brett M." https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/kavanaugh-brett-m
+[^50]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, "Barrett, Amy Coney." https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/barrett-amy-coney
+[^51]: Joshua Kaplan, Justin Elliott and Alex Mierjeski, "Clarence Thomas Secretly Accepted Luxury Trips From GOP Donor," *ProPublica*, April 6, 2023. https://www.propublica.org/article/clarence-thomas-scotus-undisclosed-luxury-travel-gifts-crow
+[^52]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, "Fortas, Abe." Nominated by Lyndon B. Johnson July 28, 1965; confirmed August 11, 1965; nomination as Chief Justice June 26, 1968, withdrawn October 4, 1968; service terminated May 14, 1969 by resignation. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/fortas-abe
+[^53]: William Lambert, "The Justice and the Stock Manipulator," *Life*, May 9, 1969 (excerpts reproduced at https://muckrakerfarm.com/1969/05/justice-stock-manipulator/).
+[^54]: The Pioneer Fund, Inc., Certificate of Incorporation, February 27, 1937, and Minutes of a meeting of the Board of Directors held October 28, 1937, as reproduced by the Institute for the Study of Academic Racism. https://web.archive.org/web/20001001235059/http://www.ferris.edu/isar/Institut/pioneer/pfund.htm and https://web.archive.org/web/2001/http://www.ferris.edu/ISAR/Institut/pioneer/minutes.htm
+[^55]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, "Rehnquist, William H." Commission issued December 15, 1971. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/rehnquist-william-hubbs
+[^56]: Federal Bureau of Investigation, Headquarters file on H.L. Hunt, parts 1 and 2 (FOIA release): Facts Forum ballots and FBI memorandum on "Life Line." https://archive.org/details/H.L.Hunt and https://archive.org/details/foia_Hunt_H.L.-HQ-2
+[^57]: "Rev. Jones: Was CIA Agent, Suit Alleges," UPI, October 15, 1981, as filed in CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP99-00498R000200020030-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-00498r000200020030-8
+[^58]: Spencer Sherman, "Peoples Temple Survivors Lose Appeal," UPI, October 11, 1983. https://www.upi.com/Archives/1983/10/11/Peoples-temple-survivors-lose-appeal/1510434692800/
+[^59]: *Fairness in Media v. Federal Communications Commission*, 488 U.S. 893 (1988), certiorari denied October 11, 1988 (order list). https://static.case.law/us/488/cases/0893-01.json

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/U.S. Attorney's office.md

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 ---
 category: "U.S. Government"
 created: 2024-04-26
-updated: 2026-10-14
+updated: 2026-10-15
 tags:
   - Organization
   - PROMIS
@@ -20,9 +20,10 @@ The DC office became the first PROMIS site and served as the demonstration platf
 
 ### EOUSA Implementation Contract
 
-The [[Executive Office for United States Attorneys]] (EOUSA), which administers support for all 94 U.S. Attorneys' Offices, was the entity that signed the March 1982 implementation contract with INSLAW, Inc. for installation of PROMIS in 20 large U.S. Attorneys' offices and word-processor systems in 74 smaller ones. The execution of that contract, and EOUSA's subsequent conduct toward INSLAW, became the central dispute in the [[PROMIS Software Scandal|INSLAW affair]].[^1]
+The [[Executive Office for United States Attorneys]] (EOUSA), which administers support for the 93 U.S. Attorneys serving 94 judicial districts (one U.S. Attorney serves both Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands),[^3] was the entity that signed the March 1982 implementation contract with INSLAW, Inc. for installation of PROMIS in 20 large U.S. Attorneys' offices and word-processor systems in 74 smaller ones. The execution of that contract, and EOUSA's subsequent conduct toward INSLAW, became the central dispute in the [[PROMIS Software Scandal|INSLAW affair]].[^1]
 
 ### Footnotes
 
 [^1]: U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on the Judiciary. *The INSLAW Affair: Investigative Report.* House Report 102-857, 102nd Congress, 2nd Session, September 10, 1992.
 [^2]: Peat, Marwick, Mitchell & Co., *System Overview and Report Formats for PROMIS* (May 1971), prepared for the District of Columbia Government Office of Crime Analysis under LEAA Grant No. 70-DF-047, note 1 to the passage on the design team, NCJ 32469. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/32469NCJRS.pdf
+[^3]: 28 U.S.C. 541, "United States attorneys" (one United States attorney for each judicial district, with a single attorney for Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands). https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/541

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York.md

@@ -0,0 +1,344 @@
+---
+aliases:
+  - United States District Court for the Southern District of New York
+  - S.D.N.Y.
+category: "Law Enforcement & Legal"
+tags:
+  - Organization
+  - FederalJudiciary
+  - Court
+  - Manhattan
+  - NewYork
+  - EpsteinCases
+  - PentagonPapers
+  - Halkbank
+  - BCCI
+  - IranArms
+  - Securities
+summary: "Federal trial court for Manhattan and seven other counties, created in 1814, whose judges decided the Pentagon Papers injunction, the Epstein and Maxwell prosecutions and the September 11 litigation."
+start: 1814-04-09
+location: "New York, New York"
+created: 2026-10-15
+updated: 2026-10-15
+relations:
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Lawrence Walsh]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "district judge, seat created under 68 Stat. 8 (1954)"
+    start: 1954-04-27
+    end: 1957-12-29
+    fn: 3
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Richard M. Berman]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "district judge, senior status from September 11, 2011"
+    start: 1998-10-22
+    fn: 4
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Alison Nathan]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "district judge"
+    start: 2011-10-17
+    end: 2022-03-31
+    fn: 7
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Loretta Preska]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "district judge, chief judge 2009 to 2016"
+    start: 1992-08-12
+    fn: 8
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Jed Rakoff]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "district judge, senior status from December 31, 2010"
+    start: 1996-01-04
+    fn: 9
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Paul Engelmayer]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "district judge"
+    start: 2011-07-27
+    fn: 10
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Robert W. Sweet]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "district judge, senior status from March 1, 1991 until death"
+    start: 1978-04-28
+    end: 2019-03-24
+    fn: 12
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Richard Casey]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "district judge"
+    start: 1997-10-24
+    end: 2007-03-22
+    fn: 18
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Jeffrey Epstein]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2019-07-02
+    end: 2019-08-29
+    role: "United States v. Epstein, No. 1:19-cr-00490"
+    fn: 48
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Ghislaine Maxwell]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2020-06-29
+    end: 2024-09-17
+    role: "United States v. Maxwell, No. 1:20-cr-00330, affirmed on appeal"
+    fn: 51
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Ari Ben-Menashe]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1990-08-01
+    end: 1990-08-01
+    role: "United States v. Menashe, No. 90 Cr. 010 (LLS), ruling on motions"
+    fn: 44
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Ethan Phelan Melzer]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2020-06-10
+    end: 2024
+    role: "United States v. Melzer, No. 1:20-cr-00314-GHW"
+    fn: 73
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Caroline Ellison]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2022-12-21
+    end: 2024-10-10
+    role: "United States v. Ellison, No. 22 Cr. 673 (LAK)"
+    fn: 76
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[IBM]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1969-01-17
+    role: "United States v. International Business Machines Corp., No. 69 Civ. 200 (DNE), antitrust complaint"
+    fn: 29
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Goldman Sachs]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2010-04-16
+    end: 2014-03-27
+    role: "SEC v. Goldman, Sachs & Co., No. 10 Civ. 3229 (KBF)"
+    fn: 34
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Financial Trust Company]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2016-05-27
+    end: 2016-07-05
+    role: "Hoffenberg v. Epstein, No. 1:16-cv-03989 (RJS)"
+    fn: 17
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Fairness in Media]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1985-02-14
+    role: "CBS Inc. v. Fairness in Media, suit filed by CBS"
+    fn: 32
+---
+
+The United States District Court for the Southern District of New York is the federal trial court for [[Manhattan]], the [[Bronx]], and the counties of [[Dutchess County, New York|Dutchess]], [[Orange County, New York|Orange]], [[Putnam County, New York|Putnam]], [[Rockland County, New York|Rockland]], [[Sullivan County, New York|Sullivan]] and [[Westchester County, New York|Westchester]].[^1] Congress divided the [[New York]] district into a northern and a southern district on April 9, 1814.[^2] Appeals go to the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit]]. Its judges have decided the [[Pentagon Papers]] application of 1971, the federal prosecutions of [[Jeffrey Epstein]] and [[Ghislaine Maxwell]], the civil suits that followed Epstein's trafficking, a series of securities and antitrust cases, and the [[Iran-Israel Joint Committee|Iran arms]] and [[Halkbank]] sanctions cases.
+
+### Creation and Districting
+
+The [[Judiciary Act of 1789]] organized New York as one judicial district with one judgeship.[^2] The act of April 9, 1814 divided the state into a northern and a southern district with one judgeship each.[^2] Congress established the [[Eastern District of New York]] in 1865 and the [[Western District of New York]] in 1900. It added judgeships to the Southern District in 1903, 1906, 1909, 1922, 1929, 1936, 1949, 1954, 1961, 1970 and 1990, among other years.[^2]
+
+On February 10, 1954 Congress authorized two additional judgeships for the Southern District.[^3] [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] nominated [[Lawrence Walsh]], who had been counsel to Governor [[Thomas E. Dewey]] of New York, to one of the new seats on April 6, 1954. The Senate confirmed him on April 27, and his commission issued on April 28. He resigned on December 29, 1957. From 1986 to 1993 he served as independent counsel in the [[Iran-Contra affair]] investigation.[^3]
+
+### Judges
+
+[[Richard M. Berman]] was born in New York City in 1943. He graduated from [[Cornell University]] in 1964 and from the [[New York University School of Law]] in 1967, and worked as executive assistant to Senator [[Jacob Javits]] from 1974 to 1977 and later served as a judge of the [[Queens County Family Court]] from 1995 to 1998. [[Bill Clinton]] nominated him on May 21, 1998 to a seat vacated by [[Kevin Thomas Duffy]]. The Senate confirmed him on October 21, 1998, and he assumed senior status on September 11, 2011.[^4] He presided over [[United States v. Epstein]] and the Halkbank prosecution.[^5][^6]
+
+[[Alison Nathan]] was born in Philadelphia in 1972. [[Barack Obama]] nominated her on March 31, 2011 to a seat vacated by [[Sidney H. Stein]], and she was confirmed on October 13, 2011. [[Joseph R. Biden]] nominated her to the [[Second Circuit]] on January 3, 2022, and her commission issued on March 30, 2022.[^7] She presided over the Maxwell prosecution from its unsealing through trial and sentenced Maxwell in June 2022.
+
+[[Loretta Preska]] was born in Albany, New York, in 1949. [[George H.W. Bush]] nominated her on March 31, 1992 to a seat vacated by [[Robert J. Ward]], and she was confirmed on August 11, 1992. She served as chief judge from 2009 to 2016 and assumed senior status on March 1, 2017.[^8] She presides over the [[Giuffre v. Maxwell]] docket, which passed to her after the death of [[Robert W. Sweet]] in 2019.
+
+[[Jed Rakoff]] was born in Philadelphia in 1943. Bill Clinton nominated him on October 11, 1995 to a seat vacated by [[David N. Edelstein]], and he was confirmed on December 29, 1995. He assumed senior status on December 31, 2010. Before the bench he was an assistant United States attorney in the district from 1973 to 1980 and chief of its business and securities fraud prosecutions from 1978 to 1980.[^9]
+
+[[Paul Engelmayer]] was born in New York City in 1961. He clerked for Justice [[Thurgood Marshall]] in 1988 and 1989 and led the Major Crimes Unit of the [[U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of New York]] from 1996 to 1999. Barack Obama nominated him on February 2, 2011 to a seat vacated by [[Gerard E. Lynch]], and the Senate confirmed him on July 26, 2011.[^10] He took over the Maxwell criminal case after Nathan's elevation to the Second Circuit.[^11]
+
+Robert W. Sweet was born in Yonkers, New York, in 1922 and served as a lieutenant junior grade in the [[United States Navy]] from 1943 to 1946. [[Jimmy Carter]] nominated him on February 17, 1978 to a seat vacated by [[Inzer B. Wyatt]]. He took senior status on March 1, 1991 and died in Ketchum, Idaho, on March 24, 2019.[^12] Sweet sentenced [[Steven Hoffenberg]] in 1997.[^13]
+
+[[Jesse M. Furman]] was born in New York City in 1972. Barack Obama nominated him on June 7, 2011 to a seat vacated by [[Alvin K. Hellerstein]], and he was confirmed on February 17, 2012. Before the bench he was an assistant United States attorney in the district from 2004 to 2007 and from 2009 to 2012, and counselor to the [[U.S. Attorney General]].[^14] A writer named Jesse Furman co-wrote with [[Steven Emerson]] a November 1991 article in [[The New Republic]] reporting that the military personnel records of [[Ari Ben-Menashe]] showed he had served as a low-level translator.[^15] The byline gives no biographical description, and records found do not establish whether the writer is the judge, whose Federal Judicial Center entry gives a birth year of 1972 and a Harvard degree in 1994.
+
+[[Richard J. Sullivan]] was born in Manhasset, New York, in 1964. [[George W. Bush]] nominated him on February 15, 2007 to a seat vacated by [[Michael B. Mukasey]], and the Senate confirmed him on June 28, 2007. His service ended on October 25, 2018 on appointment to the Second Circuit.[^16] Sullivan presided over [[Hoffenberg v. Epstein]] in 2016.[^17]
+
+[[Richard Casey]] was born in Ithaca, New York, in 1933 and was an assistant United States attorney in the district from 1959 to 1963. Bill Clinton nominated him on July 16, 1997 to a seat vacated by [[Charles S. Haight Jr.]]. He was commissioned on October 24, 1997 and served until his death on March 22, 2007.[^18] Casey presided over the consolidated September 11 litigation discussed below.
+
+[[Murray Gurfein]] was born in New York City in 1907. He was an assistant United States attorney in the district from 1931 to 1933, an assistant district attorney of New York County from 1938 to 1942, a lieutenant colonel in the [[Office of Strategic Services]] from 1942 to 1946, and an assistant to [[Robert H. Jackson]], chief United States prosecutor at the [[Nuremberg Trials]], in 1945. [[Richard Nixon]] nominated him on April 14, 1971; the Senate confirmed him on May 20, 1971, and he left the district court on appointment to the Second Circuit in 1974.[^19]
+
+David N. Edelstein was born in New York City in 1910, was an assistant United States attorney in the district from 1945 to 1947 and assistant attorney general in charge of the Customs Division from 1948 to 1951. [[Harry S. Truman]] nominated him on January 30, 1952, and the Senate confirmed him on April 7, 1952. He was chief judge from 1971 to 1980, took senior status in 1994 and died on August 19, 2000.[^19] Kevin Thomas Duffy, appointed by Nixon in 1972, held the seat to which Berman was later nominated. In the Mickey Mouse March case of February 14, 1975 he granted [[The Walt Disney Company|Walt Disney Productions]] a preliminary injunction against Mature Pictures Corp. over the use of the music in the film The Life and Times of the Happy Hooker.[^20]
+
+[[Louis L. Stanton]] was born in New York City in 1927 and served in the Marine Corps Reserve from 1950 to 1952. [[Ronald Reagan]] nominated him on June 12, 1985 and the Senate confirmed him on July 16, 1985.[^19] [[William C. Conner]], appointed by Nixon in 1973, was the judge before whom the pretrial hearings in the CBS suit against Fairness in Media were argued in March 1985.[^19]
+
+[[Lewis A. Kaplan]] was born in 1944 and was a special master of the district court in 1982 and 1983. Bill Clinton nominated him on May 5, 1994 and the Senate confirmed him on August 9, 1994. He served on the Judicial Panel on Multidistrict Litigation from 2012 to 2019.[^21] He decided [[Giuffre v. Prince Andrew]] and the case of [[Caroline Ellison]] (LAK). [[John G. Koeltl]] was born in 1945, clerked for Justice [[Potter Stewart]] in 1972 and 1973 and was assistant special prosecutor of the Watergate Special Prosecution Force in 1973 and 1974. Clinton nominated him on April 26, 1994 and the Senate confirmed him on August 9, 1994.[^22] He decided [[Jane Doe 43 v. Epstein]] (JGK).
+
+[[Lewis J. Liman]] was born in 1960, clerked for Justice [[John Paul Stevens]] in 1989 and 1990, and was an assistant United States attorney in the district from 1994 to 1999. [[Donald Trump]] nominated him on May 21, 2019 and the Senate confirmed him on December 19, 2019.[^19] He decided [[Andriesz v. BGC Financial]] (LJL). [[Gregory H. Woods]] was born in 1969, was deputy general counsel of the [[Department of Transportation]] from 2009 to 2012 and general counsel of the [[Department of Energy]] from 2012 to 2013. Obama nominated him on May 9, 2013 and the Senate confirmed him on November 4, 2013.[^19] He presided over the case of [[Ethan Phelan Melzer]] (GHW). [[Arun Subramanian]] was born in 1979 in Pittsburgh, clerked for Justice [[Ruth Bader Ginsburg]] in 2006 and 2007, and was nominated by Biden on January 23, 2023; the Senate confirmed him on March 7, 2023.[^19] He decided the claims in [[Doe 1 v. Government of the United States Virgin Islands]] (AS). [[Jessica Clarke]] was nominated by Biden and confirmed on March 16, 2023; she presides over Doe v. Black.[^19]
+
+### Appointment of United States Attorneys
+
+Under 28 U.S.C. section 546(d), when an interim appointment by the Attorney General expires after 120 days, the district court may appoint a United States attorney to serve until the vacancy is filled.[^23] The judges of the district appointed [[Geoffrey Berman]] on April 25, 2018, after his interim appointment by Attorney General [[Jeff Sessions]]. On June 19, 2020 Berman stated that he had not resigned and had no intention of doing so, and that he had been appointed by the judges of the court.[^24] On August 18, 2025 the court issued an advisory stating that [[Jay Clayton]], appointed interim United States Attorney by the Attorney General, had a term expiring on or about August 19, 2025, and that the court had appointed him United States Attorney effective August 20, 2025, to serve until a Senate-confirmed successor took office.[^25]
+
+### The Pentagon Papers Application
+
+On June 15, 1971 Gurfein denied the government's application for a preliminary injunction against [[The New York Times]] in [[United States v. New York Times Co.]], No. 71 Civ. 2662.[^26] The government had asked for a temporary restraining order and a preliminary injunction to stop further publication of 47 volumes titled "History of United States Decision Making Process on Vietnam Policy," covering 1945 to 1967 and prepared in 1967 and 1968 at the direction of [[Robert S. McNamara]]. The request also covered a one-volume study of the [[Gulf of Tonkin Incident]] prepared for the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]] in 1965.[^26] Gurfein had restrained the newspaper pending the hearing. He declined to continue the restraint and wrote that "[t]here is no greater safety valve for discontent and cynicism about the affairs of Government than freedom of expression in any form."[^26] The case went to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]], which decided [[New York Times Co. v. United States]], 403 U.S. 713, on June 30, 1971. The Court wrote per curiam that the government "thus carries a heavy burden of showing justification for the imposition of such a restraint," and it reversed the order of the Second Circuit and remanded with directions to enter a judgment affirming the judgment of the district court.[^27]
+
+### Corporate and Antitrust Cases
+
+On June 30, 1961 [[Trans World Airlines]] filed a complaint in the district against [[Hughes Tool Company]], charging violations of the antitrust laws. On February 7, 1962 the court appointed a special master for discovery. On February 1, 1963 it ordered [[Howard Hughes]] to appear for a deposition and ordered the defendant to produce documents it had refused to produce, and on February 7, 1963 it denied a motion to dismiss. A default judgment for more than $145 million with interest was later entered. The Supreme Court reversed in [[Hughes Tool Co. v. Trans World Airlines]], 409 U.S. 363 (1973), holding that the Court of Appeals had erred in rejecting the defense that the transactions were immune from the antitrust laws under the [[Federal Aviation Act of 1958]], and it remanded with directions to dismiss the complaint. The district court's damages rulings are reported at 308 F. Supp. 679 and 312 F. Supp. 478, and the Court of Appeals had affirmed at 449 F.2d 51. Chief Justice Burger, joined by Justice Blackmun, dissented.[^28]
+
+On January 17, 1969 the [[Department of Justice]] filed an antitrust complaint against [[IBM]] in the district, alleging that IBM had monopolized the market for general-purpose electronic digital computer systems in violation of section 2 of the [[Sherman Antitrust Act]].[^29] In an order of April 16, 1973 Chief Judge Edelstein designated special masters to rule on privilege claims over documents IBM had withheld, among them documents generated by the so-called Cravath, Swaine & Moore Task Forces and the Office of Business Practices.[^30] His opinion of June 27, 1974 is reported as [[United States v. International Business Machines Corp.]], 66 F.R.D. 154.[^30] On January 8, 1982 a stipulation of dismissal signed by counsel for IBM and by Assistant Attorney General [[William F. Baxter]] dismissed the case without costs to either side.[^29] IBM then petitioned the Second Circuit for a writ of mandamus directing Edelstein to conduct no further proceedings in the case, and it raised questions under the Antitrust Procedures and Penalties Act. On August 13, 1982 the court held that a writ of mandamus should issue. It did not reach IBM's alternative request that Edelstein recuse himself, a request the court had earlier considered in a mandamus petition reported at 618 F.2d 923 (2d Cir. 1980).[^29] The decision is reported as [[In re International Business Machines Corp.]], 687 F.2d 591 (2d Cir. 1982).[^29]
+
+In August 1999 [[Sumitomo Corporation]] sued [[J.P. Morgan & Co.]] and [[Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York]] in the district. Sumitomo alleged that from 1993 to 1996 Morgan had assisted a Sumitomo employee in copper trading.[^31]
+
+On February 14, 1985 [[CBS Inc.]] sued [[Fairness in Media]] in the district. CBS alleged that the group's SEC filings were false and misleading, and that they did not disclose lawsuits filed against [[James Palmer Cain]] by the [[Federal Election Commission]] and the Democratic Committee of [[North Carolina]]. CBS amended the complaint on February 27 and charged that the group was "attempting to manipulate the market in CBS stock."[^32][^33]
+
+### Securities and Ponzi Cases
+
+On April 16, 2010 the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] sued [[Goldman Sachs]] and the trader [[Fabrice Tourre]] in the district over the marketing of the ABACUS 2007-AC1 collateralized debt obligation.[^34] Goldman agreed to pay $550 million, announced on July 15, 2010.[^35] The final judgment against Tourre was filed on March 27, 2014 under the docket suffix KBF, for Judge [[Katherine Forrest]].[^36][^37][^38]
+
+On November 28, 2011 Rakoff declined to approve a consent judgment between the SEC and [[Citigroup Global Markets]]. In [[SEC v. Citigroup Global Markets]], No. 11 Civ. 7387 (JSR), 827 F. Supp. 2d 328, he wrote that a $95 million civil penalty was "pocket change to any entity as large as Citigroup."[^39]
+
+On May 27, 2016 Steven Hoffenberg sued Jeffrey Epstein and "The Financial Trust Company" in the district, individually and as constructive trustee of the noteholders of [[Towers Financial Corporation]]. Epstein and the company were represented by [[Bennet J. Moskowitz]] of [[Troutman Sanders]], who wrote to Sullivan on June 28, 2016 that Hoffenberg lacked standing and that his claims had expired.[^17][^40] The docket records dismissal on July 5, 2016.[^17]
+
+In August 2018 two plaintiffs sued [[Financial Trust Company]] and Epstein in [[Gerber v. The Financial Trust Company]], No. 1:18-cv-07580 (JPO), before Judge [[J. Paul Oetken]]. The docket records termination on October 5, 2018.[^41]
+
+On November 22, 2023 six women identified as Jane Does sued the [[Government of the United States Virgin Islands]], [[John de Jongh]], [[Cecile de Jongh]] and others in the district. The defendants included [[Kenneth Mapp]], [[Vincent Frazer]], [[Celestino White]], [[Carlton Dowe]] and [[Stacey Plaskett]]. On March 21, 2025 Subramanian dismissed the claims against Dowe and White for lack of personal jurisdiction.[^42] Judgment was entered on May 5, 2026.[^43]
+
+### Iran Arms and Halkbank
+
+On August 1, 1990 Judge Stanton ruled on motions in [[United States v. Menashe]], 741 F. Supp. 1135, No. 90 Cr. 010 (LLS). Count one charged the defendants with conspiring to sell American-made C-130 military cargo planes located in [[Israel]] to [[Iran]] in violation of the [[Arms Export Control Act]]. Count two charged [[Joseph O'Toole]] with conspiring with two unindicted co-conspirators to sell American-made anti-aircraft missiles located in Israel to an undisclosed country.[^44] Stanton denied the motion to dismiss the indictment, which [[Richard St. Francis]] had made on the ground that the government's conduct was so unfair as to violate due process and which Ari Ben-Menashe joined. He granted the motions to sever count two and to sever O'Toole.[^44]
+
+The district court also heard the Halkbank prosecution. The United States indicted [[Turkiye Halk Bankasi A.S.]], a bank owned by the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]], for conspiring to evade United States sanctions against Iran in No. 15 Cr. 867. The district court denied Halkbank's motion to dismiss in a ruling dated October 1, 2020. Halkbank had argued that the [[Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act]] gave it immunity from criminal prosecution.[^5] The Second Circuit affirmed on October 22, 2021 in [[United States v. Turkiye Halk Bankasi A.S.]], 16 F.4th 336.[^6] On April 19, 2023 the Supreme Court held that the district court had jurisdiction under 18 U.S.C. section 3231 and that the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act does not provide immunity from criminal prosecution.[^5]
+
+### The September 11 Litigation and BCCI
+
+On December 9, 2003 the [[Judicial Panel on Multidistrict Litigation]] centralized six September 11 cases before the district. The consolidated action came to include more than three thousand survivors, family members, and insurance carriers, and the complaints named over two hundred defendants.[^45] Casey's opinion of January 18, 2005, reported as [[In re Terrorist Attacks on September 11, 2001]], 349 F. Supp. 2d 765, granted the motion of [[Abdulrahman bin Mahfouz]] to dismiss the Burnett complaint for lack of personal jurisdiction. It denied without prejudice the motion of the National Commercial Bank to dismiss.[^45]
+
+The opinion's summary of the Ashton and Burnett complaints states that [[Khalid bin Mahfouz]] became president and chief executive of the National Commercial Bank in 1986 and that in the same year he became chief operating officer and a major shareholder of the Bank of Credit and Commerce International. The summary reads: "He was subsequently indicted in New York state in connection with his involvement in BCCI's fraudulent practices, which also implicated NCB."[^45] The statement is the plaintiffs' allegation as recited in the opinion.
+
+### Epstein Criminal Case
+
+A grand jury returned the indictment in United States v. Epstein, No. 1:19-cr-00490, under seal on July 2, 2019. Epstein was arrested on July 6, and Richard M. Berman ordered him detained on July 18.[^46] Epstein was found dead in the [[Metropolitan Correctional Center, New York]] on August 10, 2019. Berman held a hearing on August 27 at which accusers spoke.[^47] On August 29 the docket records termination of the case.[^48][^49] Berman's later decision and order of August 20, 2025 and his order of December 10, 2025 are at ECF Nos. 77 and 92.[^50]
+
+### Maxwell Criminal Case
+
+A grand jury indicted Ghislaine Maxwell under seal on June 29, 2020 in [[United States v. Maxwell]], No. 1:20-cr-00330.[^51] Judge Alison Nathan denied Maxwell's motion to dismiss the indictment for breach of the 2007 [[Epstein non-prosecution agreement]] on April 16, 2021.[^52] Trial began on November 29, 2021, and the former pilot [[Larry Visoski]] was the government's first witness.[^53] The jury convicted Maxwell on December 29, 2021 on five of six counts.[^54]
+
+Nathan denied Maxwell's motion for a new trial on April 1, 2022 and sentenced her on June 28, 2022 to 240 months on the sex trafficking count, with concurrent terms on the other counts.[^55] The judgment was entered on June 29, 2022. The Second Circuit affirmed on September 17, 2024 in *United States v. Maxwell*, 118 F.4th 256, No. 22-1426-cr.[^56]
+
+After Nathan's elevation Judge Engelmayer took over the case. On August 11, 2025 he denied a motion by Deputy Attorney General [[Todd Blanche]] to unseal grand jury transcripts, holding that Federal Rule of Criminal Procedure 6(e) barred disclosure. The opinion is reported at 794 F. Supp. 3d 215.[^57] On January 21, 2026 he ruled on a motion by Representatives [[Thomas Massie]] and [[Ro Khanna]], sponsors of the [[Epstein Files Transparency Act]], to participate as amici curiae. He denied it.[^11]
+
+### Giuffre v. Maxwell
+
+[[Virginia Giuffre]] sued Maxwell for defamation in Giuffre v. Maxwell, No. 1:15-cv-07433, on September 21, 2015.[^58] Sweet presided at first, and Preska took the case after his death. A protective order was entered on March 17, 2016, and the case settled in May 2017.[^58] Discovery from the case remained under seal, and Preska ruled on its release from 2019 onward, including the release of names from the record in January 2024.[^59] The Second Circuit decided the appeals in [[Brown v. Maxwell]]; [[Dershowitz v. Giuffre]], 929 F.3d 41 (2d Cir. 2019), on July 3, 2019, and issued a further decision in the case in July 2025, reported at 146 F.4th 165.[^60][^61]
+
+On August 11, 2026 the court modified the protective order in an order at ECF 1367. On September 3, 2026 it amended the caption to read Ian Torrington Blatchford, as interim administrator of Virginia Giuffre's estate, against Maxwell.[^62]
+
+### Giuffre v. Dershowitz and Giuffre v. Prince Andrew
+
+On April 16, 2019 Giuffre sued [[Alan Dershowitz]] in [[Giuffre v. Dershowitz]], No. 1:19-cv-03377, before Preska. The docket records termination on November 10, 2022.[^63]
+
+On August 9, 2021 Giuffre sued [[Prince Andrew]] in Giuffre v. Prince Andrew, No. 1:21-cv-06702 (LAK). Kaplan's opinion on the motion to dismiss was filed on January 12, 2022, and the parties stipulated to dismissal, so-ordered on March 8, 2022.[^64]
+
+### Epstein Bank and Territorial Litigation
+
+On December 27, 2022 the Government of the United States Virgin Islands sued [[JPMorgan Chase]] in [[Government of the United States Virgin Islands v. JPMorgan Chase Bank]], No. 1:22-cv-10904 (JSR). The territory alleged that the bank had kept Epstein as a private banking client from 1998 to 2013 while he trafficked minors. Rakoff presided.[^65] JPMorgan settled the territory's suit for $75 million in September 2023. It settled the consolidated class claims of Epstein's accusers for $290 million, which the court approved in November 2023.[^66]
+
+Jane Doe 43 sued in Jane Doe 43 v. Epstein, No. 1:17-cv-00616 (JGK), on January 26, 2017 under the federal trafficking statute. The case was assigned to Koeltl, with [[Sarah Netburn]] as magistrate judge, and the parties stipulated to dismissal with prejudice on December 20, 2018.[^67] The plaintiff later litigated under her own name as [[Sarah Ransome]].[^67]
+
+In July 2023 the law firm [[Wigdor LLP]] filed [[Doe v. Black]], No. 1:23-cv-06418, against [[Leon Black]] in the district, where it was assigned to Judge Clarke.[^68]
+
+On March 9, 2023 JPMorgan filed a third-party complaint against [[Jes Staley]] in the Virgin Islands action, asserting indemnification, contribution, breach of fiduciary duty and faithless servant claims and seeking recovery of compensation paid to him from 2006 through 2013.[^69]
+
+### Brokerage Cases
+
+On April 12, 2024 [[Jane Street Group]] sued [[Millennium Management]] and two former traders in the district under the [[Defend Trade Secrets Act]]. Judge Paul Engelmayer so-ordered a stipulation of dismissal with prejudice on December 6, 2024.[^70]
+
+On September 17, 2024 [[Simon Andriesz]] petitioned the district to vacate, modify or remand an arbitration award against [[BGC Financial]], No. 1:24-cv-07004. On April 23, 2025 Liman held the petition untimely, because Andriesz had not served BGC within three months of the filing of the award, and in the alternative held that it "would still fail on the merits."[^71] The Second Circuit issued an order in No. 25-1341 on June 16, 2025.[^72]
+
+### Extremist Prosecution
+
+The FBI arrested Ethan Phelan Melzer, a soldier, on June 10, 2020, before a planned deployment, after he had made contact with adherents in the [[RapeWaffen Division]] Telegram channel. A superseding indictment in [[United States v. Melzer]], No. 1:20-cr-00314-GHW, was returned on August 18, 2020.[^73] Melzer pleaded guilty on June 24, 2022 and was sentenced to 45 years. The Second Circuit affirmed in No. 23-6247-cr (2d Cir. 2024).[^74]
+
+### Cryptocurrency Fraud Cases
+
+On December 21, 2022 the Securities and Exchange Commission sued Caroline Ellison and [[Gary Wang]] in [[SEC v. Ellison]], No. 22-cv-10794. Consent judgments were entered as to each on December 23, 2022.[^75] Ellison was prosecuted in [[United States v. Ellison]], No. 22 Cr. 673 (LAK). Judge Kaplan imposed sentence on September 24, 2024, and an amended judgment was entered on October 10, 2024.[^76]
+
+### Footnotes
+
+[^1]: 28 U.S.C. section 112(b), Cornell Legal Information Institute. https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/112
+[^2]: Federal Judicial Center, "U.S. District Courts for the Districts of New York: Legislative History." https://www.fjc.gov/history/courts/us-district-courts-districts-new-york-legislative-history
+[^3]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, "Walsh, Lawrence Edward." https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/walsh-lawrence-edward
+[^4]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, "Berman, Richard M." https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/berman-richard-m
+[^5]: *Turkiye Halk Bankasi A.S. v. United States*, 598 U.S. 264 (Apr. 19, 2023), No. 21-1450, slip op. at 1-3, stating that the district court denied the motion to dismiss and holding that the district court had jurisdiction under 18 U.S.C. section 3231 and that the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act does not provide immunity from criminal prosecution. The district court ruling is cited there as No. 15 Cr. 867 (SDNY, Oct. 1, 2020). https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/22pdf/21-1450_5468.pdf
+[^6]: *United States v. Turkiye Halk Bankasi A.S.*, No. 20-3499, 16 F.4th 336 (2d Cir. Oct. 22, 2021). https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/5291813/united-states-v-bankasi/
+[^7]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, "Nathan, Alison Julie." https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/nathan-alison-julie
+[^8]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, "Preska, Loretta A." https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/preska-loretta
+[^9]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, "Rakoff, Jed Saul." https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/rakoff-jed-saul
+[^10]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, "Engelmayer, Paul Adam." https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/engelmayer-paul-adam
+[^11]: *United States v. Maxwell*, No. 20 Cr. 330 (PAE) (S.D.N.Y. Jan. 21, 2026), Opinion and Order, ECF No. 844, "Case 1:20-cr-00330-PAE Document 844 Filed 01/21/26," resolving the motion of Reps. Massie and Khanna (ECF Nos. 837, 838). https://www.nysd.uscourts.gov/sites/default/files/2026-01/Maxwell%2020cr330%20-%20Opinion%20%26%20Order%201.21.26.pdf
+[^12]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, "Sweet, Robert Workman." https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/sweet-robert-workman
+[^13]: *United States v. Hoffenberg*, 94 Cr. 213 (RWS), 95 Cr. 321 (RWS), 1997 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 2394 (S.D.N.Y. Mar. 4, 1997), as cited in the complaint in *Gerber v. The Financial Trust Company*, No. 1:18-cv-07580 (S.D.N.Y.). https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/7698990/gerber-v-the-financial-trust-company/
+[^14]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, "Furman, Jesse Matthew." https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/furman-jesse-matthew
+[^15]: *Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force*, January 3, 1993, p. 68 (summarizing Steven Emerson and Jesse Furman, "The Conspiracy That Wasn't," *The New Republic,* November 3, 1991).
+[^16]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, "Sullivan, Richard Joseph." https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/sullivan-richard-joseph
+[^17]: Hoffenberg v. Epstein, No. 1:16-cv-03989 (RJS) (S.D.N.Y.), docket (complaint filed May 27, 2016; terminated July 5, 2016), and Order of Judge Richard J. Sullivan, July 5, 2016. https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/13248845/hoffenberg-v-epstein/
+[^18]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, "Casey, Richard Conway." https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/casey-richard-conway
+[^19]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, 1789-present, data file entries for Gurfein, Murray Irwin; Edelstein, David Norton; Stanton, Louis Lee; Conner, William Curtis; Liman, Lewis Jeffrey; Woods, Gregory Howard; Subramanian, Arun Srinivas; Clarke, Jessica Gloria Lynn. https://www.fjc.gov/sites/default/files/history/judges.csv
+[^20]: *Walt Disney Productions v. Mature Pictures Corp.*, 389 F. Supp. 1397 (S.D.N.Y. Feb. 14, 1975), No. 75 Civ. 394 (Duffy, J.), memorandum. https://static.case.law/f-supp/389/cases/1397-01.json
+[^21]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, "Kaplan, Lewis A." https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/kaplan-lewis
+[^22]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, "Koeltl, John George." https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/koeltl-john-george
+[^23]: 28 U.S.C. section 546(d), Cornell Legal Information Institute. https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/546
+[^24]: U.S. Attorney's Office, Southern District of New York, "Statement of U.S. Attorney Geoffrey S. Berman on Appointment by Chief Judge," April 25, 2018, https://www.justice.gov/usao-sdny/pr/statement-us-attorney-geoffrey-s-berman-appointment-chief-judge ; Spencer Kimball, "Attorney General Barr tells top Manhattan prosecutor Berman he is fired amid power struggle," *CNBC,* June 20, 2020, https://www.cnbc.com/2020/06/20/attorney-general-barr-tells-manhattan-us-attorney-berman-he-is-fired-amid-power-struggle.html
+[^25]: United States District Court, Southern District of New York, Press Advisory, August 18, 2025. https://www.nysd.uscourts.gov/sites/default/files/2025-08/Press%20Advisory.pdf
+[^26]: *United States v. New York Times Co.*, 328 F. Supp. 324 (S.D.N.Y. June 15, 1971), No. 71 Civ. 2662 (Gurfein, J.), memorandum. https://static.case.law/f-supp/328/cases/0324-01.json
+[^27]: *New York Times Co. v. United States*, 403 U.S. 713 (1971). https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/403/713
+[^28]: *Hughes Tool Co. v. Trans World Airlines, Inc.*, 409 U.S. 363 (1973), Nos. 71-827 and 71-830, procedural history of the litigation. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/409/363
+[^29]: *In re International Business Machines Corp.*, 687 F.2d 591 (2d Cir. Aug. 13, 1982), Background section (docket *United States v. International Business Machines Corp.*, 69 Civ. 200, S.D.N.Y., filed January 17, 1969). https://static.case.law/f2d/687/cases/0591-01.json
+[^30]: *United States v. International Business Machines Corp.*, 66 F.R.D. 154 (S.D.N.Y. June 27, 1974), No. 69 Civ. 200 (DNE) (Edelstein, C.J.), opinion, including the account of the Special Master Order No. 1 of April 16, 1973. https://static.case.law/frd/66/cases/0154-01.json
+[^31]: J.P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated, Form 10-K405 for 2001, Item 3, "Legal proceedings" (*Sumitomo Corporation v. J.P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated, Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York*, S.D.N.Y., filed August 1999). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/19617/000095012302002823/y57010e10-k405.htm
+[^32]: "Targeting CBS" and "In Brief" (CBS suit), p. 104, and editorial "Southern discomfort," *Broadcasting,* February 18, 1985. https://www.worldradiohistory.com/Archive-All-BC/Broadcasting-Magazine/BC-1985/BC-1985-02-18.pdf
+[^33]: "CBS on offensive in takeover challenges," *Broadcasting,* March 11, 1985. https://www.worldradiohistory.com/Archive-All-BC/Broadcasting-Magazine/BC-1985/BC-1985-03-11.pdf
+[^34]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, Litigation Release No. 21489, "Goldman, Sachs & Co. and Fabrice Tourre," April 16, 2010, *SEC v. Goldman, Sachs & Co. and Fabrice Tourre*, 10 Civ. 3229 (S.D.N.Y.). https://www.sec.gov/litigation/litreleases/2010/lr21489.htm
+[^35]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, press release 2010-123, "Goldman Sachs to Pay Record $550 Million to Settle SEC Charges Related to Subprime Mortgage CDO," July 15, 2010. https://www.sec.gov/news/press/2010/2010-123.htm
+[^36]: CourtListener docket 4347648, *SEC v. Goldman Sachs & Co.*, No. 1:10-cv-03229, filed April 16, 2010, terminated March 27, 2014. https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/4347648/
+[^37]: *SEC v. Fabrice Tourre*, 10 Civ. 3229 (KBF) (S.D.N.Y.), Document 5198, Final Judgment as to Defendant Fabrice Tourre, filed March 27, 2014. https://www.sec.gov/files/Judg10-cv-03229Tourre.pdf
+[^38]: CourtListener docket 4347648, docket header listing the assigned judge as Katherine Bolan Forrest, matching the KBF docket suffix. https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/4347648/
+[^39]: Opinion and Order, *U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission v. Citigroup Global Markets Inc.*, No. 11 Civ. 7387 (JSR), 827 F. Supp. 2d 328 (S.D.N.Y. Nov. 28, 2011) (Rakoff, J.). https://static.case.law/f-supp-2d/827/cases/0328-01.json
+[^40]: Letter of Bennet J. Moskowitz, Troutman Sanders LLP, to Hon. Richard J. Sullivan, June 28, 2016, *Hoffenberg v. Epstein*, No. 1:16-cv-03989 (RJS), filed as ECF No. 16-7 in No. 1:18-cv-07580-JPO (S.D.N.Y.). https://storage.courtlistener.com/recap/gov.uscourts.nysd.499593/gov.uscourts.nysd.499593.16.7.pdf
+[^41]: *Gerber v. The Financial Trust Company*, No. 1:18-cv-07580 (S.D.N.Y.), docket (filed August 20, 2018; terminated October 5, 2018; Judge J. Paul Oetken). https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/7698990/gerber-v-the-financial-trust-company/
+[^42]: *Doe 1 v. Government of the United States Virgin Islands*, No. 1:23-cv-10301-AS (S.D.N.Y.), Opinion and Order, ECF No. 202 (March 21, 2025), pp. 1 to 2, 10. https://storage.courtlistener.com/recap/gov.uscourts.nysd.610915/gov.uscourts.nysd.610915.202.0.pdf
+[^43]: *Doe 1 v. Government of the United States Virgin Islands*, No. 1:23-cv-10301-AS (S.D.N.Y.), docket, including Judgment, ECF No. 229 (May 5, 2026). https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/68031620/doe-1-v-government-of-the-united-states-virgin-islands/
+[^44]: *United States v. Menashe*, 741 F. Supp. 1135 (S.D.N.Y. Aug. 1, 1990), No. 90 Cr. 010 (LLS) (Stanton, J.), memorandum and order. https://static.case.law/f-supp/741/cases/1135-01.json
+[^45]: *In re Terrorist Attacks on September 11, 2001*, 349 F. Supp. 2d 765 (S.D.N.Y. Jan. 18, 2005), Nos. 03 MDL 1570 (RCC) et al. (Casey, J.), Opinion and Order, including the parts on the Burnett complaint against Abdulrahman bin Mahfouz, the National Commercial Bank, and the Ashton and Burnett complaint allegations concerning Khalid bin Mahfouz. https://static.case.law/f-supp-2d/349/cases/0765-01.json
+[^46]: *United States v. Epstein*, No. 1:19-cr-00490-RMB (S.D.N.Y.), ECF No. 23, Letter from AUSA Alison Moe to Judge Richard M. Berman (Supplement to Detention Memorandum), July 16, 2019, pp. 1 to 3. https://storage.courtlistener.com/recap/gov.uscourts.nysd.518649/gov.uscourts.nysd.518649.23.0_2.pdf
+[^47]: *United States v. Epstein*, No. 1:19-cr-00490-RMB (S.D.N.Y.), transcript of hearing, August 27, 2019, produced in the Department of Justice Epstein Library as EFTA02733081. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/Court%20Records/CA%20Florida%20Holdings%2C%20LLC%2C%20Publisher%20of%20the%20Palm%20Beach%20Post%20v.%20Aronberg%2C%20No.%2050-2019-CA-014681-XXXX-MB%20(Fla.%2015th%20Cir.%20Ct.%202019)/EFTA02733081.pdf
+[^48]: CourtListener docket 15887848, *United States v. Epstein*, No. 1:19-cr-00490, filed July 2, 2019, terminated August 29, 2019. https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/15887848/united-states-v-epstein/
+[^49]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Inspector General, "Investigation and Review of the Federal Bureau of Prisons' Custody, Care, and Supervision of Jeffrey Epstein at the Metropolitan Correctional Center in New York, New York," Report 23-085, June 2023, pp. 14 to 20. https://oig.justice.gov/sites/default/files/reports/23-085.pdf
+[^50]: *United States v. Epstein*, No. 1:19-cr-00490-RMB (S.D.N.Y.), Decision and Order, ECF No. 77 (Aug. 20, 2025), quoting *United States v. Maxwell*, 2025 WL 2301281, at *9 (S.D.N.Y. Aug. 11, 2025); Decision and Order, ECF No. 92 (Dec. 10, 2025). https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/15887848/united-states-v-epstein/
+[^51]: CourtListener docket 17318376, *United States v. Maxwell*, No. 1:20-cr-00330, filed June 29, 2020. https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/17318376/united-states-v-maxwell/
+[^52]: *United States v. Maxwell*, No. 20 Cr. 330 (AJN), Opinion and Order, ECF No. 207 (Apr. 16, 2021), CourtListener docket 17318376. https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/17318376/united-states-v-maxwell/
+[^53]: Tom Winter and Corky Siemaszko, "Jeffrey Epstein's longtime pilot testifies in trial of Ghislaine Maxwell," *NBC News,* November 30, 2021. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/jeffrey-epsteins-longtime-pilot-testifies-trial-ghislaine-maxwell-rcna7078
+[^54]: "Ghislaine Maxwell trial: Jury finds she sex trafficked a minor for Jeffrey Epstein, guilty on five of six counts," *CNN,* December 29, 2021. https://www.cnn.com/2021/12/29/us/ghislaine-maxwell-trial-wednesday
+[^55]: *United States v. Maxwell*, No. 20 Cr. 330 (AJN), Opinion and Order denying motion for new trial (S.D.N.Y. Apr. 1, 2022); U.S. Attorney's Office, Southern District of New York, "Ghislaine Maxwell Sentenced To 20 Years In Prison For Conspiring With Jeffrey Epstein To Sexually Abuse Minors," press release, June 28, 2022. https://www.justice.gov/usao-sdny/pr/ghislaine-maxwell-sentenced-20-years-prison-conspiring-jeffrey-epstein-sexually-abuse
+[^56]: *United States v. Maxwell*, No. 22-1426-cr, slip op. (2d Cir. Sept. 17, 2024), argued March 12, 2024, Cabranes, Wesley and Lohier, JJ., reported at 118 F.4th 256. The opinion states that Maxwell appealed "her June 29, 2022, judgment of conviction" from Judge Alison J. Nathan. https://storage.courtlistener.com/pdf/2024/09/17/united_states_v._maxwell.pdf
+[^57]: *United States v. Maxwell*, No. 1:20-cr-00330 (S.D.N.Y.), Opinion and Order, ECF No. 809 (Aug. 11, 2025), reported at 794 F. Supp. 3d 215. https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/17318376/united-states-v-maxwell/
+[^58]: CourtListener docket 4355835, *Giuffre v. Maxwell*, No. 1:15-cv-07433 (filed September 21, 2015; assigned to Loretta A. Preska on the docket; terminated May 25, 2017), with Complaint, ECF No. 1; Opinion denying motion to dismiss, ECF No. 37 (Feb. 2016); Protective Order, ECF No. 62 (March 17, 2016). https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/4355835/ian-torrington-blatchford-as-interim-administrator-of-virginia-giuffres/
+[^59]: *Giuffre v. Maxwell*, No. 1:15-cv-07433 (S.D.N.Y.), ECF Nos. 1220 (July 1, 2021), 1254 (April 19, 2022), 1285-1343 (Dec. 2022 to Jan. 2024), 1315 (Dec. 18, 2023), 1320-1342 (Jan. 3-17, 2024). https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/4355835/ian-torrington-blatchford-as-interim-administrator-of-virginia-giuffres/
+[^60]: *Brown v. Maxwell*; *Dershowitz v. Giuffre*, 929 F.3d 41 (2d Cir. 2019), Nos. 18-2868, 16-3945-cv(L) (July 3, 2019). https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/4636340/brown-v-maxwell-dershowitz-v-giuffre/
+[^61]: *Giuffre v. Maxwell*, 146 F.4th 165 (2d Cir. 2025), Nos. 24-182-cv(L), 24-203-cv(con) (July 23, 2025). https://caselaw.findlaw.com/court/us-2nd-circuit/117500106.html
+[^62]: *Giuffre v. Maxwell*, No. 1:15-cv-07433 (S.D.N.Y.), Order, ECF No. 1367 (Aug. 11, 2026), modifying Protective Order, ECF No. 62; Order amending caption, ECF No. 1370 (Sept. 3, 2026). https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/4355835/ian-torrington-blatchford-as-interim-administrator-of-virginia-giuffres/
+[^63]: CourtListener docket 14945220, *Giuffre v. Dershowitz*, No. 1:19-cv-03377 (filed April 16, 2019; assigned to Loretta A. Preska; terminated November 10, 2022). https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/14945220/giuffre-v-dershowitz/
+[^64]: *Giuffre v. Prince Andrew*, No. 1:21-cv-06702-LAK (S.D.N.Y.), Opinion re Motion to Dismiss, ECF No. 64 (signed Jan. 11, 2022, filed Jan. 12, 2022); Stipulation and Order of Dismissal, ECF No. 83 (March 8, 2022). CourtListener docket 60119368, filed August 9, 2021. https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/60119368/giuffre-v-prince-andrew/
+[^65]: Docket, *Government of the United States Virgin Islands v. JPMorgan Chase Bank, N.A.*, No. 1:22-cv-10904-JSR (S.D.N.Y.), ECF Nos. 1, 5, 6, 7, 17, 70, 90, 117, 120, 130, 131, CourtListener docket 66683865. https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/66683865/government-of-the-united-states-virgin-islands-v-jpmorgan-chase-bank-na/
+[^66]: "JPMorgan Chase and Epstein survivor Jane Doe 1 reach $290 million settlement," *NPR,* June 12, 2023. https://www.npr.org/2023/06/12/1181675580/epstein-jane-doe-1-290-million-settlement-jpmorgan-chase ; "JPMorgan's $290 million settlement with Epstein accusers wins approval by U.S. judge," *CNBC,* November 9, 2023. https://www.cnbc.com/2023/11/09/jpmorgans-290-million-settlement-with-epstein-accusers-wins-approval-by-us-judge.html ; "JPMorgan to settle Jeffrey Epstein suit by U.S. Virgin Islands for $75 million," *CNBC,* September 26, 2023. https://www.cnbc.com/2023/09/26/jpmorgan-to-settle-jeffrey-epstein-suit-by-virgin-islands.html
+[^67]: *Jane Doe 43 v. Epstein*, No. 1:17-cv-00616-JGK-SN (S.D.N.Y.), filed Jan. 26, 2017; Order, ECF No. 140 (Aug. 8, 2018); Agreed Final Order of Dismissal with Prejudice, ECF No. 189 (Dec. 20, 2018); Notice of Voluntary Dismissal, ECF No. 190 (Dec. 21, 2018); CourtListener docket 4581676. https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/4581676/jane-doe-43-v-epstein/
+[^68]: *Doe v. Black*, No. 1:23-cv-06418 (S.D.N.Y.), docket. https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/67633736/doe-v-black/
+[^69]: "JPMorgan Sues Ex-Executive Associated With Jeffrey Epstein," *Time,* 2023. https://time.com/6261243/jpmorgan-lawsuit-jes-staley-epstein-trafficking/
+[^70]: Docket, *Jane Street Group, LLC v. Millennium Management LLC*, No. 1:24-cv-02783-PAE (S.D.N.Y.), entry 1 (complaint, Apr. 12, 2024) and stipulation and order of dismissal with prejudice (so-ordered Dec. 6, 2024); CourtListener docket 68431468. https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/68431468/jane-street-group-llc-v-millennium-management-llc/
+[^71]: Opinion and Order, *Andriesz v. BGC Financial, L.P.*, No. 24-cv-7004 (LJL) (S.D.N.Y. April 23, 2025), docket 37, pp. 1-4, 7-12; Judgment, docket 38, April 24, 2025. https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/69166995/andriesz-v-bgc-financial-lp/
+[^72]: United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, Order, *Andriesz v. BGC Financial, L.P.*, No. 25-1341, June 16, 2025, with mandate issued August 28, 2025. https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/69166995/andriesz-v-bgc-financial-lp/
+[^73]: *United States v. Melzer*, No. 1:20-cr-00314-GHW (S.D.N.Y.), superseding indictment S1 20 Cr. 314, returned August 18, 2020. CourtListener docket 17286246. https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/17286246/united-states-v-melzer/
+[^74]: *United States v. Melzer*, No. 23-6247-cr (2d Cir. 2024), affirming the 45-year sentence. Courthouse News: https://www.courthousenews.com/circuit-upholds-45-year-sentence-for-army-soldier-who-plotted-satanic-neo-nazi-ambush/
+[^75]: Complaint, *Securities and Exchange Commission v. Ellison*, No. 22-cv-10794 (S.D.N.Y. Dec. 21, 2022), ECF No. 1, paras. 1-5, 13-17; consent judgments entered December 23, 2022. https://storage.courtlistener.com/recap/gov.uscourts.nysd.591453/gov.uscourts.nysd.591453.1.0.pdf
+[^76]: Amended Judgment in a Criminal Case as to Caroline Ellison, *United States v. Ellison*, (S2) 22 Cr. 673-03 (LAK) (S.D.N.Y.; date of imposition Sept. 24, 2024; signed Oct. 9, 2024; filed Oct. 10, 2024), ECF No. 520, pp. 1-4. https://storage.courtlistener.com/recap/gov.uscourts.nysd.590939/gov.uscourts.nysd.590939.520.0.pdf

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/United States Attorney.md

@@ -0,0 +1,216 @@
+---
+title: United States Attorney
+aliases:
+  - United States Attorney
+  - United States Attorneys
+  - U.S. Attorney
+  - U.S. Attorneys
+  - US Attorney
+  - US Attorneys
+created: 2026-10-15
+updated: 2026-10-15
+tags:
+  - Organization
+  - USGovernment
+  - DepartmentOfJustice
+  - Prosecutor
+  - PROMIS
+  - INSLAW
+  - BCCI
+  - BNL
+  - ContraWar
+  - DarkAllianceInvestigation
+  - JeffreyEpstein
+  - USAttorneyRemovals2006
+category: "U.S. Government"
+summary: "The federal prosecutor appointed for each judicial district under 28 U.S.C. 541, whose 2006 removals, interim appointments and district cases run through PROMIS, BCCI, the Contra drug cases and the Epstein agreement."
+location: "Washington, D.C."
+relations:
+  - type: investigated
+    with: "[[Department of Justice Office of the Inspector General]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "joint review of the 2006 removal of nine U.S. Attorneys"
+    start: 2007-03
+    end: 2008-09
+    fn: 12
+  - type: investigated
+    with: "[[Office of Professional Responsibility]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "joint review of the 2006 removal of nine U.S. Attorneys"
+    start: 2007-03
+    end: 2008-09
+    fn: 12
+  - type: investigated
+    with: "[[Office of Professional Responsibility]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "review of the Southern District of Florida's federal Epstein investigation and the non-prosecution agreement"
+    start: 2019-02-06
+    end: 2020-11
+    fn: 40
+---
+
+The United States Attorney is the federal prosecutor appointed for each judicial district to conduct the government's criminal prosecutions and civil litigation there. The statute provides for one U.S. Attorney in each judicial district, except that a single U.S. Attorney serves both Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands, so that there are 93 U.S. Attorneys serving 94 judicial districts.[^1][^2] The office and the people who held it appear in the [[PROMIS]] software case, the [[Contras|Contra]] and [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] drug inquiries, the [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International|BCCI]] and [[BNL Scandal|BNL]] bank cases, the [[Mariposa County]] cluster, the [[Jeffrey Epstein|Epstein]] prosecutions, the [[Mena, Arkansas|Mena]] money-laundering inquiry, the Letelier murder trial and the 2006 removals.
+
+### Statute and appointment
+
+The President appoints each United States attorney with the advice and consent of the Senate, for a four-year term. Each continues in office until a successor qualifies and is "subject to removal by the President."[^1] Assistant United States attorneys are appointed by the Attorney General and are subject to removal by him.[^3] Under 28 U.S.C. 547 each United States attorney, within his district, prosecutes offenses against the United States and handles the civil matters in which the government is a party.[^4] The [[Department of Justice Office of the Inspector General|Inspector General]] and the [[Office of Professional Responsibility]] describe U.S. attorneys as the government's chief law enforcement officers in their districts, under the [[U.S. Attorney General|Attorney General]], who has statutory authority over the litigation of every agency.[^2] The report describes presidential discretion to remove as "broad but not unlimited," citing *Parsons v. United States*, 167 U.S. 324, 343 (1897), and says that a removal for an illegal or improper purpose would be contrary to the "public good" and therefore impermissible.[^5]
+
+In the period of the 2006 removals, the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] background investigation of a candidate was forwarded through the [[Executive Office for United States Attorneys]] to the Department's White House liaison, and candidates were usually recommended by senators of the President's party. While a nomination was pending, the home-state senators approved or disapproved the nominee on a form printed on blue paper, and a disapproval or a missing approval affected how the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]] handled the nomination.[^6]
+
+### Interim appointments under 28 U.S.C. 546
+
+Before 2006, a vacancy was filled by the first assistant as acting U.S. Attorney for up to 210 days, or by an interim appointee named by the Attorney General for up to 120 days. After the 120 days the district court could reappoint the interim or make its own appointment, until the Senate confirmed a presidential nominee.[^2] In March 2006 Congress amended the statute at the Department's request, in section 502 of Public Law 109-177, so that the district court dropped out of the process, the 120-day limit was removed, and an Attorney General appointee could serve until a confirmed successor took office.[^7] Public Law 110-34, section 3, enacted June 14, 2007, repealed that change and restored the 120-day limit and the district court's power of appointment.[^8]
+
+The current text of section 546 provides that the Attorney General may appoint a United States attorney for a district where the office is vacant, may not appoint a person whom the Senate refused to confirm, and that the appointee may serve until a presidentially appointed successor qualifies or 120 days pass. If the appointment expires, the district court may appoint a United States attorney to serve until the vacancy is filled.[^9]
+
+The Southern District of New York applied that second step in 2025. Its interim appointee, Walter J. Clayton III, known as [[Jay Clayton]], had been appointed by the Attorney General. The court announced that under section 546(d) it had appointed him United States Attorney effective August 20, 2025, after the interim term expired on or about August 19.[^10] On December 1, 2025 the Third Circuit upheld a district court ruling that [[Alina Habba]]'s service as acting U.S. Attorney for New Jersey was unlawful. The court's reasoning, as reported, was that "the FVRA's nomination bar prevents her from assuming the role of Acting U.S. Attorney," and the statute the court relied on was the Federal Vacancies Reform Act.[^11]
+
+### The 2006 and 2007 removals
+
+Seven U.S. Attorneys were told to resign on December 7, 2006, at the direction of senior Department officials. Two others had been asked to resign earlier in the year: [[Todd Graves]] of the Western District of Missouri on January 24, and H.E. "Bud" Cummins of the Eastern District of Arkansas on June 14. The nine were Graves, Cummins, Daniel Bogden of the District of Nevada, Paul Charlton of the District of Arizona, Margaret Chiara of the Western District of Michigan, David Iglesias of the District of New Mexico, Carol Lam of the Southern District of California, John McKay of the Western District of Washington and Kevin Ryan of the Northern District of California.[^12]
+
+The Inspector General and the Office of Professional Responsibility opened a joint investigation in March 2007 and conducted about ninety interviews. [[Monica Goodling]], the Department's former White House liaison, declined to be interviewed and testified before the House Judiciary Committee on May 23, 2007, under an immunity grant.[^12] The joint report, issued in September 2008 as *An Investigation into the Removal of Nine U.S. Attorneys in 2006*, concluded that the selection and removal process was "fundamentally flawed," and that [[Alberto Gonzales]] and [[Paul McNulty]] "failed to adequately supervise" it.[^13]
+
+The report concluded that complaints from New Mexico Republican politicians and party activists about Iglesias's handling of voter fraud and public corruption cases caused his removal, and that the other reasons offered after the removal were after-the-fact rationalizations. It found that [[Kyle Sampson]] placed Iglesias on the removal list based on those complaints and on Senator [[Pete Domenici]]'s "loss of confidence" in him, and that the Department removed Iglesias without any inquiry into his handling of the cases.[^13] For Graves, the report found that the primary reason was complaints from the staff of Senator [[Christopher S. Bond]] of Missouri. The director of the Executive Office for United States Attorneys, [[Michael Battle]], who placed the call telling Graves to resign, said he did so at Goodling's direction and that she did not provide him with the reasons.[^14] [[Karl Rove]], [[Harriet Miers]], Goodling and Domenici declined to be interviewed, and the White House declined to provide its internal e-mails and documents about the removals.[^15] Goodling was the only official who said she recommended Bogden's removal, and she denied that her recommendation was the cause of it.[^16]
+
+### District of Columbia
+
+The District of Columbia office ([[U.S. Attorney's office]]) also prosecutes local crime in the Superior Court, a function no other U.S. Attorney's office performs, and its history is the starting point of the PROMIS record. [[Thomas A. Flannery]] was United States Attorney for the District of Columbia from 1969 to 1971, nominated to the federal bench in November 1971 and confirmed on December 1, 1971, according to the Federal Judicial Center's directory.[^17] In 1969 his office commissioned the case-tracking system that became PROMIS. It was funded by a $60,000 grant from the [[LEAA]], administered through [[Peat, Marwick, Mitchell & Co]], and designed by a team that included [[Joan E. Jacoby]] of the [[Office of Crime Analysis of the District of Columbia]] and [[Charles R. Work]], then deputy chief of the office's Superior Court Division.[^18][^19] The system was deployed on January 1, 1971.[^18]
+
+[[Harold H. Titus Jr.]] succeeded Flannery as United States Attorney under President [[Richard Nixon]]. In February 1973, during his tenure, the decision was made to upgrade PROMIS to a real-time online system capable of tracking more than 160 variables per case.[^18] The office's civil chief was [[Royce Lamberth]]. In 1987, weeks before joining the federal bench, Lamberth delivered a transcript of [[George Francis Bason, Jr.|Judge Bason]]'s oral ruling in the INSLAW dispute to the judge chairing the panel that selected Bason's successor, according to the House Judiciary Committee's report on the affair.[^18]
+
+[[Earl Silbert]] held the office from 1974 to 1979, the period of the 1976 investigation of the murder of [[Orlando Letelier]] and [[Ronni Moffitt]]; the office assigned a prosecutor from its major crimes unit, [[Eugene Propper]], then an assistant United States attorney in Washington.[^20][^21][^22] During the Letelier trial the witness Townley was held in the offices of the Major Crimes Unit, with the knowledge of Propper and [[E. Lawrence Barcella, Jr.]][^23] [[Joseph E. diGenova]] was appointed by President [[Ronald Reagan]] and served as United States Attorney for the District of Columbia from 1983 to 1988.[^24] He held the office in December 1985, when a United States delegation went to Israel to pursue the investigation of [[Jonathan Pollard]]. [[Mark M. Richard]] recorded that in 1986 [[Leonard Garment]] informed diGenova and Richard that he was withdrawing from representing the Israeli officer [[Aviem Sella]] in the Pollard matter.[^25] In the summer of 1985 Barcella gave a legal opinion clearing a private shipment of Soviet-bloc rifles, machine guns and grenades, as the [[Hartford Courant]] reported in 1992.[^26]
+
+### Southern District of New York
+
+The district's office ([[U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of New York]]) has had many holders. [[Robert Morgenthau]], later the Manhattan District Attorney, was United States attorney for the district after his appointment by President [[John F. Kennedy]].[^27] [[Rudolph Giuliani]] was nominated by President Reagan in 1983 as United States Attorney for the district, to the vacancy of John S. Martin Jr., and held the office through the 1980s.[^28] His office prosecuted the [[Hashemi Sting]], the Customs undercover operation against arms sales to Iran that used [[Cyrus Hashemi]] as its principal informant.[^29] In 1990 Assistant United States Attorney [[Baruch Weiss]] prosecuted [[Ari Ben-Menashe]] for conspiracy to sell C-130 aircraft to Iran. Weiss told the press that Ben-Menashe was merely a translator for Israeli military intelligence from 1977 to 1987, and two defendants were acquitted, according to the Washington Post report of the verdict.[^30]
+
+[[Geoffrey Berman]] was the United States Attorney for the district from January 2018 until June 20, 2020. His office indicted Epstein in July 2019 on sex trafficking charges, and the office later charged [[Ghislaine Maxwell]].[^31] On the night of June 19, 2020, Attorney General [[William Barr]] announced that Berman was stepping down and that the President would nominate Jay Clayton in his place, with [[Craig Carpenito]], the U.S. Attorney for New Jersey, to serve in the interim, while the office was investigating Trump's lawyer Rudolph Giuliani. Berman answered that he had not resigned and would not quit; on June 20 Barr wrote that he had asked the President to remove him.[^32][^33] Clayton was sworn in as interim United States Attorney in April 2025 on appointment by the Attorney General.[^34] He was assigned, in November 2025, by Attorney General [[Pam Bondi]], to investigate Epstein's dealings with named individuals, including [[Bill Clinton]] and [[Larry Summers]].[^35]
+
+### Southern District of Florida
+
+The Southern District of Florida office ([[U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of Florida]]) was headed in 1988 by [[Dexter Lehtinen]]. The Department's bulletin for July 15, 1988 records that, effective June 17, 1988, he took the oath of office as Interim United States Attorney for the district.[^36] The Senate's 1992 report on BCCI calls him "the former U.S. Attorney for the Southern District of Florida, Dexter Lehtinen," among the critics of the Justice Department's handling of the bank.[^37] In October 1988 the Miami office indicted members of a Jamaican posse, and Lehtinen was quoted on the first time a Jamaican drug gang had been indicted.[^38] [[Jonathan Beaty]] and [[S. C. Gwynne]] wrote in *The Outlaw Bank* that the former United States Attorney in Miami, Lehtinen, had a request to bring BCCI-related indictments in Miami that was held back.[^39]
+
+[[Alexander Acosta]] was the United States Attorney for the district when the office resolved the federal investigation of Epstein in 2007 and 2008. The Office of Professional Responsibility's report of November 2020 found that the office resolved the federal investigation through a state-based plea, and that Acosta "made the pivotal decision" to do so.[^40] The non-prosecution agreement was signed on September 24, 2007. Epstein pleaded guilty in state court on June 30, 2008.[^40] The report found that Acosta had "plenary authority" under federal law and Department policy to resolve the case as he deemed appropriate, and that the decision was not shown to have been motivated by improper factors. It found that Acosta did not engage in professional misconduct, while concluding that his decision to resolve the federal case through the [[Epstein non-prosecution agreement]] was "poor judgment." It also found that he elected to defer to the state on whether to notify victims of the state plea hearing.[^41] On July 10, 2019 Acosta told a press conference that the Palm Beach State Attorney's Office "was ready to allow Epstein to walk free with no jail time, nothing."[^42] Acosta submitted his resignation as Secretary of Labor on July 12, 2019.[^42]
+
+The report's five subjects were Acosta, [[Jeffrey Sloman]], [[Matthew Menchel]], [[Andrew Lourie]] and [[Ann Marie Villafana]], the last of whom was the line prosecutor on the federal file.[^42] In early November 2006 a former U.S. Attorney for the district, who then represented Epstein, made an overture to Villafana on his behalf, a telephone call that Sloman joined.[^42] In 2019 the court in [[Doe v. United States]] wrote that "[p]articularly problematic was the Government's decision to conceal the existence of the NPA and mislead the victims to believe that federal prosecution was still a possibility."[^43] When Acosta left in June 2009 Sloman became Acting U.S. Attorney, and in January 2010 the Attorney General appointed him Interim U.S. Attorney; he left in June 2010, and the whole district office was formally recused from the Epstein matter in July and August 2011.[^44]
+
+The office also appears in the Contra period. [[Howard Teicher]], a member of the [[National Security Council]] staff from 1982 to 1987, signed a declaration on January 31, 1995 in the Cardoen case in the Southern District of Florida, filed the next day with a defense motion. It stated: "Under CIA Director Casey and Deputy Director Gates, the CIA authorized, approved and assisted Cardoen in the manufacture and sale of cluster bombs and other munitions to Iraq."[^45] He had been retained in December 1994 by attorneys for Teledyne, a co-defendant, who prepared the declaration and faxed it to him.[^46] On November 8, 1996 the office, through United States Attorney [[William A. Keefer]] and Assistant United States Attorney [[Frank H. Tamen]], filed a notice of corrective declaration, with a declaration of Teicher dated October 31, 1996. In it Teicher stated that the references in paragraphs 15 through 18 to what his files "will contain" were beliefs and "my best memory and belief," that he had not reviewed or indexed his files on leaving the NSC staff and had not seen most of them since 1987, that he was "not aware of any specific evidence that the United States government or any government official or agency took steps to help Cardoen obtain any U.S.-origin components for use in cluster bombs," and that paragraph 17, on an arrest of [[Carlos Cardoen]], was otherwise incorrect.[^46]
+
+### Middle District of Florida
+
+The Tampa office, which sits in the Middle District of Florida, was headed from September 1988 to June 1993 by [[Robert Genzman]], who succeeded [[Robert Merkle]] after Merkle resigned to run for the Senate.[^47] His first assistant from February 1989 was [[Greg Kehoe]], previously an assistant United States attorney in the Southern District of Florida.[^48] The Senate's 1992 report on BCCI recorded that in the fall of 1988 the Justice Department did not approve a RICO prosecution of the bank, "for reasons that were never explained to the Customs agents." Genzman told the subcommittee that RICO charges "would have complicated an already complicated case."[^49] The report wrote that "[t]he January 1990 plea agreement between BCCI and the U.S. Attorney in Tampa kept BCCI alive," and wrote that the Justice Department "stopped investigating BCCI entirely" soon after it.[^50] The office also appears in the sentencing, in [[Tampa, Florida|Tampa]], of [[Brandon Russell]] on January 9, 2018, at which United States Attorney [[Maria Chapa Lopez]] appeared for the government.[^51]
+
+### Northern District of California
+
+The San Francisco office was headed in the 1980s by [[Joseph Russoniello]], United States Attorney for the district from 1982 to 1990 and again from 2008 to 2010.[^52] The Department's Inspector General recorded that in 1983 the office declined prosecution of [[Norwin Meneses]] in a tax case because of weak or insufficient evidence, and the [[Internal Revenue Service]] concurred.[^53] In February 1987 the United States Attorney's offices, along with the [[Drug Enforcement Administration|DEA]] and FBI, agreed that Meneses could serve as a source in the Los Angeles investigation of [[Danilo Blandon]], provided he pleaded guilty to a cocaine charge based on his trafficking in San Francisco. In July 1987 prosecution was declined in the Los Angeles investigation and that case was closed, partly because of Meneses's unwillingness to cooperate.[^54] [[Gary Webb]] wrote that Russoniello's office rejected the Meneses case in February 1987.[^55]
+
+A letter that [[Ben Kalka]] signed in April 2000, in connection with a sentence reduction, is described by [[Cheri Seymour]] as stating that he had not obtained his precursors from the government, and as written by [[William Shockley]], whom she describes as a United States Attorney in San Francisco.[^56]
+
+The Customs Service opened a criminal investigation in 1993 into whether [[Phil Zimmermann]] had violated export controls when [[Pretty Good Privacy]] traveled abroad, and the investigation was run out of the office of the United States Attorney for the Northern District of California. Zimmermann faced the prospect of indictment for three years.[^57]
+
+### Eastern District of California
+
+The Eastern District of California covers Fresno, Sacramento and Mariposa County, the setting of the "[[Queen's Accident]]." [[David F. Levi]] was United States Attorney for the district from 1986 to 1990, after serving as an assistant from 1983 to 1986, and became a judge of the district in 1990.[^58] [[Ben Wagner]] named Levi, as United States Attorney, in a writ of mandamus against him and others, including [[John Van de Kamp]] and [[George Deukemejian]], seeking an investigation of corruption in Mariposa County.[^59]
+
+The district's assistant United States attorneys in the same episode were [[James White]] in Fresno and [[Brian Leighton]], who prosecuted members of [[The Company]]. White ordered the files of [[Dr. Arthur Dahlem]] seized to prove the drug use of the sergeant [[Roderick Sinclair]]. [[Robert E. Coyle]] of the [[United States District Court]] then ordered White to drop the criminal investigation of Sinclair, and Coyle held that the drug records could not be used in court.[^60] Before he resigned, White filed the trial transcripts and an affidavit listing drugs Sinclair had used with [[Stephan LaPalm]], an employee of the Sacramento office.[^60]
+
+### Massachusetts and Western Pennsylvania
+
+[[Elliot Richardson]] was United States Attorney for the District of Massachusetts from 1959 to 1961, before his service as Lieutenant Governor, Attorney General of Massachusetts and, under President Nixon, Attorney General of the United States; he later served as INSLAW's lead outside counsel.[^61] [[William F. Weld]] was the United States Attorney in Boston in 1985. A letter dated May 16, 1985, signed by [[William Bradford Reynolds]], the Assistant Attorney General for Civil Rights, and addressed to Weld, named [[Manucher Ghorbanifar]], [[Adnan Khashoggi]] and [[Richard Armitage]] in connection with an arms transaction. [[Bill Hamilton]] of [[INSLAW]] obtained the letter in late 2004, and Reynolds authenticated it in 2005.[^62]
+
+[[Richard Thornburgh]] was the United States Attorney for the Western District of Pennsylvania from 1969 to 1975, appointed by President Nixon. He later served as Attorney General from 1988 to 1991, and the [[House Committee on the Judiciary|House Judiciary Committee]]'s 1992 report on the INSLAW affair said that Meese and Thornburgh "blocked or restricted congressional inquiries" and refused to seek an independent counsel.[^63][^64]
+
+### New Jersey and Northern Georgia
+
+[[Frederick Lacey]] was the United States Attorney for the District of New Jersey from 1969 to 1971, according to the Federal Judicial Center's entry for him; he was nominated to the federal bench on October 7, 1970, confirmed six days later, and sat on the [[Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court]] from 1979 to 1985.[^65] In October 1992 Attorney General William Barr appointed Lacey special counsel for the BNL Scandal, concerning the Atlanta branch of the [[Banca Nazionale del Lavoro]]. Lacey reported on December 9, 1992 that there were no grounds for an independent counsel. He also wrote that he had "seen nothing" to suggest that [[Brent Scowcroft]] and [[Lawrence Eagleburger]] knew of the loans, and part of his report was classified.[^66]
+
+The Atlanta office's acting United States Attorney, [[Joseph D. Whitley]], took over on June 1, 1990 and recused himself from the bank case the same day, because his former firm had represented [[Matrix Churchill]]. Lacey wrote that the recusal was verbal on June 1 and confirmed in writing a week later.[^66] The [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]] found in February 1993 that the CIA's grounds for withholding reports from prosecutors had "no legal support," and did not find deliberate concealment.[^67]
+
+### Other districts
+
+[[William Sessions]], later Director of the FBI from 1987 to 1993, was United States Attorney for the Western District of Texas from 1971 to 1974, after serving as chief of the Government Operations Section of the Criminal Division from 1969 to 1971, and was nominated to the district court by President [[Gerald Ford]] in December 1974.[^68] [[William J. Donovan]], the founder of the [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]], served as United States Attorney for the Western District of New York before running for Governor of New York in 1932.[^69] [[Asa Hutchinson]] was appointed United States attorney for the Western District of Arkansas by President Reagan in 1982 and assigned the IRS criminal investigator [[William Duncan]] to watch for money laundering around the Mena airport, where the aircraft of [[Barry Seal]] were based; Duncan said he asked Hutchinson in mid-1985 for 20 subpoenas.[^70] On October 7, 1955 the United States Attorney for Maine, [[Peter Mills]], and the FDA General Counsel, [[Joseph Maguire]], described to the FBI's [[Louis B. Nichols]] a conversation with the former attorney of [[Wilhelm Reich]].[^71]
+
+In the Virgin Islands, [[David M. Nissman]], United States Attorney for the district, announced with Assistant Attorney General [[Christopher Wray]] the August 12, 2004 wire fraud indictment of the territorial senator [[Carlton Dowe]].[^72] In Arizona, [[Timothy Courchaine]], appointed United States Attorney by Attorney General Pamela Bondi on February 28, 2025, filed the 2025 indictment of [[Baron Cain Martin]] in the [[764]] network case.[^73] In the Eastern District of Pennsylvania the office told a city judge in August 2026 that it would handle the case of [[Eugene Horsch]], after the Philadelphia District Attorney's Office withdrew its state gun and drug counts.[^74]
+
+### Central District of California
+
+The [[LASD Major Violators]] documents, seized from the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department, were copied by federal agents in late 1986. The Inspector General concluded that no evidence was removed from Sheriff's custody, but could not locate the copies in FBI files, in the files of the Los Angeles United States Attorney, or at the DEA, which agents said had seen them in the U.S. Attorney's office in 1990.[^75]
+
+### Footnotes
+
+[^1]: 28 U.S.C. 541, "United States attorneys," subsections (a) to (c). https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/541
+[^2]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Inspector General and Office of Professional Responsibility, *An Investigation into the Removal of Nine U.S. Attorneys in 2006,* September 2008, ch. 2 (jurisdiction and duties, the count of 93 U.S. Attorneys, selection and the EOUSA role, interim appointments before 2006). https://oig.justice.gov/sites/default/files/archive/special/s0809a/chapter2.htm
+[^3]: 28 U.S.C. 542, "Assistant United States attorneys," subsection (b). https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/542
+[^4]: 28 U.S.C. 547, "Duties." https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/547
+[^5]: OIG/OPR, *An Investigation into the Removal of Nine U.S. Attorneys in 2006,* ch. 2, citing *Parsons v. United States,* 167 U.S. 324, 343 (1897). https://oig.justice.gov/sites/default/files/archive/special/s0809a/chapter2.htm
+[^6]: Blue slip process as described in OIG/OPR, *An Investigation into the Removal of Nine U.S. Attorneys in 2006,* ch. 2, on the blue slip process. https://oig.justice.gov/sites/default/files/archive/special/s0809a/chapter2.htm
+[^7]: Public Law 109-177, title V, section 502 (March 2006), as described in OIG/OPR, *An Investigation into the Removal of Nine U.S. Attorneys in 2006,* ch. 2. https://oig.justice.gov/sites/default/files/archive/special/s0809a/chapter2.htm
+[^8]: Public Law 110-34, section 3, 121 Stat. 224 (June 14, 2007), as recorded in the amendments and statutory notes to 28 U.S.C. 546. https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/546
+[^9]: 28 U.S.C. 546, "Vacancies," subsections (a) to (d) as currently in force. https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/546
+[^10]: United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, press advisory, August 18, 2025 (appointment under 28 U.S.C. 546(d) effective August 20, 2025). https://www.nysd.uscourts.gov/sites/default/files/2025-08/Press%20Advisory.pdf
+[^11]: Notus report on the Third Circuit decision of December 1, 2025 on the disqualification of Alina Habba as acting United States Attorney for New Jersey, reprinted by the Washington Sun, December 1, 2025. The quoted sentence is as the report quotes the court. https://washingtonsun.com/courts/alina-habba-new-jersey-disqualified?redirected=notus_org
+[^12]: U.S. Department of Justice, OIG/OPR, *An Investigation into the Removal of Nine U.S. Attorneys in 2006,* ch. 1 (the December 7, 2006 resignations, the Graves and Cummins removals, the joint investigation and approximately ninety interviews, Goodling's immunized testimony of May 23, 2007). https://oig.justice.gov/sites/default/files/archive/special/s0809a/chapter1.htm
+[^13]: OIG/OPR, *An Investigation into the Removal of Nine U.S. Attorneys in 2006,* ch. 13, "Conclusions" (the process "fundamentally flawed"; the supervision of Gonzales and McNulty; the Iglesias findings; the Sampson placement). https://oig.justice.gov/sites/default/files/archive/special/s0809a/chapter13.htm
+[^14]: OIG/OPR, *An Investigation into the Removal of Nine U.S. Attorneys in 2006,* ch. 13, on Battle's account of the Graves call. https://oig.justice.gov/sites/default/files/archive/special/s0809a/chapter13.htm
+[^15]: OIG/OPR, *An Investigation into the Removal of Nine U.S. Attorneys in 2006,* ch. 1 (witnesses who declined interviews, including Rove, Miers, Goodling and Domenici, and the White House documents withheld). https://oig.justice.gov/sites/default/files/archive/special/s0809a/chapter1.htm
+[^16]: OIG/OPR, *An Investigation into the Removal of Nine U.S. Attorneys in 2006,* ch. 13, on the Bogden removal and Goodling's denial. https://oig.justice.gov/sites/default/files/archive/special/s0809a/chapter13.htm
+[^17]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, entry for Flannery, Thomas Aquinas (U.S. attorney for the District of Columbia, 1969 to 1971; assistant U.S. attorney, 1950 to 1962; nominated by Richard M. Nixon on November 18, 1971, confirmed December 1, 1971). https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/flannery-thomas-aquinas
+[^18]: U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on the Judiciary, *The INSLAW Affair: Investigative Report,* H. Rept. 102-857, 102nd Congress, 2nd Session, September 10, 1992, on the 1969 design team, the January 1, 1971 deployment, the February 1973 upgrade under Titus, the Lamberth transcript and the Thornburgh and Meese findings. https://archive.org/details/InslawAffairInvestigativeReport
+[^19]: Peat, Marwick, Mitchell & Co., *System Overview and Report Formats for PROMIS* (May 1971), prepared for the District of Columbia Government Office of Crime Analysis under LEAA Grant No. 70-DF-047, NCJ 32469. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/32469NCJRS.pdf
+[^20]: Dinges, John, and Saul Landau, *Assassination on Embassy Row* (Pantheon, 1980; McGraw-Hill, 1981), pp. 211 and 229 to 236, on the Letelier investigation and the assignment of the case under United States Attorney Earl Silbert. https://archive.org/details/assassination-on-embassy-row
+[^21]: Dinges and Landau, *Assassination on Embassy Row,* pp. 242 to 243, on Propper's assignment to the Letelier murder. https://archive.org/details/assassination-on-embassy-row
+[^22]: Historical Society of the District of Columbia Circuit, "Biographical Sketch of Earl J. Silbert" (Department of Justice and U.S. Attorney's Office, D.C., 1960 to 1974; United States Attorney, D.C., 1974 to 1979). https://dcchs.org/sb_pdf/biographical-sketch-silbert/
+[^23]: Federal Bureau of Investigation, Washington field office file WF 185-425 (Chilbom): FD-302 reports of interviews of Michael Vernon Townley by SAs Robert W. Scherrer and L. Carter Cornick Jr., February 6, 8 and 9, 1979, and a later undated interview; FBI translation of cassette Q188. https://www.latinamericanstudies.org/MNC/Letelier-townley-phone.pdf
+[^24]: U.S. Department of Justice, U.S. Attorney's Office, Southern District of Florida, "Joseph E. diGenova Sworn in as Counselor to the Attorney General" (from 1983 to 1988 appointed by President Reagan as United States Attorney for the District of Columbia). https://www.justice.gov/usao-sdfl/pr/joseph-e-digenova-sworn-counselor-attorney-general
+[^25]: National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book 407, "Decade of the Spy," undated counterintelligence history extract, Doc. 14, on the December 1985 delegation and the 1986 withdrawal of Garment. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB407/docs/EBB-PollardDoc14.pdf
+[^26]: *Hartford Courant,* May 29, 1992, quoting Barcella that "somebody in the government came to me."
+[^27]: Beaty, Jonathan, and S. C. Gwynne, *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI* (Random House, 1993), p. 49.
+[^28]: *Public Papers of the Presidents: Ronald Reagan, 1983,* Appendix B, Nominations Submitted to the Senate (Rudolph W. Giuliani, of New York, to be United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York for the term of 4 years, vice John S. Martin, Jr.). https://www.reaganlibrary.gov/1983-public-papers-president-appendix-b
+[^29]: Ben-Menashe, Ari, *Profits of War: Inside the Secret U.S.-Israeli Arms Network* (Sheridan Square Press, 1992; TrineDay reprint, 2015), on the prosecution of the sting by the office.
+[^30]: "2 Acquitted of Trying to Sell Military Cargo Planes to Iran," *The Washington Post,* November 29, 1990, dateline New York, November 28, with the statement of Assistant U.S. Attorney Baruch Weiss. https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1990/11/29/2-acquitted-of-trying-to-sell-military-cargo-planes-to-iran/2918bfd6-89a7-441a-a124-3b1916e90321/
+[^31]: United States v. Epstein, No. 1:19-cr-00490-RMB (S.D.N.Y.), docket (indictment filed July 2, 2019; attorneys of record including Assistant U.S. Attorneys Maurene Comey, Alex Rossmiller and Alison Moe, under U.S. Attorney Geoffrey Berman). https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/15887848/united-states-v-epstein/
+[^32]: Kimball, Spencer, "Attorney General Barr tells top Manhattan prosecutor Berman he is fired amid power struggle," *CNBC,* June 20, 2020. https://www.cnbc.com/2020/06/20/attorney-general-barr-tells-manhattan-us-attorney-berman-he-is-fired-amid-power-struggle.html
+[^33]: "Geoffrey Berman, U.S. Attorney Who Prosecuted Trump Allies, Says He Won't Quit," *NPR,* June 20, 2020. https://www.npr.org/2020/06/20/881148365/geoffrey-berman-u-s-attorney-who-prosecuted-trump-allies-says-he-wont-quit
+[^34]: "Jay Clayton Appointed US Attorney for SDNY," *Yonkers Times,* April 28, 2025. https://yonkerstimes.com/jay-clayton-appointed-us-attorney-for-sdny/
+[^35]: "Bondi taps acting U.S. Attorney Jay Clayton to probe Democrats' ties to Epstein," *The Washington Times,* November 14, 2025. https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2025/nov/14/bondi-taps-acting-us-attorney-jay-clayton-probe-democrats-ties/
+[^36]: *United States Attorneys' Bulletin,* vol. 36, July 15, 1988, p. 166, "Personnel": Dexter Lehtinen took the oath of office, effective June 17, 1988, as Interim United States Attorney for the Southern District of Florida. https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/usao/legacy/2010/10/12/usab3607.pdf
+[^37]: Kerry, John, and Hank Brown, *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate,* S. Prt. 102-140, December 1992, ch. 8, "BCCI and Law Enforcement: The Justice Department and the U.S. Customs Service." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/08just.htm
+[^38]: "More than 200 roped in drug posse roundup," *Deseret News,* October 14, 1988. https://www.deseret.com/1988/10/14/18780521/more-than-200-roped-in-drug-posse-roundup/
+[^39]: Beaty, Jonathan, and S. C. Gwynne, *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI* (Random House, 1993). Internet Archive copy, identifier outlawbank00jona. https://archive.org/details/outlawbank00jona
+[^40]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Professional Responsibility, Executive Summary, "Investigation into the U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of Florida's Resolution of Its 2006-2008 Federal Criminal Investigation of Jeffrey Epstein and Its Interactions with Victims during the Investigation," November 2020, pp. v to vii (the "pivotal decision," the NPA signed September 24, 2007, and the June 30, 2008 state plea). https://www.justice.gov/opr/page/file/1336471/dl
+[^41]: OPR, Executive Summary, November 2020 (findings on professional misconduct, the "poor judgment" conclusion, and the decision to defer to the state on victim notification of the plea hearing). https://www.justice.gov/opr/page/file/1336471/dl
+[^42]: OPR, Executive Summary, November 2020 (the five subjects of the review; Acosta's resignation of July 12, 2019; the November 2006 overture by a former U.S. Attorney). https://www.justice.gov/opr/page/file/1336471/dl
+[^43]: Opinion and Order, *Jane Doe 1 and Jane Doe 2 v. United States,* No. 9:08-cv-80736-KAM (S.D. Fla. Feb. 21, 2019), ECF No. 435 (Marra, J.), p. 27. https://storage.courtlistener.com/recap/gov.uscourts.flsd.317867/gov.uscourts.flsd.317867.435.0.pdf
+[^44]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00224943, DataSet 9, "Epstein Investigation Timeline," Exhibit A-1, May 2006 to August 2011. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00224943.pdf
+[^45]: Declaration of Howard R. Teicher, executed January 31, 1995, *United States v. Carlos Cardoen et al.,* No. 93-241-CR-Highsmith (S.D. Fla.), paragraphs 1 to 18. National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 82, document 61. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB82/iraq61.pdf
+[^46]: Notice of Filing Corrective Declaration (U.S. Attorney William A. Keefer, by AUSA Frank H. Tamen) with Declaration of Howard R. Teicher dated October 31, 1996, *United States v. Carlos Cardoen et al.,* No. 93-241-CR-Highsmith (S.D. Fla.), docket entry 679, certificate of service November 8, 1996, paragraphs 1 to 7. https://archive.org/details/utf-893cr-241-de-679
+[^47]: Leusner, Jim, "Robert Genzman" (obituary), *Orlando Sentinel,* May 13, 1998. https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/138851192/robert-w_-genzman
+[^48]: U.S. House of Representatives, October Surprise Task Force, *Joint Report of the Task Force to Investigate Certain Allegations Concerning the Holding of American Hostages by Iran in 1980,* H. Rept. 102-1102, January 3, 1993 (staff biographies, Minority Staff). https://archive.org/details/6199732-Joint-Report-of-the-October-Surprise-Task-Force
+[^49]: Kerry and Brown, *The BCCI Affair,* ch. 8, on the RICO decision and Genzman's testimony. https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/08just.htm
+[^50]: Kerry and Brown, *The BCCI Affair,* ch. 8, on the January 1990 plea agreement and the Justice Department's conduct after it. https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/08just.htm
+[^51]: *United States v. Russell,* No. 8:17-cr-00283 (M.D. Fla. Jan. 9, 2018), CourtListener docket. https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/6072023/united-states-v-russell/
+[^52]: Former United States Attorneys Association, "Joe Russoniello Joins Browne George Ross," July 2013 ("Russoniello served as the United States Attorney for the Northern District of California 1982-1990, and again in 2008-2010"). https://www.nafusa.org/2013/07/joe-russoniello-joins-browne-george-ross/
+[^53]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Inspector General, *The CIA-Contra-Crack Cocaine Controversy* (December 1997), ch. III, part 1, on the 1983 tax case. https://oig.justice.gov/sites/default/files/archive/special/9712/ch03p1.htm
+[^54]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Inspector General, *The CIA-Contra-Crack Cocaine Controversy* (December 1997), ch. III, part 2, on the February 1987 agreement among the United States Attorney's offices and the July 1987 declination. https://oig.justice.gov/sites/default/files/archive/special/9712/ch03p2.htm
+[^55]: Webb, Gary, *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion* (Seven Stories Press, 1998), ch. 15. Webb's account is attributed to Webb.
+[^56]: Seymour, Cheri, *The Last Circle: Danny Casolaro's Investigation into the Octopus and the PROMIS Software Scandal* (TrineDay, 2010), pp. 340 to 344 and 404 to 405, on the Kalka letter, the April 2000 release and the attribution of the letter to Shockley.
+[^57]: Levy, Steven, *Crypto: How the Code Rebels Beat the Government, Saving Privacy in the Digital Age* (Viking, 2001), on the 1993 Customs investigation of Zimmermann run from the Northern District of California.
+[^58]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, entry for Levi, David F. (assistant U.S. attorney, Eastern District of California, 1983 to 1986; U.S. attorney, 1986 to 1990; judge from October 1, 1990). https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/levi-david-f
+[^59]: Writ of mandamus petition filed by Ben Wagner naming David F. Levi and others.
+[^60]: *LaBarge v. County of Mariposa,* 798 F.2d 364 (9th Cir. 1986), on the Queen's Accident litigation; and Seymour, *The Last Circle,* on the Coyle and White passages.
+[^61]: Biographical Directory of the United States Congress; Harvard Law School alumni records.
+[^62]: Seymour, *The Last Circle,* pp. 363 to 364, on the May 16, 1985 letter, its provenance, and its signatories, and Reynolds's 2005 authentication of it.
+[^63]: "Richard Lewis Thornburgh," Office of the Attorney General, U.S. Department of Justice, *Attorneys General of the United States;* "Richard Thornburgh," Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia.
+[^64]: House Judiciary Committee, *The INSLAW Affair,* H. Rept. 102-857 (1992), as in note 18, on the blocked congressional inquiries and the independent counsel refusal.
+[^65]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, entry for Lacey, Frederick Bernard (U.S. attorney, District of New Jersey, 1969 to 1971; nominated October 7, 1970; Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court, 1979 to 1985). https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/lacey-frederick-bernard
+[^66]: Lacey, Frederick B., "The Banca Nazionale del Lavoro Investigation: Report of the Independent Counsel," reproduced in House Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs, *Testimony of Former Employees of the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro,* Serial No. 103-95 (1994), pp. 514 to 515. https://archive.org/details/testimonyofforme1994unit
+[^67]: Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *The Intelligence Community's Involvement in the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro (BNL) Affair,* Committee Print S. Prt. 103-12, February 1993, pp. 4 to 5.
+[^68]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, entry for Sessions, William Steele (chief, Government Operations Section, Criminal Division, 1969 to 1971; U.S. attorney, Western District of Texas, 1971 to 1974; nominated by Gerald Ford December 11, 1974; Director of the FBI, 1987 to 1993). https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/sessions-william-steele
+[^69]: Troy, Thomas F., *Donovan and the CIA: A History of the Establishment of the Central Intelligence Agency* (CIA Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1981).
+[^70]: Leveritt, Mara, "Who's afraid of Barry Seal?" *Arkansas Times,* September 28, 2017. https://arktimes.com/news/cover-stories/2017/09/28/whos-afraid-of-barry-seal
+[^71]: L. B. Nichols to Mr. Tolson, office memorandum of October 7, 1955, "Wilhelm Reich," Wilhelm Reich FBI file, Part 2. https://archive.org/details/WilhelmReichFBI
+[^72]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Public Affairs, "Virgin Islands Senator Indicted on Fraud and Theft Charges," press release 04-560, August 13, 2004. https://www.justice.gov/archive/opa/pr/2004/August/04_crm_560.htm
+[^73]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Public Affairs, "Arizona Leader of Violent Extremist Network '764' Charged with Running a Child Exploitation Enterprise, Supporting Terrorists, Producing and Distributing Child Pornography, and Other Crimes," press release, October 31, 2025. https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/arizona-leader-violent-extremist-network-764-charged-running-child-exploitation-enterprise
+[^74]: Rushing, Ellie. "Feds will take over gun case of Olney man at center of missing women investigation, as Philly DA withdraws charges," *The Philadelphia Inquirer,* August 6, 2026. https://www.inquirer.com/crime/eugene-horsch-federal-charges-olney-missing-women-20260806.html
+[^75]: Los Angeles County Sheriff's Office, Inspector General account of the Major Violators documents.

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit.md

@@ -0,0 +1,487 @@
+---
+aliases:
+  - D.C. Circuit
+  - D.C. Cir.
+  - U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit
+  - U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit
+  - Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit
+category: "Law Enforcement & Legal"
+tags:
+  - Organization
+  - FederalJudiciary
+  - AppellateCourt
+  - IndependentCounsel
+  - IranContra
+  - Inslaw
+  - LetelierMurder
+  - Glomar
+  - FOIA
+  - Scientology
+  - UriGeller
+  - DOGE
+  - AssociatedPress
+summary: "The federal appellate court for the District of Columbia, whose rulings on independent counsels, Iran-Contra convictions, Glomar responses, INSLAW, the Letelier case and the 2025 Musk and press-access cases are documented here."
+location: "Washington, D.C."
+start: 1893-02-09
+created: 2026-10-15
+updated: 2026-10-15
+relations:
+  - type: appointed
+    with: "[[Lawrence Walsh]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "independent counsel for Iran/contra matters, appointed by the Special Division of the court"
+    start: 1986-12-19
+    fn: 24
+  - type: member_of
+    with: "[[Patricia Wald]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "judge"
+    start: 1979-07-26
+    end: 1999-11-16
+    fn: 15
+  - type: member_of
+    with: "[[Kenneth Starr]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "judge"
+    start: 1983-09-20
+    end: 1989-05-26
+    fn: 17
+  - type: member_of
+    with: "[[Robert Bork]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "judge"
+    start: 1982-02-08
+    end: 1988-02-05
+    fn: 3
+  - type: member_of
+    with: "[[Antonin Scalia]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "judge"
+    start: 1982-08-17
+    end: 1986-09-26
+    fn: 4
+  - type: member_of
+    with: "[[Ruth Bader Ginsburg]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "judge"
+    start: 1980-06-18
+    end: 1993-08-10
+    fn: 5
+  - type: member_of
+    with: "[[Clarence Thomas]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "judge"
+    start: 1990-03-06
+    end: 1991-10-23
+    fn: 6
+  - type: member_of
+    with: "[[John Roberts]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "judge"
+    start: 2003-06-02
+    end: 2005-09-29
+    fn: 7
+  - type: member_of
+    with: "[[Brett Kavanaugh]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "judge"
+    start: 2006-05-30
+    end: 2018-10-05
+    fn: 8
+  - type: member_of
+    with: "[[Merrick Garland]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "judge"
+    start: 1997-03-20
+    end: 2021-03-10
+    fn: 9
+  - type: member_of
+    with: "[[Laurence Silberman]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "judge, senior status from 2000"
+    start: 1985-10-28
+    end: 2000-11-01
+    fn: 10
+  - type: member_of
+    with: "[[David Sentelle]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "judge, chief judge 2008 to 2013"
+    start: 1987-09-11
+    end: 2013-02-12
+    fn: 11
+  - type: member_of
+    with: "[[Harry Edwards]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "judge"
+    start: 1980-02-20
+    end: 2005-11-03
+    fn: 12
+  - type: member_of
+    with: "[[Malcolm Wilkey]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "judge"
+    start: 1970-02-25
+    end: 1984-12-06
+    fn: 13
+  - type: member_of
+    with: "[[David Bazelon]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "judge"
+    start: 1949-10-21
+    end: 1979-06-30
+    fn: 14
+  - type: member_of
+    with: "[[Abner Mikva]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "judge, chief judge 1991 to 1994"
+    start: 1979-09-26
+    end: 1994-09-19
+    fn: 18
+  - type: member_of
+    with: "[[Douglas Ginsburg]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "judge, chief judge 2001 to 2008"
+    start: 1986-10-14
+    fn: 19
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Oliver North]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "convictions vacated and remanded, count 9 reversed"
+    start: 1990-07-20
+    fn: 27
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[John Poindexter]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "convictions reversed on all counts"
+    start: 1991-11-15
+    fn: 29
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Ignacio Novo]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "conviction reversed for failure to sever"
+    start: 1980-09-15
+    fn: 30
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Carter Cornick]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "FBI case agent in the Letelier and Moffitt investigation, the Chilbom case"
+    fn: 33
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[John N. Mitchell]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "defendant in Zweibon v. Mitchell, approvals of wiretaps on JDL headquarters"
+    start: 1975-06-23
+    fn: 34
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Alexander M. Haig, Jr.]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "procedures for the Halperin surveillance, reviewed in Halperin v. Kissinger"
+    start: 1979-07-12
+    fn: 35
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Mary Sue Hubbard]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "conviction affirmed"
+    start: 1981-10-02
+    fn: 43
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Eugene Metzger]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "pendent jurisdiction ruling, judgment vacated"
+    start: 1982-05-18
+    fn: 59
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Uri Geller]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "Rule 11 sanctions affirmed"
+    start: 1994-12-09
+    fn: 64
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Hillary Clinton]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "health care task force held not subject to the Federal Advisory Committee Act"
+    start: 1993-06-22
+    fn: 65
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Dick Cheney]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "mandamus petition; judgment vacated by the Supreme Court in 2004"
+    start: 2003-07-08
+    fn: 66
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Rene Schneider]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "suit against Kissinger dismissed as a political question"
+    start: 2005-06-28
+    fn: 68
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Robert McFarlane]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "libel suit against Esquire and Craig Unger, judgment affirmed"
+    start: 1996-01-30
+    fn: 71
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Department of Government Efficiency]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "In re Musk, No. 25-5072, mandamus petition over expedited discovery"
+    start: 2025-03-18
+    fn: 74
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Associated Press]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "White House access, stay pending appeal"
+    start: 2025-06-06
+    fn: 76
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[G. Gordon Liddy]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "convictions affirmed in the Watergate and Fielding break-in appeals"
+    start: 1974-11-08
+    fn: 37
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Jonathan Pollard]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "denial of motion to withdraw guilty plea affirmed"
+    start: 1992-03-20
+    fn: 69
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Andrija Puharich]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "patent appeal for an extrasensory perception device, judgment for the Commissioner affirmed"
+    start: 1969-06-25
+    fn: 60
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[National Security Archive]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "party in the Armstrong, fee status and Pfeiffer history appeals"
+    start: 1989-07-28
+    fn: 51
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Peter Videnieks]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "addressee of the March 14, 1986 stay letter in the INSLAW matter"
+    start: 1986-03-14
+    fn: 46
+---
+
+The United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit is the federal appellate court for the District of Columbia. It hears appeals from the [[United States District Court for the District of Columbia]] and reviews federal agency action, and Congress authorized eleven judgeships for it.[^1][^2] The court traces to a statute of February 9, 1893 that established a court of appeals for the District of Columbia.[^1]
+
+Its rulings include the appointment of independent counsels under the Ethics in Government Act, the Iran-Contra prosecutions of [[Oliver North]] and [[John Poindexter]], the 1976 car bombing that killed [[Orlando Letelier]] in Washington, the [[INSLAW]] dispute over the PROMIS software, the Scientology appeal of 1981, the Watergate and Room 16 appeals, the wiretaps of the Nixon years, the espionage case of [[Jonathan Pollard]], the Freedom of Information Act cases in which the CIA and the National Security Agency refused to confirm or deny that they held records, and the presidential records suits brought by the [[National Security Archive]]. The court also decided the [[Association of American Physicians and Surgeons]] suit over the 1993 health care task force, the Cheney energy group litigation, and several cases from 2025 and 2026 over White House access, the [[Department of Government Efficiency]], and a tax-data leak prosecution.
+
+### Judges in the record
+
+Several judges who sat on the court appear repeatedly in the cases above. [[Robert Bork]] was confirmed on February 8, 1982, and his service ended with his resignation on February 5, 1988.[^3] [[Antonin Scalia]] was commissioned in August 1982 and left on September 26, 1986, when he was appointed to the Supreme Court.[^4] [[Ruth Bader Ginsburg]] was commissioned on June 18, 1980 and left on August 10, 1993 for the Supreme Court.[^5] [[Clarence Thomas]] served from March 1990 until October 23, 1991, when he too left for the Supreme Court.[^6] [[John Roberts]] was commissioned on June 2, 2003 and left on September 29, 2005, when he was elevated to the Chief Justiceship.[^7] [[Brett Kavanaugh]] was commissioned on May 30, 2006 and left on October 5, 2018 for the Supreme Court.[^8] [[Merrick Garland]] was commissioned in March 1997 and retired on March 10, 2021.[^9]
+
+[[Laurence Silberman]] was commissioned on October 28, 1985, took senior status on November 1, 2000, and died on October 2, 2022.[^10] [[David Sentelle]] was commissioned on September 11, 1987, served as chief judge from 2008 to 2013, and took senior status on February 12, 2013.[^11] [[Harry Edwards]] was commissioned on February 20, 1980 and took senior status on November 3, 2005.[^12] [[Malcolm Wilkey]] was commissioned on February 25, 1970, took senior status on December 6, 1984, and retired on November 8, 1985.[^13] [[David Bazelon]] received a recess appointment from President [[Harry S. Truman]] on October 21, 1949, took senior status on June 30, 1979, and died on February 19, 1993.[^14]
+
+[[Patricia Wald]] was commissioned on July 26, 1979 and served as chief judge in 1988, when the district court's opinion in the INSLAW bankruptcy litigation records a letter addressed to her in that role.[^15][^16] She retired on November 16, 1999. [[Kenneth Starr]] was commissioned on September 20, 1983 and resigned on May 26, 1989.[^17] [[Abner Mikva]] was commissioned on September 26, 1979 and served as chief judge from 1991 to 1994.[^18] [[Douglas Ginsburg]] was commissioned on October 14, 1986, served as chief judge from 2001 to 2008, and took senior status in 2011.[^19] The panels that decided the 2025 and 2026 cases included [[Neomi Rao]] (commissioned March 18, 2019), [[Gregory Katsas]] (December 8, 2017), [[Cornelia Pillard]] (December 17, 2013), [[Justin Walker]] (September 2, 2020) and [[Judith Rogers]] (commissioned March 11, 1994, senior status September 1, 2022).[^20]
+
+[[J. Skelly Wright]] was commissioned on March 30, 1962, served as chief judge from 1978 to 1981 and took senior status on June 1, 1986.[^21] [[Harold Leventhal]] was commissioned on April 7, 1965, [[George MacKinnon]] and [[Roger Robb]] on May 6, 1969, and [[Spottswood Robinson]] on November 3, 1966; Robinson served as chief judge from 1981 to 1986. [[Carl McGowan]] was commissioned on March 27, 1963. [[Warren Burger]] was commissioned on March 29, 1956 and left on June 23, 1969 for the Supreme Court. [[James L. Buckley]] was commissioned on December 17, 1985, [[Stephen F. Williams]] on June 16, 1986, [[Karen Henderson]] on July 5, 1990, [[A. Raymond Randolph]] on July 16, 1990, and [[David Tatel]] on October 7, 1994.[^21]
+
+Former clerks include [[Paul Cassell]], who clerked for Scalia from 1984 to 1985, [[Paul Engelmayer]], who clerked for Wald from 1987 to 1988, and [[William Barr]], who clerked for Wilkey. Barr's account of the clerkship appears in a 2001 oral history recorded by the [[Miller Center]].[^22]
+
+### Independent counsel and the Special Division
+
+The Ethics in Government Act, codified in 28 U.S.C. chapter 40, provides for a division of the court of three judges, one of whom must be a judge of the District of Columbia Circuit, to appoint independent counsels. The Chief Justice designates the members, and the clerk of the circuit serves as the division's clerk. A judge who participated in a function of the division involving an independent counsel may not take part in a later judicial proceeding concerning a matter that involves that counsel.[^23]
+
+The first major use of the division concerns the Iran-Contra affair. On December 4, 1986, [[Edwin Meese III]] asked for an independent counsel, and on December 19, 1986 the division appointed [[Lawrence Walsh]].[^24] The final report that Walsh delivered carries the caption "Division No. 86-6." Volume I is dated August 4, 1993 and is addressed in a transmittal letter to the division's chief judge, David Sentelle.[^24]
+
+The division's power came under challenge in the same period. In re Sealed Case, decided January 22, 1988 by Judges Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Silberman and Stephen F. Williams, concerned three former Justice Department officials, [[Theodore B. Olson]], [[Carol E. Dinkins]] and [[Edward C. Schmults]], who refused to comply with subpoenas from an independent counsel. The inquiry grew out of a 1982 dispute between House subcommittees and the Justice Department over Environmental Protection Agency documents. The panel held the Act unconstitutional and reversed the district court's contempt orders against the three officials.[^25] Walsh's report describes the ruling as a January 1988 panel decision that struck down the law in a case brought against Independent Counsel [[Alexia Morrison]].[^24] The Supreme Court reversed on June 29, 1988 and upheld the independent counsel provisions.[^26]
+
+### Iran-Contra appeals
+
+Oliver North was tried before [[Gerhard Gesell]], who sentenced him on July 5, 1989 after a conviction on three counts. A panel of Chief Judge Patricia Wald, Judge Silberman and Judge Sentelle decided his appeal in United States v. North on July 20, 1990. The per curiam opinion vacated his convictions on counts 6, 9 and 10 and remanded them for a Kastigar hearing, at which the government would have to show that its evidence came from sources independent of his immunized congressional testimony. It reversed count 9 for want of a particularized unanimity instruction. Wald dissented from several holdings, and Silberman dissented from others and concurred in one.[^27][^28]
+
+John Poindexter was convicted on five felony counts. On November 15, 1991 the court reversed all counts in United States v. Poindexter, decided by a panel of Chief Judge Abner Mikva, Judge Douglas Ginsburg and Judge Sentelle. The opinion cites the North decision as modified, 920 F.2d 940.[^29]
+
+The Walsh report's prosecution summaries give the same dates for these rulings.[^28]
+
+### The Letelier murder appeals
+
+On September 21, 1976, Orlando Letelier, the former Chilean ambassador to the United States, and [[Ronni Moffitt]], an American associate, were killed in Washington by a car bomb. The court's per curiam opinion in United States v. Novo Sampol, decided September 15, 1980, recounts the case against the defendants. [[Michael Townley]], a United States citizen who had entered the employ of the Chilean intelligence service DINA, was the principal government witness, and he had struck a plea bargain with the government in return for his testimony.[^30] The reporter caption records the argument on June 10, 1980, the decision on September 15, 1980 and the denial of rehearing on December 9, 1980.[^31]
+
+[[Guillermo Novo]], [[Ignacio Novo]] and [[Alvin Ross]] were the defendants at the first trial.[^30] The court reversed the convictions of Guillermo Novo and Ross on the authority of [[United States v. Henry]], decided by the Supreme Court on June 16, 1980.[^32] The court reversed Ignacio Novo's conviction for failure to sever his trial from his co-defendants' trial.[^30] According to the FBI case agent's account, all three were active in the [[Cuban Nationalist Movement]], an anti-Castro organization, and Guillermo Novo and Ross had been sentenced to two consecutive life terms before the appeal. Dade County police arrested Guillermo Novo and Ross on weapons and drug charges during negotiations with Townley's lawyers, and the account says that the key to conviction lay in Townley's testimony. Ignacio Novo had been charged with one count of misprision of a felony.[^33]
+
+The FBI case agent on the investigation, [[Carter Cornick]], wrote that the reversal in September 1980 rested on Henry. On May 30, 1981 a federal jury acquitted Guillermo Novo and Ross of all murder charges and convicted Guillermo Novo of false declarations. The two Novo brothers had also been charged with two counts each of making false declarations to a grand jury. Five months later, Ignacio Novo pleaded guilty to a charge of false declarations.[^33]
+
+### Wiretaps and the Nixon-era national security surveillance
+
+The court's leading en banc decision on warrantless national security wiretaps is Zweibon v. Mitchell, decided June 23, 1975. Sixteen individuals who had been members of the [[Jewish Defense League]] sued Attorney General [[John N. Mitchell]] and FBI personnel over electronic surveillance of the organization's telephones. The opinion records that Attorney General Mitchell first approved an FBI request to install wiretaps on JDL headquarters in October 1970, during the twenty-fifth session of the United Nations General Assembly, fearing "international embarrassment or Soviet retaliation against American citizens living in Moscow." He approved a second request in early January 1971 for a wiretap authorized to last 90 days. An affidavit that Mitchell later submitted stated that the surveillance was authorized by the President of the United States, acting through the Attorney General. The opinion also records that neither Mitchell nor other officials in his office reviewed the information obtained from the taps or the necessity for them, and that Mitchell was unaware that the taps continued for more than a month after criminal indictments were handed down against several individuals. The plurality opinion of Judge J. Skelly Wright, announcing the judgment, held that "a warrant must be obtained before a wiretap is installed on a domestic organization that is neither the agent of nor acting in collaboration with a foreign power."[^34]
+
+The companion case of Halperin v. Kissinger was decided on July 12, 1979 by Chief Judge Wright, Judge Robinson and District Judge Gesell.[^35] The Halperins sued over the wiretap of the home telephone of [[Morton H. Halperin]], a National Security Council staff member. The opinion recounts that FBI officials and [[Alexander M. Haig, Jr.]], then an assistant to [[Henry Kissinger]], agreed on procedures for surveillance with "no record maintained" in the Bureau's normal files. The opinion records that [[J. Edgar Hoover]] and Kissinger conferred by telephone four times on the day the wiretap on the Halperin home telephone was in place by evening. The summaries of the logs went to Kissinger, to [[Richard Nixon]] through [[John Ehrlichman]], and to Mitchell. After May 1970 the court's account names only [[H. R. Haldeman]] as a recipient. On appeal the court affirmed on the defendants' immunity questions, reversed on the applicability of Title III of the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968 and on the measure of damages, reversed the summary judgment for Kissinger, and remanded.[^35] The Supreme Court divided equally on the appeal and the case returned to the district court. On December 5, 1986, in Halperin v. Kissinger, 807 F.2d 180, the court addressed the twenty-one month wiretap again. The opinion, printed under the name of Scalia as circuit justice with a concurrence by Judge Mikva joined by Judge Robinson, recites that the proximate impetus for the wiretap was a New York Times article of May 9, 1969 on the bombing of Cambodia, that Kissinger dispatched the FBI to trace the source at Nixon's request, and that FBI Director Hoover named Halperin the prime suspect. It affirmed summary judgment for the defendants as to the initiation of the wiretap and remanded for the district court to fix the period, ending no later than May 1970, in which no reasonable jury could find the national security purpose pretextual.[^36]
+
+### The Watergate and Room 16 appeals
+
+United States v. Liddy, decided November 8, 1974 by Judge Leventhal, affirmed the conviction of [[G. Gordon Liddy]] on the six counts of the September 15, 1972 indictment arising from the burglary and wiretapping of the Democratic National Committee offices on June 17, 1972. The opinion records that five of the seven defendants pleaded guilty after the trial opened before Chief Judge [[John Sirica]] in January 1973, that Liddy and [[James McCord]] were found guilty on January 30, 1973, and that the government's evidence concerned the efforts of Liddy, [[Howard Hunt]] and McCord to obtain political intelligence from the headquarters of Democratic presidential candidates and from the committee.[^37]
+
+On October 12, 1976 the court sitting en banc decided United States v. Haldeman in a per curiam opinion, with Judge MacKinnon dissenting in part. The indictment of March 1, 1974 had named Mitchell, Haldeman, Ehrlichman, [[Charles Colson]], [[Robert Mardian]], [[Kenneth Parkinson]] and [[Gordon Strachan]]. The court described the charges as an unprecedented scandal at the highest levels of government. The jury returned its verdict on January 1, 1975, acquitting Parkinson, convicting Mardian of conspiracy, and convicting Mitchell, Haldeman and Ehrlichman of conspiracy and obstruction of justice and of the perjury counts submitted. The three were sentenced to concurrent terms of 20 months to five years on the conspiracy and obstruction counts. The opinion calls the intelligence plan code-named Gemstone the brainchild of Liddy, general counsel of the Committee to Re-elect the President, and affirmed the convictions of the three.[^38]
+
+Three appeals decided on May 17, 1976 by a panel of Judges Leventhal and Wilkey and District Judge Robert Merhige concerned the September 1971 entry into the Beverly Hills office of the psychiatrist of [[Daniel Ellsberg]]. The opinions describe a White House unit formed after the publication of the Pentagon Papers, called Room 16, under the general supervision of Ehrlichman and operated by [[Egil Krogh]] and [[David Young]], to which Liddy and Hunt were added. In United States v. Ehrlichman, Wilkey wrote for the court affirming the convictions of Ehrlichman for conspiracy and perjury.[^39] In United States v. Barker the court reversed the judgment against [[Bernard Barker]] and [[Eugenio Martinez]] and remanded for a new trial, with Wilkey and Merhige filing opinions and Leventhal dissenting. Wilkey's opinion records that Hunt had been Barker's immediate supervisor in the CIA's [[Bay of Pigs Invasion]] operation, and that in August 1971 Hunt asked Barker to help conduct an entry to obtain national security information on "a traitor to this country who was passing classified information to the Soviet Embassy."[^40] United States v. Liddy, decided the same day with Merhige writing, affirmed Liddy's conviction for conspiring to violate the Fourth Amendment rights of the psychiatrist; Gesell had sentenced him on July 31, 1974 to one to three years concurrent with his Watergate sentence.[^41]
+
+On June 21, 1983 Judges Mikva, Edwards and Scalia decided Gray v. Bell, with Edwards writing. After a two-year Justice Department investigation begun in the spring of 1976 into FBI break-ins against relatives and acquaintances of suspected members of the Weatherman Underground, a grand jury indicted L. Patrick Gray III, who had served as Acting Director of the FBI, with Mark Felt and Edward Miller on a charge of conspiring to injure and oppress citizens. Prosecutors later agreed to dismissal, and Gray sued [[Griffin Bell]] and other Justice Department officials for damages. The court affirmed the dismissal of his amended complaint on grounds of official immunity and the discretionary function exception.[^42]
+
+### The Scientology prosecutions
+
+United States v. Heldt, decided October 2, 1981 as a per curiam opinion with a separate opinion by Judge Wald, affirmed the judgments against members of the [[Church of Scientology]] who had been convicted of conspiracy and related offenses. The appellants included [[Mary Sue Hubbard]] and [[Henning Heldt]], whom the court identifies as ranking officers of the Guardians in the United States, with offices in Hollywood, California. The appellants challenged evidence seized in searches of Scientology offices in California. The district court denied the suppression motion after a hearing, and the court of appeals affirmed the judgment.[^43] The organization was founded by [[L. Ron Hubbard]].
+
+### INSLAW and the PROMIS appeals
+
+INSLAW, Inc., the developer of the PROMIS case-tracking software, filed for reorganization and invoked the automatic stay of 11 U.S.C. 362(a) in its dispute with the Justice Department over the Department's continued use of the software. The bankruptcy court's ruling is reported at 83 B.R. 89 (Bankr. D.D.C. 1988). The district court's opinion of November 22, 1989, reported at 113 B.R. 802, recites that ruling and the Justice Department's argument that the bankruptcy judge should have recused himself. The opinion describes the circuit's January 11, 1988 decision not to reappoint [[George Francis Bason, Jr.]] as the factual setting for that argument.[^44]
+
+The circuit's opinion in United States v. INSLAW, Inc., decided May 7, 1991 by Judges Buckley, Stephen Williams and Randolph, with Williams writing for the court, held that the automatic stay did not reach the Department's use of property in its possession under a claim of right at the time of the bankruptcy filing. It held that the bankruptcy court therefore lacked jurisdiction over the claims asserted under section 362(a). The court reversed and remanded with directions to vacate the orders and dismiss INSLAW's complaint against the Department.[^45] Rehearing and rehearing en banc were denied in No. 90-5052 on July 12, 1991.[^45] The opinion records that INSLAW filed a claim with the contracting officer on October 17, 1985 under the Contract Disputes Act, that the contracting officer ruled against INSLAW on February 21, 1986, and that the Department's use of the enhanced software was the subject of the stay claim.[^45] According to the House Judiciary Committee's report of September 10, 1992, INSLAW's counsel [[Leigh Ratiner]] wrote on March 14, 1986 to [[Peter Videnieks]], whom the report treats as the contracting officer, that any continued use of the enhanced PROMIS software without INSLAW's consent contravened its property rights as a debtor and violated the automatic stay. The circuit's holding was that the stay "does not reach the Department's use of property in its possession under a claim of right at the time of the bankruptcy filing, even if that use may ultimately prove to violate the bankrupt's rights."[^46][^45]
+
+### FOIA and the Glomar responses
+
+The Glomar response dates to Phillippi v. Central Intelligence Agency, decided November 16, 1976 by Judge Wright, with a dissent by Judge MacKinnon. The request concerned the Hughes Glomar Explorer. The press stories that prompted it said that the ship's actual owner and operator was the United States Government. The CIA answered that "in the interest of national security, involvement by the U.S. Government in the activities which are the subject matter of your request can neither be confirmed nor denied."[^47] The court of appeals reversed and remanded for a public justification of the refusal to confirm or deny the existence of records.[^47]
+
+McGehee v. Central Intelligence Agency, decided January 4, 1983 by Judges Wright, Edwards and Bork, arose from a request by [[Fielding McGehee]] for CIA records on the [[People's Temple]]. The agency's search used a cut-off date of December 22, 1978 that it had not disclosed. The court wrote that "the cumulative weight of this evidence of bad faith is enough to vitiate the credit to which agency affidavits are ordinarily entitled." It reversed and remanded.[^48]
+
+Electronic Privacy Information Center v. National Security Agency, decided May 11, 2012 by Judges Brown and Kavanaugh and Senior Judge Ginsburg, affirmed the NSA's Glomar response under Exemption 3 and section 6 of the National Security Agency Act. The request followed a January 2010 cyberattack on Google that targeted Gmail accounts of Chinese human rights activists. The agency answered on March 10, 2010 that it could neither confirm nor deny the existence of responsive records.[^49]
+
+National Security Archive v. Central Intelligence Agency, decided June 7, 2024 by Judge Childs for the court, with Judge Rao and Senior Judge Ginsburg, concerned a January 1989 end-of-tour report addendum by a senior Air Force intelligence officer on an elevated Soviet alert status in 1983. The CIA produced the memorandum's cover letter and withheld the rest under Exemptions 1 and 3. The Archive argued that the memorandum had been published in the State Department's Foreign Relations of the United States in February 2021, so that the agency had waived the exemptions under the official acknowledgment and public domain doctrines. The court disagreed. It noted that the volume cited a CIA source and thanked CIA staff for arranging access to agency records, and that publication in the series requires declassification review by the originating agency. It affirmed the judgment for the agency.[^50]
+
+### Presidential records and the National Security Archive
+
+National Security Archive v. Department of Defense, decided July 28, 1989 by Judges Robinson, Mikva and Douglas Ginsburg, held that the Archive, which described its work as collecting and disseminating comprehensive government documentation on foreign, defense, intelligence and international economic policy, was not an educational institution but was a representative of the news media entitled to reduced fees under the Freedom of Information Act.[^51]
+
+In Armstrong v. Bush, decided January 25, 1991 by Judges Wald, Douglas Ginsburg and Randolph, with Wald writing, [[Scott Armstrong]], the Archive and other plaintiffs sued President George H. W. Bush, the Archivist and the National Security Council to prevent the erasure of material on the NSC computer system from the last two weeks of the Reagan administration. The court reversed in part, affirmed in part and remanded.[^52] On August 13, 1993 a panel of Chief Judge Mikva and Judges Wald and Henderson decided Armstrong v. Executive Office of the President, 1 F.3d 1274, in a per curiam opinion rejecting the government's position that paper printouts satisfied the Federal Records Act, because the printouts could omit the identity of the sender or recipient and the time of receipt of the electronic record.[^53] On August 2, 1996 Judges Edwards, Ginsburg and Tatel decided the next round: Ginsburg, for the court, held that the National Security Council is not an agency subject to the Freedom of Information Act, because it does not exercise substantial independent authority, and reversed the district court; Tatel dissented.[^54]
+
+National Security Archive v. Central Intelligence Agency, 752 F.3d 460, decided May 20, 2014 by Judges Rogers, Kavanaugh and Williams, concerned the fifth volume of the CIA staff historian Jack Pfeiffer's five-volume history of the Bay of Pigs operation, begun in 1973. The CIA had released revised drafts of the first three volumes and the draft of the fourth, and withheld the fifth under Exemption 5. Kavanaugh wrote for the court affirming on the deliberative process privilege; Rogers dissented.[^55] On May 28, 2019 Judges Tatel, Pillard and Edwards decided Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington v. Trump, in which the organization and the Archive sought mandamus against the use of White House messaging applications that delete messages once read. The court affirmed the denial of the writ because the plaintiffs had not shown a clear and indisputable right to relief.[^56]
+
+Morley v. Central Intelligence Agency, decided December 7, 2007 by Judges Henderson, Rogers and Tatel, with Rogers writing, concerned the request of the journalist [[Jefferson Morley]] of July 4, 2003 for all records pertaining to the CIA operations officer George Efythron Joannides, also known as Howard, Mr. Howard or Walter Newby. The court reversed the grant of summary judgment to the agency and remanded so that the CIA could search its operational files, holding that its release of records under the John F. Kennedy Assassination Records Collection Act did not relieve it of its obligations under the Freedom of Information Act.[^57] On June 18, 2013 a per curiam opinion with a concurrence by Kavanaugh vacated the denial of attorney's fees and remanded; the court described Joannides as the CIA case officer in charge of a Cuban group whose officers had contact with Lee Harvey Oswald in the months before the assassination.[^58]
+
+### Financial General and the pendent jurisdiction ruling
+
+Financial General Bankshares, Inc. v. Metzger, decided May 18, 1982 by Chief Judge Wright, Judge MacKinnon and Judge Ginsburg, arose from a suit that [[Financial General Bankshares]] filed on February 17, 1978 against persons buying its shares after it learned that a group of Middle Eastern investors held twenty percent of its common stock. [[Eugene Metzger]], an attorney who had served as its counsel, was one of the defendants. The opinion records that the Securities and Exchange Commission filed and settled its own action on March 18, 1978 and that on April 27, 1978 the district court entered a preliminary injunction. The court of appeals held that the district court abused its discretion in exercising pendent jurisdiction. It vacated the judgment and remanded with instructions to dismiss, without reaching the merits.[^59]
+
+### The Fairness Doctrine, Puharich and psychic claims
+
+In Puharich v. Brenner, decided June 25, 1969 with Leventhal writing, [[Andrija Puharich]] appealed a judgment for the Commissioner of Patents in an action under 35 U.S.C. 145 for a patent on a device the opinion describes as a cage with electrical installations in the screen casing for generating currents and impulses, claimed to expand extrasensory perception. The court wrote that the trial judge had assumed for the purposes of the case that an ESP phenomenon existed and had asked whether the invention was operable, and affirmed.[^60]
+
+The [[Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal]] filed a complaint with the [[Federal Communications Commission]] under the Fairness Doctrine against the NBC program "Exploring the Unknown." After the commission rejected the complaint, CSICOP petitioned the court on April 27, 1979. The committee's periodical reported the appeal in its Fall 1979 issue.[^61]
+
+In a later fairness case, [[Fairness in Media]] petitioned the court on May 18, 1987 (No. 87-1217) to review a commission ruling on [[CBS]], and the court affirmed the commission in an unpublished per curiam opinion on June 8, 1988, assuming without deciding that the group was positioned to seek review. The Supreme Court denied certiorari on October 11, 1988.[^62]
+
+The same court had heard a broadcast dispute fifteen years earlier, in No. 18,738, in which the Citizens TV Protest Committee and [[Clarksburg Publishing Company]] appealed a March 13, 1964 FCC order. That order assigned the license of WBOY-TV in Clarksburg, West Virginia, from [[Rust Craft Broadcasting Company]] to Northern West Virginia Television Broadcasting Company, a wholly owned subsidiary of the [[Fortnightly Corporation]]. The appellants' brief states that the commission granted the assignment without an evidentiary hearing, that Fortnightly owned and operated a community antenna system in Clarksburg, and that the acquisition "would give Fortnightly, owner and publisher of the Reporter Magazine, an additional medium for public discussion of national affairs." The brief also questioned whether a hearing should have been held on a Fortnightly statement about the involvement of its organization in recent antitrust violations. The brief lists [[Max Ascoli]] as a vice president and director of Northern West Virginia Television Broadcasting Company.[^63]
+
+The court's clearest psi ruling is Geller v. Randi, decided December 9, 1994 by Judges Wald, Sentelle and Rogers, with Sentelle writing for the court. The suit was brought by [[Uri Geller]]. CSICOP moved on January 15, 1992 for summary judgment and for Rule 11 sanctions. Geller did not respond to the motions, and the district court imposed sanctions. The court of appeals affirmed the Rule 11 sanctions.[^64]
+
+### The 1993 health care task force
+
+Association of American Physicians & Surgeons, Inc. v. Clinton, decided June 22, 1993 by Judges Silberman, Buckley and Williams, concerned the President's Task Force on National Health Care Reform, which [[Hillary Clinton]] chaired. The plaintiffs argued that the task force was subject to the Federal Advisory Committee Act. The task force comprised about 300 permanent federal employees and about 40 special government employees. The majority held that the task force was not an advisory group subject to the act, and it remanded for further proceedings on the working group. Its reasoning relied in part on 3 U.S.C. 105(e), which allows the President to designate a member of his family to assist him, and on whether the First Lady could be treated as a de facto officer or employee. Judge Buckley, concurring in the judgment, wrote that he did not think section 105(e) could reasonably be read to create an officer or employee, de facto or otherwise.[^65]
+
+### Cheney and the energy group
+
+The National Energy Policy Development Group, which [[Dick Cheney]] chaired, was sued by [[Judicial Watch]] under the Federal Advisory Committee Act. On July 8, 2003 Judges Edwards, Randolph and Tatel considered the government's petition for a writ of mandamus against a discovery order of the district court.[^66] On June 24, 2004 the Supreme Court vacated the court of appeals' judgment and remanded the case.[^67]
+
+### Schneider and the Chile suits
+
+The Schneider family's original complaint, filed in the district court on September 10, 2001, named Henry Kissinger, the [[United States]] and [[Richard Helms]]. The amended complaint of November 11, 2002 named Kissinger and the United States, and the district court dismissed the case on March 30, 2004. In Schneider v. Kissinger, decided June 28, 2005 by Judges Sentelle, Henderson and Rogers, the court affirmed the dismissal on political question grounds.[^68]
+
+### The Pollard appeals
+
+In United States v. Pollard, decided March 20, 1992 by Judges Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Silberman and Williams, with Silberman writing, the court affirmed the denial of the motion of Pollard under 28 U.S.C. 2255 to withdraw his guilty plea of June 4, 1986 to one count of conspiracy to deliver national defense information to a foreign government. The opinion describes Pollard as a Navy intelligence research specialist who removed large amounts of classified material over about eighteen months from June 1984 through November 1985. Theodore Olson argued for Pollard. His motion claimed that the government had linked the plea of [[Anne Henderson-Pollard]] to his own, had breached the plea agreement in its sentencing allocution, and had given Chief Judge Aubrey Robinson ex parte communications; the district court declined to recuse and denied access to the classified sentencing submission of [[Caspar Weinberger]]. The panel held that any error in refusing new counsel access to the Weinberger submission was harmless. Williams concurred in part and dissented in part.[^69]
+
+On July 22, 2005 Judges Sentelle, Henderson and Rogers decided United States v. Pollard, 416 F.3d 48. Sentelle, for the court, held that Pollard's second section 2255 motion, filed September 20, 2000, was untimely and declined a certificate of appealability, and held that the federal courts lack jurisdiction to review claims for access to documents needed for a clemency petition under Article II, vacating the order on the request of his counsel for access to the classified sentencing file. Rogers concurred in part and dissented in part.[^70]
+
+### The Esquire article and McFarlane
+
+McFarlane v. Esquire Magazine, decided January 30, 1996 by Judges Stephen Williams, Ginsburg and Randolph, arose from the libel suit that [[Robert McFarlane]] brought against [[Esquire Magazine]] and the writer [[Craig Unger]]. The court affirmed the dismissal of the claims against Unger for lack of personal jurisdiction, and it affirmed the decision to dismiss rather than transfer the case.[^71] The opinion by Judge Williams records that the district court held that no reasonable jury could find actual malice by clear and convincing evidence, and it reproduces the disputed passage of the October 1991 article, which attributed to a sworn affidavit that [[Elliot Richardson]] submitted for INSLAW the statement of [[Ari Ben-Menashe]] that McFarlane and [[Earl Brian]] had a "special relationship" with Israeli intelligence, McFarlane having been recruited by [[Rafael Eitan]], and that "McFarlane was the famous Mr. X in the Pollard case." The court wrote that the recruitment clause "is not in the affidavit," that nothing in the affidavit supported the article's following sentences making McFarlane out to be an equivalent of Pollard, and that McFarlane did not dispute that Ben-Menashe made these assertions to Unger.[^71] The opinion also states that a bipartisan task force of the House of Representatives rejected the October Surprise claims in January 1993.[^71]
+
+In McFarlane v. Sheridan Square Press, decided August 16, 1996 by Judges Williams, Ginsburg and Rogers, with Ginsburg writing, the court affirmed summary judgment for the publisher of Ben-Menashe's 1992 book Profits of War, on the ground that McFarlane could not show actual malice. The opinion summarizes the book's allegation of an October Surprise conspiracy involving candidate George Bush, Republicans in the 1980 campaign and Iranian officials, and Ben-Menashe's allegation that McFarlane played an important role and was an Israeli spy. The court wrote that the House task force's joint report had thoroughly discredited the October Surprise story.[^72]
+
+### Microsoft
+
+The court's most consequential antitrust decision in the record is United States v. Microsoft Corp., decided June 28, 2001 by the court sitting en banc in a per curiam opinion. The court affirmed in part and reversed in part the findings that Microsoft had violated sections 1 and 2 of the Sherman Act, and it addressed Microsoft's claims of judicial misconduct and appearance of partiality against the trial judge.[^73]
+
+### Recent cases
+
+The 2025 cases on the court's docket include In re Musk, No. 25-5072. The defendants in New Mexico v. Musk petitioned for a writ of mandamus on March 18, 2025 against an expedited discovery order that the district court had entered on March 12 in the states' suit. The circuit granted an emergency stay, ordering on March 26, 2025 that the March 12 order be stayed pending further order, and the district court stayed its own order the same day; the district court's opinion of June 10, 2025 recites both.[^74] In a separate matter, the court decided No. 25-5130 on July 14, 2025 and denied rehearing on December 18, 2025, and the government's petition for certiorari in that case, No. 25-1103, was filed on March 18, 2026.[^75]
+
+In Associated Press v. Budowich, No. 25-5109, a panel of Judges Pillard, Katsas and Rao on June 6, 2025 granted a stay pending appeal in part, staying the district court's injunction except as applied to the East Room. Judge Rao, joined by Judge Katsas, wrote that "these restricted presidential spaces are not First Amendment fora opened for private speech and discussion" and that "[t]he White House therefore retains discretion to determine, including on the basis of viewpoint, which journalists will be admitted." Judge Pillard would have denied the stay.[^76] On July 22, 2025 the court denied the Associated Press's motion for en banc reconsideration and vacatur of the stay order.[^77]
+
+The Commodity Futures Trading Commission appealed as No. 24-5205 after [[Jia M. Cobb]] granted summary judgment on September 12, 2024 to [[Kalshi]] on the legality of its event contracts. On May 5, 2025, after a 3 to 0 commission vote, the agency moved to dismiss its appeal voluntarily, each side bearing its own costs. [[Yaakov Roth]] argued the appeal for Kalshi in January 2025 and joined the Justice Department the following month, according to Protos.[^78]
+
+In United States v. Littlejohn, No. 24-3019, decided July 17, 2026, a panel of Judges Rao and Walker, with Senior Judge Rogers, affirmed a five-year sentence for a former IRS consultant who leaked taxpayer data. Judge Walker wrote the opinion. The court wrote that Littlejohn "leaked what he stole to [[ProPublica]], which used data regarding at least 152 of his victims in about 50 articles," and it added that "ProPublica is sitting on the private, as-yet-unpublished data of other taxpayers stolen by Littlejohn."[^79]
+
+### Footnotes
+
+[^1]: Act of February 9, 1893, 27 Stat. 434, establishing a court of appeals for the District of Columbia. Government Publishing Office, Statutes at Large, volume 27, page 434. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-27/pdf/STATUTE-27-Pg434.pdf
+[^2]: 28 U.S.C. 44(a), circuit judges by circuit, listing eleven judges for the District of Columbia Circuit. https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/44
+[^3]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, "Bork, Robert Heron," confirmed February 8, 1982, service terminated February 5, 1988 by resignation. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/bork-robert-heron
+[^4]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, "Scalia, Antonin," commissioned August 17, 1982, service terminated September 26, 1986 on appointment to the Supreme Court. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/scalia-antonin
+[^5]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, "Ginsburg, Ruth Bader," commissioned June 18, 1980, service terminated August 10, 1993. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/ginsburg-ruth-bader
+[^6]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, "Thomas, Clarence," commissioned March 6, 1990, service terminated October 23, 1991 on appointment to the Supreme Court. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/thomas-clarence
+[^7]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, "Roberts, John Glover, Jr.," commissioned June 2, 2003, service terminated September 29, 2005. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/roberts-john-glover-jr
+[^8]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, "Kavanaugh, Brett Michael," commissioned May 30, 2006, service terminated October 5, 2018. Federal Judicial Center judges dataset, https://www.fjc.gov/sites/default/files/history/judges.csv
+[^9]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, "Garland, Merrick Brian," commissioned March 20, 1997, retirement March 10, 2021. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/garland-merrick-b
+[^10]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, "Silberman, Laurence Henry," commissioned October 28, 1985, senior status November 1, 2000, died October 2, 2022. Federal Judicial Center judges dataset, https://www.fjc.gov/sites/default/files/history/judges.csv
+[^11]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, "Sentelle, David Bryan," commissioned September 11, 1987, chief judge 2008 to 2013, senior status February 12, 2013. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/sentelle-david-bryan
+[^12]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, "Edwards, Harry Theodore," commissioned February 20, 1980, senior status November 3, 2005. Federal Judicial Center judges dataset, https://www.fjc.gov/sites/default/files/history/judges.csv
+[^13]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, "Wilkey, Malcolm Richard," commissioned February 25, 1970, senior status December 6, 1984, retired November 8, 1985. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/wilkey-malcolm-richard
+[^14]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, "Bazelon, David Lionel," recess appointment October 21, 1949, senior status June 30, 1979, died February 19, 1993. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/bazelon-david-l
+[^15]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, "Wald, Patricia McGowan," commissioned July 26, 1979, retired November 16, 1999. Federal Judicial Center judges dataset, https://www.fjc.gov/sites/default/files/history/judges.csv
+[^16]: United States v. Inslaw, Inc., 113 B.R. 802 (D.D.C. Nov. 22, 1989), recording a letter addressed to "Chief Judge Wald of the D.C. Circuit." https://cite.case.law/br/113/802/
+[^17]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, "Starr, Kenneth Winston," commissioned September 20, 1983, resignation May 26, 1989. Federal Judicial Center judges dataset, https://www.fjc.gov/sites/default/files/history/judges.csv
+[^18]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, "Mikva, Abner Joseph," commissioned September 26, 1979, chief judge 1991 to 1994, retired September 19, 1994. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/mikva-abner-joseph
+[^19]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, "Ginsburg, Douglas Howard," commissioned October 14, 1986, chief judge 2001 to 2008, senior status October 14, 2011. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/ginsburg-douglas-howard
+[^20]: Federal Judicial Center judges dataset for Rao, Neomi Jehangir (commissioned March 18, 2019), Katsas, Gregory George (December 8, 2017), Pillard, Cornelia Thomas Livingston (December 17, 2013), Walker, Justin Reed (September 2, 2020) and Rogers, Judith Ann Wilson (commissioned March 11, 1994, senior status September 1, 2022). https://www.fjc.gov/sites/default/files/history/judges.csv
+[^21]: Federal Judicial Center judges dataset (commission, chief judge and senior status dates for Wright, Leventhal, MacKinnon, Robb, Robinson, McGowan, Burger, Buckley, Williams, Henderson, Randolph and Tatel). https://www.fjc.gov/sites/default/files/history/judges.csv
+[^22]: Miller Center, University of Virginia, "William P. Barr Oral History," interview of April 5, 2001, George H.W. Bush Oral History Project. https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-oral-histories/william-p-barr-oral-history; Federal Judicial Center biographical entries for Paul G. Cassell (https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/cassell-paul-g) and Paul Adam Engelmayer (https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/engelmayer-paul-adam).
+[^23]: 28 U.S.C. 49, assignment of judges to a division of the court for the appointment of independent counsels, subsection (f). https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/49
+[^24]: Office of Independent Counsel for Iran/Contra Matters (Lawrence E. Walsh), Final Report of the Independent Counsel for Iran/Contra Matters, Volume I, Investigations and Prosecutions (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1993), caption "Division No. 86-6"; transmittal letter of August 4, 1993 to Chief Judge David B. Sentelle; chronology entries for December 4 and December 19, 1986; summary of the January 1988 panel decision. https://archive.org/details/WalshReport
+[^25]: In re Sealed Case, 838 F.2d 476 (D.C. Cir. Jan. 22, 1988) (Ginsburg, Silberman and Williams, JJ.), reversing the contempt orders against Olson, Dinkins and Schmults. https://cite.case.law/f2d/838/476/
+[^26]: Morrison v. Olson, 487 U.S. 654 (1988), decided June 29, 1988. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/487/654
+[^27]: United States v. North, 910 F.2d 843 (D.C. Cir. July 20, 1990) (per curiam; Wald, C.J., Silberman and Sentelle, JJ.), disposition paragraph and separate statements of Wald, C.J., and Silberman, J. https://cite.case.law/f2d/910/843/
+[^28]: Walsh, Final Report, Volume I, prosecution summaries for Oliver L. North (conviction and the July 20, 1990 appellate ruling) and John M. Poindexter (the November 15, 1991 reversal), and the discussion of the Kastigar and evidentiary-use rulings. https://archive.org/details/WalshReport
+[^29]: United States v. Poindexter, 951 F.2d 369 (D.C. Cir. Nov. 15, 1991) (Mikva, C.J., D.H. Ginsburg and Sentelle, JJ.), reversing all counts and citing the North decision as modified, 920 F.2d 940 (D.C. Cir. 1990). https://cite.case.law/f2d/951/369/
+[^30]: United States v. Novo Sampol, 636 F.2d 621 (D.C. Cir. Sept. 15, 1980) (per curiam; MacKinnon and Robb, JJ., and Corcoran, D.J.), recounting the bombing of September 21, 1976, Townley's plea bargain, the reversal of the convictions of Guillermo Novo and Ross, and the severance ruling as to Ignacio Novo. https://cite.case.law/f2d/636/621/
+[^31]: United States v. Novo Sampol, 636 F.2d 621 (D.C. Cir. 1980), caption: argued June 10, 1980, decided September 15, 1980, rehearing denied December 9, 1980 (Nos. 79-1541, 79-1542 and 79-1808). https://cite.case.law/f2d/636/621/
+[^32]: United States v. Henry, 447 U.S. 264 (1980), decided June 16, 1980. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/447/264
+[^33]: L. Carter Cornick Jr., "Chilbom," The Grapevine (Society of Former Special Agents of the FBI), August 2016, pp. 11 to 16, describing the Cuban Nationalist Movement suspects, the arrests during plea negotiations, the misprision charge, the September 1980 reversal on the basis of Henry, the May 30, 1981 verdicts and the later guilty plea of Ignacio Novo. https://fbistudies.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/FBI-Grapevine-Chilbom.pdf
+[^34]: Zweibon v. Mitchell, 516 F.2d 594 (D.C. Cir. June 23, 1975) (en banc) (opinion of Wright, J., announcing the judgment), describing the Attorney General's approvals of the October 1970 and January 1971 requests, the affidavit of Mitchell, and the review of the taps by his office. https://cite.case.law/f2d/516/594/
+[^35]: Halperin v. Kissinger, 606 F.2d 1192 (D.C. Cir. July 12, 1979) (Wright, C.J., Robinson, J., and Gesell, D.J.), reciting the surveillance procedures, the telephone conference between Hoover and Kissinger, the distribution of the logs, and the disposition of the appeal. https://cite.case.law/f2d/606/1192/
+[^36]: Halperin v. Kissinger, 807 F.2d 180 (D.C. Cir. Dec. 5, 1986) (No. 84-5095, argued May 1, 1985; Mikva, J., concurring, joined by Robinson, J.), on the May 9, 1969 New York Times article, the dispatch of the FBI, the identification of Halperin and the remand. https://cite.case.law/f2d/807/180/
+[^37]: United States v. Liddy, 509 F.2d 428 (D.C. Cir. Nov. 8, 1974) (en banc) (No. 73-1565; Leventhal, J.), Parts I and II. https://cite.case.law/f2d/509/428/
+[^38]: United States v. Haldeman, 559 F.2d 31 (D.C. Cir. Oct. 12, 1976) (en banc) (per curiam; MacKinnon, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part), Parts I.A and I.B, indictment of March 1, 1974, verdict of January 1, 1975, and the sentences. https://cite.case.law/f2d/559/31/
+[^39]: United States v. Ehrlichman, 546 F.2d 910 (D.C. Cir. May 17, 1976) (No. 74-1882; Wilkey, J., for the court; Leventhal, J., concurring), Part I. https://cite.case.law/f2d/546/910/
+[^40]: United States v. Barker, 546 F.2d 940 (D.C. Cir. May 17, 1976) (Nos. 74-1883, 74-1884; per curiam; opinions of Wilkey, J., and Merhige, D.J.; Leventhal, J., dissenting), Part I (Facts). https://cite.case.law/f2d/546/940/
+[^41]: United States v. Liddy, 542 F.2d 76 (D.C. Cir. May 17, 1976) (No. 74-1885; Merhige, D.J., for the court), affirming the conviction and reciting the sentence of July 31, 1974. https://cite.case.law/f2d/542/76/
+[^42]: Gray v. Bell, 712 F.2d 490 (D.C. Cir. June 21, 1983) (No. 82-1838; Mikva, Edwards and Scalia, JJ.; Edwards, J., for the court), Parts I through IV. https://cite.case.law/f2d/712/490/
+[^43]: United States v. Heldt, 668 F.2d 1238 (D.C. Cir. Oct. 2, 1981) (per curiam; MacKinnon, Robb and Wald, JJ.), identifying Mary Sue Hubbard and Henning Heldt as ranking officers of the Guardians in the United States and affirming the judgment. https://cite.case.law/f2d/668/1238/
+[^44]: United States v. Inslaw, Inc., 113 B.R. 802 (D.D.C. Nov. 22, 1989), reciting In re Inslaw, Inc., 83 B.R. 89 (Bankr. D.D.C. 1988), the Justice Department's recusal argument and the January 11, 1988 decision not to reappoint the bankruptcy judge. https://cite.case.law/br/113/802/
+[^45]: United States v. Inslaw, Inc., 932 F.2d 1467 (D.C. Cir. May 7, 1991) (Buckley, Williams and Randolph, JJ.; Williams, J., for the court), holding the automatic stay inapplicable and remanding with directions; the caption records rehearing and rehearing en banc denied in No. 90-5052 on July 12, 1991, and the opinion recites the claim to the contracting officer of October 17, 1985 and the contracting officer's ruling of February 21, 1986. https://cite.case.law/f2d/932/1467/
+[^46]: U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on the Judiciary, The INSLAW Affair: Investigative Report, H. Rept. 102-857, 102d Cong., 2d sess., September 10, 1992, p. 35 n. 85, quoting the letter of Leigh S. Ratiner to Peter Videnieks, March 14, 1986. https://archive.org/details/InslawAffairInvestigativeReport
+[^47]: Phillippi v. Central Intelligence Agency, 546 F.2d 1009 (D.C. Cir. Nov. 16, 1976) (Wright, J., for the court; MacKinnon, J., dissenting), quoting the CIA's response and the press accounts of the vessel's ownership, and remanding for a public justification. https://cite.case.law/f2d/546/1009/
+[^48]: McGehee v. Central Intelligence Agency, 697 F.2d 1095 (D.C. Cir. Jan. 4, 1983) (Wright, Edwards and Bork, JJ.), on the undisclosed cut-off date, the bad faith finding and the reversal. https://cite.case.law/f2d/697/1095/
+[^49]: Electronic Privacy Information Center v. National Security Agency, 678 F.3d 926 (D.C. Cir. May 11, 2012) (Brown and Kavanaugh, JJ., and Ginsburg, S.J.), affirming the Glomar response under Exemption 3 and the National Security Agency Act. https://cite.case.law/f3d/678/926/
+[^50]: National Security Archive v. Central Intelligence Agency, No. 23-5017 (D.C. Cir. June 7, 2024) (Childs, J., for the court; Rao and Ginsburg, S.J.), affirming summary judgment for the agency under FOIA Exemptions 1 and 3, on the official acknowledgment and public domain arguments. https://media.cadc.uscourts.gov/opinions/docs/2024/06/23-5017-2058350.pdf
+[^51]: National Security Archive v. U.S. Department of Defense, 880 F.2d 1381 (D.C. Cir. July 28, 1989) (No. 88-5217; Robinson, Mikva and D.H. Ginsburg, JJ.; D.H. Ginsburg, J., for the court). https://cite.case.law/f2d/880/1381/
+[^52]: Armstrong v. Bush, 924 F.2d 282 (D.C. Cir. Jan. 25, 1991) (No. 90-5173; Wald, D.H. Ginsburg and Randolph, JJ.; Wald, J., for the court). https://cite.case.law/f2d/924/282/
+[^53]: Armstrong v. Executive Office of the President, 1 F.3d 1274 (D.C. Cir. Aug. 13, 1993) (Nos. 93-5002 et al.; Mikva, C.J., Wald and Henderson, JJ.; per curiam). https://cite.case.law/f3d/1/1274/
+[^54]: Armstrong v. Executive Office of the President, 90 F.3d 553 (D.C. Cir. Aug. 2, 1996) (Nos. 95-5057, 95-5061; Edwards, C.J., Ginsburg and Tatel, JJ.; Ginsburg, J., for the court; Tatel, J., dissenting). https://cite.case.law/f3d/90/553/
+[^55]: National Security Archive v. Central Intelligence Agency, 752 F.3d 460 (D.C. Cir. May 20, 2014) (No. 12-5201; Rogers, Kavanaugh and Williams, JJ.; Kavanaugh, J., for the court; Rogers, J., dissenting). https://cite.case.law/f3d/752/460/
+[^56]: Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington v. Trump, 924 F.3d 602 (D.C. Cir. May 28, 2019) (No. 18-5150; Tatel and Pillard, JJ., and Edwards, S.J.; Tatel, J., for the court). https://cite.case.law/f3d/924/602/
+[^57]: Morley v. Central Intelligence Agency, 508 F.3d 1108 (D.C. Cir. Dec. 7, 2007) (No. 06-5382; Henderson, Rogers and Tatel, JJ.; Rogers, J., for the court). https://cite.case.law/f3d/508/1108/
+[^58]: Morley v. Central Intelligence Agency, 719 F.3d 689 (D.C. Cir. June 18, 2013) (No. 12-5032; Kavanaugh, J., and Edwards and Williams, S.JJ.; per curiam; Kavanaugh, J., concurring). https://cite.case.law/f3d/719/689/
+[^59]: Financial General Bankshares, Inc. v. Metzger, 680 F.2d 768 (D.C. Cir. May 18, 1982) (Wright, C.J., MacKinnon and Ginsburg, JJ.), reciting the complaint of February 17, 1978, the SEC action of March 18, 1978 and the preliminary injunction of April 27, 1978, and vacating the judgment with instructions to dismiss. https://cite.case.law/f2d/680/768/
+[^60]: Puharich v. Brenner, 415 F.2d 979 (D.C. Cir. June 25, 1969) (No. 22286; Leventhal, J.). https://cite.case.law/f2d/415/979/
+[^61]: "CSICP appeals ruling of FCC," News and Comment, The Skeptical Inquirer, vol. 4, no. 1, Fall 1979, p. 2. https://skepticalinquirer.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/29/2019/03/Issue-01-1.pdf
+[^62]: Brief of Respondent CBS Inc. in Opposition, Fairness in Media v. Federal Communications Commission, No. 88-388 (October 3, 1988), pp. 1-3, 7-8 (No. 87-1217 in the D.C. Circuit; per curiam affirmance of June 8, 1988; certiorari denied October 11, 1988). https://archive.org/details/micro_IA40385002_0072
+[^63]: Brief for appellants, Citizens TV Protest Committee and Clarksburg Publishing Company v. Federal Communications Commission, No. 18,738 (D.C. Cir. 1964), statement of questions presented and statement of facts. https://archive.org/details/dc_circ_1964_18738_citizens_tv_protest_comm_et_al_v_fed_comm_commn
+[^64]: Geller v. Randi, 40 F.3d 1300 (D.C. Cir. Dec. 9, 1994) (Wald, Sentelle and Rogers, JJ.; Sentelle, J., for the court), reciting the January 15, 1992 motions, Geller's failure to respond, and the affirmance of the Rule 11 sanction. https://cite.case.law/f3d/40/1300/
+[^65]: Association of American Physicians & Surgeons, Inc. v. Clinton, 997 F.2d 898 (D.C. Cir. June 22, 1993) (Silberman, Buckley and Williams, JJ.; Silberman, J., for the court; Buckley, J., concurring in the judgment), on the task force composition, 3 U.S.C. 105(e), and the remand as to the working group. https://cite.case.law/f2d/997/898/
+[^66]: In re Cheney, 334 F.3d 1096 (D.C. Cir. July 8, 2003) (Edwards, Randolph and Tatel, JJ.), on the mandamus petition against the discovery order and the Judicial Watch complaint against the National Energy Policy Development Group. https://cite.case.law/f3d/334/1096/
+[^67]: Cheney v. United States District Court for the District of Columbia, 542 U.S. 367 (2004), decided June 24, 2004, vacating the judgment of the court of appeals and remanding. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/542/367
+[^68]: Schneider v. Kissinger, 412 F.3d 190 (D.C. Cir. June 28, 2005) (Sentelle, Henderson and Rogers, JJ.), reciting the original complaint of September 10, 2001, the amended complaint of November 11, 2002, the renewed motion to dismiss of December 12, 2002 and the March 30, 2004 dismissal, and affirming on political question grounds. https://cite.case.law/f3d/412/190/
+[^69]: United States v. Pollard, 959 F.2d 1011 (D.C. Cir. Mar. 20, 1992) (No. 90-3276, argued Sept. 10, 1991; R.B. Ginsburg, Silberman and Williams, JJ.; Silberman, J., for the court; Williams, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part). https://cite.case.law/f2d/959/1011/
+[^70]: United States v. Pollard, 416 F.3d 48 (D.C. Cir. July 22, 2005) (No. 01-3103; Sentelle, Henderson and Rogers, JJ.; Sentelle, J., for the court; Rogers, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part). https://cite.case.law/f3d/416/48/
+[^71]: McFarlane v. Esquire Magazine, 74 F.3d 1296 (D.C. Cir. Jan. 30, 1996) (Williams, Ginsburg and Randolph, JJ.), affirming the rulings on personal jurisdiction over Craig Unger, on dismissal rather than transfer and on actual malice, and quoting the article's passage on the INSLAW affidavit and the court's findings on it. https://cite.case.law/f3d/74/1296/
+[^72]: McFarlane v. Sheridan Square Press, Inc., 91 F.3d 1501 (D.C. Cir. Aug. 16, 1996) (No. 95-7201; Williams, Ginsburg and Rogers, JJ.; Ginsburg, J., for the court). https://cite.case.law/f3d/91/1501/
+[^73]: United States v. Microsoft Corp., 253 F.3d 34 (D.C. Cir. June 28, 2001) (en banc) (per curiam), affirming in part and reversing in part. https://cite.case.law/f3d/253/34/
+[^74]: New Mexico v. Musk, No. 25-cv-429 (D.D.C.), opinion of June 10, 2025, ECF 103, reciting the March 12, 2025 discovery order (ECF 61), the petition in In re Musk, No. 25-5072 (D.C. Cir. filed March 18, 2025), the circuit's order of March 26, 2025 staying that order pending further order, and the district court's minute order of the same date. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCOURTS-dcd-1_25-cv-00429/pdf/USCOURTS-dcd-1_25-cv-00429-1.pdf
+[^75]: U.S. DOGE Service v. United States District Court for the District of Columbia, No. 25-1103, Supreme Court of the United States, docket (petition filed March 18, 2026; lower court No. 25-5130, decision July 14, 2025, rehearing denied December 18, 2025). https://www.supremecourt.gov/docket/docketfiles/html/public/25-1103.html
+[^76]: Associated Press v. Budowich, No. 25-5109 (D.C. Cir. June 6, 2025) (order granting in part the motion for stay pending appeal, with the statement of Rao, J., joined by Katsas, J., and the statement of Pillard, J., who would deny the motion). https://media.cadc.uscourts.gov/orders/docs/2025/06/25-5109LDSN3.pdf
+[^77]: Associated Press v. Budowich, No. 25-5109 (D.C. Cir. July 22, 2025) (order denying the motion for en banc reconsideration and vacatur). https://media.cadc.uscourts.gov/orders/docs/2025/07/25-5109LDEN.pdf
+[^78]: Finance Magnates, "CFTC Folds Its Hand in Election Betting Showdown with Kalshi," May 5, 2025 (voluntary dismissal of No. 24-5205 after a 3 to 0 commission vote, each party bearing its own costs). https://www.financemagnates.com/forex/cftc-folds-its-hand-in-election-betting-showdown-with-kalshi ; Protos, "The revolving door for lawyers between Kalshi and DOJ" (Yaakov Roth argued the appeal for Kalshi in January 2025). https://protos.com/the-revolving-door-for-lawyers-between-kalshi-and-doj/
+[^79]: United States v. Littlejohn, No. 24-3019 (D.C. Cir. July 17, 2026) (argued November 4, 2025; opinion of Walker, J., joined by Rao, J., and Rogers, S.J.). https://media.cadc.uscourts.gov/opinions/docs/2026/07/24-3019-2183720.pdf

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit.md

@@ -0,0 +1,449 @@
+---
+title: United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit
+aliases:
+  - United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit
+  - U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit
+  - Second Circuit
+  - 2d Cir.
+category: "Law Enforcement & Legal"
+tags:
+  - Organization
+  - FederalJudiciary
+  - Court
+  - Appeals
+  - NewYork
+  - EpsteinCases
+  - Maxwell
+  - PentagonPapers
+  - IranArms
+  - MobWars
+  - IBM
+  - Halkbank
+  - FISA702
+  - MKUltra
+  - Letelier
+summary: "Federal appeals court for Connecticut, New York and Vermont whose Maxwell and Epstein, Iran arms, Letelier, Blauer, IBM and Halkbank rulings include the record on this site."
+location: "New York, New York"
+start: 1891-03-03
+created: 2026-10-15
+updated: 2026-10-15
+relations:
+  - type: member_of
+    with: "[[José A. Cabranes]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1994-08-10
+    role: "Circuit Judge; senior status March 9, 2023"
+    fn: 71
+  - type: member_of
+    with: "[[Alison Nathan]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2022-03-30
+    role: "Circuit Judge"
+    fn: 71
+  - type: member_of
+    with: "[[Richard C. Wesley]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2003-06-12
+    role: "Circuit Judge; senior status August 1, 2016"
+    fn: 71
+  - type: member_of
+    with: "[[Raymond J. Lohier Jr.]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2010-12-20
+    role: "Circuit Judge"
+    fn: 71
+  - type: member_of
+    with: "[[Learned Hand]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1924-12-20
+    end: 1961-08-18
+    role: "Circuit Judge; chief judge 1948 to 1951"
+    fn: 71
+  - type: member_of
+    with: "[[Wilfred Feinberg]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1966-03-07
+    end: 2014-07-31
+    role: "Circuit Judge; chief judge 1980 to 1988"
+    fn: 71
+  - type: member_of
+    with: "[[Irving R. Kaufman]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1961-09-22
+    end: 1992-02-01
+    role: "Circuit Judge; chief judge 1973 to 1980"
+    fn: 71
+  - type: member_of
+    with: "[[James L. Oakes]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1971-05-27
+    end: 2007-10-13
+    role: "Circuit Judge; chief judge 1989 to 1992"
+    fn: 71
+  - type: member_of
+    with: "[[Gerard Lynch]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2009-09-18
+    role: "Circuit Judge"
+    fn: 71
+  - type: member_of
+    with: "[[Reena Raggi]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2002-10-04
+    role: "Circuit Judge"
+    fn: 71
+  - type: member_of
+    with: "[[Rosemary S. Pooler]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1998-06-03
+    end: 2023-08-10
+    role: "Circuit Judge"
+    fn: 71
+  - type: member_of
+    with: "[[Christopher F. Droney]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2011-12-01
+    role: "Circuit Judge"
+    fn: 71
+  - type: member_of
+    with: "[[Myrna Pérez]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2021-11-12
+    role: "Circuit Judge"
+    fn: 71
+  - type: member_of
+    with: "[[Susan L. Carney]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2011-05-17
+    role: "Circuit Judge; senior status September 27, 2022"
+    fn: 71
+  - type: member_of
+    with: "[[Jerome Frank]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1941-03-27
+    end: 1957-01-13
+    role: "Circuit Judge"
+    fn: 71
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Ghislaine Maxwell]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2024-09-17
+    end: 2025-10-06
+    role: "United States v. Maxwell, No. 22-1426-cr, affirmed; certiorari denied in No. 24-1073"
+    fn: 56
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Jeffrey Epstein]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2019-07-03
+    role: "Brown v. Maxwell, 929 F.3d 41, unsealing of the summary judgment record"
+    fn: 41
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Virginia Giuffre]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2025-07-23
+    role: "Giuffre v. Maxwell, Nos. 24-182-cv and 24-203-cv"
+    fn: 65
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Roy Cohn]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1969-09-17
+    role: "petition for mandamus against Judge Inzer B. Wyatt, denied"
+    fn: 6
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Arif Durrani]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1987-12-03
+    role: "United States v. Durrani, 835 F.2d 410, conviction affirmed"
+    fn: 19
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Samuel Evans]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1988-04-07
+    role: "United States v. Evans, 844 F.2d 36, wire and mail fraud dismissal affirmed"
+    fn: 21
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Jose Santacruz Londono]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1993
+    role: "United States v. Daccarett, 6 F.3d 37, Cali cartel appeal"
+    fn: 31
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Harold Blauer]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1986-07-31
+    role: "Barrett v. United States, 798 F.2d 565, estate suit"
+    fn: 15
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Orlando Letelier]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1984-11-20
+    role: "Letelier v. Republic of Chile, 748 F.2d 790, execution against LAN Chile reversed"
+    fn: 13
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Robert Tappan Morris]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1991-03-07
+    role: "United States v. Morris, 928 F.2d 504, conviction affirmed"
+    fn: 29
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Khalid bin Mahfouz]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2007-06-08
+    end: 2013-04-16
+    role: "Ehrenfeld v. Bin Mahfouz and In re Terrorist Attacks, personal jurisdiction"
+    fn: 32
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Rajat Gupta]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2014-03-25
+    role: "United States v. Gupta, 747 F.3d 111, conviction affirmed"
+    fn: 36
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[IBM]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1982-08-13
+    role: "In re International Business Machines Corp., 687 F.2d 591, writ of mandamus"
+    fn: 12
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Cornelius Blackshear]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1991-01-02
+    role: "Judicial Council complaint under 28 U.S.C. 372(c) filed by George Francis Bason, Jr."
+    fn: 27
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Agron Hasbajrami]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2019-12-18
+    role: "United States v. Hasbajrami, 945 F.3d 641"
+    fn: 46
+  - type: subject_of
+    with: "[[Halkbank]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2021-10-22
+    role: "United States v. Turkiye Halk Bankasi A.S., 16 F.4th 336, affirmed"
+    fn: 53
+---
+
+The United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit hears appeals from the federal district courts of [[Connecticut]], [[New York]] and [[Vermont]].[^1] Its judges sit in the [[Thurgood Marshall United States Courthouse]] at 40 Foley Square in [[New York City]].[^2]
+
+### Guaranty Trust, 1938
+
+On April 25, 1938 the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] decided [[Guaranty Trust Co. of New York v. United States]], 304 U.S. 126, a suit by the United States as assignee of Russian Soviet claims against [[Morgan Guaranty Trust|Guaranty Trust Company of New York]]. The Second Circuit had reversed the trial court's judgment, and the Supreme Court reversed the Second Circuit.[^3]
+
+### The Rosenberg appeal and Roy Cohn
+
+On February 25, 1952 the court decided [[United States v. Rosenberg]], the appeal from the convictions of [[Julius Rosenberg]] and [[Ethel Rosenberg]]. The opinion, written by Judge [[Jerome Frank]], states that because two of the defendants faced death if the judgments stood, the court had "scrutinized the record with extraordinary care."[^4] On the government's side [[Myles J. Lane]] appeared for the United States, with [[Roy Cohn]], [[James B. Kilsheimer]] and [[Stanley D. Robinson]] listed as "of counsel."[^5]
+
+Cohn returned to the court in 1969 as a petitioner. On September 17, 1969 a per curiam order denied his petition for a writ of mandamus directing [[Inzer B. Wyatt]], a judge of the [[U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York|Southern District of New York]], to adjourn Cohn's trial, then set for September 23, 1969, on charges of conspiracy, bribery and extortion. The petition argued that pretrial publicity, including a [[Life (magazine)|Life]] article published September 1 and 2, 1969, made an impartial jury impossible. The order reads: "We deny in open court the Petition of Roy M. Cohn against Judge Inzer B. Wyatt." Assistant United States Attorneys [[Paul L. Perito]] and [[Peter L. Truebner]] were listed on the government's brief.[^6][^7]
+
+### The Pentagon Papers injunction
+
+On June 23, 1971 the court, sitting en banc, remanded the government's suit against the [[New York Times Company]] to the district court "for further in camera proceedings" to determine, by July 3, 1971, whether specified items "pose such grave and immediate danger to the security of the United States as to warrant their publication being enjoined." The stay remained in effect for those items until disposition. The reporter prints a separate statement by Judges [[Irving R. Kaufman]], [[Wilfred Feinberg]] and [[James L. Oakes]] that they dissent and "would vacate the stay and affirm the judgment of the Court below."[^8] The suit concerned the classified study that became known as the [[Pentagon Papers]].
+
+### The Hunt suit against Mobil
+
+In January 1977 the court decided [[Hunt v. Mobil Oil Corp.]], in which [[Nelson Bunker Hunt]] was among the plaintiff appellants suing [[Mobil Oil]] and other defendants.[^9] The complaint was filed in the Southern District of New York on March 3, 1975 and sought treble damages under the antitrust laws. The panel held that the motion to dismiss was correctly decided, and it affirmed the judgment of the district court, which had dismissed before trial, on the basis of the act of state doctrine, the third antitrust claim of the plaintiffs' complaint.
+
+### IBM and the Baxter conflict, 1982
+
+The [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]] had sued [[IBM]] under section 2 of the [[Sherman Act]] on January 17, 1969.[^10] On January 8, 1982 the parties filed a stipulation of dismissal under Rule 41(a)(1)(ii), signed for the government by Assistant Attorney General [[William F. Baxter]]. The stipulation recites that the [[Antitrust Division]] had completed a review of the case and had concluded that the case "is without merit and should be dismissed."[^10]
+
+Judge [[David N. Edelstein]] of the Southern District of New York initially gave no indication that he questioned the effectiveness of the stipulation. On January 26, 1982 he published an article in the [[Wall Street Journal]] calling for the decision to "be scrutinized carefully," and on March 2 he placed in the record letters indicating that Baxter had served as a consultant to IBM during the early stages of a private antitrust suit brought by [[Memorex]].[^11] Edelstein then ruled that whether the [[Tunney Act]] applied to the stipulation was a jurisdictional question for the court to decide.
+
+On August 13, 1982 a panel of Judges [[Thomas J. Meskill]], [[Jon O. Newman]] and [[Amalya L. Kearse]] held that "a writ of mandamus shall issue directing Judge Edelstein to cease any further inquiry with respect to the conflict of interest claim." The panel said it expressed "no view as to the merits of that claim." It did not expedite its review of whether mandamus should also issue on the Tunney Act question, because no urgency attended that aspect of the petition.[^12]
+
+### Letelier v. Republic of Chile, 1984
+
+The families of [[Orlando Letelier]] and Ronni Moffitt, who were killed by a car bomb in Washington in September 1976, obtained a default judgment of more than five million dollars against the Republic of [[Chile]] in the District of Columbia, and then sought to execute on the New York assets of the state airline, [[LAN Chile]]. Judge [[Morris Lasker]] of the Southern District of New York ordered execution. On November 20, 1984 the Second Circuit reversed in an opinion by Judge [[Richard J. Cardamone]], which opens: "How one wishes to decide a case comes lightly to mind, on a wing; but often how one must decide it comes arduously, weighed down by somber thought. To rule otherwise here would only illustrate once again that hard cases make bad law."[^13]
+
+The opinion recites the facts that the district court had found, in part through evidentiary sanctions for Chile's default: that from January 1975 through January 1979 LAN's assets and facilities were under the direct control of Chile, and that Chile used LAN's facilities and personnel to transport [[Michael Townley]] between Chile and the United States, to transport explosives on several occasions, to assist with currency transactions paying the co-conspirators, to provide a meeting place for them, and to arrange for Townley to leave the United States under an alias after the assassination. The panel held that these facts were not the abuse of the corporate form that would overcome the presumption of LAN's separate status under [[First National City Bank v. Banco Para El Comercio Exterior de Cuba]], and wrote that they "simply demonstrate that Michael Townley was able to enlist the cooperation of certain LAN pilots and officials with whom he had a pre-existing social relationship in pursuing his sinister goal." It also held that the property sought was not used for the commercial activity in which the claim arose, and it reversed the orders and dismissed the supplementary proceedings.[^14]
+
+### The Blauer estate and the Army mescaline tests
+
+On July 31, 1986 the court decided [[Barrett v. United States]], an appeal in the suit brought by the estate of [[Harold Blauer]] against the United States and individual defendants, among them the estate of [[Amedeo Marazzi]], whom the opinion describes as Dr. Marazzi "of the Chemical Corps." The opinion recites the estate's allegation that the drug was given "for diagnostic purposes to Mr. Blauer," and that, according to the estate, [[Paul Hoch]] was "well aware" that the compound was a new one "not being administered for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes."[^15] The opinion describes Hoch as the [[New York State Psychiatric Institute]] medical official in charge of administering the compound, and states that the mescaline derivative "had been supplied by the United States [[Army Chemical Corps]] pursuant to contracts between its procurement agency and NYSPI."[^15]
+
+According to records relied on by the estate, a conference of federal counsel and medical personnel met in early July 1954, at which Marazzi and Hoch expressed apprehension about anticipated malpractice claims.[^16]
+
+### Iran arms prosecutions, 1987 and 1988
+
+On December 3, 1987 the court affirmed the convictions of [[Arif Durrani]] under the [[Arms Export Control Act]]. Judge Irving R. Kaufman wrote for a panel with Judges [[Lawrence W. Pierce]] and [[Roger J. Miner]]. The opinion opens by describing the "still simmering national scandal of high government officials engaged in the covert shipment of arms to Iran" and records that Durrani, accused of shipping [[Hawk missile]] parts to [[Iran]] without a license, "candidly admits that he sold arms to Iran, but claims to have been a cog in the wheel turned by Lt. Colonel Oliver North and Vice Admiral John Poindexter." [[Alan Dershowitz]] argued the appeal for Durrani, with [[Nathan Z. Dershowitz]] and Victoria B. Eiger on the brief. [[Holly B. Fitzsimmons]], an Assistant United States Attorney, appeared for the government.[^17]
+
+The opinion recites Durrani's trial account. He described a 1985 encounter with Rahim Malekzedeh, procurement chief of the Iranian Revolutionary Guard, who told him that Iran was dealing with a number of Americans and Israelis including [[Oliver North]], the CIA officer [[George Cave]] and the Israeli official [[Amiram Nir]]. In April 1986 in Portugal a former Iranian intelligence official, George Hassan, told him that he was working with [[Richard Secord]] and [[Albert Hakim]] on the American shipment of parts to Iran. Durrani said that in September 1986 an unidentified staff member of the [[National Security Council]] in Lisbon related the parts to a deal to free American hostages in Lebanon, and that at a meeting in London on October 1, 1986 North assured him "not to worry about the paperwork," because President [[Ronald Reagan]] would shortly authorize arms shipments to Iran. The government presented evidence that his associate Pires paid Durrani more than 800,000 dollars between June and October 1986.[^18] The district court had quashed a broad subpoena for classified Iran-contra documents but gave Durrani a list of Hawk parts that the Iranians had handed to Cave in March 1986. It excluded as hearsay the [[Tower Commission]] report and two memoranda from North to [[John Poindexter]], one of April 16, 1986 and one of September 8, 1986 titled "Next Steps with Iran." The panel held the trial fair and affirmed the conviction "on all counts."[^19]
+
+On April 7, 1988 a panel of Chief Judge Wilfred Feinberg and Judges [[John D. Mahoney]] and Thomas J. Meskill affirmed the dismissal of the wire and mail fraud counts in [[United States v. Evans]]. The government alleged that [[Samuel Evans]], general counsel to [[Adnan Khashoggi]], and other defendants planned to sell arms made in or licensed from the United States to Iran by deceiving the government about the buyer. The court's narrative records that the arms "were destined for [[Cyrus Hashemi]], a government agent pretending to be an Iranian buyer."[^20] The court held that "the right to control future arms sales is not a property right for this purpose."[^21]
+
+### The Commission case, 1989
+
+On January 31, 1989 the court decided [[United States v. Salerno]], the appeal of defendants prosecuted for the Commission of [[La Cosa Nostra]]. The opinion lists the New York City families as the [[Genovese crime family]], the [[Gambino Crime Family]], the [[Colombo crime family]], the [[Lucchese crime family]] and the [[Bonanno crime family]], and states that since the late 1970s the Commission had been controlled by the bosses of four of them.[^22] The opinion describes the Commission as "a nationwide criminal society which operates through local organizations known as 'families.'"[^23]
+
+### Ben-Menashe and the Southern District
+
+The federal case against [[Ari Ben-Menashe]], [[Richard St. Francis]] and [[Joseph O'Toole]] was tried in the Southern District. The district court's August 1, 1990 memorandum by Judge [[Louis L. Stanton]] describes the first count as a conspiracy to sell "American-made C-130 military cargo planes located in [[Israel]] to Iran, in violation of the Arms Export Control Act." Joseph O'Toole was also charged in count two with conspiring with two unindicted co-conspirators to sell American-made anti-aircraft missiles located in Israel to an undisclosed country. St. Francis moved to dismiss the indictment as a violation of due process, arguing that the government had targeted him without reason to believe he wanted to commit a crime and had not discouraged his belief that the transaction would be approved at the highest levels of the United States Government; Ben-Menashe joined the motion, and the memorandum cites the Second Circuit's Evans decision as authority that such claims succeed only in "exceedingly rare" instances. [[Baruch Weiss]], an Assistant United States Attorney, appeared for the government and [[Thomas F.X. Dunn]] for Ben-Menashe.[^24]
+
+A federal jury found Ben-Menashe and St. Francis not guilty on November 28, 1990. At the six-week trial Dunn contended that his client was a former intelligence operative who represented Israeli Prime Minister [[Yitzhak Shamir]] in an attempted arms-for-hostages deal in 1988, and Weiss said Ben-Menashe was merely a translator for Israeli military intelligence from 1977 to 1987.[^25]
+
+### The Judicial Council complaint against Blackshear, 1991
+
+[[Cornelius Blackshear]], a bankruptcy judge in the Southern District of New York, gave testimony in the [[INSLAW]] litigation and later recanted part of it. The bankruptcy judge who heard the matter, [[George Francis Bason, Jr.]], accepted Blackshear's original testimony and found the recantation to be the result of an honest mistake. On January 2, 1991 Bason filed a complaint under 28 U.S.C. § 372(c) with the [[Judicial Council of the Second Circuit]], stating that he had "regretfully concluded that Judge Blackshear recanted not because of an honest mistake but because he made a conscious choice to testify falsely."[^26][^27]
+
+### Robert Tappan Morris, 1991
+
+On March 7, 1991 the court affirmed the conviction of [[Robert Tappan Morris]]. In the fall of 1988 he was a first-year graduate student in the computer science Ph.D. program at [[Cornell University]], and the conviction under the computer fraud statute concerned the program he released onto the network.[^28] The panel found sufficient evidence for the jury to conclude that Morris acted "without authorization" and wrote, "We therefore affirm."[^29] The program became known as the [[Morris worm]]. Morris was one of the two men who, with [[Trevor Blackwell]], put in 50,000 dollars each beside [[Paul Graham]]'s 100,000 dollars to start [[Y Combinator]] in 2005.[^30]
+
+### The Cali cartel appeal, 1993
+
+[[United States v. Daccarett]], decided in 1993 by a panel that included James L. Oakes, arose from a prosecution connected with the [[Cali Cartel]]. The opinion describes the cartel as a Colombian conglomerate, headed by [[Jose Santacruz Londono]], that allegedly imports "approximately 3000 kilograms of cocaine a month into the United States," using bank accounts in the United States, [[Europe]] and Central and [[South America]] to store and move its proceeds.[^31]
+
+### The bin Mahfouz suits, 2007 to 2013
+
+[[Rachel Ehrenfeld]], the author of a 2003 book on terrorist financing published by [[Bonus Books]], brought suit in the Southern District of New York against [[Khalid bin Mahfouz]], a [[Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabian]] citizen who had formerly headed the National Commercial Bank. The district court dismissed for lack of personal jurisdiction. On June 8, 2007 a panel of Judges Wilfred Feinberg, [[Pierre N. Leval]] and [[José A. Cabranes]] affirmed on N.Y. C.P.L.R. 302(a)(3) and the denial of jurisdictional discovery, and certified to the [[New York Court of Appeals]] the question whether CPLR 302(a)(1) confers jurisdiction over a person who sued a New York resident in a non-United States court when the success of that suit required acts in New York.[^32]
+
+On March 3, 2008 the same panel affirmed the dismissal in [[Ehrenfeld v. Mahfouz]], relying on the New York Court of Appeals' decision.[^33]
+
+On April 16, 2013, in the consolidated [[September 11 attacks]] litigation captioned [[In re Terrorist Attacks on September 11, 2001]], a panel of Judges José A. Cabranes and [[Reena Raggi]], with [[Jed Rakoff]] of the Southern District of New York sitting by designation, affirmed the dismissal of claims against Khaled bin Mahfouz and his son [[Abdulrahman bin Mahfouz]] for lack of personal jurisdiction. The panel also held that [[National Commercial Bank]] lacked the contacts needed for general jurisdiction, and vacated and remanded as to other defendants.[^34]
+
+### Citigroup and Judge Rakoff, 2014
+
+On June 4, 2014 a panel of Judges Rosemary S. Pooler, Raymond J. Lohier Jr. and [[Susan L. Carney]] decided the appeals of the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] and [[Citigroup]] from the November 28, 2011 order of Judge Jed Rakoff refusing to approve a consent decree and setting the case for trial. The SEC's complaint alleged that Citigroup negligently misrepresented its role in structuring and marketing a billion-dollar fund, Class V Funding III, and that it took a short position against assets it had selected, realizing about 160 million dollars. Judge Pooler wrote that the district court "abused its discretion by applying an incorrect legal standard in assessing the consent decree and setting a date for trial." Judge Lohier concurred. Rakoff had appointed pro bono counsel to argue the district court's side of the appeal.[^35]
+
+### Rajat Gupta, 2014
+
+On March 25, 2014 a panel of Judges Jon O. Newman, Amalya L. Kearse and Rosemary S. Pooler affirmed the conviction of [[Rajat Gupta]], which arose from [[Galleon Group]] trades in [[Goldman Sachs]] stock. The opinion's account of the trial says that at 3:15 p.m. on September 23, 2008, "Goldman Sachs held a special meeting of its board of directors" to approve a $5 billion investment in Goldman by [[Warren Buffett]]. Gupta, a former managing director of [[McKinsey & Company]], took part by telephone from a conference room at the firm's New York office.[^36][^37] Judge Amalya L. Kearse wrote the opinion. [[Richard C. Tarlowe]], an Assistant United States Attorney, appeared for the government, and [[Seth P. Waxman]] of [[Wilmer Cutler Pickering Hale and Dorr]] appeared for Gupta.[^38]
+
+### Brown v. Maxwell and the unsealing of the Giuffre record, 2019
+
+The defamation suit filed by [[Virginia Giuffre]] against [[Ghislaine Maxwell]] in 2015 was assigned to the Southern District of New York judge [[Robert W. Sweet]]. After Maxwell and Giuffre executed a settlement agreement on May 24, 2017, Alan Dershowitz, the writer [[Mike Cernovich|Michael Cernovich]] and the [[Miami Herald]], with its reporter [[Julie K. Brown]], sought the sealed record, and Sweet denied the requests. The Second Circuit heard the consolidated appeals, and a panel of Judges José A. Cabranes, Rosemary S. Pooler and [[Christopher F. Droney]] decided them on July 3, 2019 in [[Brown v. Maxwell]].[^39] [[Sanford L. Bohrer]] and [[Christine N. Walz]] of [[Holland & Knight]] argued for the Herald and Brown, [[Andrew G. Celli Jr.]] of [[Emery Celli Brinckerhoff & Abady]] for Dershowitz, [[Marc Randazza]] for Cernovich, [[Paul G. Cassell]] and [[Sigrid S. McCawley]] of [[Boies Schiller Flexner]] for Giuffre, and Ty Gee and Adam Mueller of [[Haddon, Morgan and Foreman]] for Maxwell.[^40]
+
+The panel held that the district court "failed to conduct the requisite particularized review when ordering the sealing of the materials at issue." It vacated the orders of November 2, 2016, May 3, 2017 and August 27, 2018, ordered "the unsealing of the summary judgment record," and remanded for particularized review of the remaining sealed materials.[^41] The panel also wrote that common-law courts should "revitalize this crucial qualification to the litigation privilege," and it quoted the district court's finding that the sealed documents "were neither relied upon by [the District] Court in the rendering of an adjudication, nor necessary to or helpful in resolving a motion."
+
+The decision came three days before the arrest of [[Jeffrey Epstein]] in New York. On August 9, 2019, the day before Epstein was found dead in the [[Metropolitan Correctional Center, New York]], the Second Circuit unsealed about 2,000 pages of records from Giuffre v. Maxwell, according to the Inspector General's chronology of the jail.[^42] The Stanford Daily reported in 2026 that an unpublished manuscript made public in 2019, after the Second Circuit ordered related court documents unsealed, refers to the former Stanford psychology professor [[Stephen Kosslyn]].[^43]
+
+### FISA Section 702 and United States v. Hasbajrami
+
+On December 18, 2019 the court decided [[United States v. Hasbajrami]], reported at 945 F.3d 641. [[Agron Hasbajrami]] was arrested on September 6, 2011 at [[John F. Kennedy International Airport]] as he attempted to board a flight to Turkey, charged with attempting to provide material support to a terrorist organization, and sentenced to 180 months after pleading guilty. The government disclosed after his sentencing that part of its evidence derived from warrantless surveillance under Section 702 of the FISA Amendments Act of 2008; Judge [[John Gleeson]] of the Eastern District of New York permitted him to withdraw his plea, denied his motion to suppress, and accepted a conditional plea.[^44] The case was argued on August 27, 2018 before Judges [[Gerard Lynch]], Susan L. Carney and Christopher F. Droney.[^45]
+
+Lynch wrote for the panel that the collection of communications of United States persons incidental to the lawful surveillance of non-United States persons located abroad does not violate the Fourth Amendment. The opinion states that "querying" of the stored data "does have important Fourth Amendment implications" and is a "separate Fourth Amendment event that, in itself, must be reasonable." Because the record, classified and public, did not show whether any querying had occurred or whether it was reasonable, the panel remanded for the district court to determine the facts and whether evidence should be suppressed.[^46] [[Michael K. Bachrach]], [[Joshua L. Dratel]] and Steve Zissou appeared for Hasbajrami and [[Seth D. DuCharme]] for the government. [[Patrick Toomey]] and [[Ashley Gorski]] of the [[American Civil Liberties Union]] and [[Mark Rumold]] and Andrew Crocker of the [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]] appeared as amici.[^47] The opinion's footnote records that it was reviewed by appropriate intelligence agencies for redaction, and that the panel met ex parte with representatives of those agencies about modified phrasing and possible declassification.[^48]
+
+### Giuffre v. Maxwell, the Preska orders and the 2020 summary order
+
+After the Brown remand the case went to Judge [[Loretta Preska]], whom President [[George W. Bush]] had nominated to the Second Circuit on September 9, 2008 without a Senate vote.[^49] On July 23, 2020 she ordered the unsealing of materials that included Maxwell's April 2016 deposition. On August 24, 2020 Maxwell's lawyer [[Jeffrey S. Pagliuca]] of Haddon, Morgan and Foreman wrote to Judge Alison Nathan in the criminal case that the government had obtained from Giuffre's lawyers, by grand jury subpoena, nearly 90,000 pages of civil discovery still under the protective order, while the Second Circuit and Judge Preska were deciding whether to unseal the same material, and that if the deposition were unsealed "without the benefit of this information," the "cat will be out of the bag."[^50] [[Laura Menninger]] of the firm was among the lawyers on Maxwell's lead pretrial motion in the criminal case, to dismiss for breach of the 2007 agreement, which Nathan denied on April 16, 2021.[^51]
+
+On October 19, 2020 a panel of Judges Cabranes, Pooler and Raggi affirmed Preska's July 23, 2020 order by summary order. Maxwell had argued that the presumption of access to deposition materials was lower than for the summary judgment materials unsealed in Brown. The panel held that the district court "correctly held that the deposition materials are judicial documents to which the presumption of public access attaches," found that it "did not abuse its discretion in rejecting Maxwell's meritless arguments," and denied her motion to consolidate the appeal with her pending criminal appeal, No. 20-3061-cr. [[David Boies]] argued for Giuffre and Adam Mueller for Maxwell.[^52]
+
+### Halkbank
+
+On October 22, 2021 a panel of Judges Amalya L. Kearse, José A. Cabranes and [[Joseph Bianco]] decided the appeal of [[Turkiye Halk Bankasi A.S.]], known as [[Halkbank]], from the denial of its motion to dismiss the sanctions indictment. The district judge was [[Richard M. Berman]] of the Southern District of New York. The opinion frames its first question as whether a denial of a motion to dismiss a criminal indictment based on the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act is immediately appealable, and it describes the charged conduct as "a multi-year scheme to launder billions of dollars' worth of Iranian oil and natural gas proceeds in violation of U.S. sanctions against the Government of Iran and Iranian entities and persons."[^53] The panel held that the denial was immediately appealable under the collateral order doctrine, and that "even if we were to assume that FSIA confers immunity in the criminal context," the offense conduct charged would fall under the commercial activity exception to the [[Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act]]. It affirmed.[^53]
+
+On April 19, 2023 the Supreme Court decided the case on certiorari. The syllabus records that the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act "does not provide immunity from criminal prosecution," and that on the separate common-law immunity argument the Court vacated the judgment of the court of appeals and remanded. The opinion was written by Justice [[Brett Kavanaugh]].[^54]
+
+### The Maxwell appeal and the non-prosecution agreement
+
+On September 17, 2024 the court affirmed the conviction of Ghislaine Maxwell in [[United States v. Maxwell]], No. 22-1426-cr. The panel of Judges José A. Cabranes, [[Richard C. Wesley]] and [[Raymond J. Lohier Jr.]] had heard argument on March 12, 2024. [[Andrew Rohrbach]] argued for the government, with [[Maurene Comey]], Alison Moe, Lara Pomerantz and Won S. Shin on the brief for U.S. Attorney [[Damian Williams]] of the [[U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of New York]], and [[Diana Fabi Samson]] argued for Maxwell, with [[Arthur L. Aidala]] and John M. Leventhal of [[Aidala, Bertuna & Kamins]] on the brief. Judge Cabranes wrote the opinion. It identified five questions: whether the 2007 [[Epstein non-prosecution agreement]] with the [[U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of Florida]] barred the New York prosecution; whether the second superseding indictment complied with the statute of limitations; whether Maxwell was entitled to a new trial over a juror issue; whether a jury note constructively amended the indictment; and whether the sentence was reasonable. The court affirmed the judgment of conviction entered by Judge [[Alison Nathan]], who had sentenced her to concurrent terms of 60, 120 and 240 months and a fine of 250,000 dollars on each count.[^55]
+
+On the first question the court held that "[a] plea agreement binds only the office of the United States Attorney for the district in which the plea is entered unless it affirmatively appears that the agreement contemplates a broader restriction." It noted that the circuits "have been split on this issue for decades." The co-conspirator clause in the agreement covered potential co-conspirators of Epstein, and the clause quoted in the opinion names [[Sarah Kellen]], [[Adriana Ross]], [[Lesley Groff]] and [[Nadia Marcinkova]] among them. The court held that the agreement's scope was "expressly limited to the Southern District of Florida" where it was not silent, and that its terms deferred prosecution "in this District," signed under the authority of [[R. Alexander Acosta]], then U.S. Attorney there.[^56] The court observed that the operative [[United States Attorneys' Manual]] provision then barred any district from making an agreement "which purports to bind any other district(s) or division without the express written approval" of the United States Attorneys concerned or the Assistant Attorney General of the Criminal Division, that the Assistant Attorney General for the Criminal Division had told the [[Office of Professional Responsibility]] that she "played no role" in the agreement, and that nothing before the court indicated the New York office had been notified of or approved it.[^57] Maxwell had moved to dismiss on the ground that the agreement immunized her from prosecution on all counts as a third-party beneficiary, and the district court denied the motion. The court held that the agreement did not bind the New York office.[^56]
+
+On the statute of limitations the court held that the district court "correctly denied Maxwell's motions to dismiss the charges as untimely," because 18 U.S.C. § 3283, as amended in 2003, extended the time to bring charges of sexual abuse of minors for offenses committed before its enactment, and it reviewed the denial of the motion to dismiss the indictment de novo. On the juror issue the court recorded that, after the December 29, 2021 verdict, one juror gave press interviews saying he was a survivor of child sexual abuse although he had answered "no" on three questionnaire questions on the subject, that he testified under a grant of immunity that the answers were an inadvertent mistake, and that the district court found him credible and denied a new trial. The court held that the district court did not abuse its discretion.[^58]
+
+On the sentence the court upheld a four-level leadership enhancement applied to Maxwell's supervision of Sarah Kellen. The district court had relied on testimony from two of Jeffrey Epstein's pilots that Kellen was Maxwell's assistant, corroborated by testimony that Maxwell was Epstein's "number two and the lady of the house" in [[Palm Beach, Florida|Palm Beach]], where much of the abuse occurred.[^59] Epstein's longtime pilot [[Larry Visoski]], who flew his aircraft from 1991 to 2019, was the government's first witness at the trial in November 2021.[^60]
+
+The Second Circuit denied rehearing on November 25, 2024. On October 6, 2025 the Supreme Court denied Maxwell's petition for certiorari in No. 24-1073, docketed on April 14, 2025 and linked to an application to extend the filing deadline.[^61]
+
+### The Melzer sentence appeal, 2024
+
+In a ruling filed in November 2024 the court affirmed the 45-year sentence of [[Ethan Phelan Melzer]], an Army soldier, under docket 23-6247-cr.[^62]
+
+### Giuffre v. Maxwell, 2025
+
+On July 23, 2025 a panel of Judges José A. Cabranes, Reena Raggi and [[Myrna Pérez]] decided the consolidated appeals in [[Giuffre v. Maxwell]] per curiam, after submission on April 14, 2025. Giuffre and the Herald appealed from district court orders declining to unseal certain documents, and Giuffre had died on April 25, 2025 in Australia. Maxwell argued that the court lacked jurisdiction over the challenges to the December 2019 and January 2020 orders for want of a timely notice of appeal; the court concluded that those orders were not final orders and that it had jurisdiction to review all the orders challenged.[^63]
+
+The court clarified that a judicial document's status is determined when it is filed, so that a motion to unseal does not lose that status when the case settles and the motion becomes moot. It also held that a court's failure to rely on a document does not by itself make the presumption of access "only barely cognizable," and that filings relevant to a motion to seal or unseal are themselves judicial documents. The opinion further found that, as to parts of Maxwell's own deposition concerning her sexual relationships with consenting adults, her privacy interests outweighed any presumption of public access.[^64] The court vacated the December 2019 and January 2020 orders in their entirety and the November 18, 2022 oral ruling in part, and remanded "for further individual review of sealed documents and unsealing as warranted."[^65] That ruling had declined to unseal parts of Giuffre's deposition testimony from a Florida action, which Alan Dershowitz had submitted in support of his motion to intervene.[^65] Sigrid S. McCawley appeared for Giuffre, Adam Mueller for Maxwell, and lawyers for two anonymous amici, John Doe 183 and John Doe 133, in support of Maxwell.[^66]
+
+### Appeals pending in the Epstein cases
+
+The six women who sued the [[Government of the United States Virgin Islands]], former Governor [[John de Jongh]], [[Cecile de Jongh]], Governor [[Kenneth Mapp]], Attorney General [[Vincent Frazer]], Senators [[Celestino White]] and [[Carlton Dowe]] and Delegate [[Stacey Plaskett]] in the Southern District of New York appealed to the Second Circuit under No. 26-1316 after final judgment was entered on May 5, 2026 by Judge [[Arun Subramanian]], who had dismissed the claims against Dowe and White on March 21, 2025 for lack of personal jurisdiction.[^67]
+
+[[Nicholas Tartaglione]], the former police officer who was Jeffrey Epstein's cellmate at the Metropolitan Correctional Center when Epstein was found with a cloth around his neck on July 23, 2019, was sentenced by Judge [[Kenneth M. Karas]] on June 10, 2024 to four consecutive life terms. His appeal, No. 24-1852, was pending in May 2026.[^68]
+
+A petition by the former [[BGC Group]] managing director Simon Andriesz to vacate an arbitration award, dismissed by Judge [[Lewis J. Liman]] on April 24, 2025, was appealed under No. 25-1341, which ended with the issue of the mandate on August 28, 2025.[^69] After Alison Nathan's elevation to the Second Circuit, Judge [[Paul Engelmayer]] took over the Maxwell criminal case in the Southern District.[^70]
+
+### The judges
+
+The judges named on this page have the following dates.[^71] Cabranes was commissioned to the [[District of Connecticut]] on December 10, 1979, served as its chief judge from 1992 to 1994, and was commissioned to the Second Circuit on August 10, 1994. He took senior status on March 9, 2023. Alison Nathan was commissioned to the Southern District of New York on October 17, 2011, and to the Second Circuit on March 30, 2022. Richard C. Wesley was commissioned on June 12, 2003 and took senior status on August 1, 2016. Raymond J. Lohier Jr. was commissioned on December 20, 2010. Susan L. Carney was commissioned on May 17, 2011 and took senior status on September 27, 2022. Joseph Bianco was commissioned on May 13, 2019.
+
+Rosemary S. Pooler was commissioned to the [[Northern District of New York]] on August 10, 1994 and to the Second Circuit on June 3, 1998, took senior status on March 23, 2022, and died on August 10, 2023. Reena Raggi was commissioned to the [[Eastern District of New York]] on May 7, 1987 and to the Second Circuit on October 4, 2002. Christopher F. Droney was commissioned to the District of Connecticut on September 18, 1997 and to the Second Circuit on December 1, 2011. Gerard Lynch was commissioned to the Southern District of New York on May 25, 2000 and to the Second Circuit on September 18, 2009. Myrna Pérez was commissioned to the Second Circuit on November 12, 2021.
+
+The earlier judges have the following dates. [[Learned Hand]] was commissioned to the Second Circuit on December 20, 1924, served as chief judge from 1948 to 1951, and died on August 18, 1961. Jerome Frank was commissioned on March 27, 1941 and died on January 13, 1957. Feinberg was commissioned to the Second Circuit on March 7, 1966, served as chief judge from 1980 to 1988, and died on July 31, 2014. Kaufman was commissioned to the Second Circuit on September 22, 1961, served as chief judge from 1973 to 1980, and took senior status on July 1, 1987. Oakes was commissioned to the Second Circuit on May 27, 1971, served as chief judge from 1989 to 1992, and died on October 13, 2007. Meskill was commissioned on April 23, 1975 and died on October 29, 2007. Lawrence W. Pierce was commissioned on November 18, 1981. John D. Mahoney was commissioned on April 7, 1986 and died on October 23, 1996. Kearse was commissioned on June 21, 1979 and took senior status on June 11, 2002. Newman was commissioned to the Second Circuit on June 21, 1979, served as chief judge from 1993 to 1997, and took senior status on July 1, 1997. Pierre N. Leval was commissioned on October 20, 1993 and took senior status on August 16, 2002.
+
+Edelstein, the district judge in the IBM matter, was commissioned to the Southern District of New York on April 8, 1952, served as its chief judge from 1971 to 1980, and died on August 19, 2000.[^71]
+
+[^1]: 28 U.S.C. § 41, circuit composition table, "Second: Connecticut, New York, Vermont." https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/41
+[^2]: Second Circuit Court of Appeals, address as printed in the court's website footer: Thurgood Marshall United States Courthouse, 40 Foley Square, New York, NY 10007. https://www.ca2.uscourts.gov
+[^3]: *Guaranty Trust Co. of New York v. United States*, 304 U.S. 126 (1938) (decided April 25, 1938; "Reversed."; the Second Circuit had reversed the trial court's judgment). https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/304/126
+[^4]: *United States v. Rosenberg*, 195 F.2d 583 (2d Cir. Feb. 25, 1952) (Frank, J.). https://static.case.law/f2d/195/cases/0583-01.json
+[^5]: *United States v. Rosenberg*, 195 F.2d 583 (2d Cir. Feb. 25, 1952), counsel block: "Myles J. Lane, New York City (Roy M. Cohn, James B. Kilsheimer 3d and Stanley D. Robinson, all of New York City, of counsel), for United States of America." https://static.case.law/f2d/195/cases/0583-01.json
+[^6]: *In re Cohn*, 416 F.2d 440 (2d Cir. Sept. 17, 1969) (per curiam). https://static.case.law/f2d/416/cases/0440-01.json
+[^7]: *In re Cohn*, 416 F.2d 440 (2d Cir. Sept. 17, 1969), counsel block (Myron J. Greene for the petitioner; John S. Allee for the United States, with Paul L. Perito and Peter L. Truebner on the brief). https://static.case.law/f2d/416/cases/0440-01.json
+[^8]: *United States v. New York Times Co.*, 444 F.2d 544 (2d Cir. June 23, 1971) (en banc) (per curiam, with dissent statement). https://static.case.law/f2d/444/cases/0544-01.json
+[^9]: *Hunt v. Mobil Oil Corp.*, 550 F.2d 68 (2d Cir. Jan. 12, 1977). https://static.case.law/f2d/550/cases/0068-01.json
+[^10]: *In re International Business Machines Corp.*, 687 F.2d 591 (2d Cir. Aug. 13, 1982), Background (complaint of January 17, 1969 under Sherman Act section 2; stipulation of January 8, 1982 under Fed. R. Civ. P. 41(a)(1)(ii), with the Baxter memorandum). https://static.case.law/f2d/687/cases/0591-01.json
+[^11]: *In re International Business Machines Corp.*, 687 F.2d 591 (2d Cir. Aug. 13, 1982), Background (Edelstein article of January 26, 1982 in the Wall Street Journal; hearing of March 2, 1982 with letters on Baxter's consultancy to IBM during the Memorex suit). https://static.case.law/f2d/687/cases/0591-01.json
+[^12]: *In re International Business Machines Corp.*, 687 F.2d 591 (2d Cir. Aug. 13, 1982) (Meskill, Newman, Kearse, JJ.), Discussion and conclusion ("a writ of mandamus shall issue directing Judge Edelstein to cease any further inquiry with respect to the conflict of interest claim"; "We express no view as to the merits of that claim"; Tunney Act question not expedited). https://static.case.law/f2d/687/cases/0591-01.json
+[^13]: *Letelier v. Republic of Chile*, 748 F.2d 790 (2d Cir. Nov. 20, 1984) (Cardamone, J.), introduction and Facts (the 1976 assassination; default judgment of the District of Columbia court; Judge Lasker's opinion of July 28, 1983, 567 F. Supp. 1490). https://static.case.law/f2d/748/cases/0790-01.json
+[^14]: *Letelier v. Republic of Chile*, 748 F.2d 790 (2d Cir. Nov. 20, 1984), Parts I and II and conclusion (the findings recited from the district court; "Accordingly, we reverse the orders appealed from and dismiss the supplementary proceedings."). Judgment of November 5, 1980: *Letelier v. Republic of Chile*, 502 F. Supp. 259 (D.D.C. 1980), as cited in the opinion. https://static.case.law/f2d/748/cases/0790-01.json
+[^15]: *Barrett v. United States*, 798 F.2d 565 (2d Cir. July 31, 1986), statement of facts (the estate's allegations; Dr. Hoch "the NYSPI medical official in charge of administering the mescaline compound to Blauer"; Hoch's statement on the contract with the Army). https://static.case.law/f2d/798/cases/0565-01.json
+[^16]: *Barrett v. United States*, 798 F.2d 565 (2d Cir. July 31, 1986), statement of facts (conference of early July 1954; "According to records relied on by the estate"). https://static.case.law/f2d/798/cases/0565-01.json
+[^17]: *United States v. Durrani*, 835 F.2d 410 (2d Cir. Dec. 3, 1987) (Kaufman, J., for Kaufman, Pierce and Miner, JJ.), opening paragraphs and counsel block (Holly B. Fitzsimmons, Asst. U.S. Atty., for appellee; Alan M. Dershowitz, with Nathan Z. Dershowitz and Victoria B. Eiger on the brief, for appellant). https://static.case.law/f2d/835/cases/0410-01.json
+[^18]: *United States v. Durrani*, 835 F.2d 410 (2d Cir. Dec. 3, 1987), Background and statement of Durrani's trial testimony (Malekzedeh; Hassan, Secord and Hakim; the Lisbon and London meetings; "not to worry about the paperwork"; payments by Pires in excess of $800,000 between June and October 1986). https://static.case.law/f2d/835/cases/0410-01.json
+[^19]: *United States v. Durrani*, 835 F.2d 410 (2d Cir. Dec. 3, 1987), discussion of the subpoena quashed on March 11, 1987, the Hawk parts list given to George Cave on March 1986, the excluded Tower Commission report and North memoranda of April 16 and September 8, 1986, and the introduction ("thus affirm his conviction on all counts"). https://static.case.law/f2d/835/cases/0410-01.json
+[^20]: *United States v. Evans*, 844 F.2d 36 (2d Cir. Apr. 7, 1988) (Feinberg, C.J., Meskill, Mahoney, JJ.), Background (the government's allegations; the arms "were destined for Cyrus Hashemi, a government agent pretending to be an Iranian buyer"). https://static.case.law/f2d/844/cases/0036-01.json
+[^21]: *United States v. Evans*, 844 F.2d 36 (2d Cir. Apr. 7, 1988), disposition ("the right to control future arms sales is not a property right for this purpose"; "We therefore affirm the decision of the district court dismissing the wire and mail fraud counts of the indictment"). https://static.case.law/f2d/844/cases/0036-01.json
+[^22]: *United States v. Salerno*, 868 F.2d 524 (2d Cir. Jan. 31, 1989) (Pratt, Mahoney, Bright, JJ.), statement of the case ("There are five New York City families (i.e., the Genovese, Gambino, Colombo, Lucchese and Bonanno families)."; "Since the late 1970s, the Commission was controlled by the bosses of four of those families"). https://static.case.law/f2d/868/cases/0524-01.json
+[^23]: *United States v. Salerno*, 868 F.2d 524 (2d Cir. Jan. 31, 1989), background (RICO enterprise alleged as the "Commission" of La Cosa Nostra, "a nationwide criminal society which operates through local organizations known as 'families'"). https://static.case.law/f2d/868/cases/0524-01.json
+[^24]: *United States v. Menashe*, 741 F. Supp. 1135 (S.D.N.Y. Aug. 1, 1990) (Stanton, J.), memorandum and order (count one; count two against O'Toole; St. Francis's due process motion, joined by Ben Menashe; citation of *United States v. Evans*, 667 F. Supp. 974, 988 (S.D.N.Y. 1987), aff'd, 844 F.2d 36 (1988); counsel block: Baruch Weiss, Thomas F.X. Dunn, Lawrence Bader). https://static.case.law/f-supp/741/cases/1135-01.json
+[^25]: "2 Acquitted of Trying to Sell Military Cargo Planes to Iran," *The Washington Post*, Nov. 29, 1990 (dateline New York, Nov. 28). https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1990/11/29/2-acquitted-of-trying-to-sell-military-cargo-planes-to-iran/2918bfd6-89a7-441a-a124-3b1916e90321/
+[^26]: 28 U.S.C. § 372(c) (complaints against judicial officers and the judicial council of the circuit). https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/372
+[^27]: Complaint of George Francis Bason, Jr. to the Judicial Council of the Second Circuit, January 2, 1991, under 28 U.S.C. § 372(c).
+[^28]: *United States v. Morris*, 928 F.2d 504 (2d Cir. Mar. 7, 1991), Facts ("In the fall of 1988, Morris was a first-year graduate student in Cornell University's computer science Ph.D. program."). https://static.case.law/f2d/928/cases/0504-01.json
+[^29]: *United States v. Morris*, 928 F.2d 504 (2d Cir. Mar. 7, 1991), discussion of section 1030(a)(5)(A) ("without authorization") and conclusion ("We therefore affirm."). https://static.case.law/f2d/928/cases/0504-01.json
+[^30]: Paul Graham, "How Y Combinator Started," March 2012 ("I agreed to put $100k into the new fund ... Over the next couple days I recruited Robert and Trevor, who put in another $50k each. So YC started with $200k."). https://paulgraham.com/ycstart.html
+[^31]: *United States v. Daccarett*, 6 F.3d 37 (2d Cir. 1993), background (Cali cartel headed by Jose Santacruz-Londono; "approximately 3000 kilograms of cocaine a month"). https://static.case.law/f3d/6/cases/0037-01.json
+[^32]: *Ehrenfeld v. Bin Mahfouz*, 489 F.3d 542 (2d Cir. June 8, 2007) (Feinberg, Leval, Cabranes, JJ.) (affirming on N.Y. C.P.L.R. 302(a)(3) and the denial of jurisdictional discovery; certifying the 302(a)(1) question to the New York Court of Appeals). https://static.case.law/f3d/489/cases/0542-01.json
+[^33]: *Ehrenfeld v. Mahfouz*, 518 F.3d 102 (2d Cir. Mar. 3, 2008) (Feinberg, Leval, Cabranes, JJ.) (affirming in accordance with the New York Court of Appeals decision). https://static.case.law/f3d/518/cases/0102-01.json
+[^34]: *In re Terrorist Attacks on September 11, 2001 (Asat Trust Reg.)*, 714 F.3d 659 (2d Cir. Apr. 16, 2013) (Cabranes, Raggi, JJ., and Rakoff, D.J.), summary of holdings ("we AFFIRM the District Court's July 14, 2011 judgment insofar as it dismissed plaintiffs' claims against" Khaled Bin Mahfouz and Abdulrahman Bin Mahfouz for lack of personal jurisdiction; National Commercial Bank lacking general jurisdiction). https://static.case.law/f3d/714/cases/0659-01.json
+[^35]: *S.E.C. v. Citigroup Global Markets Inc.*, 752 F.3d 285 (2d Cir. June 4, 2014) (Pooler, J., for Pooler, Lohier and Carney, JJ.; Lohier, J., concurring), introduction, Background I (complaint of October 2011 on the Class V Funding III fund; proposed consent judgment) and counsel block (John R. Wing, appointed pro bono counsel for the district court, Jed S. Rakoff, J.). https://static.case.law/f3d/752/cases/0285-01.json
+[^36]: *United States v. Gupta*, 747 F.3d 111 (2d Cir. Mar. 25, 2014) (Newman, Kearse, Pooler, JJ.), statement of the Galleon trades of Goldman Sachs stock on September 23, 2008 ("At 3:15 p.m. on September 23, 2008, Goldman Sachs held a special meeting of its board of directors"). https://static.case.law/f3d/747/cases/0111-01.json
+[^37]: *United States v. Gupta*, 747 F.3d 111 (2d Cir. Mar. 25, 2014) (telephone participation from McKinsey's New York office; "The judgment of the district court is affirmed."). https://static.case.law/f3d/747/cases/0111-01.json
+[^38]: *United States v. Gupta*, 747 F.3d 111 (2d Cir. Mar. 25, 2014), attorneys block (Richard C. Tarlowe, Assistant United States Attorney, for Appellee; Seth P. Waxman, Wilmer Cutler Pickering Hale & Dorr, for Defendant-Appellant); opinion by Kearse, Circuit Judge. https://static.case.law/f3d/747/cases/0111-01.json
+[^39]: *Brown v. Maxwell* (*Dershowitz v. Giuffre*), 929 F.3d 41 (2d Cir. July 3, 2019) (Cabranes, Pooler, Droney, JJ.), statement of the case (settlement agreement of May 24, 2017; intervenors Dershowitz, Cernovich and the Miami Herald with reporter Julie Brown; orders of Judge Robert W. Sweet). https://static.case.law/f3d/929/cases/0041-01.json
+[^40]: *Brown v. Maxwell*, 929 F.3d 41 (2d Cir. July 3, 2019), counsel block (Sanford L. Bohrer, Christine N. Walz and Madelaine J. Harrington, Holland & Knight, for the Herald and Brown; Ty Gee and Adam Mueller, Haddon, Morgan and Foreman, for Maxwell; Paul G. Cassell and Sigrid S. McCawley for Giuffre; Andrew G. Celli Jr. and David A. Lebowitz for Dershowitz; Marc Randazza and Jay Marshall Wolman for Cernovich). https://static.case.law/f3d/929/cases/0041-01.json
+[^41]: *Brown v. Maxwell*, 929 F.3d 41 (2d Cir. July 3, 2019), conclusion ("we VACATE the District Court's orders entered on November 2, 2016, May 3, 2017, and August 27, 2018, ORDER the unsealing of the summary judgment record as described further herein, and REMAND"). https://static.case.law/f3d/929/cases/0041-01.json
+[^42]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Inspector General, *Investigation and Review of the Federal Bureau of Prisons' Custody, Care, and Supervision of Jeffrey Epstein at the Metropolitan Correctional Center in New York, New York*, Report 23-085, June 2023, timeline of August 8 and 9, 2019. https://oig.justice.gov/sites/default/files/reports/23-085.pdf
+[^43]: Kucheria and Dolce, "Details emerge in contested sexual assault claim by Epstein victim against former Stanford psychology professor," The Stanford Daily, February 11, 2026, reporting the unpublished manuscript and its release in 2019. https://stanforddaily.com/2026/02/11/details-sexual-assault-claim-kosslyn/
+[^44]: *United States v. Hasbajrami*, 945 F.3d 641 (2d Cir. Dec. 18, 2019), opinion of Lynch, J., at 3-5 (arrest of September 6, 2011 at John F. Kennedy International Airport; sentence of 180 months; supplemental disclosure of Section 702 evidence; Gleeson, J.). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCOURTS-ca2-17-02669/pdf/USCOURTS-ca2-17-02669-0.pdf
+[^45]: *United States v. Hasbajrami*, Nos. 15-2684(L) and 17-2669(CON) (2d Cir.), caption ("Argued; August 27, 2018. Decided: December 18, 2019"; "LYNCH, CARNEY, and DRONEY, Circuit Judges"); GovInfo package metadata, dateIssued 2019-12-18. https://www.govinfo.gov/metadata/pkg/USCOURTS-ca2-17-02669/mods.xml
+[^46]: *United States v. Hasbajrami*, 945 F.3d 641 (2d Cir. Dec. 18, 2019), summary at 2, discussion of querying ("separate Fourth Amendment event that, in itself, must be reasonable") and conclusion ("we REMAND to the district court for further proceedings consistent with this opinion"). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCOURTS-ca2-17-02669/pdf/USCOURTS-ca2-17-02669-0.pdf
+[^47]: *United States v. Hasbajrami*, 945 F.3d 641 (2d Cir. Dec. 18, 2019), counsel block (Michael K. Bachrach, Joshua L. Dratel and Steve Zissou for defendant-appellant; Seth D. DuCharme, David C. James, Saritha Komatireddy and Joseph F. Palmer for the United States; Patrick Toomey and Ashley Gorski, American Civil Liberties Union Foundation, and Mark Rumold and Andrew Crocker, Electronic Frontier Foundation, amici curiae). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCOURTS-ca2-17-02669/pdf/USCOURTS-ca2-17-02669-0.pdf
+[^48]: *United States v. Hasbajrami*, 945 F.3d 641 (2d Cir. Dec. 18, 2019), footnote 1 (review by appropriate intelligence agencies for redaction; ex parte meeting of the panel with agency representatives). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCOURTS-ca2-17-02669/pdf/USCOURTS-ca2-17-02669-0.pdf
+[^49]: Federal Judicial Center, "Preska, Loretta A.," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/preska-loretta
+[^50]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00088205, DataSet 9, letter, Jeffrey S. Pagliuca, Haddon, Morgan and Foreman, P.C., to Hon. Alison J. Nathan, "Re: Reply in Support of Request to Modify Protective Order (Under Seal), United States v. Ghislaine Maxwell, 20 Cr. 330 (AJN)," August 24, 2020. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00088205.pdf
+[^51]: *United States v. Maxwell*, No. 1:20-cr-00330 (S.D.N.Y.), Notice of Motion to Dismiss Superseding Indictment for Breach of Non-Prosecution Agreement, ECF No. 141 (filed Feb. 4, 2021), https://storage.courtlistener.com/recap/gov.uscourts.nysd.539612/gov.uscourts.nysd.539612.141.0.pdf ; Opinion and Order, ECF No. 207 (April 16, 2021), https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/17318376/united-states-v-maxwell/
+[^52]: *Giuffre v. Maxwell*, No. 20-2413-cv, Summary Order, Doc. 140-1 (2d Cir. Oct. 19, 2020) (Cabranes, Pooler, Raggi, JJ.). https://www.courthousenews.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Maxwell-ca2.pdf
+[^53]: *United States v. Turkiye Halk Bankasi A.S.*, No. 20-3499-cr (2d Cir. Oct. 22, 2021) (Kearse, Cabranes, Bianco, JJ.), reported at 16 F.4th 336 (collateral order jurisdiction; "even if we were to assume that FSIA confers immunity in the criminal context, the offense conduct ... would fall under the commercial activity exception to FSIA"; "we AFFIRM the Decision and Order" of Judge Berman). https://cases.justia.com/federal/appellate-courts/ca2/20-3499/20-3499-2021-10-22.pdf
+[^54]: *Turkiye Halk Bankasi A.S. v. United States*, No. 21-1450 (U.S. Apr. 19, 2023), syllabus (on certiorari to the Second Circuit, "16 F. 4th 336, affirmed in part, vacated and remanded in part"; "the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act does not provide immunity from criminal prosecution"). https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/21-1450
+[^55]: *United States v. Maxwell*, No. 22-1426-cr (2d Cir. Sept. 17, 2024) (Cabranes, Wesley, Lohier, JJ.), slip op. at 1-4 (argued March 12, 2024; counsel block; questions presented; sentence of concurrent terms of 60, 120 and 240 months and fine of $250,000 on each count; "AFFIRM the District Court's June 29, 2022, judgment of conviction"). https://storage.courtlistener.com/pdf/2024/09/17/united_states_v._maxwell.pdf
+[^56]: *United States v. Maxwell*, No. 22-1426-cr (2d Cir. Sept. 17, 2024), slip op. at 5-6 (co-conspirator clause quoted at A-178, naming Sarah Kellen, Adriana Ross, Lesley Groff and Nadia Marcinkova), 9-11 (plea agreement quotation; scope "expressly limited"; the agreement language of "this District" and the authority of R. Alexander Acosta; "We hold that the NPA with USAO-SDFL does not bind USAO-SDNY"). https://storage.courtlistener.com/pdf/2024/09/17/united_states_v._maxwell.pdf
+[^57]: *United States v. Maxwell*, No. 22-1426-cr (2d Cir. Sept. 17, 2024), slip op. at 10 n.11 (*United States v. Annabi*, 771 F.2d 670, 672 (2d Cir. 1985); "have been split on this issue for decades"), 11-12 (United States Attorney's Manual § 9-27.641 (2007); "played no role"; "Nothing before us indicates that USAO-SDNY had been notified or had approved"). https://storage.courtlistener.com/pdf/2024/09/17/united_states_v._maxwell.pdf
+[^58]: *United States v. Maxwell*, No. 22-1426-cr (2d Cir. Sept. 17, 2024), slip op. at 7-8 (verdict of December 29, 2021; the juror's interviews, the questionnaire and the hearing of March 8, 2022), 14-19 (18 U.S.C. § 3283 and the PROTECT Act amendment of 2003; "correctly denied Maxwell's motions to dismiss the charges as untimely"; Rule 33 ruling). https://storage.courtlistener.com/pdf/2024/09/17/united_states_v._maxwell.pdf
+[^59]: *United States v. Maxwell*, No. 22-1426-cr (2d Cir. Sept. 17, 2024), slip op. at 23-25 (four-level leadership enhancement; testimony of two of Epstein's pilots; "number two and the lady of the house"; "We therefore hold that the District Court did not err in applying the leadership enhancement"). https://storage.courtlistener.com/pdf/2024/09/17/united_states_v._maxwell.pdf
+[^60]: Tom Winter and Corky Siemaszko, "Jeffrey Epstein's longtime pilot testifies in trial of Ghislaine Maxwell," NBC News, November 30, 2021. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/jeffrey-epsteins-longtime-pilot-testifies-trial-ghislaine-maxwell-rcna7078
+[^61]: *Maxwell v. United States*, No. 24-1073 (U.S.), docket (docketed April 14, 2025; lower court decision September 17, 2024; "Rehearing Denied: November 25, 2024"; "Oct 06 2025 Petition DENIED"). https://www.supremecourt.gov/docket/docketfiles/html/public/24-1073.html
+[^62]: *United States v. Melzer*, No. 23-6247-cr (2d Cir. 2024). Courthouse News: https://www.courthousenews.com/circuit-upholds-45-year-sentence-for-army-soldier-who-plotted-satanic-neo-nazi-ambush/
+[^63]: *Giuffre v. Maxwell*, Nos. 24-182-cv(L), 24-203-cv(CON) (2d Cir. July 23, 2025) (Cabranes, Raggi, Pérez, JJ.) (per curiam), caption and opinion at 2-5 (submitted April 14, 2025; decided July 23, 2025; appeal by Giuffre and the Herald; Giuffre's death on April 25, 2025; jurisdiction over the orders of December 2019 and January 2020). https://storage.courtlistener.com/pdf/2025/07/23/giuffre_v._maxwell.pdf
+[^64]: *Giuffre v. Maxwell*, Nos. 24-182-cv(L), 24-203-cv(CON) (2d Cir. July 23, 2025), opinion at 2-3 (three clarifications; "only barely cognizable"; Maxwell's deposition and the privacy interests in her relationships with consenting adults). https://storage.courtlistener.com/pdf/2025/07/23/giuffre_v._maxwell.pdf
+[^65]: *Giuffre v. Maxwell*, Nos. 24-182-cv(L), 24-203-cv(CON) (2d Cir. July 23, 2025), Part B and disposition ("we remand for further individual review of sealed documents and unsealing as warranted consistent with this opinion"; the December 2019 and January 2020 orders vacated "in their entirety"; the transcript submitted by Alan Dershowitz in support of his motion to intervene). https://storage.courtlistener.com/pdf/2025/07/23/giuffre_v._maxwell.pdf
+[^66]: *Giuffre v. Maxwell*, Nos. 24-182-cv(L), 24-203-cv(CON) (2d Cir. July 23, 2025), counsel block (Sigrid S. McCawley for plaintiff-appellant; Christine N. Walz, Scott D. Ponce and Cynthia A. Gierhart, Holland & Knight, for the intervenors-appellants; Adam Mueller, Haddon, Morgan & Foreman, for defendant-appellee; Marion H. Little, Jr. and Matthew S. Zeiger, and Michael G. McGovern, for amici John Doe 183 and John Doe 133). https://storage.courtlistener.com/pdf/2025/07/23/giuffre_v._maxwell.pdf
+[^67]: *Doe 1 v. Government of the United States Virgin Islands*, No. 1:23-cv-10301-AS (S.D.N.Y.), Opinion and Order, ECF No. 202 (March 21, 2025), and docket including Judgment, ECF No. 229 (May 5, 2026); No. 26-1316 (2d Cir.), docket. https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/68031620/doe-1-v-government-of-the-united-states-virgin-islands/ ; https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/73544397/doe-1-v-government-of-the-united-states-virgin-islands/
+[^68]: *United States v. Tartaglione*, No. 16-CR-832 (KMK) (S.D.N.Y.), Order of Judge Kenneth M. Karas, May 6, 2026, pp. 1 to 13 (appeal No. 24-1852 pending). https://www.nysd.uscourts.gov/sites/default/files/2026-05/16cr832%20-%20Tartaglione%20Order%20-%2026.5.6.pdf ; U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Inspector General, Report 23-085 (June 2023) (Tartaglione as Epstein's cellmate; July 23, 2019). https://oig.justice.gov/sites/default/files/reports/23-085.pdf
+[^69]: Opinion and Order, *Andriesz v. BGC Financial, L.P.*, No. 24-cv-7004 (LJL) (S.D.N.Y. April 23, 2025), docket 37; Judgment, docket 38, April 24, 2025; Order, No. 25-1341 (2d Cir. June 16, 2025), with mandate issued August 28, 2025 (S.D.N.Y. docket 40). https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/69166995/andriesz-v-bgc-financial-lp/
+[^70]: Federal Judicial Center, "Engelmayer, Paul Adam," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/engelmayer-paul-adam
+[^71]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, dataset judges.csv (commission, senior status, chief judge service, termination and death dates for each judge named on this page). https://www.fjc.gov/sites/default/files/history/judges.csv

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/United States Senate.md

@@ -0,0 +1,227 @@
+---
+title: United States Senate
+aliases:
+  - United States Senate
+  - U.S. Senate
+  - US Senate
+  - Senate
+created: 2026-10-15
+updated: 2026-10-15
+tags:
+  - Organization
+  - USGovernment
+  - Congress
+  - SenateCommittees
+  - ChurchCommittee
+  - SenateWatergateCommittee
+  - MKULTRA
+  - BCCI
+  - IranContra
+  - INSLAW
+  - CIAOversight
+  - UAP
+  - ConfirmationHearings
+  - SenateEthics
+category: "U.S. Government"
+summary: "The upper chamber of Congress, whose committees ran the Church, Watergate, Kerry BCCI, Iran-Contra and INSLAW inquiries, whose votes confirmed or rejected intelligence nominees, and whose UAP amendments reached the Congressional Record."
+start: 1789-03-04
+location: "Washington, D.C."
+relations:
+  - type: investigated
+    with: "[[Central Intelligence Agency]]"
+    start: 1975
+    end: 1976
+    fn: 2
+  - type: investigated
+    with: "[[Project MKUltra]]"
+    start: 1977
+    end: 1977
+    fn: 11
+  - type: investigated
+    with: "[[Bank of Credit and Commerce International]]"
+    start: 1988
+    end: 1992
+    fn: 26
+  - type: investigated
+    with: "[[Iran-Contra Affair]]"
+    start: 1987
+    end: 1987
+    fn: 36
+  - type: investigated
+    with: "[[INSLAW]]"
+    start: 1988
+    end: 1989
+    fn: 21
+---
+
+The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the [[United States Congress|Congress]]. Its select committees conducted the principal congressional investigations of the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]], the Iran-Contra affair and the [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International]]; its Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations ran the Army-McCarthy and prisoner-of-war inquiries of the 1950s and the INSLAW and Riggs Bank inquiries of the 1980s and 2000s; and its confirmation votes, ethics proceedings and amendments on unidentified anomalous phenomena are part of the public record.
+
+### Creation of the intelligence committee, 1975 to 1976
+
+On January 27, 1975 the Senate approved S. Res. 21, which created the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, by a vote of 88 to 4.[^1] Its chairman was [[Frank Church]] of Idaho and its vice chairman [[John Tower]] of Texas; the members were [[Philip Hart]], [[Walter Mondale]], [[Walter Huddleston]], [[Robert Morgan]], [[Gary Hart]], [[Howard Baker]], [[Barry Goldwater]], [[Charles Mathias]] and [[Richard Schweiker]], with [[Frederick A. O. Schwarz Jr.]] as chief counsel.[^2] The [[Church Committee]] issued an interim report on November 20, 1975 covering alleged assassination plots in five countries: [[Fidel Castro]] in Cuba, [[Patrice Lumumba]] in the Congo, [[Rafael Trujillo]] in the Dominican Republic, General René Schneider in Chile and [[Ngo Dinh Diem]] in South Vietnam. Its summary states that United States Government personnel plotted to kill Castro from 1960 to 1965, that "American underworld figures and Cubans hostile to Castro" were used in the plots, and that in the Lumumba case "Poisons were sent to the Congo."[^2] The final report ran to six books, and the volume on the performance of the intelligence agencies in the investigation of the assassination of [[John F. Kennedy]] is dated April 23, 1976.[^3]
+
+The standing committee that followed was created by S. Res. 400. The Government Operations Committee voted unanimously on February 24, 1976 to approve a resolution establishing a permanent standing committee on intelligence activities, and the Rules and Administration Committee reported it on April 29, 1976 after a 5 to 4 vote for an amendment in the nature of a substitute offered by its chairman, [[Howard Cannon]].[^4] Cannon introduced a compromise version on May 12, 1976 with 27 cosponsors, and the Majority and Minority Leaders, [[Mike Mansfield]] and [[Hugh Scott]], endorsed it. The Senate agreed to the compromise substitute 87 to 7 and then, on May 19, 1976, agreed to S. Res. 400 by 72 to 22, with six senators not voting, after floor debate spanning ten days and thirteen proposed amendments.[^5] The resolution's stated purposes included "vigilant legislative oversight over the intelligence activities of the United States," and the committee received legislative and budget authorization jurisdiction as well as oversight.[^5] The Rules Committee report on the resolution is S. Rept. 94-770.[^6] On July 1, 1976 the chairman of the new [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]], [[Daniel Inouye]], and the Armed Services chairman, [[John Stennis]], signed a memorandum of understanding on shared jurisdiction while the nomination of E. Henry Knoche as Deputy Director of Central Intelligence was before the Senate.[^7] The committee's first annual report, dated May 18, 1977, was issued under Inouye.[^8]
+
+### MKULTRA in the record
+
+The Church Committee's Book I describes [[Project MKUltra|MKULTRA]] as a program concerned with the research and development of chemical, biological and radiological materials for use in clandestine operations to control human behavior. It states that in January 1973 MKULTRA records were destroyed by personnel of the Technical Services Division acting on the verbal orders of [[Sidney Gottlieb]], then chief of the division. Gottlieb testified that he was carrying out the verbal order of Director [[Richard Helms]], and the report records that Helms confirmed this.[^9] The MKULTRA material in Book I is on pages 390 and 391.[^10]
+
+On August 3, 1977 the Select Committee on Intelligence met jointly with the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research of the Committee on Human Resources, chaired by [[Edward M. Kennedy]]. Present with Inouye (presiding) and Kennedy were Senators Goldwater, [[Birch Bayh]], Hathaway, Huddleston, Hart, Schweiker, Case, Garn, [[John Chafee|Chafee]], [[Richard Lugar|Lugar]] and Wallop.[^11] Inouye stated that the hearing concerned new documents on CIA drug testing supplied to the committee in the previous week, and that one purpose was "to hear the reasons why these documents were not available to the Church and Kennedy committees."[^11] Director of Central Intelligence [[Stansfield Turner]] testified with other agency witnesses. His statement reported the discovery of seven boxes of MKULTRA documents, which were found to contain 149 subprojects, and stated that the CIA now held the names of 185 non-government researchers and assistants and of 80 institutions where work was done or with which they were affiliated: 44 colleges or universities, 15 research foundations or chemical or pharmaceutical companies, 12 hospitals or clinics in addition to university-associated ones, and 3 penal institutions. The statement noted that the cryptonym had become public in 1975 when details of the drug-related death of [[Frank Olson]] were publicized.[^12] Inouye told the hearing that "the programs that are of greatest concern have stopped," and that the committees were reviewing events that had occurred as long as 25 years earlier.[^13]
+
+### The Senate Watergate committee
+
+The Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities was established by S. Res. 60 of February 7, 1973, with [[Sam Ervin]] of North Carolina as chairman and Howard Baker as vice chairman; its members included [[Herman Talmadge]], Inouye, [[Edward Gurney]] and [[Lowell Weicker]]. Its final report is S. Rept. 93-981 of June 1974.[^14] The report states that its knowledge of the activities of [[G. Gordon Liddy]] in the "Gemstone" intelligence-gathering plan came from sources other than Liddy, who refused to testify after the committee, pursuant to a court order, conferred "use" immunity; Liddy's role was detailed through the testimony of [[James McCord]], [[Jeb Stuart Magruder]], [[John Dean]], [[John N. Mitchell]] and [[Howard Hunt]].[^15] Chapter 8 of the report is titled "The Hughes-Rebozo investigation and related matters" and is followed in its table of contents by interviews of [[Robert Maheu]] and [[Nadine Henley]] of the [[Howard Hughes]] organization and concerns the cash contribution delivered to [[Bebe Rebozo]] for [[Richard Nixon]].[^16] The Church Committee's interim report of the previous year had already described Maheu as an ex-FBI agent who became a private investigator in 1954 and whom the CIA used in sensitive covert operations because "he didn't want to have an Agency person or a government person get caught."[^17]
+
+### The Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations
+
+In June 1956 the subcommittee, chaired by [[John L. McClellan]] of Arkansas, held hearings on Communist interrogation, indoctrination and exploitation of American military and civilian prisoners. Its chief counsel was [[Robert Kennedy|Robert F. Kennedy]]. The parent Committee on Government Operations included John F. Kennedy, [[Joseph McCarthy]], [[Henry M. Jackson]], [[Stuart Symington]], Sam Ervin and [[Hubert Humphrey]]. The witnesses included the physicians [[Harold Wolff|Harold G. Wolff]] and [[Lawrence E. Hinkle Jr.]] (the first witnesses, beginning at page 2 of the printed record), the journalist [[Edward Hunter]] (pages 66 and 77), the psychologist [[Albert Biderman|Albert D. Biderman]] and a series of returned prisoners and officers.[^18] The opening statement put the figures on the record: some 7,190 Americans were captured by the Communists during the three years of the Korean War, about one-third died in Communist hands, and of the 4,428 who survived and were repatriated, "over 95 percent were subjected to a well-planned and well-organized campaign to destroy their belief in God, their loyalty to the United States and their faith in the democratic way of life."[^19]
+
+In 1953 and 1954 the same subcommittee was chaired by McCarthy, with [[Roy Cohn]] as chief counsel from January 15, 1953 to August 13, 1954.[^20]
+
+The subcommittee's staff study of the Justice Department's handling of its contract with [[INSLAW]], printed as S. Prt. 101-58 in 1989 under the Governmental Affairs Committee, found no proof that Attorney General [[Edwin Meese]], Deputy Attorney General [[Lowell Jensen]] or other Justice Department officials were involved in a conspiracy to ruin INSLAW or to steal its product; no proof that officials of [[Hadron]] were involved in a conspiracy with Justice Department officials; no proof that INSLAW's problems were connected to the Department's Project EAGLE procurement; and no proof that [[AT&T]] Information Systems participated in an effort to undermine INSLAW's reorganization. It found that the Director of the Executive Office for U.S. Trustees improperly sought special handling for INSLAW's bankruptcy proceeding, and it found the recantation of Judge [[Cornelius Blackshear]], when considered in light of all the facts, to be implausible.[^21] The study also states that the staff's attempt to conduct a free, full and timely investigation was hampered by the Department's lack of cooperation.[^22]
+
+On July 15, 2004 the subcommittee, chaired by [[Norm Coleman]] with [[Carl Levin]] as ranking minority member, released a minority staff report on [[Riggs Bank]]. Its first finding states that Riggs "assisted Augusto Pinochet, former president of Chile, to evade legal proceedings related to his Riggs bank accounts and resisted OCC oversight of these accounts."[^23] On July 22, 2014, with Levin as chairman, it held a hearing on basket options, at which Levin stated that [[Renaissance Technologies]]' Medallion fund had used the structures to produce profits of more than $30 billion from 1999 to 2013, and that [[Deutsche Bank]] and [[Barclays]] had earned about $570 million and $655 million in revenue from them; the Renaissance witness was co-chief executive officer [[Peter Brown]], and the hearing record carries an examination of the structures' effect on taxes paid.[^24] On April 27, 2025 the subcommittee's minority staff, under [[Richard Blumenthal]], issued a memorandum stating that as of January 20, 2025 [[Elon Musk]] and his companies were subject to at least 65 actual or potential actions by 11 different federal agencies, with potential liabilities estimated for 40 of them at not less than $2.37 billion.[^25]
+
+### The BCCI report and the Kerry subcommittee
+
+In December 1992 Senators [[John Kerry]] and [[Hank Brown]] issued a report to the [[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]] titled *The BCCI Affair* (Senate Print 102-140). It covers the investigation conducted by the subcommittee on terrorism, narcotics and international operations, the [[Kerry Committee]], into the Bank of Credit and Commerce International.[^26] The archivist [[Steven Aftergood]] wrote in a note to the committee's electronic text that after the report's release "Sen. Hank Brown, reportedly acting at the behest of Henry Kissinger, pressed for the deletion of a few passages, particularly in Chapter 20 on 'BCCI and Kissinger Associates,'" with the result that the version printed by the Government Printing Office differs slightly from the committee's softcopy.[^27]
+
+The report places the February 9, 1988 hearing testimony of former Panamanian consul [[José Blandón]] on the same day as the heart attack of the bank's founder, [[Agha Hasan Abedi]]. Blandón told the subcommittee that BCCI was handling drug money for [[Manuel Noriega]]. A subpoena to BCCI for Noriega records followed in March.[^28] The Committee's own subpoena was issued on July 27, 1988 and served on August 1, 1988; Clifford wrote Kerry that BCCI would cooperate, asked the full committee's chairman, [[Claiborne Pell]], for a month's delay in producing documents, and met subcommittee staff members Jack Blum and Kathleen Smith. A memorandum to the file by Altman dated August 10, 1988 records Blum as saying that the subcommittee had been led to believe that BCCI, through its banking locations in Panama, Colombia and Miami, had a major involvement in the management of assets for Noriega and for "Michael Harari, reputed to be a close aide of Noriega's, an arms dealer, and formerly an Israeli secret service agent."[^29] The report also records that [[Clark Clifford]] and [[Robert Altman]] sold their shares in CCAH in March 1988, shares that had been pledged to BCCI. A letter from Clifford dated February 8, 1988, which asked the bank's [[Swaleh Naqvi]] to arrange the sale, was written "some time thereafter" according to the [[Federal Reserve Board|Federal Reserve]], and backdated to precede the Abedi heart attack and the Blandón testimony.[^30]
+
+The report describes BCCI's commodities affiliate Capcom as having majority shareholders [[Kamal Adham]] and A. R. Khalil, both former senior Saudi officials who acted successively as Saudi Arabia's principal liaisons to the CIA during the 1970s and 1980s. Its American front men included [[Robert Magness]], chief executive of [[Tele-Communications Inc.]], and TCI vice president [[Larry Romrell]].[^31] A former manager of BCCI's Sloan Street branch in London, [[Ghassan Qassem]], had been given the accounts of [[Abu Nidal]] and passed information on them to British and American intelligence, "apparently as a paid informant, according to press accounts based on interviews with Qassem."[^32]
+
+The report's list of unanswered questions includes "the alleged relationship between the late CIA director [[William J. Casey|William Casey]] and BCCI," "the use of BCCI by central figures in the alleged '[[October Surprise]]'," and "the financial dealings of BCCI directors with [[Charles Keating]] and several Keating affiliates and front-companies."[^33] The subcommittee also stated that payments BCCI made to [[Andrew Young]] while he was a public official "were at best unusual, and by all appearances, improper."[^34]
+
+At the start of the subcommittee's hearings "Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy," the Jewish Telegraphic Agency reported, Blandón identified the [[Israel|Israeli]] agent as [[Mike Harari|Michael Harari]], who he said had business with Noriega in Panama in a series of companies for arms contraband to supply the [[Contras]]. The agency's report, which spells the name Harare, quotes Blandón as saying "The Harare network is a network that was established with Israeli citizens, Panamanians and U.S. citizens for arms supply purposes," and Yosef Gal, the Israeli embassy spokesman, as saying that Harari was "acting as a private citizen" in his dealings with Noriega and that the Israeli government had no knowledge of his activities.[^35]
+
+### Iran-Contra and the Contra drug allegations
+
+The Senate Select Committee on Secret Military Assistance to Iran and the Nicaraguan Opposition, chaired by Inouye with [[Warren Rudman]] as vice chairman, took part in the joint investigation with the House committee. The joint report of November 1987 appeared as S. Rept. 100-216 and H. Rept. 100-433.[^36] Among the joint files is a staff memorandum from Robert A. Bermingham to the House committee's chairman, [[Lee Hamilton]], and chief counsel [[John Nields]] on allegations of Contra involvement in drug smuggling. It states that "Our investigation has not developed any corroboration of media-exploited allegations" of U.S. government-condoned drug trafficking by Contra leaders or organizations. It records that Dave Faulkner, an investigator for the Senate select committee, advised that the Senate investigation was also "substantially negative" with regard to Contra drug smuggling; that on July 21, 1987 counsel Hayden Gregory of the Crime Subcommittee of the Judiciary said his investigation had been inconclusive and had developed no pertinent information "above the level of 'street talk'"; that several of those involved had also been questioned or deposed in Senator Kerry's ongoing investigation; and that "almost all of these allegations originate from persons indicted or convicted of drug smuggling."[^37]
+
+[[Donald Gregg]], Vice President [[George H.W. Bush|George H. W. Bush]]'s national security adviser, was nominated as ambassador to South Korea in 1989. The Christian Science Monitor wrote on June 20, 1989 that Gregg had in 1985 helped his CIA acquaintance [[Felix Rodriguez]] obtain a position with the Salvadoran Air Force that became a cover for assisting the Contras, that Gregg insisted he had been kept uninformed for a year and a half, and that senators had been "denied some important documents."[^38] The Senate confirmed him on September 12, 1989 by 66 votes to 33.[^39]
+
+### The Gates confirmation
+
+The Select Committee on Intelligence reported the nomination of [[Robert Gates]] as Director of Central Intelligence on October 24, 1991, after a committee vote of 11 to 4 on October 18.[^40] The report records that [[Richard Babayan]] alleged in news reporting and other forums that Gates had assisted an individual named M. K. Moss in a covert CIA operation to supply arms to [[Iraq]], had sought to transfer cluster bomb technology to [[Carlos Cardoen]], and was aware that a Lancaster, Pennsylvania company was supplying arms to Iraq through South Africa. Cardoen denied meeting Gates in a letter of July 16, 1991. The CIA Inspector General and the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] were asked to investigate, and the committee wrote that "no credible evidence has been presented to the Committee to support these allegations."[^41] In examining Gates's relationship with Cardoen, the committee obtained information about a relationship between Cardoen Industries and a former part-time senior CIA employee, and about a potential conflict of interest arising from [[James D. Theberge]]'s simultaneous relationship with the agency and a Cardoen subsidiary while he served on the Senior Review Panel.[^42]
+
+[[Ari Ben-Menashe]] alleged to the Select Committee on Intelligence during the hearings that Gates conspired with the Reagan-Bush campaign to delay the release of the American hostages and was present at various meetings, including those in Paris; Gates denied the allegations under oath, and the committee later reported that investigations by the FBI and the CIA Inspector General, including analyses of Gates's calendars and travel records, provided no credible evidence to confirm them.[^43] The additional views of Senators John Chafee and [[John Warner]], printed with the committee report, list the questions asked about Gates, among them "Did he illegally enter the United States with Ari Ben Menasche carrying a suitcase stuffed with $16 million in unmarked $100 bills?" They state that Gates's travel records demonstrate he could not have been in Miami when Ben-Menashe claimed he was.[^44] The Senate confirmed Gates on November 5, 1991 by 64 votes to 31.[^45]
+
+### Confirmation votes
+
+[[R. James Woolsey]]'s nomination as Director of Central Intelligence was heard on February 2 and 3, 1993 by the Select Committee on Intelligence under its chairman, [[Dennis DeConcini]].[^46] The Senate rejected the nomination of John Tower as Secretary of Defense on March 9, 1989 by 47 votes to 53.[^47] It confirmed [[Porter Goss]] as Director of Central Intelligence on September 22, 2004 by 77 to 17,[^48] [[John Ratcliffe]] as Director of the CIA on January 23, 2025 by 74 to 25,[^49] [[Tulsi Gabbard]] as Director of National Intelligence on February 12, 2025 by 52 to 48,[^50] [[Howard Lutnick]] as Secretary of Commerce on February 18, 2025 by 51 to 45,[^51] [[Kash Patel]] as Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation on February 20, 2025 by 51 to 49,[^52] and [[Todd Blanche]] as Attorney General on August 8, 2026 by 50 to 49.[^53]
+
+At the confirmation hearing of [[Hillary Clinton]] before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee on January 13, 2009, ranking member Lugar stated that "the main issue related to Senator Clinton's nomination that has occupied the Committee has been a review of how her service as Secretary of State can be reconciled with the sweeping global activities of President Bill Clinton and the Clinton Foundation."[^54]
+
+In 1985 the Senate Judiciary Committee considered the nomination of [[William Bradford Reynolds]] as Associate Attorney General. The Christian Science Monitor reported on June 20, 1985 that the committee had ten Republicans and eight Democrats, that his confirmation was "said to be in serious trouble" over statements challenged with sworn affidavits and documents, and that DeConcini told Reynolds the issue was not busing and quotas; on June 26 it reported that the committee had postponed its vote on June 20 because there was no majority for recommending confirmation.[^55] The Washington Post of June 28, 1985 reported the committee's 10 to 8 vote of June 27 against the nomination.[^56]
+
+### The 2014 detention report
+
+The committee's study of the CIA's detention and interrogation program was approved by a 9 to 6 vote on December 13, 2012, and filed with the Senate on December 9, 2014 as S. Rept. 113-288, with a foreword by Chairman [[Dianne Feinstein]].[^57] Finding 1 states: "The CIA's use of its enhanced interrogation techniques was not an effective means of acquiring intelligence or gaining cooperation from detainees."[^58] The additional views of [[Susan Collins]] and the minority views of Vice Chairman [[Saxby Chambliss]] and Senators [[Richard Burr]], [[Jim Risch]], [[Dan Coats]], [[Marco Rubio]] and [[Tom Coburn]] are printed with the report.[^59]
+
+### Aerospace programs and the UAP provisions
+
+On June 24, 2009 [[Harry Reid]], then Senate Majority Leader, wrote to Deputy Secretary of Defense [[William J. Lynn III]]. The letter states: "Beginning this past September, the U.S. Senate has mandated that the Defense Intelligence Agency assess far-term foreign advanced aerospace threats to the United States." It asks that a restricted special access program be established for specific portions of the [[Advanced Aerospace Threat Identification Program]], whose studies the letter describes as covering advanced lift, propulsion, unconventional materials and signature reduction.[^60] A [[Defense Intelligence Agency]] talking paper of May 4, 2009, "Senator Reid Visit to Director, DIA," states that Senator Inouye and Senator Reid sponsored language in the July 2008 supplemental appropriation bill for the agency to initiate an investigation of foreign advanced aerospace weapon threats from the present out to 40 years in the future, and that Reid had a deep interest in the potential threat posed by unconventional aerospace technologies.[^61] A 2010 DIA information memorandum states that the program was first sponsored in the fiscal year 2008 Defense Supplemental Appropriation Act by Senators Reid and Inouye with a $10 million add.[^62]
+
+On July 13, 2023 Senator [[Chuck Schumer]], for himself and Senators [[Mike Rounds]], Marco Rubio, [[Kirsten Gillibrand]], [[Todd Young]] and [[Martin Heinrich]], submitted an amendment (S.Amdt. 797) to S. 2226, the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2024, titled the "Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena Disclosure Act of 2023."[^63] The text defines "non-human intelligence" as "any sentient intelligent non-human lifeform regardless of nature or ultimate origin that may be presumed responsible for unidentified anomalous phenomena or of which the Federal Government has become aware," defines "technologies of unknown origin" to include crash debris, mechanisms and "damaged or intact aerospace vehicles, and damaged or intact ocean-surface and undersea craft" associated with such phenomena, creates an Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena Records Review Board, and in section 1110 provides: "The Federal Government shall exercise eminent domain over any and all recovered technologies of unknown origin and biological evidence of non-human intelligence that may be controlled by private persons or entities in the interests of the public good."[^64] The senators' press release of July 14, 2023 described the amendment as modeled on the [[JFK Assassination Records Collection Act]], and Schumer said: "The American public has a right to learn about technologies of unknown origins, non-human intelligence, and unexplainable phenomena."[^65]
+
+The National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2024, enacted December 22, 2023 as Public Law 118-31, contains Subtitle C on unidentified anomalous phenomena. Section 1841 directs the Archivist of the United States to establish an "Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena Records Collection" in the [[National Archives and Records Administration|National Archives]].[^66] Section 7343 provides that no funds authorized by the division may be obligated for UAP activity protected by a special or restricted access limitation unless the [[Director of National Intelligence]] has given the details to the appropriate committees and congressional leadership, including for activities described in a report released by the [[All-domain Anomaly Resolution Office]] in fiscal year 2024.[^67] On July 11, 2024 Rounds, for himself and Schumer, submitted S.Amdt. 2610 to S. 4638, the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2025, titled the "Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena Disclosure Act of 2024," which carries the same eminent domain provision.[^68]
+
+### The Keating Five and other ethics matters
+
+In early 1991 the Senate Ethics Committee reported on five senators who had met federal bank regulators on behalf of Charles Keating's [[Lincoln Savings and Loan]]. The panel found "substantial credible evidence" that [[Alan Cranston]] "may have engaged in improper conduct." Of DeConcini and [[Donald Riegle]], it found that their conduct "gave the appearance of being improper and was certainly attended with insensitivity and poor judgment," but that they did not violate law or Senate rules. [[John Glenn]] and [[John McCain]] each, on one occasion, exercised poor judgment.[^69] The committee's preliminary inquiry had begun on December 21, 1989, and it transmitted its report to the Senate on November 19, 1991, a sequence described in the Senate on January 4, 1995 by [[Jesse Helms]], who had been a member of the committee during the proceedings.[^70] On November 20, 1991 the committee reprimanded Cranston for "improper and repugnant" conduct; Cranston expressed "deep remorse" and told the Senate he accepted the reprimand, while denying the committee's assertion that he had violated "accepted norms" of Senate ethical behavior. The committee's chairman, [[Howell Heflin]], said the panel found convincing evidence of a pattern of conduct "in which fund-raising and official activities were substantially linked."[^71]
+
+The Justice Department moved on April 1, 2009 to drop the indictment of former Senator [[Ted Stevens]], whom a jury had convicted the previous fall on seven counts of lying on his Senate disclosure form, in order to conceal $250,000 in gifts from an oil industry executive and other friends.[^72]
+
+Robert Menendez resigned from the Senate effective August 20, 2024, after his federal conviction, while the committee had voted to proceed with an adjudicatory review. On August 21, 2024 the committee's chairman, [[Christopher Coons]], and vice chairman, [[James Lankford]], issued a statement that "The Committee only has jurisdiction over sitting members of the Senate. As such, the Committee has lost jurisdiction for its adjudicatory review and has closed this matter."[^73]
+
+### Senators and committee staff
+
+DeConcini was a Democratic senator from Arizona from January 4, 1977 to January 3, 1995.[^74] He chaired the Select Committee on Intelligence in the 103rd Congress, as the Woolsey hearing record shows.[^46] In 1989 he chaired the Special Committee on Investigations of the Select Committee on Indian Affairs, whose chairman was Inouye, in hearings that included testimony on the [[Cabazon Indian Casino]] in Riverside County, California; the printed record includes a report describing [[Rocco Zangari]], who had operated the casino's cardroom, as a Southern California organized crime figure who in 1988 pleaded guilty to extortion charges, and Anthony Daniels, Deputy Assistant Director of the FBI's Criminal Investigative Division, appears among the witnesses.[^75] Hank Brown served in the Senate from Colorado from January 3, 1991 to January 3, 1997. [[Bob Kerrey]] served from Nebraska from January 3, 1989 to January 3, 2001, and was vice chairman of the Select Committee on Intelligence under Chairman [[Richard Shelby]] in the 105th Congress.[^74][^76] Helms served from North Carolina from January 3, 1973 to January 3, 2003.[^74] [[Paula Hawkins]] served from Florida from January 5, 1981 to January 3, 1987, and in 1981 she appointed [[Jay Howell]] chief counsel to the Subcommittee on Investigations and Oversight, where he conducted investigations and drafted legislation on missing children, child kidnapping, child pornography and serial murder.[^74][^77] The Nebraska Democrat Ben Nelson, a former governor, took his Senate seat on January 3, 2001 and served until January 3, 2013.[^74] [[Ben Sasse]] served from Nebraska from January 6, 2015 to January 8, 2023; as a member of the [[Senate Judiciary Committee|Judiciary Committee]] he wrote on December 3, 2018 to the Justice Department's [[Office of Professional Responsibility]] asking it to investigate the prosecutors who negotiated [[Jeffrey Epstein]]'s 2007 non-prosecution agreement, and his office announced on February 6, 2019 that the Department had responded that the office had opened an investigation.[^74][^78] [[JD Vance]] served from Ohio from January 3, 2023 to January 9, 2025.[^74]
+
+On February 12, 2003 Roll Call reported that Senator [[Jay Rockefeller]], the Intelligence Committee's new vice chairman, had hired [[Christopher Mellon]] as minority staff director, writing: "It's starting to look like the Rockefellers and Mellons are taking over the Senate Select Intelligence Committee."[^79]
+
+The Senate's treaty record includes territorial and law-enforcement conventions. The Foreign Relations Committee took no action on the 1867 convention for the cession of St. Thomas and St. John until March 24, 1870, when [[Charles Sumner]] reported it adversely and the Senate acquiesced; the 1916 convention for the cession of the Danish West Indies received the Senate's advice and consent by resolution of September 9, 1916, and ratifications were exchanged on January 17, 1917.[^80] The United States and [[Jamaica]] signed a Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty at Kingston on July 7, 1989, which the President transmitted to the Senate on October 25, 1991 (Treaty Doc. 102-16), the Foreign Relations Committee reported favorably on May 7, 1992 (Senate Executive Report 102-32), and the Senate gave its advice and consent on July 2, 1992.[^81]
+
+### Footnotes
+
+[^1]: Kaiser, Frederick M., *Legislative History of the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence*, Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress, August 16, 1978, n. 21 (S. Res. 21, introduced January 21, 1975, approved by the full Senate January 27, 1975 by a vote of 88-4; Congressional Record, vol. 121, January 27, 1975, pp. S967-S984). https://sgp.fas.org/crs/intel/leghist.pdf
+[^2]: Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, United States Senate, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders: An Interim Report*, S. Rept. 94-465, November 20, 1975, committee roster and section I.D.2, "Summary of Findings and Conclusions on the Plots." https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94465.pdf
+[^3]: Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 94-755, Books I-VI (1976). Book V, *The Investigation of the Assassination of President John F. Kennedy: Performance of the Intelligence Agencies*, is dated April 23, 1976. https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel05unit
+[^4]: Kaiser, *Legislative History of the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence* (1978), part III (Government Operations Committee vote of February 24, 1976; Rules and Administration Committee report of April 29, 1976 after a 5-to-4 vote for the "Cannon Amendment"). https://sgp.fas.org/crs/intel/leghist.pdf
+[^5]: Kaiser, *Legislative History of the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence* (1978), introductory summary and part IV (introduction of the Cannon compromise on May 12, 1976 with 27 cosponsors and the endorsement of Senators Mansfield and Scott; Amendment No. 1643 agreed to 87 to 7; S. Res. 400 agreed to 72 to 22 with 6 senators not voting on May 19, 1976; text of the resolution's purpose clause; Congressional Record, vol. 122, May 19, 1976). https://sgp.fas.org/crs/intel/leghist.pdf
+[^6]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Rules and Administration, report on S. Res. 400, "To establish a Standing Committee of the Senate on Intelligence Activities," 94th Congress, 2d session, S. Rept. 94-770 (1976), including the "Rules Committee amendment to S. Res. 400." https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94770.pdf
+[^7]: Kaiser, *Legislative History of the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence* (1978), part V (memorandum of understanding of July 1, 1976 signed by Chairman Stennis of Armed Services and Chairman Inouye of the Select Committee on Intelligence; nomination of E. Henry Knoche to be Deputy Director of Central Intelligence; Congressional Record, vol. 122, July 1, 1976, p. S11355). https://sgp.fas.org/crs/intel/leghist.pdf
+[^8]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Intelligence, *Annual Report to the Senate*, 95th Congress, 1st session, S. Rept. 95-21 (May 18, 1977). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/publications/95217.pdf
+[^9]: Church Committee, *Final Report*, Book I, S. Rept. 94-755, section on MKULTRA, citing the testimony of Sidney Gottlieb and the confirmation of Richard Helms. https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel01unit
+[^10]: Church Committee, *Final Report*, Book I, S. Rept. 94-755, pp. 390-391. https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel01unit
+[^11]: *Project MKULTRA, the CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification*, joint hearing before the Select Committee on Intelligence and the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research of the Committee on Human Resources, United States Senate, 95th Congress, 1st session, August 3, 1977, list of members present and opening statement of Senator Inouye. https://archive.org/details/jointhearing_project-mkultra_1977
+[^12]: *Project MKULTRA* joint hearing (August 3, 1977), prepared statement of Admiral Stansfield Turner, Director of Central Intelligence, including his letter to the chairman of July 15, 1977 on the discovery of seven boxes of MKULTRA documents. https://archive.org/details/jointhearing_project-mkultra_1977
+[^13]: *Project MKULTRA* joint hearing (August 3, 1977), statement of Senator Inouye. https://archive.org/details/jointhearing_project-mkultra_1977
+[^14]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *The Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981, 93d Congress, 2d session (June 1974), title page and committee roster. https://archive.org/details/WatergateErvinCommitteeReport
+[^15]: Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *The Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981, discussion of Liddy and the "Gemstone" plan. https://archive.org/details/WatergateErvinCommitteeReport
+[^16]: Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *The Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981, table of contents, chapter 8, "The Hughes-Rebozo investigation and related matters" (interviews of Robert A. Maheu and Nadine Henley). https://archive.org/details/WatergateErvinCommitteeReport
+[^17]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, S. Rept. 94-465 (1975), discussion of Robert A. Maheu (testimony of 5/30/75, p. 158). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94465.pdf
+[^18]: U.S. Senate, Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the Committee on Government Operations, *Communist Interrogation, Indoctrination and Exploitation of American Military and Civilian Prisoners*, hearings, 84th Congress, 2d session, June 19, 20, 26 and 27, 1956 (Government Printing Office, 1956), committee and subcommittee rosters (Chairman McClellan; Robert F. Kennedy, chief counsel) and contents list of witnesses. https://archive.org/details/communist_interrogation_indoctrination_and_exploitation_of_the_american_military
+[^19]: *Communist Interrogation, Indoctrination and Exploitation of American Military and Civilian Prisoners* (1956), opening statement. https://archive.org/details/communist_interrogation_indoctrination_and_exploitation_of_the_american_military
+[^20]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Governmental Affairs, *Executive Sessions of the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations*, vol. 1, S. Prt. 107-84 (made public January 2003), historical introduction and "Subcommittee Staff Appointed in 1953-1954" (Roy M. Cohn, chief counsel, January 15, 1953 to August 13, 1954). https://www.senate.gov/about/resources/pdf/mccarthy-hearings-volume1.pdf
+[^21]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Governmental Affairs, Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, *Staff Study of Allegations Pertaining to the Department of Justice's Handling of a Contract with INSLAW, Inc.*, S. Prt. 101-58, 101st Congress, 1st session (1989), table of contents, part II (findings a through h). https://archive.org/details/StaffStudyOfAllegationsPertainingToTheDepartmentOfJusticesHandlingOfAContractWithInslaw
+[^22]: *Staff Study ... INSLAW, Inc.*, S. Prt. 101-58 (1989), part III, "The Subcommittee Experiences Problems With the Department of Justice." https://archive.org/details/StaffStudyOfAllegationsPertainingToTheDepartmentOfJusticesHandlingOfAContractWithInslaw
+[^23]: U.S. Senate, Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, minority staff, *Money Laundering and Foreign Corruption: Enforcement and Effectiveness of the Patriot Act, Case Study Involving Riggs Bank* (report released with the hearing of July 15, 2004), findings of fact (1). https://archive.org/details/SenateSubcommitteeReportOnMoneyLaunderingAndRiggsBank
+[^24]: U.S. Senate, Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, hearing "Abuse of Structured Financial Products: Misusing Basket Options to Avoid Taxes and Leverage Limits," July 22, 2014, S. Hrg. 113-422, opening statement of Chairman Levin; testimony of Peter Brown. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-113shrg89882/pdf/CHRG-113shrg89882.pdf
+[^25]: U.S. Senate, Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, Minority Staff, memorandum "Calculating Risk: Estimating the Legal Liability Elon Musk May Avoid Through His Government Takeover," April 27, 2025, key findings (a partisan staff document prepared by the minority). https://www.hsgac.senate.gov/wp-content/uploads/2025-04-27-Minority-Staff-Memorandum-Elon-Musk-Conflicts.pdf
+[^26]: Kerry, John, and Hank Brown, *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate*, 102d Congress, 2d session, Senate Print 102-140 (December 1992), cover page. https://archive.org/details/TheBCCIAffair
+[^27]: Aftergood, Steven, editorial note, "The BCCI Affair," Federation of American Scientists. https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/
+[^28]: Kerry and Brown, *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, passage on the February 9, 1988 hearing, Blandon's testimony, and the March 1988 subpoena to BCCI for Noriega records. https://archive.org/details/TheBCCIAffair
+[^29]: Kerry and Brown, *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, passage on the subpoena of July 27, 1988, service on August 1, 1988, Clifford's letter to Kerry, the request to Senator Pell, and the memorandum to the file from Altman dated August 10, 1988. https://archive.org/details/TheBCCIAffair
+[^30]: Kerry and Brown, *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, passage on the March 1988 sale of CCAH shares, the Clifford letter, and the Federal Reserve finding on its dating. https://archive.org/details/TheBCCIAffair
+[^31]: Kerry and Brown, *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, passage on Capcom's shareholders and U.S. front men. https://archive.org/details/TheBCCIAffair
+[^32]: Kerry and Brown, *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, passage on Ghassan Qassem and Abu Nidal, citing press accounts based on interviews with Qassem. https://archive.org/details/TheBCCIAffair
+[^33]: Kerry and Brown, *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, list of unanswered questions. https://archive.org/details/TheBCCIAffair
+[^34]: Kerry and Brown, *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, passage on payments to Andrew Young. https://archive.org/details/TheBCCIAffair
+[^35]: "Ex-agent of the Mossad Implicated in Drug Deals with Panamanian," Jewish Telegraphic Agency, 1988 (report on the testimony of Jose Blandon before the Senate Foreign Relations Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations in the hearings "Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy"). https://www.jta.org/archive/ex-agent-of-the-mossad-implicated-in-drug-deals-with-panamanian
+[^36]: *Report of the Congressional Committees Investigating the Iran-Contra Affair*, S. Rept. 100-216, H. Rept. 100-433, 100th Congress, 1st session (November 1987), title page and committee membership of the Senate Select Committee on Secret Military Assistance to Iran and the Nicaraguan Opposition. https://archive.org/details/reportofcongress87unit
+[^37]: Robert A. Bermingham, staff memorandum to Chairman Hamilton and John Nields, "Allegations Re: Contra Involvement With Drug Smuggling," in *Report of the Congressional Committees Investigating the Iran-Contra Affair*, pp. 630-631 (1987). https://archive.org/details/reportofcongress87unit
+[^38]: "The Iran-Contra Ghost," *Christian Science Monitor*, June 20, 1989. https://www.csmonitor.com/1989/0620/egregg.html
+[^39]: U.S. Senate, Roll Call Vote 174, 101st Congress, 1st session, September 12, 1989, on the nomination of Donald Phinney Gregg to be Ambassador to the Republic of Korea: Nomination Confirmed, 66 yeas, 33 nays. https://www.senate.gov/legislative/LIS/roll_call_votes/vote1011/vote_101_1_00174.htm
+[^40]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Intelligence, *Nomination of Robert M. Gates to be Director of Central Intelligence*, S. Exec. Rept. 102-19, 102d Congress, 1st session (October 24, 1991), committee action of October 18, 1991 (11 to 4). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/sites-default-filesations-10219.pdf
+[^41]: S. Exec. Rept. 102-19, section 5, "Allegations Relating to CIA's Relationship with Carlos Cardoen." https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/sites-default-filesations-10219.pdf
+[^42]: S. Exec. Rept. 102-19, section 5, on the relationship between Cardoen Industries and a former part-time CIA employee, and on the Senior Review Panel and James D. Theberge. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/sites-default-filesations-10219.pdf
+[^43]: U.S. House of Representatives, *Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force*, January 3, 1993, p. 172 (section "The Whereabouts of Robert Gates"), citing the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence report on the Gates nomination. https://archive.org/details/JointReportOfTheOctoberSurpriseTaskForce
+[^44]: S. Exec. Rept. 102-19, "Additional Views of Senators John H. Chafee and John W. Warner." https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/sites-default-filesations-10219.pdf
+[^45]: U.S. Senate, Roll Call Vote 243, 102d Congress, 1st session, November 5, 1991, on the nomination of Robert M. Gates to be Director of Central Intelligence: Nomination Confirmed, 64 yeas, 31 nays. https://www.senate.gov/legislative/LIS/roll_call_votes/vote1021/vote_102_1_00243.htm
+[^46]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Intelligence, *Nomination of R. James Woolsey to be Director of Central Intelligence*, hearings of February 2 and 3, 1993, S. Hrg. 103-296 (Dennis DeConcini, Arizona, Chairman). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/sites-default-files-hearings-103296.pdf
+[^47]: U.S. Senate, Roll Call Vote 20, 101st Congress, 1st session, March 9, 1989, on the nomination of John Goodwin Tower to be Secretary of Defense: Nomination Rejected, 47 yeas, 53 nays. https://www.senate.gov/legislative/LIS/roll_call_votes/vote1011/vote_101_1_00020.htm
+[^48]: U.S. Senate, Roll Call Vote 187, 108th Congress, 2d session, September 22, 2004, on the nomination of Porter J. Goss to be Director of Central Intelligence: Nomination Confirmed, 77 yeas, 17 nays. https://www.senate.gov/legislative/LIS/roll_call_votes/vote1082/vote_108_2_00187.htm
+[^49]: U.S. Senate, Roll Call Vote 13, 119th Congress, 1st session, January 23, 2025, on the nomination of John Ratcliffe to be Director of the Central Intelligence Agency: Nomination Confirmed, 74 yeas, 25 nays. https://www.senate.gov/legislative/LIS/roll_call_votes/vote1191/vote_119_1_00013.htm
+[^50]: U.S. Senate, Roll Call Vote 50, 119th Congress, 1st session, February 12, 2025, on the nomination of Tulsi Gabbard to be Director of National Intelligence: Nomination Confirmed, 52 yeas, 48 nays. https://www.senate.gov/legislative/LIS/roll_call_votes/vote1191/vote_119_1_00050.htm
+[^51]: U.S. Senate, Roll Call Vote 57, 119th Congress, 1st session, February 18, 2025, on the nomination of Howard Lutnick to be Secretary of Commerce: Nomination Confirmed, 51 yeas, 45 nays. https://www.senate.gov/legislative/LIS/roll_call_votes/vote1191/vote_119_1_00057.htm
+[^52]: U.S. Senate, Roll Call Vote 61, 119th Congress, 1st session, February 20, 2025, on the nomination of Kashyap Patel to be Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation: Nomination Confirmed, 51 yeas, 49 nays. https://www.senate.gov/legislative/LIS/roll_call_votes/vote1191/vote_119_1_00061.htm
+[^53]: U.S. Senate, Roll Call Vote 230, 119th Congress, 2d session, August 8, 2026, on the nomination of Todd Blanche to be Attorney General (PN1078): Nomination Confirmed, 50 yeas, 49 nays. https://www.senate.gov/legislative/LIS/roll_call_votes/vote1192/vote_119_2_00230.htm
+[^54]: Lugar, Richard G., opening statement at the confirmation hearing of Senator Hillary Clinton to be Secretary of State, Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, January 13, 2009. https://www.foreign.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/LugarStatement090113a.pdf
+[^55]: Richey, Warren, "Senate confirmation for senior Justice Department official is in jeopardy," *Christian Science Monitor*, June 20, 1985, https://www.csmonitor.com/1985/0620/arey.html ; "Reynolds issues: integrity and civil rights," *Christian Science Monitor*, June 26, 1985, https://www.csmonitor.com/1985/0626/ebrad.html
+[^56]: *The Washington Post*, June 28, 1985.
+[^57]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Intelligence, *Committee Study of the Central Intelligence Agency's Detention and Interrogation Program*, S. Rept. 113-288, 113th Congress, 2d session (filed December 9, 2014), transmittal letter stating the 9-6 vote of December 13, 2012, and foreword by Chairman Feinstein. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/CRPT-113srpt288.pdf
+[^58]: S. Rept. 113-288, findings and conclusions, Finding 1. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/CRPT-113srpt288.pdf
+[^59]: S. Rept. 113-288, table of contents, "Additional Views of Senator Collins" and "Minority Views of Vice Chairman Chambliss, Senators Burr, Risch, Coats, Rubio, and Coburn." https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/CRPT-113srpt288.pdf
+[^60]: Letter from Senator Harry Reid to Deputy Secretary of Defense William J. Lynn III, June 24, 2009, released by the Defense Intelligence Agency. https://documents2.theblackvault.com/documents/dia/AAWSAP/20090624_Reid_to_DEPSECDEF_ref_AAITP_in_SAP.pdf
+[^61]: Defense Intelligence Agency, talking paper, "(U) Senator Reid Visit to Director, DIA," May 4, 2009, paragraph 2, "Background." https://documents2.theblackvault.com/documents/dia/AAWSAP/DR_Reid_Mtg_May09.pdf
+[^62]: Defense Intelligence Agency, Information Memorandum U-10-2552, "Advanced Aerospace Threat and Identification Program," 2010. https://documents2.theblackvault.com/documents/dia/AAWSAP/U-10-2552CE-IM-ATL.pdf
+[^63]: *Congressional Record*, Senate, July 13, 2023, p. S2953, S.Amdt. 797 to S. 2226, submitted by Mr. Schumer for himself, Mr. Rounds, Mr. Rubio, Mrs. Gillibrand, Mr. Young and Mr. Heinrich. https://www.congress.gov/118/crec/2023/07/13/169/120/CREC-2023-07-13-pt1-PgS2953.pdf
+[^64]: *Congressional Record*, Senate, July 13, 2023, S.Amdt. 797, sec. 1103 (definitions of "non-human intelligence" and "technologies of unknown origin"), the Review Board provisions, and sec. 1110, "Disclosure of Recovered Technologies of Unknown Origin and Biological Evidence of Non-Human Intelligence." https://www.congress.gov/118/crec/2023/07/13/169/120/CREC-2023-07-13-pt1-PgS2953.pdf
+[^65]: Senators Todd Young, Chuck Schumer and Mike Rounds, press release, "Young, Colleagues Introduce New Legislation to Declassify Government Records Related to UFOs and Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena, Modeled After JFK Assassination Records Collection Act as an Amendment," July 14, 2023. https://www.young.senate.gov/news/press-releases/young-colleagues-introduce-new-legislation-to-declassify-government-records-related-to-ufos-and-unidentified-anomalous-phenomena_modeled-after-jfk-assassination-records-collection-act-as-an-amendment
+[^66]: National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2024, Public Law 118-31, enacted December 22, 2023 (H.R. 2670), Subtitle C, sec. 1841. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-118publ31/pdf/PLAW-118publ31.pdf
+[^67]: Public Law 118-31, sec. 7343, "Funding limitations relating to unidentified anomalous phenomena," subsection (b). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-118publ31/pdf/PLAW-118publ31.pdf
+[^68]: *Congressional Record*, Senate, July 11, 2024, p. S4943, S.Amdt. 2610 to S. 4638, submitted by Mr. Rounds for himself and Mr. Schumer, "Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena Disclosure Act of 2024," division sec. 1110 (eminent domain). https://www.congress.gov/118/crec/2024/07/11/170/115/CREC-2024-07-11-pt1-PgS4943.pdf
+[^69]: "Panel Rules on 'Keating 5,'" *Christian Science Monitor*, March 1, 1991, reporting the Senate Ethics Committee findings on Cranston, DeConcini, Riegle, Glenn and McCain. https://www.csmonitor.com/layout/set/amphtml/1991/0301/afil01.html
+[^70]: *Congressional Record*, Senate, January 4, 1995, p. S420, remarks of Mr. Helms introducing S. Res. 21 on the membership of the Select Committee on Ethics. https://www.congress.gov/104/crec/1995/01/04/CREC-1995-01-04-pt3-PgS420-2.pdf
+[^71]: "Cranston Reprimanded," Reuters, in *Christian Science Monitor*, November 22, 1991. https://www.csmonitor.com/1991/1122/22063.html
+[^72]: "Justice Dept. Seeks To Void Stevens' Conviction," NPR, April 1, 2009, reporting the conviction of the previous fall on seven counts and the Justice Department motion to drop the charges. https://www.npr.org/2009/04/01/102589818/justice-dept-seeks-to-void-stevens-conviction
+[^73]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Ethics, "Statement of the Select Committee on Ethics Regarding the Matter of Senator Robert Menendez," press release, August 21, 2024 (Chairman Christopher A. Coons, Vice Chairman James Lankford). https://www.ethics.senate.gov/public/_cache/files/ef493142-e561-49f2-8ac1-1630a512c7f0/select-committee-on-ethics---press-release-august-21-2024.pdf
+[^74]: Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, as compiled in the unitedstates/congress-legislators project (legislators-historical.json and legislators-current.json), Senate terms of Dennis DeConcini, Hank Brown, J. Robert Kerrey, Jesse Helms, Paula Hawkins, Ben Nelson, Benjamin Sasse and James David Vance. https://unitedstates.github.io/congress-legislators/legislators-historical.json
+[^75]: *Federal Government's Relationship with American Indians*, hearings before the Special Committee on Investigations of the Select Committee on Indian Affairs, United States Senate, 101st Cong., 1st Sess., February 2, 6, 7, 8, 9, 1989, S. Hrg. 101-126, Part 2: committee roster (Daniel K. Inouye, Chairman), statement of Senator DeConcini, chairman of the Special Committee on Investigations, witness list, and Robert Morehouse, "High Stakes Bingo on Indian Reservations in California," Cabazon Band section. https://archive.org/details/micro_IA41152832_0182
+[^76]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Intelligence, *Committee Activities, Special Report, January 7, 1997 to October 21, 1998*, S. Rept. 106-3 (February 3, 1999), committee roster (Richard C. Shelby, Chairman; J. Robert Kerrey, Vice Chairman). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/sites-default-filesations-crpt-106srpt3.pdf
+[^77]: Jay Howell & Associates, "About Us," jayhowell.com. https://jayhowell.com/index.php/about/
+[^78]: Office of Senator Ben Sasse, "DOJ Responds to Sasse, Opens Epstein Investigation," press release, February 6, 2019 ("Beginning on December 3, 2018, Sasse has repeatedly pushed the DOJ to investigate"). https://web.archive.org/web/20221110180105/https://www.sasse.senate.gov/public/index.cfm/2019/2/doj-responds-to-sasse-opens-epstein-investigation
+[^79]: Henry, Ed, "Unholy Alliance?" *Roll Call*, February 12, 2003. https://rollcall.com/2003/02/12/unholy-alliance/
+[^80]: U.S. Department of State, *Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, 1917*, Supplement, File No. 711.5914/190a, the Secretary of State to the President (account of the 1867 convention, the Committee on Foreign Relations action of March 24, 1870, and the Senate Resolution of September 9, 1916 giving advice and consent to the 1916 convention; exchange of ratifications January 17, 1917). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1917/d880
+[^81]: U.S. Department of State, Treaties and Other International Acts Series 95-725, Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty between the United States of America and Jamaica, signed at Kingston July 7, 1989, front matter (Treaty Doc. 102-16; Senate Executive Report 102-32; advice and consent July 2, 1992). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GOVPUB-S-PURL-gpo234503/pdf/GOVPUB-S-PURL-gpo234503.pdf

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/AdFin Solutions.md

@@ -48,7 +48,7 @@ relations:
     reverse: true
     start: 2014
     role: "chief executive officer"
-    fn: 16
+    fn: 18
   - type: director_of
     with: "[[David Mitchell]]"
     reverse: true
@@ -65,9 +65,9 @@ relations:
     with: "[[Securities and Exchange Commission]]"
     start: 2013-12-31
     role: 'Form D (accession 0001595302-13-000001, file number 021-208986) filed December 31, 2013 under item 06b; first sale 2012-12-28; total amount sold $4,149,157; signed by Jeanne Houweling, CEO, December 30, 2013'
-    fn: 15
+    fn: 11
 created: 2026-10-04
-updated: 2026-10-04
+updated: 2026-10-15
 ---
 
 AdFin Solutions, Inc., styled AD/FIN, was a [[Delaware]] corporation incorporated on April 25, 2011 that ingested and harmonized log-file data on winning bid transactions in programmatic advertising and sold pricing and media-audit analytics built on it.[^1][^2] Its Series A preferred stock was bought in 2012 and 2013 by [[Jonathan Leitersdorf]], [[David Mitchell]], [[Tom Glocer]], [[Southern Trust Company]], Inc. (whose signature blocks name [[Jeffrey Epstein]] as president) and [[CVAFH I LLC]], a vehicle whose ultimate holding company, according to a July 2013 letter agreement, was [[Cantor Fitzgerald]], L.P. The company ceased operations in October 2019.[^3][^4][^5][^6]
@@ -78,33 +78,35 @@ The Series A Preferred Stock Purchase Agreement is dated December 28, 2012 and p
 
 On March 21, 2013 Mitchell wrote to Epstein about the voting rights attached to the investment: "I was invited into this transaction by Jonathan as part of the negotiations I asked for and got the 90 percent majority voting on certain major decisions. I suggest going forward that you and I split this, meaning it would take both of us to agree on major changes, or you and Jonathan would have to agree, or in the last case Jonathan and I would have to agree." Epstein answered "Ok" on March 22, 2013.[^9]
 
+An Epstein calendar page lists, for March 1, 2013, a 9:30 a.m. appointment with David Mitchell, whom the entry describes as "AdFin CEO," [[Eyal Manor]] ("guy from Google") and one other person.[^10] The Form D filed December 31, 2013 is signed by Jeanne Houweling as chief executive and lists Mitchell as a director.[^11] A June 2012 post on the Google Research blog describes "Eyal Manor, Google engineering director for the Ad Exchange," and an August 27, 2012 [[Google]] document introduced in the Justice Department's advertising technology case against the company (PTX0113, "Growing AdX") lists Eyal Manor on its team. The calendar gives no title for the Google attendee; the identification rests on the name, the Google description and the advertising subject of the meeting.[^12]
+
 ### The 2013 closings and the counterpart signature pages
 
 The Schedule of Purchasers (Exhibit A) lists two later closings. For the subsequent closing of April 10, 2013 it lists Southern Trust Company, Inc. for 1,142,857 Series A shares at $499,999.94 and Tom Glocer for 228,571 shares at $99,999.81, alongside other individual purchasers. For the subsequent closing of July 23, 2013 it lists CVAFH I LLC for 800,000 shares at $350,000 and Southern Trust Company for a further 285,714 shares at $124,999.87, alongside Mitchell, Leitersdorf, Mandelzis and one other individual; the total line reads 7,940,935 shares and $3,474,158.50.[^4]
 
-The same closing set contains counterpart signature pages to the purchase agreement, the Investors' Rights Agreement, the Right of Refusal and Co-Sale Agreement and the Voting Agreement. For Southern Trust Company, Inc. the signature block reads "Name: Jeffrey Epstein," "Title: President." For CVAFH I LLC each block reads "Name: [[Howard Lutnick|Howard W. Lutnick]]," "Title: President." The CVAFH page of the purchase agreement carries a handwritten line in the margin, "[Signature Page to $350,000 Series A Preferred Stock Investment in AdFin Solutions, Inc.]." The Voting Agreement's Exhibit A, the Schedule of Investors, lists "Southern Trust Company, Inc." with 1,428,571 shares and "CVAFH I LLC" with 800,000 shares.[^10]
+The same closing set contains counterpart signature pages to the purchase agreement, the Investors' Rights Agreement, the Right of Refusal and Co-Sale Agreement and the Voting Agreement. For Southern Trust Company, Inc. the signature block reads "Name: Jeffrey Epstein," "Title: President." For CVAFH I LLC each block reads "Name: [[Howard Lutnick|Howard W. Lutnick]]," "Title: President." The CVAFH page of the purchase agreement carries a handwritten line in the margin, "[Signature Page to $350,000 Series A Preferred Stock Investment in AdFin Solutions, Inc.]." The Voting Agreement's Exhibit A, the Schedule of Investors, lists "Southern Trust Company, Inc." with 1,428,571 shares and "CVAFH I LLC" with 800,000 shares.[^13]
 
 A letter agreement dated July 2013 on the letterhead of "[[Cantor Ventures]], L.P.," 110 East 59th Street, refers to "the closing of the investment in the Company by CVAFH I LLC ('Cantor') on the date hereof" and states: "Cantor has been formed for the specific purpose of acquiring the Shares and the ultimate holding company of Cantor is Cantor Fitzgerald, L.P., a Delaware limited partnership." The signature block for CVAFH I LLC on that letter reads "Title: President." Stock certificate PA-7, dated July 23, 2013, certifies that "CVAFH I LLC is the record holder of Eight Hundred Thousand shares of Series A Preferred Stock of AdFin Solutions, Inc."[^5]
 
 ### The $2 million convertible note
 
-A Note Purchase Agreement dated December 26, 2013 provided for the sale of "an unsecured convertible promissory note in the principal amount of $2,000,000" to a single investor, CVAFH I, LLC, whose Schedule I address is 499 Park Avenue. The signature page for CVAFH I, LLC bears the handwritten name "[[Douglas Barnard]]" and the title "Chief Financial Officer." A stockholder consent of the same date, required under the certificate of incorporation for debt above $250,000 and for the written consent of holders of at least 66 percent of the Series A, has signature pages for Leitersdorf, Mitchell, Southern Trust Company, Inc. and CVAFH I, LLC, the last two dated December 26, 2013.[^11]
+A Note Purchase Agreement dated December 26, 2013 provided for the sale of "an unsecured convertible promissory note in the principal amount of $2,000,000" to a single investor, CVAFH I, LLC, whose Schedule I address is 499 Park Avenue. The signature page for CVAFH I, LLC bears the handwritten name "[[Douglas Barnard]]" and the title "Chief Financial Officer." A stockholder consent of the same date, required under the certificate of incorporation for debt above $250,000 and for the written consent of holders of at least 66 percent of the Series A, has signature pages for Leitersdorf, Mitchell, Southern Trust Company, Inc. and CVAFH I, LLC, the last two dated December 26, 2013.[^14]
 
-On January 7, 2014 Mitchell wrote to Epstein: "We completed a $2 million convertible placement with Cantor Ventures at the end of the year." He listed the terms (conversion at the lower of 50 percent above the investors' price or the valuation of the next round, an 8 percent coupon, a one-year maturity, and "If and when they convert they get a board seat (we will have to increase board to 7 people as we have 5 now)") and added that "Cantor is doing another $4 million in April targeting a $16-18 million valuation," that Mitchell was separately trying to raise at a higher valuation ("Cantor can match this as they have ROFR"), and that under an existing arrangement "either two of the three of us (JEE, JL or DJM) could block certain actions of the Company."[^12] On January 13, 2014 Epstein's lawyer [[Darren Indyke]] sent [[Lesley Groff]] the executed bridge-loan consents and note purchase agreement with the instruction to file them "in AdFin redweld in a folder called $2MM Bridge Note Financing December 2013."[^13]
+On January 7, 2014 Mitchell wrote to Epstein: "We completed a $2 million convertible placement with Cantor Ventures at the end of the year." He listed the terms (conversion at the lower of 50 percent above the investors' price or the valuation of the next round, an 8 percent coupon, a one-year maturity, and "If and when they convert they get a board seat (we will have to increase board to 7 people as we have 5 now)") and added that "Cantor is doing another $4 million in April targeting a $16-18 million valuation," that Mitchell was separately trying to raise at a higher valuation ("Cantor can match this as they have ROFR"), and that under an existing arrangement "either two of the three of us (JEE, JL or DJM) could block certain actions of the Company."[^15] On January 13, 2014 Epstein's lawyer [[Darren Indyke]] sent [[Lesley Groff]] the executed bridge-loan consents and note purchase agreement with the instruction to file them "in AdFin redweld in a folder called $2MM Bridge Note Financing December 2013."[^16]
 
-An August 11, 2014 term sheet for a follow-on financing, which describes itself as "an expression of intent only" and "not meant to be binding," described the proposed notes as "on substantially the same terms" as "the existing $2,000,000 of unsecured convertible debt issued to Cantor Ventures in December 2013 (the 'Cantor Debt')," except that the lenders "will not be entitled to elect a member to the Board upon conversion of the Notes as Cantor Ventures is entitled to upon conversion of the Cantor Debt."[^14]
+An August 11, 2014 term sheet for a follow-on financing, which describes itself as "an expression of intent only" and "not meant to be binding," described the proposed notes as "on substantially the same terms" as "the existing $2,000,000 of unsecured convertible debt issued to Cantor Ventures in December 2013 (the 'Cantor Debt')," except that the lenders "will not be entitled to elect a member to the Board upon conversion of the Notes as Cantor Ventures is entitled to upon conversion of the Cantor Debt."[^17]
 
 ### The Form D of December 31, 2013
 
-AdFin Solutions, Inc. filed a Form D (Notice of Exempt Offering of Securities) with the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] on December 31, 2013 under accession number 0001595302-13-000001 and SEC file number 021-208986. The submission header gives the filing date as December 31, 2013, the acceptance time as 17:49:05 on December 30, 2013, and the issuer's central index key as 0001595302. The filing records the issuer as "AdFin Solutions, Inc.," a corporation, jurisdiction of incorporation "DELAWARE," year of incorporation 2011, with a previous name "AdFin Services, Inc."[^15]
+AdFin Solutions, Inc. filed a Form D (Notice of Exempt Offering of Securities) with the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] on December 31, 2013 under accession number 0001595302-13-000001 and SEC file number 021-208986. The submission header gives the filing date as December 31, 2013, the acceptance time as 17:49:05 on December 30, 2013, and the issuer's central index key as 0001595302. The filing records the issuer as "AdFin Solutions, Inc.," a corporation, jurisdiction of incorporation "DELAWARE," year of incorporation 2011, with a previous name "AdFin Services, Inc."[^11]
 
-The offering fields read: federal exemption item "06b"; "isAmendment" false; "dateOfFirstSale" 2012-12-28; duration of offering "moreThanOneYear" false; type of securities "isEquityType" true; "isBusinessCombinationTransaction" false; revenue range "Decline to Disclose"; industry group "Other"; minimum investment accepted 0. The amounts read: "totalOfferingAmount" 4,484,375; "totalAmountSold" 4,149,157; "totalRemaining" 335,218; "totalNumberAlreadyInvested" 11; "hasNonAccreditedInvestors" false. Sales commissions, finders' fees and gross proceeds used are each recorded as 0.[^15]
+The offering fields read: federal exemption item "06b"; "isAmendment" false; "dateOfFirstSale" 2012-12-28; duration of offering "moreThanOneYear" false; type of securities "isEquityType" true; "isBusinessCombinationTransaction" false; revenue range "Decline to Disclose"; industry group "Other"; minimum investment accepted 0. The amounts read: "totalOfferingAmount" 4,484,375; "totalAmountSold" 4,149,157; "totalRemaining" 335,218; "totalNumberAlreadyInvested" 11; "hasNonAccreditedInvestors" false. Sales commissions, finders' fees and gross proceeds used are each recorded as 0.[^11]
 
-The related persons listed are Jeanne Houweling ("Executive Officer" and "Director"), Jonathan Leitersdorf ("Director"), Gil Mandelzis ("Director"), David J. Mitchell ("Director") and Tom Glocer ("Director"). The signature block reads "/s/ JEANNE HOUWELING," name of signer "Jeanne Houweling," title "CEO," date 2013-12-30.[^15]
+The related persons listed are Jeanne Houweling ("Executive Officer" and "Director"), Jonathan Leitersdorf ("Director"), Gil Mandelzis ("Director"), David J. Mitchell ("Director") and Tom Glocer ("Director"). The signature block reads "/s/ JEANNE HOUWELING," name of signer "Jeanne Houweling," title "CEO," date 2013-12-30.[^11]
 
 ### Management changes, 2014 and 2015
 
-[[Andrew Altersohn]] was chief executive by September 2014. On September 12, 2014 Mitchell asked Groff to arrange time with Epstein for the new chief executive: "Andrew Jeffery is the principal behind AdFin's investor Southern Trust. Andrew is the new CEO of AdFin and I mentioned to JE this morning I would like him to meet."[^16] On December 15, 2014 Mitchell sent Epstein a presentation and wrote that the company was "6-9 months behind where it thought it would be," that it had received a buyout offer of "$12-15 milion" which "the board did not think much of," and that "the new CEO is much better than the old one."[^17] On March 16, 2015 Leitersdorf confirmed to Mitchell, in a message Mitchell forwarded to Epstein on March 23: "True up to 7% when cantor exercises their option to convert to equity and we all get diluted."[^18]
+[[Andrew Altersohn]] was chief executive by September 2014. On September 12, 2014 Mitchell asked Groff to arrange time with Epstein for the new chief executive: "Andrew Jeffery is the principal behind AdFin's investor Southern Trust. Andrew is the new CEO of AdFin and I mentioned to JE this morning I would like him to meet."[^18] On December 15, 2014 Mitchell sent Epstein a presentation and wrote that the company was "6-9 months behind where it thought it would be," that it had received a buyout offer of "$12-15 milion" which "the board did not think much of," and that "the new CEO is much better than the old one."[^19] On March 16, 2015 Leitersdorf confirmed to Mitchell, in a message Mitchell forwarded to Epstein on March 23: "True up to 7% when cantor exercises their option to convert to equity and we all get diluted."[^20]
 
 ### The February 2016 proposed terms
 
@@ -114,27 +116,27 @@ A company investor presentation in the same file, dated February 2016, carries a
 
 ### Southern Trust's 2018 request to sell
 
-A cap table "as of 1.4.18" in a company presentation lists Cantor with 85,959,207 shares (60.32 percent) and $11,742,954 invested, Julserra with 26,234,837 shares (18.41 percent) and $3,655,758 invested, and Southern with 6,409,679 shares including 110,619 options (4.50 percent) and $889,000 invested, out of 142,495,899 shares.[^19]
+A cap table "as of 1.4.18" in a company presentation lists Cantor with 85,959,207 shares (60.32 percent) and $11,742,954 invested, Julserra with 26,234,837 shares (18.41 percent) and $3,655,758 invested, and Southern with 6,409,679 shares including 110,619 options (4.50 percent) and $889,000 invested, out of 142,495,899 shares.[^21]
 
-In an email thread of January 2018 with Mitchell and [[Richard Kahn]], Epstein's accountant, Altersohn wrote on January 26 that "we are trying to get a meeting with Howard next week." On February 13, 2018 he wrote to Kahn: "yes, finally met with Howard. All went well, but as always a few followup items I need to work on this week, most importantly finalizing the exact amount of the raise and per share valuation." On February 26 he sent details of an A-4 round ("Cantor and Julserra are taking their relative pro rata of $1.5M in a firm commitment over 3 tranches February to June 2018") and wrote that "Southern is already a party" to the shareholders agreement and that, to maintain its pro rata share, "Southern would have to invest in $85,695." Kahn forwarded this to Epstein, who answered: "you can tell them we are a seller at cost. 875 and we are out." Kahn then wrote to Altersohn that "we would be interested in selling for our cost of $875,000 which is approx 68% of FMV" and asked him to "communicate to existing investors and any other prospects you speak with during this Series A-4 round." On March 13 Altersohn answered a request for an update with "No, but let me check in and get back to you"; on March 14 Kahn forwarded this to Epstein with the note "still waiting on response to purchase our interest.." On April 13, 2018 Altersohn wrote: "We were trying to get a response from Howard and Jonathan on your ask, but there is apparently no interest at this time on the sale of your interest. We are however in discussions with other potential investors so if there is interest I will let you know." The emails give no surname for "Howard."[^20]
+In an email thread of January 2018 with Mitchell and [[Richard Kahn]], Epstein's accountant, Altersohn wrote on January 26 that "we are trying to get a meeting with Howard next week." On February 13, 2018 he wrote to Kahn: "yes, finally met with Howard. All went well, but as always a few followup items I need to work on this week, most importantly finalizing the exact amount of the raise and per share valuation." On February 26 he sent details of an A-4 round ("Cantor and Julserra are taking their relative pro rata of $1.5M in a firm commitment over 3 tranches February to June 2018") and wrote that "Southern is already a party" to the shareholders agreement and that, to maintain its pro rata share, "Southern would have to invest in $85,695." Kahn forwarded this to Epstein, who answered: "you can tell them we are a seller at cost. 875 and we are out." Kahn then wrote to Altersohn that "we would be interested in selling for our cost of $875,000 which is approx 68% of FMV" and asked him to "communicate to existing investors and any other prospects you speak with during this Series A-4 round." On March 13 Altersohn answered a request for an update with "No, but let me check in and get back to you"; on March 14 Kahn forwarded this to Epstein with the note "still waiting on response to purchase our interest.." On April 13, 2018 Altersohn wrote: "We were trying to get a response from Howard and Jonathan on your ask, but there is apparently no interest at this time on the sale of your interest. We are however in discussions with other potential investors so if there is interest I will let you know." The emails give no surname for "Howard."[^22]
 
-On April 3, 2018 Mitchell wrote to Kahn, copying Epstein, "meeting Jonathan next week on potential buy of AdFin Holdings." On September 18, 2018 he wrote to Epstein, "Jonathan seeing him this week and trying to get to buy Adfin position." On October 18, 2018 he sent slides with the note that the company needed "to get to a few million dollars until they are a real candidate to be sold" and that "in the fall next year, a capital event could happen which would return money."[^21]
+On April 3, 2018 Mitchell wrote to Kahn, copying Epstein, "meeting Jonathan next week on potential buy of AdFin Holdings." On September 18, 2018 he wrote to Epstein, "Jonathan seeing him this week and trying to get to buy Adfin position." On October 18, 2018 he sent slides with the note that the company needed "to get to a few million dollars until they are a real candidate to be sold" and that "in the fall next year, a capital event could happen which would return money."[^23]
 
 ### The May 28, 2018 email
 
-On May 28, 2018 at 1:12 p.m. Epstein wrote to an address labeled "HWL" with a Cantor Fitzgerald disclaimer footer: "on another note what do you think the prospects for adfin are?" The reply at 1:19 p.m. read: "Producing revenue finally. This is their year. Next 12 months they need to become economically self sufficient." Epstein wrote at 1:23 p.m., "thx. how long until sherry is ready , and i can buy my guest house?" and HWL answered at 6:07 p.m. UTC, "Probably 4 years (pierre). We'd need to actually do something for it to ever finish. Haven't even picked an architect/designer yet. Too much construction. Just finishing this house."[^22]
+On May 28, 2018 at 1:12 p.m. Epstein wrote to an address labeled "HWL" with a Cantor Fitzgerald disclaimer footer: "on another note what do you think the prospects for adfin are?" The reply at 1:19 p.m. read: "Producing revenue finally. This is their year. Next 12 months they need to become economically self sufficient." Epstein wrote at 1:23 p.m., "thx. how long until sherry is ready , and i can buy my guest house?" and HWL answered at 6:07 p.m. UTC, "Probably 4 years (pierre). We'd need to actually do something for it to ever finish. Haven't even picked an architect/designer yet. Too much construction. Just finishing this house."[^24]
 
 ### Statements before the House Oversight Committee
 
-In a transcribed interview with the [[House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform]] on May 6, 2026, Lutnick gave these answers. Asked "During your visit to the island, did you discuss the company AdFin Solutions with Mr. Epstein?" he answered "No." (p. 26). Asked what AdFin Solutions was: "It was a company that attempted to create an exchange for online ads. They went out of business." "Were you personally an investor in AdFin Solutions?" "No." "Was Cantor Fitzgerald an investor in AdFin Solutions?" "Yes." Asked which part of Cantor Fitzgerald: "It was called Cantor Ventures ... it was a venture capital arm of Cantor Fitzgerald, so sort of multiple layers down the subsidiary chain" (pp. 26 to 27). A questioner stated that a stock purchase agreement released under the [[Epstein Files Transparency Act]] was one "that you signed on behalf of CVAFH and Mr. Epstein signed" and asked "Did you know that Mr. Epstein was an investor in this company AdFin?" Lutnick answered "No," and that he learned it "when these documents were released" (p. 27). On the signature page appearing in Epstein's files: "I found it inexplicable and unsettling that he had ... that it was released, that my company's signature page would be in someone else's files" (p. 27). On the 2018 email: "This was ... this was me, because it says 'HWL'" (p. 29); asked whether he knew during that exchange that Epstein was an investor: "I do not remember that I knew that, no" (p. 88). On timing: "I don't think I heard about this investment till 2013, May. I think the pitch was made to me in May of 2013, from the document. So it wasn't in December" (p. 88). His counsel at the interview, Zachary Terwilliger of [[Vinson & Elkins]], stated that the documents show that "when Cantor Fitzgerald Venture Capital signed these documents, it was ... much later ... in 2013 in the spring" and that "I do not consider this a business dealing with Mr. Epstein" (pp. 87, 89).[^23]
+In a transcribed interview with the [[House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform]] on May 6, 2026, Lutnick gave these answers. Asked "During your visit to the island, did you discuss the company AdFin Solutions with Mr. Epstein?" he answered "No." (p. 26). Asked what AdFin Solutions was: "It was a company that attempted to create an exchange for online ads. They went out of business." "Were you personally an investor in AdFin Solutions?" "No." "Was Cantor Fitzgerald an investor in AdFin Solutions?" "Yes." Asked which part of Cantor Fitzgerald: "It was called Cantor Ventures ... it was a venture capital arm of Cantor Fitzgerald, so sort of multiple layers down the subsidiary chain" (pp. 26 to 27). A questioner stated that a stock purchase agreement released under the [[Epstein Files Transparency Act]] was one "that you signed on behalf of CVAFH and Mr. Epstein signed" and asked "Did you know that Mr. Epstein was an investor in this company AdFin?" Lutnick answered "No," and that he learned it "when these documents were released" (p. 27). On the signature page appearing in Epstein's files: "I found it inexplicable and unsettling that he had ... that it was released, that my company's signature page would be in someone else's files" (p. 27). On the 2018 email: "This was ... this was me, because it says 'HWL'" (p. 29); asked whether he knew during that exchange that Epstein was an investor: "I do not remember that I knew that, no" (p. 88). On timing: "I don't think I heard about this investment till 2013, May. I think the pitch was made to me in May of 2013, from the document. So it wasn't in December" (p. 88). His counsel at the interview, Zachary Terwilliger of [[Vinson & Elkins]], stated that the documents show that "when Cantor Fitzgerald Venture Capital signed these documents, it was ... much later ... in 2013 in the spring" and that "I do not consider this a business dealing with Mr. Epstein" (pp. 87, 89).[^25]
 
 ### Reporting in 2026
 
-The [[BBC]] reported on July 14, 2026 that [[Simon Andriesz]], a former employee of Lutnick's firm, searched the released [[Epstein Files|Epstein files]] for "HWL" and found the May 28, 2018 exchange, which he gave to members of the House committee before Lutnick's interview. The BBC wrote that Epstein "had talked directly to Lutnick about a digital advertising company called Adfin, in which he and Lutnick's firm, Cantor Fitzgerald, had both invested," and that Lutnick "repeated his claim to the committee, that he did not know until this year that Epstein had been a co-investor in Adfin." The Commerce Department told the BBC there was "no evidence of wrongdoing or legitimate cause for concern."[^24]
+The [[BBC]] reported on July 14, 2026 that [[Simon Andriesz]], a former employee of Lutnick's firm, searched the released [[Epstein Files|Epstein files]] for "HWL" and found the May 28, 2018 exchange, which he gave to members of the House committee before Lutnick's interview. The BBC wrote that Epstein "had talked directly to Lutnick about a digital advertising company called Adfin, in which he and Lutnick's firm, Cantor Fitzgerald, had both invested," and that Lutnick "repeated his claim to the committee, that he did not know until this year that Epstein had been a co-investor in Adfin." The Commerce Department told the BBC there was "no evidence of wrongdoing or legitimate cause for concern."[^26]
 
 ### Closure
 
-An [[AdExchanger]] article of July 29, 2019 described a 2016 study the company undertook with the [[Association of National Advertisers]] and [[Ebiquity]] that strained its relations with agency holding companies, and reported that in January 2019, after Altersohn's departure, [[Ravi Patel]] and [[Matt DeLoca]] became co-chief executives, with the investors holding them "on a tighter leash."[^25] On October 17, 2019 AdExchanger reported that "Ad/Fin ceased business operations on Friday," that the company "let go of all 16 of its employees" and was "considering selling its technology," and that "its investors, who were extremely patient with the company during the ANA saga, eventually pulled out." Patel was quoted: "The burn rate caught up to us."[^6]
+An [[AdExchanger]] article of July 29, 2019 described a 2016 study the company undertook with the [[Association of National Advertisers]] and [[Ebiquity]] that strained its relations with agency holding companies, and reported that in January 2019, after Altersohn's departure, [[Ravi Patel]] and [[Matt DeLoca]] became co-chief executives, with the investors holding them "on a tighter leash."[^27] On October 17, 2019 AdExchanger reported that "Ad/Fin ceased business operations on Friday," that the company "let go of all 16 of its employees" and was "considering selling its technology," and that "its investors, who were extremely patient with the company during the ANA saga, eventually pulled out." Patel was quoted: "The burn rate caught up to us."[^6]
 
 ### Footnotes
 
@@ -147,19 +149,21 @@ An [[AdExchanger]] article of July 29, 2019 described a 2016 study the company u
 [^7]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00289560, DataSet 9, Schedule of Exceptions, Schedules 3.12 and 3.15 (pages EFTA00289676 and EFTA00289677). https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00289560.pdf
 [^8]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01084694, DataSet 9, letter from David J. Mitchell, "RE: ADFIN SOLUTIONS INC.," February 16, 2016, with Exhibit A (page EFTA01084696) and company investor presentation, "Backed By Leaders" slide (page EFTA01084707). https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA01084694.pdf
 [^9]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00652698, DataSet 9, email from David Mitchell to Jeffrey Epstein, "Re: AdFin," March 21 and 22, 2013. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00652698.pdf
-[^10]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00289560, DataSet 9, counterpart signature pages: purchase agreement (EFTA00289580 and EFTA00289581), Investors' Rights Agreement (EFTA00289633 and EFTA00289634), Right of Refusal and Co-Sale Agreement (EFTA00289651 and EFTA00289652), Voting Agreement (EFTA00289668 and EFTA00289669) and Voting Agreement Exhibit A (EFTA00289670). https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00289560.pdf
-[^11]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00289541, DataSet 9, Note Purchase Agreement dated December 26, 2013, Schedule I and signature page (EFTA00289550); EFTA00289527, DataSet 9, Action by Written Consent of the Stockholders, signature pages EFTA00289531 and EFTA00289532. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00289541.pdf ; https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00289527.pdf
-[^12]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01942504, DataSet 10, email from David Mitchell to Jeffrey Epstein, January 7, 2014. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2010/EFTA01942504.pdf
-[^13]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00376028, DataSet 9, email from Darren Indyke to Lesley Groff, "Fwd: AdFin - Bridge Loan Documents," January 13, 2014. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00376028.pdf
-[^14]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01202791, DataSet 9, AdFin Solutions, Inc. Convertible Promissory Note Financing Term Sheet, August 11, 2014. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA01202791.pdf
-[^15]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, EDGAR, AdFin Solutions, Inc. (CIK 0001595302), Form D, accession number 0001595302-13-000001, filed December 31, 2013 (primary document and submission header). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1595302/000159530213000001/primary_doc.xml ; https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1595302/000159530213000001/0001595302-13-000001.txt
-[^16]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00362758, DataSet 9, email from Lesley Groff to David Mitchell, September 12, 2014 (Groff's reply quoting Mitchell's message, copied to Andrew Altersohn). https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00362758.pdf
-[^17]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00868060, DataSet 9, email from David Mitchell to Jeffrey Epstein, December 15, 2014. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00868060.pdf
-[^18]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01746876, DataSet 10, email from David Mitchell to Jeffrey Epstein forwarding message from Jonathan Leitersdorf, March 16 and 23, 2015. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2010/EFTA01746876.pdf
-[^19]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00796718, DataSet 9, AD/FIN company presentation, slide 21, "Cap Table as of 1.4.18" (page EFTA00796738). https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00796718.pdf
-[^20]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00877345, DataSet 9, email chain "AD/FIN Update & Financing," January 26 to February 26, 2018, with Epstein's reply of February 26, 2018; EFTA00861028, DataSet 9, Richard Kahn to Epstein, March 14, 2018; EFTA00836715, DataSet 9, Richard Kahn to Epstein, April 13, 2018. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00877345.pdf ; https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00861028.pdf ; https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00836715.pdf
-[^21]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00843811, DataSet 9, David Mitchell to Richard Kahn, April 3, 2018; EFTA01022753, DataSet 9, David Mitchell to Jeffrey Epstein, September 18, 2018; EFTA01019335, DataSet 9, David Mitchell to Jeffrey Epstein, "slides for David.pptx," October 18, 2018. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00843811.pdf ; https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA01022753.pdf ; https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA01019335.pdf
-[^22]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01050772, DataSet 9, email chain "Re: thanks for letting me know," May 28, 2018. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA01050772.pdf
-[^23]: U.S. House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, transcribed interview of Howard Lutnick, May 6, 2026, pp. 26 to 29, 87 to 89. https://oversight.house.gov/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/Lutnick-Transcript.pdf
-[^24]: Andy Verity, Rob Byrne and Ben Milne, "How US commerce secretary's Epstein links were uncovered by British whistleblower," *BBC News,* July 14, 2026. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c9q28dlyxrzo
-[^25]: Weissbrot, "How Ad/Fin Got Caught In The Crossfire," *AdExchanger,* July 29, 2019. https://www.adexchanger.com/agencies/how-ad-fin-got-caught-in-the-crossfire-of-the-industrys-transparency-crusade/
+[^10]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00299816, DataSet 9, calendar entry for March 1, 2013. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00299816.pdf
+[^11]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, EDGAR, AdFin Solutions, Inc. (CIK 0001595302), Form D, accession number 0001595302-13-000001, filed December 31, 2013 (primary document and submission header). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1595302/000159530213000001/primary_doc.xml ; https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1595302/000159530213000001/0001595302-13-000001.txt
+[^12]: Google Research blog, "Third Market Algorithms and Optimization Workshop at Google NYC," June 2012, https://blog.research.google/2012/06/third-market-algorithms-and.html ; "Growing AdX," Google document dated August 27, 2012, PTX0113, *United States v. Google LLC* (E.D. Va.), https://www.justice.gov/media/1370306/dl
+[^13]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00289560, DataSet 9, counterpart signature pages: purchase agreement (EFTA00289580 and EFTA00289581), Investors' Rights Agreement (EFTA00289633 and EFTA00289634), Right of Refusal and Co-Sale Agreement (EFTA00289651 and EFTA00289652), Voting Agreement (EFTA00289668 and EFTA00289669) and Voting Agreement Exhibit A (EFTA00289670). https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00289560.pdf
+[^14]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00289541, DataSet 9, Note Purchase Agreement dated December 26, 2013, Schedule I and signature page (EFTA00289550); EFTA00289527, DataSet 9, Action by Written Consent of the Stockholders, signature pages EFTA00289531 and EFTA00289532. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00289541.pdf ; https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00289527.pdf
+[^15]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01942504, DataSet 10, email from David Mitchell to Jeffrey Epstein, January 7, 2014. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2010/EFTA01942504.pdf
+[^16]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00376028, DataSet 9, email from Darren Indyke to Lesley Groff, "Fwd: AdFin - Bridge Loan Documents," January 13, 2014. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00376028.pdf
+[^17]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01202791, DataSet 9, AdFin Solutions, Inc. Convertible Promissory Note Financing Term Sheet, August 11, 2014. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA01202791.pdf
+[^18]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00362758, DataSet 9, email from Lesley Groff to David Mitchell, September 12, 2014 (Groff's reply quoting Mitchell's message, copied to Andrew Altersohn). https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00362758.pdf
+[^19]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00868060, DataSet 9, email from David Mitchell to Jeffrey Epstein, December 15, 2014. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00868060.pdf
+[^20]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01746876, DataSet 10, email from David Mitchell to Jeffrey Epstein forwarding message from Jonathan Leitersdorf, March 16 and 23, 2015. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2010/EFTA01746876.pdf
+[^21]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00796718, DataSet 9, AD/FIN company presentation, slide 21, "Cap Table as of 1.4.18" (page EFTA00796738). https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00796718.pdf
+[^22]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00877345, DataSet 9, email chain "AD/FIN Update & Financing," January 26 to February 26, 2018, with Epstein's reply of February 26, 2018; EFTA00861028, DataSet 9, Richard Kahn to Epstein, March 14, 2018; EFTA00836715, DataSet 9, Richard Kahn to Epstein, April 13, 2018. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00877345.pdf ; https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00861028.pdf ; https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00836715.pdf
+[^23]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00843811, DataSet 9, David Mitchell to Richard Kahn, April 3, 2018; EFTA01022753, DataSet 9, David Mitchell to Jeffrey Epstein, September 18, 2018; EFTA01019335, DataSet 9, David Mitchell to Jeffrey Epstein, "slides for David.pptx," October 18, 2018. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00843811.pdf ; https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA01022753.pdf ; https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA01019335.pdf
+[^24]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01050772, DataSet 9, email chain "Re: thanks for letting me know," May 28, 2018. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA01050772.pdf
+[^25]: U.S. House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, transcribed interview of Howard Lutnick, May 6, 2026, pp. 26 to 29, 87 to 89. https://oversight.house.gov/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/Lutnick-Transcript.pdf
+[^26]: Andy Verity, Rob Byrne and Ben Milne, "How US commerce secretary's Epstein links were uncovered by British whistleblower," *BBC News,* July 14, 2026. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c9q28dlyxrzo
+[^27]: Weissbrot, "How Ad/Fin Got Caught In The Crossfire," *AdExchanger,* July 29, 2019. https://www.adexchanger.com/agencies/how-ad-fin-got-caught-in-the-crossfire-of-the-industrys-transparency-crusade/

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Aerojet.md

@@ -93,7 +93,7 @@ relations:
     role: "acquired Aerojet Rocketdyne Holdings by merger at 58 dollars a share in cash"
     fn: 17
   - type: contractor_to
-    with: "[[Lockheed Martin]]"
+    with: "[[Lockheed Aircraft Company]]"
     start: 1993
     role: "major subcontractor for the Advanced Solid Rocket Motor program (about 118 million dollars of 1993 sales)"
     fn: 13
@@ -104,7 +104,7 @@ relations:
     role: "Lockheed Martin merger agreement terminated on February 13, 2022 after the Commission filed suit on January 25, 2022"
     fn: 16
 created: 2026-10-05
-updated: 2026-10-05
+updated: 2026-10-15
 ---
 
 Aerojet Engineering Corporation was incorporated in [[Delaware]] on March 19, 1942.[^1] The incorporators were the [[California Institute of Technology]] aerodynamicist [[Theodore von Kármán]], his former graduate student [[Frank Malina]], the Pasadena chemist [[Jack Parsons]], the machinist [[Edward Forman]], the Caltech researcher [[Martin Summerfield]], and the Washington attorney [[Andrew Haley]].[^1] The initial officers were von Kármán (president), Malina (treasurer), Haley (secretary), and Forman, Parsons and Summerfield (vice presidents); Malina described von Kármán, Haley and himself as the board of directors in a letter to his parents.[^1] In his autobiography von Kármán wrote that each founder agreed to contribute 200 dollars, that none of the Malina group had it, and that Haley agreed to advance 2,500 dollars to cover the cost of starting the company.[^1]
@@ -133,7 +133,7 @@ Parsons worked from 1949 until September 26, 1950 for Hughes Aircraft in [[Culve
 
 ### Sacramento and environmental litigation
 
-GenCorp's annual report for 1993 lists Aerojet-General Corporation as one of three business segments and gives the former name of the registrant as General Tire & Rubber Co. It reports Aerojet sales of 872 million dollars (1,019 million in 1992), a contract backlog of 1.4 billion dollars, a role as major subcontractor to [[Lockheed Martin|Lockheed]] on the Advanced Solid Rocket Motor program (118 million dollars of 1993 sales), exposure to budget cuts affecting the [[Minuteman]] missile, the [[Strategic Defense Initiative]] and the SADARM munition, and a consent decree with the [[Environmental Protection Agency]] over chemical releases at Aerojet's Sacramento facility and at its inactive subsidiary Cordova Chemical Company.[^13] The fiscal 2000 report lists a series of groundwater suits against Aerojet-General Corporation, including actions brought by American States Water Company and Kiefer-Sunrise Associates.[^7]
+GenCorp's annual report for 1993 lists Aerojet-General Corporation as one of three business segments and gives the former name of the registrant as General Tire & Rubber Co. It reports Aerojet sales of 872 million dollars (1,019 million in 1992), a contract backlog of 1.4 billion dollars, a role as major subcontractor to [[Lockheed Aircraft Company|Lockheed]] on the Advanced Solid Rocket Motor program (118 million dollars of 1993 sales), exposure to budget cuts affecting the [[Minuteman]] missile, the [[Strategic Defense Initiative]] and the SADARM munition, and a consent decree with the [[Environmental Protection Agency]] over chemical releases at Aerojet's Sacramento facility and at its inactive subsidiary Cordova Chemical Company.[^13] The fiscal 2000 report lists a series of groundwater suits against Aerojet-General Corporation, including actions brought by American States Water Company and Kiefer-Sunrise Associates.[^7]
 
 ### Rocketdyne, Lockheed and L3Harris
 

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Agape Lodge.md

@@ -106,7 +106,7 @@ On June 1, 1942 Jack and Helen Parsons took a two-year lease on the house at 100
 
 ### Federal and local scrutiny
 
-An FBI name check requested by Brigadier General [[Sherman Miles]] of Army G-2 on October 10, 1940 for Parsons, then living at 168 Terrace Drive, Pasadena, returned "NO RECORD WAS LOCATED."[^16] In March 1942 FBI agents searched Germer's [[New York]] home for almost four hours and read his and his wife's letters.[^17] [[Tobias Churton]]'s biography of Crowley, as cited in the Crowley Timeline, records that on January 16, 1943 the lodge "is visited by the F.B.I. after they are told it is a house of subversive 'Sex Perversion'."[^18] On February 3, 1943 Smith wrote to Crowley: "I told two FBI men ten days ago after three hours questioning that they had my full permission to read all my letters" and "We have been harried by the FBI thrice lately."[^19] On March 27, 1943 Max Schneider wrote of "a lodge that has been so badly mismanaged and has acquired an undesirable reputation to the extent of inviting the repeated scrutinies of the local police as well as of the F.B.I.," and described the Winona Boulevard house as known as a "hangout" of homosexuals and lesbians.[^20]
+An FBI name check requested by Brigadier General [[Sherman Miles]] of Army G-2 on October 10, 1940 for Parsons, then living at 168 Terrace Drive, Pasadena, returned "NO RECORD WAS LOCATED."[^16] In March 1942 FBI agents searched Germer's [[New York City|New York]] home for almost four hours and read his and his wife's letters.[^17] [[Tobias Churton]]'s biography of Crowley, as cited in the Crowley Timeline, records that on January 16, 1943 the lodge "is visited by the F.B.I. after they are told it is a house of subversive 'Sex Perversion'."[^18] On February 3, 1943 Smith wrote to Crowley: "I told two FBI men ten days ago after three hours questioning that they had my full permission to read all my letters" and "We have been harried by the FBI thrice lately."[^19] On March 27, 1943 Max Schneider wrote of "a lodge that has been so badly mismanaged and has acquired an undesirable reputation to the extent of inviting the repeated scrutinies of the local police as well as of the F.B.I.," and described the Winona Boulevard house as known as a "hangout" of homosexuals and lesbians.[^20]
 
 Crowley wrote to Smith on April 1, 1943 that Smith's "attitude to the F.B.I." showed his "complete unfitness for your position": he "should have welcomed the investigators in the warmest way" and told them that the world's only hope was to accept the Law of Thelema officially. Smith replied on June 10, 1943: "You judge my fitness for a position by the way I handled the two F.B.I. men. Really, that is not sound!"[^21] On November 3, 1943 Crowley wrote to Smith that Smith's conduct had made "the F.B.I. wonder what is going on."[^22] Smith, for his part, wrote to Crowley on September 14, 1943 that Crowley's letters were ones "the F.B.I. seem to take seriously."[^23]
 

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Anthropic.md

@@ -25,19 +25,19 @@ relations:
     reverse: true
     start: 2021-05
     role: "led the 124-million-dollar Series A"
-    fn: 12
+    fn: 13
   - type: funded
     with: "[[Dustin Moskovitz]]"
     reverse: true
     start: 2021-05
     role: "Series A"
-    fn: 12
+    fn: 13
   - type: funded
     with: "[[Amazon (company)|Amazon]]"
     reverse: true
     start: 2023-09
     role: "up to 8 billion dollars"
-    fn: 15
+    fn: 16
   - type: partner_of
     with: "[[Palantir Technologies]]"
     start: 2024-11
@@ -50,7 +50,7 @@ relations:
     role: "CDAO prototype agreement up to 200 million dollars; designated a supply-chain risk"
     fn: 20
 created: 2026-06-19
-updated: 2026-10-08
+updated: 2026-10-15
 ---
 
 Anthropic is an artificial-intelligence company founded in May 2021 by seven former [[OpenAI]] researchers, led by the siblings [[Dario Amodei]] (chief executive) and [[Daniela Amodei]] (president), who left OpenAI over disagreements about its direction and its balance between commercialization and safety. The founders came out of the [[Effective Altruism]] movement and built the company explicitly around the thesis that advanced AI should be developed with extreme caution, the same existential-risk concern that runs through the [[Rationalist Community]] and the institutions [[Peter Thiel]] funded through the [[Machine Intelligence Research Institute]]. Its 2022 funding round was led by a 500 million dollar investment from [[Sam Bankman-Fried]] months before his [[FTX]] exchange collapsed in fraud.[^1][^2]
@@ -63,21 +63,21 @@ The Long-Term Benefit Trust was formally established in September 2023, holding
 
 ### FTX Funding and the Effective-Altruism Tie
 
-In 2022 Sam Bankman-Fried invested approximately 500 million dollars in Anthropic's Series B through his trading firm [[Alameda Research]], taking about 86 percent of the round and roughly 8 percent of the company; the money came from FTX customer deposits. Dario Amodei has said he kept Bankman-Fried off the board and limited him to non-voting shares because of "red flags." After the FTX fraud was exposed and Bankman-Fried convicted, the FTX bankruptcy estate sold the stake, and Amodei moved to distance himself and the company from the effective-altruism label even as the founders remained products of that milieu. Later funding rounds drew on [[Google]] and [[Amazon (company)|Amazon]], carrying the company's valuation into the tens of billions of dollars.[^1][^8][^9]
+In 2022 Sam Bankman-Fried invested approximately 500 million dollars in Anthropic's Series B through his trading firm [[Alameda Research]], taking about 86 percent of the round and roughly 8 percent of the company; the money came from FTX customer deposits. Dario Amodei has said he kept Bankman-Fried off the board and limited him to non-voting shares because of "red flags." After the FTX fraud was exposed and Bankman-Fried convicted, the FTX bankruptcy estate sold the stake, and Amodei moved to distance himself and the company from the effective-altruism label even as the founders remained products of that milieu. Later funding rounds drew on [[Google]] and [[Amazon (company)|Amazon]], carrying the company's valuation into the tens of billions of dollars.[^1][^8][^9][^10]
 
-The April 2022 Series B that Bankman-Fried led raised 580 million dollars at a 4-billion-dollar valuation, with FTX cofounder [[Caroline Ellison]] also named in the round. The FTX estate disposed of the 8 percent stake in 2024 as Anthropic's value climbed: a March 2024 agreement sold about two-thirds of the shares (29.5 million shares to 24 buyers) for 884 million dollars, with ATIC Third International Investment Company, tied to the [[Abu Dhabi]] sovereign fund [[Mubadala]], buying roughly 500 million dollars of it and [[Jane Street Capital]], Fidelity-managed funds, and HOF Capital among the rest; a June 2024 sale of the remaining shares brought in over 450 million dollars. Anthropic's May 2023 Series C, led by [[Spark Capital]] with Google, Menlo Ventures, and Salesforce Ventures, had raised 450 million dollars, and the stake FTX paid 500 million dollars for would have been worth several billion at later valuations.[^10][^11]
+The April 2022 Series B that Bankman-Fried led raised 580 million dollars at a 4-billion-dollar valuation, with FTX cofounder [[Caroline Ellison]] also named in the round. The FTX estate disposed of the 8 percent stake in 2024 as Anthropic's value climbed: a March 2024 agreement sold about two-thirds of the shares (29.5 million shares to 24 buyers) for 884 million dollars, with ATIC Third International Investment Company, tied to the [[Abu Dhabi]] sovereign fund [[Mubadala]], buying roughly 500 million dollars of it and [[Jane Street Capital]], Fidelity-managed funds, and HOF Capital among the rest; a June 2024 sale of the remaining shares brought in over 450 million dollars. Anthropic's May 2023 Series C, led by [[Spark Capital]] with Google, Menlo Ventures, and Salesforce Ventures, had raised 450 million dollars, and the stake FTX paid 500 million dollars for would have been worth several billion at later valuations.[^11][^12]
 
 ### The Funding Rounds
 
-Anthropic's first outside capital was a 124-million-dollar Series A in May 2021 led by [[Jaan Tallinn]], the Estonian programmer who had made his fortune as a founding engineer of [[Skype]], with participation from the investor [[James McClave]], [[Dustin Moskovitz]], [[Eric Schmidt]], and the [[Center for Emerging Risk Research]]. The lead and several of the backers came from the same effective-altruism and existential-risk donor world as the founders. The 580-million-dollar Series B that Bankman-Fried led the following year was followed in May 2023 by a 450-million-dollar Series C led by Spark Capital.[^12]
+Anthropic's first outside capital was a 124-million-dollar Series A in May 2021 led by [[Jaan Tallinn]], the Estonian programmer who had made his fortune as a founding engineer of [[Skype]], with participation from the investor [[James McClave]], [[Dustin Moskovitz]], [[Eric Schmidt]], and the [[Center for Emerging Risk Research]]. The lead and several of the backers came from the same effective-altruism and existential-risk donor world as the founders. The 580-million-dollar Series B that Bankman-Fried led the following year was followed in May 2023 by a 450-million-dollar Series C led by Spark Capital.[^13]
 
-From 2023 the valuation climbed through a rapid sequence of rounds funded increasingly by the largest technology firms and the late-stage growth funds. A March 2025 round of 3.5 billion dollars, led by [[Lightspeed Venture Partners]], valued the company at 61.5 billion dollars. In May 2026 it closed a 65-billion-dollar round, the largest in its history, at a 965-billion-dollar post-money valuation, co-led by Altimeter Capital, Dragoneer, Greenoaks, [[Sequoia Capital]], Capital Group, Coatue, and D1 Capital, briefly making it the most valuable private company in the artificial-intelligence industry, ahead of OpenAI. Anthropic reported an annualized revenue run rate of about 47 billion dollars and confidentially filed for an initial public offering in mid-2026.[^13][^14]
+From 2023 the valuation climbed through a rapid sequence of rounds funded increasingly by the largest technology firms and the late-stage growth funds. A March 2025 round of 3.5 billion dollars, led by [[Lightspeed Venture Partners]], valued the company at 61.5 billion dollars. In May 2026 it closed a 65-billion-dollar round, the largest in its history, at a 965-billion-dollar post-money valuation, co-led by Altimeter Capital, Dragoneer, Greenoaks, [[Sequoia Capital]], Capital Group, Coatue, and D1 Capital, briefly making it the most valuable private company in the artificial-intelligence industry, ahead of OpenAI. Anthropic reported an annualized revenue run rate of about 47 billion dollars and confidentially filed for an initial public offering in mid-2026.[^14][^15]
 
 ### The Amazon and Google Stakes
 
-The two largest strategic investors are Amazon and Google, which are also Anthropic's principal cloud and chip suppliers. Amazon committed up to 4 billion dollars in September 2023, beginning with 1.25 billion, and added a further 4 billion in November 2024 to reach 8 billion dollars in total, becoming Anthropic's primary training partner through [[Amazon Web Services]] and its Trainium chips. Google, which had put roughly 300 million dollars into the company for about a 10 percent stake in early 2023, committed up to 2 billion dollars later that year and more than 1 billion again in January 2025, holding a stake reported at around 14 percent and contractually capped near 15 percent.[^15][^16]
+The two largest strategic investors are Amazon and Google, which are also Anthropic's principal cloud and chip suppliers. Amazon committed up to 4 billion dollars in September 2023, beginning with 1.25 billion, and added a further 4 billion in November 2024 to reach 8 billion dollars in total, becoming Anthropic's primary training partner through [[Amazon Web Services]] and its Trainium chips. Google, which had put roughly 300 million dollars into the company for about a 10 percent stake in early 2023, committed up to 2 billion dollars later that year and more than 1 billion again in January 2025, holding a stake reported at around 14 percent and contractually capped near 15 percent.[^10][^16]
 
-The arrangement is partly circular: much of the money the two companies invest returns to them as payment for the computing capacity Anthropic rents to train and run its models. By 2026 the appreciation of the two stakes was large enough that the financial press reported the Anthropic holdings accounted for roughly half of the AI-related investment gains Google and Amazon booked in some quarters, gains the companies had not realized because they had not sold the shares.[^16][^17]
+The arrangement is partly circular: much of the money the two companies invest returns to them as payment for the computing capacity Anthropic rents to train and run its models. By 2026 the appreciation of the two stakes was large enough that the financial press reported the Anthropic holdings accounted for roughly half of the AI-related investment gains Google and Amazon booked in some quarters, gains the companies had not realized because they had not sold the shares.[^10][^17]
 
 ### National Security Work
 
@@ -114,13 +114,13 @@ Pope Leo XIV's 40,000-word encyclical "Magnifica Humanitas" was published in May
 [^7]: Anthropic, "Chris Liddell appointed to Anthropic's board of directors," February 13, 2026, https://www.anthropic.com/news/chris-liddell-appointed-anthropic-board ; "Anthropic's Long-Term Benefit Trust appoints Vas Narasimhan to Board of Directors," April 14, 2026, https://www.anthropic.com/news/narasimhan-board
 [^8]: "Dario Amodei's Ideological Reckoning: How Anthropic's CEO Is Distancing Himself From the Movement That Made Him," *WebProNews,* on the post-FTX distancing from effective altruism. https://www.webpronews.com/dario-amodeis-ideological-reckoning-how-anthropics-ceo-is-distancing-himself-from-the-movement-that-made-him/
 [^9]: *United States v. Samuel Bankman-Fried,* S.D.N.Y., conviction November 2, 2023; FTX estate disposition of the Anthropic stake reported in subsequent bankruptcy filings.
-[^10]: "FTX estate selling majority stake in AI startup Anthropic for $884 million, with bulk going to UAE," *CNBC,* March 25, 2024, on the 29.5 million shares, 24 buyers, ATIC/Mubadala, Jane Street, Fidelity, and HOF Capital. https://www.cnbc.com/2024/03/25/ftx-estate-sells-majority-stake-in-startup-anthropic-for-884-million.html
-[^11]: "Anthropic raises $3.5 billion with new funding round," Techzine, on the April 2022 Series B (580 million dollars, 4-billion valuation, Bankman-Fried and Caroline Ellison) and the May 2023 Spark Capital Series C. https://www.techzine.eu/news/applications/129278/anthropic-raises-3-5-billion-with-new-funding-round/
-[^12]: "Anthropic raises $124 million to build more reliable, general AI systems," Anthropic, May 2021, on the Series A led by Jaan Tallinn with James McClave, Dustin Moskovitz, Eric Schmidt, and the Center for Emerging Risk Research. https://www.anthropic.com/news/anthropic-raises-124-million-to-build-more-reliable-general-ai-systems
-[^13]: "Anthropic reaches $61.5B valuation after latest funding round," Seeking Alpha, March 2025, on the 3.5-billion-dollar round led by Lightspeed Venture Partners at a 61.5-billion-dollar valuation. https://seekingalpha.com/news/4416449-anthropic-reaches-61_5b-valuation-after-latest-funding-round
-[^14]: "Anthropic raises $65 billion, nears $1T valuation ahead of IPO," TechCrunch, May 28, 2026, on the 65-billion-dollar round at a 965-billion-dollar valuation co-led by Altimeter, Dragoneer, Greenoaks, Sequoia, Capital Group, Coatue, and D1, the 47-billion-dollar revenue run rate, and the value surpassing OpenAI; and "Anthropic confidentially files for IPO after raising $65 billion," Fortune, June 1, 2026. https://techcrunch.com/2026/05/28/anthropic-raises-65-billion-nears-1t-valuation-ahead-of-ipo/
-[^15]: "Amazon doubles down on Anthropic: $8B bet to power the future of AI," Tech Funding News, on Amazon's September 2023 commitment of up to 4 billion dollars and the additional 4 billion in November 2024 for 8 billion total through Amazon Web Services and Trainium. https://techfundingnews.com/amazon-anthropic-ai-investment-strategy/
-[^16]: "Google agrees to new $1 billion investment in Anthropic," CNBC, January 22, 2025, on Google's roughly 300 million dollars for about 10 percent in early 2023, the up-to-2-billion-dollar commitment, the further more-than-1-billion in January 2025, and the stake reported near 14 percent capped at 15 percent. https://www.cnbc.com/2025/01/22/google-agrees-to-new-1-billion-investment-in-anthropic.html
+[^10]: "Google agrees to new $1 billion investment in Anthropic," CNBC, January 22, 2025, on Google's roughly 300 million dollars for about 10 percent in early 2023, the up-to-2-billion-dollar commitment, the further more-than-1-billion in January 2025, and the stake reported near 14 percent capped at 15 percent. https://www.cnbc.com/2025/01/22/google-agrees-to-new-1-billion-investment-in-anthropic.html
+[^11]: "FTX estate selling majority stake in AI startup Anthropic for $884 million, with bulk going to UAE," *CNBC,* March 25, 2024, on the 29.5 million shares, 24 buyers, ATIC/Mubadala, Jane Street, Fidelity, and HOF Capital. https://www.cnbc.com/2024/03/25/ftx-estate-sells-majority-stake-in-startup-anthropic-for-884-million.html
+[^12]: "Anthropic raises $3.5 billion with new funding round," Techzine, on the April 2022 Series B (580 million dollars, 4-billion valuation, Bankman-Fried and Caroline Ellison) and the May 2023 Spark Capital Series C. https://www.techzine.eu/news/applications/129278/anthropic-raises-3-5-billion-with-new-funding-round/
+[^13]: "Anthropic raises $124 million to build more reliable, general AI systems," Anthropic, May 2021, on the Series A led by Jaan Tallinn with James McClave, Dustin Moskovitz, Eric Schmidt, and the Center for Emerging Risk Research. https://www.anthropic.com/news/anthropic-raises-124-million-to-build-more-reliable-general-ai-systems
+[^14]: "Anthropic reaches $61.5B valuation after latest funding round," Seeking Alpha, March 2025, on the 3.5-billion-dollar round led by Lightspeed Venture Partners at a 61.5-billion-dollar valuation. https://seekingalpha.com/news/4416449-anthropic-reaches-61_5b-valuation-after-latest-funding-round
+[^15]: "Anthropic raises $65 billion, nears $1T valuation ahead of IPO," TechCrunch, May 28, 2026, on the 65-billion-dollar round at a 965-billion-dollar valuation co-led by Altimeter, Dragoneer, Greenoaks, Sequoia, Capital Group, Coatue, and D1, the 47-billion-dollar revenue run rate, and the value surpassing OpenAI; and "Anthropic confidentially files for IPO after raising $65 billion," Fortune, June 1, 2026. https://techcrunch.com/2026/05/28/anthropic-raises-65-billion-nears-1t-valuation-ahead-of-ipo/
+[^16]: "Amazon doubles down on Anthropic: $8B bet to power the future of AI," Tech Funding News, on Amazon's September 2023 commitment of up to 4 billion dollars and the additional 4 billion in November 2024 for 8 billion total through Amazon Web Services and Trainium. https://techfundingnews.com/amazon-anthropic-ai-investment-strategy/
 [^17]: "Half of Google's and Amazon's 'blowout AI profits' came from a stake in Anthropic, not from their actual business," Fortune, April 30, 2026, on the unrealized gains from the Anthropic stakes and the cloud-payment arrangement. https://fortune.com/2026/04/30/google-amazon-ai-profits-anthropic-stake-bubble-earnings-2026/
 [^18]: "Anthropic partners with AWS and Palantir to provide AI models to defense agencies." *SiliconANGLE,* November 7, 2024. https://siliconangle.com/2024/11/07/anthropic-partners-aws-palantir-provide-ai-models-defense-agencies/
 [^19]: Anthropic, "Claude Gov models for U.S. national security customers," June 6, 2025. https://www.anthropic.com/news/claude-gov-models-for-u-s-national-security-customers

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Apollo Global Management.md

@@ -26,7 +26,7 @@ relations:
     fn: 4
 ---
 
-Apollo Global Management is an American alternative-asset management firm founded in 1990 and headquartered in [[New York]]. It was built by [[Leon Black]] and other alumni of the collapsed investment bank [[Drexel Burnham|Drexel Burnham Lambert]] into one of the largest managers of private-equity, credit, and insurance assets in the world. The firm's co-founder and longtime leader, Black, resigned as chief executive and chairman in 2021 after the disclosure that he had paid [[Jeffrey Epstein]] about 158 million dollars for tax and estate advice, a relationship that prompted an independent board review, a U.S. Senate investigation, and, in 2026, shareholder suits alleging the firm concealed the extent of the ties.[^1][^2]
+Apollo Global Management is an American alternative-asset management firm founded in 1990 and headquartered in [[New York City|New York]]. It was built by [[Leon Black]] and other alumni of the collapsed investment bank [[Drexel Burnham|Drexel Burnham Lambert]] into one of the largest managers of private-equity, credit, and insurance assets in the world. The firm's co-founder and longtime leader, Black, resigned as chief executive and chairman in 2021 after the disclosure that he had paid [[Jeffrey Epstein]] about 158 million dollars for tax and estate advice, a relationship that prompted an independent board review, a U.S. Senate investigation, and, in 2026, shareholder suits alleging the firm concealed the extent of the ties.[^1][^2]
 
 ### Founding From Drexel
 

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Associated Press.md

@@ -51,12 +51,12 @@ relations:
     with: "[[Robert Berrellez]]"
     reverse: true
     role: "roving correspondent for Latin America"
-    fn: 19
+    fn: 20
   - type: head_of
     with: "[[Gary Pruitt]]"
     reverse: true
     role: "president and chief executive"
-    fn: 20
+    fn: 21
   - type: head_of
     with: "[[Daisy Veerasingham]]"
     reverse: true
@@ -73,20 +73,20 @@ relations:
     start: 2012-04
     end: 2012-05
     role: "toll records for more than 20 lines subpoenaed for April and May 2012"
-    fn: 21
+    fn: 22
   - type: subject_of
     with: "[[Israel Defense Forces]]"
     start: 2021-05-15
     end: 2021-05-15
     role: "bureau building destroyed by airstrike"
-    fn: 25
+    fn: 26
   - type: participant_in
     with: "[[Associated Press v. Budowich]]"
     start: 2025-02
     role: "plaintiff"
-    fn: 28
+    fn: 29
 created: 2026-10-01
-updated: 2026-10-01
+updated: 2026-10-15
 ---
 
 The Associated Press (AP) is a news cooperative headquartered in [[New York City]], founded in 1846 and owned by [[United States]] newspapers and broadcasters as its members.[^1] In 1846 five New York City newspapers funded a pony express route through [[Alabama]] to bring news of the [[Mexican-American War|Mexican War]] north faster than the Post Office could carry it.[^2] The AP's history page carries a photograph of its president and chief executive, [[Daisy Veerasingham]], taken at the New York headquarters on January 11, 2022.[^2]
@@ -131,35 +131,39 @@ The AP published its history, *Covering Tyranny: The AP and [[Nazi Germany]], 19
 
 [[Gary Webb]] wrote in *[[Dark Alliance]]* that Parry's editors sat on the story for weeks, edited it heavily and spiked it at the last minute, that the suppression of the AP story foreshadowed the media establishment's treatment of Webb's own series a decade later, and that the AP's failure to publish its own reporters' findings allowed the government to maintain its denial of Contra-connected drug trafficking for years.[^18]
 
+### Cover arrangements in the Bernstein record, 1977
+
+In October 1977 [[Carl Bernstein]] reported in [[Rolling Stone]] that CIA files recorded "cover" arrangements with news-gathering organizations including the Associated Press and UPI. Agency officials said that cover had been arranged through an unnamed person in the upper management of the Associated Press.[^19] [[Wes Gallagher]], general manager of the Associated Press from 1962 to 1976, denied that the wire service had employed agency staff. Bernstein reported that Gallagher had gone to [[William Colby]] after the first disclosures, asking for names, and that Colby said only that no full-time staff member was employed by the agency.[^19]
+
 ### Correspondents who moved to other posts
 
-[[Robert Berrellez]] was born in [[Nogales, Arizona]], was educated in [[Arizona]] and worked for the AP in [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] before becoming a roving correspondent with headquarters in [[Mexico City]]. A column in the *Phoenix Republic* of April 2, 1978 states that he was in [[Cuba]] when [[Fidel Castro]] came to power and spent six months in jail there, that he had gone to work for [[ITT Corporation|International Telephone and Telegraph]], that he was by then the company's public relations director in the Southwest, and that a court in Washington was to decide whether he had committed perjury and obstructed an investigation in testifying before a [[United States Senate|Senate]] subcommittee on the company's conduct in [[Chile]].[^19]
+[[Robert Berrellez]] was born in [[Nogales, Arizona]], was educated in [[Arizona]] and worked for the AP in [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] before becoming a roving correspondent with headquarters in [[Mexico City]]. A column in the *Phoenix Republic* of April 2, 1978 states that he was in [[Cuba]] when [[Fidel Castro]] came to power and spent six months in jail there, that he had gone to work for [[ITT Corporation|International Telephone and Telegraph]], that he was by then the company's public relations director in the Southwest, and that a court in Washington was to decide whether he had committed perjury and obstructed an investigation in testifying before a [[United States Senate|Senate]] subcommittee on the company's conduct in [[Chile]].[^20]
 
 ### Telephone records, 2012 and 2013
 
-On Friday, May 10, 2013 the AP's general counsel, [[Laura Malone]], received a letter from [[Ronald C. Machen Jr.]], United States attorney for the District of Columbia, who had been appointed by Attorney General [[Eric Holder]] to lead an inquiry into leaks. The letter stated that the Department of Justice had obtained telephone toll records for more than 20 separate lines assigned to the AP and its journalists for April and May 2012.[^20] On May 13 the AP's president and chief executive, [[Gary Pruitt]], wrote to Holder: "There can be no possible justification for such an overbroad collection of the telephone communications of The Associated Press and its reporters."[^20]
+On Friday, May 10, 2013 the AP's general counsel, [[Laura Malone]], received a letter from [[Ronald C. Machen Jr.]], United States attorney for the District of Columbia, who had been appointed by Attorney General [[Eric Holder]] to lead an inquiry into leaks. The letter stated that the Department of Justice had obtained telephone toll records for more than 20 separate lines assigned to the AP and its journalists for April and May 2012.[^21] On May 13 the AP's president and chief executive, [[Gary Pruitt]], wrote to Holder: "There can be no possible justification for such an overbroad collection of the telephone communications of The Associated Press and its reporters."[^21]
 
-Deputy Attorney General [[James M. Cole]] replied on May 14 that the Department had opened criminal investigations into unauthorized disclosures of classified information in May 2012, and had conducted "over 550 interviews" and reviewed "tens of thousands of documents" before seeking the toll records. He wrote that for each number in the May 10 letter "there was a basis to believe the numbers were associated with AP personnel involved in the reporting of classified information," that the subpoenas did not seek the content of calls, that the records covered "only a portion" of the two-month span, and that they had been "closely held and reviewed solely for the purposes of this ongoing criminal investigation."[^21]
+Deputy Attorney General [[James M. Cole]] replied on May 14 that the Department had opened criminal investigations into unauthorized disclosures of classified information in May 2012, and had conducted "over 550 interviews" and reviewed "tens of thousands of documents" before seeking the toll records. He wrote that for each number in the May 10 letter "there was a basis to believe the numbers were associated with AP personnel involved in the reporting of classified information," that the subpoenas did not seek the content of calls, that the records covered "only a portion" of the two-month span, and that they had been "closely held and reviewed solely for the purposes of this ongoing criminal investigation."[^22]
 
-In September 2013 [[Donald Sachtleben]], a former [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] bomb technician who had continued working for the bureau as a contractor, agreed to plead guilty to disclosing national defense information to a reporter in May 2012 about a thwarted Yemen-based plan to bomb a United States-bound airliner. The Department of Justice said he "was identified as a suspect in the case of this unauthorized disclosure only after toll records for phone numbers related to the reporter were obtained through a subpoena and compared to other evidence collected during the leak investigation," and that this allowed investigators to obtain a search warrant for his phone and computer. The plea agreements, filed in [[Indianapolis]], carried a 43-month term on the national security counts and a consecutive 97-month term on two [[Child sexual abuse material|child pornography]] counts.[^22][^23]
+In September 2013 [[Donald Sachtleben]], a former [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] bomb technician who had continued working for the bureau as a contractor, agreed to plead guilty to disclosing national defense information to a reporter in May 2012 about a thwarted Yemen-based plan to bomb a United States-bound airliner. The Department of Justice said he "was identified as a suspect in the case of this unauthorized disclosure only after toll records for phone numbers related to the reporter were obtained through a subpoena and compared to other evidence collected during the leak investigation," and that this allowed investigators to obtain a search warrant for his phone and computer. The plea agreements, filed in [[Indianapolis]], carried a 43-month term on the national security counts and a consecutive 97-month term on two [[Child sexual abuse material|child pornography]] counts.[^23][^24]
 
-On July 12, 2013 the Department of Justice published a report on its policies toward the news media that reversed the presumption concerning advance notice to affected media organizations. Notice and negotiation would be omitted only if the Attorney General, taking account of the recommendations of a newly established News Media Review Committee, determined for compelling reasons that they would pose a clear and substantial threat to the integrity of the investigation, risk grave harm to national security or present an imminent risk of death or serious bodily harm, and any delay would run for an initial 45 days with at most one further 45 days.[^24]
+On July 12, 2013 the Department of Justice published a report on its policies toward the news media that reversed the presumption concerning advance notice to affected media organizations. Notice and negotiation would be omitted only if the Attorney General, taking account of the recommendations of a newly established News Media Review Committee, determined for compelling reasons that they would pose a clear and substantial threat to the integrity of the investigation, risk grave harm to national security or present an imminent risk of death or serious bodily harm, and any delay would run for an initial 45 days with at most one further 45 days.[^25]
 
 ### The Gaza bureau, 2021 and 2024
 
-On May 15, 2021 an Israeli airstrike destroyed a high-rise building in [[Gaza City]] that housed the AP's bureau and other media offices. The AP's account stated that the strike came roughly an hour after the Israeli military ordered people to evacuate the building and that all AP employees and freelancers left safely. Pruitt's statement said that the Israeli military had "long known the location of our bureau and knew journalists were there," that the AP had received a warning that the building would be hit, that it was seeking information from the Israeli government and was engaged with the [[State Department]], and that "the world will know less about what is happening in Gaza because of what happened today."[^25]
+On May 15, 2021 an Israeli airstrike destroyed a high-rise building in [[Gaza City]] that housed the AP's bureau and other media offices. The AP's account stated that the strike came roughly an hour after the Israeli military ordered people to evacuate the building and that all AP employees and freelancers left safely. Pruitt's statement said that the Israeli military had "long known the location of our bureau and knew journalists were there," that the AP had received a warning that the building would be hit, that it was seeking information from the Israeli government and was engaged with the [[State Department]], and that "the world will know less about what is happening in Gaza because of what happened today."[^26]
 
-Secretary of State [[Antony Blinken]] held a press availability in Copenhagen on May 17, 2021. A reporter's question recited that the prime minister of Israel and officials of the [[Israel Defense Forces]] had said over the weekend that they had transmitted intelligence to the United States showing that [[Hamas]] used the tower to house military assets. Blinken answered that he had spoken over the weekend with Pruitt, that "we did request additional details regarding the justification" for the strike, that he "wouldn't want to weigh in on intelligence matters," and that he would "leave it to others to characterize if any information has been shared and our assessment of that information."[^26]
+Secretary of State [[Antony Blinken]] held a press availability in Copenhagen on May 17, 2021. A reporter's question recited that the prime minister of Israel and officials of the [[Israel Defense Forces]] had said over the weekend that they had transmitted intelligence to the United States showing that [[Hamas]] used the tower to house military assets. Blinken answered that he had spoken over the weekend with Pruitt, that "we did request additional details regarding the justification" for the strike, that he "wouldn't want to weigh in on intelligence matters," and that he would "leave it to others to characterize if any information has been shared and our assessment of that information."[^27]
 
-On May 21, 2024 Israeli officials seized an AP camera and broadcasting equipment in [[Sderot]], accusing the AP of violating a media law enacted against Al Jazeera by supplying it with live images of northern Gaza. The communications minister, [[Shlomo Karhi]], ordered the equipment returned the same day.[^27]
+On May 21, 2024 Israeli officials seized an AP camera and broadcasting equipment in [[Sderot]], accusing the AP of violating a media law enacted against Al Jazeera by supplying it with live images of northern Gaza. The communications minister, [[Shlomo Karhi]], ordered the equipment returned the same day.[^28]
 
 ### Exclusion from the White House press pool, 2025
 
-On February 11, 2025 White House press secretary [[Karoline Leavitt]] told the AP that it would not be permitted in the [[Oval Office]] or the press pool unless it revised its style guide to refer to the Gulf of America. The AP was also excluded from events in the [[East Room]]. Press pool membership had historically been set by the [[White House Correspondents' Association]], of which the AP is a founding member and which had offered the AP a standing invitation to send one reporter and one photographer. On February 25 the White House announced that it would select pool participants itself. The AP sued on [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]] grounds in *[[Associated Press v. Budowich]]*, No. 1:25-cv-00532 (D.D.C.), naming [[Taylor Budowich]], the Deputy Chief of Staff, as defendant.[^28]
+On February 11, 2025 White House press secretary [[Karoline Leavitt]] told the AP that it would not be permitted in the [[Oval Office]] or the press pool unless it revised its style guide to refer to the Gulf of America. The AP was also excluded from events in the [[East Room]]. Press pool membership had historically been set by the [[White House Correspondents' Association]], of which the AP is a founding member and which had offered the AP a standing invitation to send one reporter and one photographer. On February 25 the White House announced that it would select pool participants itself. The AP sued on [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]] grounds in *[[Associated Press v. Budowich]]*, No. 1:25-cv-00532 (D.D.C.), naming [[Taylor Budowich]], the Deputy Chief of Staff, as defendant.[^29]
 
-Judge [[Trevor N. McFadden]] entered a preliminary injunction on April 8, 2025. On April 14 the AP was denied access to the Oval Office while the injunction was in effect; on April 15 the White House issued a policy abolishing the wire services seat from the press pool, and the district court denied the AP's motion to enforce, finding the new policy facially neutral and crediting a White House declaration that it had not excluded the AP on the basis of viewpoint.[^28]
+Judge [[Trevor N. McFadden]] entered a preliminary injunction on April 8, 2025. On April 14 the AP was denied access to the Oval Office while the injunction was in effect; on April 15 the White House issued a policy abolishing the wire services seat from the press pool, and the district court denied the AP's motion to enforce, finding the new policy facially neutral and crediting a White House declaration that it had not excluded the AP on the basis of viewpoint.[^29]
 
-On June 6, 2025 a panel of the [[United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit]] granted the government's motion for a stay pending appeal in part, staying the injunction except as applied to the East Room. Judge [[Neomi Rao]], joined by Judge [[Gregory Katsas]], wrote that the White House was likely to succeed because "these restricted presidential spaces are not First Amendment fora opened for private speech and discussion" and that the White House "retains discretion to determine, including on the basis of viewpoint, which journalists will be admitted." Judge [[Cornelia Pillard]] dissented and would have denied the stay.[^28] On July 22, 2025 the full court denied the AP's motion for en banc reconsideration and vacatur of the stay order.[^29] The D.C. Circuit's posted opinion lists for January through September 2026 contain no opinion in No. 25-5109.[^30]
+On June 6, 2025 a panel of the [[United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit]] granted the government's motion for a stay pending appeal in part, staying the injunction except as applied to the East Room. Judge [[Neomi Rao]], joined by Judge [[Gregory Katsas]], wrote that the White House was likely to succeed because "these restricted presidential spaces are not First Amendment fora opened for private speech and discussion" and that the White House "retains discretion to determine, including on the basis of viewpoint, which journalists will be admitted." Judge [[Cornelia Pillard]] dissented and would have denied the stay.[^29] On July 22, 2025 the full court denied the AP's motion for en banc reconsideration and vacatur of the stay order.[^30] The D.C. Circuit's posted opinion lists for January through September 2026 contain no opinion in No. 25-5109.[^31]
 
 ### Footnotes
 
@@ -181,15 +185,16 @@ On June 6, 2025 a panel of the [[United States Court of Appeals for the District
 [^16]: Associated Press, *Covering Tyranny*, 2017, Introduction, pp. 1, 4.
 [^17]: Robert Parry, "The Lost Opportunity of Iran-Contra," *Consortium News*, December 1, 2011, https://consortiumnews.com/2011/12/01/the-lost-opportunity-of-iran-contra/ ; Parry, "Regret over Gary Webb's Demise," *Consortium News*, June 1, 2013, https://consortiumnews.com/2013/06/01/regret-over-gary-webbs-demise/
 [^18]: Gary Webb, *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion* (Seven Stories Press, 1998), ch. 27.
-[^19]: "Bad Deal For Berrellez," *Phoenix Republic*, April 2, 1978, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP09T00207R001000030015-6, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp09t00207r001000030015-6
-[^20]: Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press, "Justice Department defends decisions in secret seizure of AP phone records as criticism mounts," May 14, 2013, https://www.rcfp.org/justice-department-defends-decisions-secret-seizure-ap-phone-records/ (describing the Machen letter of May 10, 2013 and quoting Pruitt's letter of May 13).
-[^21]: James M. Cole, Deputy Attorney General, letter to Gary B. Pruitt, May 14, 2013, https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/oip/legacy/2014/07/23/dag-letter-to-ap-president-pruitt.pdf
-[^22]: Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press, "Filing in case over AP bomb-plot leaker details contacts between reporter and FBI source," September 2013, https://www.rcfp.org/filing-case-over-ap-bomb-plot-leaker-details-contacts-between-report/ (quoting the Department of Justice statement of September 23, 2013).
-[^23]: "Ex-FBI Agent Cornered on Terror Plot Leaks," *Courthouse News Service*, September 25, 2013, https://www.courthousenews.com/ex-fbi-agent-cornered-on-terror-plot-leaks/ (the justice.gov press release returned a block on October 1, 2026).
-[^24]: U.S. Department of Justice, *Report on Review of News Media Policies*, July 12, 2013, https://www.justice.gov/ag/news-media.pdf
-[^25]: Associated Press, "AP statement on Israeli attack on building housing AP office," May 15, 2021, archived at https://web.archive.org/web/20210515141355/https://apnews.com/article/israel-middle-east-business-israel-palestinian-conflict-f595d0ea0a7e21a4e4974ae55e00024d
-[^26]: U.S. Department of State, "Secretary Antony J. Blinken and Danish Foreign Minister Jeppe Kofod at a Joint Press Availability," Copenhagen, May 17, 2021, https://2021-2025.state.gov/secretary-antony-j-blinken-and-danish-foreign-minister-jeppe-kofod-at-a-joint-press-availability/
-[^27]: "Israel says it will return video equipment seized from AP," Associated Press, May 21, 2024 (copy at https://www.wsls.com/news/world/2024/05/21/israeli-officials-seize-ap-equipment-and-take-down-live-shot-of-northern-gaza-citing-new-media-law/).
-[^28]: *Associated Press v. Budowich*, No. 25-5109 (D.C. Cir.), order of June 6, 2025 granting stay pending appeal in part (Pillard, Katsas, Rao, Circuit Judges), with statement of Rao, J., joined by Katsas, J., and dissenting statement of Pillard, J., on appeal from No. 1:25-cv-00532-TNM (D.D.C.), https://media.cadc.uscourts.gov/orders/docs/2025/06/25-5109LDSN3.pdf (reciting the district court's preliminary injunction of April 8, 2025, 2025 WL 1039572, and footnote 2 on events of April 14 and 15, 2025).
-[^29]: *Associated Press v. Budowich*, No. 25-5109 (D.C. Cir. July 22, 2025) (per curiam order denying emergency petition for rehearing en banc, construed as a motion for en banc reconsideration and vacatur), https://media.cadc.uscourts.gov/orders/docs/2025/07/25-5109LDEN.pdf
-[^30]: U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit, opinions by date for January through September 2026, https://media.cadc.uscourts.gov/opinions/bydate/2026/1 through /9 (checked October 1, 2026 for "5109"; no matches).
+[^19]: Carl Bernstein, "The CIA and the Media," *Rolling Stone*, October 20, 1977, text at https://archive.org/stream/nsia-BernsteinRollingStoneArticlesCIA/nsia-BernsteinRollingStoneArticlesCIA/Bernstein%20CIA%2001_djvu.txt (section on "Other 'major' news organizations" and the passage on the Associated Press and Gallagher).
+[^20]: "Bad Deal For Berrellez," *Phoenix Republic*, April 2, 1978, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP09T00207R001000030015-6, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp09t00207r001000030015-6
+[^21]: Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press, "Justice Department defends decisions in secret seizure of AP phone records as criticism mounts," May 14, 2013, https://www.rcfp.org/justice-department-defends-decisions-secret-seizure-ap-phone-records/ (describing the Machen letter of May 10, 2013 and quoting Pruitt's letter of May 13).
+[^22]: James M. Cole, Deputy Attorney General, letter to Gary B. Pruitt, May 14, 2013, https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/oip/legacy/2014/07/23/dag-letter-to-ap-president-pruitt.pdf
+[^23]: Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press, "Filing in case over AP bomb-plot leaker details contacts between reporter and FBI source," September 2013, https://www.rcfp.org/filing-case-over-ap-bomb-plot-leaker-details-contacts-between-report/ (quoting the Department of Justice statement of September 23, 2013).
+[^24]: "Ex-FBI Agent Cornered on Terror Plot Leaks," *Courthouse News Service*, September 25, 2013, https://www.courthousenews.com/ex-fbi-agent-cornered-on-terror-plot-leaks/ (the justice.gov press release returned a block on October 1, 2026).
+[^25]: U.S. Department of Justice, *Report on Review of News Media Policies*, July 12, 2013, https://www.justice.gov/ag/news-media.pdf
+[^26]: Associated Press, "AP statement on Israeli attack on building housing AP office," May 15, 2021, archived at https://web.archive.org/web/20210515141355/https://apnews.com/article/israel-middle-east-business-israel-palestinian-conflict-f595d0ea0a7e21a4e4974ae55e00024d
+[^27]: U.S. Department of State, "Secretary Antony J. Blinken and Danish Foreign Minister Jeppe Kofod at a Joint Press Availability," Copenhagen, May 17, 2021, https://2021-2025.state.gov/secretary-antony-j-blinken-and-danish-foreign-minister-jeppe-kofod-at-a-joint-press-availability/
+[^28]: "Israel says it will return video equipment seized from AP," Associated Press, May 21, 2024 (copy at https://www.wsls.com/news/world/2024/05/21/israeli-officials-seize-ap-equipment-and-take-down-live-shot-of-northern-gaza-citing-new-media-law/).
+[^29]: *Associated Press v. Budowich*, No. 25-5109 (D.C. Cir.), order of June 6, 2025 granting stay pending appeal in part (Pillard, Katsas, Rao, Circuit Judges), with statement of Rao, J., joined by Katsas, J., and dissenting statement of Pillard, J., on appeal from No. 1:25-cv-00532-TNM (D.D.C.), https://media.cadc.uscourts.gov/orders/docs/2025/06/25-5109LDSN3.pdf (reciting the district court's preliminary injunction of April 8, 2025, 2025 WL 1039572, and footnote 2 on events of April 14 and 15, 2025).
+[^30]: *Associated Press v. Budowich*, No. 25-5109 (D.C. Cir. July 22, 2025) (per curiam order denying emergency petition for rehearing en banc, construed as a motion for en banc reconsideration and vacatur), https://media.cadc.uscourts.gov/orders/docs/2025/07/25-5109LDEN.pdf
+[^31]: U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit, opinions by date for January through September 2026, https://media.cadc.uscourts.gov/opinions/bydate/2026/1 through /9 (checked October 1, 2026 for "5109"; no matches).

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/BGC Group.md

@@ -86,7 +86,7 @@ relations:
     reverse: true
     role: "described by the BBC as a managing director; dismissed in 2017 according to the BBC, with BGC giving a different account of the termination"
     end: 2017
-    fn: 12
+    fn: 13
   - type: subject_of
     with: "[[Federal Bureau of Investigation]]"
     role: "FD-71A Guardian complaint recorded October 14, 2020 (form dated April 23, 2021) alleging money laundering by Howard Lutnick via BGC Financial and Cantor Fitzgerald"
@@ -96,14 +96,14 @@ relations:
     with: "[[Securities and Exchange Commission]]"
     role: "SEC settlement order of July 17, 2018 ($1.25 million, willful books and records violations), as recited in the CFTC order of November 22, 2019"
     start: 2018-07-17
-    fn: 11
+    fn: 12
   - type: subject_of
     with: "[[Financial Industry Regulatory Authority]]"
     start: 2024-06-17
     role: "award in arbitration 22-02539: BGC Financial, L.P. \"solely liable for and shall pay to Claimant the sum of $500,000.00 in compensatory damages\"; hearing session fees of $39,375 assessed to BGC Financial, L.P."
-    fn: 14
+    fn: 15
 created: 2026-10-04
-updated: 2026-10-04
+updated: 2026-10-15
 ---
 
 BGC Group, Inc. is an interdealer and wholesale broker and financial-technology company, listed on [[Nasdaq]] under the symbol BGC, that became the public holding company for the former BGC Partners, Inc. on July 1, 2023. BGC Partners was itself the 2008 combination of eSpeed with the interdealer brokerage assets of [[Cantor Fitzgerald]], which has controlled the company throughout.[^1][^2] Its subsidiaries BGC Financial, L.P. and GFI Securities, LLC were the respondents in two sets of 2019 orders of the [[Commodity Futures Trading Commission]], and the company's former employee [[Simon Andriesz]] made a 2020 complaint to the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] concerning [[Howard Lutnick]], BGC and Cantor.[^3][^4][^5]
@@ -118,9 +118,9 @@ In April 2008, BGC and certain other Cantor assets merged with and into eSpeed,
 
 [[GFI Group]] Inc. was acquired by a wholly owned subsidiary of BGC pursuant to a merger agreement completed on January 12, 2016, "after BGC's acquisition of Jersey Partners, Inc., GFI's largest shareholder."[^6] In November 2018 BGC acquired [[Poten & Partners]], a ship brokerage and consultancy specializing in liquefied natural gas, tanker and liquefied petroleum gas markets.[^6]
 
-The company's real estate services business was transferred to [[Newmark Group]], Inc. on December 13, 2017, and Newmark completed an initial public offering of 23 million Class A shares in December 2017. On November 30, 2018 BGC distributed its Newmark shares to its stockholders in a spin-off, with Newmark Class A shares going to BGC Class A holders and Newmark Class B shares to the holders of BGC Class B stock, Cantor and another entity controlled by Lutnick.[^6] The transaction by which BGC bought [[Berkeley Point]] from [[Cantor Commercial Real Estate]] for $875 million and committed $100 million for a 27 percent interest in Real Estate, L.P. was challenged in a derivative complaint filed on October 5, 2018 by the [[Roofers Local 149 Pension Fund]] in the [[Delaware Court of Chancery]] against BGC's directors, Lutnick, [[CF Group Management|CFGM]] and Cantor; on September 30, 2019 the court denied the defendants' motions to dismiss on demand grounds without findings on the merits.[^6]
+The company's real estate services business was transferred to [[Newmark Group]], Inc. on December 13, 2017, and Newmark completed an initial public offering of 23 million Class A shares in December 2017. On November 30, 2018 BGC distributed its Newmark shares to its stockholders in a spin-off, with Newmark Class A shares going to BGC Class A holders and Newmark Class B shares to the holders of BGC Class B stock, Cantor and another entity controlled by Lutnick.[^6] The transaction by which BGC bought [[Berkeley Point]] from [[Cantor Commercial Real Estate]] for $875 million and committed $100 million for a 27 percent interest in Real Estate, L.P. was challenged in a derivative complaint filed on October 5, 2018 by the [[Roofers Local 149 Pension Fund]] in the [[Delaware Court of Chancery]] against BGC's directors, Lutnick, [[CF Group Management|CFGM]] and Cantor; on September 30, 2019 the court denied the defendants' motions to dismiss on demand grounds without findings on the merits, in an opinion by Chancellor [[Andre G. Bouchard]] in an action brought by the Roofers fund and the Northern California Pipe Trades Trust Funds.[^6] The [[Delaware Supreme Court]] affirmed the Court of Chancery's final judgment of September 27, 2022 by order of August 10, 2023.[^8]
 
-Each BGC Class B share carries ten votes. At December 31, 2019, Cantor and CFGM held all 45,884,380 outstanding shares of BGC Class B stock, approximately 59.8 percent of the total voting power.[^6] BGC's related-party dealings with Cantor are subject to the prior approval of its Audit Committee. They include a credit agreement of March 19, 2018 permitting each party to borrow up to $250.0 million, which BGC's 2019 report describes as amended on August 6, 2018 to increase the facility to $400.0 million and its 2025 report as further amended on March 8, 2024 to increase the facility to $400.0 million; a March 2018 sales agreement under which BGC pays Cantor Fitzgerald & Co. (CF&Co) 2 percent of the gross proceeds from sales of BGC Class A shares; and Cantor's unlimited right to use BGC market data internally without cost.[^6][^1]
+Each BGC Class B share carries ten votes. At December 31, 2019, Cantor and CFGM held all 45,884,380 outstanding shares of BGC Class B stock, approximately 59.8 percent of the total voting power.[^6] BGC's related-party dealings with Cantor are subject to the prior approval of its Audit Committee. They include a credit agreement of March 19, 2018 permitting each party to borrow up to $250.0 million, which BGC's 2019 report describes as amended on August 6, 2018 to increase the facility to $400.0 million and its 2025 report as further amended on March 8, 2024 to increase the facility to $400.0 million; a March 2018 sales agreement under which BGC pays Cantor Fitzgerald & Co. (CF&Co) 2 percent of the gross proceeds from sales of BGC Class A shares; and Cantor's unlimited right to use BGC market data internally without cost.[^1][^6]
 
 ### Fenics and FMX
 
@@ -132,41 +132,41 @@ Under a Corporate Conversion Agreement dated November 15, 2022, BGC Partners and
 
 ### Leadership Change and the Lutnick Divestiture
 
-Howard Lutnick, BGC's chief executive officer and chairman since 1999, was confirmed by the [[United States Senate]] as [[United States Department of Commerce|Secretary of Commerce]] on February 18, 2025, and stepped down that day. The board appointed [[John Abularrage]], [[JP Aubin]] and [[Sean Windeatt]] co-chief executive officers, appointed [[Brandon Lutnick]] to the board, and named [[Stephen Merkel]], the company's chief legal officer, to the board and as chairman. On May 19, 2025 BGC announced the repurchase of 16,452,850 Class A shares from Lutnick at $9.2082 per share, an aggregate of $151,501,133, "in furtherance of Mr. Lutnick's [[United States|U.S. government]] ethics agreement." On October 6, 2025 Lutnick completed the divestiture of his holdings in BGC, Cantor and CFGM, selling the voting shares of CFGM to trusts controlled by Brandon Lutnick, who as of February 27, 2026 beneficially owned 2.0 million Class A and 109.4 million Class B shares, "collectively representing 75.1% of the total voting power."[^1][^8]
+Howard Lutnick, BGC's chief executive officer and chairman since 1999, was confirmed by the [[United States Senate]] as [[United States Department of Commerce|Secretary of Commerce]] on February 18, 2025, and stepped down that day. The board appointed [[John Abularrage]], [[JP Aubin]] and [[Sean Windeatt]] co-chief executive officers, appointed [[Brandon Lutnick]] to the board, and named [[Stephen Merkel]], the company's chief legal officer, to the board and as chairman. On May 19, 2025 BGC announced the repurchase of 16,452,850 Class A shares from Lutnick at $9.2082 per share, an aggregate of $151,501,133, "in furtherance of Mr. Lutnick's [[United States|U.S. government]] ethics agreement." On October 6, 2025 Lutnick completed the divestiture of his holdings in BGC, Cantor and CFGM, selling the voting shares of CFGM to trusts controlled by Brandon Lutnick, who as of February 27, 2026 beneficially owned 2.0 million Class A and 109.4 million Class B shares, "collectively representing 75.1% of the total voting power."[^1][^9]
 
 ### The September 2019 CFTC Orders (Release 8035-19)
 
 On October 2, 2019 the Commodity Futures Trading Commission announced orders entered on September 30, 2019 against two interdealer brokers, BGC Financial, LP and GFI Securities, LLC, ordering BGC to pay a civil monetary penalty of $15 million and GFI $10 million, strengthen internal controls, appoint a monitor, and cease and desist. The orders found that brokers on their respective emerging markets foreign exchange options desks, "EFX options," made false representations that bids and offers were executable and that trades had occurred.[^3]
 
-The BGC order describes the Respondent as "a Delaware limited partnership headquartered in [[New York City|New York, New York]], which provides voice and electronic brokerage services," registered as a futures commission merchant since 2009 and previously from 1994 to 2006. It states the relevant period as from at least January 2014 to at least December 2015, and finds that brokers on the desk posted bids and offers when "no trading institution had bid or offered the option at that level," a practice the brokers called "flying" prices, and "flew" hundreds of thousands of bids and offers; and that brokers communicated that trades had occurred when none had, called "printing." In a chat on or about January 27, 2014 a junior broker asked a colleague, "is this a printo?" and was told that it was. The order recites that when a flown bid or offer was hit or lifted the screen flashed, indicating to all users that a trade had occurred. The Commission found that the brokers intended "to create an illusion of greater liquidity and, at times, tighter spreads" and noted that BGC itself did not act as counterparty to the options transactions. It credited the Respondent's cooperation and remediation as reflected "in the form of a reduced civil monetary penalty."[^9]
+The BGC order describes the Respondent as "a Delaware limited partnership headquartered in [[New York City|New York, New York]], which provides voice and electronic brokerage services," registered as a futures commission merchant since 2009 and previously from 1994 to 2006. It states the relevant period as from at least January 2014 to at least December 2015, and finds that brokers on the desk posted bids and offers when "no trading institution had bid or offered the option at that level," a practice the brokers called "flying" prices, and "flew" hundreds of thousands of bids and offers; and that brokers communicated that trades had occurred when none had, called "printing." In a chat on or about January 27, 2014 a junior broker asked a colleague, "is this a printo?" and was told that it was. The order recites that when a flown bid or offer was hit or lifted the screen flashed, indicating to all users that a trade had occurred. The Commission found that the brokers intended "to create an illusion of greater liquidity and, at times, tighter spreads" and noted that BGC itself did not act as counterparty to the options transactions. It credited the Respondent's cooperation and remediation as reflected "in the form of a reduced civil monetary penalty."[^10]
 
-The GFI order, against GFI Securities LLC, a limited liability company headquartered in New York, New York, registered as an introducing broker since January 2014 (previously as an introducing broker from September 1998 to August 2013 and as a futures commission merchant from August 2013 to January 2014), states a relevant period of at least July 2013 to at least December 2015 and makes the same findings of "flying" and "printing" for its own EFX options desk, with a penalty of $10,000,000.[^10] The release states that the CFTC had the assistance of the [[New York Attorney General|Office of the Attorney General for the State of New York]], which announced criminal non-prosecution agreements with BGC and GFI assessing monetary penalties of $7.5 million and $5 million, with remediation and a monitor, and that the CFTC penalties "will be offset by monies paid pursuant to these agreements." BGC's annual report for 2019 states that the company paid an aggregate of $25.0 million on October 9, 2019 and agreed to a monitor for two years, and describes the settling subsidiaries as BGC Financial L.P. and GFI Group Inc.[^6][^3]
+The GFI order, against GFI Securities LLC, a limited liability company headquartered in New York, New York, registered as an introducing broker since January 2014 (previously as an introducing broker from September 1998 to August 2013 and as a futures commission merchant from August 2013 to January 2014), states a relevant period of at least July 2013 to at least December 2015 and makes the same findings of "flying" and "printing" for its own EFX options desk, with a penalty of $10,000,000.[^11] The release states that the CFTC had the assistance of the [[New York Attorney General|Office of the Attorney General for the State of New York]], which announced criminal non-prosecution agreements with BGC and GFI assessing monetary penalties of $7.5 million and $5 million, with remediation and a monitor, and that the CFTC penalties "will be offset by monies paid pursuant to these agreements." BGC's annual report for 2019 states that the company paid an aggregate of $25.0 million on October 9, 2019 and agreed to a monitor for two years, and describes the settling subsidiaries as BGC Financial L.P. and GFI Group Inc.[^3][^6]
 
 ### The November 2019 CFTC Order (Release 8083-19)
 
-On November 22, 2019 the CFTC announced an order against BGC Financial, L.P., "a futures industry voice broker and registered futures commission merchant (FCM)," imposing a $3 million civil monetary penalty and undertakings including remediation and an outside consultant. The order found that from at least 2014 to March 2019 BGC failed to establish an adequate supervisory system with respect to its traditional and block trading futures brokerage businesses, including "audit trail" procedures and the use of personal cell phones by brokers for firm business contrary to its FCM Manual. It found that BGC lost all voice recordings from February 5, 2016 through the end of May 2016 for thousands of block trades, and that on multiple occasions failed to capture verbal communications for periods of up to four months; that BGC took more than two months to produce audit trail data for 100 random block trades requested by the Division of Enforcement; that its 2015 and 2016 Chief Compliance Officer reports did not adequately disclose voice-capture noncompliance; and that it failed to notify the CFTC of numerous formal investigations. The order recites that BGC "entered into at least eight settlements with the [[Financial Industry Regulatory Authority]]" and settled matters with [[CME Group]], [[ICE Futures U.S.]] and [[Nodal Exchange]] without notice to the Commission, and that BGC did not notify the CFTC of an SEC investigation, formal since at least early 2014 and resolved by a $1.25 million settlement for willful books and records violations, until after the SEC order of July 17, 2018. It also found that BGC filed notice of its 2017 change in chief executive officer "over nine months late." The CFTC thanked the [[National Futures Association]] for its assistance.[^4][^11]
+On November 22, 2019 the CFTC announced an order against BGC Financial, L.P., "a futures industry voice broker and registered futures commission merchant (FCM)," imposing a $3 million civil monetary penalty and undertakings including remediation and an outside consultant. The order found that from at least 2014 to March 2019 BGC failed to establish an adequate supervisory system with respect to its traditional and block trading futures brokerage businesses, including "audit trail" procedures and the use of personal cell phones by brokers for firm business contrary to its FCM Manual. It found that BGC lost all voice recordings from February 5, 2016 through the end of May 2016 for thousands of block trades, and that on multiple occasions failed to capture verbal communications for periods of up to four months; that BGC took more than two months to produce audit trail data for 100 random block trades requested by the Division of Enforcement; that its 2015 and 2016 Chief Compliance Officer reports did not adequately disclose voice-capture noncompliance; and that it failed to notify the CFTC of numerous formal investigations. The order recites that BGC "entered into at least eight settlements with the [[Financial Industry Regulatory Authority]]" and settled matters with [[CME Group]], [[ICE Futures U.S.]] and [[Nodal Exchange]] without notice to the Commission, and that BGC did not notify the CFTC of an SEC investigation, formal since at least early 2014 and resolved by a $1.25 million settlement for willful books and records violations, until after the SEC order of July 17, 2018. It also found that BGC filed notice of its 2017 change in chief executive officer "over nine months late." The CFTC thanked the [[National Futures Association]] for its assistance.[^4][^12]
 
 ### Simon Andriesz
 
-The [[BBC]] reported on July 14, 2026 that Simon Andriesz, 57, "previously a managing director at a Wall Street firm," had been employed by BGC Partners, "part of Lutnick's Cantor Fitzgerald group." According to the BBC, Andriesz raised concerns internally in 2016 about accounting irregularities, was dismissed in 2017, and later spoke to the FBI. The BBC wrote that "some of his allegations later led to BGC being ordered to pay a $3m (£2.24m) penalty by the US derivatives regulator for 'numerous supervision, reporting, and record-keeping violations.'" The CFTC's release of November 22, 2019 (8083-19) uses that wording and names no individual who provided information. BGC told the BBC that Andriesz's allegations "lacked credibility" and were "categorically false," that the claims had been investigated by authorities in several jurisdictions which, in BGC's account, had not substantiated them, and that it denied retaliating against him. BGC said his employment ended "after he refused to follow medical advice, declined to perform essential job duties, rejected reasonable accommodation, and ultimately abandoned his role." The BBC added that Andriesz said he had won a financial award of $420,000 from the US regulator and that, in its words, "The FBI did not investigate these accusations."[^12]
+The [[BBC]] reported on July 14, 2026 that Simon Andriesz, 57, "previously a managing director at a Wall Street firm," had been employed by BGC Partners, "part of Lutnick's Cantor Fitzgerald group." According to the BBC, Andriesz raised concerns internally in 2016 about accounting irregularities, was dismissed in 2017, and later spoke to the FBI. The BBC wrote that "some of his allegations later led to BGC being ordered to pay a $3m (£2.24m) penalty by the US derivatives regulator for 'numerous supervision, reporting, and record-keeping violations.'" The CFTC's release of November 22, 2019 (8083-19) uses that wording and names no individual who provided information. BGC told the BBC that Andriesz's allegations "lacked credibility" and were "categorically false," that the claims had been investigated by authorities in several jurisdictions which, in BGC's account, had not substantiated them, and that it denied retaliating against him. BGC said his employment ended "after he refused to follow medical advice, declined to perform essential job duties, rejected reasonable accommodation, and ultimately abandoned his role." The BBC added that Andriesz said he had won a financial award of $420,000 from the US regulator and that, in its words, "The FBI did not investigate these accusations."[^13]
 
-The records of the proceedings brought by Andriesz are as follows. In FINRA arbitration 19-01751, filed on or about June 19, 2019, BGC Financial, L.P. was the first of fourteen respondents, which included Cantor Fitzgerald & Co., Howard Lutnick and Jean-Pierre Aubin; the panel dismissed the case without prejudice on August 8, 2022 on the ground that the parties had "jointly requested, or agreed to, more than two postponements." In the renewed arbitration, 22-02539, the panel's award of June 17, 2024 provided: "Respondent BGC Financial, L.P., is solely liable for and shall pay to Claimant the sum of $500,000.00 in compensatory damages," and "[a]ll other claims against remaining Respondents Cantor Fitzgerald & Co., Jean Pierre Aubin, Mark Webster, Paul Marc Pion, and William Michael Shields, are dismissed in their entirety." The award states no reasons.[^13][^14]
+The records of the proceedings brought by Andriesz are as follows. In FINRA arbitration 19-01751, filed on or about June 19, 2019, BGC Financial, L.P. was the first of fourteen respondents, which included Cantor Fitzgerald & Co., Howard Lutnick and Jean-Pierre Aubin; the panel dismissed the case without prejudice on August 8, 2022 on the ground that the parties had "jointly requested, or agreed to, more than two postponements." In the renewed arbitration, 22-02539, the panel's award of June 17, 2024 provided: "Respondent BGC Financial, L.P., is solely liable for and shall pay to Claimant the sum of $500,000.00 in compensatory damages," and "[a]ll other claims against remaining Respondents Cantor Fitzgerald & Co., Jean Pierre Aubin, Mark Webster, Paul Marc Pion, and William Michael Shields, are dismissed in their entirety." The award states no reasons.[^14][^15]
 
-Andriesz petitioned the [[United States District Court for the Southern District of New York]] to vacate, modify or remand the award. BGC's brief of December 6, 2024 argued that the petition was untimely and that the award should stand. In an opinion of April 23, 2025 [[Lewis J. Liman|Judge Lewis J. Liman]] held that the petition was untimely because Andriesz did not serve BGC within three months of the filing of the award, and, in the alternative, that it "would still fail on the merits"; the judgment of April 24, 2025 denied the motion and dismissed the petition. The opinion records that Andriesz was employed under a contract of January 21, 2015 "as Managing Director from February 1, 2015, through February 1, 2019," and that BGC says his employer was its United Kingdom affiliate, BGC Brokers, L.P. The appeal to the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit]] (25-1341) ended with the issue of the mandate on August 28, 2025.[^15][^16]
+Andriesz petitioned the [[United States District Court for the Southern District of New York]] to vacate, modify or remand the award. BGC's brief of December 6, 2024 argued that the petition was untimely and that the award should stand. In an opinion of April 23, 2025 [[Lewis J. Liman|Judge Lewis J. Liman]] held that the petition was untimely because Andriesz did not serve BGC within three months of the filing of the award, and, in the alternative, that it "would still fail on the merits"; the judgment of April 24, 2025 denied the motion and dismissed the petition. The opinion records that Andriesz was employed under a contract of January 21, 2015 "as Managing Director from February 1, 2015, through February 1, 2019," and that BGC says his employer was its United Kingdom affiliate, BGC Brokers, L.P. The appeal to the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit]] (25-1341) ended with the issue of the mandate on August 28, 2025.[^16][^17]
 
-In Employment Tribunal case 3200408/2025, in which BGC Partners LP, Lutnick and Aubin were the respondents, the judge struck out the whole claim as presented out of time, with an alternative holding that it would have been struck out as an abuse of process; the written reasons are dated August 11, 2026 and find that his employment terminated on January 31, 2017. The BBC wrote that BGC "says it has had no involvement with him since his departure other than responding to litigation he has initiated."[^12] The award of June 17, 2024 orders BGC Financial, L.P. to pay $500,000 in compensatory damages, and the tribunal's written reasons of August 11, 2026 strike out the claim before it in its entirety.[^14][^17]
+In Employment Tribunal case 3200408/2025, in which BGC Partners LP, Lutnick and Aubin were the respondents, the judge struck out the whole claim as presented out of time, with an alternative holding that it would have been struck out as an abuse of process; the written reasons are dated August 11, 2026 and find that his employment terminated on January 31, 2017. The BBC wrote that BGC "says it has had no involvement with him since his departure other than responding to litigation he has initiated."[^13] The award of June 17, 2024 orders BGC Financial, L.P. to pay $500,000 in compensatory damages, and the tribunal's written reasons of August 11, 2026 strike out the claim before it in its entirety.[^15][^18]
 
-The [[Transparency Task Force]], a [[United Kingdom]] campaign group, announced an event on July 21, 2026 at which Andriesz was to speak on the role of the [[Financial Conduct Authority]]. Its page states that he "spent 35 years in the securities industry," that his FBI file became public in the January 2026 release under the [[Epstein Files Transparency Act]], that the CFTC "made him a formal whistleblower award," and that the FCA's response was "a Supervision Order." Those statements are the Task Force's and Andriesz's own.[^18]
+The [[Transparency Task Force]], a [[United Kingdom]] campaign group, announced an event on July 21, 2026 at which Andriesz was to speak on the role of the [[Financial Conduct Authority]]. Its page states that he "spent 35 years in the securities industry," that his FBI file became public in the January 2026 release under the [[Epstein Files Transparency Act]], that the CFTC "made him a formal whistleblower award," and that the FCA's response was "a Supervision Order." Those statements are the Task Force's and Andriesz's own.[^19]
 
-[[The Banker]] reported on October 2, 2026, in an article by [[Chris Newlands]], that Andriesz, 57, "has died by suicide." The article attributes the news of his death to [[Andy Agathangelou]], founder of the Transparency Task Force: "It is with great sadness that we share the news that Simon Andriesz, a valued member of our community, passed away last week."[^19]
+[[The Banker]] reported on October 2, 2026, in an article by [[Chris Newlands]], that Andriesz, 57, "has died by suicide." The article attributes the news of his death to [[Andy Agathangelou]], founder of the Transparency Task Force: "It is with great sadness that we share the news that Simon Andriesz, a valued member of our community, passed away last week."[^20]
 
 ### The 2020 FBI Complaint
 
-The [[United States Department of Justice|Justice Department]]'s [[Jeffrey Epstein|Epstein]] library contains an FBI FD-71A Guardian complaint form dated April 23, 2021 (EFTA01249210, DataSet 9), titled "Alleged Money Laundering by Howard Lutnick via BGC Financial and Cantor Fitzgerald," filed under a money-laundering zero file and under case 50D-NY-3027571, "EPSTEIN, JEFFREY; CHILD SEX TRAFFICKING." The caller's name is redacted in that file. A second release, EFTA01684300 in DataSet 10, a spreadsheet printout of Guardian complaints, carries the text "24 AM Eastern Time, Simon Andriesz, date of birth" and, at EFTA01684391, "Andriesz, calling from the United Kingdom, previously worked for BGC Financial (BGC) and Can," the text of the entry being cut off at the cell edge. The call time in the form itself is "9:16:24 AM Eastern Time" on October 14, 2020.[^5][^20]
+The [[United States Department of Justice|Justice Department]]'s [[Jeffrey Epstein|Epstein]] library contains an FBI FD-71A Guardian complaint form dated April 23, 2021 (EFTA01249210, DataSet 9), titled "Alleged Money Laundering by Howard Lutnick via BGC Financial and Cantor Fitzgerald," filed under a money-laundering zero file and under case 50D-NY-3027571, "EPSTEIN, JEFFREY; CHILD SEX TRAFFICKING." The caller's name is redacted in that file. A second release, EFTA01684300 in DataSet 10, a spreadsheet printout of Guardian complaints, carries the text "24 AM Eastern Time, Simon Andriesz, date of birth" and, at EFTA01684391, "Andriesz, calling from the United Kingdom, previously worked for BGC Financial (BGC) and Can," the text of the entry being cut off at the cell edge. The call time in the form itself is "9:16:24 AM Eastern Time" on October 14, 2020.[^5][^21]
 
 The form records that the caller "was responsible for reviewing, reporting, and compliance for all of North America," and "uncovered fraud, money laundering, Ponzi schemes, and regulatory breaches," so that "he became a whistleblower"; that the caller said BGC and Cantor "received large fines and there are 'live cases' still occurring in the United Kingdom"; and that the caller "believes he has supporting documents which could link Lutnick to Jeffrey Epstein and [[Ghislaine Maxwell]]." It records the allegation of "a 'global Ponzi share' scheme involving over 3,500 BGC employees who are forced to contribute 10% of their earnings into the scheme," and that "Epstein also sold Lutnick a house for $10 dollars through a trust fund, which was then sold for millions shortly after prior to the money going overseas," as well as a statement that the caller "believes its suspicious Lutnick's contributed over 65 million dollars to [[Haverford College]] in New York, although he cannot prove any illegal activity concerning this aspect." The form notes 26 results for Lutnick in Sentinel and Guardian queries in the New York division case files, including a restricted closed case "concerning money laundering" and a control file "concerning a RICO violations/real estate scheme," and 34 results in a DIVS query "including three SAR's," and states that "Queries were not conducted on Epstein and Maxwell due to the sensitive nature of the case."[^5] The allegations are those of the caller; the form records no verification.
 
-An email dated July 24, 2025, in the same library, carries a digest of tips with an entry under the heading "Howard Lutnick": "Simon Andriesz reported that Lutnick made his money through Ponzi schemes and money laundering. Lutnick and Epstein were neighbors and Epstein sold Lutnick a home for $10 which was then sold for millions."[^21] The Commerce Department told the BBC the allegations were "a desperate partisan distraction from the historic work of this Administration" and that there was "no evidence of wrongdoing or legitimate cause for concern."[^12] The BBC reported that Andriesz searched the library for "HWL" and found 2018 emails between Epstein and that account, among them the May 28, 2018 exchange in which Epstein asked "what do you think the prospects for adfin are?"; the AdFin documents and Lutnick's May 6, 2026 testimony on them are set out at Cantor Fitzgerald.[^12]
+An email dated July 24, 2025, in the same library, carries a digest of tips with an entry under the heading "Howard Lutnick": "Simon Andriesz reported that Lutnick made his money through Ponzi schemes and money laundering. Lutnick and Epstein were neighbors and Epstein sold Lutnick a home for $10 which was then sold for millions."[^22] The Commerce Department told the BBC the allegations were "a desperate partisan distraction from the historic work of this Administration" and that there was "no evidence of wrongdoing or legitimate cause for concern."[^13] The BBC reported that Andriesz searched the library for "HWL" and found 2018 emails between Epstein and that account, among them the May 28, 2018 exchange in which Epstein asked "what do you think the prospects for adfin are?"; the AdFin documents and Lutnick's May 6, 2026 testimony on them are set out at Cantor Fitzgerald.[^13]
 
 ### Footnotes
 
@@ -177,17 +177,18 @@ An email dated July 24, 2025, in the same library, carries a digest of tips with
 [^5]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01249210, DataSet 9, FBI FD-71A Guardian Complaint Form, "Alleged Money Laundering by Howard Lutnick via BGC Financial and Cantor Fitzgerald," April 23, 2021. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA01249210.pdf
 [^6]: BGC Partners, Inc., Annual Report on Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2019, filed February 28, 2020, "Our History," "Newmark IPO, Separation Transaction and Spin-Off," "Our Organizational Structure," Legal Proceedings and Notes. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1094831/000156459020007843/bgcp-10k_20191231.htm
 [^7]: eSpeed, Inc., Annual Report on Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2001, filed April 1, 2002. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1094831/000095013602000955/file001.txt
-[^8]: BGC Group, Inc., Form 8-K, exhibit 99.1, press release of May 19, 2025. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1094831/000121390025045119/ea024268501ex99-1_bgc.htm
-[^9]: U.S. Commodity Futures Trading Commission, Order Instituting Proceedings Pursuant to Section 6(c) and (d) of the Commodity Exchange Act, Making Findings, and Imposing Remedial Sanctions, in the matter of BGC Financial, LP, September 30, 2019. https://www.cftc.gov/media/2661/enfbgcfinancial093019/download
-[^10]: U.S. Commodity Futures Trading Commission, Order Instituting Proceedings Pursuant to Section 6(c) and (d) of the Commodity Exchange Act, Making Findings, and Imposing Remedial Sanctions, in the matter of GFI Securities, LLC, September 30, 2019. https://www.cftc.gov/media/2666/%20enfgfisecuritiesorder093019/download
-[^11]: U.S. Commodity Futures Trading Commission, Order Instituting Proceedings Pursuant to Section 6(c) and (d) of the Commodity Exchange Act, Making Findings, and Imposing Remedial Sanctions, in the matter of BGC Financial, L.P., November 22, 2019. https://www.cftc.gov/media/3071/enfbgcfinanciallporder112219/download
-[^12]: Verity, Andy, Rob Byrne and Ben Milne. "How US commerce secretary's Epstein links were uncovered by British whistleblower." *BBC News,* July 14, 2026. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c9q28dlyxrzo ; programme page, "Epstein Files: Lutnick, the Royals and the British Whistleblower," *File on 4 Investigates,* BBC Radio 4, July 14, 2026. https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/m002yx47
-[^13]: FINRA Dispute Resolution Services, Award, Arbitration No. 19-01751, Simon D. Andriesz v. BGC Financial, L.P., et al., served September 12, 2022, filed as docket 27-1, Andriesz v. BGC Financial, L.P., No. 1:24-cv-07004 (S.D.N.Y.), December 6, 2024. https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/69166995/andriesz-v-bgc-financial-lp/
-[^14]: FINRA Dispute Resolution Services, Award, Arbitration No. 22-02539, June 17, 2024, filed as docket 36-2, Andriesz v. BGC Financial, L.P., No. 1:24-cv-07004 (S.D.N.Y.), January 2, 2025, pp. 8-12. https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/69166995/andriesz-v-bgc-financial-lp/
-[^15]: Opinion and Order, Andriesz v. BGC Financial, L.P., No. 24-cv-7004 (LJL) (S.D.N.Y. April 23, 2025), docket 37, pp. 1-4, 7-12; Judgment, docket 38, April 24, 2025; Respondent's Memorandum of Law in Opposition to the Petition, docket 26, December 6, 2024. https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/69166995/andriesz-v-bgc-financial-lp/
-[^16]: United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, Order, Andriesz v. BGC Financial, L.P., No. 25-1341, June 16, 2025, with mandate issued August 28, 2025 (S.D.N.Y. docket 40). https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/69166995/andriesz-v-bgc-financial-lp/
-[^17]: Employment Tribunals (England and Wales), Mr S Andriesz v BGC Partners LP and others, case 3200408/2025, Written Reasons of Employment Judge B Beyzade, dated August 11, 2026, paragraphs 44, 48, 70, 75 and 82. https://www.gov.uk/employment-tribunal-decisions/mr-s-andriesz-v-bgc-partners-lp-and-others-3200408-slash-2025
-[^18]: Transparency Task Force, "The Simon Andriesz Story; and the Role of the Financial Conduct Authority," event of July 21, 2026. https://transparencytaskforce.org/the-simon-andriesz-story-and-the-role-of-the-financial-conduct-authority/
-[^19]: Newlands, Chris. "Whistleblower who flagged Lutnick's links to Epstein dies." *The Banker,* October 2, 2026. https://www.thebanker.com/content/02286d53-0338-42ef-996d-5f7712b9f133
-[^20]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01684300, DataSet 10, compilation of FBI Guardian complaints, pages EFTA01684361 to EFTA01684437. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2010/EFTA01684300.pdf
-[^21]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01648946, DataSet 10, email of July 24, 2025. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2010/EFTA01648946.pdf
+[^8]: In re BGC Partners, Inc. Derivative Litigation, No. 359, 2022 (Del. Aug. 10, 2023) (order affirming the Court of Chancery's final judgment of September 27, 2022, entered on its memorandum opinion of August 19, 2022). https://courts.delaware.gov/Opinions/Download.aspx?id=351370
+[^9]: BGC Group, Inc., Form 8-K, exhibit 99.1, press release of May 19, 2025. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1094831/000121390025045119/ea024268501ex99-1_bgc.htm
+[^10]: U.S. Commodity Futures Trading Commission, Order Instituting Proceedings Pursuant to Section 6(c) and (d) of the Commodity Exchange Act, Making Findings, and Imposing Remedial Sanctions, in the matter of BGC Financial, LP, September 30, 2019. https://www.cftc.gov/media/2661/enfbgcfinancial093019/download
+[^11]: U.S. Commodity Futures Trading Commission, Order Instituting Proceedings Pursuant to Section 6(c) and (d) of the Commodity Exchange Act, Making Findings, and Imposing Remedial Sanctions, in the matter of GFI Securities, LLC, September 30, 2019. https://www.cftc.gov/media/2666/%20enfgfisecuritiesorder093019/download
+[^12]: U.S. Commodity Futures Trading Commission, Order Instituting Proceedings Pursuant to Section 6(c) and (d) of the Commodity Exchange Act, Making Findings, and Imposing Remedial Sanctions, in the matter of BGC Financial, L.P., November 22, 2019. https://www.cftc.gov/media/3071/enfbgcfinanciallporder112219/download
+[^13]: Verity, Andy, Rob Byrne and Ben Milne. "How US commerce secretary's Epstein links were uncovered by British whistleblower." *BBC News,* July 14, 2026. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c9q28dlyxrzo ; programme page, "Epstein Files: Lutnick, the Royals and the British Whistleblower," *File on 4 Investigates,* BBC Radio 4, July 14, 2026. https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/m002yx47
+[^14]: FINRA Dispute Resolution Services, Award, Arbitration No. 19-01751, Simon D. Andriesz v. BGC Financial, L.P., et al., served September 12, 2022, filed as docket 27-1, Andriesz v. BGC Financial, L.P., No. 1:24-cv-07004 (S.D.N.Y.), December 6, 2024. https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/69166995/andriesz-v-bgc-financial-lp/
+[^15]: FINRA Dispute Resolution Services, Award, Arbitration No. 22-02539, June 17, 2024, filed as docket 36-2, Andriesz v. BGC Financial, L.P., No. 1:24-cv-07004 (S.D.N.Y.), January 2, 2025, pp. 8-12. https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/69166995/andriesz-v-bgc-financial-lp/
+[^16]: Opinion and Order, Andriesz v. BGC Financial, L.P., No. 24-cv-7004 (LJL) (S.D.N.Y. April 23, 2025), docket 37, pp. 1-4, 7-12; Judgment, docket 38, April 24, 2025; Respondent's Memorandum of Law in Opposition to the Petition, docket 26, December 6, 2024. https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/69166995/andriesz-v-bgc-financial-lp/
+[^17]: United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, Order, Andriesz v. BGC Financial, L.P., No. 25-1341, June 16, 2025, with mandate issued August 28, 2025 (S.D.N.Y. docket 40). https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/69166995/andriesz-v-bgc-financial-lp/
+[^18]: Employment Tribunals (England and Wales), Mr S Andriesz v BGC Partners LP and others, case 3200408/2025, Written Reasons of Employment Judge B Beyzade, dated August 11, 2026, paragraphs 44, 48, 70, 75 and 82. https://www.gov.uk/employment-tribunal-decisions/mr-s-andriesz-v-bgc-partners-lp-and-others-3200408-slash-2025
+[^19]: Transparency Task Force, "The Simon Andriesz Story; and the Role of the Financial Conduct Authority," event of July 21, 2026. https://transparencytaskforce.org/the-simon-andriesz-story-and-the-role-of-the-financial-conduct-authority/
+[^20]: Newlands, Chris. "Whistleblower who flagged Lutnick's links to Epstein dies." *The Banker,* October 2, 2026. https://www.thebanker.com/content/02286d53-0338-42ef-996d-5f7712b9f133
+[^21]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01684300, DataSet 10, compilation of FBI Guardian complaints, pages EFTA01684361 to EFTA01684437. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2010/EFTA01684300.pdf
+[^22]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01648946, DataSet 10, email of July 24, 2025. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2010/EFTA01648946.pdf

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Battelle Memorial Institute.md

@@ -45,7 +45,7 @@ relations:
     role: "institute created under the will of the Columbus industrialist Gordon Battelle"
     fn: 1
 created: 2026-10-03
-updated: 2026-10-03
+updated: 2026-10-15
 ---
 
 The Battelle Memorial Institute is a nonprofit contract research organization at 505 King Avenue, [[Columbus, Ohio]], next to [[Ohio State University]], created under the will of the Columbus steel heir [[Gordon Battelle]]. The will was drawn in 1920, Gordon Battelle died in 1923, and the institute was incorporated as a nonprofit in 1925; its first laboratory opened in October 1929 with a staff of about thirty and its first director was the metallurgist [[Horace W. Gillett]].[^1] [[Clyde E. Williams]] replaced Gillett in 1934 and resolved to make the institute's services more readily available to industry; in 1943 Battelle technologists began studying the fabrication of uranium for the [[Manhattan Project]].[^1] In the early 1950s the institute bought a large tract of land near Columbus and built the world's first privately owned nuclear research center, with a research reactor, a critical assembly facility and hot cells.[^1] The inventor [[Chester Carlson]] approached the institute in 1944, and through its subsidiary [[Battelle Development Corporation]] the institute agreed to help refine his dry copying process; a later relationship with the [[Haloid Company]] (afterward [[Xerox Corporation]]) ended in the early 1960s with an exchange of xerography patents for equity that by the early 1970s gave Battelle an investment portfolio valued above $225 million.[^1]
@@ -64,7 +64,7 @@ The report is catalogued as Study No. 102-EL-55/2-79, Project No. 10073, dated M
 
 ### Project White Stork
 
-The arrangement outlasted Blue Book's early years. A memorandum of October 11, 1960 from the Chief of the Intelligence Production Faculty of the CIA's [[CIA Intelligence School|Intelligence School]], in the Agency's [[CIA CREST Reading Room|CREST]] collection with the marking "USAF Declass/Release Instructions On File," reports a visit by a staff member (name withheld) to "the Air Force's Project White Stork (PWS) at Battelle Memorial Institute, Columbus, Ohio." It states that White Stork "has assumed increasing importance to OSI analysts because it is able to provide considerably more assistance for many scientific and technical intelligence research tasks than any other repository in the Intelligence Community"; that information specialists with science degrees mark documents, answer reference queries and maintain a card file keyed to underlined "clue terms" including "personalities, institutes, and place names"; that the Agency's [[Office of Scientific Intelligence]] was "considering providing funds to PWS"; and that at that time White Stork "concentrates on subjects of interest to the Air Force's Aerospace Technical Intelligence Center at Wright-Patterson Field, Dayton."[^7] A [[Department of State|State Department]] memorandum of November 10, 1964 to the [[Foreign Area Research Coordination Group]] lists a second Battelle unit, the [[Remote Areas Conflict Information Center]] in Columbus, among research and analysis centers serving the military.[^8]
+The arrangement outlasted Blue Book's early years. A memorandum of October 11, 1960 from the Chief of the Intelligence Production Faculty of the CIA's [[CIA Intelligence School|Intelligence School]], in the Agency's [[CIA CREST Reading Room|CREST]] collection with the marking "USAF Declass/Release Instructions On File," reports a visit by a staff member (name withheld) to "the Air Force's Project White Stork (PWS) at Battelle Memorial Institute, Columbus, Ohio." It states that White Stork "has assumed increasing importance to OSI analysts because it is able to provide considerably more assistance for many scientific and technical Intelligence research projects than any other repository in the Intelligence Community"; that information specialists with science degrees mark documents, answer reference queries and maintain a card file keyed to underlined "clue terms" including "personalities, institutes, and place names"; that the Agency's [[Office of Scientific Intelligence]] was "considering providing funds to PWS"; and that at that time White Stork "concentrates on subjects of interest to the Air Force's Aerospace Technical Intelligence Center at Wright-Patterson Field, Dayton."[^7] A [[Department of State|State Department]] memorandum of November 10, 1964 to the [[Foreign Area Research Coordination Group]] lists a second Battelle unit, the [[Remote Areas Conflict Information Center]] in Columbus, among research and analysis centers serving the military.[^8]
 
 ### Atomic Energy Commission and national laboratory work
 

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Bear Stearns.md

@@ -51,7 +51,7 @@ created: 2026-09-25
 updated: 2026-09-25
 ---
 
-The Bear Stearns Companies Inc. was a [[New York]] investment bank and brokerage that employed [[Jeffrey Epstein]] from 1976 until March 1981, carried his business through his own firms for the next quarter century, and collapsed in March 2008 in a rescue sale to [[JPMorgan Chase]] backed by the [[Federal Reserve Board|Federal Reserve]]. [[Alan Greenberg]], chief executive from 1978 to 1993 and chairman from 1985 to 2001, and [[James Cayne]], chief executive from 1993 to January 2008, were Epstein's mentors at the firm and his principal contacts there until its failure.[^1][^2]
+The Bear Stearns Companies Inc. was a [[New York City|New York]] investment bank and brokerage that employed [[Jeffrey Epstein]] from 1976 until March 1981, carried his business through his own firms for the next quarter century, and collapsed in March 2008 in a rescue sale to [[JPMorgan Chase]] backed by the [[Federal Reserve Board|Federal Reserve]]. [[Alan Greenberg]], chief executive from 1978 to 1993 and chairman from 1985 to 2001, and [[James Cayne]], chief executive from 1993 to January 2008, were Epstein's mentors at the firm and his principal contacts there until its failure.[^1][^2]
 
 ### Epstein at the Firm, 1976 to 1981
 

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Cambridge Analytica.md

@@ -70,25 +70,25 @@ relations:
     start: 2016-07-29
     end: 2016-12-12
     role: "data management vendor, 5,912,500 dollars"
-    fn: 21
+    fn: 24
   - type: contractor_to
     with: "[[Cruz for President]]"
     start: 2015-07-02
     end: 2016-06-09
     role: "vendor, 5,805,552.23 dollars in itemized disbursements"
-    fn: 19
+    fn: 22
   - type: contractor_to
     with: "[[John Bolton Super PAC]]"
     start: 2014-07-07
     end: 2016-09-29
     role: "research and survey research vendor, 1,152,300 dollars"
-    fn: 19
+    fn: 22
   - type: contractor_to
     with: "[[Make America Number 1]]"
     start: 2015-12-10
     end: 2016-12-07
     role: "media, survey research and consulting vendor, 1,476,484 dollars"
-    fn: 25
+    fn: 28
   - type: contractor_to
     with: "[[State Department]]"
     start: 2017-02-20
@@ -108,14 +108,14 @@ relations:
     start: 2017-05
     end: 2020-10-02
     role: "formal investigation into data analytics in political campaigns"
-    fn: 39
+    fn: 42
   - type: subject_of
     with: "[[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]]"
     end: 2020-08-18
     role: "Volume 5 of the committee's Russia report examined the company"
     fn: 2
 created: 2026-10-01
-updated: 2026-10-12
+updated: 2026-10-15
 ---
 
 Cambridge Analytica, formally Cambridge Analytica LLC, was a [[Delaware]] limited liability company formed in December 2013 with its principal office at 597 Fifth Avenue in [[New York City]], and part of the family of companies of the British firm [[SCL Group]].[^1] [[Robert Mercer]] capitalized the company, [[Steve Bannon]] served on its board, and its chief executive officer was [[Alexander Nix]].[^2] The company filed for Chapter 7 bankruptcy protection in the [[United States Bankruptcy Court for the Southern District of New York]] on May 17, 2018 ([[In re Cambridge Analytica LLC]], Case No. 18-11500-shl).[^3]
@@ -146,47 +146,51 @@ The [[Federal Trade Commission]] found, on the allegations in its complaint to w
 
 The Senate committee wrote that, according to Kogan, the application ultimately collected approximately 30 million personality profiles "which were transferred to SCL Group," and noted in a footnote that his written testimony to a Senate subcommittee on June 19, 2018 states that the data was not transferred to SCL.[^17] The Information Commissioner's Office reported contrary evidence that Cambridge Analytica staff controlled "the manner and frequency" with which the data was harvested and that the harvested data was transferred to a "drop-zone" from which Cambridge Analytica extracted modeled data.[^18] Wylie told the committee that the Russian government sponsored some of Kogan's research and that Kogan traveled to Russia to present it; the committee quoted a March 15, 2014 email from an SCL employee to Nix, Wylie and a colleague referring to "the interesting work Alex Kogan has been doing for the Russians."[^17] Kogan denied awareness of any evidence the Trump campaign used the data.[^17]
 
+The Information Commissioner's Office found that the application developed by Kogan and his company harvested data of up to 87 million people worldwide and that the personal information of at least one million UK users was among it.[^19] On July 24, 2019 the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] stated that Cambridge Analytica paid an academic researcher, through a company he controlled, to collect and transfer Facebook data to create personality scores for approximately 30 million Americans.[^20]
+
+[[Nicholas Confessore]] and [[Matthew Rosenberg]] reported in [[The New York Times]] on March 27, 2018 that in summer 2014 the company "received help from at least one employee at [[Palantir Technologies]]." According to documents the newspaper obtained, a Palantir employee in London, [[Alfredas Chmieliauskas]], whose LinkedIn page describes business development work, suggested that the company's data scientists create their own personality quiz to reach Facebook users' friend networks. The report states that beginning in 2013 Chmieliauskas corresponded with Wylie and a colleague and that they shared documents to brainstorm behavioral profiling, a product code-named "Big Daddy." A former SCL intern, [[Sophie Schmidt]], the daughter of [[Eric Schmidt]], urged the company in June 2013 to link up with Palantir, and emails indicated that Nix and Chmieliauskas sought to revive talks about election work through early 2014. Palantir first said it had "never had a relationship with Cambridge Analytica" and later the same day that "an employee, in 2013-2014, engaged in an entirely personal capacity with people associated with Cambridge Analytica." Wylie told British lawmakers: "There were senior Palantir employees that were also working on the Facebook data." He acknowledged that Palantir and Cambridge Analytica never signed a contract.[^21]
+
 ### Clients and payments recorded by the Federal Election Commission
 
-Itemized disbursements to Cambridge Analytica in [[Federal Election Commission]] Schedule B records total $16,111,196.81 across 19 committees between June 2014 and March 2018, a figure that includes one entry marked "VOIDED: TO BE REFUNDED" ($10,027) and one memo-coded entry ($20,000); without them the total is $16,081,169.81.[^19] The largest recipients of payment by committee were [[Donald J. Trump for President, Inc.]] ($5,912,500 in five payments between July 29 and December 12, 2016), [[Cruz for President]] ($5,805,552 in 19 payments from July 2015 to June 2016), [[Make America Number 1]] ($1,476,484 in 13 payments from December 2015 to December 2016), the [[John Bolton Super PAC]] ($1,152,300 in 13 payments from July 2014 to September 2016), [[Keep the Promise II]] ($570,000 in December 2015 and January 2016) and [[Carson America]] ($438,065 from May 2015 to January 2016).[^19] The [[North Carolina Republican Party]] paid $215,000 between July 2014 and June 2015, the [[Thom Tillis]] committee $130,000 between October 2014 and December 2015, and the [[Jobs Growth and Freedom Fund]] $133,333.33 in October 2014.[^19] Two committees named Restoring American Leadership PAC and Restore American Leadership are recorded at $117,100 and $38,625 between May and December 2016, and the committees of [[Tom Cotton]] ($20,000, October 2014), [[Monica Wehby]] ($20,000, August and October 2014) and [[Patrick McHenry]] ($15,000, October 2014) also appear.[^19] Art Robinson for Congress, a committee whose registered address is 2251 Dick George Road, Cave Junction, Oregon, paid $20,000 in three payments between June 10 and November 5, 2014, and the committee Bob Huff for Congress reported the voided $10,027 entry on March 9, 2018.[^19][^20]
+Itemized disbursements to Cambridge Analytica in [[Federal Election Commission]] Schedule B records total $16,111,196.81 across 19 committees between June 2014 and March 2018, a figure that includes one entry marked "VOIDED: TO BE REFUNDED" ($10,027) and one memo-coded entry ($20,000); without them the total is $16,081,169.81.[^22] The largest recipients of payment by committee were [[Donald J. Trump for President, Inc.]] ($5,912,500 in five payments between July 29 and December 12, 2016), [[Cruz for President]] ($5,805,552 in 19 payments from July 2015 to June 2016), [[Make America Number 1]] ($1,476,484 in 13 payments from December 2015 to December 2016), the [[John Bolton Super PAC]] ($1,152,300 in 13 payments from July 2014 to September 2016), [[Keep the Promise II]] ($570,000 in December 2015 and January 2016) and [[Carson America]] ($438,065 from May 2015 to January 2016).[^22] The [[North Carolina Republican Party]] paid $215,000 between July 2014 and June 2015, the [[Thom Tillis]] committee $130,000 between October 2014 and December 2015, and the [[Jobs Growth and Freedom Fund]] $133,333.33 in October 2014.[^22] Two committees named Restoring American Leadership PAC and Restore American Leadership are recorded at $117,100 and $38,625 between May and December 2016, and the committees of [[Tom Cotton]] ($20,000, October 2014), [[Monica Wehby]] ($20,000, August and October 2014) and [[Patrick McHenry]] ($15,000, October 2014) also appear.[^22] Art Robinson for Congress, a committee whose registered address is 2251 Dick George Road, Cave Junction, Oregon, paid $20,000 in three payments between June 10 and November 5, 2014, and the committee Bob Huff for Congress reported the voided $10,027 entry on March 9, 2018.[^22][^23]
 
-The Trump campaign payments were reported as "data management" and "data management services." The campaign's reports for July, August, September and October 1 to 19, 2016 and the year-end report that carry them are amendments filed on November 19, 2018, December 20, 2018, March 13, 2019, April 5, 2019 and June 28, 2019, each the last in a chain of four or five filings that began with an original report filed between August 2016 and January 2017.[^21] The single payment of $5,000,000 is dated September 1, 2016.[^21] The Senate committee recorded that the first disbursement was on July 29, 2016 and that the payments continued through December 12, 2016.[^22]
+The Trump campaign payments were reported as "data management" and "data management services." The campaign's reports for July, August, September and October 1 to 19, 2016 and the year-end report that carry them are amendments filed on November 19, 2018, December 20, 2018, March 13, 2019, April 5, 2019 and June 28, 2019, each the last in a chain of four or five filings that began with an original report filed between August 2016 and January 2017.[^24] The single payment of $5,000,000 is dated September 1, 2016.[^24] The Senate committee recorded that the first disbursement was on July 29, 2016 and that the payments continued through December 12, 2016.[^25]
 
-The Bolton PAC's payments to the company began on July 7, 2014 with $25,000 for "research" and continued as "survey research" through September 29, 2016; over the same period the committee's receipts include ten contributions of $500,000 each from Robert Mercer, dated between April 28, 2014 and December 28, 2017.[^23] Make America Number 1, whose statement of organization of April 6, 2015 was submitted under a cover letter headed "Keep The Promise I" and whose amended statement signed on June 22, 2016 gives the name Make America Number 1, received $11,000,000 from Mercer on April 10, 2015, and $4,500,000 more in 2016.[^24][^25] The committee's disbursements in the same period include payments to Cambridge Analytica, $109,341.25 to Breitbart News Network LLC on November 25, 2015 for "list purchase expense," and $280,641 to Glittering Steel LLC for video production.[^25] The [[Mercer Family Foundation]] return for 2021 lists the [[Oregon Institute of Science and Medicine]] at 2251 Dick George Road, Cave Junction, Oregon, and earlier returns list grants to an organization of that name at Cave Junction, including $965,000 in tax year 2011.[^26] The foundation and the family's other filings are described at [[Mercer family]].
+The Bolton PAC's payments to the company began on July 7, 2014 with $25,000 for "research" and continued as "survey research" through September 29, 2016; over the same period the committee's receipts include ten contributions of $500,000 each from Robert Mercer, dated between April 28, 2014 and December 28, 2017.[^26] Make America Number 1, whose statement of organization of April 6, 2015 was submitted under a cover letter headed "Keep The Promise I" and whose amended statement signed on June 22, 2016 gives the name Make America Number 1, received $11,000,000 from Mercer on April 10, 2015, and $4,500,000 more in 2016.[^27][^28] The committee's disbursements in the same period include payments to Cambridge Analytica, $109,341.25 to Breitbart News Network LLC on November 25, 2015 for "list purchase expense," and $280,641 to Glittering Steel LLC for video production.[^28] The [[Mercer Family Foundation]] return for 2021 lists the [[Oregon Institute of Science and Medicine]] at 2251 Dick George Road, Cave Junction, Oregon, and earlier returns list grants to an organization of that name at Cave Junction, including $965,000 in tax year 2011.[^29] The foundation and the family's other filings are described at [[Mercer family]].
 
 ### Contacts with the Trump campaign
 
-Kaiser told the Senate committee that discussion of a commercial offer to the Trump campaign began in May 2015, that she and Nix met Bannon in Washington in September 2015, that [[Donald Trump]] telephoned Bannon during the meeting and directed that Nix and Kaiser come to New York to meet [[Corey Lewandowski]], and that "eight or ten weeks" of contract negotiations followed without result.[^27] Bannon told the committee he had no recollection of the call.[^27] Kaiser also said that almost every client meeting she had with a political figure was preceded by an introduction from Bannon, Rebekah Mercer or [[Kellyanne Conway]], whom the committee described as an advisor to the Mercers at the time, and that Conway was closely involved in moving the company from the Cruz campaign to the Trump campaign.[^28]
+Kaiser told the Senate committee that discussion of a commercial offer to the Trump campaign began in May 2015, that she and Nix met Bannon in Washington in September 2015, that [[Donald Trump]] telephoned Bannon during the meeting and directed that Nix and Kaiser come to New York to meet [[Corey Lewandowski]], and that "eight or ten weeks" of contract negotiations followed without result.[^30] Bannon told the committee he had no recollection of the call.[^30] Kaiser also said that almost every client meeting she had with a political figure was preceded by an introduction from Bannon, Rebekah Mercer or [[Kellyanne Conway]], whom the committee described as an advisor to the Mercers at the time, and that Conway was closely involved in moving the company from the Cruz campaign to the Trump campaign.[^31]
 
-[[Brad Parscale]] told the committee that the campaign's polling data was ingested into a visualization tool with the help of Cambridge Analytica developers, and that the tool was available on an iPad that Parscale carried.[^29]
+[[Brad Parscale]] told the committee that the campaign's polling data was ingested into a visualization tool with the help of Cambridge Analytica developers, and that the tool was available on an iPad that Parscale carried.[^32]
 
-The committee recorded that the Cruz campaign spent about $5.8 million on the company and the campaign of [[Ben Carson]] more than $430,000, citing a [[CNN]] report, and that within a week of Cruz leaving the race the employees working on his campaign began moving to the Trump campaign.[^27] [[Rick Gates]] told the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] that the campaign decided shortly after the Republican National Convention to use the company, that the [[Republican National Committee]] did not want to use it, that Brad Parscale was reluctant, that [[Jared Kushner]] wanted to use it and negotiated a package with payment at the end of the campaign.[^22] Kushner told the committee that the Mercers aggressively advocated use of the company and that the campaign engaged it to secure the Mercers' support.[^22] Parscale said he decided to hire the company in June 2016 after approval from [[Paul Manafort]] and Kushner, that he declined its offer of "psychographic profiling" services, and that he used Republican National Committee data rather than the company's data.[^22][^30]
+The committee recorded that the Cruz campaign spent about $5.8 million on the company and the campaign of [[Ben Carson]] more than $430,000, citing a [[CNN]] report, and that within a week of Cruz leaving the race the employees working on his campaign began moving to the Trump campaign.[^30] [[Rick Gates]] told the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] that the campaign decided shortly after the Republican National Convention to use the company, that the [[Republican National Committee]] did not want to use it, that Brad Parscale was reluctant, that [[Jared Kushner]] wanted to use it and negotiated a package with payment at the end of the campaign.[^25] Kushner told the committee that the Mercers aggressively advocated use of the company and that the campaign engaged it to secure the Mercers' support.[^25] Parscale said he decided to hire the company in June 2016 after approval from [[Paul Manafort]] and Kushner, that he declined its offer of "psychographic profiling" services, and that he used Republican National Committee data rather than the company's data.[^25][^33]
 
-The committee obtained a campaign data team presentation of August 22, 2016 with a slide depicting data flowing in both directions between the campaign and Cambridge Analytica, with the company's node titled "Digital Media Psychographic Analysis," and another slide showing arrows between its "Psychographic Analysis" and both the Republican National Committee's "GOP Data Center" and the campaign's San Antonio operation, which it called "Project Alamo."[^30] The committee wrote that documents it obtained suggested that the company's data may have been used in support of the campaign and that the campaign may have leveraged its psychographic analysis capabilities.[^30] Gates told the FBI that he later learned campaign data was transmitted to and analyzed in the [[United Kingdom]], which concerned him.[^30] Kaiser said that Project Alamo was "built completely from scratch" from the Republican National Committee's Data Trust database and purchased data sets.[^30]
+The committee obtained a campaign data team presentation of August 22, 2016 with a slide depicting data flowing in both directions between the campaign and Cambridge Analytica, with the company's node titled "Digital Media Psychographic Analysis," and another slide showing arrows between its "Psychographic Analysis" and both the Republican National Committee's "GOP Data Center" and the campaign's San Antonio operation, which it called "Project Alamo."[^33] The committee wrote that documents it obtained suggested that the company's data may have been used in support of the campaign and that the campaign may have leveraged its psychographic analysis capabilities.[^33] Gates told the FBI that he later learned campaign data was transmitted to and analyzed in the [[United Kingdom]], which concerned him.[^33] Kaiser said that Project Alamo was "built completely from scratch" from the Republican National Committee's Data Trust database and purchased data sets.[^33]
 
 ### Russian and WikiLeaks contacts
 
-Wylie said that from spring 2014 through 2015 Cambridge Analytica representatives met representatives of Lukoil, that Nix's presentations included discussion of rumor and disinformation campaigns, and that in May 2018 he told the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]] that Lukoil "has formal information sharing agreements with the Russian Federal Security Service."[^31][^32] His written statement said that after a request for information from Lukoil executives in the spring of 2014, Cambridge Analytica discussed with Lukoil its experience with "foreign disinformation, rumour campaigns, microtargeting and its American data assets."[^32] Kaiser told the committee the discussions concerned a customer loyalty application for Lukoil's stations in Turkey, said she was told the data could also be useful for political activities there, and furnished a February 2015 presentation prepared by SCL Commercial; neither she nor Wylie believed that a contract resulted, and the committee stated that it did not independently corroborate the allegation that Lukoil intended to use the company to affect elections.[^31] The committee noted that the [[Office of Foreign Assets Control]] had added Lukoil to its Sectoral Sanctions Identifications List on September 12, 2014.[^31]
+Wylie said that from spring 2014 through 2015 Cambridge Analytica representatives met representatives of Lukoil, that Nix's presentations included discussion of rumor and disinformation campaigns, and that in May 2018 he told the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]] that Lukoil "has formal information sharing agreements with the Russian Federal Security Service."[^34][^35] His written statement said that after a request for information from Lukoil executives in the spring of 2014, Cambridge Analytica discussed with Lukoil its experience with "foreign disinformation, rumour campaigns, microtargeting and its American data assets."[^35] Kaiser told the committee the discussions concerned a customer loyalty application for Lukoil's stations in Turkey, said she was told the data could also be useful for political activities there, and furnished a February 2015 presentation prepared by SCL Commercial; neither she nor Wylie believed that a contract resulted, and the committee stated that it did not independently corroborate the allegation that Lukoil intended to use the company to affect elections.[^34] The committee noted that the [[Office of Foreign Assets Control]] had added Lukoil to its Sectoral Sanctions Identifications List on September 12, 2014.[^34]
 
-Wylie also told the committee that in spring 2014 Bannon approved focus groups about [[Vladimir Putin]] and Russian expansionism preparatory to a predictive model, and that Bannon and [[Konstantin Kilimnik]] were two of three people likely responsible for the idea.[^33] [[Sam Patten]], a consultant who worked for the company in Nigeria, Mexico, Kosovo and the Czech Republic, told the committee there was "no connection" between Kilimnik and Cambridge Analytica; Kaiser said that on the Nigerian project the company may have assisted its client in retaining former Israeli intelligence officers working privately to conduct opposition research.[^33]
+Wylie also told the committee that in spring 2014 Bannon approved focus groups about [[Vladimir Putin]] and Russian expansionism preparatory to a predictive model, and that Bannon and [[Konstantin Kilimnik]] were two of three people likely responsible for the idea.[^36] [[Sam Patten]], a consultant who worked for the company in Nigeria, Mexico, Kosovo and the Czech Republic, told the committee there was "no connection" between Kilimnik and Cambridge Analytica; Kaiser said that on the Nigerian project the company may have assisted its client in retaining former Israeli intelligence officers working privately to conduct opposition research.[^36]
 
-The committee reported open-source accounts that during the 2016 campaign Nix emailed [[Julian Assange]] about the possible release of [[Hillary Clinton]]'s deleted emails, and that Assange said in October 2017 that [[WikiLeaks]] had rejected an approach by Cambridge Analytica. The committee obtained no additional information, and Bannon and others close to the campaign said they had no prior awareness of the contact.[^34] The committee also recorded that it was unable to obtain the company's corporate communications, which were in the hands of United Kingdom authorities, and that Nix "generally disregarded the Committee's requests for an appearance."[^35] It found "no convincing evidence that Russia's government or intelligence services worked with or through" Cambridge Analytica, Psy Group or Colt Ventures in furtherance of the 2016 interference.[^35] Cambridge Analytica, LLC is named among the respondents in matters under review 7207, 7268, 7274 and 7623 before the Federal Election Commission, in which Commissioners Shana Broussard and Ellen Weintraub issued a statement of reasons citing Volume 5 after a certification dated April 22, 2021; the text of the statement concerns the Russian Federation, the Internet Research Agency and the Trump committee and does not mention Cambridge Analytica outside the caption.[^36]
+The committee reported open-source accounts that during the 2016 campaign Nix emailed [[Julian Assange]] about the possible release of [[Hillary Clinton]]'s deleted emails, and that Assange said in October 2017 that [[WikiLeaks]] had rejected an approach by Cambridge Analytica. The committee obtained no additional information, and Bannon and others close to the campaign said they had no prior awareness of the contact.[^37] The committee also recorded that it was unable to obtain the company's corporate communications, which were in the hands of United Kingdom authorities, and that Nix "generally disregarded the Committee's requests for an appearance."[^38] It found "no convincing evidence that Russia's government or intelligence services worked with or through" Cambridge Analytica, Psy Group or Colt Ventures in furtherance of the 2016 interference.[^38] Cambridge Analytica, LLC is named among the respondents in matters under review 7207, 7268, 7274 and 7623 before the Federal Election Commission, in which Commissioners Shana Broussard and Ellen Weintraub issued a statement of reasons citing Volume 5 after a certification dated April 22, 2021; the text of the statement concerns the Russian Federation, the Internet Research Agency and the Trump committee and does not mention Cambridge Analytica outside the caption.[^39]
 
 ### Regulatory and criminal proceedings in the United Kingdom
 
-The Information Commissioner's Office issued a monetary penalty notice of £500,000 to Facebook on October 25, 2018, the highest fine permitted under the Data Protection Act 1998, citing lack of transparency and security failures relating to the harvesting of data.[^37] The office also executed a warrant at the company's premises at 8 p.m. on March 23, 2018, seized servers and other material, and reported that Cambridge Analytica and SCL Elections entered administration on May 3, 2018, that an enforcement notice of May 4, 2018 required it to answer a subject access request from the American academic [[David Carroll]] that had been made in January 2017, and that the deadline of June 3, 2018 passed without compliance.[^18] The office reported that Nix and Kogan had declined invitations to voluntary interviews under caution and that it would have issued a substantial fine had the company not been in administration.[^18] SCL Elections pleaded guilty at [[Hendon Magistrates' Court]] on January 9, 2019, the day set for trial, to failing to comply with the enforcement notice; press reports gave the penalty as a fine of £15,000 with £6,000 in costs and a victim surcharge of £170.[^38] The Information Commissioner's 2020 letter to Parliament gives the fine as £18,000.[^39]
+The Information Commissioner's Office issued a monetary penalty notice of £500,000 to Facebook on October 25, 2018, the highest fine permitted under the Data Protection Act 1998, citing lack of transparency and security failures relating to the harvesting of data.[^40] The office also executed a warrant at the company's premises at 8 p.m. on March 23, 2018, seized servers and other material, and reported that Cambridge Analytica and SCL Elections entered administration on May 3, 2018, that an enforcement notice of May 4, 2018 required it to answer a subject access request from the American academic [[David Carroll]] that had been made in January 2017, and that the deadline of June 3, 2018 passed without compliance.[^18] The office reported that Nix and Kogan had declined invitations to voluntary interviews under caution and that it would have issued a substantial fine had the company not been in administration.[^18] SCL Elections pleaded guilty at [[Hendon Magistrates' Court]] on January 9, 2019, the day set for trial, to failing to comply with the enforcement notice; press reports gave the penalty as a fine of £15,000 with £6,000 in costs and a victim surcharge of £170.[^41] The Information Commissioner's 2020 letter to Parliament gives the fine as £18,000.[^42]
 
-On October 2, 2020 the Information Commissioner, [[Elizabeth Denham]], wrote to the chair of the Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Committee that the office had concluded its investigation, that the company had purchased commercially available data amounting at one estimate to more than 130 billion data points, mostly about United States voters, to combine with Facebook-derived data from Kogan, that its models were mostly built from "off the shelf" tools, that the office found no further evidence to change its view that the company was not involved in the European Union referendum campaign beyond early inquiries about UK Independence Party data, and that it found no additional evidence of Russian involvement in the servers it obtained.[^39] The letter also reported evidence that in its last stages the company was drawing up plans to move its data offshore to avoid regulatory scrutiny, which it did not carry out before it ceased trading.[^39]
+On October 2, 2020 the Information Commissioner, [[Elizabeth Denham]], wrote to the chair of the Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Committee that the office had concluded its investigation, that the company had purchased commercially available data amounting at one estimate to more than 130 billion data points, mostly about United States voters, to combine with Facebook-derived data from Kogan, that its models were mostly built from "off the shelf" tools, that the office found no further evidence to change its view that the company was not involved in the European Union referendum campaign beyond early inquiries about UK Independence Party data, and that it found no additional evidence of Russian involvement in the servers it obtained.[^42] The letter also reported evidence that in its last stages the company was drawing up plans to move its data offshore to avoid regulatory scrutiny, which it did not carry out before it ceased trading.[^42]
 
-The Insolvency Service announced in September 2020 that Nix had given an undertaking disqualifying him from acting as a company director for seven years from October 5, 2020, having, in the service's words, caused or permitted SCL Elections or associated companies to act with a lack of commercial probity by marketing services including "bribery or honey trap stings, voter disengagement campaigns, obtaining information to discredit political opponents and spreading information anonymously in political campaigns." The service did not say whether any such services were performed, and Nix told Reuters he had made no admission of wrongdoing.[^40] The Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Committee had recorded in February 2019 that the Insolvency Service was investigating the directors of SCL Elections, SCL Group, SCL Analytics, SCL Commercial, SCL Social and Cambridge Analytica (UK) under the [[Company Directors Disqualification Act 1986]].[^41]
+The Insolvency Service announced in September 2020 that Nix had given an undertaking disqualifying him from acting as a company director for seven years from October 5, 2020, having, in the service's words, caused or permitted SCL Elections or associated companies to act with a lack of commercial probity by marketing services including "bribery or honey trap stings, voter disengagement campaigns, obtaining information to discredit political opponents and spreading information anonymously in political campaigns." The service did not say whether any such services were performed, and Nix told Reuters he had made no admission of wrongdoing.[^43] The Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Committee had recorded in February 2019 that the Insolvency Service was investigating the directors of SCL Elections, SCL Group, SCL Analytics, SCL Commercial, SCL Social and Cambridge Analytica (UK) under the [[Company Directors Disqualification Act 1986]].[^44]
 
 ### Emerdata and the end of the group
 
-Emerdata Limited (Companies House number 10911848) was incorporated on August 11, 2017 with Wheatland as a director, and its persons with significant control from incorporation were Wheatland and Dr Alexander Bruce Tayler, each holding more than 25 percent and up to 50 percent until January 23, 2018.[^42] From January 23, 2018 the register shows Cambridge Analytica Holdings LLC, with an address on Orange Street in Wilmington, Delaware, as holder of more than 50 percent and less than 75 percent of shares and votes until August 9, 2022; since that date the register carries a statement that there is no registrable person.[^42] The register records the officers appointed on January 23, 2018 as Nix (resigned March 28, 2018), Johnson Chun Shun Ko (resigned May 9, 2018), Cheng Peng (resigned May 8, 2018) and Ahmad Al Khatib (resigned May 7, 2018); Tayler was a director again from March 28 to April 18, 2018, Gary Ka Chun Tiu from June 12, 2018 to December 3, 2024, and Wheatland until May 22, 2019.[^42] Rebekah and Jennifer Mercer were appointed directors on March 16, 2018 and remained in office as of the register consulted on October 1, 2026, with [[Jacquelyn James-Varga]] (appointed May 22, 2019) and Bradley David Golub (appointed December 3, 2024).[^42]
+Emerdata Limited (Companies House number 10911848) was incorporated on August 11, 2017 with Wheatland as a director, and its persons with significant control from incorporation were Wheatland and Dr Alexander Bruce Tayler, each holding more than 25 percent and up to 50 percent until January 23, 2018.[^45] From January 23, 2018 the register shows Cambridge Analytica Holdings LLC, with an address on Orange Street in Wilmington, Delaware, as holder of more than 50 percent and less than 75 percent of shares and votes until August 9, 2022; since that date the register carries a statement that there is no registrable person.[^45] The register records the officers appointed on January 23, 2018 as Nix (resigned March 28, 2018), Johnson Chun Shun Ko (resigned May 9, 2018), Cheng Peng (resigned May 8, 2018) and Ahmad Al Khatib (resigned May 7, 2018); Tayler was a director again from March 28 to April 18, 2018, Gary Ka Chun Tiu from June 12, 2018 to December 3, 2024, and Wheatland until May 22, 2019.[^45] Rebekah and Jennifer Mercer were appointed directors on March 16, 2018 and remained in office as of the register consulted on October 1, 2026, with [[Jacquelyn James-Varga]] (appointed May 22, 2019) and Bradley David Golub (appointed December 3, 2024).[^45]
 
-The Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Committee reported in February 2019 that Emerdata had not gone into administration, was the largest creditor of SCL Elections and was paying the administration costs, and listed shareholders as of August 10, 2018 that included Cambridge Analytica Holdings LLC, Tayler, Wheatland, trusts for the benefit of Rebekah, Jennifer and Heather Mercer, Alexander and Catherine Nix, five members of the Marland family, Henry and Roger Gabb, Nigel and Alexander Oakes, and Reza Saddlou-Bundy.[^41] The committee recommended that the [[National Crime Agency]] investigate the connections between SCL Elections and Emerdata.[^41] The committee also reported that SCL Insight Limited, owned by Nigel Oakes, had been spun off in the 2017 reorganization.[^41]
+The Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Committee reported in February 2019 that Emerdata had not gone into administration, was the largest creditor of SCL Elections and was paying the administration costs, and listed shareholders as of August 10, 2018 that included Cambridge Analytica Holdings LLC, Tayler, Wheatland, trusts for the benefit of Rebekah, Jennifer and Heather Mercer, Alexander and Catherine Nix, five members of the Marland family, Henry and Roger Gabb, Nigel and Alexander Oakes, and Reza Saddlou-Bundy.[^44] The committee recommended that the [[National Crime Agency]] investigate the connections between SCL Elections and Emerdata.[^44] The committee also reported that SCL Insight Limited, owned by Nigel Oakes, had been spun off in the 2017 reorganization.[^44]
 
-Emerdata entered administration on December 9, 2024, the register names Benjamin Stanyon and Nedim Patrick Ailyan as practitioners, records a cessation to act on April 8, 2026, and gives the registered office as care of Opus Restructuring LLP, Milton Keynes.[^42] SCL Group Limited, SCL Elections Limited and Cambridge Analytica (UK) Limited were in administration from May 3, 2018 to April 17, 2019, then in compulsory liquidation on a petition of August 13, 2018, which concluded on September 1, 2025; the first two were dissolved on January 31, 2026 and the third on January 30, 2026.[^43]
+Emerdata entered administration on December 9, 2024, the register names Benjamin Stanyon and Nedim Patrick Ailyan as practitioners, records a cessation to act on April 8, 2026, and gives the registered office as care of Opus Restructuring LLP, Milton Keynes.[^45] SCL Group Limited, SCL Elections Limited and Cambridge Analytica (UK) Limited were in administration from May 3, 2018 to April 17, 2019, then in compulsory liquidation on a petition of August 13, 2018, which concluded on September 1, 2025; the first two were dissolved on January 31, 2026 and the third on January 30, 2026.[^46]
 
 ### Footnotes
 
@@ -208,28 +212,31 @@ Emerdata entered administration on December 9, 2024, the register names Benjamin
 [^16]: Federal Trade Commission, *In the Matter of Cambridge Analytica, LLC*, Docket No. 9383, Opinion of the Commission, issued November 25, 2019, introduction, section I and note 1 (consent settlements with Alexander Nix and Aleksandr Kogan accepted July 24, 2019, matters 182-3106 and 182-3107); administrative complaint of July 24, 2019 (matter 182 3107). https://www.ftc.gov/system/files/documents/cases/d09389_comm_final_opinionpublic.pdf and https://www.ftc.gov/system/files/documents/cases/182_3107_cambridge_analytica_administrative_complaint_7-24-19.pdf
 [^17]: U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *Russian Active Measures Campaigns and Interference in the 2016 U.S. Election, Volume 5: Counterintelligence Threats and Vulnerabilities*, report released August 18, 2020, pp. 668 to 670 and notes 4326 to 4333 (Kogan testimony of June 19, 2018 before the Senate Commerce Committee subcommittee; Wylie proffer; email Beltran to Nix, Ward and Wylie, March 15, 2014, WYL001009). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/report_volume5.pdf
 [^18]: UK Information Commissioner's Office, *Investigation into the use of data analytics in political campaigns: A report to Parliament*, November 6, 2018, sections 3.2.1 to 3.2.3 (pp. 31 to 37). https://www.statewatch.org/media/documents/news/2018/nov/uk-ico-report-investigation-into-use-of-data-political-campaigns-6-11-18.pdf
-[^19]: OpenFEC API (https://api.open.fec.gov/developers/), Schedule B itemized disbursements, recipient names "CAMBRIDGE ANALYTICA," "CAMBRIDGE ANALYTICA, LLC" and "CAMBRIDGE ANALYTICA LLC" (90 unique line items, retrieved October 1, 2026); amounts summed by filing committee. Committee identifiers: Donald J. Trump for President, Inc. C00580100; Cruz for President C00574624; Make America Number 1 C00575373; John Bolton Super PAC C00542464; Keep the Promise II C00575431; Carson America C00573519; North Carolina Republican Party C00038505; Jobs Growth and Freedom Fund C00536540; Thom Tillis Committee C00545772; Art Robinson for Congress C00481341; Bob Huff for Congress C00665802. https://api.open.fec.gov/v1/schedules/schedule_b/?recipient_name=Cambridge+Analytica
-[^20]: Federal Election Commission, committee record for ART ROBINSON FOR CONGRESS (C00481341), street address 2251 DICK GEORGE RD, Cave Junction, Oregon, treasurer Art Robinson, first filed April 17, 2010. https://api.open.fec.gov/v1/committee/C00481341/
-[^21]: Federal Election Commission, Donald J. Trump for President, Inc. (C00580100), Schedule B, payments to Cambridge Analytica, LLC dated July 29, 2016 ($100,000), August 18, 2016 ($250,000), September 1, 2016 ($5,000,000), October 19, 2016 ($250,000) and December 12, 2016 ($312,500); amended reports file numbers 1291697 (receipt date November 19, 2018), 1301972 (December 20, 2018), 1319157 (March 13, 2019), 1322657 (April 5, 2019) and 1335968 (June 28, 2019), with originals 1096341, 1111849, 1119574 and 1146165 in the amendment chains. https://docquery.fec.gov/cgi-bin/fecimg/?201903139145702446 (September 2016 payment)
-[^22]: U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *Russian Active Measures Campaigns and Interference in the 2016 U.S. Election, Volume 5: Counterintelligence Threats and Vulnerabilities*, report released August 18, 2020, pp. 673 to 675 and notes 4358 to 4366 (FBI FD-302 of Rick Gates, October 29, 2018; Kushner transcript II, pp. 84 to 85; Parscale transcript, pp. 55 to 62), and note 4363 (FEC disbursements July 29 to December 12, 2016, totaling $5,912,500). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/report_volume5.pdf
-[^23]: OpenFEC API (https://api.open.fec.gov/developers/), Schedule B itemized disbursements to Cambridge Analytica by John Bolton Super PAC (C00542464), July 7, 2014 to September 29, 2016; and OpenFEC Schedule A receipts of C00542464 from Robert Mercer of East Setauket, New York ($500,000 each on April 28, 2014, June 30, 2014, February 24, 2015, June 30, 2015, September 28, 2015, December 18, 2015, July 5, 2016, September 6, 2016, October 23, 2017 and December 28, 2017). https://api.open.fec.gov/v1/schedules/schedule_a/?committee_id=C00542464&contributor_name=MERCER
-[^24]: Federal Election Commission, Form 1 Statement of Organization of committee C00575373, original filed April 6, 2015 under cover letter headed "Keep The Promise I" signed by treasurer Jacquelyn James (https://docquery.fec.gov/pdf/670/15031410670/15031410670.pdf), and amended Form 1 dated June 21, 2016, filed June 22, 2016, under the name "Make America Number 1" (https://docquery.fec.gov/pdf/183/201606229020090183/201606229020090183.pdf).
-[^25]: OpenFEC API, Schedule A receipts and Schedule B disbursements of Make America Number 1 (C00575373), 2015 to 2016, including receipts from Robert Mercer of $11,000,000 (April 10, 2015, file 1027937), $500,000 (February 26, 2016), $2,000,000 (March 17, 2016) and $2,000,000 (July 14, 2016); disbursements to Cambridge Analytica ($842,748 and $633,736 under two spellings), to Breitbart News Network LLC ($109,341.25 on November 25, 2015, "list purchase expense," file 1071367, and $10,000 on January 27, 2016, "media prepaid"), and to Glittering Steel LLC (seven payments from July 17, 2015 to November 1, 2016 totaling $280,641). https://api.open.fec.gov/v1/committee/C00575373/
-[^26]: Mercer Family Foundation, Form 990-PF for 2011, Part XV (grant to OISM, P.O. Box 1279, Cave Junction, Oregon, $965,000) (https://990s.foundationcenter.org/990pf_pdf_archive/201/201982204/201982204_201112_990PF.pdf); Form 990-PF for 2021, Part XV (Oregon Institute of Science and Medicine, 2251 Dick George Road, Cave Junction, Oregon, $250,000), ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer full text (https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/201982204/202213199349104431/IRS990PF).
-[^27]: U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *Russian Active Measures Campaigns and Interference in the 2016 U.S. Election, Volume 5: Counterintelligence Threats and Vulnerabilities*, report released August 18, 2020, pp. 673 to 674 and notes 4352 to 4357 (Kaiser transcript, pp. 144 to 156; Bannon transcript, p. 268; Maegan Vazquez and Paul Murphy, "Trump isn't the only Republican who gave Cambridge Analytica big bucks," CNN, March 21, 2018). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/report_volume5.pdf
-[^28]: U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *Russian Active Measures Campaigns and Interference in the 2016 U.S. Election, Volume 5: Counterintelligence Threats and Vulnerabilities*, report released August 18, 2020, p. 672 and note 4348 (Kaiser transcript, pp. 40 to 43). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/report_volume5.pdf
-[^29]: U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *Russian Active Measures Campaigns and Interference in the 2016 U.S. Election, Volume 5: Counterintelligence Threats and Vulnerabilities*, notes 447 and 448 (Parscale transcript, p. 64). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/report_volume5.pdf
-[^30]: U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *Russian Active Measures Campaigns and Interference in the 2016 U.S. Election, Volume 5: Counterintelligence Threats and Vulnerabilities*, report released August 18, 2020, pp. 675 to 678 and notes 4367 to 4379 (Parscale transcript, pp. 53 to 60; Trump Data Team Presentation, August 22, 2016, FLYNN_SSCI_00011770 and 00011773; FBI FD-302 of Rick Gates, October 29, 2018; Kaiser transcript, pp. 161 to 164). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/report_volume5.pdf
-[^31]: U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *Russian Active Measures Campaigns and Interference in the 2016 U.S. Election, Volume 5: Counterintelligence Threats and Vulnerabilities*, report released August 18, 2020, pp. 670 to 671 and notes 4334 to 4341 (Wylie proffer; Wylie written statement to the Senate Judiciary Committee, May 16, 2018; Kaiser transcript, pp. 66 to 67 and 121 to 123; SCL Commercial presentation for Lukoil, February 18, 2015; OFAC listing of September 12, 2014). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/report_volume5.pdf
-[^32]: Christopher Wylie, written statement, "In the Matter of Cambridge Analytica and Other Related Issues," Senate Committee on the Judiciary, May 16, 2018, paragraphs 32 and 33. https://www.judiciary.senate.gov/download/06/03/2026/05-16-18-wylie-testimony
-[^33]: U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *Russian Active Measures Campaigns and Interference in the 2016 U.S. Election, Volume 5: Counterintelligence Threats and Vulnerabilities*, report released August 18, 2020, p. 668 and notes 4318 to 4325 (Wylie proffer; Patten transcript, pp. 29 to 38; Kaiser transcript, pp. 67 to 68; Bannon transcript, pp. 253 to 256). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/report_volume5.pdf
-[^34]: U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *Russian Active Measures Campaigns and Interference in the 2016 U.S. Election, Volume 5: Counterintelligence Threats and Vulnerabilities*, report released August 18, 2020, pp. 678 to 679 and notes 4380 to 4383 (Betsy Swan, "Trump Data Guru Alexander Nix: I Tried To Team Up With Julian Assange," *The Daily Beast*, October 25, 2017; Kara Scannell, Dana Bash and Marshall Cohen, CNN, October 25, 2017). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/report_volume5.pdf
-[^35]: U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *Russian Active Measures Campaigns and Interference in the 2016 U.S. Election, Volume 5: Counterintelligence Threats and Vulnerabilities*, report released August 18, 2020, pp. 663 to 664 (section introduction, "Committee did not examine the effectiveness of the work these companies may have conducted"; limitations including Nix's non-appearance and the seizure of the company's corporate communications by U.K. authorities). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/report_volume5.pdf
-[^36]: Federal Election Commission, Statement of Reasons of Commissioners Shana M. Broussard and Ellen L. Weintraub, MURs 7207, 7268, 7274 and 7623 (Russian Federation; Donald J. Trump for President, Inc.; Donald J. Trump; H. Russell Taub; Cambridge Analytica, LLC; Internet Research Agency; Paul Manafort), note 2 (certification dated April 22, 2021). https://www.fec.gov/files/legal/murs/7207/7207_47.pdf
-[^37]: UK Information Commissioner's Office, *Investigation into the use of data analytics in political campaigns: A report to Parliament*, November 6, 2018, section 3.2.4 (p. 38). https://www.statewatch.org/media/documents/news/2018/nov/uk-ico-report-investigation-into-use-of-data-political-campaigns-6-11-18.pdf
-[^38]: UK Information Commissioner's Office, *Investigation into the use of data analytics in political campaigns*, November 6, 2018, section 3.2.3 (trial set for January 9, 2019 at Hendon Magistrates' Court); "Cambridge Analytica Pleads Guilty In UK Data Access Case," *MediaPost*, January 9, 2019 (fine of £15,000, costs of £6,000, victim surcharge of £170, citing the ICO announcement) https://www.mediapost.com/publications/article/330338/ ; Ellen Tannam, "Cambridge Analytica owner hit with £15,000 fine for disobeying UK ICO," *Silicon Republic*, January 2019 (District Judge Kenneth Grant: "wilful disregard of the enforcement notice") https://www.siliconrepublic.com/enterprise/cambridge-analytica-scl-fine
-[^39]: Elizabeth Denham, Information Commissioner, letter to Julian Knight MP, Chair, Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Committee, reference ICO/O/ED/L/RTL/0181, October 2, 2020, paragraphs 3 to 15. https://cy.ico.org.uk/media2/migrated/2618383/20201002_ico-o-ed-l-rtl-0181_to-julian-knight-mp.pdf
-[^40]: "Ex-Cambridge Analytica head banned from running firms in UK," Reuters, published by Al Jazeera, September 25, 2020 (statement of the Insolvency Service of September 24, 2020; Mark Bruce, chief investigator; disqualification from October 5, 2020). https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2020/9/25/uk-bans-ex-cambridge-analytica-boss-for-unethical-services
-[^41]: House of Commons Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Committee, *Disinformation and "fake news": Final Report*, HC 1791, February 18, 2019, paragraphs 285 to 290, 296 and notes 327 to 329 and 338. https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201719/cmselect/cmcumeds/1791/1791.pdf
-[^42]: Companies House, EMERDATA LIMITED (company number 10911848), overview, officers, persons with significant control and insolvency pages, viewed October 1, 2026; personal appointments pages for Jennifer Lynne Mercer, Rebekah Anne Mercer, Jacquelyn James-Varga and Bradley David Golub. https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/10911848
-[^43]: Companies House, insolvency pages for SCL GROUP LIMITED (05514098), SCL ELECTIONS LIMITED (08256225) and CAMBRIDGE ANALYTICA(UK) LIMITED (09375920), viewed October 1, 2026 (administration May 3, 2018 to April 17, 2019; compulsory liquidation, petition August 13, 2018, winding up commenced April 17, 2019 and concluded September 1, 2025; dissolved January 31, 2026, January 31, 2026 and January 30, 2026). https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/05514098/insolvency
+[^19]: UK Information Commissioner's Office, *Investigation into the use of data analytics in political campaigns: A report to Parliament*, November 6, 2018, section 3.3.1. https://www.statewatch.org/media/documents/news/2018/nov/uk-ico-report-investigation-into-use-of-data-political-campaigns-6-11-18.pdf
+[^20]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, Press Release 2019-140, "Facebook to Pay $100 Million for Misleading Investors About the Risks It Faced From Misuse of User Data," July 24, 2019. https://www.sec.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2019-140
+[^21]: Nicholas Confessore and Matthew Rosenberg, "Spy Contractor's Idea Helped Firm Harvest Facebook Data," *The New York Times,* March 27, 2018, as republished by WRAL. https://www.wral.com/spy-contractor-s-idea-helped-firm-harvest-facebook-data/17447632/
+[^22]: OpenFEC API (https://api.open.fec.gov/developers/), Schedule B itemized disbursements, recipient names "CAMBRIDGE ANALYTICA," "CAMBRIDGE ANALYTICA, LLC" and "CAMBRIDGE ANALYTICA LLC" (90 unique line items, retrieved October 1, 2026); amounts summed by filing committee. Committee identifiers: Donald J. Trump for President, Inc. C00580100; Cruz for President C00574624; Make America Number 1 C00575373; John Bolton Super PAC C00542464; Keep the Promise II C00575431; Carson America C00573519; North Carolina Republican Party C00038505; Jobs Growth and Freedom Fund C00536540; Thom Tillis Committee C00545772; Art Robinson for Congress C00481341; Bob Huff for Congress C00665802. https://api.open.fec.gov/v1/schedules/schedule_b/?recipient_name=Cambridge+Analytica
+[^23]: Federal Election Commission, committee record for ART ROBINSON FOR CONGRESS (C00481341), street address 2251 DICK GEORGE RD, Cave Junction, Oregon, treasurer Art Robinson, first filed April 17, 2010. https://api.open.fec.gov/v1/committee/C00481341/
+[^24]: Federal Election Commission, Donald J. Trump for President, Inc. (C00580100), Schedule B, payments to Cambridge Analytica, LLC dated July 29, 2016 ($100,000), August 18, 2016 ($250,000), September 1, 2016 ($5,000,000), October 19, 2016 ($250,000) and December 12, 2016 ($312,500); amended reports file numbers 1291697 (receipt date November 19, 2018), 1301972 (December 20, 2018), 1319157 (March 13, 2019), 1322657 (April 5, 2019) and 1335968 (June 28, 2019), with originals 1096341, 1111849, 1119574 and 1146165 in the amendment chains. https://docquery.fec.gov/cgi-bin/fecimg/?201903139145702446 (September 2016 payment)
+[^25]: U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *Russian Active Measures Campaigns and Interference in the 2016 U.S. Election, Volume 5: Counterintelligence Threats and Vulnerabilities*, report released August 18, 2020, pp. 673 to 675 and notes 4358 to 4366 (FBI FD-302 of Rick Gates, October 29, 2018; Kushner transcript II, pp. 84 to 85; Parscale transcript, pp. 55 to 62), and note 4363 (FEC disbursements July 29 to December 12, 2016, totaling $5,912,500). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/report_volume5.pdf
+[^26]: OpenFEC API (https://api.open.fec.gov/developers/), Schedule B itemized disbursements to Cambridge Analytica by John Bolton Super PAC (C00542464), July 7, 2014 to September 29, 2016; and OpenFEC Schedule A receipts of C00542464 from Robert Mercer of East Setauket, New York ($500,000 each on April 28, 2014, June 30, 2014, February 24, 2015, June 30, 2015, September 28, 2015, December 18, 2015, July 5, 2016, September 6, 2016, October 23, 2017 and December 28, 2017). https://api.open.fec.gov/v1/schedules/schedule_a/?committee_id=C00542464&contributor_name=MERCER
+[^27]: Federal Election Commission, Form 1 Statement of Organization of committee C00575373, original filed April 6, 2015 under cover letter headed "Keep The Promise I" signed by treasurer Jacquelyn James (https://docquery.fec.gov/pdf/670/15031410670/15031410670.pdf), and amended Form 1 dated June 21, 2016, filed June 22, 2016, under the name "Make America Number 1" (https://docquery.fec.gov/pdf/183/201606229020090183/201606229020090183.pdf).
+[^28]: OpenFEC API, Schedule A receipts and Schedule B disbursements of Make America Number 1 (C00575373), 2015 to 2016, including receipts from Robert Mercer of $11,000,000 (April 10, 2015, file 1027937), $500,000 (February 26, 2016), $2,000,000 (March 17, 2016) and $2,000,000 (July 14, 2016); disbursements to Cambridge Analytica ($842,748 and $633,736 under two spellings), to Breitbart News Network LLC ($109,341.25 on November 25, 2015, "list purchase expense," file 1071367, and $10,000 on January 27, 2016, "media prepaid"), and to Glittering Steel LLC (seven payments from July 17, 2015 to November 1, 2016 totaling $280,641). https://api.open.fec.gov/v1/committee/C00575373/
+[^29]: Mercer Family Foundation, Form 990-PF for 2011, Part XV (grant to OISM, P.O. Box 1279, Cave Junction, Oregon, $965,000) (https://990s.foundationcenter.org/990pf_pdf_archive/201/201982204/201982204_201112_990PF.pdf); Form 990-PF for 2021, Part XV (Oregon Institute of Science and Medicine, 2251 Dick George Road, Cave Junction, Oregon, $250,000), ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer full text (https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/201982204/202213199349104431/IRS990PF).
+[^30]: U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *Russian Active Measures Campaigns and Interference in the 2016 U.S. Election, Volume 5: Counterintelligence Threats and Vulnerabilities*, report released August 18, 2020, pp. 673 to 674 and notes 4352 to 4357 (Kaiser transcript, pp. 144 to 156; Bannon transcript, p. 268; Maegan Vazquez and Paul Murphy, "Trump isn't the only Republican who gave Cambridge Analytica big bucks," CNN, March 21, 2018). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/report_volume5.pdf
+[^31]: U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *Russian Active Measures Campaigns and Interference in the 2016 U.S. Election, Volume 5: Counterintelligence Threats and Vulnerabilities*, report released August 18, 2020, p. 672 and note 4348 (Kaiser transcript, pp. 40 to 43). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/report_volume5.pdf
+[^32]: U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *Russian Active Measures Campaigns and Interference in the 2016 U.S. Election, Volume 5: Counterintelligence Threats and Vulnerabilities*, notes 447 and 448 (Parscale transcript, p. 64). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/report_volume5.pdf
+[^33]: U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *Russian Active Measures Campaigns and Interference in the 2016 U.S. Election, Volume 5: Counterintelligence Threats and Vulnerabilities*, report released August 18, 2020, pp. 675 to 678 and notes 4367 to 4379 (Parscale transcript, pp. 53 to 60; Trump Data Team Presentation, August 22, 2016, FLYNN_SSCI_00011770 and 00011773; FBI FD-302 of Rick Gates, October 29, 2018; Kaiser transcript, pp. 161 to 164). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/report_volume5.pdf
+[^34]: U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *Russian Active Measures Campaigns and Interference in the 2016 U.S. Election, Volume 5: Counterintelligence Threats and Vulnerabilities*, report released August 18, 2020, pp. 670 to 671 and notes 4334 to 4341 (Wylie proffer; Wylie written statement to the Senate Judiciary Committee, May 16, 2018; Kaiser transcript, pp. 66 to 67 and 121 to 123; SCL Commercial presentation for Lukoil, February 18, 2015; OFAC listing of September 12, 2014). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/report_volume5.pdf
+[^35]: Christopher Wylie, written statement, "In the Matter of Cambridge Analytica and Other Related Issues," Senate Committee on the Judiciary, May 16, 2018, paragraphs 32 and 33. https://www.judiciary.senate.gov/download/06/03/2026/05-16-18-wylie-testimony
+[^36]: U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *Russian Active Measures Campaigns and Interference in the 2016 U.S. Election, Volume 5: Counterintelligence Threats and Vulnerabilities*, report released August 18, 2020, p. 668 and notes 4318 to 4325 (Wylie proffer; Patten transcript, pp. 29 to 38; Kaiser transcript, pp. 67 to 68; Bannon transcript, pp. 253 to 256). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/report_volume5.pdf
+[^37]: U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *Russian Active Measures Campaigns and Interference in the 2016 U.S. Election, Volume 5: Counterintelligence Threats and Vulnerabilities*, report released August 18, 2020, pp. 678 to 679 and notes 4380 to 4383 (Betsy Swan, "Trump Data Guru Alexander Nix: I Tried To Team Up With Julian Assange," *The Daily Beast*, October 25, 2017; Kara Scannell, Dana Bash and Marshall Cohen, CNN, October 25, 2017). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/report_volume5.pdf
+[^38]: U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *Russian Active Measures Campaigns and Interference in the 2016 U.S. Election, Volume 5: Counterintelligence Threats and Vulnerabilities*, report released August 18, 2020, pp. 663 to 664 (section introduction, "Committee did not examine the effectiveness of the work these companies may have conducted"; limitations including Nix's non-appearance and the seizure of the company's corporate communications by U.K. authorities). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/report_volume5.pdf
+[^39]: Federal Election Commission, Statement of Reasons of Commissioners Shana M. Broussard and Ellen L. Weintraub, MURs 7207, 7268, 7274 and 7623 (Russian Federation; Donald J. Trump for President, Inc.; Donald J. Trump; H. Russell Taub; Cambridge Analytica, LLC; Internet Research Agency; Paul Manafort), note 2 (certification dated April 22, 2021). https://www.fec.gov/files/legal/murs/7207/7207_47.pdf
+[^40]: UK Information Commissioner's Office, *Investigation into the use of data analytics in political campaigns: A report to Parliament*, November 6, 2018, section 3.2.4 (p. 38). https://www.statewatch.org/media/documents/news/2018/nov/uk-ico-report-investigation-into-use-of-data-political-campaigns-6-11-18.pdf
+[^41]: UK Information Commissioner's Office, *Investigation into the use of data analytics in political campaigns*, November 6, 2018, section 3.2.3 (trial set for January 9, 2019 at Hendon Magistrates' Court); "Cambridge Analytica Pleads Guilty In UK Data Access Case," *MediaPost*, January 9, 2019 (fine of £15,000, costs of £6,000, victim surcharge of £170, citing the ICO announcement) https://www.mediapost.com/publications/article/330338/ ; Ellen Tannam, "Cambridge Analytica owner hit with £15,000 fine for disobeying UK ICO," *Silicon Republic*, January 2019 (District Judge Kenneth Grant: "wilful disregard of the enforcement notice") https://www.siliconrepublic.com/enterprise/cambridge-analytica-scl-fine
+[^42]: Elizabeth Denham, Information Commissioner, letter to Julian Knight MP, Chair, Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Committee, reference ICO/O/ED/L/RTL/0181, October 2, 2020, paragraphs 3 to 15. https://cy.ico.org.uk/media2/migrated/2618383/20201002_ico-o-ed-l-rtl-0181_to-julian-knight-mp.pdf
+[^43]: "Ex-Cambridge Analytica head banned from running firms in UK," Reuters, published by Al Jazeera, September 25, 2020 (statement of the Insolvency Service of September 24, 2020; Mark Bruce, chief investigator; disqualification from October 5, 2020). https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2020/9/25/uk-bans-ex-cambridge-analytica-boss-for-unethical-services
+[^44]: House of Commons Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Committee, *Disinformation and "fake news": Final Report*, HC 1791, February 18, 2019, paragraphs 285 to 290, 296 and notes 327 to 329 and 338. https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201719/cmselect/cmcumeds/1791/1791.pdf
+[^45]: Companies House, EMERDATA LIMITED (company number 10911848), overview, officers, persons with significant control and insolvency pages, viewed October 1, 2026; personal appointments pages for Jennifer Lynne Mercer, Rebekah Anne Mercer, Jacquelyn James-Varga and Bradley David Golub. https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/10911848
+[^46]: Companies House, insolvency pages for SCL GROUP LIMITED (05514098), SCL ELECTIONS LIMITED (08256225) and CAMBRIDGE ANALYTICA(UK) LIMITED (09375920), viewed October 1, 2026 (administration May 3, 2018 to April 17, 2019; compulsory liquidation, petition August 13, 2018, winding up commenced April 17, 2019 and concluded September 1, 2025; dissolved January 31, 2026, January 31, 2026 and January 30, 2026). https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/05514098/insolvency

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Cantor Fitzgerald.md

@@ -60,35 +60,35 @@ relations:
     with: "[[AdFin Solutions]]"
     role: "through CVAFH I LLC: 800,000 shares of Series A preferred stock for $350,000 (July 23, 2013) and a $2,000,000 convertible note (December 26, 2013)"
     start: 2013-07-23
-    fn: 17
+    fn: 18
   - type: partner_of
     with: "[[Tether]]"
     role: "described by Tether's chief executive Paolo Ardoino as a Tether custodian since late 2021; sponsor, through an affiliate, of Cantor Equity Partners, which completed its business combination with Twenty One Capital, majority-owned by Tether and Bitfinex, on December 8, 2025"
     start: 2021
-    fn: 30
+    fn: 31
   - type: founded
     with: "[[CF Acquisition Corp. VI]]"
     role: "sponsor of the special purpose acquisition company (incorporated April 17, 2020) that merged with Rumble on September 16, 2022"
     start: 2020-04-17
     end: 2022-09-16
-    fn: 33
+    fn: 34
   - type: subject_of
     with: "[[Securities and Exchange Commission]]"
     role: "order of December 12, 2024: $6.75 million civil penalty over statements by CF Finance Acquisition Corp. II and CF Acquisition Corp. V"
     start: 2024-12-12
-    fn: 36
+    fn: 37
   - type: subject_of
     with: "[[Securities and Exchange Commission]]"
     role: "order of April 6, 2020: $3.2 million penalty and censure of Cantor Fitzgerald & Co. over deficient blue sheet trading data"
     start: 2020-04-06
-    fn: 37
+    fn: 38
   - type: subject_of
     with: "[[BBC]]"
     start: 2026-07-14
     role: "BBC report that one of Lutnick's firms made plans in 2013 to go into business with the then Prince Andrew; Cantor Fitzgerald did not deny the talks and said it did not go into business with the former prince"
-    fn: 28
+    fn: 29
 created: 2026-10-04
-updated: 2026-10-04
+updated: 2026-10-15
 ---
 
 Cantor Fitzgerald, L.P. is a [[New York City|New York]] [[Securities Brokerage|brokerage]] and investment bank whose operating subsidiaries include Cantor Fitzgerald & Co., a broker-dealer on the [[Federal Reserve Bank of New York]]'s list of primary dealers, and whose affiliates include the interdealer broker [[BGC Group]], the real estate services company [[Newmark Group]], and a series of special purpose acquisition companies. The firm lost 658 employees at [[One World Trade Center]] on [[September 11 attacks|September 11, 2001]]. Since February 18, 2025 it has been led by [[Brandon Lutnick]], the son of [[Howard Lutnick]], who was confirmed that day by the [[United States Senate]] as [[United States Department of Commerce|Secretary of Commerce]].[^1][^2][^3]
@@ -111,61 +111,61 @@ eSpeed's report states that the loss of Cantor's brokers and assets had adversel
 
 In April 2008, BGC Partners' businesses and certain other Cantor assets were merged with and into eSpeed, and the combined company began operating as BGC Partners, Inc. In June 2013 the company sold assets of its U.S. Treasury benchmark business, and the name "eSpeed," to [[Nasdaq]]. On July 1, 2023 BGC Partners became a wholly owned subsidiary of the new public parent BGC Group, Inc. Cantor and [[CF Group Management]] (CFGM), the general partner of Cantor, held 105.3 million shares of BGC Class B common stock, 96.2 percent of that class, at December 31, 2025. The history of the public company and its enforcement record are set out at BGC Group.[^2][^11]
 
-Newmark, the commercial real estate business that BGC transferred to Newmark Group on December 13, 2017, was listed in December 2017 and distributed to BGC's stockholders on November 30, 2018. Related-party dealings between BGC and Cantor have drawn litigation: on October 5, 2018 the [[Roofers Local 149 Pension Fund]] filed a derivative complaint in the [[Delaware Court of Chancery]] against BGC's board, Lutnick, CFGM and Cantor over BGC's $875 million purchase of [[Berkeley Point]] from [[Cantor Commercial Real Estate]], and on September 30, 2019 the court denied the defendants' motions to dismiss on demand grounds without making findings on the merits.[^12]
+Newmark, the commercial real estate business that BGC transferred to Newmark Group on December 13, 2017, was listed in December 2017 and distributed to BGC's stockholders on November 30, 2018. Related-party dealings between BGC and Cantor have drawn litigation: on October 5, 2018 the [[Roofers Local 149 Pension Fund]] filed a derivative complaint in the [[Delaware Court of Chancery]] against BGC's board, Lutnick, CFGM and Cantor over BGC's $875 million purchase of [[Berkeley Point]] from [[Cantor Commercial Real Estate]], and on September 30, 2019 the court denied the defendants' motions to dismiss on demand grounds without making findings on the merits, in an opinion by Chancellor [[Andre G. Bouchard]] in an action brought by the Roofers fund and the Northern California Pipe Trades Trust Funds.[^12] The [[Delaware Supreme Court]] affirmed the Court of Chancery's final judgment of September 27, 2022 by order of August 10, 2023.[^13]
 
 ### Primary Dealer and Treasury Markets
 
-The [[Federal Reserve Board|Federal Reserve]] Bank of New York's published list of primary dealers includes Cantor Fitzgerald & Co., recorded as added to the list effective August 1, 2006.[^13] Cantor's prospectus for its [[Cayman Islands]] SPAC [[Cantor Equity Partners]] describes the firm's broker-dealer as "a leading independent middle market investment bank and primary dealer," and Cantor as having "a controlling interest in BGC Group."[^14] The Times in 1996 had already placed the firm among the largest institutional brokers of Government securities in the United States.[^1]
+The [[Federal Reserve Board|Federal Reserve]] Bank of New York's published list of primary dealers includes Cantor Fitzgerald & Co., recorded as added to the list effective August 1, 2006.[^14] Cantor's prospectus for its [[Cayman Islands]] SPAC [[Cantor Equity Partners]] describes the firm's broker-dealer as "a leading independent middle market investment bank and primary dealer," and Cantor as having "a controlling interest in BGC Group."[^15] The Times in 1996 had already placed the firm among the largest institutional brokers of Government securities in the United States.[^1]
 
 ### Cantor Ventures and CVAFH I LLC
 
-Cantor Ventures, L.P. appears in AdFin documents with a letterhead address of 110 East 59th Street. Lutnick told the [[House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform]] on May 6, 2026 that "Cantor Fitzgerald had a subsidiary that did venture capital investing with small investments in many companies in sort of high-risk investments," called Cantor Ventures, "a venture capital arm of Cantor Fitzgerald, so sort of multiple layers down the subsidiary chain."[^15] [[Henrique de Castro]] has been described in a [[Target Corporation]] proxy statement as an advisor at Cantor Fitzgerald since January 2017, "where he leads the corporate venture capital arm of the firm, Cantor Ventures."[^16]
+Cantor Ventures, L.P. appears in AdFin documents with a letterhead address of 110 East 59th Street. Lutnick told the [[House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform]] on May 6, 2026 that "Cantor Fitzgerald had a subsidiary that did venture capital investing with small investments in many companies in sort of high-risk investments," called Cantor Ventures, "a venture capital arm of Cantor Fitzgerald, so sort of multiple layers down the subsidiary chain."[^16] [[Henrique de Castro]] has been described in a [[Target Corporation]] proxy statement as an advisor at Cantor Fitzgerald since January 2017, "where he leads the corporate venture capital arm of the firm, Cantor Ventures."[^17]
 
 [[CVAFH I LLC]] invested in [[AdFin Solutions]], Inc., a [[Delaware]] advertising-analytics company incorporated on April 25, 2011, in which [[Jeffrey Epstein]]'s [[Southern Trust Company]] also held Series A preferred stock. The [[United States Department of Justice|Justice Department]]'s Epstein library contains the following documents.
 
-The Series A Preferred Stock Purchase Agreement (EFTA00289560 in DataSet 9) is dated December 28, 2012, and its Exhibit A schedules an initial closing that day and subsequent closings on April 10 and July 23, 2013. It carries a counterpart signature page for CVAFH I LLC with the printed name "Howard W. Lutnick" and title "President." The same name and title appear on the counterpart pages of the investors' rights, right of first refusal and co-sale, and voting agreements, and on a letter agreement dated in July 2013. The letter agreement, on the letterhead of Cantor Ventures, L.P., states: "CVAFH I LLC ('Cantor')... Cantor has been formed for the specific purpose of acquiring the Shares and the ultimate holding company of Cantor is Cantor Fitzgerald, L.P., a Delaware limited partnership." Exhibit A to the purchase agreement lists "CVAFH I LLC" with 800,000 shares and a purchase price of $350,000 at a "Subsequent Closing" of July 23, 2013, and a stock certificate numbered PA-7, dated as of July 23, 2013, certifies that CVAFH I LLC is the record holder of "Eight Hundred Thousand shares of Series A Preferred Stock." Epstein's Southern Trust bought 1,142,857 Series A shares at an April 10, 2013 closing and 285,714 more on July 23, 2013.[^17][^18]
+The Series A Preferred Stock Purchase Agreement (EFTA00289560 in DataSet 9) is dated December 28, 2012, and its Exhibit A schedules an initial closing that day and subsequent closings on April 10 and July 23, 2013. It carries a counterpart signature page for CVAFH I LLC with the printed name "Howard W. Lutnick" and title "President." The same name and title appear on the counterpart pages of the investors' rights, right of first refusal and co-sale, and voting agreements, and on a letter agreement dated in July 2013. The letter agreement, on the letterhead of Cantor Ventures, L.P., states: "CVAFH I LLC ('Cantor')... Cantor has been formed for the specific purpose of acquiring the Shares and the ultimate holding company of Cantor is Cantor Fitzgerald, L.P., a Delaware limited partnership." Exhibit A to the purchase agreement lists "CVAFH I LLC" with 800,000 shares and a purchase price of $350,000 at a "Subsequent Closing" of July 23, 2013, and a stock certificate numbered PA-7, dated as of July 23, 2013, certifies that CVAFH I LLC is the record holder of "Eight Hundred Thousand shares of Series A Preferred Stock." Epstein's Southern Trust bought 1,142,857 Series A shares at an April 10, 2013 closing and 285,714 more on July 23, 2013.[^18][^19]
 
-On December 26, 2013, AdFin issued a $2,000,000 unsecured convertible note under a Note Purchase Agreement (EFTA00289541) whose investor was "CVAFH I, LLC," on Schedule I at 499 Park Avenue. The investor signature page (EFTA00289550) bears a handwritten signature with the handwritten name "[[Douglas Barnard]]" and the title "Chief Financial Officer." A stockholder consent (EFTA00289527) has signature pages for Southern Trust Company, Inc. and CVAFH I, LLC, each dated December 26, 2013.[^19] On January 7, 2014 AdFin shareholder [[David J. Mitchell]] wrote to Epstein: "We completed a $2 million convertible placement with Cantor Ventures at the end of the year... If and when they convert they get a board seat (we will have to increase board to 7 people as we have 5 now)," and said that "either two of the three of us (JEE, JL or DJM) could block certain actions of the Company."[^20]
+On December 26, 2013, AdFin issued a $2,000,000 unsecured convertible note under a Note Purchase Agreement (EFTA00289541) whose investor was "CVAFH I, LLC," on Schedule I at 499 Park Avenue. The investor signature page (EFTA00289550) bears a handwritten signature with the handwritten name "[[Douglas Barnard]]" and the title "Chief Financial Officer." A stockholder consent (EFTA00289527) has signature pages for Southern Trust Company, Inc. and CVAFH I, LLC, each dated December 26, 2013.[^20] On January 7, 2014 AdFin shareholder [[David J. Mitchell]] wrote to Epstein: "We completed a $2 million convertible placement with Cantor Ventures at the end of the year... If and when they convert they get a board seat (we will have to increase board to 7 people as we have 5 now)," and said that "either two of the three of us (JEE, JL or DJM) could block certain actions of the Company."[^21]
 
-A February 16, 2016 letter from Mitchell (EFTA01084694) attached a term sheet stating that "the Board of Adfin voted to accept an offer from its largest shareholder, Cantor Venture, to fund $1,750,000," and that the "Board increased to 7 directors. All chosen by Cantor," with "Howard Lutnick, [[Jed Kleckner]] and Henrique de Castro" to join the board, "Cantor will effectively control decision-making power at the Board and stockholder level" and "AdFin will be majority owned by Cantor." A cap table as of January 4, 2018 (EFTA00796718) lists Cantor at 85,959,207 shares, 60.32 percent.[^21]
+A February 16, 2016 letter from Mitchell (EFTA01084694) attached a term sheet stating that "the Board of Adfin voted to accept an offer from its largest shareholder, Cantor Venture, to fund $1,750,000," and that the "Board increased to 7 directors. All chosen by Cantor," with "Howard Lutnick, [[Jed Kleckner]] and Henrique de Castro" to join the board, "Cantor will effectively control decision-making power at the Board and stockholder level" and "AdFin will be majority owned by Cantor." A cap table as of January 4, 2018 (EFTA00796718) lists Cantor at 85,959,207 shares, 60.32 percent.[^22]
 
-On May 28, 2018 an account labeled "HWL," with a Cantor Fitzgerald LP disclaimer, exchanged emails with Epstein's account. Epstein wrote at 1:12 p.m.: "on another note what do you think the prospects for adfin are?" At 1:19 p.m. the reply read: "Producing revenue finally. This is their year. Next 12 months they need to become economically self sufficient."[^22] AdFin ceased business operations in October 2019.[^23]
+On May 28, 2018 an account labeled "HWL," with a Cantor Fitzgerald LP disclaimer, exchanged emails with Epstein's account. Epstein wrote at 1:12 p.m.: "on another note what do you think the prospects for adfin are?" At 1:19 p.m. the reply read: "Producing revenue finally. This is their year. Next 12 months they need to become economically self sufficient."[^23] AdFin ceased business operations in October 2019.[^24]
 
-Lutnick's statements on the record sit beside these documents. At the May 6, 2026 House Oversight interview he was asked "Were you personally an investor in AdFin Solutions?" and answered "No"; asked "Was Cantor Fitzgerald an investor in AdFin Solutions?" he answered "Yes." Asked whether he knew that Epstein was an investor, he answered "No," and that he learned of it "To the best of my knowledge, when these documents were released." Of the stock purchase agreement he said, "I don't think I heard about this investment till 2013, May. I think the pitch was made to me in May of 2013, from the document." He described it as "inexplicable and unsettling that he had ... that it was released, that my company's signature page would be in someone else's files," and said of the May 28, 2018 email, "This was ... this was me, because it says 'HWL.'"[^15] A source close to Lutnick told CBS News, in a report updated February 7, 2026, that "Cantor [Fitzgerald] was a small minority investor in Adfin" and that "[a]t the time of doing the deal, as a minority investor, Mr. Lutnick would not have any knowledge of who the other investors were."[^5] The [[BBC]] reported on July 14, 2026 that the Commerce Department had called the allegations "a desperate partisan distraction from the historic work of this Administration" and said there was "no evidence of wrongdoing or legitimate cause for concern."[^24]
+Lutnick's statements on the record sit beside these documents. At the May 6, 2026 House Oversight interview he was asked "Were you personally an investor in AdFin Solutions?" and answered "No"; asked "Was Cantor Fitzgerald an investor in AdFin Solutions?" he answered "Yes." Asked whether he knew that Epstein was an investor, he answered "No," and that he learned of it "To the best of my knowledge, when these documents were released." Of the stock purchase agreement he said, "I don't think I heard about this investment till 2013, May. I think the pitch was made to me in May of 2013, from the document." He described it as "inexplicable and unsettling that he had ... that it was released, that my company's signature page would be in someone else's files," and said of the May 28, 2018 email, "This was ... this was me, because it says 'HWL.'"[^16] A source close to Lutnick told CBS News, in a report updated February 7, 2026, that "Cantor [Fitzgerald] was a small minority investor in Adfin" and that "[a]t the time of doing the deal, as a minority investor, Mr. Lutnick would not have any knowledge of who the other investors were."[^5] The [[BBC]] reported on July 14, 2026 that the Commerce Department had called the allegations "a desperate partisan distraction from the historic work of this Administration" and said there was "no evidence of wrongdoing or legitimate cause for concern."[^25]
 
 ### The 2013 Proposals Involving the Duke of York
 
-A term sheet headed "Term Sheet (8/29/13 Preliminary Draft for Discussion Purposes Only)" and marked "CONFIDENTIAL" summarizes "a joint venture to create an asset management business to be known as Cantor Urramoor Asset Management." Its partners are "[[Cantor Urramoor Asset Management Holdings]], LLC ('Cantor Holdings'), a wholly owned subsidiary of Cantor Fitzgerald," and "[Urramoor], an entity owned by a trust created by Mr. T." "Cantor Holdings would be the manager of the Company," which "would be permitted to engage affiliates of Cantor as subcontractor to perform certain services such as brokerage, investment banking, subadvisory and asset management services" and could engage Cantor for support services "at 110% of fully allocated cost." The loan term reads: "the Company would advance the sum of £1,000,000 to Urramoor which would accrue interest at an annual rate of 3.5%, compounded annually," with the capital term "Cantor would make a capital contribution to the Company in an amount necessary to fund the Loan." The sheet states: "It is not a commitment to form the Company, either express or implied."[^25]
+A term sheet headed "Term Sheet (8/29/13 Preliminary Draft for Discussion Purposes Only)" and marked "CONFIDENTIAL" summarizes "a joint venture to create an asset management business to be known as Cantor Urramoor Asset Management." Its partners are "[[Cantor Urramoor Asset Management Holdings]], LLC ('Cantor Holdings'), a wholly owned subsidiary of Cantor Fitzgerald," and "[Urramoor], an entity owned by a trust created by Mr. T." "Cantor Holdings would be the manager of the Company," which "would be permitted to engage affiliates of Cantor as subcontractor to perform certain services such as brokerage, investment banking, subadvisory and asset management services" and could engage Cantor for support services "at 110% of fully allocated cost." The loan term reads: "the Company would advance the sum of £1,000,000 to Urramoor which would accrue interest at an annual rate of 3.5%, compounded annually," with the capital term "Cantor would make a capital contribution to the Company in an amount necessary to fund the Loan." The sheet states: "It is not a commitment to form the Company, either express or implied."[^26]
 
-The sheet reached Jeffrey Epstein's email account through a message of August 30, 2013, subject "Term Sheet from Cantor Fitzgerald to Mr. T," from a Cantor sender to two solicitors: "Attached please find the draft term sheet. Please let me know when you would like to discuss it." On September 2, 2013 [[David Stern (business adviser)|David Stern]], whom the BBC describes as "the prince's business aide," forwarded it to Epstein: "See attached term sheet from Howard to PA. I think madness. They are still at it. We kill it ?" Epstein proposed a counter ("fifty fifty split, first 1 millino to offset loan, no subs acting without written agreement as to fee and profits . no exclusivity,") and wrote of its terms: "no predetermined split, and even then payments made only if they choose to? its crazy."[^26]
+The sheet reached Jeffrey Epstein's email account through a message of August 30, 2013, subject "Term Sheet from Cantor Fitzgerald to Mr. T," from a Cantor sender to two solicitors: "Attached please find the draft term sheet. Please let me know when you would like to discuss it." On September 2, 2013 [[David Stern (business adviser)|David Stern]], whom the BBC describes as "the prince's business aide," forwarded it to Epstein: "See attached term sheet from Howard to PA. I think madness. They are still at it. We kill it ?" Epstein proposed a counter ("fifty fifty split, first 1 millino to offset loan, no subs acting without written agreement as to fee and profits . no exclusivity,") and wrote of its terms: "no predetermined split, and even then payments made only if they choose to? its crazy."[^27]
 
-A draft "Agreement for Referrals" of November 2013 names "[[Cantor Opportunities]], LLC," "a subsidiary of Cantor Fitzgerald, L.P. which is the holding company for a diverse organization that includes subsidiaries and affiliates that are involved in various financial services and real estate activities," and "[[Urramoor Limited]]." Its signature blocks and date are blank. It provides that "Nothing in this agreement shall be construed or interpreted to create a partnership or joint venture," that Urramoor's "only services shall be to provide Cantor and any applicable CF Company with introductions to non-US persons, individuals, or entities," and that "a typical referral fee to Cantor would be 25% of the lender's fee ... Such referral fee to Cantor would be split 50/50 with UML." Exhibit A lists, among the "Asset Management Opportunities," "Investment in funds or separate account managed by a registered investment advisor such as Cantor Comparative Advantage, L.P."[^27]
+A draft "Agreement for Referrals" of November 2013 names "[[Cantor Opportunities]], LLC," "a subsidiary of Cantor Fitzgerald, L.P. which is the holding company for a diverse organization that includes subsidiaries and affiliates that are involved in various financial services and real estate activities," and "[[Urramoor Limited]]." Its signature blocks and date are blank. It provides that "Nothing in this agreement shall be construed or interpreted to create a partnership or joint venture," that Urramoor's "only services shall be to provide Cantor and any applicable CF Company with introductions to non-US persons, individuals, or entities," and that "a typical referral fee to Cantor would be 25% of the lender's fee ... Such referral fee to Cantor would be split 50/50 with UML." Exhibit A lists, among the "Asset Management Opportunities," "Investment in funds or separate account managed by a registered investment advisor such as Cantor Comparative Advantage, L.P."[^28]
 
-On August 9, 2013, in a thread headed "HL Loan," Epstein wrote to Stern: "no no no no no, howards main businesss is gambing in las vegas. he will have to disclose to the las vegas commsion his arrangeent and you will have holy hell to pay." On November 16, 2013 Stern asked Epstein, "Have you seen Cantor Fitzgerald proposal?" and Epstein answered "goofy."[^25]
+On August 9, 2013, in a thread headed "HL Loan," Epstein wrote to Stern: "no no no no no, howards main businesss is gambing in las vegas. he will have to disclose to the las vegas commsion his arrangeent and you will have holy hell to pay." On November 16, 2013 Stern asked Epstein, "Have you seen Cantor Fitzgerald proposal?" and Epstein answered "goofy."[^26]
 
-The BBC reported on July 14, 2026 that "advisers to both Lutnick and the former prince discussed the deal for four months, from August to November 2013, but it came to nothing," and that "Cantor Fitzgerald did not deny the talks took place but told the BBC it did not go into business with the former prince." [[Prince Andrew|Andrew Mountbatten-Windsor]] "did not respond to a request for comment." Elsewhere in the article, a [[White House]] statement made on behalf of Howard Lutnick said: "The BBC's pathetic and desperate attempt to slander Secretary Lutnick will do nothing to change the fact that he has been the most consequential Commerce Secretary in modern history."[^28]
+The BBC reported on July 14, 2026 that "advisers to both Lutnick and the former prince discussed the deal for four months, from August to November 2013, but it came to nothing," and that "Cantor Fitzgerald did not deny the talks took place but told the BBC it did not go into business with the former prince." [[Prince Andrew|Andrew Mountbatten-Windsor]] "did not respond to a request for comment." Elsewhere in the article, a [[White House]] statement made on behalf of Howard Lutnick said: "The BBC's pathetic and desperate attempt to slander Secretary Lutnick will do nothing to change the fact that he has been the most consequential Commerce Secretary in modern history."[^29]
 
-On November 14, 2013 a Cantor Fitzgerald managing director and deputy general counsel sent a message addressed "David" and attaching a draft agreement with the file name "LEGAL-#67891-v1-UML_Cantor_agreement_re_asset_management.docx," writing: "I have attached a draft agreement in connection with the matters we have discussed. Please note that it has not been fully reviewed internally but I believe it reflects the discussion we had." Stern forwarded it to Epstein at 7:36 PM the same day.[^29]
+On November 14, 2013 a Cantor Fitzgerald managing director and deputy general counsel sent a message addressed "David" and attaching a draft agreement with the file name "LEGAL-#67891-v1-UML_Cantor_agreement_re_asset_management.docx," writing: "I have attached a draft agreement in connection with the matters we have discussed. Please note that it has not been fully reviewed internally but I believe it reflects the discussion we had." Stern forwarded it to Epstein at 7:36 PM the same day.[^30]
 
 ### Tether
 
-[[Paolo Ardoino]], the chief executive of [[Tether]], told [[The Block]] in an article of January 16, 2024 that Cantor Fitzgerald had been a Tether custodian since late 2021. The article reports Lutnick as saying, in a [[Bloomberg Television]] interview from the [[World Economic Forum]] in [[Davos]], "I manage many, many of their assets" and "From what we've seen, and we did a lot of work, they have the money," and states that in the preceding December he "reportedly said" he was a "big fan of this stablecoin called Tether. I hold their Treasuries. So I keep their Treasuries, and they have a lot of Treasuries." A person with direct knowledge of the matter told The Block that Cantor custodies "the vast vast majority" of Tether's reserves.[^30]
+[[Paolo Ardoino]], the chief executive of [[Tether]], told [[The Block]] in an article of January 16, 2024 that Cantor Fitzgerald had been a Tether custodian since late 2021. The article reports Lutnick as saying, in a [[Bloomberg Television]] interview from the [[World Economic Forum]] in [[Davos]], "I manage many, many of their assets" and "From what we've seen, and we did a lot of work, they have the money," and states that in the preceding December he "reportedly said" he was a "big fan of this stablecoin called Tether. I hold their Treasuries. So I keep their Treasuries, and they have a lot of Treasuries." A person with direct knowledge of the matter told The Block that Cantor custodies "the vast vast majority" of Tether's reserves.[^31]
 
-On January 27, 2025 Senator [[Elizabeth Warren]] wrote to Lutnick that Cantor Fitzgerald "holds a 5% stake in Tether and serves as Tether's asset manager," and that "you are handing over the reins of one of your companies to your 26-year-old son, who has worked closely with Tether on your behalf."[^31] On April 23, 2025 Cantor Equity Partners, Inc. and [[Twenty One Capital]], Inc. announced a business combination agreement, dated April 22, 2025, with entities of Tether, [[Bitfinex]] and [[SoftBank Group]]. [[Jack Mallers]] is Twenty One's chief executive. Twenty One began trading on the [[New York Stock Exchange]] as "XXI" on December 9, 2025, "majority-owned by Tether Investments, S.A. de C.V.... and Bitfinex, with significant minority ownership by SoftBank Group," holding over 43,500 bitcoin; Cantor Fitzgerald & Co. acted as financial and capital markets advisor to Cantor Equity Partners and placement agent for the PIPE financings.[^32]
+On January 27, 2025 Senator [[Elizabeth Warren]] wrote to Lutnick that Cantor Fitzgerald "holds a 5% stake in Tether and serves as Tether's asset manager," and that "you are handing over the reins of one of your companies to your 26-year-old son, who has worked closely with Tether on your behalf."[^32] On April 23, 2025 Cantor Equity Partners, Inc. and [[Twenty One Capital]], Inc. announced a business combination agreement, dated April 22, 2025, with entities of Tether, [[Bitfinex]] and [[SoftBank Group]]. [[Jack Mallers]] is Twenty One's chief executive. Twenty One began trading on the [[New York Stock Exchange]] as "XXI" on December 9, 2025, "majority-owned by Tether Investments, S.A. de C.V.... and Bitfinex, with significant minority ownership by SoftBank Group," holding over 43,500 bitcoin; Cantor Fitzgerald & Co. acted as financial and capital markets advisor to Cantor Equity Partners and placement agent for the PIPE financings.[^33]
 
 ### SPACs
 
-Cantor sponsors special purpose acquisition companies under the names CF Finance Acquisition Corp. and CF Acquisition Corp., and Cantor Equity Partners. [[CF Acquisition Corp. VI]], sponsored by [[CFAC Holdings VI, LLC]] and with Howard Lutnick as chairman and chief executive officer, closed its business combination with the video platform [[Rumble]] on September 16, 2022, following approval by its stockholders at a special meeting on September 15; the company was renamed Rumble Inc.[^33][^34] On December 20, 2024 Rumble announced a $775 million strategic investment from Tether at $7.50 per share, with Rumble's chief executive [[Chris Pavlovski]] retaining his controlling stake and Tether without the right to designate directors.[^35]
+Cantor sponsors special purpose acquisition companies under the names CF Finance Acquisition Corp. and CF Acquisition Corp., and Cantor Equity Partners. [[CF Acquisition Corp. VI]], sponsored by [[CFAC Holdings VI, LLC]] and with Howard Lutnick as chairman and chief executive officer, closed its business combination with the video platform [[Rumble]] on September 16, 2022, following approval by its stockholders at a special meeting on September 15; the company was renamed Rumble Inc.[^34][^35] On December 20, 2024 Rumble announced a $775 million strategic investment from Tether at $7.50 per share, with Rumble's chief executive [[Chris Pavlovski]] retaining his controlling stake and Tether without the right to designate directors.[^36]
 
-The SEC announced on December 12, 2024 that Cantor Fitzgerald, L.P. had agreed, without admitting or denying the findings, to pay a $6.75 million civil penalty. The order found that in 2020 and 2021 a team of Cantor executives "managed and controlled" [[CF Finance Acquisition Corp. II]] and [[CF Acquisition Corp. V]], which raised $750 million in initial public offerings ahead of mergers with [[View, Inc.]] and [[Satellogic]], and that Cantor "caused the SPACs in their SEC filings to deny having had contact or substantive discussions with potential business combination targets prior to their IPOs" when personnel had "already commenced negotiations" with the companies they eventually merged with.[^36]
+The SEC announced on December 12, 2024 that Cantor Fitzgerald, L.P. had agreed, without admitting or denying the findings, to pay a $6.75 million civil penalty. The order found that in 2020 and 2021 a team of Cantor executives "managed and controlled" [[CF Finance Acquisition Corp. II]] and [[CF Acquisition Corp. V]], which raised $750 million in initial public offerings ahead of mergers with [[View, Inc.]] and [[Satellogic]], and that Cantor "caused the SPACs in their SEC filings to deny having had contact or substantive discussions with potential business combination targets prior to their IPOs" when personnel had "already commenced negotiations" with the companies they eventually merged with.[^37]
 
 ### Enforcement Record
 
-The SEC announced on April 6, 2020 that Cantor Fitzgerald & Co. had agreed to pay $3.2 million for deficient "blue sheet" trading data: for "almost five years" the firm's submissions contained missing or incorrect data for "approximately 35 million transactions." The firm admitted the findings and was censured.[^37] The 2019 [[Commodity Futures Trading Commission]] orders against BGC Financial, L.P. and GFI Securities, LLC, and the earlier SEC and [[Financial Industry Regulatory Authority|FINRA]] settlements recited in them, are set out at BGC Group. BGC's annual report states that CF&Co has entered into guarantees on behalf of BGC and GFI for the foreign introducing brokers' obligations to the CFTC, for which BGC indemnifies CF&Co.[^6]
+The SEC announced on April 6, 2020 that Cantor Fitzgerald & Co. had agreed to pay $3.2 million for deficient "blue sheet" trading data: for "almost five years" the firm's submissions contained missing or incorrect data for "approximately 35 million transactions." The firm admitted the findings and was censured.[^38] The 2019 [[Commodity Futures Trading Commission]] orders against BGC Financial, L.P. and GFI Securities, LLC, and the earlier SEC and [[Financial Industry Regulatory Authority|FINRA]] settlements recited in them, are set out at BGC Group. BGC's annual report states that CF&Co has entered into guarantees on behalf of BGC and GFI for the foreign introducing brokers' obligations to the CFTC, for which BGC indemnifies CF&Co.[^6]
 
 ### Government and Political Connections
 
-An invitation sent on November 3, 2015 from the account "Lutnick, Howard" and forwarded to Epstein by his assistant [[Lesley Groff]] announced an event with [[Hillary Clinton]] at the Cantor Fitzgerald offices on November 11 from 5:30 to 6:30 p.m., described as "a very intimate fundraising event," with a [[Hillary for America]] contribution form attached (EFTA02671545). At his May 6, 2026 House Oversight interview Lutnick said that emails addressed to "Howard Lutnick" or "Lutnick, Howard" "went to [[Matthew Gilbert]]. They did not go to me," and that "You would know if they went to me if they are listed as 'HWL.'"[^38][^15] Lutnick was confirmed as Secretary of Commerce on February 18, 2025, and stepped down that day as chairman and chief executive of BGC; Brandon Lutnick was appointed chief executive officer and chairman of Cantor and chief executive officer of CFGM, and [[Kyle Lutnick]] executive vice chairman of Cantor and president of CFGM.[^2][^3] On May 19, 2025 BGC announced it would repurchase 16,452,850 shares from Lutnick for $151,501,133 "in furtherance of Mr. Lutnick's U.S. government ethics agreement," and that Lutnick would transfer his ownership interest in Cantor to trusts for the benefit of Brandon, Kyle and his other adult children, with Brandon as controlling trustee. The divestiture of holdings in BGC, Cantor and CFGM was completed on October 6, 2025, including the sale of all voting shares of CFGM to trusts controlled by Brandon Lutnick, who beneficially owned 2.0 million BGC Class A and 109.4 million Class B shares, 75.2 percent of BGC's total voting power, as of the date of BGC's annual report for 2025.[^2][^3][^39] The 2012 and later documents on Lutnick's relationship with Epstein are at Howard Lutnick; the 2020 [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] complaint concerning Lutnick, BGC and Cantor is at BGC Group.
+An invitation sent on November 3, 2015 from the account "Lutnick, Howard" and forwarded to Epstein by his assistant [[Lesley Groff]] announced an event with [[Hillary Clinton]] at the Cantor Fitzgerald offices on November 11 from 5:30 to 6:30 p.m., described as "a very intimate fundraising event," with a [[Hillary for America]] contribution form attached (EFTA02671545). At his May 6, 2026 House Oversight interview Lutnick said that emails addressed to "Howard Lutnick" or "Lutnick, Howard" "went to [[Matthew Gilbert]]. They did not go to me," and that "You would know if they went to me if they are listed as 'HWL.'"[^16][^39] Lutnick was confirmed as Secretary of Commerce on February 18, 2025, and stepped down that day as chairman and chief executive of BGC; Brandon Lutnick was appointed chief executive officer and chairman of Cantor and chief executive officer of CFGM, and [[Kyle Lutnick]] executive vice chairman of Cantor and president of CFGM.[^2][^3] On May 19, 2025 BGC announced it would repurchase 16,452,850 shares from Lutnick for $151,501,133 "in furtherance of Mr. Lutnick's U.S. government ethics agreement," and that Lutnick would transfer his ownership interest in Cantor to trusts for the benefit of Brandon, Kyle and his other adult children, with Brandon as controlling trustee. The divestiture of holdings in BGC, Cantor and CFGM was completed on October 6, 2025, including the sale of all voting shares of CFGM to trusts controlled by Brandon Lutnick, who beneficially owned 2.0 million BGC Class A and 109.4 million Class B shares, 75.2 percent of BGC's total voting power, as of the date of BGC's annual report for 2025.[^2][^3][^40] The 2012 and later documents on Lutnick's relationship with Epstein are at Howard Lutnick; the 2020 [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] complaint concerning Lutnick, BGC and Cantor is at BGC Group.
 
 ### Footnotes
 
@@ -181,30 +181,31 @@ An invitation sent on November 3, 2015 from the account "Lutnick, Howard" and fo
 [^10]: National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, *The 9/11 Commission Report* (2004), hearing list, "The Experience of the Attack," Alexander Hamilton Customs House, New York, March 31 to April 1, 2003. https://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf
 [^11]: BGC Group, Inc., Form 10-K for 2025, "Our Organizational Structure," Cantor and CFGM Class B holdings as of December 31, 2025. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1094831/000162828026013162/bgcg-20251231.htm
 [^12]: BGC Partners, Inc., Form 10-K for 2019, Legal Proceedings, *In re BGC Partners, Inc. Derivative Litigation,* Consolidated C.A. No. 2018-0722-AGB (Del. Ch.). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1094831/000156459020007843/bgcp-10k_20191231.htm
-[^13]: Federal Reserve Bank of New York, "Primary Dealers" list and "Additions and Removals," entry of July 31, 2006. https://www.newyorkfed.org/markets/primarydealers
-[^14]: Cantor Equity Partners, Inc., prospectus (Form 424B4), 2024. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1865602/000121390024068145/ea0204552-10.htm
-[^15]: U.S. House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, transcribed interview of Howard W. Lutnick, May 6, 2026, pp. 22, 26-29, 87-89. https://oversight.house.gov/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/Lutnick-Transcript.pdf
-[^16]: Target Corporation, definitive proxy statement (Schedule 14A), filed April 29, 2019, biography of Henrique De Castro. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/27419/000130817919000197/ltgt2019_def14a.htm
-[^17]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00289560, DataSet 9, Series A Preferred Stock Purchase Agreement of AdFin Solutions, Inc., with Exhibit A, counterpart signature pages and letter agreement, July 2013; EFTA00289722, DataSet 9, stock certificate PA-7, July 23, 2013. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00289560.pdf ; https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00289722.pdf
-[^18]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00392047, DataSet 9, email of April 19, 2013 on the April 10, 2013 closing. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00392047.pdf
-[^19]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00289541, DataSet 9, Note Purchase Agreement dated December 26, 2013 (signature page EFTA00289550); EFTA00289527, DataSet 9, stockholder consent, December 26, 2013. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00289541.pdf ; https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00289527.pdf
-[^20]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01942504, DataSet 10, email from David Mitchell to Jeffrey Epstein, January 7, 2014. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2010/EFTA01942504.pdf
-[^21]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01084694, DataSet 9, letter from David Mitchell, February 16, 2016, with term sheet; EFTA00796718, DataSet 9, AdFin cap table as of January 4, 2018. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA01084694.pdf ; https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00796718.pdf
-[^22]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01050772, DataSet 9, email thread, May 28, 2018. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA01050772.pdf
-[^23]: Weissbrot, Alison. "After A Rocky Road, Ad/Fin Shuts Its Doors." *AdExchanger,* October 17, 2019. https://www.adexchanger.com/agencies/after-a-rocky-road-ad-fin-shuts-its-doors/
-[^24]: Verity, Andy, Rob Byrne and Ben Milne. "How US commerce secretary's Epstein links were uncovered by British whistleblower." *BBC News,* July 14, 2026. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c9q28dlyxrzo
-[^25]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01107738 and EFTA01107739, DataSet 9, term sheet of August 29, 2013; EFTA02573653, DataSet 11, thread "Re: HL Loan - CD/SM call note 8.8.13," August 9, 2013 (line-break characters of the text layer omitted); EFTA01949796 and EFTA01949827, DataSet 10, emails of November 16, 2013. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA01107738.pdf ; https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2011/EFTA02573653.pdf ; https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2010/EFTA01949827.pdf
-[^26]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01958492, EFTA01958705 and EFTA01958916, DataSet 10, thread "Term Sheet from Cantor Fitzgerald to Mr. T," August 30 to September 2, 2013. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2010/EFTA01958492.pdf ; https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2010/EFTA01958705.pdf ; https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2010/EFTA01958916.pdf
-[^27]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01141453 to EFTA01141460, DataSet 9, "Agreement for Referrals" (draft) with Exhibits A and B. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA01141453.pdf
-[^28]: Verity, Andy, Rob Byrne and Ben Milne. "How US commerce secretary's Epstein links were uncovered by British whistleblower." *BBC News,* July 14, 2026. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c9q28dlyxrzo
-[^29]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA02678017, DataSet 11, email from David Stern to Jeffrey Epstein, "Fwd: Draft Cantor agreement," November 14, 2013. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2011/EFTA02678017.pdf
-[^30]: Khatri, Yogita. "Cantor Fitzgerald CEO says Tether has the billions of dollars in reserves it claims." *The Block,* January 16, 2024 (edited by Nathan Crooks). https://www.theblock.co/post/272893/cantor-fitzgerald-ceo-tether-reserves
-[^31]: Warren, Elizabeth, letter to Howard Lutnick, January 27, 2025. https://www.warren.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/letter_to_lutnick.pdf
-[^32]: Cantor Equity Partners, Inc., Current Report on Form 8-K, April 23, 2025 (business combination agreement dated April 22, 2025). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1865602/000121390025034374/ea0239222-8k425_cantor.htm ; Twenty One Capital, Inc., Current Report on Form 8-K, exhibit 99.1, press release of December 8, 2025. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/2070457/000121390025119445/ea026879401ex99-1_twenty.htm ; Cantor Equity Partners, Inc., Form 8-K, exhibit 99.1, press release of July 29, 2025. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1865602/000121390025068458/ea025053801ex99-1_cantor.htm
-[^33]: CF Acquisition Corp. VI, Current Report on Form 8-K, September 22, 2022 (report of September 16, 2022 closing; sponsor CFAC Holdings VI, LLC). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1830081/000121390022058065/ea166065-8k_rumbleinc.htm
-[^34]: CF Acquisition Corp. VI, Current Report on Form 8-K, December 2, 2021 (signed by Howard W. Lutnick). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1830081/000121390021063093/ea151639-8k_cfacquisit6.htm
-[^35]: Rumble Inc., Current Report on Form 8-K, exhibit 99.1, press release of December 20, 2024. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1830081/000121390024111292/ea022562201ex99-1_rumble.htm
-[^36]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, "SEC Charges Cantor Fitzgerald Over Misleading SPAC Disclosures," press release 2024-199, December 12, 2024. https://www.sec.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2024-199
-[^37]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, "Cantor Fitzgerald Agrees to Pay $3.2 Million to Settle Charges for Providing Deficient Blue Sheet Data," press release 2020-81, April 6, 2020. https://www.sec.gov/news/press-release/2020-81
-[^38]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA02671545, DataSet 11, email forwarded by Lesley Groff, "November 11th - Hillary Clinton Event at Cantor Fitzgerald." https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2011/EFTA02671545.pdf
-[^39]: BGC Group, Inc., Form 8-K, exhibit 99.1, press release of May 19, 2025. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1094831/000121390025045119/ea024268501ex99-1_bgc.htm
+[^13]: In re BGC Partners, Inc. Derivative Litigation, No. 359, 2022 (Del. Aug. 10, 2023) (order affirming the Court of Chancery's final judgment of September 27, 2022, entered on its memorandum opinion of August 19, 2022). https://courts.delaware.gov/Opinions/Download.aspx?id=351370
+[^14]: Federal Reserve Bank of New York, "Primary Dealers" list and "Additions and Removals," entry of July 31, 2006. https://www.newyorkfed.org/markets/primarydealers
+[^15]: Cantor Equity Partners, Inc., prospectus (Form 424B4), 2024. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1865602/000121390024068145/ea0204552-10.htm
+[^16]: U.S. House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, transcribed interview of Howard W. Lutnick, May 6, 2026, pp. 22, 26-29, 87-89. https://oversight.house.gov/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/Lutnick-Transcript.pdf
+[^17]: Target Corporation, definitive proxy statement (Schedule 14A), filed April 29, 2019, biography of Henrique De Castro. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/27419/000130817919000197/ltgt2019_def14a.htm
+[^18]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00289560, DataSet 9, Series A Preferred Stock Purchase Agreement of AdFin Solutions, Inc., with Exhibit A, counterpart signature pages and letter agreement, July 2013; EFTA00289722, DataSet 9, stock certificate PA-7, July 23, 2013. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00289560.pdf ; https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00289722.pdf
+[^19]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00392047, DataSet 9, email of April 19, 2013 on the April 10, 2013 closing. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00392047.pdf
+[^20]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00289541, DataSet 9, Note Purchase Agreement dated December 26, 2013 (signature page EFTA00289550); EFTA00289527, DataSet 9, stockholder consent, December 26, 2013. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00289541.pdf ; https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00289527.pdf
+[^21]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01942504, DataSet 10, email from David Mitchell to Jeffrey Epstein, January 7, 2014. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2010/EFTA01942504.pdf
+[^22]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01084694, DataSet 9, letter from David Mitchell, February 16, 2016, with term sheet; EFTA00796718, DataSet 9, AdFin cap table as of January 4, 2018. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA01084694.pdf ; https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00796718.pdf
+[^23]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01050772, DataSet 9, email thread, May 28, 2018. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA01050772.pdf
+[^24]: Weissbrot, Alison. "After A Rocky Road, Ad/Fin Shuts Its Doors." *AdExchanger,* October 17, 2019. https://www.adexchanger.com/agencies/after-a-rocky-road-ad-fin-shuts-its-doors/
+[^25]: Verity, Andy, Rob Byrne and Ben Milne. "How US commerce secretary's Epstein links were uncovered by British whistleblower." *BBC News,* July 14, 2026. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c9q28dlyxrzo
+[^26]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01107738 and EFTA01107739, DataSet 9, term sheet of August 29, 2013; EFTA02573653, DataSet 11, thread "Re: HL Loan - CD/SM call note 8.8.13," August 9, 2013 (line-break characters of the text layer omitted); EFTA01949796 and EFTA01949827, DataSet 10, emails of November 16, 2013. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA01107738.pdf ; https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2011/EFTA02573653.pdf ; https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2010/EFTA01949827.pdf
+[^27]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01958492, EFTA01958705 and EFTA01958916, DataSet 10, thread "Term Sheet from Cantor Fitzgerald to Mr. T," August 30 to September 2, 2013. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2010/EFTA01958492.pdf ; https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2010/EFTA01958705.pdf ; https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2010/EFTA01958916.pdf
+[^28]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01141453 to EFTA01141460, DataSet 9, "Agreement for Referrals" (draft) with Exhibits A and B. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA01141453.pdf
+[^29]: Verity, Andy, Rob Byrne and Ben Milne. "How US commerce secretary's Epstein links were uncovered by British whistleblower." *BBC News,* July 14, 2026. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c9q28dlyxrzo
+[^30]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA02678017, DataSet 11, email from David Stern to Jeffrey Epstein, "Fwd: Draft Cantor agreement," November 14, 2013. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2011/EFTA02678017.pdf
+[^31]: Khatri, Yogita. "Cantor Fitzgerald CEO says Tether has the billions of dollars in reserves it claims." *The Block,* January 16, 2024 (edited by Nathan Crooks). https://www.theblock.co/post/272893/cantor-fitzgerald-ceo-tether-reserves
+[^32]: Warren, Elizabeth, letter to Howard Lutnick, January 27, 2025. https://www.warren.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/letter_to_lutnick.pdf
+[^33]: Cantor Equity Partners, Inc., Current Report on Form 8-K, April 23, 2025 (business combination agreement dated April 22, 2025). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1865602/000121390025034374/ea0239222-8k425_cantor.htm ; Twenty One Capital, Inc., Current Report on Form 8-K, exhibit 99.1, press release of December 8, 2025. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/2070457/000121390025119445/ea026879401ex99-1_twenty.htm ; Cantor Equity Partners, Inc., Form 8-K, exhibit 99.1, press release of July 29, 2025. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1865602/000121390025068458/ea025053801ex99-1_cantor.htm
+[^34]: CF Acquisition Corp. VI, Current Report on Form 8-K, September 22, 2022 (report of September 16, 2022 closing; sponsor CFAC Holdings VI, LLC). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1830081/000121390022058065/ea166065-8k_rumbleinc.htm
+[^35]: CF Acquisition Corp. VI, Current Report on Form 8-K, December 2, 2021 (signed by Howard W. Lutnick). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1830081/000121390021063093/ea151639-8k_cfacquisit6.htm
+[^36]: Rumble Inc., Current Report on Form 8-K, exhibit 99.1, press release of December 20, 2024. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1830081/000121390024111292/ea022562201ex99-1_rumble.htm
+[^37]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, "SEC Charges Cantor Fitzgerald Over Misleading SPAC Disclosures," press release 2024-199, December 12, 2024. https://www.sec.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2024-199
+[^38]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, "Cantor Fitzgerald Agrees to Pay $3.2 Million to Settle Charges for Providing Deficient Blue Sheet Data," press release 2020-81, April 6, 2020. https://www.sec.gov/news/press-release/2020-81
+[^39]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA02671545, DataSet 11, email forwarded by Lesley Groff, "November 11th - Hillary Clinton Event at Cantor Fitzgerald." https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2011/EFTA02671545.pdf
+[^40]: BGC Group, Inc., Form 8-K, exhibit 99.1, press release of May 19, 2025. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1094831/000121390025045119/ea024268501ex99-1_bgc.htm

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Center for Security and Emerging Technology.md

@@ -31,14 +31,14 @@ relations:
     start: 2021-03
     fn: 4
 created: 2026-09-22
-updated: 2026-09-22
+updated: 2026-10-15
 ---
 
 The Center for Security and Emerging Technology is a policy research center in [[Georgetown University]]'s [[Walsh School of Foreign Service]]. [[Open Philanthropy]] recommended a grant of 55 million dollars over five years in January 2019 to launch it as "a new think tank dedicated to policy analysis at the intersection of national and international security and emerging technologies," led by [[Jason Matheny]], former director of the [[Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity]]. The grant investigator was [[Luke Muehlhauser]]. The founding team named on the grant page included [[Dewey Murdick]], director of data science, formerly chief analytics officer and deputy chief scientist at the [[Department of Homeland Security]] and an IARPA program manager; [[William Hannas]], lead analyst, formerly a member of the Senior Intelligence Service at the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] and "the [[Open Source Enterprise]]'s primary China science and technology analyst," who had also served with the [[Foreign Broadcast Information Service]]; and [[Helen Toner]], director of strategy and plans, previously a senior research analyst at Open Philanthropy.[^1]
 
 ### Funding
 
-In August 2021 CSET announced that "its main funder," Open Philanthropy, had increased its grant by 42 million dollars, bringing total funding to more than 100 million dollars through 2025; Murdick also credited the [[William and Flora Hewlett Foundation]], the P[[ublic Interest Technology University Network]] and [[Georgetown]].[^2] In October 2023 the *[[Politico]]* reporter [[Brendan Bordelon]] described CSET as "funded almost entirely by Open Philanthropy," and reported that Open Philanthropy also paid the salaries of fellows at CSET through the [[Horizon Institute for Public Service]], a nonprofit he wrote that Open Philanthropy had "effectively created in 2022."[^3]
+In August 2021 CSET announced that "its main funder," Open Philanthropy, had increased its grant by 42 million dollars, bringing total funding to more than 100 million dollars through 2025; Murdick also credited the [[William and Flora Hewlett Foundation]], the [[Public Interest Technology University Network]] and Georgetown.[^2] In October 2023 the *[[Politico]]* reporter [[Brendan Bordelon]] described CSET as "funded almost entirely by Open Philanthropy," and reported that Open Philanthropy also paid the salaries of fellows at CSET through the [[Horizon Institute for Public Service]], a nonprofit he wrote that Open Philanthropy had "effectively created in 2022."[^3]
 
 ### Staff
 

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Columbia University.md

@@ -0,0 +1,278 @@
+---
+created: 2026-10-15
+updated: 2026-10-15
+title: Columbia University
+aliases:
+  - Columbia
+  - Columbia College
+  - King's College
+  - Columbia University in the City of New York
+  - Columbia U
+tags:
+  - Organization
+  - AcademicInstitution
+  - CIA
+  - MKULTRA
+  - LSD
+  - Parapsychology
+  - StarGate
+  - Tachyons
+  - ManhattanProject
+  - ForeignBroadcastIntelligenceService
+  - HumanEcology
+  - RussianInstitute
+  - ColdWar
+category: "Private Organization"
+summary: "Columbia University is a New York research university whose laboratories and faculty appear in the Manhattan Project, CIA behavioral research, Army drug testing, Cold War area studies and Star Gate records."
+location: "New York City"
+relations:
+  - type: head_of
+    with: "[[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "president of Columbia University"
+    start: 1948
+    end: 1953
+    fn: 9
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Harold Abramson]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "assistant professor of physiology, per the CIA memorandum of December 2, 1953"
+    start: 1935
+    fn: 20
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Goodwin Watson]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "social psychologist of Columbia University, announced as head of the FBIS Analysis Section in October 1941"
+    start: 1941
+    fn: 30
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Gerald Feinberg]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "physics professor, Department of Physics"
+    fn: 47
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[William Thetford]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "associate professor of medical psychology, Department of Psychiatry, Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center"
+    start: 1958
+    fn: 24
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Helen Schucman]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "assistant professor, later associate professor, Department of Psychiatry, Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center"
+    start: 1958
+    fn: 24
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Adolf Berle]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "associate professor and professor of corporation law"
+    start: 1927
+    end: 1963
+    fn: 41
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Philip Mosely]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "professor of international relations and director of the Russian Institute"
+    fn: 14
+  - type: funded
+    with: "[[Rockefeller Foundation]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "grants to the Bureau of Applied Social Research, the Russian Institute and the American Press Institute"
+    start: 1947
+    end: 1949
+    fn: 13
+---
+
+Columbia University is a private research university in [[New York City]]. It was founded in 1754 as King's College by royal charter of King George II, took the name Columbia in 1784, and moved to its [[Morningside Heights]] campus in 1897.[^1] Its laboratories, institutes, clinicians and graduates recur in the documented record of the [[Manhattan Project]], CIA-sponsored behavioral research, Army-contracted drug testing, Cold War area studies, parapsychology and the analysis staff of the wartime [[Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service]].
+
+### The Manhattan Project at Columbia
+
+[[Niels Bohr]] carried news of uranium fission to the United States in January 1939, and from [[Princeton University]] it spread to neighboring physicists including [[Enrico Fermi]] at Columbia. Fermi, [[John R. Dunning]] and [[George B. Pegram]] began a search at Columbia for the ionization pulses expected from fission fragments.[^2] Pegram made the first contact between the physicists and the government in March 1939, by telephoning the [[U.S. Navy|Navy Department]].[^3] The first contract of the National Defense Research Committee was let to Columbia on November 8, 1940, for $40,000, and [[Harold Urey]] began work on isotope separation by the centrifuge method under a Navy contract in the fall of 1940.[^4] In February 1940 concentrated samples of uranium 234, 235 and 238 prepared by [[Alfred Nier]] were turned over to E. T. Booth, A. von Grosse and Dunning for investigation with the Columbia cyclotron, and the group showed that uranium 235 was the isotope fissionable by thermal neutrons.[^5]
+
+In January 1942 [[Arthur Compton]] concentrated the work for which he was responsible at the [[University of Chicago]], and the Columbia group under Fermi moved there in the spring. Diffusion research and heavy-water production stayed at Columbia under Urey, and the Columbia centrifuge work went to the Standard Oil Development Company.[^6] The diffusion work was carried on at Columbia under the Office of Scientific Research and Development until May 1, 1943, when the Manhattan District took it over. Urey directed the Columbia part until February 1945, and on March 1, 1945 the laboratory passed from the university to the Carbide and Carbon Chemicals Corporation. The Columbia laboratories had by then been named the SAM Laboratories.[^7] Columbia's own history records that atomic research by [[I. I. Rabi]], Fermi and [[Polykarp Kusch]] brought the Department of Physics to international prominence in the 1940s, and that Pupin Hall was designated a national historic landmark in 1966 for atomic research undertaken there from 1925.[^1] A student-newspaper account of the university's later CIA contacts states that Rabi worked on the Manhattan Project at Columbia.[^8]
+
+### Eisenhower and the American Assembly
+
+[[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] became president of Columbia in 1948, after retiring as Army chief of staff.[^9] [[Grayson Kirk]] served as provost from 1949 to 1951 and as president from 1953 to 1968. His oral history for the Eisenhower Library covers Eisenhower's adjustment to the presidency, the operation and goals of the American Assembly, Eisenhower's involvement with the Institute for War and Peace, and the donation of the Arden House estate to the university by [[Averell Harriman]].[^10] The economist Eli Ginzberg, who knew Eisenhower at Columbia, discussed in his interviews Eisenhower's appointment of Kirk as provost, the American Assembly and Eisenhower's interest in it, and his views on [[Richard Nixon]] and [[Allen Dulles]].[^11] The Columbia Libraries describe the [[American Assembly]] as founded in 1950 by Eisenhower during his Columbia presidency.[^12]
+
+### The Russian Institute
+
+Columbia founded its School of International Affairs in 1946.[^1] The [[Rockefeller Foundation]] 1949 annual report lists among its appropriations to Columbia University the "development of the Russian Institute" (grant RF 45034) and "special fellowships in the Russian Institute" (grant RF 47045).[^13] A Columbia Daily Spectator article of April 1978, which draws on material released by the CIA under the Freedom of Information Act, states that the institute's founder, [[Geroid Tanquary Robinson]], had served in the [[Office of Strategic Services]] as chief of its USSR division, and that in 1950 he invited 50 CIA, foreign service and armed forces officers to study at the institute. The article places [[Philip Mosely]] as director of the institute from 1951 to 1954, and as a consultant to the War Documentation Project, a study of captured documents on Soviet psychological warfare that Columbia operated in Virginia from 1954 to 1955.[^8]
+
+On December 17, 1954 the executive director of the [[Council on Foreign Relations]] wrote to Dulles, then Director of Central Intelligence, that Mosely, "Professor of International Relations at Columbia, Director of its Russian Institute," had agreed to become the Council's Director of Studies from July 1, 1955. The letter reports that a [[Ford Foundation]] grant and a Carnegie Corporation grant of $500,000 had put the Council in a position to plan its study program.[^14] A White House memorandum to Dulles, sent in connection with a visit by Dulles and [[Richard Bissell]] to an evening session of the Quantico Panel on June 9, attaches a list of panel members because "Mr. Rockefeller felt you would find [it] useful." The list gives "Dr. Philip Mosely, Director, Russian Institute, Columbia University" among the participants (see [[Quantico Vulnerabilities Panel]]).[^15]
+
+### The Bureau of Applied Social Research
+
+[[Paul Lazarsfeld]]'s Bureau of Applied Social Research (BASR) at Columbia is one of at least six postwar communication research centers that [[Christopher Simpson]] writes grew up as de facto adjuncts of government psychological warfare programs. Simpson reports that government money, frequently without public acknowledgment, made up more than 75 percent of the annual budget of the bureau for years.[^16] He also reports that about half of the bureau's budget from 1941 to 1946 came from commercial work such as readership studies for Time and Life, with the remainder drawn from a Rockefeller Foundation grant and, to a much lesser degree, from Columbia; by 1949 the bureau was deeply in debt to the university.[^17] In 1951 Stanley Bigman of the bureau prepared a confidential manual on survey research, *Are We Hitting the Target?*, for the State Department's International Information and Educational Exchange Program, the predecessor of the [[United States Information Agency]].[^18]
+
+The Rockefeller Foundation's records show a Columbia grant of $25,000 in 1947 for a program of study by German broadcasters, and two grants totaling $50,000 in 1949 for Japanese and Korean broadcasters, planned by the bureau at the request of the occupying authorities. A further $25,000 in 1949 went to the American Press Institute at Columbia for a program for twelve Japanese journalists, and the bureau received $23,000 for a study of social conditions affecting productivity in the Ruhr area.[^19]
+
+### CIA contacts with the faculty
+
+In April 1978 the Columbia Daily Spectator published an account, based on thousands of pages released by the CIA under the Freedom of Information Act, of the agency's relations with Columbia faculty "over more than thirty years." It describes a recruiter from the CIA's Foreign Broadcast Information Service who visited the university in March, met two department chairmen about candidates for foreign-language positions, and received the names of three possible recruits. The article identifies the chairmen only through deleted phrases in the CIA documents, and reports that the university's president, [[William McGill]], said the visit "does sound like a traditional CIA recruiting practice." It states that through the 1950s and into the 1960s professors "sought and directed CIA-financed research" without disclosing the sponsorship to colleagues, students or the public. Its examples are a Teachers College study of scientific breakthroughs proposed and directed by Professor Frederick Fitzpatrick, a Naval Reserve commander; studies of personality at the Neuropsychiatric Institute; the War Documentation Project; a Russian-English technical dictionary, whose steering committee included Rabi and Schuyler Wallace, director of the School of International Affairs; and a proposal to bring CIA and military officers to the Russian Institute. The article also reports that when McGill asked Admiral [[Stansfield Turner]] in 1977 to confirm that no covert relationships with faculty existed, Turner replied that this was "not a conclusion that I am prepared to either affirm or deny."[^8]
+
+### LSD, the Psychiatric Institute and Mount Sinai
+
+A CIA memorandum of December 2, 1953, from the chief of the agency's SSD to Colonel Edwards, describes [[Harold Abramson]] as a physician who was "educated at Columbia University, receiving his M.D. in 1923," and records that he was "Assistant Professor of Physiology at Columbia University since 1935." The memorandum, filed among the [[Project MKUltra]] records, adds that Abramson was associate physician and chief of the allergy clinic at [[Mount Sinai Hospital]], and that "Subject is a physician but not known as a psychiatrist."[^20] The Senate's 1977 joint hearing on MKUltra describes Abramson as an allergist and immunologist practicing in New York who held no degree in psychiatry but "was associated with research projects supported indirectly by the CIA," and whose work [[Sidney Gottlieb]] and Dr. [[Robert Lashbrook]] followed closely in the early 1950s. In November 1953 Lashbrook took [[Frank Olson]] to New York for two days of consultations with Abramson. At about 2:30 a.m. on Saturday, November 28, Olson fell to his death from the tenth-floor window of a room in the Statler Hotel.[^21]
+
+Across the East River, the [[New York State Psychiatric Institute]] (NYSPI), which Kenneth Wapnick's account describes as part of the Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center, was the site of the Army experiment in which [[Harold Blauer]] died.[^22] The Second Circuit's opinion in the suit brought by Blauer's estate recounts that Blauer, 42 years old, was admitted voluntarily to NYSPI in December 1952 for depression, and that on January 8, 1953 NYSPI personnel injected him with a synthetic mescaline derivative furnished by the [[U.S. Army|Army]] Chemical Corps. The opinion names [[Paul Hoch]] as the NYSPI medical official in charge of administering the compound.[^23]
+
+The same opinion sets out the estate's account of what followed. According to records relied on by the estate, a conference of federal counsel and medical personnel in early July 1954 discussed claims of malpractice that might be anticipated, and Hoch was to testify as an expert if the source of the compound had to be revealed. The court records that Hoch testified Blauer's death was caused by the injection and that the administration of the drug "was not in accordance with generally accepted medical practice." The estate alleged that Hoch then testified falsely before the New York Court of Claims that the drug had been used for diagnosis, and that he was well aware the compound was an experiment for chemical warfare purposes. The opinion attributes these allegations to the estate. It records that the estate was never made aware of the Army's involvement, and that the estate signed a release in exchange for $18,000.[^23]
+
+### Thetford, Schucman and the Human Ecology funding
+
+[[William Thetford]] became an associate professor of medical psychology in the Department of Psychiatry at the Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center in February 1958, after working at the Cornell University Medical Center under [[Harold Wolff]]. [[Helen Schucman]] joined the department as an assistant professor and was later promoted to associate professor, according to [[Kenneth Wapnick]], who knew both. Wapnick writes that Thetford was recruited to head the psychology department of Presbyterian Hospital and a pre-doctoral training program in clinical psychology.[^24] Schucman and Thetford later became consultants to an interdisciplinary research project at the Cornell medical center; Wapnick describes its weekly meetings as the setting from which the scribing of *A Course in Miracles* began in 1965.[^25]
+
+The Spectator's 1978 account states that Thetford, by then a retired professor of medical psychiatry, worked from 1960 to 1966 on studies of human personality funded by CIA front organizations. In a letter to President McGill of October 1977, as the Spectator reports it, Thetford wrote that he "knew throughout that time the real source of the funding," which he had learned from Wolff, a former colleague at Cornell "who founded one of the front organizations with the CIA's aid." The article adds that Thetford wrote that he later regretted "not dissociating myself from the sources of funding," and that he believed at the time he was serving the country.[^8] At the 1977 joint hearing, the CIA psychologist [[John Gittinger]] told Senator [[Edward Kennedy]] that the [[Society for the Investigation of Human Ecology]] was established to fund psychological, sociological and anthropological research, that "the Agency in effect provided the money," and that many recipients "had no knowledge that they were getting CIA money."[^26] The hearing record also states that the Society, later the Human Ecology Fund, was an outgrowth of QKHILLTOP, a 1954 project on Chinese Communist brainwashing whose early studies were believed to have been conducted by the Cornell University Medical School Human Ecology Study Programs.[^27]
+
+A December 1987 review of the Personality Assessment System by [[Nevin Lantz]] of SRI International, prepared for the CIA's contracting officer's representative, lists among continuing research on the test the work of "Saunders (MARS Measurements Associates), and Thetford and Schucman (Columbia University)." Its bibliography cites a 1962 convention paper by Schucman, D. R. Saunders and Thetford applying syndrome analysis to subjects with ulcerative colitis, and a 1970 article by Schucman and Thetford in the *Journal of Abnormal Psychology*.[^28] A book review in the Star Gate files lists "Helen Cohn Schucman of A Course in Miracles" among modern channelers.[^29]
+
+### The Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service
+
+In October 1941 [[Harold N. Graves Jr.]] announced that Goodwin Watson, "eminent social psychologist of Columbia University," would accept a P-6 grade and head the Analysis Section of the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service.[^30] Watson accepted the post in a letter of October 22, 1941 and entered on duty November 17, 1941.[^31]
+
+In 1943 a House appropriations subcommittee moved against Watson and two other federal employees, [[William E. Dodd Jr.]] and [[Robert Morss Lovett]]. The rider that followed, Section 304 of the appropriations act, cut off their pay. In [[United States v. Lovett]], decided in 1946, the Supreme Court held that Section 304 operated as a bill of attainder against the three respondents.[^32]
+
+### Intelligence officers and diplomats
+
+[[Thomas Karamessines]], the CIA's deputy director for plans from 1967 to 1973, graduated from Columbia in 1938 and from its law school two years later, and served with [[Thomas E. Dewey]] as deputy assistant district attorney for New York County in 1941 and 1942, according to his 1978 obituary in the *Washington Post*. The obituary records that he then joined the Army, was selected for the Office of Strategic Services, served in London and Cairo, and remained in Greece until 1947.[^33] [[Lawrence Walsh]], who was deputy assistant district attorney in New York County from 1938 to 1941 and counsel to Governor Dewey from 1943 to 1951, took his A.B. at Columbia in 1932 and his LL.B. at Columbia Law School in 1935; his papers, 1919 to 2008, are held at Columbia.[^34] [[Walt Rostow]] taught as an instructor in economics at Columbia for the year after his Yale doctorate in 1940, before joining the Office of Strategic Services.[^35] [[Claiborne Pell]] took a master's degree at Columbia in 1946, and his Senate papers include a Columbia University speech of May 3, 1961.[^36] [[John R. Everett]], later president of the [[New School for Social Research]], took an M.A. in economics at Columbia in 1943 and a Ph.D. in philosophy in 1945, and taught philosophy there from 1943 to 1945.[^37]
+
+[[Garrison Rapmund]], a retired Army major general, took his M.D. at Columbia's College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1953. A Columbia Medicine memorial states that he trained in pediatrics at Babies Hospital, became an assistant surgeon general for research and development, and was a scientific adviser to the [[National Institutes of Health]], the [[Federal Aviation Administration]] and the [[Department of Energy]].[^38] The Defense Intelligence Agency's 1991 plan for [[Project Stargate|Project Star Gate]] carries a biography of Rapmund giving the same degree, and a Star Gate roster lists him as an observer on the Scientific Oversight Committee.[^39]
+
+### Lawyers, financiers and political figures
+
+[[Roy Cohn]]'s FBI file records, in a New York office report on his application for appointment to the [[United States Attorney's Office for the Southern District of New York]], that he received an A.B. from Columbia College in 1945 and an LL.B. in 1947.[^40] [[Adolf Berle]] served as associate professor and then professor of corporation law at Columbia from 1927 to 1963 and as professor emeritus from 1963, according to the finding aid of his papers at the [[Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library]], which also lists a Columbia University series for 1946 to 1971. The same finding aid records that as assistant secretary of state from 1938 to 1944 his duties included coordinating United States and foreign intelligence activities, that he was a trustee of the [[Free Europe Committee]] from 1948 to 1963, and that in the 1950s and 1960s he assisted the [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund]], the Rockefeller Foundation and the Committee on Human Ecology.[^41] [[José A. Cabranes]], later a judge of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review, took his A.B. at Columbia in 1961.[^42] [[Jay Lefkowitz]], named Deputy Assistant to the President for Domestic Policy in 2002, earned both his history degree and his law degree at Columbia.[^43] [[Alvin Johnson]] earned a Ph.D. in economics at Columbia in 1902 and taught there. In 1919 he joined a group of New Republic colleagues and Columbia professors, among them [[Charles Beard]], [[James Harvey Robinson]] and [[John Dewey]], who founded the New School for Social Research; the New School's history dates the school's origin to Columbia president [[Nicholas Murray Butler]]'s dismissal in 1917 of Henry Dana and James McKeen Cattell for opposing the war.[^44]
+
+The [[Rockefeller family]] and Columbia were tied by land and by schooling. [[John D. Rockefeller Jr.]] made a commitment on October 1, 1928 to lease from Columbia the three blocks between 48th and 51st Streets on which [[Rockefeller Center]] was built; the contract was signed on December 31, 1928 at an annual rent of approximately $3.5 million for 1928 to 1952, with options for three 21-year renewals. The city's landmark designation report describes the property as the "Upper Estate," conveyed to Columbia College in 1814 under an aid-to-education act, and records that bronze plaques in Rockefeller Plaza identified it as the property of Columbia University until the later sale to Rockefeller Center, Inc.[^45] The Lincoln School of Teachers College, established in 1917 with the General Education Board funding of [[John D. Rockefeller]], was owned and operated by Teachers College, Columbia University.[^46]
+
+### Scientists and psi researchers
+
+[[Gerald Feinberg]], a physicist in Columbia's Department of Physics, worked on [[Tachyon]] theory, the hypothesis of particles that travel faster than light. In February 1970 [[Scientific American]] published his article "Particles That Go Faster Than Light." The article describes a search for tachyons by a group at Columbia that examined bubble-chamber photographs for indirect evidence of neutral tachyons.[^47]
+
+Feinberg's work was carried into the parapsychology contracts of the [[Stanford Research Institute]] (SRI). A technical proposal dated October 1, 1973 for a "Perceptual Augmentation Techniques" program, prepared by [[Hal Puthoff]] and [[Russell Targ]], named Feinberg of Columbia and [[Charles Tart]] of the University of California as professors who "may be called upon to act as consultants."[^48] Later SRI research documents on remote viewing attribute an "extradimensional hypothesis" to "Targ, Puthoff, and May (SRI), G. Feinberg (Columbia University), and E. Rauscher (University of California Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory)."[^49] A December 1979 report of the [[Grill Flame]] Scientific Evaluation Committee, chaired by [[Manfred Gale]], reproduces the same passage.[^50] In 1974 Feinberg presented a paper, "Precognition: A Memory of Things Future?", at the twenty-third annual conference of the [[Parapsychology Foundation]] in Geneva. The paper suggested that precognition might be knowledge of a future state of the percipient's mind rather than of an objective state of the physical world.[^51] In April 1977 Targ, Puthoff and E. C. May listed a paper on the state of the art in remote viewing studies at SRI for a New York special session on psychic research held April 19 to 21 of that year.[^52]
+
+The [[Defense Intelligence Agency]] (DIA) listed Columbia among the "universities involved in courses, research, or degrees in parapsychology" in an August 7, 1984 report on psychoenergetics research. The exhibit places Columbia University beside [[Harvard University]], Princeton University and the University of Chicago.[^53] The Star Gate Scientific Oversight Committee roster lists [[Melvin Schwartz]], with a biography giving a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1988 and a Ph.D. from Columbia University in 1958 (physics).[^54]
+
+Irving Langmuir's colloquium on "pathological science," given at the Knolls Research Laboratory on December 18, 1953, was transcribed and edited for the CIA. The transcript records that on April 23, 1920 "Professor Bergen Davis from Columbia University" gave a colloquium in Langmuir's laboratory, and that Langmuir never published his own investigation of the Davis-Barnes effect.[^55] The psychologist [[Arthur Jensen]] received his Ph.D. from Columbia in 1956.[^56]
+
+### The 1968 disturbances and the Institute for Defense Analyses
+
+The fact-finding commission appointed to investigate the April and May 1968 disturbances at Columbia was chaired by [[Archibald Cox]] of Harvard. Its report states that Columbia became an institutional member of the [[Institute for Defense Analyses]] (IDA), a body created to give the Secretary of Defense and the Joint Chiefs of Staff access to university research on weapons systems and warfare, and that Kirk and the Columbia trustee [[William A. M. Burden]] served on the IDA board of trustees.[^57] The report records that in January 1968 Kirk appointed a faculty committee under Professor Louis Henkin to study Columbia's external relations, that in early April the trustees approved ending formal institutional sponsorship of IDA while having IDA appoint one member of the university community as an individual trustee, and that critics took this as an attempt to claim severance while keeping the relationship. It reports that the leaders of Students for a Democratic Society cultivated the IDA issue, and that six students faced discipline for the March 27 IDA demonstration.[^58] The commission treats the planned gymnasium in Morningside Park as a second source of the protest.[^59]
+
+[^1]: Columbia University, "A Brief History of Columbia," columbia.edu/content/history.html, capture of 2012 (founding in 1754 as King's College by royal charter of King George II; renamed Columbia in 1784; the title Columbia University adopted in 1896; the move to Morningside Heights in 1897; the School of International Affairs founded in 1946; atomic research by Rabi, Fermi and Kusch; Pupin Hall designated a national historic landmark in 1966). https://web.archive.org/web/2012/http://www.columbia.edu/content/history.html
+
+[^2]: H. D. Smyth, *Atomic Energy for Military Purposes* (Princeton University Press, 1945), para. 1.53. https://archive.org/details/atomicenergyform00smytrich
+
+[^3]: Smyth, *Atomic Energy for Military Purposes*, paras. 3.4 and 3.6.
+
+[^4]: Smyth, *Atomic Energy for Military Purposes*, paras. 3.10 and 3.12 (NDRC contract NDCrc-32, signed November 8, 1940, $40,000; Urey's centrifuge work under a Navy contract).
+
+[^5]: Smyth, *Atomic Energy for Military Purposes*, para. 10.1.
+
+[^6]: Smyth, *Atomic Energy for Military Purposes*, para. 5.12.
+
+[^7]: Smyth, *Atomic Energy for Military Purposes*, para. 10.23, pp. 172-173 and para. 10.26 (the SAM Laboratories).
+
+[^8]: *Columbia Daily Spectator*, article of April 1978 on CIA relations with Columbia faculty, reproduced in the CIA reading room as CIA-RDP90-00806R000100330008-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000100330008-6
+
+[^9]: Miller Center, University of Virginia, "Dwight D. Eisenhower: Life Before the Presidency" (president of Columbia University beginning in 1948). https://millercenter.org/president/eisenhower/life-before-the-presidency
+
+[^10]: Eisenhower Library, Oral History Project, finding aid OH-364, Grayson L. Kirk (provost 1949-51; president 1953-68), interview by David Horrocks, 1975. https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/oral-histories/oral-history-finding-aids/ohfa364.pdf
+
+[^11]: Eisenhower Library, Oral History Project, finding aid OH-394, Eli Ginzberg, interviews by David Horrocks (1975) and Thomas Soapes (1978). https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/oral-histories/oral-history-finding-aids/ohfa394.pdf
+
+[^12]: Columbia University Libraries, finding aid, "The American Assembly records, 1950-2008." https://findingaids.library.columbia.edu/ead//nnc-ua/ldpd_14243034
+
+[^13]: Rockefeller Foundation, *Annual Report 1949*, appropriations schedule, Columbia University, New York, School of International Affairs ("Development of the Russian Institute," RF 45034; "Special fellowships in the Russian Institute," RF 47045). https://archive.org/details/the-rockefeller-foundation-annual-report-1949
+
+[^14]: Executive director, Council on Foreign Relations, to Allen W. Dulles, letter of December 17, 1954, CIA-RDP80R01731R001200030019-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001200030019-0
+
+[^15]: White House memorandum for Allen W. Dulles, with attached "Quantico Panel Participants," CIA-RDP80B01676R004300080005-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r004300080005-4
+
+[^16]: Christopher Simpson, *Science of Coercion: Communication Research and Psychological Warfare, 1945-1960* (Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 5. https://archive.org/details/ScienceOfCoercionCommunicationResearchPsychologicalWarfare
+
+[^17]: Simpson, *Science of Coercion*, pp. 55-56.
+
+[^18]: Simpson, *Science of Coercion*, p. 74.
+
+[^19]: Rockefeller Foundation, *Annual Report 1949*, sections on Korean and Japanese broadcasters and on Japanese press personnel, and the social sciences grants list (Columbia University, Bureau of Applied Social Research, study of social conditions affecting productivity in the Ruhr area, $23,000). https://archive.org/details/the-rockefeller-foundation-annual-report-1949
+
+[^20]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum, December 2, 1953, "ABRAMSON, Harold A.," from the Chief, SSD to Colonel Edwards, MKULTRA document 0000144974, CIA reading room. https://archive.org/details/DOC_0000144974
+
+[^21]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Intelligence and Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research, *Project MKULTRA, the CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification*, 95th Cong., 1st sess., August 3, 1977, narrative of the Olson case. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/hearings/95mkultra.pdf
+
+[^22]: Kenneth Wapnick, *Absence from Felicity: The Story of Helen Schucman and Her Scribing of A Course in Miracles* (Foundation for A Course in Miracles), introduction ("the Psychiatric Institute, part of the Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center"). https://archive.org/details/absence-from-felicity-the-story-of-helen-schucman-and-her-scribing-of-a-course-i
+
+[^23]: *Barrett v. United States*, 798 F.2d 565 (2d Cir. 1986), opinion of July 31, 1986. The opinion attributes the allegations concerning Hoch, the July 1954 conference and the settlement to the estate or to the records it relied on. https://static.case.law/f2d/798/cases/0565-01.json
+
+[^24]: Wapnick, *Absence from Felicity*, ch. 4, "Psychology, Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center."
+
+[^25]: Wapnick, *Absence from Felicity*, ch. 4 (the Cornell consultancy and the events of June 1965).
+
+[^26]: *Project MKULTRA* joint hearing, August 3, 1977, testimony of John Gittinger in answer to Senator Edward Kennedy on the Society for the Investigation of Human Ecology.
+
+[^27]: *Project MKULTRA* joint hearing, August 3, 1977, appendix note on QKHILLTOP.
+
+[^28]: Nevin D. Lantz, *Review of the Personality Assessment System*, Final Report, Objective C, Tasks 2 and 3, SRI Project 1291, December 1987, prepared for Peter J. McNelis, CIA-RDP96-00789R002200230001-2.
+
+[^29]: Book review in the Star Gate files, CIA-RDP96-00792R000400090001-4.
+
+[^30]: Joseph E. Roop, *Foreign Broadcast Information Service, History, Part I: 1941-1947*, p. 14, quoting Graves's October 1941 announcement. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947
+
+[^31]: Roop, *Foreign Broadcast Information Service, History, Part I: 1941-1947*, p. 189 (Watson's letter to Free of October 22, 1941; entry on duty November 17, 1941).
+
+[^32]: *United States v. Lovett*, 328 U.S. 303 (1946), consolidated with the actions of Watson and Dodd, on whether Section 304 of the appropriations act was a bill of attainder. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/328/303
+
+[^33]: Jean R. Hailey, "T. H. Karamessines, Ex-Chief of CIA Covert Work, Dies," *Washington Post*, September 9, 1978, p. B4. https://archive.org/details/nsia-KaramessinesThomasHCIA
+
+[^34]: Federal Judicial Center, "Walsh, Lawrence Edward," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/walsh-lawrence-edward
+
+[^35]: "Rostow, Walt Whitman (1916-2003)," encyclopedia.com. https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/us-history-biographies/walt-whitman-rostow
+
+[^36]: University of Rhode Island Library, "Register to the Senatorial Papers of Claiborne Pell: Subject File," Mss. Gr. 71.4, biographical note and box 15 (Columbia University Speech, May 3, 1961). https://webarchives.apps.uri.edu/Pell%20XML%20Files/pell/Mss.%20Gr.%2071.4b.html
+
+[^37]: Beth S. Harris, "John R. Everett (1918-1992)," Encyclopedia Virginia. https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/everett-john-r-1918-1992/
+
+[^38]: Columbia Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, *Columbia Medicine*, Fall/Winter 2018, "In Memoriam," Class of 1953. https://www.vagelos.columbia.edu/about-us/columbia-medicine-magazine/archives/fall-winter-2018/memoriam/alumni
+
+[^39]: Defense Intelligence Agency, Project Star Gate plan, Volume I, June 1991, biography roster, CIA-RDP96-00789R002600090001-4; Star Gate Scientific Oversight Committee roster, CIA-RDP96-00789R003000330001-2.
+
+[^40]: Federal Bureau of Investigation, New York office report on Roy Marcus Cohn, file NY 58-1232, in the FBI file on Cohn. https://archive.org/details/6434449-Roy-Cohn-FBI-file-OCR
+
+[^41]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid, Adolf A. Berle papers (biographical note; series "Columbia University, 1946-1971"). https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_berle.pdf/14404a65-cb54-4e46-bc5d-063088cda701
+
+[^42]: Federal Judicial Center, "Cabranes, Jose Alberto," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/cabranes-jose-alberto
+
+[^43]: The White House, "Personnel Announcement," January 31, 2002. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2002/01/20020131-10.html
+
+[^44]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Alvin Saunders Johnson collection," NS-01-01-01, biographical note (https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/resources/230); New School Archives, "The Founding of the New School, 1919" (https://histories.newschool.edu/histories/founding-1919).
+
+[^45]: New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission, *Rockefeller Center*, designation report LP-1446, April 23, 1985. http://s-media.nyc.gov/agencies/lpc/lp/1446.pdf
+
+[^46]: WritLarge NYC, Columbia University, "Lincoln School of Teachers College." https://writlarge.ctl.columbia.edu/view/539
+
+[^47]: Gerald Feinberg, "Particles That Go Faster Than Light," *Scientific American*, vol. 222, no. 2 (February 1970), reproduced in CIA reading room document CIA-RDP96-00787R000100030001-9. The article names Charles Baltay, Ralph Linsker and Noel K. Yeh as the Columbia group.
+
+[^48]: Harold E. Puthoff and Russell Targ, *Perceptual Augmentation Techniques*, Part One, Technical Proposal, SRI No. ISH 73-146, October 1, 1973, CIA-RDP96-00787R000200210001-8.
+
+[^49]: Puthoff and Targ, research approaches document (characteristics, analysis and theory of remote viewing), undated, CIA-RDP96-00788R002000010006-4.
+
+[^50]: Grill Flame Scientific Evaluation Committee, report, December 1979, Manfred Gale, chairman, CIA-RDP96-00788R001300120001-5.
+
+[^51]: Gerald Feinberg, "Precognition: A Memory of Things Future?", 23rd Annual International Conference of the Parapsychology Foundation, Hotel La Reserve, Geneva, August 26-27, 1974, conference report summarized in CIA-RDP96-00787R000200090021-0 (dated October 28, 1974).
+
+[^52]: Russell Targ, Harold E. Puthoff and Edwin C. May, "State of the Art in Remote Viewing Studies at SRI," listed as presented at the Special Session on the State of the Art in Psychic Research, New York, April 19-21, 1977, in the references of CIA-RDP96-00787R000500070004-8.
+
+[^53]: Defense Intelligence Agency, Directorate for Scientific and Technical Intelligence, *Psychoenergetics Research*, August 7, 1984, Exhibit 5, "Universities Involved in Courses, Research, or Degrees in Parapsychology," CIA-RDP96-00788R001800210001-0.
+
+[^54]: Star Gate Scientific Oversight Committee roster and biographies, listing Melvin Schwartz with "Nobel Prize, Physics (1988)" and "Ph.D., Columbia University, 1958 (Physics)," CIA-RDP96-00789R003000330001-2; see also CIA-RDP96-00789R002900330001-4.
+
+[^55]: Irving Langmuir, colloquium "Pathological Science," Knolls Research Laboratory, December 18, 1953, transcribed and edited by R. N. Hall, CIA-RDP96-00791R000100490001-4.
+
+[^56]: John C. Loehlin, "Arthur R. Jensen, 1923-2012," *Twin Research and Human Genetics* 16, Supplement 1 (February 2013), pp. 499-500. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/twin-research-and-human-genetics/article/arthur-r-jensen-19232012/F033208B342BBA3F1C97E3055FFE17D4
+
+[^57]: *Crisis at Columbia: Report of the Fact-Finding Commission Appointed to Investigate the Disturbances at Columbia University in April and May 1968* (New York: Vintage Books, 1968), section on the Institute for Defense Analyses. https://archive.org/details/cox_crisis
+
+[^58]: *Crisis at Columbia*, sections on the IDA affiliation and the March 27, 1968 IDA demonstration, and the Commission's appraisal of the IDA issue.
+
+[^59]: *Crisis at Columbia*, section "The Gymnasium in Morningside Park."

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Counter Extremism Project.md

@@ -98,14 +98,14 @@ relations:
     reverse: true
     start: 2020
     role: "fiscal year 2020 Targeted Violence and Terrorism Prevention grant"
-    fn: 35
+    fn: 36
   - type: subject_of
     with: "[[Global Risk Advisors]]"
     start: 2017-03
     role: "named in the Project ENDGAME document, per Fox News Digital; the firm's lawyer denies wrongdoing"
-    fn: 39
+    fn: 40
 created: 2026-10-01
-updated: 2026-10-01
+updated: 2026-10-15
 ---
 
 The Counter Extremism Project (CEP) is a [[New York City]] advocacy organisation launched on 22 September 2014 by [[Mark Wallace]], a former [[United States]] ambassador to the [[United Nations]], with [[Frances Townsend]], a former Homeland Security adviser to [[George W. Bush]], and the former senator [[Joseph Lieberman]] as board members.[^1] It operates through [[Counter Extremism Project United Inc]] (CEPU), a 501(c)(4) social welfare organisation with the employer identification number 81-0878718, and through The Green Light Project Inc, a 501(c)(3) charity with the number 46-4631639, whose Form 990 describes it as "a non-partisan organization focused on countering extremism".[^2][^3] Its model was an earlier Wallace organisation, [[United Against Nuclear Iran]] (UANI): Wallace told a House subcommittee in January 2015 that CEP was modeled "in part on advocacy efforts to counter Iran's efforts to acquire nuclear weapons".[^4]
@@ -150,25 +150,25 @@ Wallace testified on 27 January 2015 before the House Foreign Affairs Subcommitt
 
 In June 2016 CEP, "working with [[Dartmouth College|Dartmouth University]] computer scientist Hany Farid and funding from Microsoft", announced software to match known extremist images and videos by robust hashing, an approach Farid had invented in 2008 for child sexual abuse imagery with Microsoft.[^31] CEP's website lists Farid as a senior adviser.[^32] The Green Light Project's returns list Farid as a contractor for "strategic and policy analysis" at 160,000 dollars for 2020 and for "strategic consulting" at 120,000 dollars for 2022.[^24][^26]
 
-CEP and Farid filed a brief as amici curiae in support of the petitioners in [[Gonzalez v. Google LLC]] (No. 21-1333) on 7 December 2022, represented by [[Kimberly Lambert Adams]] of the Pensacola firm [[Levin Papantonio|Levin, Papantonio, Rafferty, Proctor, Buchanan, O'Brien, Barr and Mougey]]. The brief states that no counsel for a party authored it and that no person other than the amici and their counsel made a monetary contribution to fund it. It describes Farid as a [[University of California, Berkeley|Berkeley]] professor who "has testified before Congress five times", advises "many of the largest tech companies on content moderation" and is a member of [[TikTok]]'s Content Advisory Council and [[Snap Inc.|Snap]]'s Safety Advisory Board, and states that CEP "has advocated against broad Section 230 immunity for tech companies that algorithmically amplify terrorist content".[^33]
+CEP and Farid filed a brief as amici curiae in support of the petitioners in [[Gonzalez v. Google LLC]] (No. 21-1333) on 7 December 2022, represented by [[Kimberly Lambert Adams]] of the Pensacola firm [[Levin Papantonio|Levin, Papantonio, Rafferty, Proctor, Buchanan, O'Brien, Barr and Mougey]]. The brief states that no counsel for a party authored it and that no person other than the amici and their counsel made a monetary contribution to fund it. It describes Farid as a [[University of California, Berkeley|Berkeley]] professor who "has testified before Congress five times", advises "many of the largest tech companies on content moderation" and is a member of [[TikTok]]'s Content Advisory Council and [[Snap Inc.|Snap]]'s Safety Advisory Board, and states that CEP "has advocated against broad Section 230 immunity for tech companies that algorithmically amplify terrorist content".[^33] On May 18, 2023 the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] vacated the Ninth Circuit judgment and remanded in a per curiam opinion that declined to address the application of Section 230 to the complaint.[^34]
 
-CEP states that it reports weekly on the methods extremists and terrorist groups use on the Internet to spread propaganda. Its press release of 21 January 2025 is titled "Extremist Content Online: White Supremacist Telegram Channels Identify Need for Alternative Platform After [[United States Department of State|State Department]]'s Terrorgram Collective Designation", concerning channels on [[Telegram]] and the [[Terrorgram Collective]].[^34]
+CEP states that it reports weekly on the methods extremists and terrorist groups use on the Internet to spread propaganda. Its press release of 21 January 2025 is titled "Extremist Content Online: White Supremacist Telegram Channels Identify Need for Alternative Platform After [[United States Department of State|State Department]]'s Terrorgram Collective Designation", concerning channels on [[Telegram]] and the [[Terrorgram Collective]].[^35]
 
 ### Government Grants
 
-A report prepared for the [[Department of Homeland Security]] by [[RTI International]] evaluated CEP's fiscal year 2020 Targeted Violence and Terrorism Prevention grant. It records that CEP developed a curriculum called Alternative Pathways with [[Parallel Networks]] and [[John Horgan|Dr John Horgan]], that CEP "was unable to identify a prison or other correctional institution willing to pilot its in-person AP course", and that ten incarcerated people completed a written version.[^35] The Green Light Project's return for 2020 lists a grant of 88,384 dollars to Parallel Networks of Alexandria, Virginia, for "combat extremism in respective communities".[^24]
+A report prepared for the [[Department of Homeland Security]] by [[RTI International]] evaluated CEP's fiscal year 2020 Targeted Violence and Terrorism Prevention grant. It records that CEP developed a curriculum called Alternative Pathways with [[Parallel Networks]] and [[John Horgan|Dr John Horgan]], that CEP "was unable to identify a prison or other correctional institution willing to pilot its in-person AP course", and that ten incarcerated people completed a written version.[^36] The Green Light Project's return for 2020 lists a grant of 88,384 dollars to Parallel Networks of Alexandria, Virginia, for "combat extremism in respective communities".[^24]
 
 ### Gulf States and Turkey
 
-[[LobeLog]] published on 21 July 2017 emails that it attributed to the account of the [[United Arab Emirates]] ambassador to Washington, [[Yousef Al Otaiba]], released by the group GlobalLeaks. Its author, Eli Clifton, wrote that on 3 September 2014 Wallace sent Otaiba cost estimates for a forum and wrote "Believe that this will be self-funding in short order with donors"; that on 8 January 2015 Townsend thanked Otaiba and [[Richard Mintz]] for "ongoing support of the CEP effort"; and that on 8 August 2016 the former senator [[Norm Coleman]] wrote to Otaiba at the suggestion of the [[Saudi Arabia|Saudi]] foreign minister, "The Counter Extremism Project is a 501c4".[^36] Clifton wrote that UANI, CEP, Townsend, the embassy and Coleman did not respond to written requests for comment. The authenticity of the emails was not established in the article.[^37]
+[[LobeLog]] published on 21 July 2017 emails that it attributed to the account of the [[United Arab Emirates]] ambassador to Washington, [[Yousef Al Otaiba]], released by the group GlobalLeaks. Its author, Eli Clifton, wrote that on 3 September 2014 Wallace sent Otaiba cost estimates for a forum and wrote "Believe that this will be self-funding in short order with donors"; that on 8 January 2015 Townsend thanked Otaiba and [[Richard Mintz]] for "ongoing support of the CEP effort"; and that on 8 August 2016 the former senator [[Norm Coleman]] wrote to Otaiba at the suggestion of the [[Saudi Arabia|Saudi]] foreign minister, "The Counter Extremism Project is a 501c4".[^37] Clifton wrote that UANI, CEP, Townsend, the embassy and Coleman did not respond to written requests for comment. The authenticity of the emails was not established in the article.[^38]
 
-CEP's report "Qatar, Money, and Terror" and its QATAR-HARBORS campaign called on [[Qatar]] to arrest, expel or cut off support to sanction-designated or wanted individuals domiciled there and to halt support to [[Hamas]], the Muslim Brotherhood and other groups.[^38] Fox News Digital reported on 20 January 2024 that a March 2017 document titled "Project ENDGAME", prepared for Qatar by the firm [[Global Risk Advisors]], founded by the former [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] employee [[Kevin Chalker]], also focused on CEP in an effort to "Mitigate Attacks" against Qatar. Wallace told Fox News Digital that after the Qatari operation "hacked accounts that contained email correspondence with members of CEP leadership, they engaged in a PR campaign to destroy us and paid Americans to do their bidding". Chalker's lawyer told Fox News Digital that no indictment was pending against Chalker or the firm and that allegations of wrongdoing were "just false".[^39]
+CEP's report "Qatar, Money, and Terror" and its QATAR-HARBORS campaign called on [[Qatar]] to arrest, expel or cut off support to sanction-designated or wanted individuals domiciled there and to halt support to [[Hamas]], the Muslim Brotherhood and other groups.[^39] Fox News Digital reported on 20 January 2024 that a March 2017 document titled "Project ENDGAME", prepared for Qatar by the firm [[Global Risk Advisors]], founded by the former [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] employee [[Kevin Chalker]], also focused on CEP in an effort to "Mitigate Attacks" against Qatar. Wallace told Fox News Digital that after the Qatari operation "hacked accounts that contained email correspondence with members of CEP leadership, they engaged in a PR campaign to destroy us and paid Americans to do their bidding". Chalker's lawyer told Fox News Digital that no indictment was pending against Chalker or the firm and that allegations of wrongdoing were "just false".[^40]
 
-The Intercept reported in November 2021 that Wallace also headed the [[Turkish Democracy Project]], launched in summer 2021, which had no Turkish members on its leadership board, and that eight of its eleven senior leaders and advisers held positions with UANI, CEP or both. It reported that Kaplan has "extensive business and philanthropic ties to the United Arab Emirates" and, in the [[Responsible Statecraft]] version of the article, that none of the groups had registered under the [[Foreign Agents Registration Act]].[^22][^36]
+The Intercept reported in November 2021 that Wallace also headed the [[Turkish Democracy Project]], launched in summer 2021, which had no Turkish members on its leadership board, and that eight of its eleven senior leaders and advisers held positions with UANI, CEP or both. It reported that Kaplan has "extensive business and philanthropic ties to the United Arab Emirates" and, in the [[Responsible Statecraft]] version of the article, that none of the groups had registered under the [[Foreign Agents Registration Act]].[^22][^37]
 
 ### Databases and Reports on Far-Right Groups
 
-CEP's website lists research databases titled "White Supremacy Groups in the United States", "White Supremacy Groups in Europe" and "Far-Left Extremist Groups in the United States", a program named "ARCHER at House 88", and a German branch, CEP Germany.[^34] The Green Light Project's return for 2023 describes its program as countering support for extremist groups "by pressuring their financial support networks, building a best-in-class clearinghouse and database of extremist groups and their supporters, countering the narrative of extremists and their online recruitment, and advocating for strong laws, policies and regulations".[^3]
+CEP's website lists research databases titled "White Supremacy Groups in the United States", "White Supremacy Groups in Europe" and "Far-Left Extremist Groups in the United States", a program named "ARCHER at House 88", and a German branch, CEP Germany.[^35] The Green Light Project's return for 2023 describes its program as countering support for extremist groups "by pressuring their financial support networks, building a best-in-class clearinghouse and database of extremist groups and their supporters, countering the narrative of extremists and their online recruitment, and advocating for strong laws, policies and regulations".[^3]
 
 ### Footnotes
 
@@ -205,9 +205,10 @@ CEP's website lists research databases titled "White Supremacy Groups in the Uni
 [^31]: Patrick Tucker, "How to Stop the Next Viral Jihadi Video", Defense One, 17 June 2016. http://www.defenseone.com/technology/2016/06/how-stop-next-viral-jihadi-video/129210/
 [^32]: Counter Extremism Project, tag page "eGLYPH" (items describing "CEP Senior Advisor Dr. Hany Farid"), counterextremism.com, accessed 1 October 2026. https://www.counterextremism.com/news-free-tags/eglyph
 [^33]: Brief of Amici Curiae Counter Extremism Project (CEP) and Hany Farid in Support of Petitioners, Gonzalez v. Google LLC, No. 21-1333 (U.S. Supreme Court), filed 7 December 2022, Interest of Amici Curiae and footnote 1. https://www.supremecourt.gov/DocketPDF/21/21-1333/249378/20221207151224344_No.%2021-1333_Brief%20of%20Amici%20Curiae.pdf
-[^34]: Counter Extremism Project, press release "Extremist Content Online: White Supremacist Telegram Channels Identify Need for Alternative Platform After State Department's Terrorgram Collective Designation", 21 January 2025, with site navigation listing databases and programs. https://www.counterextremism.com/press/extremist-content-online-white-supremacist-telegram-channels-identify-need-alternative
-[^35]: RTI International for the Department of Homeland Security, "Counter Extremism Project Site Profile: FY2020 Targeted Violence and Terrorism Prevention (TVTP) Grantee Evaluation", November 2023. https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/2023-11/23_1108_st_CEP_SiteProfile.pdf
-[^36]: Eli Clifton and Murtaza Hussain, "Dark money network pushes pro-UAE/Saudi policies from New York", Responsible Statecraft, 26 November 2021 (quotes the 2015 truth-in-testimony statement of Wallace, the August 2016 Coleman email to Otaiba, and the statement that none of the groups had registered under FARA). https://responsiblestatecraft.org/2021/11/26/dark-money-network-pushes-pro-uae-saudi-policies-from-new-york/
-[^37]: Eli Clifton, "Hacked Emails Reveal Close Ties Between UAE and Anti-Iran/Qatar Advocacy Groups", LobeLog, 21 July 2017. https://lobelog.com/hacked-emails-reveal-close-ties-between-uae-and-anti-iranqatar-advocacy-groups/
-[^38]: Counter Extremism Project, "Qatar, Money, and Terror" (key findings; "CEP's QATAR-HARBORS Campaign"), counterextremism.com, accessed 1 October 2026. https://www.counterextremism.com/content/qatar-money-and-terror
-[^39]: Benjamin Weinthal, "Exclusive: Alleged Qatar spy operation said to have targeted GOP lawmakers opposed to Muslim Brotherhood", Fox News Digital, 20 January 2024. https://www.foxnews.com/world/exclusive-alleged-qatar-spy-operation-said-to-have-targeted-gop-lawmakers-opposed-to-muslim-brotherhood
+[^34]: Gonzalez v. Google LLC, No. 21-1333, 598 U.S. ___ (18 May 2023) (per curiam), stating that the Court "decline[s] to address the application of 230 to a complaint that appears to state little, if any, plausible claim for relief" and vacating and remanding for reconsideration in light of Twitter, Inc. v. Taamneh. https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/22pdf/21-1333_6j7a.pdf
+[^35]: Counter Extremism Project, press release "Extremist Content Online: White Supremacist Telegram Channels Identify Need for Alternative Platform After State Department's Terrorgram Collective Designation", 21 January 2025, with site navigation listing databases and programs. https://www.counterextremism.com/press/extremist-content-online-white-supremacist-telegram-channels-identify-need-alternative
+[^36]: RTI International for the Department of Homeland Security, "Counter Extremism Project Site Profile: FY2020 Targeted Violence and Terrorism Prevention (TVTP) Grantee Evaluation", November 2023. https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/2023-11/23_1108_st_CEP_SiteProfile.pdf
+[^37]: Eli Clifton and Murtaza Hussain, "Dark money network pushes pro-UAE/Saudi policies from New York", Responsible Statecraft, 26 November 2021 (quotes the 2015 truth-in-testimony statement of Wallace, the August 2016 Coleman email to Otaiba, and the statement that none of the groups had registered under FARA). https://responsiblestatecraft.org/2021/11/26/dark-money-network-pushes-pro-uae-saudi-policies-from-new-york/
+[^38]: Eli Clifton, "Hacked Emails Reveal Close Ties Between UAE and Anti-Iran/Qatar Advocacy Groups", LobeLog, 21 July 2017. https://lobelog.com/hacked-emails-reveal-close-ties-between-uae-and-anti-iranqatar-advocacy-groups/
+[^39]: Counter Extremism Project, "Qatar, Money, and Terror" (key findings; "CEP's QATAR-HARBORS Campaign"), counterextremism.com, accessed 1 October 2026. https://www.counterextremism.com/content/qatar-money-and-terror
+[^40]: Benjamin Weinthal, "Exclusive: Alleged Qatar spy operation said to have targeted GOP lawmakers opposed to Muslim Brotherhood", Fox News Digital, 20 January 2024. https://www.foxnews.com/world/exclusive-alleged-qatar-spy-operation-said-to-have-targeted-gop-lawmakers-opposed-to-muslim-brotherhood

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Deutsche Bank.md

@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ tags:
 summary: "German bank that handled Jeffrey Epstein's accounts from 2013 to 2018 after JPMorgan exited him, processed payments to women and alleged co-conspirators, and paid 225 million dollars in penalties and settlements."
 location: "Frankfurt, Germany"
 created: 2026-06-20
-updated: 2026-09-25
+updated: 2026-10-15
 relations:
   - type: investigated
     with: "[[New York Department of Financial Services]]"
@@ -59,13 +59,13 @@ In March 2019 Epstein's Southern Trust Company wired 2.4 million dollars to exer
 
 ### The DFS Penalty and Victim Settlement
 
-The New York Department of Financial Services issued its consent order on July 6, 2020, finding that Deutsche Bank conducted business in an unsafe and unsound manner in violation of New York Banking Law section 44 and failed to maintain an effective anti-money-laundering program in violation of 3 NYCRR section 116.2.[^1] The order, brought under sections 39 and 44 of the Banking Law, also addressed the bank's correspondent relationships with [[FBME Bank]] and [[Danske Bank]] Estonia, through which it cleared more than 267 billion dollars in transactions and identified hundreds of suspicious transactions.[^1] The order required Deutsche Bank to pay a penalty of 150 million dollars within ten business days, barred it from deducting the penalty for tax purposes or seeking insurance or indemnification for it, and credited the bank's cooperation and remediation. It did not appoint a new monitor but expanded the mandate of the independent monitor already in place under the January 30, 2017 consent order. The Department agreed to take no further action against the bank for the conduct described in the order, provided the bank complied with it, while reserving the right to act on conduct the bank had not disclosed. The order stated that the regulator left the question of what Epstein's cash was used for "to the criminal authorities." It was signed for the Department by Superintendent [[Linda Lacewell]] and for the bank by general counsel [[Karen Kuder]].[^1]
+The New York Department of Financial Services announced its consent order on July 7, 2020, the order having been executed on July 6, finding that Deutsche Bank conducted business in an unsafe and unsound manner in violation of New York Banking Law section 44 and failed to maintain an effective anti-money-laundering program in violation of 3 NYCRR section 116.2.[^1] The order, brought under sections 39 and 44 of the Banking Law, also addressed the bank's correspondent relationships with [[FBME Bank]] and [[Danske Bank]] Estonia, through which it cleared more than 267 billion dollars in transactions and identified hundreds of suspicious transactions.[^1] The order required Deutsche Bank to pay a penalty of 150 million dollars within ten business days, barred it from deducting the penalty for tax purposes or seeking insurance or indemnification for it, and credited the bank's cooperation and remediation. It did not appoint a new monitor but expanded the mandate of the independent monitor already in place under the January 30, 2017 consent order. The Department agreed to take no further action against the bank for the conduct described in the order, provided the bank complied with it, while reserving the right to act on conduct the bank had not disclosed. The order stated that the regulator left the question of what Epstein's cash was used for "to the criminal authorities." It was signed for the Department by Superintendent [[Linda Lacewell]] and for the bank by general counsel [[Karen Kuder]].[^1]
 
 The bank terminated the Epstein relationship after the [[Miami Herald]] published its November 2018 reporting on his 2008 plea deal, informing Epstein by letter on December 21, 2018 that it would no longer service his accounts.[^1] After the bank decided to offboard the accounts, a relationship manager nonetheless drafted reference letters to two other financial institutions stating that he was "unaware of any problems relating to the operation or use" of the accounts.[^1]
 
 After Epstein's July 2019 arrest, Deutsche Bank retroactively filed suspicious activity reports flagging more than 250 million dollars in wires, one of them covering 1,140 wires totaling 147 million dollars from 2013 to 2019, including payments to women in Russia and Eastern Europe and to modeling agencies; according to Wyden's report the bank had filed no contemporaneous report in almost six years. Wyden's staff asked the bank in June 2026 for the deposition transcript of Morris taken in the victims' suit, and the bank's lawyers declined.[^3]
 
-In May 2023 Deutsche Bank agreed to pay 75 million dollars to settle a federal lawsuit in [[New York]] brought by a survivor identified as Jane Doe, who sought class-action status on behalf of other victims and alleged that the bank knowingly benefited from Epstein's sex trafficking and chose profit over compliance with the law.[^2] The plaintiffs were represented by [[Edwards Pottinger]] and [[Boies Schiller Flexner]], and one firm characterized the deal as among the largest sex-trafficking settlements with a bank in U.S. history; a federal judge approved it in October 2023.[^2][^9]
+In May 2023 Deutsche Bank agreed to pay 75 million dollars to settle a federal lawsuit in [[New York City|New York]] brought by a survivor identified as Jane Doe, who sought class-action status on behalf of other victims and alleged that the bank knowingly benefited from Epstein's sex trafficking and chose profit over compliance with the law.[^2] The plaintiffs were represented by [[Edwards Pottinger]] and [[Boies Schiller Flexner]], and one firm characterized the deal as among the largest sex-trafficking settlements with a bank in U.S. history; a federal judge approved it in October 2023.[^2][^9]
 
 ### Footnotes
 

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Facebook.md

@@ -0,0 +1,368 @@
+---
+aliases:
+  - Facebook Inc.
+  - Facebook, Inc.
+  - Meta
+  - Meta Platforms
+  - Meta Platforms, Inc.
+  - TheFacebook
+  - thefacebook.com
+category: "Private Organization"
+tags:
+  - Organization
+  - MetaPlatforms
+  - MarkZuckerberg
+  - PeterThiel
+  - FoundersFund
+  - CambridgeAnalytica
+  - PRISM
+  - EmotionalContagion
+  - Myanmar
+  - Christchurch
+  - WhatsApp
+  - ScaleAI
+  - SiliconValley
+  - Palantir
+  - RoyalCommission
+  - InQTel
+summary: "Social network launched at Harvard in 2004 by Mark Zuckerberg, renamed Meta Platforms in 2021, whose first outside investor was Peter Thiel and which paid 2019 penalties over user data."
+location: "Menlo Park, California"
+created: 2026-10-15
+updated: 2026-10-15
+relations:
+  - type: founded
+    with: "[[Mark Zuckerberg]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2004-02
+    role: "launched thefacebook.com while a student at Harvard University"
+    fn: 3
+  - type: funded
+    with: "[[Peter Thiel]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2004
+    role: "first significant outside investor, 500,000 dollars"
+    fn: 4
+  - type: director_of
+    with: "[[Peter Thiel]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2005-04
+    end: 2022-02
+    role: "member of the board of directors"
+    fn: 7
+  - type: director_of
+    with: "[[Marc Andreessen]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2008-06
+    role: "member of the board of directors"
+    fn: 7
+  - type: director_of
+    with: "[[Jim Breyer]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2005-04
+    role: "member of the board of directors, partner of Accel"
+    fn: 7
+  - type: funded
+    with: "[[Accel]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2005
+    role: "Series A investor; Accel IX held 149,527,730 Class B shares in 2012"
+    fn: 9
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Sheryl Sandberg]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2008-03
+    role: "chief operating officer"
+    fn: 7
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Dustin Moskovitz]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2004-02
+    end: 2008-11
+    role: "senior roles at the company"
+    fn: 65
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Adam D'Angelo]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2005-06
+    end: 2008-06
+    role: "senior roles, chief technology officer from November 2006"
+    fn: 65
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Bret Taylor]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2009-08
+    end: 2012-07
+    role: "chief technology officer"
+    fn: 66
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Chamath Palihapitiya]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2007
+    end: 2011
+    role: "vice president of growth, mobile and international"
+    fn: 67
+  - type: owned
+    with: "[[WhatsApp]]"
+    start: 2014-02
+    role: "acquisition announced for approximately 16 billion dollars including shares"
+    fn: 47
+  - type: owned
+    with: "[[Oculus VR]]"
+    start: 2014-03
+    role: "acquisition announced March 25, 2014 for approximately 2 billion dollars"
+    fn: 48
+  - type: investigated
+    with: "[[Federal Trade Commission]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2019-07
+    role: "5 billion dollar penalty for violating a 2012 order"
+    fn: 20
+  - type: investigated
+    with: "[[Information Commissioner's Office]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2018-10
+    role: "monetary penalty of 500,000 pounds"
+    fn: 19
+  - type: investigated
+    with: "[[Securities and Exchange Commission]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2019-07
+    role: "settled charges over disclosures about misuse of user data, 100 million dollars"
+    fn: 18
+  - type: participant_in
+    with: "[[PRISM]]"
+    start: 2009
+    role: "listed as a provider on a leaked NSA slide; the company denied giving the government direct access"
+    fn: 13
+  - type: funded
+    with: "[[Scale AI]]"
+    start: 2025-06
+    role: "non-voting minority equity stake, 13.79 billion dollars recorded as non-marketable equity"
+    fn: 52
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Joel Kaplan]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2025-01
+    role: "policy chief, named January 2, 2025"
+    fn: 56
+  - type: director_of
+    with: "[[Dana White]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2025-01
+    role: "elected to the board of directors January 6, 2025; president and chief executive of the Ultimate Fighting Championship"
+    fn: 58
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Sarah Wynn-Williams]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2011
+    role: "Director of Global Public Policy, nearly seven years from 2011"
+    fn: 45
+---
+
+Facebook, Inc. is the social-networking company that [[Mark Zuckerberg]] launched as thefacebook.com while a student at [[Harvard University]] in February 2004. The company was renamed [[Meta Platforms]], Inc. in October 2021.[^1] Its first significant outside investor was [[Peter Thiel]]. Its February 2012 registration statement named Thiel, [[Marc Andreessen]] and [[Jim Breyer]] among its directors, and it listed Thiel-managed entities and [[Accel]] funds as holders of large blocks of its Class B stock.[^2]
+
+### Launch and first investment
+
+The [[Harvard Crimson]] reported on February 9, 2004 that Zuckerberg, a member of the class of 2006, had launched the site after coding for about a week. The article reads: "After about a week of coding, Zuckerberg launched thefacebook.com last Wednesday afternoon." The Wednesday in question was February 4, 2004.[^3] The company was incorporated in Delaware in July 2004.[^2]
+
+Thiel invested 500,000 dollars in thefacebook.com in 2004, which made him the first significant outside investor in the site.[^4] Thiel and Founders Fund sold the majority of the position across the 2012 public offering and the following years, with a realized return in the range of two billion dollars.[^5] A 2016 essay in the blog Cyborgology titled "Mimesis, Violence, and Facebook: Peter Thiel's French Connection" reads the investment through the mimetic theory of [[Rene Girard|René Girard]].[^6]
+
+### Board seats and holdings in the 2012 registration statement
+
+The company filed a Form S-1 registration statement with the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] on February 1, 2012, before its initial public offering.[^2] The filing states that Thiel has been a director "since April 2005," that he has been a partner of [[Founders Fund]] since 2005, and that he had been president of [[Clarium Capital Management]] since 2002 and was a co-founder of [[PayPal]].[^7] Breyer is listed as a director from the same month, as a partner of [[Accel Partners|Accel]] since 1987, and as the founder and chief executive of [[Breyer Capital]]. Andreessen is listed as a director since June 2008 and as a general partner of [[Andreessen Horowitz]] since July 2009.[^7] Andreessen, [[Erskine Bowles]] and Thiel formed the audit committee, and Breyer and [[Donald Graham]] formed the compensation committee.[^7] Andreessen's other directorships at the time were eBay Inc. and Hewlett-Packard, and Breyer's were Dell, News Corporation, Prosper Marketplace and Wal-Mart Stores.[^7] [[Sheryl Sandberg]] is listed as chief operating officer since March 2008.[^7] Mike Schroepfer is listed as vice president of engineering since September 2008.[^7]
+
+The holdings section of the filing shows the equity behind those seats. Rivendell One LLC held 32,875,670 shares of Class B common stock, and the filing states that Thiel is its beneficial owner. The Founders Fund partnerships held 5,978,140, 740,960, 36,640 and 22,400 shares, and Lembas, LLC held 5,070,290 shares, for which Thiel is the managing member.[^8] Accel's holdings were larger. Accel IX L.P. held 149,527,730 shares of Class B common stock, Accel IX Strategic Partners held 15,931,653 shares, and Accel 2005 held 13,939,214 shares. Breyer is one of the managing members of the general partners of these funds.[^8] The Class B stock carries ten votes per share, and the filing describes Zuckerberg as the holder of the majority of the voting power.[^2]
+
+The same filing describes an Investors' Rights Agreement that the company first entered in connection with its Series A financing in 2005. Entities affiliated with Thiel, Accel Partners and [[DST Global]] were parties to it.[^9] Thiel's board service ended in February 2022, when he announced that he would step down. CNBC reported that he declined reelection to focus on funding pro-Trump political candidates ahead of the midterms.[^10]
+
+The filing reports 845 million monthly active users as of December 31, 2011, an increase of 39 percent from 608 million a year earlier.[^2] 
+
+### LifeLog and the February 2004 launch
+
+The [[Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency]] ran a program named LifeLog that was intended to record and organize a person's experiences. [[Noah Shachtman]] reported in Wired News on February 4, 2004, the day thefacebook.com went online, that the Pentagon had canceled the program, which he described as "an ambitious effort to build a database tracking a person's entire existence." LifeLog "aimed to gather in a single place just about everything an individual says, sees or does: the phone calls made, the TV shows watched, the magazines read, the plane tickets bought, the e-mail sent and received."[^11] The report states that researchers close to the project were unsure why it had been "dropped late last month," that DARPA gave no explanation, and that "A change in priorities" was the only rationale its spokeswoman, Jan Walker, gave. It places the cancellation after Congress eliminated the Terrorism Information Awareness data-mining initiative and after the withdrawal of the Policy Analysis Market, and it reports that civil libertarians had argued when the program debuted in spring 2003 that LifeLog "could become the ultimate tool for profiling potential enemies of the state."[^11][^12] [[Howard Shrobe]], who led a team from the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] Artificial Intelligence Laboratory that had spent weeks preparing a bid for a LifeLog contract, said the team was "quite disappointed." The same report records that private-sector work in the area continued, naming [[Gordon Bell]]'s MyLifeBits program at [[Microsoft]], and quotes an MIT computer scientist's expectation that such research "will continue" at DARPA.[^11]
+
+### PRISM
+
+In June 2013 the Guardian published a top-secret slide presentation describing a National Security Agency program called PRISM. The article reported that the NSA "has obtained direct access to the systems of Google, Facebook, Apple and other US internet giants," according to the document. The slides listed Facebook as a provider that joined in 2009, along with Google and PalTalk, after Yahoo in 2008.[^13]
+
+The company answered on June 6, 2013. Its statement to TechCrunch read: "We do not provide any government organization with direct access to Facebook servers."[^14] On June 7 Zuckerberg published a personal statement that said "Facebook is not and has never been part of any program to give the US or any other government direct access to our servers," and added: "We hadn't even heard of PRISM before yesterday."[^15] A senior administration official's statement, published with the article, said that the Section 702 authority of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act "does not allow the targeting of any US citizen."[^13] Zuckerberg wrote that the company had "never received a blanket request or court order from any government agency asking for information or metadata in bulk," and that when governments ask, "we review each request carefully."[^15]
+
+The [[Privacy and Civil Liberties Oversight Board]] described the mechanism in its report on Section 702 of July 2, 2014. In what it called "PRISM collection," the government, specifically the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] acting for the [[National Security Agency]], sends selectors such as an email address to a United States electronic communications service provider that "has been served a directive," and the provider "is compelled to give the communications sent to or from that selector to the government." The board reported that the NSA receives all PRISM collection, that the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] and the FBI each receive a select portion, and that "as of mid-2011, 91 percent of the Internet communications that the NSA acquired each year" under Section 702 were obtained through PRISM.[^16]
+
+### Cambridge Analytica and the 2018 and 2019 penalties
+
+On April 10, 2018 Zuckerberg testified at a joint hearing of the Senate Commerce and Judiciary committees. He told the committees: "In 2013, a Cambridge University researcher named Aleksandr Kogan created a personality quiz app." He said the app was installed by about 300,000 people who agreed to share information about themselves and, through their friends' privacy settings, about their friends, so that Kogan "was able to access some information about tens of millions of their friends." Asked about the episode, Zuckerberg testified: "We didn't take a broad enough view of our responsibility, and that was a big mistake. It was my mistake, and I'm sorry."[^17] Zuckerberg also told the committees that in 2014 the company changed its platform "to dramatically limit the Facebook information apps could access," and that "In 2015, we learned from journalists at The Guardian that Kogan had shared data from his app with Cambridge Analytica." He testified that the company banned the app and demanded that Kogan and the other entities that received the data, including Cambridge Analytica, certify that they had deleted it.[^17] The data passed to the political consultancy [[Cambridge Analytica]], which the Securities and Exchange Commission later described as a now-defunct advertising and data analytics company.[^18]
+
+The [[Information Commissioner's Office]] of the United Kingdom issued a monetary penalty in October 2018. Its report to Parliament of November 6, 2018 records that "On 25 October 2018, the Information Commissioner issued a monetary penalty notice to Facebook, imposing a fine of £500,000," and describes the amount as "the highest permitted by the DPA1998."[^19] The same report found that Facebook "processed the personal information of users unfairly by allowing application developers access to their information, without sufficiently clear and informed consent." It found that the app developed by Kogan and his company harvested data of up to 87 million people worldwide, that the personal information of at least one million UK users was among the harvested data, and that a subset of the data was later shared with other organisations, including Cambridge Analytica.[^19] The office also found that Facebook "failed to make suitable checks on apps and developers using its platform," and it stated that the fine "would have been significantly higher had these failings occurred after the GDPR."[^19]
+
+On July 24, 2019 the Securities and Exchange Commission charged the company with misleading investors about risk. The SEC's release states that "For more than two years, Facebook's public disclosures presented the risk of misuse of user data as merely hypothetical," although the company had discovered in 2015 that a third-party developer had misused user data. The release also says that Cambridge Analytica paid an academic researcher, through a company he controlled, to collect and transfer data from Facebook to create personality scores for approximately 30 million Americans. The release states that "When the company finally did disclose the incident in March 2018, its stock price dropped," and that "Facebook has agreed to pay $100 million to settle the charges."[^18] The release also states that Facebook "continued to tell investors that 'our users' data may be improperly accessed, used or disclosed,'" and that when it told reporters investigating Cambridge Analytica that it had discovered "no evidence of wrongdoing," it "reinforced this false impression."[^18]
+
+The same day the [[Federal Trade Commission]] announced a settlement under which the company "will pay a record-breaking $5 billion penalty, and submit to new restrictions and a modified corporate structure." The FTC said the company had "violated a 2012 FTC order by deceiving users about their ability to control the privacy of their personal information." The commission announced separate actions against Cambridge Analytica, its former chief executive [[Alexander Nix]], and [[Aleksandr Kogan]].[^20] The FTC's release describes the penalty as the largest ever imposed on any company for violating consumers' privacy. The order establishes an independent privacy committee of the board "removing unfettered control by Facebook's CEO Mark Zuckerberg over decisions affecting user privacy," and it requires quarterly certifications of compliance from Zuckerberg and from designated compliance officers.[^20] The company's 2025 annual report describes the settlement and modified consent order as taking effect in April 2020 with the 5.0 billion dollar penalty, and records a December 2025 settlement of a California consumer-protection suit, subject to court approval.[^21]
+
+### Palantir and the friend-data project
+
+[[Nicholas Confessore]] and [[Matthew Rosenberg]] reported in the New York Times on March 27, 2018 that in summer 2014, while Cambridge Analytica was seeking to collect the Facebook data of tens of millions of Americans, the company "received help from at least one employee at Palantir Technologies." According to documents the newspaper obtained, a Palantir employee in London, working closely with the data scientists building the firm's psychological profiling technology, suggested that they create their own mobile-phone personality quiz to reach Facebook users' friend networks. The newspaper named the employee as [[Alfredas Chmieliauskas]], who "works on business development for the company, according to his LinkedIn page."[^22]
+
+The same report states that beginning in 2013 Chmieliauskas corresponded from a Gmail account with [[Christopher Wylie]] and a colleague, both then working for the British contractor [[SCL Group]], which formed Cambridge Analytica with [[Robert Mercer]] the next year, and that the three shared Google documents to brainstorm behavioral profiling, a product code-named "Big Daddy." A former SCL intern, [[Sophie Schmidt]], the daughter of [[Eric Schmidt]], urged the company in June 2013 to link up with Palantir; in early 2013 Alexander Nix and a Palantir executive discussed working together on election campaigns, and emails indicated that Nix and Chmieliauskas sought to revive the talks through early 2014. Palantir, which Peter Thiel co-founded in 2003 and whose co-founder was then a member of Facebook's board, first said it had "never had a relationship with Cambridge Analytica, nor have we ever worked on any Cambridge Analytica data." Later the same day it said that "an employee, in 2013-2014, engaged in an entirely personal capacity with people associated with Cambridge Analytica." Wylie told British lawmakers: "There were senior Palantir employees that were also working on the Facebook data." He acknowledged that Palantir and Cambridge Analytica never signed a contract.[^22] [[Forbes]] reported in 2013 that [[In-Q-Tel]], the venture arm of the Central Intelligence Agency, funded Palantir in two rounds "totaling more than $2 million," and that from 2005 to 2008 the CIA was Palantir's patron and only customer.[^23]
+
+### The 2014 emotional-contagion experiment
+
+In June 2014 the [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] published "Experimental evidence of massive-scale emotional contagion through social networks." The authors were Adam Kramer, of the company's Core Data Science team, and Jamie Guillory and Jeffrey Hancock of [[Cornell University]]. The experiment reduced the amount of positive or negative content in the News Feeds of 689,003 users and measured what those users then posted.[^24] The article's summary of its finding is that "emotional states can be transferred to others via emotional contagion, leading people to experience the same emotions without their awareness."[^24]
+
+The article states that the research "was consistent with Facebook's Data Use Policy, to which all users agree prior to creating an account on Facebook, constituting informed consent for this research."[^24] The article also states that the scoring of posts ran on a system "such that no text was seen by the researchers."[^24] A correction and an expression of concern were published for the article in PNAS on July 3, 2014.[^25]
+
+### Myanmar
+
+The Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Myanmar, which the [[United Nations Human Rights Council]] established, reported on September 12, 2018. Paragraph 74 of its report states: "Facebook has been a useful instrument for those seeking to spread hate, in a context where, for most users, Facebook is the Internet." The mission found that "the response of Facebook has been slow and ineffective," and it regretted that the company "is unable to provide country-specific data about the spread of hate speech on its platform."[^26] The mission also wrote: "The role of social media is significant."[^26]
+
+In December 2021 Rohingya refugees filed a class action against the company in California Superior Court for San Mateo County. The suit seeks "more than $150 billion" and is brought on behalf of anyone worldwide who survived the violence or had a relative who died in it.[^27] The plaintiffs allege that Facebook arrived in Myanmar in 2011, arranging for millions of residents to access the internet for the first time, and that the company did little to warn users about misinformation and fake accounts.[^27]
+
+### Livestreams and foreign influence operations
+
+The Christchurch attacker, [[Brenton Tarrant]], live-streamed his attack on the [[Al Noor Mosque]] on Facebook on March 15, 2019. The company's technical update of March 2019 states that "The video was viewed fewer than 200 times during the live broadcast," that the video was viewed "about 4,000 times in total before being removed from Facebook," and that the company had removed the attacker's video "within minutes of the New Zealand Police's outreach to us." The update also says that in the first 24 hours the company removed "more than 1.2 million videos of the attack at upload."[^28] Approximately 300,000 additional copies were removed after they were posted.[^28]
+
+The indictment of the [[Internet Research Agency]] returned in the [[United States District Court for the District of Columbia]] and filed February 16, 2018 (United States v. Internet Research Agency LLC, Criminal No. 1:18-cr-32) names Facebook in its description of the organization's structure and methods. It alleges that by April 2014 the organization had formed a department known as the "translator project" that "focused on the U.S. population and conducted operations on social media platforms such as YouTube, Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter," and that by July 2016 more than eighty employees were assigned to it.[^29] The defendants "created thematic group pages on social media sites, particularly on the social media platforms Facebook and Instagram," with group names including "Secured Borders," "Blacktivist," "United Muslims of America," "Army of Jesus," "South United" and "Heart of Texas."[^29] It describes a Facebook group called "Secured Borders," an account called "Stop A.I.," and Facebook accounts called "Clinton FRAUDation" and "Trumpsters United." From at least April 2016 through November 2016, the indictment alleges, the defendants bought political advertisements on United States social media, paid for them from Russian bank accounts and cards registered in the names of fictitious American personas and also through PayPal accounts, and did not report the expenditures to the [[Federal Election Commission]].[^30] The Facebook groups "United Muslims of America" and "Being Patriotic" are alleged to have been used to promote rallies in the District of Columbia and New York in June and July 2016, and Facebook advertisements for a "Florida Goes Trump" rally on August 4, 2016 are alleged to have reached over 59,000 Facebook users in Florida, of whom over 8,300 responded.[^30]
+
+The same indictment records Facebook's September 6, 2017 disclosure that it had identified Russian expenditures on political and social advertisements and had "shared [its] findings with US authorities investigating these issues," and alleges that after the disclosure the defendants destroyed evidence.[^31]
+
+The indictment of twelve officers of the [[GRU]] returned on July 13, 2018 (United States v. Netyksho, Criminal No. 1:18-cr-215) alleges that on June 8, 2016, at about the time the dcleaks.com website was launched, the conspirators "created a DCLeaks Facebook page using a preexisting social media account under the fictitious name 'Alice Donovan,'" and that they used accounts in the names of fictitious U.S. persons such as "Jason Scott" and "Richard Gingrey" to promote the site. It states that the conspirators created the Twitter account @dcleaks_ the same day.[^32]
+
+A November 12, 2025 response to a USPTO office action filed for [[ENNEA LLC]], which describes itself as linked to [[Sky Watcher]], included as evidence a Facebook post dated January 28, 2025 by an account called "Disclosure Team." The post's text describes ENNEA as "a sister organization to Skywatcher."[^33]
+
+### The Royal Commission on the Christchurch attack
+
+The Royal Commission of Inquiry into the Attack on Christchurch Mosques on 15 March 2019 reported on December 8, 2020 and described the attacker, whom the report calls "the individual," in its volume on his background. The report states that he became a Facebook member in 2013, that "the individual's history on Facebook is erratic," that he deleted data and friends and did not post for six months in 2018, and that he held "a number of Facebook accounts over the last few years, randomly closing one down and creating a new one."[^34] Between April 2016 and early 2017 he made approximately 30 comments on the Facebook page of the Australian group United Patriots Front, which had more than 120,000 followers; the report states that the group's page was removed by Facebook in May 2017, after which former members formed [[The Lads Society]].[^35] In 2017 he joined The Lads Society's Facebook group under the username "Barry Harry Tarry," and its private second-season group, in which he made his first post on September 19, 2017. He left the group on April 9, 2018 and six days later deleted 134 Facebook friends, including those made through it.[^34]
+
+The report states that on March 11, 2019 he saved to his phone walk-through video of Masjid an-Nur taken from a public Facebook page, posted by a Muslim visitor to New Zealand with family travel photographs and unconnected to the far right; that on March 13, 2019 he created a Facebook album titled "Open in case of Saracens" containing 155 images and two videos; and that at 12:19 pm on March 15, 2019 he searched on his phone for his own Facebook account, "likely to check his profile was publicly viewable so that the livestream could be viewed by an audience."[^36] The Commission recorded the answers of the New Zealand Security Intelligence Service and a senior New Zealand Police counter-terrorism officer when asked what they would have done had his "Barry Harry Tarry" posts come to their attention: the agency said it would have "assessed the posts as not threatening violence and with a marginal connection to national security," and the officer said they would have seen the posts "as posing limited risk due to the absence of an explicit threat." The report adds that the agencies "did not have the capability or probably the legal authority to monitor social media activity on the scale necessary" to find usernames of that kind, and, in a separate passage on New Zealand's June 2020 Cabinet decision to pursue accession to the Council of Europe Convention on Cybercrime (the Budapest Convention), that the treaty framework facilitates cooperation on "private social media communications relating to a crime and stored in the cloud by companies such as Facebook."[^37]
+
+### Child safety reporting
+
+The [[National Center for Missing and Exploited Children]] reported that its CyberTipline received 36.2 million reports in 2023 and 20.5 million in 2024. The center attributed part of the 2024 decline to a bundling feature implemented by Meta Platforms that year, which consolidates reports tied to a single viral event into one or a smaller set of reports. NCMEC also stated that its Case Management Tool, which it uses to share reports with law enforcement, was developed with support from Meta.[^38]
+
+The center's annual tables of reports by electronic service provider list the Meta platforms separately. For 2022 they show 21,165,208 reports from Facebook, 5,007,902 from [[Instagram]] and 1,017,555 from [[WhatsApp]], within 31,802,525 reports from providers in all.[^39] For 2023 they show 17,838,422 from Facebook, 11,430,007 from Instagram and 1,389,618 from WhatsApp, within 35,944,826, against 1,470,958 from [[Google]].[^40] For 2024 they show 8,590,357 from Facebook, 3,320,008 from Instagram and 1,851,086 from WhatsApp, within 20,348,306.[^41]
+
+Law-enforcement and research sources on the network known as [[The Com]] list Instagram and Facebook among the platforms of initial contact with targets. Investigations of individual offenders also reach the company's records. In the Iowa State University Police Department investigation that produced the case against [[Clint Borge]], subpoenas were issued to electronic service providers including Google, PayPal, [[Venmo]], Instagram and Facebook.[^42] The Internet Watch Foundation's member list shows Meta among the members in the tier contributing over 90,000 pounds, with membership dated from December 2009.[^43]
+
+### Whistleblower testimony
+
+On April 9, 2025 the Senate Judiciary Committee held a hearing titled "A Time for Truth: Oversight of Meta's Foreign Relations and Representations to the United States Congress."[^44] The witness, [[Sarah Wynn-Williams]], testified that she had been "Director of Global Public Policy at Facebook, now Meta, for nearly seven years starting in 2011." She said the company's China project was called "Project Aldrin" and "was restricted to need-to-know staff," and she said the company had worked "hand in glove" with the Chinese Communist Party to build and test censorship tools.[^45]
+
+She told the committee that "they began offering products and services in China as early as 2014," and that "Meta started briefing the Chinese Communist Party as early as 2015." She described China as "Meta's second biggest market," citing the company's own SEC filings, and she wrote that Meta's Llama model "has contributed significantly to Chinese advances in AI technologies like DeepSeek."[^45][^46] She also wrote that she had filed a shareholder resolution asking the board to investigate the company's activity in China, and that she had filed whistleblower complaints with the SEC and the DOJ.[^45]
+
+Her testimony also addressed the legal order that the company obtained against her. She wrote that she had relied on a 2018 public commitment by the company to waive its rights to pursue forced arbitration. "Despite that public commitment, they brought a case against me for hundreds of millions of dollars," she said. She described the resulting order as "so expansive that it prohibits me from speaking with Members of Congress," and wrote: "This order silences me even as Meta and their proxies spread lies about me."[^45]
+
+### Acquisitions and the 2021 rename
+
+In February 2014 Facebook announced that it would acquire WhatsApp, a messaging company, "for a total of approximately $16 billion," including cash and Facebook shares.[^47] On March 25, 2014 it announced that it would acquire [[Oculus VR]], the virtual-reality company, "for a total of approximately $2 billion."[^48] Oculus's founder, [[Palmer Luckey]], later left the company. The [[Wall Street Journal]] reported in November 2018 that he had been fired in March 2017 over a political donation.[^49]
+
+The company's 2021 rename was announced under the headline "The Facebook Company Is Now Meta."[^1]
+
+In May 2025 a federal jury in the [[United States District Court for the Northern District of California]] returned a verdict in the suit that WhatsApp brought against the Israeli spyware maker [[NSO Group]]. After a six-day trial the jury ordered NSO to pay $167,254,000 in punitive damages and $444,719 in compensatory damages. The law firm that reported the verdict on its website called it the "first jury verdict against a commercial spyware company in U.S. court."[^50]
+
+### Artificial intelligence and the Scale AI investment
+
+The company's annual report for 2025 states that it is innovating in artificial intelligence "to advance our vision to deliver personal superintelligence for everyone," defines superintelligence as "AI that surpasses human intelligence," and describes a history of open-sourcing that includes releasing the Llama foundation models while stating that it expects "to continue training a combination of open and closed models going forward." The report gives a headcount of 78,865 at December 31, 2025, family daily active people of 3.58 billion for December 2025, and capital expenditures of 72.22 billion dollars for the year.[^21] It also states that Zuckerberg, as founder, chairman and chief executive, is able to exercise a majority of the voting power through Class B stock carrying ten votes per share.[^21]
+
+On June 12, 2025 [[Scale AI]] announced "a significant new investment from Meta Platforms, Inc." that valued Scale at over 29 billion dollars, and that its founder [[Alexandr Wang]] "is joining Meta to work on Meta's AI efforts" while remaining a Scale director; [[Jason Droege]] became interim chief executive.[^51] The company's quarterly report for the period ended June 30, 2025 says that it acquired "a non-voting minority of its outstanding equity," and that "$13.79 billion was included in non-marketable equity investments."[^52] In June 2025 Meta also attempted to acquire [[Safe Superintelligence]], the laboratory cofounded by [[Ilya Sutskever]]; CNBC reported that Sutskever rebuffed the approach, that Meta instead hired the laboratory's chief executive, [[Daniel Gross]], and [[Nat Friedman]] in a transaction in which Meta took a stake in their NFDG fund, and that Sutskever became chief executive of Safe Superintelligence on July 3, 2025.[^53]
+
+The company appears among the corporate supporters of two Washington policy organizations active on artificial intelligence. The [[Center for a New American Security]] lists Meta in the tier of contributions of 100,000 to 249,999 dollars for October 1, 2024 to September 30, 2025, and the [[Foundation for American Innovation]] lists Meta among its corporate supporters and event sponsors alongside [[Anthropic]] and [[OpenAI]].[^54][^55]
+
+### Policy leadership and the January 2025 changes
+
+On January 2, 2025 the company named [[Joel Kaplan]] as its policy chief, replacing [[Nick Clegg]]. Kaplan had been a Facebook vice president for global public policy, and the change was reported as the appointment of a former Republican staffer ahead of the inauguration of [[Donald Trump]].[^56] CNBC reported that Kaplan had served as a deputy chief of staff to [[George W. Bush]].[^57]
+
+On January 6, 2025 Meta announced that [[Dana White]], president and chief executive of the [[Ultimate Fighting Championship]], [[John Elkann]], chief executive of [[Exor]], and [[Charlie Songhurst]] had been elected to its board of directors. Zuckerberg said the three would "add a depth of expertise and perspective that will help us tackle the massive opportunities ahead with AI, wearables and the future of human connection," and White said: "I've never been interested in joining a board of directors until I got the offer to join Meta's board."[^58] On January 7, 2025 Kaplan announced in the company newsroom that "Starting in the US, we are ending our third party fact-checking program and moving to a Community Notes model," and that the trust and safety teams that write the content policies and review content would move "out of California to Texas and other US locations."[^59] The Texas Tribune reported the same day that the company was moving the moderators as Zuckerberg sought to mend ties with the incoming Trump administration, and noted that in July 2024 the company had paid the State of Texas 1.4 billion dollars to settle a lawsuit over the use of biometric data without users' authorization.[^60] The company's 2025 annual report describes that July 2024 settlement as resolving a Texas suit over the "tag suggestions" feature and other uses of facial recognition technology.[^21]
+
+### The August 2015 dinner at Palo Alto
+
+A restaurant confirmation email dated July 31, 2015, produced in the Justice Department's Epstein library, describes a dinner at 6 pm on Sunday, August 2, 2015 at Baume in Palo Alto, for which the restaurant had been bought out so that "it will just be our group." The attendee list names [[Ed Boyden]], [[Reid Hoffman]], Mark Zuckerberg, [[Priscilla Chan]], Peter Thiel, [[Jeffrey Epstein]] and [[Elon Musk]] among eleven numbered places. A reply in the thread, which begins "replace one with Joi Ito," repeats the list with [[Joi Ito]] added.[^61] [[Fortune]] reported in 2026 that Epstein wrote to the financier [[Thomas Pritzker]] on August 20, 2015, "i had dinner with zuckerburg, mu=k, thiel hoffman, wild," and that he emailed himself a photograph from a gathering, both of which surfaced in the releases under the [[Epstein Files Transparency Act]]; the dinner had first been reported by [[Vanity Fair]] in 2019.[^62] A Meta spokesman stated in 2019 that Zuckerberg "met Epstein in passing one time at a dinner" and "did not communicate with Epstein again." Hoffman apologized in September 2019 for his part in fundraising at which Epstein was present.[^63]
+
+### Dustin Moskovitz and the grantmaking foundations
+
+[[Dustin Moskovitz]], who held senior roles at Facebook from February 2004 to November 2008, cofounded [[Asana]]. With his wife, [[Cari Tuna]], he established [[Good Ventures]], which funds [[Open Philanthropy]]. Forbes reported in November 2025 on the couple's plan to give away a fortune built on Facebook stock.[^64]
+
+### Other executives and linked figures
+
+[[Adam D'Angelo]] held senior roles at Facebook from June 2005 to June 2008, and was its chief technology officer from November 2006.[^65] [[Bret Taylor]] served as chief technology officer of Facebook from August 2009 to July 2012.[^66] [[Chamath Palihapitiya]] joined Facebook in 2007 as vice president of growth, mobile and international, and left in 2011.[^67]
+
+The [[Center on Terrorism, Extremism, and Counterterrorism]] at the [[Middlebury Institute of International Studies]] announced on February 12, 2024 that [[Sarah Pollack]] would be its director of tech policy and strategy. The announcement describes her as having led communications for Meta's global counter-terrorism and violent extremism program.[^68]
+
+In May 2013 the journalist [[James Kirchick]] wrote in The Spectator that the rental service Toucan Apartments, run by [[Warwick Spinks]], had registered a Facebook page on April 12, 2013.[^69]
+
+Forbes called Zuckerberg the "most famous client and the key to his success" of [[Divesh Makan]], and wrote that Makan met him in 2004 when Makan was a broker at [[Goldman Sachs]]. The magazine named among the other clients of Makan's firm [[ICONIQ Capital]] "Facebook's Dustin Moskovitz and Sheryl Sandberg."[^70] The [[Horowitz Family Foundation]]'s return for the year ended June 2021 lists gifts of Facebook shares among its contributions.[^71] The facial-recognition company [[Clearview AI]] built its image database by automated scraping of public-facing images from platforms including Facebook and Instagram, which the platforms' terms of service prohibited.[^72] The LinkedIn profile of [[Abdulrahman Alfozan]] lists him as a senior systems engineer at Meta Platforms from 2017 to 2022.[^73]
+
+### Footnotes
+
+[^1]: Facebook, Inc., "The Facebook Company Is Now Meta," company newsroom, October 28, 2021. https://about.fb.com/news/2021/10/facebook-company-is-now-meta/
+[^2]: Facebook, Inc., Form S-1 Registration Statement, filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission on February 1, 2012 (incorporation in Delaware in July 2004; Class B stock carrying ten votes per share; the founder's majority voting power; 845 million monthly active users as of December 31, 2011, against 608 million as of December 31, 2010). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1326801/000119312512034517/d287954ds1.htm
+[^3]: Harvard Crimson, "Hundreds Register for New Facebook Website," February 9, 2004 (quoting "After about a week of coding, Zuckerberg launched thefacebook.com last Wednesday afternoon"). https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2004/2/9/hundreds-register-for-new-facebook-website/
+[^4]: "Peter Thiel to step down from Facebook board," CNBC, February 7, 2022 (stating that Thiel invested $500,000 in thefacebook.com in 2004 and became the first significant outside investor). https://www.cnbc.com/2022/02/07/peter-thiel-to-step-down-from-facebook-board.html
+[^5]: For Founders Fund's portfolio, partners and investment history, the firm's published materials at foundersfund.com and the corporate filings of its portfolio companies.
+[^6]: Cyborgology, "Mimesis, Violence, and Facebook: Peter Thiel's French Connection," August 13, 2016. https://thesocietypages.org/cyborgology/2016/08/13/mimesis-violence-and-facebook-peter-thiels-french-connection-full-essay/
+[^7]: Facebook, Inc., Form S-1, "Management" (director biographies of Peter A. Thiel, James W. Breyer, Marc L. Andreessen, Erskine B. Bowles, Donald E. Graham and Sheryl K. Sandberg) and the audit and compensation committee paragraphs of the board section. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1326801/000119312512034517/d287954ds1.htm
+[^8]: Facebook, Inc., Form S-1, "Security Ownership of Certain Beneficial Owners and Management," footnotes on Rivendell One LLC, The Founders Fund, The Founders Fund II, The Founders Fund II Principals Fund, The Founders Fund II Entrepreneurs Fund, Lembas, LLC, Accel IX L.P., Accel IX Strategic Partners L.P., Accel 2005 and Accel Growth Fund. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1326801/000119312512034517/d287954ds1.htm
+[^9]: Facebook, Inc., Form S-1, "Description of Capital Stock," "Registration Rights" (Sixth Amended and Restated Investors' Rights Agreement of December 27, 2010, and the original agreement entered in connection with the 2005 Series A financing). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1326801/000119312512034517/d287954ds1.htm
+[^10]: "Peter Thiel to step down from Facebook board," CNBC, February 7, 2022. https://www.cnbc.com/2022/02/07/peter-thiel-to-step-down-from-facebook-board.html
+[^11]: Noah Shachtman, "Pentagon Kills LifeLog Project," Wired News, February 4, 2004 (dateline 02.04.04), archived copy of wired.com/politics/security/news/2004/02/62158. http://web.archive.org/web/20131221014145/http://www.wired.com:80/politics/security/news/2004/02/62158
+[^12]: "Pentagon Kills LifeLog Project," CSO Online, February 5, 2004 (reporting the Wired News story and quoting DARPA spokeswoman Jan Walker on "a change in priorities"). https://www.csoonline.com/article/513833/data-protection-pentagon-kills-lifelog-project-questions-raised-on-earlier-ricin-case-rfid-privacy.html
+[^13]: Glenn Greenwald, Ewen MacAskill and Laura Poitras, "Top-secret Prism program claims direct access to servers of firms including Google, Apple and Facebook," The Guardian, June 6, 2013 (the quoted sentence, the 2009 date for Facebook, and the administration official's statement on Section 702). https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/06/us-tech-giants-nsa-data
+[^14]: Facebook statement to TechCrunch, June 6, 2013, in "Google, Facebook, Apple Deny Participation In NSA PRISM Program." https://techcrunch.com/2013/06/06/google-facebook-apple-deny-participation-in-nsa-prism-program/
+[^15]: Mark Zuckerberg, "Personal Response From Mark Zuckerberg About PRISM," Facebook newsroom, June 7, 2013. https://about.fb.com/news/2013/06/personal-response-from-mark-zuckerberg-about-prism/
+[^16]: Privacy and Civil Liberties Oversight Board, "Report on the Surveillance Program Operated Pursuant to Section 702 of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act," July 2, 2014, executive summary and Part 3 ("PRISM Collection," pp. 33-34). http://web.archive.org/web/20140912152645/http://www.pclob.gov/Library/702-Report.pdf
+[^17]: U.S. Senate, joint hearing of the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation and the Committee on the Judiciary, "Facebook, Social Media Privacy, and the Use and Abuse of Data," April 10, 2018, S. Hrg. 115-683, testimony of Mark Zuckerberg. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-115shrg37801/html/CHRG-115shrg37801.htm
+[^18]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, Press Release 2019-140, "Facebook to Pay $100 Million for Misleading Investors About the Risks It Faced From Misuse of User Data," July 24, 2019. https://www.sec.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2019-140
+[^19]: Information Commissioner's Office, "Investigation into the use of data analytics in political campaigns: A report to Parliament," November 6, 2018, sections 3.2.4 (p. 38) and 3.3.1 (findings on the Kogan application and the harvested data). https://www.statewatch.org/media/documents/news/2018/nov/uk-ico-report-investigation-into-use-of-data-political-campaigns-6-11-18.pdf
+[^20]: Federal Trade Commission, "FTC Imposes $5 Billion Penalty and Sweeping New Privacy Restrictions on Facebook," press release, July 24, 2019. https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/news/press-releases/2019/07/ftc-imposes-5-billion-penalty-sweeping-new-privacy-restrictions-facebook
+[^21]: Meta Platforms, Inc., Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2025, filed January 29, 2026, Items 1, 1A and 7 and the discussion of regulatory matters (FTC settlement and modified consent order effective April 2020; December 2025 California settlement; July 2024 Texas settlement; personal superintelligence; Llama; headcount; family daily active people; capital expenditures; voting control). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1326801/000162828026003942/meta-20251231.htm
+[^22]: Nicholas Confessore and Matthew Rosenberg, "Spy Contractor's Idea Helped Firm Harvest Facebook Data," The New York Times, March 27, 2018, as republished by WRAL. https://www.wral.com/spy-contractor-s-idea-helped-firm-harvest-facebook-data/17447632/
+[^23]: Andy Greenberg, "How A 'Deviant' Philosopher Built Palantir, A CIA-Funded Data-Mining Juggernaut," Forbes, August 14, 2013. https://www.forbes.com/sites/andygreenberg/2013/08/14/agent-of-intelligence-how-a-deviant-philosopher-built-palantir-a-cia-funded-data-mining-juggernaut/
+[^24]: Adam D. I. Kramer, Jamie E. Guillory and Jeffrey T. Hancock, "Experimental evidence of massive-scale emotional contagion through social networks," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111(24): 8788-8790 (2014), doi:10.1073/pnas.1320040111, including the affiliations, the Significance statement and the passage on the Data Use Policy. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4066473/
+[^25]: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111(29): 10779 (July 3, 2014), correction and expression of concern for the Kramer, Guillory and Hancock article, as noted in the article's publication history at PMC4066473. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4066473/
+[^26]: United Nations Human Rights Council, Report of the Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Myanmar, A/HRC/39/64, September 12, 2018, paragraph 74. https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/FFM-Myanmar/A_HRC_39_64.pdf
+[^27]: "Rohingya sue Facebook for $150B, alleging role in violence," NBC News, December 2021 (class action filed in California Superior Court for San Mateo County, on behalf of anyone worldwide who survived the violence or had a relative who died). https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-news/rohingya-sue-facebook-150b-alleging-role-violence-rcna7862
+[^28]: Facebook, "An Update on the New Zealand Terrorist Attack," Facebook newsroom, March 2019 (the quoted viewing figures, the removal "within minutes of the New Zealand Police's outreach to us," and the 1.2 million videos removed in the first 24 hours). https://about.fb.com/news/2019/03/technical-update-on-new-zealand/
+[^29]: United States v. Internet Research Agency LLC et al., Indictment, Criminal No. 1:18-cr-00032-DLF, Document 1, filed February 16, 2018 (U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia), paragraphs 10(d) (the "translator project"), 32 to 34 (social media accounts and thematic group pages). https://www.justice.gov/file/1035477/download
+[^30]: United States v. Internet Research Agency LLC et al., Indictment, Criminal No. 1:18-cr-00032-DLF, paragraphs 43 and 44 (Facebook accounts), 47 (advertisements promoting the "Stop A.I." post), 48 and 49 (political advertisements from at least April 2016, payment through bank accounts, cards and PayPal accounts, no report to the Federal Election Commission), 53 and 54 (the "United Muslims of America" and "Being Patriotic" groups and rallies) and 71 (the "Florida Goes Trump" advertisements). https://www.justice.gov/file/1035477/download
+[^31]: United States v. Internet Research Agency LLC et al., Indictment, Criminal No. 1:18-cr-00032-DLF, paragraph 58(b) and (c) (Facebook's September 6, 2017 disclosure) and paragraph 58(d). https://www.justice.gov/file/1035477/download
+[^32]: United States v. Netyksho et al., Indictment, Criminal No. 1:18-cr-00215-ABJ, Document 1, filed July 13, 2018 (U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia), paragraphs 38 and 39. https://www.justice.gov/file/1080281/download ; see also U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Public Affairs, "Grand Jury Indicts 12 Russian Intelligence Officers for Hacking Offenses Related to the 2016 Election," July 13, 2018, archived. http://web.archive.org/web/20200104195032/https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/grand-jury-indicts-12-russian-intelligence-officers-hacking-offenses-related-2016-election
+[^33]: USPTO Trademark Status and Document Retrieval, ENNEA LLC, serial 98873547, office-action response filed November 12, 2025, with the "Disclosure Team" Facebook post of January 28, 2025 as an exhibit. https://tsdr.uspto.gov/statusview/sn98873547
+[^34]: Royal Commission of Inquiry into the Attack on Christchurch Mosques on 15 March 2019, "Ko tō tātou kāinga tēnei," Volume 2, Part 4 ("The terrorist"), the section headed "Facebook," paragraphs 28 to 39. https://christchurchattack.royalcommission.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/20123/ko-to-tatou-kainga-tenei-volume-2.pdf
+[^35]: Royal Commission of Inquiry into the Attack on Christchurch Mosques, Volume 2, Part 4, paragraphs 12 to 15 (United Patriots Front Facebook page; removal in May 2017; The Lads Society). https://christchurchattack.royalcommission.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/20123/ko-to-tatou-kainga-tenei-volume-2.pdf
+[^36]: Royal Commission of Inquiry into the Attack on Christchurch Mosques, Volume 2, Part 4, the chapter on his activities before the attack in Dunedin, paragraphs 32 to 35, and the passage on the walk-through video of Masjid an-Nur. https://christchurchattack.royalcommission.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/20123/ko-to-tatou-kainga-tenei-volume-2.pdf
+[^37]: Royal Commission of Inquiry into the Attack on Christchurch Mosques, Volume 3, Part 8 on the counter-terrorism agencies' responses to the "Barry Harry Tarry" posts (paragraphs 28 to 30 and the passage on capability and legal authority) and the discussion of the Budapest Convention (paragraph 29). https://christchurchattack.royalcommission.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/0012/20127/ko-to-tatou-kainga-tenei-volume-3.pdf
+[^38]: National Center for Missing and Exploited Children, CyberTipline data page (reports received in 2023 and 2024, the bundling feature implemented by Meta in 2024, and the Case Management Tool developed with Meta's support). https://www.missingkids.org/gethelpnow/cybertipline/cybertiplinedata
+[^39]: National Center for Missing and Exploited Children, "2022 CyberTipline Reports by Electronic Service Providers (ESP)." https://www.missingkids.org/content/dam/missingkids/pdfs/2022-reports-by-esp.pdf
+[^40]: National Center for Missing and Exploited Children, "2023 CyberTipline Reports by Electronic Service Providers (ESP)." https://www.missingkids.org/content/dam/missingkids/pdfs/2023-reports-by-esp.pdf
+[^41]: National Center for Missing and Exploited Children, "ESP Reports" table for 2024. https://www.missingkids.org/content/dam/missingkids/pdfs/2024-reports-by-esp.pdf
+[^42]: Iowa State Daily, "How the ISUPD uncovered a Neo-Nazi sexual predator ring," March 31, 2026 (subpoenas to Google, PayPal, Venmo, Instagram and Facebook). https://iowastatedaily.com/335620/news/how-the-isupd-uncovered-a-neo-nazi-sexual-predator-ring/
+[^43]: Internet Watch Foundation, "Our Members" (Meta, member since December 2009, in the tier of members contributing over 90,000 pounds). https://www.iwf.org.uk/membership/our-members/
+[^44]: U.S. Senate Committee on the Judiciary, hearing page "A Time for Truth: Oversight of Meta's Foreign Relations and Representations to the United States Congress," Wednesday, April 9, 2025. https://judiciary.senate.gov/committee-activity/hearings/a-time-for-truth-oversight-of-metas-foreign-relations-and-representations-to-the-united-states-congress
+[^45]: Sarah Wynn-Williams, written testimony to the Senate Committee on the Judiciary, April 9, 2025 (the opening statement; the "Project Aldrin" passage; the "hand in glove" passage; the passages on China briefings and the company's SEC filings; and the closing passage on the legal order). https://www.judiciary.senate.gov/download/2024-04-09_testimony_wynn-williams
+[^46]: Sarah Wynn-Williams, written testimony, April 9, 2025, passages on China and Llama. https://www.judiciary.senate.gov/download/2024-04-09_testimony_wynn-williams
+[^47]: Facebook, Inc., "Facebook to Acquire WhatsApp," press release, February 2014 ("for a total of approximately $16 billion"). https://about.fb.com/news/2014/02/facebook-to-acquire-whatsapp/
+[^48]: Facebook, Inc., "Facebook to Acquire Oculus," press release, March 25, 2014 ("for a total of approximately $2 billion"). https://about.fb.com/news/2014/03/facebook-to-acquire-oculus/
+[^49]: Wall Street Journal, "Why Did Facebook Fire a Top Executive? Hint: It Had Something to Do With Trump," November 11, 2018. https://www.wsj.com/articles/why-did-facebook-fire-a-top-executive-hint-it-had-something-to-do-with-trump-1541965245
+[^50]: Davis Polk & Wardwell, "Trial victory for Meta and WhatsApp in spyware case," May 9, 2025 (WhatsApp LLC v. NSO Group Technologies Ltd., N.D. Cal., six-day jury trial; punitive award of $167,254,000 and compensatory award of $444,719). https://www.davispolk.com/experience/meta-and-whatsapp-awarded-168-million-damages-following-spyware-trial
+[^51]: Scale AI, Inc., "Scale AI Announces Next Phase of Company's Evolution," press release, June 12, 2025. https://scale.com/blog/scale-ai-announces-next-phase-of-company-evolution
+[^52]: Meta Platforms, Inc., Form 10-Q for the quarter ended June 30, 2025, filed July 31, 2025, note on non-marketable equity investments (June 2025 investment in Scale AI). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1326801/000162828025036791/meta-20250630.htm
+[^53]: "Meta tried to buy Safe Superintelligence, hired CEO Daniel Gross," CNBC, June 19, 2025; "Ilya Sutskever is CEO of Safe Superintelligence after Meta hired Gross," CNBC, July 3, 2025. https://www.cnbc.com/2025/06/19/meta-tried-to-buy-safe-superintelligence-hired-ceo-daniel-gross.html ; https://www.cnbc.com/2025/07/03/ilya-sutskever-is-ceo-of-safe-superintelligence-after-meta-hired-gross.html
+[^54]: Center for a New American Security, "CNAS Supporters," contributions from October 1, 2024 to September 30, 2025. https://www.cnas.org/support-cnas/cnas-supporters
+[^55]: Foundation for American Innovation, "About Us." https://www.thefai.org/about-us
+[^56]: "Meta replaces policy chief Nick Clegg with former Republican staffer Joel Kaplan ahead of Trump inauguration," NBC 7 San Diego, January 2025, reporting the appointment announced January 2, 2025. https://www.nbcsandiego.com/news/business/money-report/meta-replaces-global-affairs-president-nick-clegg-with-joel-kaplan-ahead-of-trump-inauguration/3713005/
+[^57]: "Meta names Joel Kaplan to succeed Nick Clegg as policy chief," CNBC, January 2, 2025. https://www.cnbc.com/2025/01/02/meta-names-joel-kaplan-to-succeed-nick-clegg-as-policy-chief.html
+[^58]: Meta Platforms, Inc., Form 8-K, Exhibit 99.1, "Dana White, John Elkann and Charlie Songhurst to Join Meta Board of Directors," January 6, 2025. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1326801/000132680125000005/jan62025exhibit991.htm
+[^59]: Joel Kaplan, "More Speech and Fewer Mistakes," Meta newsroom, January 7, 2025. https://about.fb.com/news/2025/01/meta-more-speech-fewer-mistakes/
+[^60]: Pavan Acharya, "Meta to move content moderators to Texas as part of plan to end fact-checking program," The Texas Tribune, January 7, 2025. https://www.texastribune.org/2025/01/07/texas-meta-content-moderators-fact-checking/
+[^61]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00344556 and EFTA00344564, email thread "CONFIRMED: DINNER: Sunday, 8/2," July 31, 2015. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00344556.pdf ; https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00344564.pdf
+[^62]: "Epstein emailed about a 2015 dinner with Zuckerberg, Musk and Thiel," Fortune, 2026, on the email to Thomas Pritzker of August 20, 2015, the self-addressed photograph and the releases under the Epstein Files Transparency Act, citing Vanity Fair's 2019 report of the dinner. https://fortune.com/2026/epstein-email-zuckerberg-musk-thiel-dinner/
+[^63]: "Meta says Zuckerberg met Epstein once," statements by spokesman Ben LaBolt, 2019; and Reid Hoffman's apology of September 12, 2019, Axios. https://www.axios.com/2019/09/12/reid-hoffman-jeffrey-epstein-apology
+[^64]: Phoebe Liu, "Inside A Billionaire Couple's Plan To Give Away A $20 Billion Facebook Fortune," Forbes, November 7, 2025, archived. http://web.archive.org/web/20260730221730id_/https://www.forbes.com/sites/phoebeliu/2025/11/07/cari-tuna-billionaire-open-philanthropy-facebook/
+[^65]: Asana, Inc., Schedule 14A definitive proxy statement, filed April 20, 2026, biographies of Dustin Moskovitz and Adam D'Angelo (Facebook service from February 2004 to November 2008 for Moskovitz; from June 2005 to June 2008 for D'Angelo, including chief technology officer from November 2006). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1477720/000162828026025998/asan-20260420.htm
+[^66]: Twitter, Inc., Schedule 14A definitive proxy statement, filed April 12, 2022, biography of Bret Taylor ("From August 2009 to July 2012, Mr. Taylor served as Chief Technology Officer of Facebook, Inc."). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1418091/000114036122014049/ny20001921x3_def14a.htm
+[^67]: "How Canadian Facebook billionaire Chamath Palihapitiya plans to change the world," The Globe and Mail, 2017 (joined Facebook in 2007 as vice president of growth, mobile and international; left in 2011). https://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/rob-magazine/how-canadian-facebook-billionaire-chamath-palihapitiya-plans-to-change-the-world/article34109864/
+[^68]: Ian Driscoll, "CTEC Announces New Director of Tech Policy and Strategy," Middlebury Institute of International Studies, February 12, 2024 (naming Sarah Pollack and describing her communications work for Meta's global counter-terrorism and violent extremism program). https://www.middlebury.edu/institute/academics/centers-initiatives/ctec/news/ctec-announces-new-director-tech-policy-and-strategy
+[^69]: James Kirchick, "The British paedophile who's still on the run," The Spectator, May 24, 2013. https://spectator.com/article/the-british-paedophile-who-s-still-on-the-run/
+[^70]: Solomon, Brian, "The Spider Of Silicon Valley: Inside 'Zuck & Friends' Secret Billionaire Fund," *Forbes,* December 1, 2014. http://web.archive.org/web/20141201154053/http://www.forbes.com/sites/briansolomon/2014/12/01/the-spider-of-silicon-valley-inside-zuck-friends-secret-billionaire-fund/
+[^71]: Horowitz Family Foundation (EIN 35-7050910), Form 990-PF for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021 (IRS object 202113159349103201), Part XIV grants and Schedule B contributions.
+[^72]: "What We Learned About Clearview AI's Hidden 'Co-Founder,'" *New York Times,* March 18, 2021. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/18/technology/clearview-facial-recognition-ai.html ; Consumer Watchdog, "Clearview AI" report, December 2023. https://consumerwatchdog.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/Clearview-AI-Cover-Letter-and-Report.pdf
+[^73]: Abdulrahman Alfozan, LinkedIn profile, viewed October 13, 2026. https://www.linkedin.com/in/alfozan

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Financial General Bankshares.md

@@ -38,7 +38,7 @@ The [[BCCI Kerry-Brown Senate Report|Kerry-Brown Senate Report]] set out mutuall
 
 ### Litigation and Approval
 
-Financial General sued on February 17, 1978, after learning that Middle Eastern investors had acquired twenty percent of its shares; the Securities and Exchange Commission filed and settled its own action on March 18, 1978. The Senate report dates the commission's complaint to March 17, 1978 (printed in the report's note 12 as "1078").[^4] The commission's News Digest of March 20, 1978 reported that on March 18 the court entered permanent injunctions, by consent, against eleven defendants including Lance (Civil Action 78-0469, D.D.C.), for failing to file Schedule 13D statements while acquiring about 20 percent of Financial General's common stock, with the group controlling about 28 percent.[^6] A separate civil action by the commission and the Comptroller of the Currency against The National Bank of Georgia, The Calhoun First National Bank and Bertram Lance, filed April 26, 1978 in the Northern District of Georgia, ended the same day in consent judgments of permanent injunction.[^7] The Senate report states that on April 27, 1978, a federal judge "permanently enjoined Lance and ten other defendants" from violating the securities laws and found that the BCCI clients had relied "heavily, if not exclusively" on Abedi and BCCI; the later opinion of the [[United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit|D.C. Circuit]] describes the order of that date as a preliminary injunction on the company's disclosure claim. On May 21, 1980, all the defendants except Metzger settled with the company, which agreed not to oppose the takeover in return for a premium price.[^4][^5]
+Financial General sued on February 17, 1978, after learning that Middle Eastern investors had acquired twenty percent of its shares; the Securities and Exchange Commission filed and settled its own action on March 18, 1978. The Senate report dates the commission's complaint to March 17, 1978 (printed in the report's note 12 as "1078").[^4] The commission's News Digest of March 20, 1978 reported that on March 18 the court entered permanent injunctions, by consent, against eleven defendants including Lance (Civil Action 78-0469, D.D.C.), for failing to file Schedule 13D statements while acquiring about 20 percent of Financial General's common stock, with the group controlling about 28 percent.[^6] A separate civil action by the commission and the Comptroller of the Currency against The National Bank of Georgia, The Calhoun First National Bank and Bertram Lance, filed April 26, 1978 in the Northern District of Georgia, ended the same day in consent judgments of permanent injunction.[^7] The Senate report states that on April 27, 1978, a federal judge "permanently enjoined Lance and ten other defendants" from violating the securities laws and found that the BCCI clients had relied "heavily, if not exclusively" on Abedi and BCCI; the later opinion of the [[United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit|D.C. Circuit]] describes the order of that date as a preliminary injunction on the company's disclosure claim. The opinion recites that Financial General amended its complaint on March 21, 1978 to allege that the defendants' disclosure statements were false and misleading, and that on April 27, 1978, finding a likelihood of success on that claim, the district court entered a preliminary injunction ordering the defendants not to acquire any further interest in the company's common stock until they had offered rescission to the shareholders from whom they had purchased shares during December 1977 and January 1978. On May 21, 1980, all the defendants except Metzger settled with the company, which agreed not to oppose the takeover in return for a premium price.[^4][^5]
 
 The Virginia bank regulator Sidney A. Bailey objected that the acquisition "will be inimical to the convenience and needs of the community." After a hearing convened on April 23, 1981, the Federal Reserve approved the application of [[Credit and Commerce American Holdings]] (CCAH) on August 25, 1981, and at Altman's request sealed parts of the transcript. A year later the company changed the name of its banks to First American and of its holding company to First American Corporation; the holding company above the banks was later known as First American Bankshares, Inc.[^4][^8] The Federal Reserve found in 1991 that all four Middle Easterners who had appeared at the 1981 hearing had been BCCI nominees.[^4]
 
@@ -48,7 +48,7 @@ The Virginia bank regulator Sidney A. Bailey objected that the acquisition "will
 [^2]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 191.
 [^3]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 183.
 [^4]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 6, "BCCI in the United States: Initial Entry." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/06early.htm
-[^5]: *Financial General Bankshares, Inc. v. Metzger,* 680 F.2d 768 (D.C. Cir. 1982). https://openjurist.org/680/f2d/768
+[^5]: *Financial General Bankshares, Inc. v. Metzger,* 680 F.2d 768 (D.C. Cir. 1982) (complaint filed February 17, 1978; amended complaint March 21, 1978; preliminary injunction entered April 27, 1978). https://openjurist.org/680/f2d/768
 [^6]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, News Digest, March 20, 1978, "Lance, Others Enjoined" (SEC v. Bank of Credit and Commerce International S.A., et al., U.S.D.C. D.C., Civil Action No. 78-0469, LR-8336). https://www.sec.gov/news/digest/1978/dig032078.pdf
 [^7]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, News Digest, April 28, 1978 (SEC and Comptroller of the Currency v. The National Bank of Georgia, The Calhoun First National Bank, Bertram Lance, U.S.D.C. N.D. Ga., Civil Action No. 78-758). https://www.sec.gov/news/digest/1978/dig042878.pdf
 [^8]: Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, consent order, *In the Matter of Clark M. Clifford and Robert A. Altman,* Docket Nos. 92-080, effective February 1998. https://www.federalreserve.gov/boarddocs/press/enforcement/1998/19980203/Attachment.pdf

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Future of Humanity Institute.md

@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@ tags:
 summary: "The Future of Humanity Institute was a research center at the University of Oxford founded in 2005 by Nick Bostrom that became the academic headquarters of longtermism and AI-existential-risk research, drew funding from Elon Musk and the FTX Future Fund, and was closed by the university in April 2024."
 location: "Oxford, England"
 created: 2026-06-19
-updated: 2026-06-19
+updated: 2026-10-15
 ---
 
 The Future of Humanity Institute (FHI) was a multidisciplinary research center at the [[University of Oxford]], founded in 2005 by the philosopher [[Nick Bostrom]] and closed by the university on April 16, 2024. For nearly two decades it was the academic headquarters of [[Longtermism|longtermism]] and of the study of existential risk, the danger of events that would permanently destroy humanity's long-term potential. Its personnel and arguments seeded the [[Effective Altruism]] movement, and its work on artificial-intelligence risk reinforced the doom thesis that runs through the [[Rationalist Community]] and the AI-safety organizations [[Peter Thiel]] funded.[^1][^2]
@@ -22,25 +22,27 @@ The Future of Humanity Institute (FHI) was a multidisciplinary research center a
 
 FHI sat within Oxford's Faculty of Philosophy and the Oxford Martin School and worked on existential risk, AI safety, human enhancement, global catastrophic risk, and the anthropic reasoning Bostrom had formalized. Its researchers overlapped almost entirely with the founding figures of effective altruism: [[Toby Ord]], who founded [[Giving What We Can]], and [[William MacAskill]], who later wrote the longtermist book *What We Owe the Future*, were associated with the institute and the adjacent Oxford effective-altruism organizations, and the futurist [[Anders Sandberg]] was a long-serving senior fellow. The institute functioned as the scholarly counterpart to the Bay Area rationalist scene around the [[Machine Intelligence Research Institute]].[^1][^3]
 
-The institute was established in 2005 on a three-year initial term and ran for nineteen years. Its output included Bostrom's *Superintelligence* and the formalization of "existential risk," Ord's 2020 book *The Precipice*, and influential papers on the "unilateralist's curse," the "vulnerable world hypothesis," and the simulation argument, alongside early technical AI-governance work that fed the policy conversation later taken up by the [[Future of Life Institute]] and government bodies. The historian of the milieu noted that FHI operated less as a conventional department than as a research collective of philosophers, mathematicians, and computer scientists working on questions most academic institutions regarded as speculative.[^6]
+The institute was established in 2005 on a three-year initial term and ran for nineteen years. Its output included Bostrom's *Superintelligence* and the formalization of "existential risk," Ord's 2020 book *The Precipice*, and influential papers on the "unilateralist's curse," the "vulnerable world hypothesis," and the simulation argument, alongside early technical AI-governance work that fed the policy conversation later taken up by the [[Future of Life Institute]] and government bodies. The historian of the milieu noted that FHI operated less as a conventional department than as a research collective of philosophers, mathematicians, and computer scientists working on questions most academic institutions regarded as speculative.[^4]
 
 ### Funding
 
-FHI drew support from technology philanthropy aligned with its longtermist mission. [[Elon Musk]], whom Bostrom's *Superintelligence* had influenced, funded AI-safety work in the institute's orbit, and the institute and its affiliated projects received money from [[Open Philanthropy]] and, before its 2022 collapse, the [[FTX Future Fund]] established by [[Sam Bankman-Fried]]. The funding tied Oxford academic longtermism to the same donor base that capitalized the effective-altruism and AI-safety infrastructure.[^2][^4]
+FHI drew support from technology philanthropy aligned with its longtermist mission. [[Elon Musk]], whom Bostrom's *Superintelligence* had influenced, funded AI-safety work in the institute's orbit, and the institute and its affiliated projects received money from [[Open Philanthropy]] and, before its 2022 collapse, the [[FTX Future Fund]] established by [[Sam Bankman-Fried]]. The funding tied Oxford academic longtermism to the same donor base that capitalized the effective-altruism and AI-safety infrastructure.[^2][^5]
 
-The reliance on a small number of mission-aligned donors became a structural problem once Oxford's Faculty of Philosophy froze the institute's fundraising in 2020, leaving it unable to bring in new money or replace departing staff. The collapse of the FTX Future Fund in November 2022, when Bankman-Fried's exchange failed and the fund's grant commitments evaporated, cut off a major prospective source for longtermist research across the field and deepened the reputational crisis that surrounded the institute in its final eighteen months. The institute's dependence on the effective-altruism donor base meant its fortunes tracked that movement's standing rather than ordinary university funding cycles.[^4][^6]
+The reliance on a small number of mission-aligned donors became a structural problem once Oxford's Faculty of Philosophy froze the institute's fundraising in 2020, leaving it unable to bring in new money or replace departing staff. The collapse of the FTX Future Fund in November 2022, when Bankman-Fried's exchange failed and the fund's grant commitments evaporated, cut off a major prospective source for longtermist research across the field and deepened the reputational crisis that surrounded the institute in its final eighteen months. The institute's dependence on the effective-altruism donor base meant its fortunes tracked that movement's standing rather than ordinary university funding cycles.[^4][^5]
 
 ### Closure
 
-The institute shut down on April 16, 2024, after years of administrative conflict with the Oxford philosophy faculty, including a freeze on hiring and fundraising. Bostrom left the university. The closure followed the reputational damage of Bostrom's 2023 admission of a 1990s racist email and the wider discrediting of effective altruism after the [[FTX]] fraud, and it removed longtermism's principal academic institution at the moment the movement was under its heaviest public scrutiny.[^5]
+The institute shut down on April 16, 2024, after years of administrative conflict with the Oxford philosophy faculty, including a freeze on hiring and fundraising. The institute's website, as captured by the Internet Archive on December 31, 2024, states that it closed on 16 April 2024 and that research in the fields where it was active may continue to be pursued elsewhere within the university and in many external organizations that have sprung up.[^6] Bostrom left the university. The closure followed the reputational damage of Bostrom's 2023 admission of a 1990s racist email and the wider discrediting of effective altruism after the [[FTX]] fraud, and it removed longtermism's principal academic institution at the moment the movement was under its heaviest public scrutiny.[^7]
 
-The institute's website was replaced on the closure date by a four-paragraph statement attributing the shutdown to "increasing administrative headwinds" from the Faculty of Philosophy. The Faculty had decided in late 2023 not to renew the contracts of the remaining staff, and Bostrom described the outcome to *The Guardian* as a "death by bureaucracy." Bostrom founded a successor organization, the nonprofit Macrostrategy Research Initiative, to continue the work outside Oxford. Several former staff dispersed to other existential-risk bodies, including the [[Centre for the Study of Existential Risk]] at Cambridge and independent AI-governance groups, but no institution replaced FHI's role as the field's academic center.[^5][^6]
+The institute's website was replaced on the closure date by a four-paragraph statement attributing the shutdown to "increasing administrative headwinds" from the Faculty of Philosophy.[^8] The Faculty had decided in late 2023 not to renew the contracts of the remaining staff, and Bostrom described the outcome to *The Guardian* as a "death by bureaucracy."[^8] Bostrom founded a successor organization, the nonprofit Macrostrategy Research Initiative, to continue the work outside Oxford. Several former staff dispersed to other existential-risk bodies, including the [[Centre for the Study of Existential Risk]] at Cambridge and independent AI-governance groups, but no institution replaced FHI's role as the field's academic center.[^4][^7]
 
 ### Footnotes
 
 [^1]: Bostrom, Nick. *Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies.* Oxford University Press, 2014, and the Future of Humanity Institute research record, 2005 to 2024.
 [^2]: "Why longtermism is the world's most dangerous secular credo," *Aeon,* 2021. https://aeon.co/essays/why-longtermism-is-the-worlds-most-dangerous-secular-credo
 [^3]: "Elite Universities Gave Us Effective Altruism, the Dumbest Idea of the Century," *Jacobin,* January 2023. https://jacobin.com/2023/01/effective-altruism-longtermism-nick-bostrom-racism
-[^4]: "Effective Altruism After Sam Bankman-Fried," Seven Pillars Institute, 2023. https://www.sevenpillarsinstitute.org/effective-altruism-after-sam-bankman-fried/
-[^5]: "The future of the future of humanity," Émile P. Torres, on the closure of the Future of Humanity Institute, 2024. https://xriskology.substack.com/p/the-future-of-the-future-of-humanity
-[^6]: "Looking Back at the Future of Humanity Institute," *Asterisk,* on the institute's 2005 founding, nineteen-year run, research output, the 2020 fundraising and hiring freeze, the late-2023 contract decision, the April 16, 2024 closure statement, and the "death by bureaucracy" account; Bostrom subsequently founded the Macrostrategy Research Initiative. https://asteriskmag.com/issues/08/looking-back-at-the-future-of-humanity-institute
+[^4]: "Looking Back at the Future of Humanity Institute," *Asterisk,* on the institute's 2005 founding, nineteen-year run, research output, the 2020 fundraising and hiring freeze, the late-2023 contract decision, the April 16, 2024 closure statement, and the "death by bureaucracy" account; Bostrom subsequently founded the Macrostrategy Research Initiative. https://asteriskmag.com/issues/08/looking-back-at-the-future-of-humanity-institute
+[^5]: "Effective Altruism After Sam Bankman-Fried," Seven Pillars Institute, 2023. https://www.sevenpillarsinstitute.org/effective-altruism-after-sam-bankman-fried/
+[^6]: University of Oxford, Future of Humanity Institute, home page as captured by the Internet Archive on December 31, 2024, https://web.archive.org/web/20241231200603/https://www.fhi.ox.ac.uk/.
+[^7]: "The future of the future of humanity," Émile P. Torres, on the closure of the Future of Humanity Institute, 2024. https://xriskology.substack.com/p/the-future-of-the-future-of-humanity
+[^8]: "Oxford shuts down Elon Musk-funded Future of Humanity Institute," *The Oxford Student,* April 20, 2024, Internet Archive capture dated April 28, 2024, reporting that the Faculty of Philosophy shut the institute down on April 16, that the institute cited "administrative headwinds," that the Faculty imposed a freeze on fundraising and hiring in 2020, that the Governance of AI Program spun out in 2021, that Musk gave 1 million pounds in 2015, and quoting Bostrom's emailed statement to *The Guardian* describing "a death by bureaucracy." https://web.archive.org/web/20240428172104/https://www.oxfordstudent.com/2024/04/20/oxford-shuts-down-elon-musk-funded-future-of-humanity-institute/

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/General Motors.md

@@ -0,0 +1,303 @@
+---
+category: "Private Organization"
+aliases:
+  - General Motors
+  - GM
+  - General Motors Corporation
+  - General Motors Corp.
+  - General Motors Company
+tags:
+  - Organization
+  - GeneralMotors
+  - Automotive
+  - Opel
+  - HughesAircraft
+  - HughesElectronics
+  - Delco
+  - Delphi
+  - Nader
+  - Corvair
+  - KitGreen
+  - Stargate
+  - Letelier
+  - OaklandCountyChildKiller
+  - TARP
+  - DuPont
+  - Ethyl
+  - SovereigntyCommission
+  - Detroit
+summary: "General Motors, incorporated in Delaware in 1916 and based in Detroit, bought Hughes Aircraft in 1985, controlled the German Opel works until 1939 by its own account, and received TARP loans in 2009."
+location: "Detroit, Michigan"
+relations:
+  - type: owned
+    with: "[[Adam Opel AG]]"
+    start: 1928
+    end: 1939-11
+    role: "Opel controlled through General Motors Overseas, according to a 1974 letter by Michael M. Mooney; GM's 1974 account says the Nazi government took over the Opel plant before the war"
+    fn: 6
+  - type: owned
+    with: "[[Hughes Aircraft Company]]"
+    start: 1985-12-31
+    end: 1997-12-17
+    role: "acquired Hughes and its subsidiaries for 2.7 billion dollars in cash and 100 million shares of GM Class H common stock; defense business merged with Raytheon"
+    fn: 29
+  - type: owned
+    with: "[[Electronic Data Systems]]"
+    end: 1996-06
+    role: "split off from General Motors in June 1996"
+    fn: 58
+  - type: owned
+    with: "[[Ethyl Gasoline Corporation]]"
+    role: "owner of part of the capital stock; the other half was held by Standard Oil of New Jersey"
+    fn: 4
+  - type: owned
+    with: "[[E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1917
+    end: 1919
+    role: "acquired a 23 percent stock interest in General Motors in 1917 to 1919, per the Supreme Court in 1957"
+    fn: 2
+  - type: owned
+    with: "[[Delphi Automotive Systems]]"
+    start: 1997-12-17
+    role: "GM parts unit to which Delco Electronics was to be transferred from Hughes in the 1997 restructuring"
+    fn: 31
+  - type: funded
+    with: "[[United States Department of the Treasury]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2009-06
+    role: "TARP loan of 30.1 billion dollars to fund GM's bankruptcy, within a combined TARP investment of 49.5 billion dollars"
+    fn: 60
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Kit Green]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1985-03
+    end: 1993-09
+    role: "head of Automotive Safety and Health Research, North American Operations Research and Development Center, Warren, Michigan"
+    fn: 40
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Harold Lee Busch]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "executive financial director, according to S. Dovey (2023)"
+    fn: 50
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[James D. Mooney]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "president of General Motors Overseas, according to his son's 1974 letter"
+    fn: 6
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Henry L. Duncombe Jr.]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "chief economist, testifying for GM in April 1974"
+    fn: 13
+  - type: head_of
+    with: "[[James M. Roche]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1966
+    role: "president of General Motors, who apologized to the Senate subcommittee on March 22, 1966 for the investigation of Ralph Nader"
+    fn: 24
+  - type: investigated
+    with: "[[Ralph Nader]]"
+    start: 1966-01
+    end: 1966-03-09
+    role: "investigation through an outside law firm, which GM said was limited to Nader's qualifications and his association with plaintiffs' attorneys in Corvair cases"
+    fn: 21
+  - type: contractor_to
+    with: "[[Vincent Gillen Associates]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "investigating firm used for the 1966 probe of Ralph Nader, per a March 1966 newspaper reprint in the Congressional Record"
+    fn: 23
+  - type: contractor_to
+    with: "[[Scale AI]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "worked with GM's autonomous vehicle programs, according to Alexandr Wang's July 2023 testimony"
+    fn: 59
+---
+
+General Motors Corporation, incorporated in Delaware in 1916 and based at 300 Renaissance Center in [[Detroit]], was an automobile manufacturer with overseas subsidiaries and defense electronics holdings.[^1] Its principal holdings in this record are the German automaker [[Adam Opel AG|Opel]], which its overseas subsidiary controlled from the late 1920s until 1939 by the company's own account, [[Hughes Aircraft Company]], which it owned from 1985 to 1997, and [[Electronic Data Systems]], which it split off in 1996.
+
+### Ownership, du Pont and Ethyl
+
+The [[E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company|du Pont]] company acquired a 23 percent stock interest in General Motors in 1917 through 1919. In 1949 the government sued over the holding under Section 7 of the Clayton Act. In 1957 the Supreme Court reversed the District Court's dismissal of the action as to du Pont and General Motors and remanded for equitable relief. Justice William J. Brennan wrote that "The fire that was kindled in 1917 continues to smolder. It burned briskly to forge the ties that bind the General Motors market to du Pont."[^2]
+
+The writer S. Dovey wrote in 2023 that [[Alfred P. Sloan]] managed General Motors on behalf of the du Ponts from 1923 to 1966, and that Sloan personally authorized the transfer of Ethyl lead to the [[Luftwaffe]] as late as 1938.[^3]
+
+The [[Ethyl Gasoline Corporation]], which licensed tetraethyl lead to refiners, was owned in part by [[Standard Oil|Standard Oil Company of New Jersey]]. In 1940 the Supreme Court recorded that Standard "owns one-half of the capital stock of the appellant" and that "The remainder is owned by General Motors Corporation and E. I. du Pont de Nemours Company."[^4] A German company, Ethyl G.m.b.H., was owned half by the British Associated Ethyl Company and half by I. G. Farbenindustrie. In a 1942 Senate reply, Standard Oil wrote that Ethyl G.m.b.H. "paid up in full a cash debit of nearly $900,000" owed to the American company about one month after the war began.[^5]
+
+### Opel and the German Government
+
+General Motors acquired control of the German automaker Adam Opel AG through its overseas subsidiary at the end of the 1920s. Michael M. Mooney, son of [[James D. Mooney]], who was president of General Motors Overseas, wrote to Senator Hart in 1974 that "About 1928 General Motors Overseas bought Adam Opel, A.G., manufacturers at the time of Germany's most popular car." He wrote that "The Company maintained control of Opel until about November 1939, when it had to be abandoned to the Nazi Government," and that General Motors resumed control after the war.[^6]
+
+In 1974 [[Bradford C. Snell]], assistant counsel of the Senate Judiciary Subcommittee on Antitrust and Monopoly, wrote a report titled "American Ground Transport: A Proposal for Restructuring the Automobile, Truck, Bus, and Rail Industries." It was printed in the subcommittee's hearings on S. 1167 under the subcommittee's imprint.[^7] Philip W. Copelin, a former GM executive who was assistant general sales manager of General Motors Continental at Antwerp in 1940, wrote to GM chairman [[Richard C. Gerstenberg]] that he was outraged by Snell's charge that GM assisted the Nazis. Copelin wrote that when he returned to Antwerp and Paris in August 1940, instead of being considered "impeccable Nazis" (Snell's words) the German authorities were "furious with GM for having removed personnel, vehicles, tools and material from our plants before they took them over."[^8]
+
+Snell also wrote that "GM for example, was in complete management control of its Russelsheim war plane factory for nearly a full year after Germany's declaration of war against the United States on December 11, 1941." The quotation appears in a reply by C. G. Stradella, who had served as finance manager of General Motors Overseas Operations from 1942 to 1952. Stradella called the statement "completely absurd."[^9] Snell's report also described the Brandenburg plant: "GM's truck plant in Brandenburg, East Germany [and Ford's facilities in Hungary] have more than likely become substantial factors in these Communist economies." Stradella called that sentence "laughable and a reprehensible inference."[^10]
+
+Hart stated for the record that the report, though issued under the subcommittee's imprint, did not represent the subcommittee's position. [[Philip A. Hart]], who chaired the subcommittee, told the hearing that "just as your testimony does not represent the position of this committee or any of its members, the testimony to which you refer captioned 'American Ground Transport,' of the witness, Mr. Snell, does not represent the position of this subcommittee or any member of it."[^11] Hart said that the use of the Opel plant "as a resource for the development of war material by the Hitler government" was "a vivid reminder to us of the dilemma that we have in encouraging overseas investments by American firms."[^12]
+
+GM's chief economist, [[Henry L. Duncombe Jr.]], told the subcommittee that the charges against GM's railroad sales were "as unfounded as the ludicrous assertion also made recently that GM helped the Nazi war machine prosper." He added: "It amazes us that, after so many years, we have had to remind anyone that the Nazi government took over our Opel plant before the war."[^13] GM introduced Copelin's letter for the record. Copelin wrote that the American management at Opel was reassigned in the fall of 1939, that the American directors left the Opel board after Germany declared war on the United States, and that the Office of Strategic Services asked him in late 1941 or early 1942 to gather intelligence from former Opel managers who had returned to the United States. The report he prepared, dated January 9, 1942, included a concluding paragraph stating that the destruction of any one of the plants "would be a most serious blow to the German war machine."[^14]
+
+Stradella's reply stated that from the beginning of American involvement in the war, GM Overseas personnel "assisted the U.S. military by providing intelligence and strategic information with respect to the Adam Opel facilities in Germany for use against the German government." He wrote that in 1942 and 1943 he gave Colonel Edward L. Barlow, who had been introduced to him as a representative of United States military intelligence, drawings and blueprints of the Opel works at Russelsheim and Brandenburg that Barlow said would be useful for strategic bombing. He wrote that Barlow later showed the group an air photograph of "what was left of the Brandenburg truck plant" after its bombing.[^15]
+
+Federal records place Opel's plants under German control in November 1942. The Foreign Claims Settlement Commission's 1967 annual report, reproduced in the 1974 hearing, states that the Russelsheim plant "was placed under the control of the German Enemy Property Custodian on November 25, 1942," and that the Brandenburg plant "was placed under a German administrator as enemy property on November 25, 1942." The Commission was reviewing a claim by General Motors and General Motors Overseas for property losses under the War Claims Act of 1948. It recorded that the Russelsheim plant "sustained severe war damage as a result of allied bombing raids in 1942 and 1944."[^16] A Library of Congress translation of a German resolution dated November 25, 1942, appointed an administrator, "Prof. Dr. Carl Luer," to the Adam Opel company at Russelsheim.[^17] The Commission's report states that the Brandenburg plant has been "located in the Soviet controlled area of Germany since the end of World War II."[^18]
+
+The writer S. Dovey stated in 2023 that Opel was the largest tank manufacturer in Nazi Germany.[^19] The 1974 record describes the Russelsheim works as Snell's "war plane factory" and the Brandenburg works as a "truck plant."[^9]
+
+### Surveillance of Ralph Nader, 1966
+
+[[Ralph Nader]]'s book [[Unsafe at Any Speed]] (1965) criticized the design of the [[Chevrolet Corvair]], a GM model. Nader testified before [[Abraham Ribicoff]]'s Senate Subcommittee on Executive Reorganization on February 10, 1966, on the federal role in traffic safety. On March 10, 1966, Ribicoff told the Senate that a GM statement issued the previous evening "raised issues which go beyond the question of witness harassment and a violation of the U.S. criminal code," and he invited Nader, the president of General Motors and the detective agencies to appear before the subcommittee on March 22.[^20]
+
+GM's statement of March 9, 1966, said that "following the publication of Mr. Ralph Nader's criticisms of the Corvair" its office of general counsel "initiated a routine investigation through a reputable law firm to determine whether Ralph Nader was acting on behalf of litigants or their attorneys in Corvair design cases pending against General Motors." The statement added that "It is a well known and accepted practice in the legal profession to investigate claims and persons making claims in the product liability field," that the investigation "did not include any of the alleged harassment or intimidation recently reported in the press," and that Nader had spent a day at the GM Technical Center in Warren, Michigan, early in January.[^21]
+
+[[Gaylord Nelson]], speaking for Wisconsin, described the episodes on the Senate floor. He said that two private investigators had shadowed Nader into the Senate Office Building, that his landlady had been questioned about his rent payments, that his stockbroker, editor and business associates had been questioned, and that on February 20 and February 23 women approached him in a drugstore and a grocery store with invitations to meetings. Nelson described an investigator who used "a fake reason for the interview, two different phony names, apparently even a recording device in an attaché case."[^22]
+
+A March 1966 newspaper article reprinted in the House section of the Congressional Record identified the investigating firm as Vincent Gillen Associates of Garden City. It reported that "General Motors publicly apologized for the probe which asked questions about the author's sex habits, political beliefs and attitudes toward Jews."[^23]
+
+The Senate hearing took place on March 22, 1966. [[James M. Roche]], the president of General Motors, testified: "As president of General Motors, I hold myself fully responsible for any action authorized or initiated by any officer of the corporation which may have had any bearing on the incidents related to our investigation of Mr. Nader." He added: "I am not here to excuse, condone, or justify in any way our investigating Mr. Nader. To the extent that General Motors bears responsibility, I want to apologize here and now to the members of this subcommittee and Mr. Nader."[^24] On March 25, 1966, Senator [[Paul Douglas|Paul H. Douglas]] told the Senate that when Nader appeared before the committee, "the president of General Motors had the good grace to apologize and say he did not know the nature of the investigation being made."[^25]
+
+Nader sued General Motors and three other defendants, alleging invasion of privacy among other torts. In January 1970 the New York Court of Appeals, in an opinion by Chief Judge Stanley Fuld and applying the law of the District of Columbia, held that the first two causes of action stated claims for invasion of privacy. The court recorded that "the mere observation of the plaintiff in a public place does not amount to an invasion of his privacy," and that "under certain circumstances, surveillance may be so 'overzealous' as to render it actionable." The opinion recorded Nader's allegation that one of the company's agents followed him into a bank, close enough to see the denominations of the bills he was withdrawing.[^26] On August 13, 1970, the suit was settled out of court for 425,000 dollars; Nader said the money would fund "continuous legal monitoring of General Motor's activities in the safety, pollution and consumer relations area," and his attorney called it "by far the largest amount ever paid as damages for invasion of privacy or in any similar type case."[^27]
+
+### Hughes Aircraft and General Motors
+
+In 1971 a CIA memorandum for the record described a "nonofficial cover arrangement" with the Aircraft Division of the [[Hughes Tool Company]] in Culver City, California, then being worked out by a former agency employee. The memorandum names [[Rhea Hopper]], vice president in charge of the division, as the "principle cleared witting official."[^28] The 1953 transfer that separated the aircraft business from the Hughes Tool Company is described in the Barlett and Steele biography of Hughes, and the aircraft company is the one General Motors later bought.
+
+General Motors acquired Hughes Aircraft Company and its subsidiaries effective December 31, 1985, for "$2.7 billion in cash and cash equivalents" and 100 million shares of GM Class H common stock, according to its 1993 annual report to the Securities and Exchange Commission.[^29] The purchase price exceeded Hughes's net book value by 4,244.7 million dollars, of which 500 million was assigned to patents and related technology. On February 28, 1989, GM and the [[Howard Hughes Medical Institute]], agreed to terminate GM's guarantee obligations on the Institute's Class H shares in exchange for put options at 30 dollars per share, which the Institute exercised in 1991, 1992 and 1993.[^29] In the same 1993 report GM stated that Hughes was cooperating with a federal grand jury investigation in Boston into the delivery and quality of components of two missile guidance systems and had been advised that it was a target of the investigation, and that Hughes's 1973 suit over the Williams Patent on spin-stabilized satellites had produced a Federal Circuit ruling in 1983 that the government had infringed it, with Hughes asserting damages of 1.5 billion to 4.8 billion dollars.[^29] The Class H stock was a tracking stock. GM's 2002 annual report states that Class H holders "would have no direct claim against the assets of Hughes," and that their dividends were computed as a fraction of the earnings allocated to the Class H shares.[^30]
+
+On January 16, 1997, GM and Hughes announced the spin-off of the Hughes defense business to GM stockholders and its tax-free merger with [[Raytheon]]. The announcement said that "Delco Electronics will be transferred from Hughes to GM's [[Delphi Automotive Systems|Delphi]] unit," and that GM's Class H stock would be recapitalized into a tracking stock tied to the telecommunications and space business of Hughes.[^31] GM reported the completion of the transactions on December 17, 1997.[^32]
+
+The company's defense electronics business remained in the news after the spin-off. In December 1998 *The New York Times* reported that a [[Central Intelligence Agency]] scientist, [[Ronald Pandolfi]], had visited "the Hughes Electronics Corporation in Los Angeles in 1995 to learn more about China's missile capabilities," and had become concerned that the satellite manufacturer "might have helped improve Chinese military capabilities." The paper described the company as "a unit of General Motors and major customer of the C.I.A.," which had denied any wrongdoing and said it was cooperating with the investigations.[^33]
+
+In March 2003 DIRECTV Latin America, LLC, a 75 percent owned subsidiary of Hughes Electronics Corporation, which GM described as a wholly owned subsidiary of General Motors, announced a voluntary petition for reorganization under Chapter 11.[^34] On September 12, 2003, GM announced a private-letter ruling from the Internal Revenue Service confirming that the distribution of Hughes Electronics stock to the holders of GM Class H common stock, in connection with the split-off of Hughes, would be tax-free to GM and its Class H stockholders.[^35]
+
+### Defense and Space Work
+
+General Motors' defense and space work before and after the Hughes purchase ran through its electronics and engineering divisions. A January 15, 1967 student study guide on Apollo guidance and navigation for the Lunar Module computer was issued by the AC Electronics Division of General Motors.[^36] For the Apollo lunar roving vehicle, NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center awarded the prime contract to the Boeing Company; with the exception of the chassis, the mobility subsystems were "designed, developed, and delivered by the General Motors Delco Electronics Division in Santa Barbara, California, under subcontract" to Boeing.[^37]
+
+In its 1993 annual report GM described its "other products" segment as consisting of "military vehicles, radar and weapon control systems, guided missile systems, and defense and commercial satellites." GM Hughes Electronics Corporation carried a 13.4 billion dollar backlog of defense and commercial contracts at the end of 1993, and defense electronics revenues for that year were 6,112.1 million dollars, 45 percent of the Hughes business mix.[^38] In the fourth quarter of 2002 GM agreed to sell its GM Defense operations, a light armored vehicle business, to General Dynamics Corporation for about 1.3 billion dollars in cash; the sale closed on March 1, 2003.[^39]
+
+### Kit Green and the General Motors Research Post
+
+[[Kit Green|Christopher C. Green]], a physician who served in the CIA's scientific and life sciences components, left the Central Intelligence Agency in March 1985 and joined General Motors that month. According to his curriculum vitae of November 20, 2007, he headed Automotive Safety and Health Research at the company's North American Operations Research and Development Center in Warren, Michigan, from March 1985 to September 1993. The CV describes a department of Biomedical Science with 80 physicians, pharmacologists, physiologists, physicists, engineers, toxicologists, microbiologists and biochemists.[^40] The CV, which Green wrote himself, lists work on the Glomar Explorer project among his CIA duties, the Glomar Explorer recovery operation, [[Project Azorian]], and lists advisory memberships of the Army Science Board and the National Research Council's Board on Army Science and Technology.[^41]
+
+In July 1993 the magazine [[Defense Electronics]] reported on closed briefings by the Russian physician [[Igor Smirnov]] on "a computerized acoustic device allegedly capable of implanting thoughts in a person's mind," held from March 17 in suburban Northern Virginia. The article said a participant in the meetings described FBI officials asking for a proposal on using the device in Waco, Texas, and that officials from the CIA, the [[Defense Intelligence Agency]] and the Advanced Research Projects Agency were also present. Among the "non-military attendees" the article listed "Dr. [[Richard Nakamura]] of the [[National Institute of Mental Health]] and Dr. Christopher Green, director of General Motors Corp. (GM) biomedical research department in Detroit."[^42]
+
+A GM spokesman told the magazine that Green "attended the Smirnov briefings in his capacity as a member of a National Academy of Sciences (NAS) panel on 21st Century Army technologies," and added: "This has no connection to anything being done by GM."[^43] The National Research Council's 1992 report on Army technologies, STAR 21, lists Green, of General Motors Research Labs, as lead expert of its Biotechnology and Biochemistry Technology Group.[^44]
+
+[[Luis Elizondo]]'s 2024 book includes Green among those who "worked with and supported AAWSAP/AATIP."[^45] Richard J. Boylan's roster of a network he called [[The Aviary]] lists Green as "Blue Jay."[^46]
+
+### A Private-Sector Program, 1994
+
+[[Human Potential Foundation]] president [[C. B. Scott Jones]] wrote on August 11, 1994, to [[John Gibbons|John H. Gibbons]], Assistant to the President for Science and Technology, on Foundation letterhead, with a handwritten "Pell" at the top (the letter describes [[Claiborne Pell|Senator Pell]] as an active board member of the Institute of Noetic Sciences, founded in 1973 by the Apollo astronaut [[Edgar Mitchell]]). Jones wrote that he had spent several hours with Mitchell at a Chicago conference and briefed him on Foundation projects, and that he hoped "at a minimum someone senior in the administration will make a statement that the area we have been discussing is a researchable subject of potential great significance to a number of fields."[^47]
+
+The letter's second page begins with Jones's report that [[R. James Woolsey|James Woolsey]] "has a document search project under way" and "has not discovered anything of significance," and continues: "The Agency is not a logical place for a program on this subject." The letter continues: "If I had the responsibility to run a super safe black program on this subject, I would take it completely out of the government's bureaucracy and run it from the private sector, probably somewhere within the aerospace community, or perhaps General Motors. Then, when the time comes, as it surely will, when Congress wakes up to the subject, it would not be a lie to say 'No' to the question: 'Mr. Secretary, is there a program on this subject located in the Department of Defense?'"[^47] The foundation's primary donor in its first two and a half years was [[Laurance Rockefeller]], whose support was "conditional with a program designed to get the United States government to acknowledge the existence of alien life."[^48]
+
+### The Oakland County Child Killer and the Busch Family
+
+The [[Oakland County Child Killer]] case covered a series of child killings in Oakland County, Michigan, in 1976 and 1977. Investigators focused on two convicted pedophiles who were tied to [[Francis Shelden]] and the [[North Fox Island]] network, and both were cleared by polygraph.[^49] Dovey wrote that [[Christopher Busch]] was the son of [[Harold Lee Busch]], an executive financial director at General Motors, and that Christopher Busch attended the Swiss boarding school Institut Le Rosey during his father's European posting.[^50]
+
+Busch was arrested in January 1977 together with [[Gregory Greene]] for sexually assaulting a boy. Greene told police that Busch had killed a boy during a trip to the family cabin, and Busch was polygraphed and cleared.[^49]
+
+[[Richard Lawson]], an informant in the cold case, connected the North Fox Island network to Busch and said that an associate, Robert Moore, had taken young boys to visit H. Lee Busch at his home. Lawson's claims are reported in the Detroit Free Press's cold-case series.[^51] Tips in the investigation pointed to protection from powerful figures, among them General Motors executives.[^52]
+
+### The Letelier Car and the Townley Test
+
+[[Orlando Letelier]] was killed on September 21, 1976, when a bomb attached beneath the driver's seat of his car exploded at Sheridan Circle in Washington. Zach Dorfman described the car as a light blue Chevy Chevelle.[^53] Dorfman reported that the FBI agent [[Carter Cornick]] asked an agent in Detroit to contact General Motors and see whether the company could sell a car to blow up. Dorfman wrote that "It turned out GM had exactly the model and color Cornick was looking for."[^53]
+
+Cornick's own account, published in 2016 by the Society of Former Special Agents of the FBI, describes a replication test: a second car of the same model, a bomb built by [[Michael Townley]] from the same components, and a comparison of the damage. The request for the test went for approval to the bureau's deputy director.[^54] Dorfman reported that the FBI took Townley, chaperoned by U.S. marshals, to each place he had bought parts while building the bomb, including a Radio Shack behind FBI headquarters, and that the replica was attached to a car and detonated at an FBI training center in Quantico.[^53]
+
+### The Mississippi Sovereignty Commission and Wickliffe Draper
+
+Douglas A. Blackmon wrote in 1999 that [[John C. Satterfield]] organized the [[Coordinating Committee for Fundamental American Freedoms]] in Washington in 1963 to oppose the pending civil rights bill, and that [[Wickliffe Draper]], founder of the [[Pioneer Fund]], was the client behind an anonymous gift of stock to the [[Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission]].[^55] The Mississippi Department of Archives and History states that the commission took part in the national campaign to prevent passage of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, "establishing and providing funds for the Coordinating Committee for Fundamental American Freedoms."[^56]
+
+The shares Blackmon described were in [[R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company|Reynolds Tobacco]], General Motors, Standard Oil of New Jersey and [[Addressograph-Multigraph]]. [[Morgan Guaranty Trust]] sold them at Draper's direction and recorded the proceeds as a donation, which Blackmon wrote totaled 98,612 dollars.[^55]
+
+### Miami Dealerships
+
+Gary Webb wrote in *Dark Alliance* (1998) that [[Danilo Blandon|Danilo Blandón]] invested in Alpha II Rent-a-Car, which spread to twenty-four locations in southern Florida and became "an authorized outlet for Chrysler and General Motors vehicles." The company operated in [[Miami]].[^57]
+
+### Electronic Data Systems
+
+General Motors split off Electronic Data Systems in June 1996. The company's 2002 proxy statement says that the board structure "was established at the time of our split-off from General Motors Corporation in June 1996."[^58] [[James A. Baker III]], a director of EDS, is a senior partner of [[Baker Botts]], which EDS retained to provide legal services.[^58]
+
+### Scale AI and Later Contracts
+
+In July 2023 [[Alexandr Wang]], the founder of [[Scale AI]], told the House Armed Services Committee's cyber subcommittee that from the company's earliest days it had worked "with the leading autonomous vehicle programs at General Motors and Toyota."[^59]
+
+### The 2009 Bankruptcy and the Treasury Rescue
+
+In June 2009 the [[United States Department of the Treasury|Treasury]] loaned General Motors an additional 30.1 billion dollars from the [[Troubled Asset Relief Program]] to fund the company's bankruptcy. The loan was conditioned on the bankruptcy ending in 40 days. With 19.4 billion dollars already invested in GM under two administrations, the combined TARP investment was 49.5 billion dollars, and Treasury became the majority, 61 percent, owner of the new company that purchased substantially all of GM's assets.[^60] The new company emerged from the bankruptcy on July 10, 2009, with most of the company's debt and liabilities left with the old company.[^61]
+
+The [[Special Inspector General for the Troubled Asset Relief Program]] issued a 2013 report on Treasury's role in the decision for GM to top up the pension payments of certain Delphi hourly employees.[^62] The report concluded that the TARP injection in General Motors and Chrysler "was the only bailout with a President's Designee overseeing the companies' restructurings."[^63] The special inspector general also reported in July 2010 on the factors behind the decisions of GM and Chrysler to reduce their dealership networks.[^64]
+
+### Executives and Directors in the Record
+
+Richard C. Gerstenberg was GM's chairman in April 1974, when Copelin and Stradella addressed their letters to him.[^65] Henry L. Duncombe Jr. was GM's chief economist and its witness on the Snell report.[^13] James D. Mooney, president of General Motors Overseas, received the German decoration described in his son's letter. Michael M. Mooney wrote that the Order of the German Eagle was presented to his father at the German consulate in New York on August 17, 1938, that his father forwarded it to the Department of the Navy on August 22, 1938, and that the Navy passed it to the State Department.[^66] C. G. Stradella was finance manager of General Motors Overseas Operations from 1942 to 1952.[^67] Dovey wrote that Harold Lee Busch was an executive financial director at General Motors.[^50]
+
+### Footnotes
+
+[^1]: General Motors Corporation, Form 10-K for fiscal 2002, Item 1 ("The Corporation"), SEC EDGAR accession 0000040730-03-000054, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/40730/000004073003000054/complete10k.txt.
+[^2]: United States v. E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co., 353 U.S. 586 (1957), opinion of Brennan, J., decided June 3, 1957, Harvard Caselaw Access Project, https://static.case.law/us/353/cases/0586-01.json. The opinion states the 1917 to 1919 purchase of a 23 percent interest and the 1949 complaint under Section 15 of the Clayton Act.
+[^3]: Dovey, S. (2023). *Eye of the Chickenhawk*. United States: Thehotstar.
+[^4]: Ethyl Gasoline Corp. v. United States, 309 U.S. 436 (1940), opinion of Stone, J., decided March 25, 1940, Harvard Caselaw Access Project, https://static.case.law/us/309/cases/0436-01.json.
+[^5]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess. (Washington: GPO, 1942), reply of Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) on Germany's rubber and foreign exchange position, https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit.
+[^6]: Mooney, Michael M., letter to Senator Philip A. Hart, Exhibit 3, in *The Industrial Reorganization Act: Hearings on S. 1167, Part 4, Ground Transportation Industries* (Washington: GPO, 1974), pp. 2387-2388, https://archive.org/details/industrialreorga04unit.
+[^7]: Snell, Bradford C., *American Ground Transport: A Proposal for Restructuring the Automobile, Truck, Bus, and Rail Industries* (Senate Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Antitrust and Monopoly, 1974), printed as an appendix to *The Industrial Reorganization Act: Hearings on S. 1167, Part 4, Ground Transportation Industries*, April 4, 9, 10 and 11, 1974, https://archive.org/details/industrialreorga04unit.
+[^8]: Copelin, Philip W., letter to Richard C. Gerstenberg, April 5, 1974, Exhibit 2, *Hearings on S. 1167, Part 4*, pp. 2385-2387, https://archive.org/details/industrialreorga04unit.
+[^9]: Stradella, C. G., letter to Richard C. Gerstenberg, April 10, 1974, Exhibit 4, *Hearings on S. 1167, Part 4*, pp. 2390-2392, quoting the Snell report, p. 22, https://archive.org/details/industrialreorga04unit.
+[^10]: Stradella, letter of April 10, 1974 (note 9), pp. 2390-2392, quoting the Snell sentence on the Brandenburg plant.
+[^11]: Hart, Philip A., remarks in the hearing, *Hearings on S. 1167, Part 4*, pp. 2325-2326, https://archive.org/details/industrialreorga04unit.
+[^12]: Hart, Philip A., remarks on the Opel plant, *Hearings on S. 1167, Part 4*, p. 2327, https://archive.org/details/industrialreorga04unit.
+[^13]: Duncombe, Henry L., Jr., statement for General Motors Corporation, *Hearings on S. 1167, Part 4*, p. 2325, https://archive.org/details/industrialreorga04unit.
+[^14]: Copelin letter (note 8), pp. 2386-2387, describing the January 9, 1942 report to the Office of Strategic Services and quoting its concluding paragraph on the Opel and related German plants.
+[^15]: Stradella letter (note 9), pp. 2390-2391, describing the 1942 and 1943 contacts with Colonel Edward L. Barlow.
+[^16]: Foreign Claims Settlement Commission of the United States, *Annual Report to the Congress for the Period January 1-December 31, 1967*, excerpt on the claim of General Motors Corporation and General Motors Overseas Corporation, Exhibit 9, *Hearings on S. 1167, Part 4*, p. 2396, https://archive.org/details/industrialreorga04unit.
+[^17]: Library of Congress, Congressional Research Service, translation of a German resolution re handling of enemy property, Adam Opel A.G., Russelsheim, dated November 25, 1942, Exhibit 8, *Hearings on S. 1167, Part 4*, p. 2395, https://archive.org/details/industrialreorga04unit.
+[^18]: Foreign Claims Settlement Commission excerpt (note 16), p. 2397, on the Brandenburg plant.
+[^19]: Dovey, S. (2023). *Eye of the Chickenhawk*. United States: Thehotstar.
+[^20]: Congressional Record, Senate, March 10, 1966, pp. 5565-5566, statement of Senator Abraham Ribicoff, https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_march-10-28-1966_112.
+[^21]: Congressional Record, Senate, March 10, 1966, pp. 5565-5566, reprinting the statement issued by General Motors on March 9, 1966 (same item as note 20).
+[^22]: Congressional Record, Senate, March 10, 1966, pp. 5566-5567, remarks of Senator Gaylord Nelson of Wisconsin (same item as note 20).
+[^23]: Congressional Record, House, March 1966, pp. 6652-6653, reprint of a newspaper article on the investigation of Ralph Nader, https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_march-10-28-1966_112.
+[^24]: Roche, James M., statement to the Subcommittee on Executive Reorganization, Senate Committee on Government Operations, March 22, 1966, as quoted by the Center for the Study of Responsive Law, "Unsafe At Any Speed, Fiftieth Anniversary," https://csrl.org/2015/11/19/unsafe-at-any-speed-fiftieth-anniversary.
+[^25]: Congressional Record, Senate, March 25, 1966, pp. 6747-6748, remarks of Senator Paul H. Douglas, https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_march-10-28-1966_112.
+[^26]: Nader v. General Motors Corp., 25 N.Y.2d 560 (1970), decided January 8, 1970, Court of Appeals of New York, Fuld, C.J., Harvard Caselaw Access Project, https://static.case.law/ny-2d/25/cases/0560-01.json.
+[^27]: "GM Settles Out of Court; To Award Nader $425,000," *The Harvard Crimson*, August 14, 1970, https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1970/8/14/gm-settles-out-of-court-to/.
+[^28]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum for the record, "Robert D. Peloquin, President, International Intelligence, Inc. (INTERTEL)," May 20, 1971, NARA record number 104-10122-10288, pp. 2, 4 and 5, https://www.archives.gov/files/research/jfk/releases/2025/0318/104-10122-10288.pdf. For the 1953 transfer, see Donald L. Barlett and James B. Steele, *Empire: The Life, Legend, and Madness of Howard Hughes* (New York: W. W. Norton, 1979), pp. 75-76, https://archive.org/details/empirelifelegend0000barl.
+[^29]: General Motors Corporation, Form 10-K for fiscal 1993, notes on acquisition of Hughes, SEC EDGAR accession 0000040730-94-000002, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/40730/0000040730-94-000002.txt.
+[^30]: General Motors Corporation, Form 10-K for fiscal 2002 (note 1), description of the GM Class H common stock, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/40730/000004073003000054/complete10k.txt.
+[^31]: General Motors Corporation, Form 8-K filed April 14, 1997 (announcement of January 16, 1997), SEC EDGAR accession 0000040730-97-000015, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/40730/0000040730-97-000015.txt.
+[^32]: General Motors Corporation, Form 8-K filed December 18, 1997 (completion on December 17, 1997), SEC EDGAR accession 0000040730-97-000037, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/40730/0000040730-97-000037.txt.
+[^33]: Gerth, Jeff, "Old Concerns Over Data Transfer to China Get New Attention," *The New York Times*, December 7, 1998, p. A20, archived copy at https://web.archive.org/web/20201101033224/https://www.nytimes.com/1998/12/07/us/old-concerns-over-data-transfer-to-china-get-new-attention.html.
+[^34]: General Motors Corporation, Form 8-K filed March 19, 2003 (event dated March 18, 2003), "Press Releases on Hughes Subsidiary," SEC EDGAR accession 0000040730-03-000056, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/40730/000004073003000056/gmhughesdlachapter11031903.txt.
+[^35]: General Motors Corporation, Form 8-K filed September 12, 2003, "GM Receives IRS Ruling on Hughes Transaction," SEC EDGAR accession 0000040730-03-000110, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/40730/000004073003000110/irsrulingonhughes091203.txt.
+[^36]: AC Electronics Division, General Motors Corporation, *Apollo Guidance and Navigation: Lunar Module Student Study Guide*, January 15, 1967, listed in the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory document collection, https://klabs.org/history/history_docs/mit_docs/gnc.htm.
+[^37]: Morea, Saverio F., *The Lunar Roving Vehicle: Historical Perspective*, NASA Marshall Space Flight Center, NTRS 19930004820, https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19930004820/downloads/19930004820.pdf.
+[^38]: General Motors Corporation, Form 10-K for fiscal 1993 (note 29), Item 1 (other products segment; backlog) and management discussion of GM Hughes Electronics, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/40730/0000040730-94-000002.txt.
+[^39]: General Motors Corporation, Form 10-K for fiscal 2002 (note 1), Note 26, Subsequent Events, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/40730/000004073003000054/complete10k.txt.
+[^40]: Green, Christopher Canfield, *Curriculum Vita*, November 20, 2007, https://anomalyarchives.org/wp-content/uploads/DrGreen_Article.pdf. The CV is Green's own account of his career.
+[^41]: Green, *Curriculum Vita* (note 40), sections on CIA duties and external boards and activities.
+[^42]: Tapscott, Mark, "DoD, Intel Agencies Look at Russian Mind Control Technology, Claims," *Defense Electronics*, July 1993, p. 17, CIA-RDP96-00792R000600150001-5, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00792r000600150001-5.
+[^43]: Tapscott, *Defense Electronics*, July 1993 (note 42), p. 17, reporting the GM spokesman's statement.
+[^44]: National Research Council, Board on Army Science and Technology, *STAR 21: Strategic Technologies for the Army of the Twenty-First Century* (Washington: National Academy Press, 1992), appendix of contributors, https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/1888/chapter/12.
+[^45]: Elizondo, Luis, *Imminent: Inside the Pentagon's Hunt for UFOs* (New York: William Morrow, 2024), Acknowledgments, p. 250.
+[^46]: Boylan, Richard J., "UFO/ET-Disclosure Policy Splits Covert Network," *Perceptions*, reproduced at think-aboutit.com, Wayback Machine capture of August 31, 2013, http://web.archive.org/web/20130831033026/http://www.think-aboutit.com/ufo/aviary.htm.
+[^47]: Jones, C. B. Scott, letter to John H. Gibbons, August 11, 1994, pp. 1-2 (stamped received August 15, 1994), Rockefeller Initiative documents, Paradigm Research Group, letter pages 1 and 2, https://web.archive.org/web/20161227135139/http://www.paradigmresearchgroup.org/Rockefeller%20Documents/RID-8-11-94.htm.
+[^48]: University of Colorado Boulder Libraries, Rare and Distinctive Collections, "C. B. 'Scott' Jones papers," COU:4004, scope note and series descriptions, https://archives.colorado.edu/repositories/2/resources/346.
+[^49]: ClickOnDetroit (WXYZ), "Oakland County Child Killer: 40 years later," timeline of the 1976-77 killings, Greene arrest, polygraphs, convictions and sentences, https://clickondetroit.com/news/defenders/oakland-county-child-killer-40-years-later.
+[^50]: Dovey, S. (2023). *Eye of the Chickenhawk*. United States: Thehotstar.
+[^51]: Coffey, Thomas, "Cold Case: The Oakland County Child Killer," *Detroit Free Press*, investigative series, various dates 2012-2017.
+[^52]: Coffey, "Cold Case: The Oakland County Child Killer" (note 51).
+[^53]: Dorfman, Zach, "Codename: Chilbom," *The Atavist Magazine*, no. 59, June 21, 2016, https://magazine.atavist.com/codename-chilbom.
+[^54]: Cornick, L. Carter, Jr., "Chilbom," *The Grapevine* (Society of Former Special Agents of the FBI), August 2016, pp. 11-16, https://fbistudies.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/FBI-Grapevine-Chilbom.pdf.
+[^55]: Blackmon, Douglas A., "Silent Partner: How the South's Fight to Uphold Segregation Was Funded Up North," *The Wall Street Journal*, June 11, 1999, p. A1, reproduced at https://slaverybyanothername.com/other-writings/silent-partner-how-the-souths-fight-to-uphold-segregation-was-funded-up-north/.
+[^56]: Mississippi Department of Archives and History, "Agency History," Sovereignty Commission Online, https://da.mdah.ms.gov/sovcom/scagencycasehistory.
+[^57]: Webb, Gary, *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion* (New York: Seven Stories Press, 1998), chapter 21.
+[^58]: Electronic Data Systems Corporation, Schedule 14A definitive proxy statement, filed March 6, 2002, board structure and "Certain Transactions," SEC EDGAR accession 0000950109-02-001187, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1007456/000095010902001187/ddef14a.htm.
+[^59]: U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Armed Services, Subcommittee on Cyber, Information Technologies, and Innovation, "Man and Machine: Artificial Intelligence on the Battlefield," hearing of July 18, 2023, H.A.S.C. No. 118-37, statement of Alexandr Wang, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-118hhrg53627/pdf/CHRG-118hhrg53627.pdf.
+[^60]: Special Inspector General for the Troubled Asset Relief Program, *Treasury's Role in the Decision for GM to Provide Pension Payments to Delphi Employees* (SIGTARP 13-003), introduction, reproduced in House Committee on Financial Services, *Oversight of the SIGTARP Report on Treasury's Role in the Delphi Pension Bailout*, 113th Cong., https://archive.org/details/gov.gpo.fdsys.CHRG-113hhrg85115.
+[^61]: SIGTARP 13-003 (note 60), section "GM Completes Bankruptcy in 40 Days."
+[^62]: SIGTARP 13-003 (note 60), subject line and introduction.
+[^63]: SIGTARP 13-003 (note 60), conclusion.
+[^64]: SIGTARP, *Factors Affecting the Decisions of General Motors and Chrysler to Reduce their Dealership Networks*, SIGTARP-10-008, released July 19, 2010, as cited in the 2013 hearing (note 60).
+[^65]: Copelin letter (note 8) and Stradella letter (note 9), both addressed to Richard C. Gerstenberg as chairman of General Motors Corp.
+[^66]: Mooney, Michael M., letter (note 6), pp. 2388-2389, on the Order of the German Eagle, the Navy and the State Department.
+[^67]: Stradella letter (note 9), p. 2390, describing his assignments from 1942 to 1952.

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/George Washington University.md

@@ -0,0 +1,246 @@
+---
+created: 2026-10-15
+updated: 2026-10-15
+title: George Washington University
+aliases:
+  - GWU
+  - George Washington University Law School
+  - The George Washington University
+tags:
+  - Organization
+  - AcademicInstitution
+  - HumRRO
+  - MilitaryPsychology
+  - PsychologicalWarfare
+  - SensoryDeprivation
+  - Interrogation
+  - NationalSecurityArchive
+  - OlsonExhumation
+  - MKULTRA
+  - JackAnderson
+  - Scientology
+  - Area51
+  - ProgramOnExtremism
+  - NCITE
+  - JEdgarHoover
+  - ReaganShooting
+  - Casolaro
+  - Hammarskjold
+category: "Private Organization"
+summary: "A Washington, D.C. university whose Army contract ran the Human Resources Research Office from 1951 to 1969, whose Gelman Library houses the National Security Archive, and whose alumni and faculty recur in the record."
+location: "Washington, D.C."
+relations:
+  - type: contractor_to
+    with: "[[U.S. Army]]"
+    start: 1951
+    end: 1969
+    role: "operated the Human Resources Research Office under Army contract DA 44-188-ARO-2"
+    fn: 3
+  - type: partner_of
+    with: "[[NCITE]]"
+    start: 2025
+    role: "university partner listed in the March 2025 DHS fact sheet"
+    fn: 50
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Jonathan Turley]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1994
+    role: "law professor, George Washington University National Law Center"
+    fn: 37
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Joan Manley]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1997
+    role: "counsel for plaintiffs in Kasza v. Browner"
+    fn: 36
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Mark Feldstein]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2022
+    role: "journalism professor"
+    fn: 31
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[James E. Starrs]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1992
+    role: "professor of law and forensic sciences, George Washington University law school"
+    fn: 16
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Seamus Hughes]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2015
+    role: "deputy director of the Program on Extremism from its founding"
+    fn: 49
+---
+
+The George Washington University is a university in Washington, D.C.[^1] Its Gelman Library houses the [[National Security Archive]], which was founded in 1985.[^1][^2] The university was also the contracting body for the [[HumRRO]] behavioral science laboratory from 1951 to 1969, and it is the institution through which forensic pathologist [[James E. Starrs]] examined the remains of [[Frank Olson]] in 1994, as the university affiliation of two counsel in [[Area 51]] environmental litigation, as the host of the [[GWU Program on Extremism]], and as a partner in the [[NCITE]] consortium. The record also places the university's law school in the education of J. Edgar Hoover and John Foster Dulles, its M.B.A. program in the education of Colin Powell, its professor of law and forensic sciences in a 1992 review of the autopsy of Danny Casolaro, and its hospital at the center of the events of March 30, 1981.
+
+### Human Resources Research Office
+
+The Human Resources Research Office was organized in 1951 as a unit of the university under a contract with the [[U.S. Army]].[^3] A HumRRO bibliography published in 1966 describes the office as a nongovernmental agency of the university, operating under Army contract DA 44-188-ARO-2.[^3] The 1966 bibliography gives the mission more narrowly, as studies and research in the fields of training, motivation and leadership.[^3] A 1963 HumRRO report gives the office's mission, as stated in Army Regulation 70-8, as studies and research in training, motivation, leadership and man-weapons system analysis.[^4]
+
+A 1973 study of the office prepared by CONSAD Research Corporation for the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare records the sequence. A staff study titled "An Integrated Program in Human Resources Research," approved by the Under Secretary of the Army on June 21, 1951, recommended that a major contract be awarded to a recognized educational institution to form a Human Resources Research Office with primary responsibility for research on training methods, motivation and morale, and psychological warfare techniques. The study is credited to [[Harry Harlow]], then chief of the Army's Human Resources Research Program on leave from the University of Wisconsin. The contract between the Army and the university was executed on July 27, 1951.[^5] The CONSAD study states that the office was created by the university at the specific request of the Department of the Army, and that responsibility for psychological warfare was transferred after 1955 to the Special Operations Research Office at [[American University]].[^5] The office's director reported both to the university's vice president for academic affairs and to the Army's Office of the Chief of Research and Development, and the contracts provided that the civilian director had to be acceptable to both the university and the Army.[^5]
+
+According to [[Peter Watson]], the university affiliation gave HumRRO academic cover and access to research networks.[^6] Watson wrote that the relationship ended in October 1969 after student demonstrations over the university's connections to military research.[^6] He also wrote that campus opposition to the Vietnam War led universities to disentangle themselves from visibly military-sponsored social science, and he placed the university-based HumRRO alongside the Operations Research Office in that pattern.[^6] Watson's figures give the office's output as about 35 technical reports a year, of which about 3 percent was classified.[^6] After the separation, the office reorganized as an independent nonprofit with its headquarters in [[Alexandria, Virginia]].[^6]
+
+The CONSAD study records the separation in different terms. It states that in 1969 the office severed its ties with the university; that although the office had become self-sufficient in research administration, library resources and data processing, all formal, legal and fiscal transactions had been conducted by the university; and it quotes one participant: "The most visible effect was that the color of the checks changed." The office then became the Human Resources Research Organization, governed by a board of trustees.[^5] The office's president, [[Meredith P. Crawford]], wrote that in 1969, "again with the full concurrence of the Army," the office left the university and began operations as an independent nonprofit corporation, and the study dates the new corporation from September 1, 1969.[^5] The study adds that the office had moved to Alexandria, Virginia in 1963, six years before the formal severance.[^5] The organization's own history states that it parted company with the university in 1969 and incorporated independently that year, and that its status as a federal contract research center ended at the end of 1975.[^7]
+
+Watson also names two researchers who moved from HumRRO to the Special Operations Research Office at American University in the early 1960s, [[Theodore Vallance]] and [[Charles Windle]], and describes that office as the principal Army contractor for counterinsurgency social science in those years.[^6] Watson's account distinguishes HumRRO's emphasis on individual and unit performance from the population-level psychological and political analysis for counterinsurgency that SORO and its successor, [[CRESS]], pursued. He describes all three bodies as drawing mainly on Army funding and sharing access to the classified psychological warfare literature of the period.[^6]
+
+### Psychological warfare and interrogation studies
+
+A study titled Task PSYJOB, prepared by the HumRRO Psychological Warfare Division, evaluated psychological warfare job requirements against the curriculum of the Army Psychological Warfare School. The report was written by [[Lawrence Schlesinger]] and [[Harriet Beckwitt]], with a research team that included [[Alvin G. Edge]] and [[Lloyd Rogler]], and was approved in June 1956 by Joseph R. Hochstim, director of research for the division.[^8] The findings, as the report states them, were that the 105 school topics, rated by experienced psychological warfare personnel in the Far East, drew little agreement among four job groups (plans and policy, intelligence, propaganda preparation, and operations), and that the operations group differed most sharply from the others. About 57 percent of the curriculum was classified as background (34 percent) or organizational (23 percent) information rather than as directly job-related, and the report judged that the Soviet Union area study occupied more of the program than was justified.[^8] The title page of the August 1956 report identifies the office as operating under contract with the Department of the Army, and states that the research was conducted while [[Carleton F. Scofield]] was director of research for the division.[^8]
+
+A tactical interrogation study followed in the early 1960s. Its preface states that the investigation began on July 1, 1961, in response to a request from the Army's assistant chief of staff for intelligence for research on collecting information through tactical interrogation. The task was jointly sponsored by the Continental Army Command and that office, and its initial exploratory work was reported in a Task QUIZ research memorandum dated May 1962.[^9] The experiment tested three ways of screening enlisted sources for later interrogation: individually, in groups of four, and in groups of twelve. The 286 sources were enlisted men from the Combat Developments Experimentation Center, and four trained interrogators conducted the screening.[^9] The report concluded that screening was most efficient when sources were handled in groups of four, on the basis of a time advantage and the equivalence of the three procedures for accuracy, and it restricted that conclusion to cooperative enlisted sources.[^9]
+
+[[Hilton Bialek]] was task leader during the planning phase of the interrogation study, and John E. Taylor was acting task leader during its execution and writing. The research team included three other members.[^9] The report describes the Leadership Human Research Unit, which conducted the work, as operating under the command of the Continental Army Command, with the Human Resources Research Office providing technical supervision.[^4] The report judged the accuracy of the interrogators' screening satisfactory, although it found substantial variation among them.[^9]
+
+### Sensory deprivation research
+
+The office also ran a long series of studies on confinement in a dark, quiet cubicle. A HumRRO Technical Report issued in June 1966, under Contract DA 44-188 ARO-2 and written by [[Thomas Myers]], [[Donald B. Murphy]], [[Seward Smith]] and [[S. James Goffard]], states that the pilot studies began in 1956 with the confinement of research personnel, that full-scale experimentation began in 1959, and that data were collected through June 1961.[^10] The subjects were successive groups of enlisted men, 551 in total, brought to the laboratory immediately after completing Advanced Individual Training. Of the 401 who volunteered for the cubicle, 176 were chosen at random for cubicle treatment, and an equal number served as controls on normal treatment.[^10] They were described as above the Army average in intelligence and as having been screened for physical and psychiatric deficiencies.[^10]
+
+The report's research problem statement names as its primary stimulus a series of reports, issuing first from the laboratory of [[Donald Hebb]], on sensory deprivation and social isolation. It states that interest in these phenomena was heightened by reports about American prisoners of war in Korea who were reputedly subjected to similar conditions.[^10] The report lists among its concerns the ability to "maintain independence of judgment in the face of propaganda and group pressure," and it describes investigations of the effects of isolation, of concurrent stimulation, and of the subjects' own reactions to controlled isolation.[^10] The report states that subjects could request release from the cubicle at any time.[^10] It was prepared by HumRRO Division No. 3 (Recruit Training) and distributed under the Department of the Army's Office of the Chief of Research and Development.[^10] Its measures included vigilance tests, reaction times, a test of lever-pulling under unpleasant noise, conformity scores, and reported visual sensations, and the tables include an analysis of conformity scores for cubicle and control subjects.[^10]
+
+The report's conclusions list the effects it attributed to four days of sensory deprivation and social isolation: subjective stress, severe boredom and restlessness, disorientation in time, a blurring of the boundaries of sleep and reality, unrealistic fears, alterations of the body schema, frequent and complex visual sensations, some impairment of intellectual functioning in complex tasks, "increased susceptibility to influence," and a greater desire to hear information even when it was contrary to initial belief.[^10] The scheduled isolation was four days (96 hours), and the control subjects led a normal, only slightly restricted life at the Presidio of Monterey.[^10]
+
+### Operations Research Office and the Korean War studies
+
+HumRRO was one of several Army-funded behavioral research bodies of the Korean War period. The [[Operations Research Office]] was established at [[Johns Hopkins University]] and conducted early psychological studies of combat performance in Korea.[^11] A 1995 congressional history of federally funded research centers records that the Army's interest in psychological warfare in Korea led to the creation of HumRRO in 1951 under a contract administered by the university, and that most of the Operations Research Office's human factors work then passed to HumRRO and, later, to the Special Operations Research Office.[^11]
+
+The Operations Research Office was dissolved in June 1961, and the [[Research Analysis Corporation]] replaced it under a new Army contract that took effect September 1, 1961.[^11] The 1995 history records that the change was made so that the Army could remove the office's director, and that Johns Hopkins University declined to remove him under Army pressure, which led to the termination of the contract.[^11]
+
+### Frank Olson and the 1994 forensic examination
+
+The university's most documented connection to the intelligence record of the period is the 1994 examination of Frank Olson. Olson's son arranged the exhumation of his father's body, and the forensic examination was led by James E. Starrs of the university.[^12] Starrs found a hematoma on the left side of Olson's skull and injuries to the cheekbone that he regarded as inconsistent with a fall through a window. He classified the death as a homicide by unknown means.[^12]
+
+The Olson death is connected in the record to [[Sidney Gottlieb]], who directed the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]'s MKULTRA program from the agency's Technical Services Division. Gottlieb died in March 1999.[^13] The New York County District Attorney reopened the case as a possible homicide, and no prosecution followed.[^12] H. P. Albarelli's 2009 book on the death reports that Gottlieb had been under investigation for the death at the time of his death.[^14]
+
+The Washington Post reported on August 27, 1977 that the university had received documents from the CIA about its role in MKULTRA and had refused to release them, and that it was among the universities that had publicly acknowledged receiving similar letters from the agency.[^15]
+
+### Danny Casolaro autopsy review
+
+The university's forensic law professor appears in a second death investigation. The 1993 report of Special Counsel [[Nicholas J. Bua]] on the [[INSLAW]] allegations records that several months after the August 1991 autopsy of the journalist [[Danny Casolaro]], a group of journalists in Washington asked Professor James E. Starrs, described as a noted forensic pathology expert at the university's law school, to review the autopsy report of the pathologist who had examined Casolaro. Starrs agreed to do so.[^16] In an interview with the Washington Business Journal in November 1992, as the report summarizes it, Starrs stated that he agreed that Casolaro's wounds had been self-inflicted, doubted that additional scientific techniques would have changed the outcome of the autopsy, and agreed that the small contusions on the body were caused by embalming fluid, although he criticized the West Virginia authorities for embalming the body so quickly. The report also records that he noted the suicide note was typical in being unsigned and in apologizing to the family, and quotes him: "[I]f this was a homicide, it would be the most singularly remarkable murder on record, either in fiction or nonfiction."[^16] The report's conclusion cites the review as an independent opinion that "reportedly has arrived at the same opinion as that expressed in this report," and prints the name as James E. Starr.[^17]
+
+### National Security Archive
+
+The National Security Archive is a nongovernmental research institute and library whose public address is Suite 700 of the Gelman Library at the university, at 2130 H Street, NW.[^1] The archive's legal entity is the National Security Archive Fund, Inc., a District of Columbia nonprofit, and its founding director was [[Scott Armstrong]].[^2]
+
+The archive publishes electronic briefing books. Its copy of the CIA's KUBARK counterintelligence interrogation manual, of July 1963 and declassified in 1997 with portions redacted, is posted as Electronic Briefing Book No. 122.[^18] The declassified version was released with approximately fifteen pages still redacted.[^18] The archive's Electronic Briefing Book No. 222, "The CIA's Family Jewels," was posted June 21, 2007 and updated June 26, 2007.[^19] Its October 30, 2025 posting on the top secret testimony of the MKULTRA chief, fifty years after the testimony, is posted in the same series.[^20] Electronic Briefing Book No. 465, on the fiftieth anniversary of the 1964 Brazilian coup, reproduces an excerpt of a White House meeting tape of October 7, 1963 as Document 9. The briefing book was edited by [[James G. Hershberg]], whom the briefing book identifies as a George Washington University historian. Participants in the meeting, as listed for Document 9, include [[Lincoln Gordon]].[^21]
+
+The archive's connection to the [[Dag Hammarskjöld]] inquiry is documented in the report of the Commission of Jurists, transmitted by the Secretary-General on March 21, 2014. The commission recorded its assistance from "the National Security Archive at George Washington University, DC," in focusing its search, and noted that its request for disclosure of what it regarded as critical intercept records was still pending.[^22] The report describes a listening post near Nicosia, Cyprus, operated by the [[National Security Agency]], which occupied the upper floor of a building whose ground floor the CIA occupied, the two organizations not exchanging information.[^22] A witness named Southall, who worked there, recalled that about 9 p.m. on September 17, 1961 he was telephoned at home by the communications watch officer, who told him "Get yourself out here tonight. Something interesting is going to happen," and that shortly after midnight a recording was played back of a voice saying "I see a transport plane coming low. All the lights are on" and, after the sound of cannon fire, "I've hit it. There are flames. It's going down. It's crashing."[^23] The commission wrote that the narrative was not inconsistent with an accidental shooting-down, and listed among the features of the surrounding evidence the National Security Agency's apparent foreknowledge of the event.[^23]
+
+The commission concluded that, from the evidence of a physical United States presence at Ndola airport with radio monitoring equipment and from the National Security Agency's worldwide monitoring in about 1961, it was highly likely that the entirety of the local and regional Ndola radio traffic on the night of September 17 and 18, 1961 was tracked and recorded by the National Security Agency, and possibly also by the CIA.[^24] If the suggested attack or threat had occurred, the report continues, the cockpit narrative and the Ndola control tower dialogue should in the ordinary course have been monitored, recorded, logged and archived by that agency.[^24] The Freedom of Information Act requests that the National Security Archive made on the commission's behalf sought any recording or transcription of radio traffic intercepted by the National Security Agency at its Cyprus station on the night of September 17 and 18, 1961, and any message it intercepted between 2130 GMT on September 17 and 0030 GMT on September 18 concerning the landing or approach of an aircraft at Ndola.[^25] The National Security Agency's initial response indicated that two of the three responsive documents appeared exempt from disclosure under "top secret" classification on national security grounds. On July 19, 2013, Dr. Mary Curry, the Archive's public service coordinator, wrote to the commission that, according to the Archive's CIA expert, [[John Prados]], intercepts of the National Security Agency had always been highly guarded by declassifiers, and that an appeal had been lodged.[^25] The commission added that it understood the documents to be subject to a qualified 50-year rule, and recommended that the United Nations reopen its 1961 to 1962 inquiry for the purpose of confirming or refuting the attack evidence from intercept records, which appeared to be held, if anywhere, in the United States.[^25]
+
+### Jack Anderson papers
+
+The columnist [[Jack Anderson]] died in December 2005.[^26] After his death, the Federal Bureau of Investigation told the family that the Bureau wished to review his files and remove any documents it judged classified before they were opened to the public.[^27] On April 20, 2006, an FBI assistant director, [[John Miller]], told NPR that the Bureau wanted access before the archive was made public. NPR reported that FBI agents had told the family the papers included a document that could bear on a current espionage case involving pro-Israel lobbyists, and that 188 boxes were held by the university.[^27]
+
+A letter dated November 30, 2006 from Acting Associate Attorney General [[James H. Clinger]] to Senator [[Arlen Specter]] stated: "At this time, the FBI is not seeking to reclaim any documents."[^28] The Associated Press reported that the family then arranged for the papers to go to the university for archiving.[^29] The university's University Archivist, [[Sylvia Augusteijn]], had been working since April 2006 to categorize and re-file the documents in 186 boxes bequeathed by the Anderson family. The student newspaper's October 2008 report on the collection was headed "Gelman Library to receive FBI files on columnist Jack Anderson."[^30]
+
+[[Mark Feldstein]], a journalism professor at the university, wrote in a March 25, 2022 article for the Washington Post, reprinted by [[Stars and Stripes]], about a March 1972 conversation between [[Charles Colson]] and [[E. Howard Hunt]] concerning Anderson.[^31] The same episode, and Feldstein's 2010 book on the Nixon White House's campaign against Anderson, were reported by NBC News in September 2010.[^32] Anderson's own Washington Post columns of January 9, February 5 and March 30, 1981, on psychic weapons and Pentagon and CIA psychic programs, survive in CIA reading room copies.[^33][^34][^35]
+
+### Groom Lake litigation
+
+The Ninth Circuit's decision in [[Kasza v. Browner]], decided January 8, 1998 after argument on November 5, 1997, arose from two citizen suits under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. The plaintiffs in Kasza, the widow of a former worker and others who had worked at a classified operating location near Groom Lake, Nevada, sued the [[Environmental Protection Agency]]. The companion case, Frost v. Perry, was brought against the Air Force, and the Secretary of the Air Force invoked the military and state secrets privilege.[^36] The district court granted summary judgment for the Air Force in Frost.[^36] The Ninth Circuit's opinion names the plaintiffs' counsel as [[Jonathan Turley]] and [[Joan Manley]], of the university, and the government's counsel as lawyers of the [[Department of Justice]]. The concurrence discusses the government's claim of privilege over what it called security sensitive environmental data.[^36] A 1994 report in the St. Louis Post-Dispatch, drawn from a Cox News Service dispatch, described Turley as a law professor at the university's National Law Center who had sued the agency over the Groom Lake site.[^37]
+
+### J. Edgar Hoover
+
+[[J. Edgar Hoover]] was born in Washington, D.C. on January 1, 1895. After high school he worked at the Library of Congress and attended night classes at the university's law school, and in 1916 he was awarded his LL.B. and in 1917 his LL.M.[^38] A university interview with the historian Andrew Simpson, author of a 2009 article on Hoover's legal education in the journal Intelligencer, states that Hoover entered the law school in fall 1913, that the school required a college education for admission from 1909 but did not enforce the requirement until 1920, that he passed the bar examination on July 25, 1917, and that he began work at the Department of Justice the next day.[^39] The [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] biography states that he entered on duty with the Department of Justice on July 26, 1917, was named assistant to the attorney general in November 1918, and in 1919 led the department's General Intelligence Division.[^38] Simpson states that in 1917, at age 22, Hoover headed the department's Alien Enemy Bureau.[^39] He directed the Bureau from May 10, 1924 until his death on May 2, 1972.[^38]
+
+### George Washington University Hospital and March 30, 1981
+
+On March 30, 1981 [[John Hinckley Jr.]] fired six shots outside the Washington Hilton Hotel at [[Ronald Reagan]], who had just addressed the national conference of the Building and Construction Trades Department of the AFL-CIO. The first bullet hit the press secretary, [[James Brady]]; the second a District of Columbia police officer, Thomas Delahanty; the fourth Secret Service agent Timothy McCarthy; and the sixth ricocheted off the presidential limousine into Reagan. Secret Service agent [[Jerry Parr]] first directed the driver toward the White House and, on learning that Reagan had been shot, redirected the motorcade to George Washington University Hospital, where surgeons Benjamin Aaron and Joseph Giordano removed a bullet from the left lung.[^40] The White House press office issued the daily medical reports through Dr. Dennis O'Leary, dean for clinical affairs at the hospital. His evening briefing on March 30 stated that the president was in the recovery room, awake and stable, "at no time in any serious danger," that he had been in the operating room for about two hours, and that the single bullet had entered below the left armpit, traversed about three inches of chest wall, ricocheted off the seventh rib and lodged about three inches into the left lower lobe of the lung.[^41] O'Leary reported that McCarthy's bullet had passed through the liver, that blood in the abdominal cavity had required a drain, and that Brady was still in surgery in critical condition.[^41] The statement of [[George H.W. Bush]], the vice president, issued that evening on his return from Texas, summarized the same briefing.[^42]
+
+The Reagan Library holds the FBI collection on Hinckley, which includes photographs of the emergency room of George Washington University Hospital made on April 3 and April 4, 1981.[^43] The Houston Post reported that [[Neil Bush]], a son of the vice president, had been scheduled to have dinner the day after the shooting with [[Scott Hinckley]], the brother of the gunman, and Neil Bush acknowledged at a press conference that Scott Hinckley had been at his house at a surprise birthday party a couple of months earlier.[^44]
+
+### Colin Powell
+
+[[Colin Powell]] earned an M.B.A. from the university in 1971 and received an honorary Doctor of Public Service from the university in 1990, according to the university's alumni office.[^45] The biography issued by the administration of [[George W. Bush]] while Powell was Secretary of State states that his further academic achievements included a Master of Business Administration degree from the university.[^46]
+
+### Program on Extremism and NCITE
+
+The GWU Program on Extremism was established at the university in June 2015, and [[Lorenzo Vidino]] has led it since then.[^47] A December 17, 2015 newsletter of the program, among Department of Homeland Security records released to the [[American Civil Liberties Union]], describes the program as part of the Center for Cyber and Homeland Security at the university, and reports that Hughes had testified before the House Committee on Homeland Security on July 15 of that year.[^48] The same newsletter reports that the program released its report on the Islamic State in the United States, "ISIS in America: From Retweets to Raqqa," on December 1, 2015, and describes the program's collaborations with several government agencies, think tanks and study centers.[^48] [[Seamus Hughes]], who had been the program's deputy director from its founding, later became a senior research faculty member and policy associate at the [[National Counterterrorism Innovation, Technology, and Education Center]], the consortium.[^49]
+
+A March 2025 fact sheet of the Department of Homeland Security's Science and Technology Directorate describes the center as a consortium led by the University of Nebraska at Omaha, with more than 40 university and industry partners, and lists the George Washington University among its university partners.[^50] In December 2025, the program's analysts [[Luke Baumgartner]] and [[Barry Jonas]] argued in Just Security that the Justice Department was prosecuting networks such as 764 under a statute traditionally reserved for international terrorism.[^51] The program hosted a panel on December 18, 2025, titled "Holding 764 Accountable," at which [[Justin Sher]] described the group's stated objective.[^52]
+
+In 2024, Farid Hafez, identified in press reports as a former senior researcher at the University of Salzburg, sued Vidino, the university and the program. The Intercept reported the suit under the headline "Lawsuit Links Wild UAE-Financed Smear Campaign to George Washington University," and the allegations are those of the plaintiff.[^53]
+
+### Degree holders and affiliates
+
+[[John Foster Dulles]] took a year of philosophy and international law at the Sorbonne after graduating from Princeton, then attended the George Washington University Law School and earned his LL.B. in 1911. He joined [[Sullivan and Cromwell]] the same year and worked there from 1911 to 1949, rising to senior partner.[^54] In 1907 he had attended the Second Hague Peace Conference as secretary to his grandfather, [[John Watson Foster]].[^54]
+
+[[Hank Brown]] received a J.D. from the University of Colorado in 1969 and an M.L. in tax from the university in 1986.[^55] He had served as a lieutenant in the United States Navy from 1962 to 1966 and was admitted to the Colorado bar in 1969.[^55] [[Raymond Banoun]] took a J.D. with honors from the university's law school in 1968, clerked for [[Harold H. Greene]], and served for three years as a special assistant to the United States Attorney.[^56] [[Anthony Moscato]] took a law degree from the university in 1970 and joined the Justice Department's Tax Division as a trial attorney in 1976.[^57] [[Lee Rawls]] took a law degree from the university and was chief of staff to Senator [[Pete Domenici]] by 1975.[^58]
+
+[[Nick Szabo]] studied computer science at the [[University of Washington]] and later took a law degree from the university.[^59] In 1996 he published "Smart Contracts: Building Blocks for Digital Markets," an essay on agreements whose terms are written into code.[^60] [[Ward Boston]] did graduate law studies at the university after the Korean War began, when he returned to active duty in the regular Navy as a Judge Advocate.[^61] [[C.B. Scott Jones]] held an A.B. in government from the university in 1961 before serving about fifteen years in naval intelligence.[^62] [[Richard Secord]] attended a one-year George Washington University graduate program at the [[Naval War College]] in Newport, Rhode Island, from 1971 to 1972, as one of 16 Air Force officers in the program.[^63] [[Brendan Bordelon]] holds a master's degree from the university.[^64]
+
+### L. Ron Hubbard's claimed degree
+
+[[L. Ron Hubbard]] claimed to have studied at the university from 1930 to 1932. The Victorian Board of Enquiry into Scientology, chaired by [[Kevin Victor Anderson]], Q.C., recorded that Hubbard "claims to have studied engineering" there, and that he had claimed a graduate qualification in civil engineering, using the letters "B.S." and "C.E." to convey that he had so graduated. The inquiry concluded: "In fact, he has no such qualification."[^65]
+
+### Footnotes
+
+[^1]: National Security Archive, "About the National Security Archive," address block (Suite 700, Gelman Library, The George Washington University, 2130 H Street, NW, Washington, D.C.). https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/about
+[^2]: National Security Archive, "The National Security Archive 1985 to 2025," anniversary booklet with founders, founding funders, board chairs and executive directors. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/sites/default/files/2025-12/Celebrating%20%2040%20YEARS%20%288c%29.pdf
+[^3]: Human Resources Research Office, *Bibliography of Publications as of 30 June 1966* (Alexandria, Va.: HumRRO, September 1966), introductory statement on the office's status as a nongovernmental agency of The George Washington University. DTIC AD0643761. https://archive.org/details/DTIC_AD0643761
+[^4]: U.S. Army Leadership Human Research Unit, report on screening procedures for tactical interrogation, May 1963, front matter (AR 70-8 mission statement; Leadership Human Research Unit under the Continental Army Command). DTIC AD0487576. https://archive.org/details/DTIC_AD0487576
+[^5]: Human Resources Research Office history, in *Institutional Funding for Applied Research: The Case of HumRRO and the U.S. Army*, CONSAD Research Corporation for the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation, May 24, 1973, ERIC ED097560, chapters I and II (quoting William A. McClelland, Professional Paper 30-68; Meredith P. Crawford, *A Perspective on the Development of HumRRO*, 1967). https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED097560.pdf
+[^6]: Peter Watson, *War on the Mind: The Military Uses and Abuses of Psychology* (Basic Books, 1978), pp. 462-468 (App. II).
+[^7]: HumRRO, "Our History." https://www.humrro.org/who-we-are/our-history/
+[^8]: Lawrence Schlesinger and Harriet Beckwitt, *Psychological Warfare Job Requirements and Training: An Evaluation of the Psychological Warfare School Curriculum*, HumRRO Psychological Warfare Division, Task PSYJOB, August 1956, title page and approval page. DTIC AD0484337. https://archive.org/details/DTIC_AD0484337
+[^9]: U.S. Army Leadership Human Research Unit, report on screening procedures for tactical interrogation (Task QUIZ), May 1963, preface, summary, and composition of the research team. DTIC AD0487576. https://archive.org/details/DTIC_AD0487576
+[^10]: Thomas Myers, Donald B. Murphy, Seward Smith and S. James Goffard, *Experimental Studies of Sensory Deprivation and Social Isolation*, HumRRO Technical Report 66-8, June 1966, Contract DA 44-188 ARO-2, summary and research procedure. DTIC AD0636478. https://archive.org/details/DTIC_AD0636478
+[^11]: U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, "A History of the Department of Defense Federally Funded Research and Development Centers," OTA-BP-ISS-157, June 1995, pp. 20-21 (ORO in Korea, HumRRO 1951, SORO, ORO dissolved June 1961, RAC contract). https://web.archive.org/web/2016id_/https://www.princeton.edu/~ota/disk1/1995/9501/950106.PDF
+[^12]: James E. Starrs, report of forensic examination, Olson exhumation, 1994, held in the New York County District Attorney investigation files (partial public record).
+[^13]: Stephen Kinzer, *Poisoner in Chief: Sidney Gottlieb and the CIA Search for Mind Control* (Henry Holt, 2019).
+[^14]: H. P. Albarelli, *A Terrible Mistake: The Murder of Frank Olson and the CIA's Secret Cold War Experiments* (Trine Day, 2009).
+[^15]: John Jacobs, "Dialogue Sought With Professor in CIA Probe," The Washington Post, August 27, 1977, CIA reading room copy at archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01315r000300020003-7.
+[^16]: U.S. Department of Justice, *Report of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua*, March 1993, p. 126 and note 4 (Washington Business Journal, week of November 9-15, 1992, p. 13). https://archive.org/details/doj-oip-inslaw-1993
+[^17]: U.S. Department of Justice, *Report of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua to the Attorney General of the United States Regarding the Allegations of Inslaw, Inc.*, March 1993, pp. 248-250 (conclusion on the death of Danny Casolaro). https://archive.org/details/doj-oip-inslaw-1993
+[^18]: CIA, *KUBARK Counterintelligence Interrogation*, July 1963 (declassified 1997, portions redacted), National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 122.
+[^19]: National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 222, "The CIA's Family Jewels," posted June 21, 2007, updated June 26, 2007. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB222/index.htm
+[^20]: National Security Archive, "The Top Secret Testimony of CIA's MKULTRA Chief, 50 Years Later," October 30, 2025. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/dnsa-intelligence/2025-10-30/top-secret-testimony-cias-mkultra-chief-50-years-later
+[^21]: National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 465, "Brazil Marks 50th Anniversary of Military Coup," edited by James G. Hershberg and Peter Kornbluh, posted April 2, 2014, text and Document 9, "Excerpt from White House meeting tape, October 7, 1963." https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB465/
+[^22]: United Nations, Commission of Jurists, Inquiry into the Death of Dag Hammarskjöld, report transmitted by the Secretary-General, A/68/800 (March 21, 2014), paragraphs 11.2 and 13.24. https://documents.un.org/api/symbol/access?s=A%2F68%2F800&l=en&t=pdf
+[^23]: United Nations, Commission of Jurists, A/68/800 (March 21, 2014), paragraphs 13.24 to 13.28 and the list following paragraph 13.50. https://documents.un.org/api/symbol/access?s=A%2F68%2F800&l=en&t=pdf
+[^24]: United Nations, Commission of Jurists, A/68/800 (March 21, 2014), paragraphs 15.7 and 15.8. https://documents.un.org/api/symbol/access?s=A%2F68%2F800&l=en&t=pdf
+[^25]: United Nations, Commission of Jurists, A/68/800 (March 21, 2014), paragraphs 15.11 to 15.14. https://documents.un.org/api/symbol/access?s=A%2F68%2F800&l=en&t=pdf
+[^26]: Patricia Sullivan, "Obituary: Jack Anderson was Pulitzer winning columnist," *The Washington Post*, December 18, 2005.
+[^27]: David Folkenflik, "FBI Defends Request for Columnist's Papers," NPR, *All Things Considered*, April 20, 2006. https://www.npr.org/transcripts/5353604
+[^28]: "FBI Abandons Its Effort to Obtain Jack Anderson's Files," Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press, January 4, 2007, quoting the letter of Acting Associate Attorney General James H. Clinger to Senator Arlen Specter dated November 30, 2006. https://rcfp.org/?p=39395
+[^29]: "FBI Drops Demands For Jack Anderson Papers," Associated Press, January 4, 2007. https://cbsnews.com/news/fbi-drops-demands-for-jack-anderson-papers
+[^30]: Lauren French, "Gelman Library to receive FBI files on columnist Jack Anderson," *The GW Hatchet*, October 27, 2008 (quoting University Archivist Sylvia Augusteijn on the 186 boxes). https://www.gwhatchet.com/2008/10/27/gelman-library-to-receive-fbi-files-on-columnist-jack-anderson/
+[^31]: Mark Feldstein, "50 years ago: Nixon White House plotted to assassinate journalist," *The Washington Post*, March 25, 2022, reprinted in *Stars and Stripes*. https://www.stripes.com/history/2022-03-25/50-years-ago-nixon-white-house-plotted-assassinate-journalist-5477284.html
+[^32]: Michael Isikoff, "Nixon plot against newspaper columnist detailed," NBC News, September 13, 2010, reporting on Mark Feldstein, *Poisoning the Press: Richard Nixon, Jack Anderson and the Rise of Washington's Scandal Culture* (2010).
+[^33]: Jack Anderson, "Pentagon Invades Buck Rogers' Turf," *The Washington Post*, January 9, 1981, p. D16, CIA Reading Room copy. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp96-00789r001001420001-3
+[^34]: Jack Anderson, "Yes, Psychic Warfare Is Part of the Game," *The Washington Post*, February 5, 1981, p. DC11, CIA Reading Room copy. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp96-00789r001001420001-3
+[^35]: Jack Anderson, "CIA Toys with Extrasensory Weapons," *The Washington Post*, March 30, 1981, p. B13, CIA-RDP96-00788R001700360003-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp96-00788r001700360003-3
+[^36]: *Kasza v. Browner*, 133 F.3d 1159 (9th Cir. Jan. 8, 1998), counsel listing and concurrence. https://static.case.law/f3d/133/cases/1159-01.json
+[^37]: "EPA Sued On Secret Air Base / Agency Didn't Shield Workers, Suit Says," Cox News Service, *St. Louis Post-Dispatch*, August 16, 1994, p. 2B. https://www.newspapers.com/image/142561425/
+[^38]: Federal Bureau of Investigation, "J. Edgar Hoover, May 10, 1924 - May 2, 1972," Directors, Then and Now. https://www.fbi.gov/history/directors/j-edgar-hoover
+[^39]: "J. Edgar Hoover's GW Years" (interview with Andrew Simpson), *GW Today*, December 11, 2011. https://gwtoday.gwu.edu/j-edgar-hoovers-gw-years
+[^40]: Ronald Reagan Presidential Library, "Assassination Attempt on Reagan." https://www.reaganlibrary.gov/reagans/reagan-administration/assassination-attempt-reagan
+[^41]: "Digest of Other White House Announcements," March 30, 1981, quoting the medical report of Dr. Dennis O'Leary, George Washington University Hospital, *The American Presidency Project*. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/digest-other-white-house-announcements-9127
+[^42]: "Statement by the Vice President About the Attempted Assassination of the President," March 30, 1981, *The American Presidency Project*. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/statement-the-vice-president-about-the-attempted-assassination-the-president
+[^43]: Ronald Reagan Presidential Library, John Hinckley Jr. (FBI) Collection, folders JHJ-74 and JHJ-75 (emergency room, George Washington University Hospital, April 3 and 4, 1981). https://www.reaganlibrary.gov/archives/john-hinckley-jr-collection
+[^44]: WhoWhatWhy, "Bush Angle to Reagan Shooting Still Unresolved as Hinckley Walks," August 16, 2016, reporting the *Houston Post* story and Neil Bush's press conference. https://whowhatwhy.org/2016/08/16/bush-angle-reagan-shooting-still-unresolved-hinckley-walks/
+[^45]: George Washington University Alumni Relations, "Colin L. Powell" (M.B.A. '71, Honorary Doctor of Public Service '90); "In Memoriam: Colin Powell," *GW Today*, October 2021. https://alumni.gwu.edu/colin-l-powell
+[^46]: "Secretary of State Colin L. Powell," biography, White House archive of the George W. Bush administration. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/government/powell-bio.html
+[^47]: "Program on Extremism Launches at GW," GW Today, June 22, 2015. https://gwtoday.gwu.edu/program-extremism-launches-gw (leadership by Lorenzo Vidino).
+[^48]: Program on Extremism newsletter, "2015 No. 1," December 17, 2015, in Department of Homeland Security records (NPPD 001896 to 001899) released to the American Civil Liberties Union. https://www.aclu.org/sites/default/files/field_document/Emails-re-GWU-Program-on-Extremism-1896-1939.pdf
+[^49]: NCITE, "Seamus Hughes," staff biography, University of Nebraska Omaha. https://www.unomaha.edu/ncite/about-ncite/staff-directory/seamus-hughes.php
+[^50]: U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Science and Technology Directorate, "National Counterterrorism Innovation, Technology, and Education Center (NCITE)," fact sheet, March 2025, university partners list. https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/2025-03/25_0331_st_ncite_fact_sheet.pdf
+[^51]: Luke Baumgartner and Barry Jonas, "How the DOJ is Prosecuting Nihilistic Violent Extremism as Domestic Terrorism," *Just Security*, December 9, 2025. https://www.justsecurity.org/126226/prosecuting-nihilistic-violent-extremism-domestic-terrorism/
+[^52]: GWU Program on Extremism panel, "Holding 764 Accountable," December 18, 2025.
+[^53]: The Intercept, "Lawsuit Links Wild UAE-Financed Smear Campaign to George Washington University," April 20, 2024.
+[^54]: *Princeton University Library, John Foster Dulles papers*, Mudd Manuscript Library, finding aid MC016, biographical note (LL.B., George Washington University Law School, 1911; Sullivan and Cromwell, 1911 to 1949). https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/PRIN_MUDD_MC016
+[^55]: "BROWN, George Hanks (Hank)," *Biographical Directory of the United States Congress*, U.S. House of Representatives, History, Art and Archives (J.D., University of Colorado, 1969; M.L. (tax), George Washington University, 1986). https://history.house.gov/People/Detail/9967
+[^56]: Banoun Law LLC, biography of Raymond Banoun. https://sites.google.com/site/banounlaw
+[^57]: "Anthony (Tony) Charles Moscato," obituary, Fairfax Memorial Funeral Home, June 2026. https://www.fairfaxmemorialfuneralhome.com/obituaries/Anthony-Charles-Moscato?obId=48707990
+[^58]: "W. Lee Rawls, Justice Department official and Senate aide," obituary, *The Washington Post*, December 2010; Princeton Alumni Weekly memorial, Class of 1966.
+[^59]: "Notable Crypto Personalities: Nick Szabo," *The Block*, profile. https://www.theblock.co/profile/350036/nick-szabo
+[^60]: Nick Szabo, "Smart Contracts: Building Blocks for Digital Markets," 1996.
+[^61]: Ward Boston Jr., obituary, *Connection Newspapers*, June 17, 2008. https://connectionnewspapers.com/news/2008/jun/17/obituary-captain-ward-boston-jr-dies-june-12
+[^62]: University of Colorado Boulder Libraries, Rare and Distinctive Collections, "C. B. 'Scott' Jones papers," COU:4004, biographical note. https://archives.colorado.edu/repositories/2/resources/346
+[^63]: Los Angeles Times, March 29, 1987, "Secord: A Specialist in Covert Deals," CIA Reading Room CIA-RDP90-00965R000201700001-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000201700001-4
+[^64]: Chris Roush, "National Journal hires Bordelon as tech reporter," *Talking Biz News*, March 20, 2017. https://talkingbiznews.com/they-talk-biz-news/national-journal-hires-bordelon-as-tech-reporter/
+[^65]: Kevin Victor Anderson, Q.C., *Report of the Board of Enquiry into Scientology* (Melbourne: Government of Victoria, 1965), passage on Hubbard's claimed study at the university, 1930 to 1932, and his claimed degrees. https://archive.org/details/AndersonReportReportOfTheBoardOfEnquiryIntoScientology

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Georgetown University.md

@@ -0,0 +1,305 @@
+---
+created: 2026-10-15
+updated: 2026-10-15
+title: Georgetown University
+aliases:
+  - Georgetown Law School
+tags:
+  - Organization
+  - AcademicInstitution
+  - CIA
+  - MKULTRA
+  - GeschickterFund
+  - ColdWar
+  - Anticommunism
+  - Nuremberg
+  - CSIS
+  - SaudiArabia
+  - Qatar
+  - PROMIS
+  - INSLAW
+  - ArtificialIntelligence
+  - OpenPhilanthropy
+  - ExtremismResearch
+  - Section117
+category: "Private Organization"
+summary: "Georgetown University is a Washington Jesuit university whose hospital, foreign service school and research centers appear in the record of CIA-funded MKULTRA research, Gulf donations and AI policy."
+start: 1789
+location: "Washington, D.C."
+relations:
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Edmund A. Walsh]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "dean of the College of Arts and Sciences (1918), head of the School of Foreign Service (1919)"
+    start: 1918
+    fn: 2
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Charles Geschickter]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "professor of pathology, 1946 to 1971"
+    start: 1946
+    end: 1971
+    fn: 35
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[James D. Theberge]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "director of Latin American studies, 1970 to 1975"
+    start: 1970
+    end: 1975
+    fn: 16
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Ray S. Cline]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "executive director, Center for Strategic and International Studies at Georgetown"
+    start: 1973
+    fn: 14
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Andre Hellegers]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "founding director, Kennedy Institute of Ethics, 1971 to 1979"
+    start: 1971
+    end: 1979
+    fn: 12
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Jason Matheny]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "founding director, Center for Security and Emerging Technology"
+    start: 2019
+    fn: 56
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Helen Toner]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "director of strategy and plans, Center for Security and Emerging Technology"
+    start: 2019
+    fn: 57
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[William Hannas]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "lead analyst, Center for Security and Emerging Technology; earlier assistant professor of Chinese"
+    start: 2019
+    fn: 57
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Dorothy Denning]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "chair of the Computer Science Department"
+    start: 1993
+    fn: 66
+  - type: funded
+    with: "[[Central Intelligence Agency]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "contribution of 375,000 dollars routed through the Geschickter Fund toward a research wing at Georgetown University Hospital (MKULTRA Subproject 35)"
+    start: 1955
+    end: 1957
+    fn: 25
+  - type: funded
+    with: "[[Open Philanthropy]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "55 million dollars over five years to launch the Center for Security and Emerging Technology"
+    start: 2019
+    fn: 56
+  - type: funded
+    with: "[[Alwaleed bin Talal]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "20 million dollar gift to the center now named for him"
+    start: 2005
+    fn: 47
+  - type: funded
+    with: "[[Geschickter Fund for Medical Research]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "375,000 dollar gift toward the Gorman research building"
+    start: 1957
+    fn: 39
+  - type: investigated
+    with: "[[U.S. Department of Education]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "Section 117 investigation of foreign gift and contract reporting, letter of June 13, 2019"
+    start: 2019
+    fn: 51
+---
+Georgetown University is a Jesuit research university in Washington, D.C., which describes itself as "the oldest Catholic and Jesuit institution of higher learning in the United States."[^1] Its [[Walsh School of Foreign Service|School of Foreign Service]], its hospital and its research centers appear in the record of the anticommunist and Nuremberg career of [[Edmund A. Walsh]], the intelligence-community figures who passed through the [[Center for Strategic and International Studies]] and the [[National Intelligence Study Center]], the CIA's 1955 contribution toward a research wing at [[Georgetown University Hospital]] that was part of [[Project MKUltra]], Saudi and Qatari gifts, the [[Center for Security and Emerging Technology]], and the alumni and faculty who moved between the university and government.
+
+### Founding and the School of Foreign Service
+
+Georgetown's history page dates the university to 1789, "in the spirit of the new republic," with teaching beginning in 1792 and [[John Carroll]] credited as founder.[^1] The School of Foreign Service opened in 1919 under the direction of Walsh, a Jesuit who had been named dean of the College of Arts and Sciences in 1918.[^2]
+
+The finding aid for Walsh's papers at the Booth Family Center describes the career that shaped the school. In 1922 he led the [[Papal Relief Mission to Russia]] against a famine there and served as the Vatican's representative for studying the treatment of the Roman Catholic Church in the Soviet Union. The collection says that it was in this period that "Fr. Walsh began to develop his anticommunism."[^3] He built courses on Russian history, politics and culture, published [[The Fall of the Russian Empire]] in 1928, and in 1931 published [[The Last Stand]], an analysis of the Soviet five-year plan.[^3] He served as president of the [[Catholic Near East Welfare Association]], helped organize [[Baghdad College]], a Jesuit school in Iraq, and acted as a consultant to the [[War Department]].[^3]
+
+At the [[Nuremberg trials]], the finding aid records, Walsh "was a civilian consultant to Robert H. Jackson, the lead U.S. counsel."[^4] In 1947 and 1948 he served as visitor general to the Jesuits in [[Japan]].[^4] His 1949 book [[Total Power]] examined the Nazis, and his 1951 book [[Total Empire]] addressed the Soviet Union. He created the Georgetown University Institute of Languages and Linguistics in 1949, died on October 31, 1956, and the school was renamed after him in 1958.[^5]
+
+[[Galo Plaza]], later President of [[Ecuador]] from 1948 to 1952 and head of the [[Organization of American States]] from 1968, was sent to the University of California and then to the University of Maryland, where he received a degree in agronomy, and to the Georgetown School of Foreign Service, where he received a degree in diplomacy.[^6] [[Bill Clinton]] received a bachelor's degree from the School of Foreign Service in 1968.[^7] [[Stacey Plaskett]] graduated from the school with a Bachelor of Science in History and Diplomacy, and her official House biography gives a Juris Doctorate from [[American University]]'s Washington College of Law.[^8]
+
+The school's [[Institute for the Study of Diplomacy]] dates from 1978, when R. Smith Simpson, a career Foreign Service officer, established it with Dean Peter F. Krogh.[^9][^10] The [[Kennedy Institute of Ethics]] was established at Georgetown in 1971 by the obstetrician Andre Hellegers with the support of the family of [[Joseph P. Kennedy Jr.]]; Hellegers had joined the faculty in 1967, served on the Presidential Commission on Population and Birth Control from 1968 to 1973, and directed the institute until his death in 1979.[^11][^12]
+
+### Intelligence studies and the Center for Strategic and International Studies
+
+The Center for Strategic and International Studies was founded in 1962 at Georgetown by [[Arleigh Burke]] and [[David Abshire]]. It operated as a center within the university and became an independent nonprofit institution in 1987.[^13] [[Ray S. Cline]], the CIA's deputy director for intelligence during the [[Cuban Missile Crisis]], left the State Department's intelligence bureau in 1973 and became an executive director of the center at Georgetown.[^14] The Georgetown library holds a May 16, 1962 [[New York Times]] clipping headlined "C.I.A. Appoints Intelligence Deputy," which reports his appointment to the agency's deputy post, among the papers of [[Richard Helms]].[^15]
+
+[[James D. Theberge]] directed Latin American studies at the center from 1970 to 1975. His papers at Georgetown describe the same post as director of the Latin American and Hispanic Studies Center.[^16] A January 1972 CIA paper on Caribbean and Latin American propaganda names him as one of the experts of the Georgetown center on Cuban and Latin American affairs, and reports his view that Salvador Allende was "a willing ally in the Cuban diplomatic thrust."[^17] Theberge was ambassador to [[Nicaragua]] from 1975 to 1977 and to [[Chile]] from 1982 to 1985.[^18] His papers record that he "died of a heart attack on a visit to Jamaica in January, 1988."[^16]
+
+A CIA reading room document records a November 3, 1983 invitation from the National Intelligence Study Center and the trustees of Georgetown University to an exhibit of books on intelligence from the collection of Colonel Russell J. Bowen in the Gunlocke Special Collections Room of the Lauinger Library. The advisory board listed on the invitation includes [[William J. Casey]], [[Daniel O. Graham]], [[Lyman B. Kirkpatrick Jr.]], [[Paul Nitze|Paul H. Nitze]] and [[Eugene F. Tighe Jr.]]; Cline and [[Stefan Halper]] appear among the directors; and the program names Cline and [[Walter Pforzheimer]] as speakers. Bowen had deposited more than six thousand books and documents at the university library, and the center had published a bibliography of the collection, Scholar's Guide to Intelligence Literature.[^19]
+
+The university also holds the papers of Helms. The finding aid says Helms was a United Press staff correspondent from 1935 to 1937, covered the 1936 Olympics in Berlin, and as a correspondent in Germany "attended a lunch given by Adolph Hitler in 1936."[^20] The same finding aid records a CIA career from 1947 to 1973, service as deputy director from 1965 to 1966 and as director from June 30, 1966. It records his appointment as ambassador to [[Iran]], which he held from February 8, 1973 to December 27, 1976, and says that he met the [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi|Shah]] often in one-on-one meetings. In 1977 he pleaded no contest to charges that he had not fully disclosed to Congress the agency's plans to assassinate Cuban President [[Fidel Castro]].[^21] Helms wrote in his 2003 memoir that he interviewed Hitler at Nuremberg along with other correspondents in 1936.[^22]
+
+### The Georgetown University Hospital research wing and MKUltra Subproject 35
+
+The most documented Georgetown entry in the record is [[MKUltra Subproject 35]]. The August 3, 1977 joint hearing of the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence and the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research published the subproject's file as Appendix C. The file opens in the printed record with a memorandum of December 21, 1954 from the agency's General Counsel, [[Lawrence R. Houston]], which states that "a gift of Government funds as such would exceed the intent of the Congress in granting that power," and then weighs whether the return to the agency would justify a gift of that kind. The memorandum says that "In a legal sense, there is little or no control," that once the funds were donated "the individual, his foundation, or the hospital could conceivably refuse to work for us or allow us the use of the facilities," and that the "ostensible source" of the money meant the agency's projects would not be charged the hospital's 80 percent overhead on research contracts.[^23] A General Counsel note of December 22, 1954 transmits the file with the comment that "there is no fundamental legal objection if the probable benefits are considered a fair return for this expenditure."[^24]
+
+The Director of Central Intelligence approved Subproject 35 on January 15, 1955, for a contribution of $125,000 to the construction of a new research wing estimated at $3,000,000.[^25] The memorandum of May 10, 1955 that recites the approval says that agency funds would be "transmitted through the [deletion] as cut-out," and that this would result in "one-sixth of the space in the new research wing being made available for Agency-sponsored research involving covert biological and chemical techniques of warfare." The hearing copy deletes the name of the recipient. Geschickter's own testimony identifies the fund. An April 8, 1955 General Counsel note acknowledged a request of April 6 for a further $250,000 for the project.[^24] A later amendment, titled "For the Purpose of Establishing a Cover Organization for Highly Sensitive Projects in the Field of Biological, Chemical and Radiological Warfare," raised the agency's contribution to $375,000, with federal matching funds under Public Law 221 bringing the building fund to $3,000,000.[^26]
+
+The amendment describes the financing. The university had allocated $1,000,000 and would assume upkeep and staffing obligations; the Fund would match the agency's $125,000 grant to make a donation of $250,000; and a second federal agency, whose name is deleted in the file, had indicated a willingness to contribute $500,000 on the basis that radiological research would be conducted in the new wing. When that agency's support changed to an annual research program of $50,000 to $75,000, the amendment proposed a $500,000 donation of which $375,000 was agency money, matched by $1,500,000 under Public Law 221. Senator Kennedy described the second agency as the Atomic Energy Commission and told Geschickter that when it did not participate the CIA proposed to double its contribution.[^27] The total Government contribution to the hospital fund remained $1,875,000. The amendment also states that the originally approved contribution had not been transmitted, that neither payment would be made until funds adequate to complete the project were available, and that the Director had specified this condition in approving the original contribution.[^26] Tab A adds that the agency's contribution was to be refunded if construction did not take place, and that the value to the agency of the $125,000 was $250,000 because of the matching federal funds.[^28]
+
+The amendment lists the advantages to the agency in plain terms. Among them are that "Agency sponsorship of sensitive research projects will be completely deniable," that "Full professional cover will be provided for up to three biochemical employees of the Chemical Division," and that "Human patients and volunteers for experimental use will be available under controlled clinical conditions" under the supervision of a person whose name is deleted. It says the subproject was "originally conceived in October and November of 1954," and that the facilities would permit "controlled experiments under safe clinical conditions using materials with which any Agency connection must be completely deniable."[^29] The Tab A justification states that "establishment of better cover both for the projects and for associated Agency scientists is of utmost importance," and records that over forty individual research and development projects had been established under the MKUltra framework.[^30]
+
+The Tab A background describes the Geschickter Fund's role. The Fund had a board of six members and an executive director, and it had "solicited funds from various individuals to finance a program of basic research in the chemotherapy of cancer, asthma, hypertension, psychosomatic disorders and other chronic diseases." Since 1951 it had "co-operated with the Chemical Division of TSS and acted smoothly and efficiently, both as a cut-out for dealing with contractors in the fields of covert chemical and biological warfare, and as a prime contractor for certain areas of biological research." The background of the Fund's leading figure, whose name is deleted, states that he "is TOP SECRET cleared and witting of Agency sponsorship of the programs carried out by the Fund as are two other members of the Fund's Board of Directors."[^31] The wing was described as a building six stories high, 320 feet long and 50 feet wide, with two-thirds of the space given to research laboratories and offices and 100 research beds in the remainder.[^30]
+
+Tab A also sets out the agency's difficulties in its own words. The use of the Fund as a cut-out was "increasingly limited" by the number of cleared people aware of the agency connection, by the feeling of its leading figure that the agency employees contacting him, among them "Drs. Gottlieb" and a deleted name, "have no cover of any sort and consequently expose him to unnecessary and highly undesirable personal risk," and by "widespread intra-Agency awareness of the nature of the relationship between the Fund and the Agency." The benefits listed include laboratory and office space, technical assistants and experimental animals, and "the equivalent of a hospital safehouse."[^28]
+
+The hearing record also places the Georgetown projects in time. Of the several MKUltra projects conducted at Georgetown, the statement says, only one involving human testing ran past March 1959, and that was Subproject 45, which ran from 1955 to 1963 and whose papers make no reference to a new annex.[^32]
+
+In the same hearing, Senator [[Richard S. Schweiker]] pressed Director [[Stansfield Turner]] on the one-sixth of the space. Turner answered that "there is no factual evidence of what went on as a result of that payment or what went on in that hospital," and added "It is just missing. It is not that it didn't happen." The agency's Inspector General representative, Alan Brody, said that any mention of the one-sixth "has to do with planning" and that there were no subsequent reports as to what happened after construction.[^33] The statement for the record states that construction of the Gorman Annex was begun in 1957 and the Annex was dedicated in March 1959. It says that authorization for the contribution is contained in Subproject 35, that Geschickter continued his research under the agency's [[MKSEARCH]] program through July 1967 at the hospital, and that "it is impossible to determine if the facilities of the Gorman Annex were involved."[^32]
+
+The [[Washington Post]] reported on August 7, 1977 that CIA documents on Georgetown described a "cover organization for highly sensitive projects" in chemical and biological warfare, and referred to research on terminally ill cancer patients.[^34] The paper identified the building as the Gorman Building, which it gave a cost of $3,035,000, begun in 1957 and dedicated in March 1959. The Post described it as the last of a connected string of buildings that make up the hospital. [[Matthew F. McNulty]], the head of the Georgetown University Medical Center, told the paper that the university destroys most research files after seven to ten years to save space, and that he probably would never be fully informed about events of fifteen and twenty years earlier. McNulty said that university records do not show exactly which building the $375,000 helped build, and that "it was apparently Gorman."[^34]
+
+### Charles Geschickter and the Geschickter Fund
+
+[[Charles Geschickter]] was a pathologist and cancer researcher who founded the [[Geschickter Fund for Medical Research]] in 1939, when he was on the faculty of the Johns Hopkins medical school. The Post reported on August 3, 1977 that his Who's Who entry ran to 25 lines and did not mention the foundation, and that his Georgetown colleagues apparently knew little about it.[^35] He taught at Georgetown from 1946 until his retirement in 1971 and kept a small office and laboratory in the Gorman Building.[^34] The Post reported that the foundation's money was "generally assumed" to have come partly from Geschickter's own means and partly from gifts by his patients and others interested in medical science. McNulty told the paper that it "was no secret that he had a private foundation," but that it was "not something that he pushed or promoted in any noticeable way."[^35]
+
+The Senate subcommittee subpoenaed him in August 1977 for a September session.[^36] The Post reported that Georgetown's lawyers would meet him, and that the university had received 70 pages of CIA documents.[^37] McNulty called the arrangement "an abuse of an institution's integrity and independence of operation and decision making," and said of the agency that "They didn't approach us above board or by open declaration."[^34]
+
+Geschickter testified on September 20, 1977 as the first witness before the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research, chaired by Senator [[Edward M. Kennedy]], at a hearing titled [[Human Drug Testing by the CIA]]. He told the committee that the Fund had been in existence since 1939 and that the agency's first contract with it was for a group of anticancer compounds published in 1951. He said that the agency then enlarged its grants to his laboratory at Georgetown and that the Fund did not knowingly furnish money to other universities for separate projects until 1955. Asked why the agency was interested, he said he could "only give you the report that came to me from Allen Dulles," which included the line "Thank God there is something decent coming out of our bag of dirty tricks. We are delighted."[^38]
+
+On the building he said: "In 1957, I gave some money to the building fund of Georgetown University Medical Center. I never gave them a penny for any particular building." When Kennedy put the figure of $515,000 to him, he answered "$375,000, not $515,000," and then said "It turned out to be $375,000 CIA money." He said that he had never seen the Subproject 35 memorandum until the Saturday before the hearing, about 80 hours earlier. Asked whether he got one-sixth of the wing, he answered "Not at all," and asked whether he conducted research in the building, "Not a bit in this building."[^39] Asked by Schweiker about the agreement that set aside space for a hospital safehouse, he said: "I knew nothing of this. Neither did Georgetown."[^40]
+
+He gave the committee totals as well: $535,000 for Subproject 45; $655,500 for all projects that went to his own research; $375,000 for the building program; about $1,030,000 spent at Georgetown over thirteen years; and $2,088,600 to other institutions. He said the top floor of the building held isotope laboratories, that he had begun the effort to raise money for them through Admiral [[Lewis L. Strauss|Lewis Strauss]] of the [[Atomic Energy Commission]], and that the agency later told him it "got into a fight with Admiral Strauss of the AEC" and, when the commission would not put up the money, "were going to put it up themselves."[^41]
+
+Turner testified the next day. He said he had been told that Geschickter stated that the agency had given money to Georgetown for which it neither received nor asked for services, and called that "an utterly incredible allegation for anybody to make."[^42] [[Sidney Gottlieb]], who ran the Chemical Division in the 1950s, testified on the same day that the cover arrangements for three biochemists "were never implemented," that extensive legal opinion and approval "right up to the Director" had been received for the payment, and that his perspective was that of "an expensive project that just never took place." Schweiker put to him the suggestion that the payment had been "an artificial device for keeping Dr. Geschickter happy because he was useful to the CIA in some sort of consultant role." Gottlieb replied that an element in trying to implement the project was to insure the continuation of the services the agency was getting from Geschickter, but that Schweiker's perspective "was not mine."[^43]
+
+The journalist [[John D. Marks]] wrote that the 1955 contribution toward the research building was the only time in about twenty-five years that CIA officials sought [[White House]] approval for this kind of work, and that Dulles approved it.[^44] Marks also wrote that the foundation carried $655,000 in agency money for Geschickter's own research and about $2.1 million in total, and that it remained a conduit until President Johnson's 1967 order barring CIA support of foundations.[^45]
+
+### The university's response and the 1977 record
+
+The Post reported on August 27, 1977 that Georgetown had received "official notification" that it was part of the CIA program, and that the university was investigating the matter. The same article reported that CIA Director Turner had identified 86 institutions used, "knowingly or not," in MKUltra (Turner's letter of August 2, 1977 to Senator [[Daniel K. Inouye]] gave the number as 80 institutions, 44 of them colleges or universities[^46]); that the chancellor of the [[University of Denver]], Maurice Mitchell, had confirmed that his university had been notified; and that the [[University of Maryland]], [[George Washington University]], [[Harvard University]], [[Stanford University]], [[Columbia University]], [[Princeton University]], [[Ohio State University]] and the [[University of Pennsylvania]] had publicly acknowledged similar letters. The paper added that George Washington University had received documents from the CIA about its role but had refused to release them.[^37]
+
+The Post's account of McNulty's statements says that nearly two weeks of research and interviews had found no evidence that any research was ever done on the medical center's premises on the agency's behalf or with hidden agency funds, while McNulty conceded that the university could not be fully informed about the 1950s and 1960s.[^34] Geschickter testified that the space the agency's memorandum described was in fact used by ordinary hospital laboratories, a dentistry clinic, a psychiatry outpatient clinic and a baby clinic on the first floor.[^40]
+
+### Saudi and Gulf gifts
+
+In December 2005 Georgetown received a $20 million gift from [[Alwaleed bin Talal|Prince Alwaleed bin Talal]] of Saudi Arabia to support and expand its Center for Muslim-Christian Understanding, which dates from 1993. The center is now named the HRH Prince Alwaleed Bin Talal Center for Muslim-Christian Understanding.[^47]
+
+Foreign gifts and contracts reported under Section 117 of the Higher Education Act are published as public records.[^48] The Department of Education file, current through February 28, 2025, lists 330 Georgetown transactions, 139 gifts and 191 contracts. For Saudi Arabia it lists twelve gift entries totaling $30,590,000, among them two entries of $2,000,000 each dated December 19, 2005, a $6,000,000 entry dated July 15, 2010, a $5,500,000 entry dated December 30, 2014, a $5,000,000 entry dated January 15, 2009, a $4,000,000 entry dated November 26, 2007 and a $3,000,000 entry dated November 27, 2006. For Qatar it lists nine gift entries totaling $18,185,676, the largest of them $5,007,896, dated June 25, 2009.[^49]
+
+The Qatar-attributed contracts are the largest category in the file, with 67 entries totaling $952,891,407. The largest Qatar-attributed entry is $42,800,000, received in July 2010 under a contract with a start date of May 17, 2005. Grouped by the start date of each contract, or by the end date where no start date is given, the largest years are 2005, with 21 entries totaling about $531.2 million, and 2015, with 16 entries totaling about $373.0 million.[^50]
+
+The Department of Education opened its review in 2019. Its letter of June 13, 2019 to President John J. DeGioia, published in the Federal Register on June 28, 2019 over the signature of Acting General Counsel Reed D. Rubinstein, notified the university of an investigation under 20 U.S.C. 1011f into its reports of gifts and contracts from foreign sources.[^51] The letter says the department believed the university's reporting "may not fully capture all gifts, contracts, and/or restricted and conditional gifts or contracts" from foreign sources, and names as examples Chinese nationals and agents who fund the Georgetown Initiative for U.S.-China Dialogue on Global Issues; the government of the People's Republic of China, its agencies and agents, including Huawei Technologies Co. Ltd., Huawei Technologies USA, Inc. and ZTE Corp; the government of Saudi Arabia; and the government of Qatar, including the Qatar Foundation for Education, Science and Community Development. It states that the university's reporting should have included Georgetown University Qatar and its affiliated foundations, among them the Prince Alwaleed bin Talal Center for Muslim-Christian Understanding.[^52]
+
+The letter requested within thirty days nine categories of records. They included all records of gifts and contracts with foreign sources since January 1, 2010; records on the governments of China, Saudi Arabia, Qatar and [[Russia]], including [[Kaspersky Lab]]; records on Georgetown University Qatar; communications with foreign sources about the Georgetown Initiative for U.S.-China Dialogue and the Alwaleed center since January 1, 2014; communications between Professor Theodore Moran and Huawei; records on Hanban and the Confucius Institute since January 1, 2015; records of steps taken to confirm that the foreign sources of gifts did not support persons designated under Executive Order 13224; and the university's and Georgetown University Qatar's IRS Form 990 filings for tax years 2014 through 2018.[^53]
+
+Prince [[Turki al-Faisal]], who had headed Saudi intelligence, gave a special address at Georgetown's [[Center for Contemporary Arab Studies]] on February 3, 2002. He said that "In 1976, after the Watergate matters took place here, your intelligence community was literally tied up by Congress," and that a group of countries formed the [[Safari Club]] to counter Soviet influence, listing France, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Morocco and Iran as its members.[^54][^55] The account is the speaker's, given in a speech at the university.
+
+### The Center for Security and Emerging Technology
+
+The [[Open Philanthropy]] grant page for the Georgetown project states that "The Open Philanthropy Project recommended a grant of $55,000,000 over five years to Georgetown University to launch the Center for Security and Emerging Technology (CSET)." It names [[Luke Muehlhauser]] as grant investigator and says CSET is led by [[Jason Matheny]], "former Assistant Director of National Intelligence and Director of Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity (IARPA)."[^56] The founding team, as the page lists it, includes [[Dewey Murdick]] as director of data science, previously chief analytics officer and deputy chief scientist at the [[Department of Homeland Security]] and an IARPA program manager; [[William Hannas]], a lead analyst who had been a member of the Senior Intelligence Service at the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] and the primary China science and technology analyst of its Open Source Enterprise, and earlier an assistant professor of Chinese at Georgetown who concurrently served with the [[Foreign Broadcast Information Service]]; and [[Helen Toner]] as director of strategy and plans, previously a senior research analyst at Open Philanthropy.[^57] The center reported in August 2021 that Open Philanthropy's increased commitment brought total funding to more than $100 million through 2025.[^58]
+
+Matheny left CSET for the White House in March 2021.[^59] A [[Washington Examiner]] report of April 17, 2026, based on documents obtained under the [[Freedom of Information Act]], states that while in the White House Matheny hired [[Ben Buchanan]], then director of CSET's CyberAI project, under the [[Intergovernmental Personnel Act]], with Georgetown continuing to pay Buchanan's salary and the government reimbursing the university. Buchanan told the paper that he had taken "a leave from my professorship at Georgetown University to advance this mission in the White House."[^60] Buchanan's CSET biography describes him as a senior faculty fellow there and an assistant teaching professor in the School of Foreign Service.[^61]
+
+Open Philanthropy's later grants to the [[RAND Corporation]], after Matheny became its chief executive, included $10.5 million in October 2023, which Muehlhauser recommended.[^62] The department Murdick left for CSET is shown by [[In-Q-Tel]]'s own milestones page as a limited partner of the fund from 2010.[^63] Toner sat on the nonprofit board of [[OpenAI]] when it voted to remove [[Sam Altman]] as chief executive in November 2023.[^64]
+
+### The Georgetown University Bridge Initiative
+
+A 2023 investigation by [[David D. Kirkpatrick]] reports that the [[Georgetown University Bridge Initiative]] described [[Lorenzo Vidino]], a researcher at the [[GWU Program on Extremism]], as someone who "promotes conspiracy theories about the Muslim Brotherhood."[^65]
+
+### INSLAW, PROMIS and the FOIMS review
+
+In 1992 and 1993 the Special Counsel's office retained [[Dorothy Denning]], chair of the Computer Science Department at Georgetown, to compare the FBI's FOIMS software with the [[PROMIS]] program. [[INSLAW]] had argued that FOIMS was derived from PROMIS. The Special Counsel's March 1993 report, signed by [[Nicholas J. Bua]], states that Denning's "credentials are impeccable," that the FBI "voiced no objection to our choice and processed her security clearance," and that she had earlier served as an expert for a criminal defendant in the Northern District of Illinois, where the charges were dismissed mid-trial.[^66]
+
+The report says the Special Counsel tried three times to reach [[William Hamilton]] of INSLAW to invite him or another representative to the on-site review of FOIMS at FBI headquarters.[^66] It states that Denning concluded that PROMIS, written in COBOL, was so different from FOIMS, written in the NATURAL and ADABASE environment, that one could not have served as the platform for the other, and that any further examination of the source code would be a waste of her time.[^67] The Department of Justice's September 27, 1994 review of the Bua report records the same conclusion and INSLAW's principal criticism, the failure of Denning to compare the code of the two programs directly.[^68]
+
+[[John L. Gizzarelli]] graduated from Georgetown University Law School in 1973 and that year was general counsel of INSLAW.[^69]
+
+### Alumni, faculty and figures in the record
+
+[[Trae Stephens]] graduated from the School of Foreign Service in 2006. His alumni profile says he wanted to learn Arabic, which made Georgetown a "natural choice," and that he began his career in the office of then-Congressman [[Rob Portman]] and in the political affairs office of the Embassy of Afghanistan in Washington. The profile also places the start of his career in the intelligence community.[^70]
+
+[[Robert Maheu|Robert M. Maheu]] entered Georgetown Law School in September 1940, according to the FBI's applicant file on him.[^71] [[Robert D. Peloquin]] attended the university from 1947 to 1951, served in the Navy, and studied at the law school from February 1953 to October 1956, according to an FBI applicant investigation of 1958.[^72] [[C. Richard D'Amato]] took his law degree at Georgetown in 1980, according to his resume.[^73] [[Mayer Nudell]] is described in a 1990 resume packet prepared by a counterterrorism consulting firm as holding a B.S. in foreign service from Georgetown.[^74]
+
+[[Clayton Hinchman]], chairman and chief executive of Ignite Fueling Innovation, is described on the affiliated Radiance Ignite Technologies About page as holding degrees from the [[United States Military Academy]] and Georgetown.[^75] [[Charles R. Work]] took an LL.M. from the Georgetown University Law Center in 1966 and passed the bar in 1965.[^76] [[E. Lawrence Barcella, Jr.]] died in November 2010 at Georgetown University Hospital, according to the Post.[^77]
+
+### Footnotes
+
+[^1]: Georgetown University, "Our History," georgetown.edu/about/history/. The page gives 1789 as the founding year, the phrase "Established in 1789 in the spirit of the new republic," teaching from 1792, John Carroll as founder, the description of the university as "the oldest Catholic and Jesuit institution of higher learning in the United States," and the School of Foreign Service as opened in 1919 under Edmund Walsh, S.J.
+[^2]: Georgetown University Library, Booth Family Center for Special Collections, "Edmund A. Walsh, SJ Papers," GTM-090723, biographical note, findingaids.library.georgetown.edu/repositories/15/resources/10418. The note records the 1918 deanship of the College of Arts and Sciences and the 1919 leadership of the School of Foreign Service.
+[^3]: Same, biographical note, on the 1922 Papal Relief Mission to Russia, the Vatican assignment on the treatment of the Catholic Church in the Soviet Union, the sentence "Fr. Walsh began to develop his anticommunism," the Russian history courses, the 1928 book "The Fall of the Russian Empire," the 1931 book "The Last Stand," the Catholic Near East Welfare Association, Baghdad College and the War Department consultancy.
+[^4]: Same, biographical note, on Walsh as "a civilian consultant to Robert H. Jackson, the lead U.S. counsel" at the Nuremberg war crimes trials, and as visitor general to the Jesuits in Japan in 1947 and 1948.
+[^5]: Same, biographical note, on the 1949 book "Total Power," the 1951 book "Total Empire," the Institute of Languages and Linguistics created in 1949, Walsh's death on October 31, 1956, and the renaming of the School of Foreign Service after him in 1958.
+[^6]: Obituary of Galo Plaza Lasso, The New York Times, January 29, 1987 (accessed at findagrave.com/memorial/199014200). The obituary states that he was sent to the University of California, "then to the University of Maryland, where he received a degree in agronomy, and to the Georgetown University School of Foreign Service in Washington, where he got a degree in Diplomacy," and that he was President of Ecuador from 1948 to 1952 and head of the Organization of American States from 1968.
+[^7]: National Governors Association, "Bill Clinton," governor biography, nga.org/?p=3705, stating that he received a bachelor's degree in 1968 from the Georgetown University School of Foreign Service.
+[^8]: Office of Congresswoman Stacey Plaskett, "Biography," plaskett.house.gov/biography. The page gives the Georgetown School of Foreign Service degree in History and Diplomacy and the Juris Doctorate from American University's Washington College of Law.
+[^9]: "SFS Pioneer Passes Away," The Georgetown Voice, September 16, 2010 (Wayback Machine capture of 2012), on R. Smith Simpson, a career Foreign Service officer who in 1978, with Dean Peter F. Krogh of the School of Foreign Service, established the Institute for the Study of Diplomacy, and who created the school's required course Map of the Modern World.
+[^10]: Georgetown University, Institute for the Study of Diplomacy, "About," isd.georgetown.edu/about/, stating that the institute has advanced diplomatic scholarship and practice since 1978.
+[^11]: Kennedy Institute of Ethics, Georgetown University, "About the Institute," kennedyinstitute.georgetown.edu/?p=1109, stating that the institute was established in 1971 by Andre Hellegers with the support of the family of Joseph P. Kennedy Jr.
+[^12]: Georgetown University Library, Booth Family Center for Special Collections, "Andre E. Hellegers Papers," GTM-810811, findingaids.library.georgetown.edu/repositories/15/resources/12281. The note records his 1967 appointment to the Georgetown faculty, his 1968 to 1973 service on the Presidential Commission on Population and Birth Control, his direction of the Joseph and Rose Kennedy Institute of Ethics from 1971 to 1979, and his death in 1979 at age 52.
+[^13]: Center for Strategic and International Studies, "About Us," csis.org/about-us/. The page states that the center was founded in 1962 at Georgetown University by Admiral Arleigh Burke and David Abshire, and that it became an independent nonprofit institution in 1987.
+[^14]: Tim Weiner, "Ray S. Cline, Chief C.I.A. Analyst, Is Dead at 77," The New York Times, March 16, 1996, Section 1, p. 49, nytimes.com/1996/03/16/us/ray-s-cline-chief-cia-analyst-is-dead-at-77.html (Wayback Machine capture of July 31, 2024). The article records his service as the agency's chief analyst during the Cuban missile crisis, his station posts in Taiwan (1958 to 1962) and Bonn (1966 to 1969), his service as the State Department's chief of intelligence analysis, and that "He gave up Government work in 1973, becoming an executive director of the Center for Strategic and International Studies at Georgetown University."
+[^15]: Georgetown University Library, "Cline, Ray S., 05/16/1962," Richard M. Helms Papers 2, Box 3, Folder 34, record GAMMS423.6.109, findingaids.library.georgetown.edu/repositories/15/archival_objects/1234224. The record describes a New York Times clipping headlined "C.I.A. Appoints Intelligence Deputy," reporting the appointment of Ray S. Cline to that deputy post.
+[^16]: Georgetown University Library, Booth Family Center for Special Collections, "James Theberge Papers," collection 10585, findingaids.library.georgetown.edu/repositories/15/resources/10585. The biographical note gives his birth on Long Island circa 1931, his service as director of the Latin American and Hispanic Studies Center at Georgetown from 1970 to 1975, and the sentence "died of a heart attack on a visit to Jamaica in January, 1988."
+[^17]: Central Intelligence Agency, "Caribbean and Latin American propaganda perspectives," January 1972, CREST document CIA-RDP79-01194A000200220001-0, archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp79-01194a000200220001-0. The document names Theberge as one of the experts of the Georgetown University Center for Strategic and International Studies and records his statement that Allende is "a willing ally in the Cuban diplomatic thrust."
+[^18]: Department of State, Office of the Historian, "James Daniel Theberge (1930-1988)," history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/theberge-james-daniel, on his appointments as ambassador to Nicaragua and Chile.
+[^19]: National Intelligence Study Center, invitation to an exhibit of books on intelligence from the Russell J. Bowen collection, Howard A. Gunlocke Special Collections Room, Joseph Mark Lauinger Memorial Library, Georgetown University, November 3, 1983, with advisory board, officers and board of directors lists, CIA-RDP90-00806R000100430001-2, archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000100430001-2. The invitation names William J. Casey, Daniel O. Graham, Lyman B. Kirkpatrick Jr., Paul H. Nitze and Eugene F. Tighe Jr. on the advisory board, Ray S. Cline and Stefan A. Halper among the directors, and Walter Pforzheimer among the speakers.
+[^20]: Georgetown University Library, "Richard M. Helms Papers," biographical note, findingaids.library.georgetown.edu/repositories/15/resources/10290. The note gives the United Press dates, the Berlin Olympics coverage and the sentence "he attended a lunch given by Adolph Hitler in 1936."
+[^21]: Same, biographical note, on the CIA career from 1947 to 1973, the deputy directorship from 1965 to 1966, the directorship from June 30, 1966, the ambassadorship to Iran from February 8, 1973 to December 27, 1976 and the 1977 plea.
+[^22]: Richard Helms with William Hood, A Look Over My Shoulder: A Life in the Central Intelligence Agency (New York: Random House, 2003), on the 1936 interview with Hitler at Nuremberg.
+[^23]: "Project MKULTRA, The CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification," joint hearing before the Select Committee on Intelligence and the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research, United States Senate, August 3, 1977, archive.org/details/project-mkultra-congress-hearing-1977, Appendix C, memorandum of December 21, 1954 from General Counsel Lawrence R. Houston to the Director of Central Intelligence on Subproject 35, pp. 121-122 (printed page numbers).
+[^24]: "Project MKULTRA, The CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification," joint hearing before the Select Committee on Intelligence and the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research, United States Senate, August 3, 1977, archive.org/details/project-mkultra-congress-hearing-1977, Appendix C, memorandum of the General Counsel of April 8, 1955 on the requested $250,000 increase, p. 123, and the General Counsel's transmittal note of December 22, 1954, p. 134.
+[^25]: "Project MKULTRA, The CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification," joint hearing before the Select Committee on Intelligence and the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research, United States Senate, August 3, 1977, archive.org/details/project-mkultra-congress-hearing-1977, Appendix C, memorandum of May 10, 1955, "Subproject 35 of Project MKULTRA," pp. 127-128, giving the DCI approval of January 15, 1955, the $125,000 contribution toward a $3,000,000 wing, the funding table and the $375,000 total. A handwritten note on the memorandum records that a resume of the project was circulated at a meeting on May 11, 1955.
+[^26]: "Project MKULTRA, The CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification," joint hearing before the Select Committee on Intelligence and the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research, United States Senate, August 3, 1977, archive.org/details/project-mkultra-congress-hearing-1977, Appendix C, "Amendment to Subproject 35, Project MKULTRA," "For the Purpose of Establishing a Cover Organization for Highly Sensitive Projects in the Field of Biological, Chemical and Radiological Warfare," pp. 129-131, on the six-story addition, Public Law 221, the $1,875,000 Government contribution, the condition imposed by the DCI and the supplemental $250,000.
+[^27]: "Human Drug Testing by the CIA, 1977," hearings before the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research of the Committee on Human Resources, United States Senate, September 20 and 21, 1977, archive.org/details/human-drug-testing-by-the-cia-1977, Senator Edward M. Kennedy's questions to Geschickter, p. 84, on the Atomic Energy Commission, the April 6, 1955 document and the doubling of the agency's contribution.
+[^28]: "Project MKULTRA, The CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification," joint hearing before the Select Committee on Intelligence and the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research, United States Senate, August 3, 1977, archive.org/details/project-mkultra-congress-hearing-1977, Appendix C, Tab A, pp. 137-139, on the financial situation, the refund condition, the $250,000 value to the agency, Dr. Gottlieb and other agency employees contacting the Fund, the cover problem, and the hospital safehouse.
+[^29]: "Project MKULTRA, The CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification," joint hearing before the Select Committee on Intelligence and the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research, United States Senate, August 3, 1977, archive.org/details/project-mkultra-congress-hearing-1977, Appendix C, amendment, Part VII, "Justification," p. 132, and Part X, p. 133, on the one-sixth of space, deniability, cover for three employees, human patients and volunteers, and the matching funds and overhead savings.
+[^30]: "Project MKULTRA, The CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification," joint hearing before the Select Committee on Intelligence and the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research, United States Senate, August 3, 1977, archive.org/details/project-mkultra-congress-hearing-1977, Appendix C, Tab A, "Subproject 35 - Project MKULTRA," pp. 135-136, on over forty MKULTRA projects, the need for cover, and the building of six stories, 320 feet long and 50 feet wide with 100 research beds.
+[^31]: "Project MKULTRA, The CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification," joint hearing before the Select Committee on Intelligence and the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research, United States Senate, August 3, 1977, archive.org/details/project-mkultra-congress-hearing-1977, Appendix C, Tab A, p. 136, on the Fund's six-member board, its solicitation of funds for chemotherapy research, its cut-out role since 1951, and the clearance and witting status of its leading figure and two board members.
+[^32]: "Project MKULTRA, The CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification," joint hearing before the Select Committee on Intelligence and the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research, United States Senate, August 3, 1977, archive.org/details/project-mkultra-congress-hearing-1977, statement for the record following the testimony of Admiral Stansfield Turner, p. 40, stating that construction of the Gorman Annex began in 1957, that the Annex was dedicated in March 1959, that Subproject 45 ran from 1955 to 1963, that Geschickter continued research under MKSEARCH through July 1967 at Georgetown University Hospital, and that the use of the Annex's facilities could not be determined.
+[^33]: "Project MKULTRA, The CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification," joint hearing before the Select Committee on Intelligence and the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research, United States Senate, August 3, 1977, archive.org/details/project-mkultra-congress-hearing-1977, testimony of Admiral Stansfield Turner and Alan Brody, p. 22, on the one-sixth of the space and the absence of reports on what followed construction.
+[^34]: Victor Cohn and John Jacobs, "CIA Tried to Use Georgetown Medical Center in 1950s," The Washington Post, August 7, 1977, CIA reading room copy at archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01315r000300020007-3. A second copy of the same article is at archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01315r000300030004-5.
+[^35]: John M. Goshko, "Geschickter Research Fund Tightly Controlled by the Founder," The Washington Post, August 3, 1977, CIA reading room copy at archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01315r000300030007-2. The article gives the 1939 founding, the Who's Who entry, the colleagues' knowledge of the foundation and the statement that it was not part of the university.
+[^36]: Bill Richards and John Jacobs, The Washington Post, August 6, 1977, CIA reading room copy at archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01315r000200230022-7. The article reports subpoenas issued by the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research, including to Geschickter, for September 9.
+[^37]: John Jacobs, "Dialogue Sought With Professor in CIA Probe," The Washington Post, August 27, 1977, CIA reading room copies at archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01315r000300020003-7 and archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01315r000400100025-3. The article reports the university's statement that it "seems promising" that its lawyers could meet Geschickter, the 70 pages of CIA documents, the "official notification," the 86 institutions named by Turner, the University of Denver chancellor Maurice Mitchell, the other universities that acknowledged CIA letters, and George Washington University's refusal to release its documents.
+[^38]: "Human Drug Testing by the CIA, 1977," hearings before the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research of the Committee on Human Resources, United States Senate, September 20 and 21, 1977, archive.org/details/human-drug-testing-by-the-cia-1977, testimony of Charles F. Geschickter, Sr., M.D., pp. 44-45, on the Fund since 1939, the first contract for anticancer compounds, the enlarged grants after 1951, universities funded from 1955 and the Dulles remark (p. 45).
+[^39]: "Human Drug Testing by the CIA, 1977," hearings before the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research of the Committee on Human Resources, United States Senate, September 20 and 21, 1977, archive.org/details/human-drug-testing-by-the-cia-1977, testimony of Geschickter, pp. 84-85, on the building fund, the $375,000 figure, the $515,000 figure put to him by Senator Edward M. Kennedy, the statement that he first saw the Subproject 35 memorandum "about Saturday," and research in the building.
+[^40]: "Human Drug Testing by the CIA, 1977," hearings before the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research of the Committee on Human Resources, United States Senate, September 20 and 21, 1977, archive.org/details/human-drug-testing-by-the-cia-1977, exchange with Senator Richard S. Schweiker on Subproject 35 and the hospital safehouse, p. 94.
+[^41]: "Human Drug Testing by the CIA, 1977," hearings before the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research of the Committee on Human Resources, United States Senate, September 20 and 21, 1977, archive.org/details/human-drug-testing-by-the-cia-1977, testimony of Geschickter, pp. 88-89, giving $535,000 for Subproject 45, $655,500 for all research projects, $375,000 for the building program, about $1,030,000 spent at Georgetown and $2,088,600 to other institutions; and pp. 95-98 on the Gorman building, Admiral Strauss of the Atomic Energy Commission and the radioisotope laboratories.
+[^42]: "Human Drug Testing by the CIA, 1977," hearings before the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research of the Committee on Human Resources, United States Senate, September 20 and 21, 1977, archive.org/details/human-drug-testing-by-the-cia-1977, testimony of Admiral Stansfield Turner, September 21, 1977, p. 133.
+[^43]: "Human Drug Testing by the CIA, 1977," hearings before the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research of the Committee on Human Resources, United States Senate, September 20 and 21, 1977, archive.org/details/human-drug-testing-by-the-cia-1977, testimony of Sidney Gottlieb, M.D., September 21, 1977, pp. 193-194 and 198, on the cover for three biochemists, the $375,000 payment, and his statements that these things were "never implemented" and that the project was "an expensive project that just never took place."
+[^44]: John D. Marks, The Search for the Manchurian Candidate: The CIA and Mind Control (New York: Times Books, 1979), chapter 12, on the 1955 contribution toward the research building as the only occasion in about twenty-five years when CIA officials sought White House approval for this kind of work, and on Dulles's approval.
+[^45]: Same, chapter 12, on the $655,000 provided for Geschickter's own research, the approximately $2.1 million that passed through the foundation, and the 1967 order against foundation support.
+[^46]: Stansfield Turner, Director of Central Intelligence, letter to Senator Daniel K. Inouye, chairman, Select Committee on Intelligence, August 2, 1977, in NS010102_000027, PDF pp. 96-103 (figures at p. 101).
+[^47]: Georgetown University Global Engagement, "Georgetown Center Deepens Understanding between Muslims and Christians," May 22, 2014, global.georgetown.edu/features/prince-alwaleed-bin-talal-center-for-muslim-christian-understanding. The page gives the December 2005 gift, the center's founding in 1993 and its renaming.
+[^48]: U.S. Department of Education, "Section 117 Foreign Gift and Contract Data," Knowledge Center, studentaid.gov, the page from which the public Section 117 spreadsheets are linked.
+[^49]: U.S. Department of Education, Section 117 Foreign Gift and Contract Public Records, "Sec117PublicRecordsCompleteFeb2025.xlsx," current through February 28, 2025, fsapartners.ed.gov/sites/default/files/2025-05/Sec117PublicRecordsCompleteFeb2025.xlsx. Counts and sums are those of the rows for Georgetown University, OPEID 00144500, by transaction type and attribution country.
+[^50]: Same spreadsheet, Georgetown rows with transaction type "Contract" and attribution country "QATAR," grouped by contract start date or, where absent, contract end date.
+[^51]: U.S. Department of Education, Office of the General Counsel, "Notice of Investigation and Record Requests," Federal Register, June 28, 2019, Doc. 2019-13904, federalregister.gov/d/2019-13904, publishing the letters of June 13, 2019 to Georgetown University and Texas A&M University; Appendix A, letter to President John J. DeGioia.
+[^52]: Same notice, Appendix A, on the Georgetown Initiative for U.S.-China Dialogue on Global Issues, Huawei Technologies Co. Ltd., Huawei Technologies USA, Inc., ZTE Corp, Kaspersky Lab and Kaspersky Lab US, the governments of the People's Republic of China, Saudi Arabia, Qatar and Russia, the Qatar Foundation for Education, Science and Community Development, Georgetown University Qatar and the Prince Alwaleed bin Talal Center for Muslim-Christian Understanding.
+[^53]: Same notice, Appendix A, requests 1 through 9 and the thirty-day production deadline: records from January 1, 2010; communications between Prof. Theodore Moran and Huawei; records on Hanban and the Confucius Institute from January 1, 2015; records of steps taken to confirm that foreign sources do not support persons designated under Executive Order 13224; and IRS Form 990 filings for tax years 2014 through 2018.
+[^54]: Prince Turki al-Faisal bin Abd al-Aziz Al-Saud, special address, Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, Georgetown University, February 3, 2002, transcript archived at web.archive.org/web/20030402032839/http://www.ccasonline.org/publicaffairs/turki_02032002.html. The quoted sentence appears in the transcript as given.
+[^55]: Same transcript, on the Safari Club and the countries the speaker lists as its members.
+[^56]: Open Philanthropy, "Georgetown University, Center for Security and Emerging Technology," grant of January 2019, archived January 2, 2025, web.archive.org/web/20250102035307/https://www.openphilanthropy.org/grants/georgetown-university-center-for-security-and-emerging-technology/. The page gives the amount of $55,000,000, the award date of January 2019, the grant investigator Luke Muehlhauser, the sentence quoted in the text and the description of Matheny.
+[^57]: Same grant page, on the founding team: Dewey Murdick, Director of Data Science, previously Chief Analytics Officer and Deputy Chief Scientist at the Department of Homeland Security and an IARPA program manager; William Hannas, Lead Analyst, previously a member of the Senior Intelligence Service at the Central Intelligence Agency and an assistant professor of Chinese at Georgetown; Helen Toner, Director of Strategy and Plans; Ben Buchanan, Faculty Fellow; Jamie Baker, Distinguished Fellow; and Michael Sulmeyer, Senior Fellow.
+[^58]: Center for Security and Emerging Technology, "New Grant Agreement Boosts CSET Funding to More than $100 Million Through 2025," August 25, 2021, cset.georgetown.edu.
+[^59]: Open Philanthropy grant page for CSET, January 2019, and Center for Security and Emerging Technology staff pages, on Matheny's departure from CSET for the White House in March 2021.
+[^60]: Robert Schmad, "Documents show how a tech-connected nonprofit shaped Biden-era AI policy," Washington Examiner, April 17, 2026, washingtonexaminer.com/news/investigations/4532389/, including the quoted statement by Buchanan.
+[^61]: Center for Security and Emerging Technology, "Ben Buchanan," staff biography, cset.georgetown.edu/staff/ben-buchanan/.
+[^62]: Open Philanthropy, "RAND Corporation, Emerging Technology Initiatives," grant of October 2023, archived 2025, web.archive.org/web/20250122041729/https://www.openphilanthropy.org/grants/rand-corporation-emerging-technology-initiatives/.
+[^63]: In-Q-Tel, "Our Milestones," iqt.org/about/our-milestones, listing the Department of Homeland Security as a limited partner from 2010.
+[^64]: CNBC, "Former OpenAI board member explains why CEO Sam Altman got fired before he was rehired," May 29, 2024, cnbc.com/2024/05/29/former-openai-board-member-explains-why-ceo-sam-altman-was-fired.html.
+[^65]: David D. Kirkpatrick, "The Dirty Secrets of a Smear Campaign," The New Yorker, April 3, 2023 issue (online March 27, 2023), newyorker.com/magazine/2023/04/03/the-dirty-secrets-of-a-smear-campaign.
+[^66]: U.S. Department of Justice, Report of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua to the Attorney General of the United States Regarding the Allegations of INSLAW, Inc., March 1993, archive.org/details/InslawPROMISBuaReport, p. 144, on the retention of Professor Dorothy Denning, her earlier service as an expert for a defendant before Judge Bua in the Northern District of Illinois, the FBI's clearance of her, the statement "Professor Denning's credentials are impeccable," and the three calls to William Hamilton.
+[^67]: Same report, p. 146, on Gordon Zacrep, Denning's viewing of FOIMS and PROMIS, her conclusion that PROMIS in COBOL could not have been the platform for FOIMS in the NATURAL/ADABASE environment, and the Special Counsel's conclusion.
+[^68]: U.S. Department of Justice, Report of the United States Department of Justice on the Review of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua's Report on the Allegations of INSLAW, Inc., September 27, 1994 (bound with the Bua report at archive.org/details/InslawPROMISBuaReport), pp. 60-61, on Denning's conclusion and INSLAW's criticism that the code of the two programs was not compared.
+[^69]: Computerworld, 1973, p. 18, on John L. Gizzarelli's appointment as general counsel of INSLAW.
+[^70]: Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, "Trae Stephens (SFS'06)," alumni profile, sfs.georgetown.edu/alumni/trae-stephens-sfs06/. The profile gives the 2006 graduation, the wish to learn Arabic, the Portman office, the Afghan Embassy political affairs office and the start of his career in the intelligence community.
+[^71]: Federal Bureau of Investigation, file on Robert A. Maheu, FOI/PA no. 1342370-0, applicant investigation, 1940, archive.org/details/RobertMaheu.
+[^72]: Federal Bureau of Investigation, Robert Peloquin file, FOI/PA No. 1602405, Part 01, archive.org/details/robert-peloquin-fbi-file.
+[^73]: C. Richard D'Amato, resume, megalomediadesigns.com/dickdamatoresume.pdf, Wayback Machine capture of April 28, 2016.
+[^74]: CounterTerrorism Consultants, L.P., resume packet, June 1990, in the Danny Casolaro papers at the Missouri State Historical Society.
+[^75]: Radiance Ignite Technologies, About Us page, radianceignite.com/.
+[^76]: Atlantic Legal Foundation, "Charles R. Work - Director Biography," atlanticlegal.org.
+[^77]: T. Rees Shapiro, "E. Lawrence Barcella Jr., lawyer," The Washington Post, November 9, 2010, washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/11/09/AR2010110905919.html.

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Geschickter Fund for Medical Research.md

@@ -8,8 +8,14 @@ tags:
   - Georgetown
 summary: "CIA funding conduit operated by Dr. Charles Geschickter that channeled approximately $2.1 million to MKULTRA researchers, including a $375,000 contribution toward a Georgetown University Hospital research building with CIA-reserved patient beds."
 location: Washington, D.C.
+relations:
+  - type: funded
+    with: "[[Georgetown University]]"
+    role: "375,000 dollar gift toward the Gorman research building, 1957 (CIA funds routed through the Fund)"
+    start: 1957
+    fn: 4
 created: 2026-06-03
-updated: 2026-06-03
+updated: 2026-10-15
 ---
 The Geschickter Fund for Medical Research was a family foundation operated by Dr. Charles Geschickter that served as a [[CIA]] funding conduit. About $2.1 million flowed through the tightly controlled foundation to other researchers. In all, the Agency put $655,000 into Geschickter's own research on knockout drugs, stress-producing chemicals, and mind-altering substances at [[Georgetown University Hospital]] in [[Washington, D.C.]][^1]
 
@@ -17,6 +23,10 @@ The Geschickter Fund for Medical Research was a family foundation operated by Dr
 
 In 1955, Geschickter convinced Agency officials to contribute $375,000 in secret funds toward construction of a new research building at Georgetown University Hospital. Since this money appeared to come from private sources, unwitting Federal bureaucrats doubled it under the matching grant program for hospital construction. The Agency had a clear understanding with Geschickter that in return, he would ensure they received use of one-sixth of the beds and total space for their own "hospital safehouse," providing a ready source of "human patients and volunteers for experimental use." The arrangement would provide cover for up to three TSS staff members. [[Allen Dulles]] personally approved the contribution and then took it to President Eisenhower's special committee to review covert operations, which also gave assent. This was the only time in a quarter-century of behavioral control activities when documents show CIA officials went to the [[White House]] for approval.[^1]
 
+The Subproject 35 file printed in the August 3, 1977 joint hearing records a General Counsel memorandum of December 21, 1954 (pp. 121-122) and approval by the Director of Central Intelligence on January 15, 1955 of a $125,000 contribution through the Fund toward a research wing, with a further $250,000 requested in 1955 (memorandum of May 10, 1955, pp. 127-128).[^2] The file describes the Fund as a corporation with a six-member board and an executive director, which had "solicited funds from various individuals to finance a program of basic research in the chemotherapy of cancer, asthma, hypertension, psychosomatic disorders and other chronic diseases." Since 1951 it had "co-operated with the Chemical Division of TSS and acted smoothly and efficiently, both as a cut-out for dealing with contractors in the fields of covert chemical and biological warfare, and as a prime contractor for certain areas of biological research." The background of the Fund's leading figure, whose name is deleted in the file, states that he "is TOP SECRET cleared and witting of Agency sponsorship of the programs carried out by the Fund as are two other members of the Fund's Board of Directors."[^2]
+
+Geschickter testified before the Senate Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research on September 20, 1977. He said that the Fund had existed since 1939, that the agency's first contract with it was for anticancer compounds, and that "the report that came to me from Allen Dulles" included the line "Thank God there is something decent coming out of our bag of dirty tricks. We are delighted."[^3] He said of the building: "In 1957, I gave some money to the building fund of Georgetown University Medical Center. I never gave them a penny for any particular building," and, when the figure of $515,000 was put to him, answered "$375,000, not $515,000." He said he had not seen the Subproject 35 memorandum until the Saturday before the hearing, that "I never had the money," and, of the hospital safehouse arrangement, "I knew nothing of this. Neither did Georgetown."[^4]
+
 ### Continued Operations
 
 Under [[MKSEARCH]], Geschickter continued to provide TSS with a means to assess drugs rapidly. He branched into trying to knock out monkeys with radar waves to the head, a technique that worked but risked frying vital parts of the brain. The Fund remained available as a conduit until 1967, when President Johnson forbade CIA support of foundations. The Agency simply transferred funding from the foundation to a private company of which Geschickter's son was secretary-treasurer.[^1]
@@ -24,3 +34,6 @@ Under [[MKSEARCH]], Geschickter continued to provide TSS with a means to assess
 ### Footnotes
 
 [^1]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*, Chapter 12.
+[^2]: "Project MKULTRA, The CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification," joint hearing, Senate Select Committee on Intelligence and Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research, August 3, 1977, archive.org/details/project-mkultra-congress-hearing-1977, Appendix C, memorandum of December 21, 1954, pp. 121-122; memorandum of May 10, 1955, pp. 127-128; Tab A, p. 136.
+[^3]: "Human Drug Testing by the CIA, 1977," hearings before the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research, United States Senate, September 20 and 21, 1977, archive.org/details/human-drug-testing-by-the-cia-1977, testimony of Charles F. Geschickter, Sr., M.D., pp. 44-45.
+[^4]: "Human Drug Testing by the CIA, 1977," hearings before the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research, United States Senate, September 20 and 21, 1977, archive.org/details/human-drug-testing-by-the-cia-1977, testimony of Charles F. Geschickter, Sr., M.D., pp. 84-85 and p. 94.

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Goldman Sachs.md

@@ -218,7 +218,7 @@ The staff report of the [[Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations]], issued on
 
 The subcommittee held a hearing on April 27, 2010. The witnesses were Sparks, [[Joshua Birnbaum]], [[Michael Swenson]], [[Fabrice Tourre]], the chief financial officer [[David Viniar]], the chief risk officer [[Craig Broderick]], and Blankfein. Blankfein told the subcommittee that the firm had received an investment from the government in 2008, held it for about eight months, and repaid it with a 23 percent annualized return. He also said: "We didn't have a massive short against the housing market and we certainly did not bet against our clients."[^21]
 
-The SEC filed suit against Goldman, Sachs & Co. and Tourre on April 16, 2010 in the [[Southern District of New York]] (10 Civ. 3229). The complaint alleged that the marketing materials for ABACUS 2007-AC1 stated that the portfolio had been selected by [[ACA Management LLC]] without disclosing that the hedge fund [[Paulson & Co.]] had taken part in the selection and had taken a short position through credit default swaps with Goldman.[^22] On July 15, 2010, the SEC announced that Goldman had agreed to pay 550 million dollars. In the settlement papers the firm acknowledged that the marketing materials "contained incomplete information" and that it "was a mistake" to state that ACA had selected the portfolio without disclosing the role of Paulson & Co.[^23] A jury found Tourre liable on August 1, 2013, and the final judgment filed on March 27, 2014 imposed disgorgement of 175,463 dollars, interest of 31,150.91 dollars and a civil penalty of 650,000 dollars.[^24]
+The SEC filed suit against Goldman, Sachs & Co. and Tourre on April 16, 2010 in the [[U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York|Southern District of New York]] (10 Civ. 3229). The complaint alleged that the marketing materials for ABACUS 2007-AC1 stated that the portfolio had been selected by [[ACA Management LLC]] without disclosing that the hedge fund [[Paulson & Co.]] had taken part in the selection and had taken a short position through credit default swaps with Goldman.[^22] On July 15, 2010, the SEC announced that Goldman had agreed to pay 550 million dollars. In the settlement papers the firm acknowledged that the marketing materials "contained incomplete information" and that it "was a mistake" to state that ACA had selected the portfolio without disclosing the role of Paulson & Co.[^23] A jury found Tourre liable on August 1, 2013, and the final judgment filed on March 27, 2014 imposed disgorgement of 175,463 dollars, interest of 31,150.91 dollars and a civil penalty of 650,000 dollars.[^24]
 
 On August 9, 2012, the Justice Department stated that its investigators and prosecutors, including those in its Criminal Division and the U.S. Attorney's Office in Manhattan, had "determined that, based on the law and evidence as they exist at this time, there is not a viable basis to bring a criminal prosecution with respect to Goldman Sachs or its employees in regard to the allegations set forth in the report" from Levin's subcommittee. [[David Ingram]] of [[Reuters]] reported that Levin had asked for a criminal investigation in April 2011.[^25]
 

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Google.md

@@ -0,0 +1,343 @@
+---
+aliases:
+  - Alphabet
+  - Alphabet Inc.
+  - Google LLC
+  - Google Inc.
+  - Google.org
+  - Google Public Sector
+category: "Private Organization"
+tags:
+  - Organization
+  - TechnologyCompany
+  - PRISM
+  - InQTel
+  - Keyhole
+  - ProjectMaven
+  - NSA
+  - Antitrust
+  - DeepMind
+  - ArtificialIntelligence
+  - Surveillance
+  - DefenseContracts
+summary: "Technology company whose Keyhole mapping software was bought after a CIA-funded investor backed it, whose PRISM listing and Pentagon AI work are documented, and whose search and advertising businesses face federal antitrust judgments."
+start: 1998
+location: "Mountain View, California"
+created: 2026-10-15
+updated: 2026-10-15
+relations:
+  - type: director_of
+    with: "[[Eric Schmidt]]"
+    reverse: true
+    end: 2019-06-19
+    role: "director"
+    fn: 17
+  - type: head_of
+    with: "[[Eric Schmidt]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2001
+    end: 2011
+    role: "chief executive"
+    fn: 16
+  - type: founded
+    with: "[[Larry Page]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1998-09
+    role: "co-founder"
+    fn: 1
+  - type: founded
+    with: "[[Sergey Brin]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1998-09
+    role: "co-founder"
+    fn: 1
+  - type: owned
+    with: "[[YouTube]]"
+    start: 2006-10
+    fn: 3
+  - type: owned
+    with: "[[DeepMind]]"
+    start: 2014-01
+    fn: 46
+  - type: owned
+    with: "[[Keyhole, Inc.]]"
+    start: 2004-10-27
+    fn: 5
+  - type: contractor_to
+    with: "[[Department of Defense]]"
+    start: 2009-02-05
+    fn: 7
+  - type: contractor_to
+    with: "[[Defense Information Systems Agency]]"
+    start: 2022-12-08
+    role: "JWCC task order holder via Google Public Sector"
+    fn: 33
+  - type: participant_in
+    with: "[[PRISM]]"
+    start: 2009-01-14
+    fn: 12
+  - type: participant_in
+    with: "[[Project Maven]]"
+    start: 2017-09
+    end: 2019-03
+    fn: 29
+  - type: prosecuted
+    with: "[[Department of Justice]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2020-10-20
+    role: "civil antitrust suit"
+    fn: 78
+  - type: funded
+    with: "[[HOPE not hate]]"
+    start: 2021
+    end: 2021
+    fn: 64
+  - type: contractor_to
+    with: "[[Federation for American Immigration Reform]]"
+    start: 2021
+    end: 2022
+    role: "advertising vendor"
+    fn: 62
+  - type: funded
+    with: "[[Anthropic]]"
+    fn: 50
+  - type: funded
+    with: "[[Safe Superintelligence]]"
+    start: 2025-04
+    fn: 51
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Timnit Gebru]]"
+    reverse: true
+    end: 2020-12
+    role: "manager, Ethical AI team"
+    fn: 56
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Andrew Moore]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2006
+    end: 2014
+    role: "founding director, Pittsburgh engineering office; later head of Google Cloud AI"
+    fn: 19
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Ray Kurzweil]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2012-12-14
+    role: "director of engineering"
+    fn: 49
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Ilya Sutskever]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2013
+    role: "researcher, Google Brain"
+    fn: 48
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Eyal Manor]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2012
+    role: "engineering director, Ad Exchange"
+    fn: 85
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Bret Taylor]]"
+    reverse: true
+    end: 2007-06
+    role: "group product manager"
+    fn: 58
+---
+
+Google is an American technology company incorporated in California in September 1998 and reincorporated in Delaware in August 2003, with executive offices in [[Mountain View, California]].[^1] The company was founded by [[Larry Page]] and [[Sergey Brin]]. Its parent, Alphabet Inc., has been the registrant in the company's annual filings since a holding company reorganization in October 2015, when a transfer restriction agreement between the company and [[Eric Schmidt]] was signed.[^2] Google bought [[YouTube]] in October 2006 in an all-stock transaction announced at 1.65 billion dollars.[^3]
+
+### Keyhole, In-Q-Tel and Google Earth
+
+In February 2003 [[In-Q-Tel]], the venture firm funded by the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], invested in [[Keyhole, Inc.]], a maker of three-dimensional satellite-imagery mapping software. In a June 25, 2003 announcement In-Q-Tel said the investment was its first engagement on behalf of the [[National Imagery and Mapping Agency]], and that within two weeks the agency was using the software within the [[Pentagon]] to support United States troops in [[Iraq]].[^4] The announcement described In-Q-Tel as "a private nonprofit venture funded by the Central Intelligence Agency," and said that Keyhole's EarthViewer client "uses videogame-like 3-D graphics and access to massive databases of network-hosted earth information, including satellite imagery and aerial photography."[^4]
+
+Google announced on October 27, 2004 that it had acquired Keyhole Corp., which it described as a Mountain View digital mapping company founded in 2001, with financial terms not disclosed. The announcement listed "public agencies" among Keyhole's customers and said the software combined "a multi-terabyte database of mapping information and images collected from satellites and airplanes." Jonathan Rosenberg, Google's vice president of product management, said the acquisition would enable users "to view 3D images of any place on earth."[^5] The product became [[Google Earth]]. [[Yasha Levine]] wrote that In-Q-Tel sold 5,636 shares of Google stock in 2005 for 2.18 million dollars, and that [[Rob Painter]], an In-Q-Tel executive, went to Google to run its federal sales. Levine also wrote that when he asked the CIA under the [[Freedom of Information Act]] for the terms of the transaction, the agency replied that it could neither confirm nor deny the existence of records.[^6]
+
+Federal contracting records list the [[Department of the Navy]] as a buyer of Google Earth Pro licenses from Google LLC. Awards in September 2009, September 2010 and November 2011 were recorded at 4,200, 4,230 and 4,200 dollars, and a February 2013 renewal of eleven licenses carries no recorded amount.[^7]
+
+### The 2010 cybersecurity arrangement and EPIC v. NSA
+
+On January 12, 2010, [[David Drummond]], Google's chief legal officer, published a post on the Official Google Blog describing "a highly sophisticated and targeted attack on our corporate infrastructure originating from China" that the company had detected in mid-December 2009. The post said the attackers appeared to have aimed mainly at the Gmail accounts of Chinese human rights activists, and that only two Gmail accounts appeared to have been accessed.[^8] Reports on February 4, 2010 said that Google had contacted the [[NSA]] immediately after the attack. The former NSA director [[Mike McConnell]] called collaboration between the agency and private companies like Google "inevitable."[^9]
+
+On February 4, 2010, the [[Electronic Privacy Information Center]] filed a Freedom of Information Act request with the NSA for any agreement between the agency and Google on cyber security, records of communications about Gmail encryption, and records of the NSA's role in Google's decision not to encrypt routinely cloud services such as Google Docs. The NSA's March 10, 2010 reply declined to confirm or deny that it had any relationship with Google, citing FOIA Exemption 3 and Section 6 of the National Security Agency Act of 1959.[^10] The district court wrote that "Section 6 of the NSA Act is a statutory exemption under Exemption 3," and described the NSA's information assurance mission as "protecting Department of Defense and other national-security information systems."[^10] In support of the agency's motion, a declaration by the NSA's deputy associate director for policy and records argued that "[t]o confirm or deny the existence of any such records would be to reveal whether the NSA ... determined that vulnerabilities or cybersecurity issues pertaining to Google or certain of its commercial technologies could make U.S. government information systems susceptible to exploitation or attack."[^10]
+
+Judge [[Richard J. Leon]] granted summary judgment to the NSA on July 13, 2011.[^10] The [[United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit]] affirmed on May 11, 2012. The panel described the request as seeking communications between the NSA and Google about encryption and cyber security, stated that the agency had issued a Glomar response under FOIA Exemption 3, and affirmed the judgment for the NSA.[^11] The opinion also recorded that Google had changed Gmail's privacy settings "to automatically encrypt all traffic to and from its servers" after the attack.[^11]
+
+### PRISM
+
+In June 2013 the [[Washington Post]] published NSA slides from the documents provided by [[Edward Snowden]]. One slide, headed "Dates When PRISM Collection Began For Each Provider," lists Google with the date 1/14/09. It appears after [[Microsoft]] (9/11/07), [[Yahoo]] (3/12/08) and [[Facebook]] (6/3/09), and before [[PalTalk]], YouTube, [[Skype]], [[AOL]] and [[Apple]], which the slide marks as added in October 2012. The same slide gives a program cost of about 20 million dollars per year.[^12]
+
+On June 7, 2013, Page and Drummond wrote on the Google blog that the company had not joined "any program that would give the U.S. government ... direct access to our servers," and that the government "does not have direct access or a 'back door' to the information stored in our data centers."[^13] In an April 2, 2026 staff report on the surveillance program operated under [[Section 702]] of the [[Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act]], the [[Privacy and Civil Liberties Oversight Board]] stated that the 2024 reauthorization law "added a new category of electronic communication service providers." The report also stated that the government had reported applying the amended definition "in a limited manner consistent with" its commitments to Congress.[^14] The Board's July 2, 2014 report on the program had described PRISM collection as the transmission of selectors, such as an email address, by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] on behalf of the NSA to a United States electronic communications service provider that had been served a directive. It stated that as of mid-2011, 91 percent of the Internet communications the NSA acquired each year were obtained through PRISM collection, that the NSA receives all PRISM collection and that the Central Intelligence Agency and the FBI each receive a portion, and that the government had not declassified the specific providers served with directives.[^15]
+
+### Eric Schmidt and the policy network
+
+Schmidt was chief executive of Google from 2001 to 2011.[^16] His term on the Alphabet board ended on June 19, 2019, when, according to the company's 2020 proxy statement, he and [[Diane Greene]] did not seek re-election.[^17] The 2020 proxy's beneficial ownership table lists Schmidt with 3,937,963 Class B shares, based on a Schedule 13G/A filed February 14, 2020 by Schmidt and the Schmidt Family Living Trust.[^17] The [[Tech Transparency Project]] reported that Schmidt chaired the [[Defense Innovation Board]] from 2016 to 2020 under [[Ash Carter]].[^18]
+
+The [[National Security Commission on Artificial Intelligence]], established by Section 1051 of the John S. McCain National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2019, was chaired by Schmidt, with [[Robert Work]] as vice chair, and issued its final report in March 2021. The fifteen commissioners were nominated by Congress and the executive branch. Besides Schmidt they included [[Andrew Moore]], who had worked at Google from 2006 to 2014, founded its Pittsburgh engineering office in 2006, and became head of the Google Cloud artificial intelligence division in January 2019; [[Chris Darby]], president and chief executive of In-Q-Tel since September 2006; [[Gilman Louie]], In-Q-Tel's first chief executive from 1999 to 2006; [[Safra Catz]], chief executive of [[Oracle Corporation]]; [[Andrew Jassy]] of [[Amazon Web Services]]; and [[Eric Horvitz]] of Microsoft. The report listed among its recommendations a joint emerging-technology investment consortium "Modeled on In-Q-Tel" and described Project Maven, launched in 2017, as one of the "pockets of excellence" in the Defense Department's use of artificial intelligence.[^19] In October 2022 [[CNBC]] reported that Schmidt had helped write artificial intelligence laws in Washington without publicly disclosing his investments in AI start-ups.[^20] Schmidt and his wife [[Wendy Schmidt]] launched [[Schmidt Futures]] in 2017, which is funded chiefly through a private foundation.[^21]
+
+In March 2022 [[Politico]] reported that Schmidt Futures had paid for staff of the [[Office of Science and Technology Policy]]. Its chief innovation officer, [[Tom Kalil]], stayed on the Schmidt Futures payroll for four months while serving as an unpaid consultant to the office, and the organization indirectly covered the salary of the office's chief of staff for about six weeks. Schmidt called the report "largely false."[^22][^23]
+
+The [[Special Competitive Studies Project]] was announced on October 5, 2021 as a think tank founded by Schmidt and modeled on the Special Studies Project that [[Nelson Rockefeller]] sponsored in 1956 and [[Henry Kissinger]] led, and it grew directly out of the commission.[^24] Its board, as the project describes it, has included Work, [[Nadia Schadlow]], [[Michele Flournoy]] and [[Mac Thornberry]], and it is led by [[Ylli Bajraktari]].[^25] In 2024 Schmidt Futures consolidated its core scientific work into a new charitable organization, [[Schmidt Sciences]].[^26] In 2012 the video startup [[Waywire]] listed former Google chairman Eric Schmidt among its backers, according to a 2013 article in [[Inc. magazine]] that also examined the tech ties of [[Cory Booker]].[^27]
+
+### Project Maven
+
+On April 26, 2017, the deputy secretary of defense established the Algorithmic Warfare Cross-Functional Team, known as [[Project Maven]], "to accelerate DoD's integration of big data and machine learning." Its first task was to field technology to augment or automate processing, exploitation and dissemination for tactical unmanned aerial systems and mid-altitude full-motion video in support of the [[Defeat-ISIS]] campaign. The memorandum said the team would initially provide computer vision algorithms for object detection, classification and alerts.[^28]
+
+[[The Intercept]] reported on June 1, 2018 that Google would keep working on Maven through March 2019 and would not renew the contract after its eighteen-month term.[^29] The report said that Google executives had tried to describe the work as a contract of about 9 million dollars, while leaked information indicated that the company expected the Maven work to grow to about 250 million dollars a year. The same report said that Google had not committed to forgo signing other military contracts involving artificial intelligence.[^29]
+
+In June 2018 Google published AI principles that list, among the applications it would not pursue, "Weapons or other technologies whose principal purpose or implementation is to cause or directly facilitate injury to people."[^30] The principles page also states: "while we are not developing AI for use in weapons, we will continue our work with governments and the military in many other areas. These include cybersecurity, training, military recruitment, veterans' healthcare, and search and rescue."[^30] [[Alex Karp]], chief executive of [[Palantir]], pointed to Google's 2018 withdrawal from Project Maven, under employee pressure, as a warning of what he called self-centered libertarianism, in his book *The Technological Republic*.[^31] Palantir's Maven Smart System contract was expanded by 795 million dollars in May 2025.[^32]
+
+### Government contracts
+
+Federal contracting records list Google Public Sector LLC as an awardee under the Joint Warfighting Cloud Capability (JWCC) multiple-award contract. A task order from the [[Defense Information Systems Agency]] dated December 8, 2022 records an award amount of 13,216,056 dollars.[^33] On September 12, 2025 the [[U.S. Army|Department of the Army]] issued a task order against the same contract recorded at 28,749,906.09 dollars,[^34] and on July 1, 2026 the [[Defense Logistics Agency]] issued a JWCC task order for its information operations recorded at 12,494,557.96 dollars.[^35] Earlier Defense Department awards to Google LLC in the same database include Army and Navy purchases from 2009 onward for mapping software and training, a Navy award for "multispectral images" in 2015 at 50,000 dollars, and a 2025 Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences order for incident remediation recorded at 173,750 dollars.[^7] Smaller Google Public Sector task orders in the same database include a Defense Information Systems Agency order titled "Golden Forge" from March 2025 recorded at 122,249.39 dollars and an Air Force defensive cyber systems order from September 2024 recorded at 488,750 dollars.[^36] The company's 2025 annual report states that its business with public sector customers "may present additional risks," and that "we may be subject to government audits and cost reviews."[^37]
+
+In July 2025 the [[Department of Defense]] granted up to 200 million dollars each to [[Anthropic]], Google, [[OpenAI]] and [[xAI]] for artificial intelligence work.[^38]
+
+### Lobbying and political committee
+
+Google Client Services LLC is the registrant on the company's lobbying disclosures under the Lobbying Disclosure Act. Summing its four quarterly reports for each year, it reported expenses of 2.84 million dollars for 2008, 5.16 million for 2010, 16.48 million for 2012, 21.21 million for 2018, 7.53 million for 2020, 12.03 million for 2023 and 13.1 million for 2025, and 6.43 million for the first two quarters of 2026.[^39]
+
+The third-quarter 2013 report, posted October 21, 2013 with expenses of 3.37 million dollars for the quarter, carries an issue entry titled "Transparency related to the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act and national security orders," with S. 1215 (the FISA Accountability and Privacy Protection Act of 2013) and S. 1452 (the Surveillance Transparency Act of 2013) among the listed bills. The government entities listed on the report include the Executive Office of the President, the [[Federal Communications Commission]], the [[Federal Trade Commission]] and the Department of Justice. The first-quarter 2014 report lists H.R. 3361 and S. 1599, the USA FREEDOM Act, and the first-quarter 2018 report lists "Reauthorization or reform of FISA Section 702 program" and the CLOUD Act.[^40] The second-quarter 2018 report, posted July 20, 2018, lists "AI Principles" under science and technology.[^41] From the fourth quarter of 2023 the reports carry separate Defense entries for "Commercial Cloud Enterprise (C2E) and procurement" and Intelligence entries for FISA reform bills (H.R. 6611 and S. 3351, and H.R. 6570). The fourth-quarter 2025 report, posted January 20, 2026, lists under Intelligence the National Defense Authorization Act for fiscal year 2026 and "Encryption."[^42]
+
+Google LLC NetPAC (FEC committee C00428623), a lobbyist/registrant political action committee, first filed on September 14, 2006. Its receipts were 318,805 dollars in the 2008 election cycle, 1,850,965 dollars in 2012, 2,250,154 in 2014, 2,224,734 in 2018 and 1,902,225 in 2024, almost entirely individual contributions. Its contributions to federal candidate committees were 1,015,500 dollars in 2012, 2,161,700 in 2016, 1,891,323 in 2018 and 1,409,500 in 2024. In 2016 its largest recipients were the National Republican Congressional Committee and National Republican Senatorial Committee (30,000 dollars each), the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee (20,000) and the Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee (15,000); in 2024 the DSCC, DCCC, NRSC and NRCC received 30,000 dollars each.[^43]
+
+### DeepMind and the AI cluster
+
+[[DeepMind]] Technologies Limited was incorporated on September 23, 2010 at [[Companies House]], the United Kingdom's company registry. Its officer list shows [[Demis Hassabis]] as a director from December 7, 2010 to January 24, 2014, [[Luke Nosek]] from February 23, 2011 to January 24, 2014, [[Jaan Tallinn]] from December 23, 2011 to January 24, 2014, and [[Shane Legg]] from December 23, 2011 to January 24, 2014. [[Mustafa Suleyman]] served as a director from December 23, 2011 to January 24, 2014. On January 24, 2014 [[Kenneth Hohee Yi]] was appointed a director, with a correspondence address at Google LLC in New York.[^44]
+
+Companies House lists DeepMind Holdings Limited as the only active person with significant control, notified on November 4, 2019 as holding at least 75 percent of the shares and voting rights. Before that date the register listed Alphabet Inc., of Delaware, in the same role from April 6, 2016.[^45] [[TechCrunch]] reported on January 26, 2014 that Google had acquired DeepMind for more than 500 million dollars and that its early investors included Tallinn, [[Elon Musk]], [[Peter Thiel]], [[Founders Fund]] and [[Horizons Ventures]].[^46]
+
+Tallinn led the Series A round of Anthropic in May 2021, with participation from Schmidt, [[Dustin Moskovitz]], [[James McClave]] and the [[Center for Emerging Risk Research]], according to the company's announcement of a 124 million dollar raise.[^47] [[Ilya Sutskever]] completed his doctorate at the University of Toronto in 2012 under [[Geoffrey Hinton]]. The three researchers on the AlexNet work packaged it into DNNresearch, which Google acquired in 2013, bringing Sutskever to Google Brain.[^48] [[Ray Kurzweil]], whose forecasts are described under [[Singularitarianism]], joined Google as a director of engineering focused on machine learning and language processing, a hire announced on December 14, 2012.[^49]
+
+CNBC reported in January 2025 that Google's earlier investments in Anthropic totaled 2 billion dollars and gave it a 10 percent ownership stake, and that Google had agreed to a further investment of more than 1 billion dollars.[^50] The April 2025 funding round of [[Safe Superintelligence]], reported at a valuation of 32 billion dollars, listed Alphabet among its backers, and Google Cloud became a major compute provider to the lab.[^51][^52]
+
+In December 2023 the Bloomberg profile of [[Effective Accelerationism]] identified [[Guillaume Verdon]] as the person behind the "Beff Jezos" account. Verdon had worked at Google's X moonshot lab on TensorFlow Quantum and later founded [[Extropic AI]].[^53][^54]
+
+In testimony before the [[House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence]] on July 21, 2026, [[Ben Buchanan]] cited a Google report that Russian military intelligence had deployed malware in [[Ukraine]] that "uses AI mid-operation to write its own attack commands."[^55]
+
+### Employees and research
+
+[[Timnit Gebru]] managed Google's Ethical AI team until December 2020. After a dispute over a paper she had co-written on large language models, she sent an email to women and allies in Google Brain about the company's treatment of the paper and of diversity work, and Google cut off her corporate account. [[Platformer]] published the email and the reply sent to employees by [[Jeff Dean]], then the head of Google Research, which said that the paper had been submitted before internal review was complete and that a cross-functional team had found that it "didn't meet our bar for publication."[^56]
+
+In 2018 [[Nate Thomas]], later chief executive of [[Redwood Research]], was lead author of a paper with five Google researchers in Mountain View, "Tensor field networks: Rotation- and translation-equivariant neural networks for 3D point clouds." The paper gives his affiliation as [[Stanford University]].[^57] [[Bret Taylor]] was a group product manager at Google before June 2007, where he co-created Google Maps.[^58] [[Alexander Scaramucci]] listed more than a year at Google, followed by a period as an entrepreneur-in-residence, on his LinkedIn page as quoted by a 2017 Bustle article.[^59] [[Justin Rosenstein]], who co-founded [[Asana]] with Dustin Moskovitz, was a Google product manager and, before that, a Facebook engineering manager.[^60] A patent granted on July 10, 2001 to an inventor named [[Eugene Jhong]] (with co-inventor Karen E. Theisen), for a method of generating and navigating a 3-D representation of a hierarchical data structure, names Elastic Technology, Inc. as assignee; Eugene Jhong, listed on the Philanthropic Advisory Board of the [[Galileo Project]], holds a Stanford master's degree in computer science.[^61]
+
+### Investors, grants and policy sponsors
+
+The [[Federation for American Immigration Reform]] reported paying Google 1,713,143 dollars for advertising in 2021 and 1,105,067 dollars in 2022.[^62][^63] The 2021 accounts of the [[HOPE not hate]] charitable trust list restricted funds from Google among its grant income.[^64] At the 100,000 to 249,999 dollar level, Google appeared among the supporters of the [[Center for a New American Security]] for the period October 1, 2024 to September 30, 2025.[^65]
+
+In March 2026 [[Omidyar Network]] announced that [[Michele Jawando]], who had been a senior executive at Google, would succeed [[Mike Kubzansky]] as chief executive.[^66]
+
+In a 2007 essay on [[Neocameralism]], [[Curtis Yarvin|Mencius Moldbug]] wrote that subscribers to a "sovcorp" "can sell every share in the sovcorp to Google if they like," and that this would lead to "a terrifying new era of permanent global Googocracy."[^67]
+
+### Child safety and legal process
+
+Federal law requires electronic service providers with actual knowledge of apparent violations involving [[Child sexual abuse material]] to report them to the [[National Center for Missing and Exploited Children]], which operates the CyberTipline.[^68] The federal statute describes NCMEC as "statutorily obliged to operate the official national clearinghouse for information about missing and exploited children," and the Tenth Circuit noted that NCMEC must forward every report it receives to federal law enforcement.[^69] In [[United States v. Ackerman]], decided August 5, 2016, the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit]] held that the NCMEC is a governmental entity or agent for Fourth Amendment purposes. The case concerned an email that AOL had blocked through an automated hash-matching filter, after which an NCMEC analyst opened the email and its attachments. Google, Inc. is among the amici curiae listed in the opinion, together with Dropbox, Facebook, Microsoft, Pinterest, Snapchat and Twitter.[^69] The [[Internet Watch Foundation]] member list shows Google as a member since 2004 in its tier of contributors above 90,000 pounds.[^70]
+
+The [[Iowa State University Police Department]] issued subpoenas to electronic service providers including Google in the investigation that led to the case against [[Clint Borge]], which began with a November 2020 report by a first-year student.[^71][^72] An affidavit in the case against [[Leonidas Varagiannis]] states that a Google account registered under the name "War" was associated with a YouTube channel, and it lists that association among the grounds for attributing accounts to him.[^73]
+
+In April 2023 a federal judge in Espírito Santo, Brazil, ordered the [[Telegram]] application suspended nationwide during a neo-Nazi groups inquiry linked to the [[2022 Aracruz School Shootings]], and directed [[Google]] and Apple to remove it from their app stores. The suspension was lifted on April 28, 2023.[^74][^75]
+
+### Gonzalez v. Google
+
+On May 18, 2023 the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] issued a per curiam opinion in Gonzalez v. Google LLC (No. 21-1333), a suit under 18 U.S.C. 2333 alleging that Google aided and abetted and conspired with ISIS through YouTube. The [[United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit]] had held most claims barred by Section 230(c)(1) of the Communications Decency Act, except claims that Google approved ISIS videos for advertisements and shared proceeds through YouTube's revenue-sharing system, which it held failed to state a claim in any event. The Court wrote that it would "decline to address the application of 230 to a complaint that appears to state little, if any, plausible claim for relief," and vacated and remanded for reconsideration in light of its decision in Twitter, Inc. v. Taamneh.[^76] The [[Counter Extremism Project]] and [[Hany Farid]] had filed an amicus brief in support of the petitioners on December 7, 2022.[^77]
+
+### Antitrust
+
+The court's August 2023 opinion describes Google LLC as operating "the largest Internet general search engine in the United States," and states that advertisers "spend over $80 billion annually just to reach general search users."[^78] The [[Department of Justice]] and the attorneys general of eleven states filed suit against Google on October 20, 2020. Both sets of plaintiffs alleged that Google's exclusive contracts unlawfully maintained its monopoly power in general search. The contracts make Google the default search engine with browser developers, "most notably Apple and [[Mozilla]]," and with device makers and wireless carriers.[^78] In an August 4, 2023 memorandum opinion on summary judgment, the court (Judge [[Amit Mehta]]) held that the SA360 component of the attorneys general's claims survives summary judgment.[^78] The company's 2025 annual report states that the court ruled against Google in August 2024 and entered a final judgment in December 2025 requiring remedies that restrict how Google distributes its services and require it to share certain search data with, and offer syndication services to, certain competitors. Google appealed in January 2026, and the Justice Department and state attorneys general appealed in February 2026.[^79]
+
+In the advertising technology case brought in the [[United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia]] in January 2023, the presiding judge issued a mixed decision in April 2025. The judge ruled that Google's advertiser tools and its [[DoubleClick]] and [[AdMeld]] acquisitions were not anticompetitive, and that its publisher tools unfairly excluded rivals. A remedies proceeding in September 2025 included a Justice Department proposal for structural remedies, which the company's annual report says could harm its business.[^80] A separate California jury verdict against Google in the [[Epic Games]] case, delivered in December 2023 over the business of the Google Play store, was followed by a remedies decision in October 2024 that ordered changes to Android and Google Play contracts and operations. Google appealed the judgment.[^81]
+
+### The Epstein record
+
+A calendar page from the files of [[Jeffrey Epstein]] lists, for March 1, 2013, a 9:30 a.m. appointment with [[David Mitchell]], whom the entry describes as "AdFin CEO," of [[AdFin Solutions]], [[Eyal Manor]] ("guy from Google") and one other person.[^82] AdFin was a programmatic-advertising data company, and Mitchell was among its investors. On March 21, 2013 Mitchell wrote to Epstein about the voting rights attached to the investment, and the emails of March 21 and 22, 2013 concern the company.[^83] AdFin's Form D, filed December 31, 2013, is signed by [[Jeanne Houweling]] as chief executive and lists Mitchell as a director.[^84]
+
+Google's own records place an Eyal Manor in the company's advertising exchange business in the months before the meeting. A June 2012 post on the Google Research blog on a market algorithms workshop at Google describes "Eyal Manor, Google engineering director for the Ad Exchange," who "gave an overview of the design and functioning of the exchange."[^85] A Google document dated August 27, 2012, titled "Growing AdX" and introduced in the Justice Department's advertising technology case against Google, lists a team of Scott Spencer, Drew Bradstock, Ari Feldman and Eyal Manor and projects that the exchange could be a business of 3 to 4 billion dollars in 2014.[^86] A [[Smartsheet]] board biography states that Manor later served as vice president of engineering, product and general manager at Google Cloud and that during his tenure at Google he led engineering groups at YouTube and played a key role in the development of Google's ads products.[^87] The calendar gives no title for the Google attendee; the identification of the calendar's Eyal Manor with the Google advertising engineer rests on the name, the Google description and the advertising subject of the meeting.
+
+### Footnotes
+
+[^1]: Google Inc., Form S-1 registration statement (2004), "Corporate Information": "We were incorporated in California in September 1998. In August 2003, we reincorporated in Delaware." Principal executive offices at 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View, California. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1288776/000119312504073639/ds1.htm
+[^2]: Alphabet Inc., Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2025, filed February 5, 2026, exhibit index (Transfer Restriction Agreement, dated October 2, 2015, between the Registrant and Eric E. Schmidt, citing a Form 8-K of October 2, 2015). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1652044/000165204426000018/goog-20251231.htm
+[^3]: "Google To Acquire YouTube In Stock Transaction," Search Engine Watch, October 9, 2006. https://www.searchenginewatch.com/2006/10/09/google-to-acquire-youtube-in-stock-transaction/
+[^4]: In-Q-Tel, "In-Q-Tel Announces Strategic Investment in Keyhole," press release, June 25, 2003. https://www.iqt.org/library/in-q-tel-announces-strategic-investment-in-keyhole
+[^5]: Google Inc., "Google Acquires Keyhole Corp," press release, Mountain View, October 27, 2004. Internet Archive copy: https://web.archive.org/web/2005/http://www.google.com/press/pressrel/keyhole.html
+[^6]: Levine, Yasha. *Surveillance Valley: The Secret Military History of the Internet*. PublicAffairs, 2018.
+[^7]: USAspending.gov, federal award records for recipients GOOGLE LLC and GOOGLE PUBLIC SECTOR LLC: N6328509P0112 (Navy, September 22, 2009, 4,200 dollars), N6328510P0107 (Navy, September 7, 2010, 4,230 dollars), N6328512P0018 (Navy, November 15, 2011, 4,200 dollars), N6328513P0019 (Navy, February 4, 2013, renewal of eleven licenses, 0 dollars), N0017315P3479 (Navy, August 13, 2015, "multispectral images," 50,000 dollars), W912HQ09P0030 (Army, February 5, 2009, 24,525 dollars), HU000125C0002 (Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, January 23, 2025, cyber incident remediation, 173,750 dollars). Retrieved October 15, 2026. https://api.usaspending.gov/api/v2/search/spending_by_award/
+[^8]: David Drummond, "A new approach to China," Official Google Blog, January 12, 2010. https://googleblog.blogspot.com/2010/01/new-approach-to-china.html
+[^9]: Electronic Privacy Information Center v. National Security Agency, 678 F.3d 926 (D.C. Cir. 2012), background section. https://static.case.law/f3d/678/cases/0926-01.json
+[^10]: Electronic Privacy Information Center v. National Security Agency, Civil Case No. 10-1533 (RJL) (D.D.C.), memorandum opinion of July 13, 2011. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCOURTS-dcd-1_10-cv-01533/pdf/USCOURTS-dcd-1_10-cv-01533-0.pdf
+[^11]: Electronic Privacy Information Center v. National Security Agency, 678 F.3d 926 (D.C. Cir. May 11, 2012), opinion by Circuit Judge Brown. https://static.case.law/f3d/678/cases/0926-01.json
+[^12]: National Security Agency, slide "Dates When PRISM Collection Began For Each Provider" (Top Secret, Snowden document), published by the *Washington Post* in June 2013 at https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/special/politics/prism-collection-documents/. Copy in the Internet Archive collection "NSA PRISM Powerpoint Slides," file "PRISM-Dates Began.jpg." https://archive.org/details/NSA-PRISM-Slides
+[^13]: Larry Page and David Drummond, Google blog, June 7, 2013. https://blog.google/technology/safety-security/what/
+[^14]: Privacy and Civil Liberties Oversight Board, *Report on the Surveillance Program Operated Pursuant to Section 702 of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act*, staff report, April 2, 2026. https://documents.pclob.gov/prod/Documents/OversightReport/315fe19c-07f3-4cc6-986a-ff199ce5b616/Unclassified%20PCLOB%20702%20Report%202026.pdf
+[^15]: Privacy and Civil Liberties Oversight Board, *Report on the Surveillance Program Operated Pursuant to Section 702 of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act*, July 2, 2014, section on PRISM collection (pp. 33-34). Internet Archive copy: https://web.archive.org/web/2015/https://www.pclob.gov/library/702-Report.pdf
+[^16]: Encyclopaedia Britannica, "Eric Schmidt," biography. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Eric-Schmidt
+[^17]: Alphabet Inc., definitive proxy statement (Schedule 14A) filed April 24, 2020, footnote (2) to the director table (Eric and Diane did not seek re-election at the expiration of their terms on June 19, 2019) and footnote (9) to the beneficial ownership table (Schedule 13G/A filed February 14, 2020). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1652044/000130817920000203/lgoog2020_def14a.htm
+[^18]: Tech Transparency Project, "Eric Schmidt's Unseen Influence Over US Defense Spending." https://www.techtransparencyproject.org/articles/eric-schmidts-unseen-influence-over-us-defense-spending
+[^19]: National Security Commission on Artificial Intelligence, *Final Report*, March 2021, front matter and executive summary (Section 1051 of the FY2019 National Defense Authorization Act; fifteen commissioners nominated by Congress and the executive branch), chapter on foreign partnerships (consortium "Modeled on In-Q-Tel"), chapter on the Defense Department (Project Maven, 2017), and Appendix F, Commissioner Bios (Schmidt, Moore, Darby, Louie, Catz, Jassy, Horvitz). Internet Archive copy: https://web.archive.org/web/2021/https://www.nscai.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Full-Report-Digital-1.pdf
+[^20]: CNBC, "How Google's former CEO Eric Schmidt helped write A.I. laws in Washington without publicly disclosing investments in A.I. start-ups," October 24, 2022. https://www.cnbc.com/2022/10/24/how-googles-former-ceo-eric-schmidt-helped-write-ai-laws-in-washington-without-publicly-disclosing-investments-in-ai-start-ups.html
+[^21]: "Schmidt Futures," InfluenceWatch. https://www.influencewatch.org/organization/schmidt-futures/
+[^22]: Politico, March 28, 2022. https://www.politico.com/news/2022/03/28/google-eric-schmidt-white-house-00020712
+[^23]: CNBC, March 29, 2022, on the response of Eric Schmidt to the March 2022 Politico report. https://www.cnbc.com/2022/03/29/ex-google-ceo-eric-schmidt-responds-to-white-house-related-allegations.html
+[^24]: "Dr. Eric Schmidt announces Special Competitive Studies Project," Special Competitive Studies Project, October 5, 2021. https://www.scsp.ai/2021/10/dr-eric-schmidt-announces-special-competitive-studies-project-oct-5-2021-3/
+[^25]: "Who We Are," Special Competitive Studies Project. https://www.scsp.ai/about/who-we-are/
+[^26]: "About," Schmidt Sciences. https://www.schmidtsciences.org/about/
+[^27]: Christine Lagorio, "Examining Cory Booker's Tech Ties," *Inc.* https://www.inc.com/christine-lagorio/examining-cory-bookers-tech-ties.html
+[^28]: Deputy Secretary of Defense, memorandum, "Establishment of an Algorithmic Warfare Cross-Functional Team (Project Maven)," April 26, 2017, as preserved in the National Security Archive release on the Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/5977341-National-Security-Archive-Department-of-Defense
+[^29]: The Intercept, report on Google and Project Maven, June 1, 2018, on the timing of the contract end, the internal valuation and the company's position on other military AI work. https://theintercept.com/2018/06/01/google-drone-ai-project-maven-contract-renew
+[^30]: Google, "AI at Google: our principles," Google blog, retrieved October 15, 2026. https://blog.google/technology/ai/ai-principles/
+[^31]: "Technofacism? Why Palantir's pro-West 'manifesto' has critics alarmed," *Al Jazeera,* April 21, 2026, on *The Technological Republic.* https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2026/4/21/technofacism-why-palantirs-pro-west-manifesto-has-critics-alarmed
+[^32]: "Palantir Maven Smart System expanded by $795 million," *DefenseScoop,* May 23, 2025. https://defensescoop.com/2025/07/31/army-palantir-enterprise-agreement-10-billion/
+[^33]: USAspending.gov, award HC105023F0005 (Defense Information Systems Agency; recipient GOOGLE PUBLIC SECTOR LLC; start date December 8, 2022; Joint Warfighting Cloud Capability program management; recorded award amount 13,216,056.00 dollars). Retrieved October 15, 2026. https://api.usaspending.gov/api/v2/search/spending_by_award/
+[^34]: USAspending.gov, award W519TC25FA214 (Department of the Army; recipient GOOGLE PUBLIC SECTOR LLC; start date September 12, 2025; task order against JWCC multiple-award IDIQ contract HC105023D0002; recorded award amount 28,749,906.09 dollars). Retrieved October 15, 2026. https://api.usaspending.gov/api/v2/search/spending_by_award/
+[^35]: USAspending.gov, award SP470126F0184 (Defense Logistics Agency; recipient GOOGLE PUBLIC SECTOR LLC; start date July 1, 2026; JWCC task order for DLA information operations; recorded award amount 12,494,557.96 dollars). Retrieved October 15, 2026. https://api.usaspending.gov/api/v2/search/spending_by_award/
+[^36]: USAspending.gov, awards HC105025F0015 (Defense Information Systems Agency; "Golden Forge"; March 17, 2025; 122,249.39 dollars) and HC105024F0032 (Defense Information Systems Agency; Air Force Life Cycle Management Center, Air Force defensive cyber systems branch; September 18, 2024; 488,750 dollars); recipient GOOGLE PUBLIC SECTOR LLC. Retrieved October 15, 2026. https://api.usaspending.gov/api/v2/search/spending_by_award/
+[^37]: Alphabet Inc., Form 10-K for fiscal 2025, risk factors on financial services, healthcare and public sector customers. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1652044/000165204426000018/goog-20251231.htm
+[^38]: CNBC, "Anthropic, Google, OpenAI and xAI granted up to $200 million for AI work from Defense Department," July 14, 2025. https://www.cnbc.com/2025/07/14/anthropic-google-openai-xai-granted-up-to-200-million-from-dod.html
+[^39]: Lobbying Disclosure Act database (lda.gov API), filings by registrant GOOGLE CLIENT SERVICES LLC, quarterly reports Q1 through Q4 for 2008 to 2025 and Q1 and Q2 of 2026, expenses fields summed by year. Retrieved October 15, 2026. https://lda.gov/api/v1/filings/?registrant_name=Google
+[^40]: Lobbying Disclosure Act report, Google Client Services LLC, third quarter 2013 (filing a36c2662-c1c5-47c9-816b-718c90ebb300, posted October 21, 2013), first quarter 2014 and first quarter 2018 reports, issue entries "Consumer Issues/Safety/Products" and "Law Enforcement/Crime/Criminal Justice." https://lda.gov/api/v1/filings/a36c2662-c1c5-47c9-816b-718c90ebb300/
+[^41]: Lobbying Disclosure Act report, Google Client Services LLC, second quarter 2018 (filing 362e89f8-d39e-48b9-a33c-311148379f2f, posted July 20, 2018), issue entry "Science/Technology." https://lda.gov/api/v1/filings/362e89f8-d39e-48b9-a33c-311148379f2f/
+[^42]: Lobbying Disclosure Act reports, Google Client Services LLC, fourth quarter 2023 through fourth quarter 2025 (fourth quarter 2025: filing 25432e67-591b-4e9f-85ae-4437532f7e7e, posted January 20, 2026), issue entries "Defense" and "Intelligence." https://lda.gov/api/v1/filings/25432e67-591b-4e9f-85ae-4437532f7e7e/
+[^43]: Federal Election Commission, committee C00428623 (Google LLC NetPAC), committee totals by cycle and Schedule B disbursements by recipient (cycles 2016 and 2024), OpenFEC API. Retrieved October 15, 2026. https://api.open.fec.gov/v1/committee/C00428623/totals/
+[^44]: Companies House, DeepMind Technologies Limited, company no. 07386350, officers list. https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/07386350/officers
+[^45]: Companies House, DeepMind Technologies Limited, company no. 07386350, persons with significant control. https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/07386350/persons-with-significant-control
+[^46]: "Google Acquires Artificial Intelligence Startup DeepMind For More Than $500M," TechCrunch, January 26, 2014. https://techcrunch.com/2014/01/26/google-deepmind/
+[^47]: Anthropic, "Anthropic raises $124 million to build more reliable, general AI systems," May 2021. https://www.anthropic.com/news/anthropic-raises-124-million-to-build-more-reliable-general-ai-systems
+[^48]: Joshi, "The story of Ilya Sutskever," LinkedIn. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/story-ilya-sutskever-before-during-after-co-founding-openai-joshi-xhc9f
+[^49]: "Ray Kurzweil Joins Google In Full-Time Engineering Director Role; Will Focus On Machine Learning, Language Processing," TechCrunch, December 14, 2012. https://techcrunch.com/2012/12/14/ray-kurzweil-joins-google-as-engineering-director-focusing-on-machine-learning-and-language-tech/
+[^50]: CNBC, "Google agrees to new $1 billion investment in Anthropic," January 22, 2025. https://www.cnbc.com/2025/01/22/google-agrees-to-new-1-billion-investment-in-anthropic.html
+[^51]: "OpenAI co-founder Ilya Sutskever's Safe Superintelligence reportedly valued at $32B," TechCrunch, April 12, 2025. https://techcrunch.com/2025/04/12/openai-co-founder-ilya-sutskevers-safe-superintelligence-reportedly-valued-at-32b
+[^52]: "Alphabet, Nvidia bet on OpenAI co-founder Sutskever's $32B AI startup," TipRanks, 2025. https://www.tipranks.com/news/alphabet-nvidia-bet-on-openai-co-founder-sutskevers-32b-ai-startup
+[^53]: "Effective Accelerationism and Beff Jezos Form New Tech Tribe," Bloomberg, December 6, 2023. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/newsletters/2023-12-06/effective-accelerationism-and-beff-jezos-form-new-tech-tribe
+[^54]: "Guillaume Verdon," on the Beff Jezos persona, the Google X background, and Extropic AI; contemporaneous reporting, 2023.
+[^55]: Buchanan, Ben. Testimony before the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, "25 Years After 9/11: Confronting the Next Generation of Threats," July 21, 2026. https://www.congress.gov/119/meeting/house/119472/witnesses/HHRG-119-IG00-Wstate-BuchananB-20260721.pdf
+[^56]: Casey Newton, "The withering email that got an ethical AI researcher fired at Google," Platformer, December 2020. https://www.platformer.news/the-withering-email-that-got-an-ethical/
+[^57]: Nathaniel Thomas et al., "Tensor field networks: Rotation- and translation-equivariant neural networks for 3D point clouds," arXiv, February 2018. https://arxiv.org/pdf/1802.08219
+[^58]: Twitter, Inc., definitive proxy statement (Schedule 14A), April 2022. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1418091/000114036122014049/ny20001921x3_def14a.htm
+[^59]: Joseph D. Lyons, "Alexander Scaramucci, The Mooch's Oldest Son, Is Working In Los Angeles," Bustle, August 1, 2017. https://www.bustle.com/p/who-is-alexander-scaramucci-the-moochs-son-is-entrepreneur-73739 . The article relies on his LinkedIn page and the Daily Mail for the name "AJ."
+[^60]: Asana, Inc. Schedule 14A definitive proxy statement, filed April 20, 2026, U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1477720/000162828026025998/asan-20260420.htm
+[^61]: Jhong, Eugene, and Karen E. Theisen. U.S. Patent 6,259,458 B1, granted July 10, 2001; and "Advisory Boards," The Galileo Project website, snapshot of December 25, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20221225170229/https://projects.iq.harvard.edu/galileo/organization/advisory-boards
+[^62]: Internal Revenue Service, Tax Exempt Organization Search bulk XML, Form 990, Federation for American Immigration Reform, EIN 52-1136126, tax period December 2021, object ID 202221729349300737 (filed 2022), payments to Google for advertising.
+[^63]: Internal Revenue Service, Tax Exempt Organization Search bulk XML, Form 990, Federation for American Immigration Reform, EIN 52-1136126, tax period December 2022, object ID 202301799349301560 (filed 2023; a second return for the same period carries object ID 202322589349301102), payments to Google for advertising.
+[^64]: Hope Not Hate Charitable Trust, annual report and financial statements for the year ended December 31, 2021. https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/02738367/filing-history/MzM1MzYwMDY0NmFkaXF6a2N4/document?format=xhtml&download=1
+[^65]: Center for a New American Security, "CNAS Supporters." https://www.cnas.org/support-cnas/cnas-supporters
+[^66]: Omidyar Network, "Omidyar Network Appoints Michele L. Jawando as Chief Executive Officer," March 11, 2026. https://omidyar.com/update/omidyar-network-appoints-michele-l-jawando-ceo/
+[^67]: Moldbug, Mencius. "Neocameralism and the escalator of massarchy." Unqualified Reservations, December 20, 2007. https://www.unqualified-reservations.org/2007/12/neocameralism-and-escalator-of/
+[^68]: Stanford Internet Observatory, "The Strengths and Weaknesses of the Online Child Safety Ecosystem: Perspectives from Platforms, NCMEC, and Law Enforcement on the CyberTipline and How to Improve It," April 22, 2024. https://purl.stanford.edu/pr592kc5483
+[^69]: United States v. Ackerman, 831 F.3d 1292 (10th Cir. 2016), decided August 5, 2016, discussing NCMEC's status, the AOL hash-matching filter and the opening of the flagged email and its attachments. https://static.case.law/f3d/831/cases/1292-01.json
+[^70]: Internet Watch Foundation, "Our Members." https://www.iwf.org.uk/membership/our-members/
+[^71]: Iowa State University News Service, "A call for help leads ISU Police to sexual predator, international investigation," February 12, 2025. https://www.news.iastate.edu/news/2025/02/12/isu-police-exploitation
+[^72]: "How ISUPD uncovered a Neo-Nazi sexual predator ring," *Iowa State Daily*. https://iowastatedaily.com/335620/news/how-the-isupd-uncovered-a-neo-nazi-sexual-predator-ring/
+[^73]: Affidavit in the case against Leonidas Varagiannis (D.D.C.), Doc. 1-1. https://storage.courtlistener.com/recap/gov.uscourts.dcd.279553/gov.uscourts.dcd.279553.1.1.pdf
+[^74]: "Entenda por que juiz do ES mandou tirar Telegram do ar," A Gazeta, April 2023. https://www.agazeta.com.br/es/cotidiano/entenda-por-que-juiz-do-es-mandou-tirar-telegram-do-ar-0423
+[^75]: France 24, "Brazil court suspends Telegram app in neo-Nazi probe," April 26, 2023. https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20230426-brazil-court-suspends-telegram-app-in-neo-nazi-probe
+[^76]: *Gonzalez v. Google LLC*, No. 21-1333, 598 U.S. ___ (May 18, 2023) (per curiam). https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/22pdf/21-1333_6j7a.pdf
+[^77]: Brief of Amici Curiae Counter Extremism Project (CEP) and Hany Farid in Support of Petitioners, *Gonzalez v. Google LLC*, No. 21-1333 (U.S. Supreme Court), filed December 7, 2022. https://www.supremecourt.gov/DocketPDF/21/21-1333/249378/20221207151224344_No.%2021-1333_Brief%20of%20Amici%20Curiae.pdf
+[^78]: United States v. Google LLC, No. 1:20-cv-03010 (APM) (D.D.C.), memorandum opinion filed August 4, 2023. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCOURTS-dcd-1_20-cv-03010/pdf/USCOURTS-dcd-1_20-cv-03010-0.pdf
+[^79]: Alphabet Inc., Form 10-K for fiscal 2025, legal proceedings on the search antitrust case (August 2024 ruling, December 2025 final judgment, January and February 2026 appeals). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1652044/000165204426000018/goog-20251231.htm
+[^80]: Alphabet Inc., Form 10-K for fiscal 2025, legal proceedings on the advertising technology case in the Eastern District of Virginia (April 2025 decision; September 2025 remedies proceeding; structural remedies proposal). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1652044/000165204426000018/goog-20251231.htm
+[^81]: Alphabet Inc., Form 10-K for fiscal 2025, legal proceedings on Epic Games v. Google (December 2023 jury verdict; October 2024 remedies decision; appeal). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1652044/000165204426000018/goog-20251231.htm
+[^82]: Epstein calendar, entry for March 1, 2013, U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00299816, DataSet 9. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00299816.pdf
+[^83]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00652698, DataSet 9, email from David Mitchell to Jeffrey Epstein, "Re: AdFin," March 21 and 22, 2013. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00652698.pdf
+[^84]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, EDGAR, AdFin Solutions, Inc. (CIK 0001595302), Form D, accession number 0001595302-13-000001, filed December 31, 2013. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1595302/000159530213000001/0001595302-13-000001.txt
+[^85]: Google Research blog, "Third Market Algorithms and Optimization Workshop at Google NYC," June 2012. https://blog.research.google/2012/06/third-market-algorithms-and.html
+[^86]: "Growing AdX," Google document dated August 27, 2012, Plaintiffs' Trial Exhibit PTX0113, *United States v. Google LLC* (E.D. Va.), published by the U.S. Department of Justice Antitrust Division. https://www.justice.gov/media/1370306/dl
+[^87]: Smartsheet Inc., board of directors biography of Eyal Manor. https://www.smartsheet.com/about/board-of-directors/eyal-manor

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Hughes Aircraft Company.md

@@ -91,12 +91,12 @@ relations:
     reverse: true
     end: 1991-04
     role: "former employee who met Danny Casolaro in Martinsburg on August 9, 1991"
-    fn: 14
+    fn: 17
 created: 2026-10-05
-updated: 2026-10-05
+updated: 2026-10-15
 ---
 
-Hughes Aircraft Company, of [[Culver City]], California, was in its early decades a division of the [[Hughes Tool Company]], the holding company of [[Howard Hughes]]. It was formed in the spring of 1932 at Glendale, California, after Hughes leased space in a [[Lockheed Aircraft Corporation]] hangar in Burbank to rebuild a Boeing pursuit plane; [[Donald Barlett]] and [[James Steele]] wrote that it began as "nothing more than a glorified machine shop and a set of books." In 1953 Hughes gave the stock of a newly established Hughes Aircraft Company to the Howard Hughes Medical Institute and transferred to it almost all of the original company's operations, more than seventeen thousand employees and all but a few million dollars of more than 200 million dollars in defense contracts; the remainder became the Hughes Tool Company Aircraft Division.[^1] In the Delaware litigation over the [[Howard Hughes Medical Institute]], the Court of Chancery recorded that the institute "was funded by the transfer to it of the electronics division" of the Hughes holdings, through the Hughes Aircraft Company, "all of the stock of which latter company has since been held by the Institute."[^2]
+Hughes Aircraft Company, of [[Culver City]], California, was in its early decades a division of the [[Hughes Tool Company]], the holding company of [[Howard Hughes]]. It was formed in the spring of 1932 at Glendale, California, after Hughes leased space in a [[Lockheed Aircraft Company|Lockheed Aircraft Corporation]] hangar in Burbank to rebuild a Boeing pursuit plane; [[Donald Barlett]] and [[James Steele]] wrote that it began as "nothing more than a glorified machine shop and a set of books." In 1953 Hughes gave the stock of a newly established Hughes Aircraft Company to the Howard Hughes Medical Institute and transferred to it almost all of the original company's operations, more than seventeen thousand employees and all but a few million dollars of more than 200 million dollars in defense contracts; the remainder became the Hughes Tool Company Aircraft Division.[^1] In the Delaware litigation over the [[Howard Hughes Medical Institute]], the Court of Chancery recorded that the institute "was funded by the transfer to it of the electronics division" of the Hughes holdings, through the Hughes Aircraft Company, "all of the stock of which latter company has since been held by the Institute."[^2]
 
 ### The Medical Institute
 
@@ -128,9 +128,13 @@ In September 1973 Hughes sued the United States in the Court of Claims over the
 
 On January 16, 1997 General Motors and Hughes announced the spin-off of the Hughes defense business to holders of GM stock and its merger with Raytheon Company, the transfer of Delco Electronics to GM's Delphi Automotive Systems, and the recapitalization of Class H stock into a tracking stock for the Hughes telecommunications and space business.[^13] General Motors reported the completion of the transactions on December 17, 1997.[^13]
 
+In December 1998 *The New York Times* reported that a Central Intelligence Agency scientist, [[Ronald Pandolfi]], had visited "the Hughes Electronics Corporation in Los Angeles in 1995 to learn more about China's missile capabilities," and had become concerned that the satellite manufacturer "might have helped improve Chinese military capabilities." The paper described the company as "a unit of General Motors and major customer of the C.I.A.," which had denied any wrongdoing.[^14]
+
+In March 2003 DIRECTV Latin America, LLC, a 75 percent owned subsidiary of Hughes Electronics Corporation, which General Motors described as a wholly owned subsidiary of General Motors, announced a voluntary petition for reorganization under Chapter 11.[^15] On September 12, 2003, General Motors announced a private-letter ruling from the Internal Revenue Service confirming that the distribution of Hughes Electronics stock to the holders of GM Class H common stock, in connection with the split-off of Hughes, would be tax-free to GM and its Class H stockholders.[^16]
+
 ### Bill Turner and Danny Casolaro
 
-A Department of Justice document in the INSLAW files describes [[Bill Turner]] (William Turner) as having been "an employee of the Hughes Aircraft Corporation" who "apparently had been fired," and states that Turner "was never a 'whistleblower,' as some have described him." It records that Turner claimed to have met [[Danny Casolaro]] in the parking lot of Casolaro's hotel in Martinsburg on Friday, August 9, 1991, the afternoon before Casolaro died, that no one witnessed the meeting, that his accounts of the documents involved varied, and that on September 13, 1991 Turner pleaded guilty to a felony count of making a false statement to the Veterans Administration.[^14]
+A Department of Justice document in the INSLAW files describes [[Bill Turner]] (William Turner) as having been "an employee of the Hughes Aircraft Corporation" who "apparently had been fired," and states that Turner "was never a 'whistleblower,' as some have described him." It records that Turner claimed to have met [[Danny Casolaro]] in the parking lot of Casolaro's hotel in Martinsburg on Friday, August 9, 1991, the afternoon before Casolaro died, that no one witnessed the meeting, that his accounts of the documents involved varied, and that on September 13, 1991 Turner pleaded guilty to a felony count of making a false statement to the Veterans Administration.[^17]
 
 ### Footnotes
 
@@ -147,4 +151,7 @@ A Department of Justice document in the INSLAW files describes [[Bill Turner]] (
 [^11]: General Motors Form 10-K for fiscal 1993 (note 9), Item 2 (properties) and Item 1 (backlog).
 [^12]: General Motors Form 10-K for fiscal 1993 (note 9), Item 3 (legal proceedings) and notes on acquisitions.
 [^13]: General Motors Corporation, Form 8-K filed April 14, 1997 (announcement of January 16, 1997), SEC EDGAR accession 0000040730-97-000015, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/40730/0000040730-97-000015.txt; and Form 8-K filed December 18, 1997 (completion on December 17, 1997), accession 0000040730-97-000037, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/40730/0000040730-97-000037.txt
-[^14]: U.S. Department of Justice, report excerpt in the "INSLAW files of John C. Dwyer, Deputy Associate Attorney General," section "William Turner," DOCID 70002067, pp. 133-134, Internet Archive item INSLAW-Casolaro. https://archive.org/details/INSLAW-Casolaro
+[^14]: Gerth, Jeff, "Old Concerns Over Data Transfer to China Get New Attention," *The New York Times*, December 7, 1998, p. A20, archived copy at https://web.archive.org/web/20201101033224/https://www.nytimes.com/1998/12/07/us/old-concerns-over-data-transfer-to-china-get-new-attention.html.
+[^15]: General Motors Corporation, Form 8-K filed March 19, 2003 (event dated March 18, 2003), SEC EDGAR accession 0000040730-03-000056, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/40730/000004073003000056/gmhughesdlachapter11031903.txt.
+[^16]: General Motors Corporation, Form 8-K filed September 12, 2003, SEC EDGAR accession 0000040730-03-000110, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/40730/000004073003000110/irsrulingonhughes091203.txt.
+[^17]: U.S. Department of Justice, report excerpt in the "INSLAW files of John C. Dwyer, Deputy Associate Attorney General," section "William Turner," DOCID 70002067, pp. 133-134, Internet Archive item INSLAW-Casolaro. https://archive.org/details/INSLAW-Casolaro

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/HumRRO.md

@@ -6,10 +6,10 @@ tags:
   - ThinkTank
   - ColdWar
   - USArmy
-summary: "A nonprofit research organization founded in 1951 that served as the US Army's primary contractor for behavioral science research, conducting classified studies on training, leadership, counterinsurgency, and psychological vulnerability before separating from George Washington University in 1969."
+summary: "A nonprofit research organization founded in 1951 as the US Army's primary contractor for behavioral science research, with classified studies on training, leadership, counterinsurgency and psychological vulnerability; independent of George Washington University from 1969."
 location: Alexandria, Virginia
 created: 2026-06-04
-updated: 2026-06-04
+updated: 2026-10-15
 ---
 The Human Resources Research Office (HumRRO) was a nonprofit behavioral science organization founded in 1951 under contract to the [[U.S. Army]] that became one of the primary institutional centers for military psychology research in the United States during the [[Cold War]]. It was headquartered in [[Alexandria, Virginia]], and at its height employed approximately 275 people, including 90 to 100 psychologists holding advanced degrees.[^1]
 
@@ -17,6 +17,10 @@ The Human Resources Research Office (HumRRO) was a nonprofit behavioral science
 
 HumRRO was established in 1951 and for most of its early existence maintained an affiliation with [[George Washington University]] in Washington, D.C., which provided academic cover and access to research networks. That relationship ended in October 1969 when student demonstrations over the university's connections to military research prompted the administration to sever ties with the organization. HumRRO reorganized as a fully independent nonprofit and continued its research function from its Alexandria headquarters. Its research program was distributed across seven divisions located throughout the continental United States, in Kentucky, California, Georgia, Alabama, and Texas, in addition to the Alexandria headquarters.[^1]
 
+The office's own 1966 bibliography describes it as a nongovernmental agency of The George Washington University, operating under Army contract DA 44-188-ARO-2, and gives its mission as studies and research in the fields of training, motivation and leadership.[^2]
+
+A 1973 study of the office by CONSAD Research Corporation for the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare records the sequence in other terms. An Army staff study, "An Integrated Program in Human Resources Research," was approved by the Under Secretary of the Army on June 21, 1951 and is credited to [[Harry Harlow]]. The contract between the Army and the university was executed on July 27, 1951, and responsibility for psychological warfare passed after 1955 to the [[SORO]] at [[American University]]. The office moved to Alexandria in 1963. The study states that in 1969 the office severed its ties with the university, and quotes a participant: "The most visible effect was that the color of the checks changed." The office's president, [[Meredith P. Crawford]], wrote that the office left the university "again with the full concurrence of the Army," and the study dates the new independent corporation from September 1, 1969.[^3]
+
 The organization published approximately 35 technical reports per year. Its annual budget was roughly $6 million. Between 60 and 65 percent of its research was sponsored by the military. Only about 3 percent of its output was classified, which allowed HumRRO to maintain a public academic face while conducting sensitive work within that small classified fraction.[^1]
 
 ### Research Areas
@@ -25,12 +29,16 @@ HumRRO organized its research program around six areas: man as an individual per
 
 A distinct specialization within HumRRO's portfolio was the development of training technology: simulators, scale models, mock-ups, job performance tests, self-instructional taped courses, and scrambled books. The organization claimed its training devices produced an average 10 to 15 percent reduction in training time and a 20 percent reduction in attrition among trainees who completed device-supported instruction.[^1]
 
-The organization contributed personnel and research products to the broader ecology of Cold War military social science. [[Theodore Vallance]] and [[Charles Windle]] both moved from HumRRO to [[SORO]] (the Special Operations Research Office) at [[American University]], which became the primary Army contractor for counterinsurgency social science research in the early 1960s. HumRRO also contributed work on defection and disaffection research during the [[Korean War]], conducted through the [[Operations Research Office]] at [[Johns Hopkins University]].[^1]
+A 1966 HumRRO technical report under Contract DA 44-188 ARO-2, by [[Thomas Myers]], [[Donald B. Murphy]], [[Seward Smith]] and [[S. James Goffard]], reports four days of dark, quiet isolation for 176 cubicle subjects drawn from 551 enlisted men across studies from 1956 to 1961, with a stated concern for the ability to "maintain independence of judgment in the face of propaganda and group pressure." Among the effects the report lists for the four days (96 hours) of sensory deprivation and social isolation is "increased susceptibility to influence"; the control subjects were held at the Presidio of Monterey.[^4]
+
+The organization contributed personnel and research products to the broader ecology of Cold War military social science. [[Theodore Vallance]] and [[Charles Windle]] both moved from HumRRO to SORO (the Special Operations Research Office) at American University, which became the primary Army contractor for counterinsurgency social science research in the early 1960s. HumRRO also contributed work on defection and disaffection research during the [[Korean War]], conducted through the [[Operations Research Office]] at [[Johns Hopkins University]].[^1]
 
 ### Classified Work
 
 HumRRO's classified output included a 1962 document by [[Hilton Bialek]] et al. on interrogation, a 1955 document on leadership under combat conditions, and a 1958 document on group effectiveness in counterinsurgency settings.[^1]
 
+The 1963 report on screening procedures for tactical interrogation, prepared by the Leadership Human Research Unit with HumRRO technical supervision, identifies Bialek as task leader in the planning phase and John E. Taylor as acting task leader during execution. Its preface states that the task began July 1, 1961 at the request of the Army's assistant chief of staff for intelligence and that its initial exploratory work was reported in a May 1962 Task QUIZ research memorandum.[^5]
+
 ### Overlap with SORO and CRESS
 
 HumRRO's research focus overlapped substantially with that of SORO and its successor [[CRESS]] (Center for Research in Social Systems). Where HumRRO emphasized individual and unit performance, SORO and CRESS focused on population-level psychological and political analysis for counterinsurgency purposes. The movement of researchers between the two organizations reflected a shared sponsor base: all three drew primarily on Army funding and shared access to the classified psywar literature of this period. The [[Army Research Institute]] (also known as [[USARIBSS]]) served as the institutional successor to several overlapping earlier bodies and eventually consolidated much of this research function under a single Army command.[^1]
@@ -38,3 +46,7 @@ HumRRO's research focus overlapped substantially with that of SORO and its succe
 ### Footnotes
 
 [^1]: Peter Watson, *War on the Mind: The Military Uses and Abuses of Psychology*. Basic Books, 1978. pp. 462-468 (App. II).
+[^2]: Human Resources Research Office, *Bibliography of Publications as of 30 June 1966* (Alexandria, Va.: HumRRO, September 1966), introductory statement. DTIC AD0643761. https://archive.org/details/DTIC_AD0643761
+[^3]: Human Resources Research Office history, in *Institutional Funding for Applied Research: The Case of HumRRO and the U.S. Army*, CONSAD Research Corporation for the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation, May 24, 1973, ERIC ED097560, chapters I and II (quoting William A. McClelland, Professional Paper 30-68; Meredith P. Crawford, *A Perspective on the Development of HumRRO*, 1967). https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED097560.pdf
+[^4]: Thomas Myers, Donald B. Murphy, Seward Smith and S. James Goffard, *Experimental Studies of Sensory Deprivation and Social Isolation*, HumRRO Technical Report 66-8, June 1966. DTIC AD0636478. https://archive.org/details/DTIC_AD0636478
+[^5]: U.S. Army Leadership Human Research Unit, report on screening procedures for tactical interrogation, May 1963, preface and composition of the research team. DTIC AD0487576. https://archive.org/details/DTIC_AD0487576

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/IBM.md

@@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ tags:
   - USA
 summary: "IBM is a computer company whose German subsidiary, by Edwin Black's account, supplied punch cards to Nazi Germany; it also built SAGE and NSA computers and was sued over South African identity records."
 created: 2024-05-11
-updated: 2026-10-07
+updated: 2026-10-15
 relations:
   - type: head_of
     with: "[[Thomas J. Watson Sr.]]"
@@ -83,6 +83,11 @@ relations:
     role: "joined IBM after serving as deputy secretary of state"
     start: 1985-06-14
     fn: 13
+  - type: participant_in
+    with: "[[United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit]]"
+    start: 1982-08-13
+    role: "petitioner in In re International Business Machines Corp., 687 F.2d 591, writ of mandamus to Judge Edelstein"
+    fn: 17
   - type: employed_by
     with: "[[Richard L. Garwin]]"
     reverse: true
@@ -139,11 +144,11 @@ The bankruptcy court that heard the case of [[INSLAW]] found that earlier versio
 
 ### Antitrust case, 1969 to 1982
 
-The Justice Department filed a complaint on January 17, 1969 alleging that IBM had monopolized the market for general purpose electronic digital computer systems in violation of section 2 of the Sherman Act.[^17] In 1974 Chief Judge [[David N. Edelstein]] of the [[Southern District of New York]] ruled on the privilege claims over documents generated by the so-called Cravath, Swaine & Moore task forces and IBM's Office of Business Practices, holding most of them privileged as work product or attorney-client communications unless their content showed otherwise.[^18]
+The Justice Department filed a complaint on January 17, 1969 alleging that IBM had monopolized the market for general purpose electronic digital computer systems in violation of section 2 of the Sherman Act.[^17] In 1974 Chief Judge [[David N. Edelstein]] of the [[U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York|Southern District of New York]] ruled on the privilege claims over documents generated by the so-called Cravath, Swaine & Moore task forces and IBM's Office of Business Practices, holding most of them privileged as work product or attorney-client communications unless their content showed otherwise.[^18]
 
 The case had been pending for thirteen years, at a cost of between $1 million and $2 million a year, when [[William Baxter]], assistant attorney general for antitrust, ended it in January 1982.[^19] Some career trial staff had wanted the case continued. Baxter argued that under Section 2 of the Sherman Antitrust Act, IBM could not be sued simply because it held a monopoly, and that the monopoly must have been obtained illegally. He said the government probably would lose the case, and that for it to stretch on another twenty years would be "the ultimate horror."[^19] The stipulation of dismissal, signed by Baxter and IBM's counsel and filed on January 8, 1982, recites that the Antitrust Division began a review of the case in June 1981 and concluded that the case was "without merit." Baxter's memorandum stated that continued litigation offered "little prospect of victory or meaningful recovery."[^17]
 
-Edelstein criticized the dismissal in a [[Wall Street Journal]] article of January 26, 1982, and at a hearing on March 2, 1982 placed in the record letters indicating that Baxter had served as a consultant to IBM during the early stages of the private antitrust suit brought by [[Memorex]]. On August 13, 1982 the [[Second Circuit]] issued a writ of mandamus in the matter.[^17]
+Edelstein criticized the dismissal in a [[Wall Street Journal]] article of January 26, 1982, and at a hearing on March 2, 1982 placed in the record letters indicating that Baxter had served as a consultant to IBM during the early stages of the private antitrust suit brought by [[Memorex]]. On August 13, 1982 the [[Second Circuit]] issued a writ of mandamus in the matter. The panel of Judges [[Thomas J. Meskill]], [[Jon O. Newman]] and [[Amalya L. Kearse]] held that "a writ of mandamus shall issue directing Judge Edelstein to cease any further inquiry with respect to the conflict of interest claim," and stated that "[w]e express no view as to the merits of that claim." The panel did not expedite its review of whether mandamus should also issue on the [[Tunney Act]] question, because no urgency attended that aspect of the petition.[^17]
 
 ### South African computer systems and apartheid litigation
 
@@ -183,7 +188,7 @@ In November 1994 the [[National Security Council]] approved a supercomputer sale
 [^14]: Ari Ben-Menashe, *Profits of War: Inside the Secret U.S.-Israeli Arms Network* (Sheridan Square Press, 1992; TrineDay reprint, 2015).
 [^15]: *In re Inslaw, Inc.*, 83 B.R. 89 (Bankr. D.D.C. Jan. 25, 1988), findings of fact 34 (PROMIS versions on PDP 11/70, IBM, Wang, Honeywell and Burroughs computers) and 192 and 202 (IBM request for the Department of Justice letter; co-marketing agreement). https://static.case.law/br/83/cases/0089-01.json
 [^16]: U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on the Judiciary, *The INSLAW Affair: Investigative Report*, H. Rept. 102-857 (September 10, 1992): LEAA versions, p. 47; Riconosciuto's allegation on the Canadian agencies, p. 52; appeal of May 7, 1991, pp. 39-40. https://archive.org/details/InslawAffairInvestigativeReport.
-[^17]: *In re International Business Machines Corp.*, 687 F.2d 591 (2d Cir. Aug. 13, 1982), Background section (docket *United States v. International Business Machines Corp.*, 69 Civ. 200, S.D.N.Y., filed January 17, 1969). https://static.case.law/f2d/687/cases/0591-01.json
+[^17]: *In re International Business Machines Corp.*, 687 F.2d 591 (2d Cir. Aug. 13, 1982), Background section (docket *United States v. International Business Machines Corp.*, 69 Civ. 200, S.D.N.Y., filed January 17, 1969). https://static.case.law/f2d/687/cases/0591-01.json Discussion and conclusion (Meskill, Newman, Kearse, JJ.): "we conclude that a writ of mandamus shall issue directing Judge Edelstein to cease any further inquiry with respect to the conflict of interest claim"; "We express no view as to the merits of that claim"; Tunney Act aspect not expedited.
 [^18]: *United States v. International Business Machines Corp.*, 66 F.R.D. 154 (S.D.N.Y. June 27, 1974), No. 69 Civ. 200 (DNE). https://static.case.law/frd/66/cases/0154-01.json
 [^19]: "Impact of AT&T, IBM decisions," *Christian Science Monitor*, January 11, 1982. https://www.csmonitor.com/1982/0111/011144.html
 [^20]: Thomas Conrad, "U.S. Data Processing Corporations Are Supplying South Africa with the Brains of Its Military and Police Services," *Multinational Monitor* 3, no. 4 (April 1982). https://www.multinationalmonitor.org/hyper/issues/1982/04/conrad.html.

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/International Assets Group.md

@@ -25,7 +25,7 @@ created: 2026-09-25
 updated: 2026-09-25
 ---
 
-International Assets Group Inc. (I.A.G.) was the consulting company [[Jeffrey Epstein]] operated out of his apartment in [[New York]] after leaving [[Bear Stearns]] in 1981 and before forming [[J. Epstein & Co.]] Epstein described its business as recovering money stolen from wealthy clients or governments. It was the firm he represented when [[Steven Hoffenberg]] engaged him as a consultant to [[Towers Financial Corporation]] around 1987, and a 1987 Towers press release on the attempted takeover of [[Pan American World Airways|Pan Am]] identified Epstein as its chairman.[^1][^2][^3]
+International Assets Group Inc. (I.A.G.) was the consulting company [[Jeffrey Epstein]] operated out of his apartment in [[New York City|New York]] after leaving [[Bear Stearns]] in 1981 and before forming [[J. Epstein & Co.]] Epstein described its business as recovering money stolen from wealthy clients or governments. It was the firm he represented when [[Steven Hoffenberg]] engaged him as a consultant to [[Towers Financial Corporation]] around 1987, and a 1987 Towers press release on the attempted takeover of [[Pan American World Airways|Pan Am]] identified Epstein as its chairman.[^1][^2][^3]
 
 ### Name
 

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/J. Epstein & Co..md

@@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ created: 2026-09-25
 updated: 2026-09-25
 ---
 
-J. Epstein & Co. was the money-management business [[Jeffrey Epstein]] ran in [[New York]] from about 1988, after his consulting company [[International Assets Group]] and his engagement at [[Towers Financial Corporation]]. Epstein said it accepted only clients worth a billion dollars or more. Its one publicly acknowledged client was [[Leslie Wexner]], founder of [[L Brands|The Limited]]. By 2003 he had run the business for about fifteen years.[^1]
+J. Epstein & Co. was the money-management business [[Jeffrey Epstein]] ran in [[New York City|New York]] from about 1988, after his consulting company [[International Assets Group]] and his engagement at [[Towers Financial Corporation]]. Epstein said it accepted only clients worth a billion dollars or more. Its one publicly acknowledged client was [[Leslie Wexner]], founder of [[L Brands|The Limited]]. By 2003 he had run the business for about fifteen years.[^1]
 
 ### Offices and Clients
 

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Kalshi.md

@@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ tags:
 summary: "Event-contract exchange designated by the CFTC in November 2020, backed by Sequoia, Paradigm and Andreessen Horowitz, with a former CFTC commissioner on its board and Donald Trump Jr. as a strategic adviser."
 location: "New York, New York"
 created: 2026-10-13
-updated: 2026-10-13
+updated: 2026-10-15
 relations:
   - type: founded
     with: "[[Tarek Mansour]]"
@@ -254,7 +254,7 @@ In [[New Jersey]], the Third Circuit decided KalshiEX, LLC v. Flaherty (No. 25-1
 
 In [[Maryland]], Judge [[Adam Abelson]] denied a preliminary injunction on August 1, 2025. Kalshi's appeal to the [[Fourth Circuit]] was docketed on August 6, 2025 as No. 25-1892, and on August 12 Maryland gave written assurance that it would forgo enforcement against Kalshi pending the outcome. The Ninth Circuit's opinion of August 28, 2026 records the Fourth Circuit appeal as pending.[^34]
 
-In [[Ohio]], the [[Ohio Casino Control Commission]] sent cease-and-desist letters to prediction markets in 2025, and the Southern District of Ohio (Chief Judge Sarah Morrison) denied Kalshi a preliminary injunction on March 9, 2026. In [[Tennessee]], Judge Aleta Trauger had granted one on February 19, 2026. On September 25, 2026 a Sixth Circuit panel of Judges Clay, Gibbons and Bloomekatz, in an opinion by Judge Julia Gibbons after argument on July 30, 2026, affirmed the Ohio denial and vacated the Tennessee injunction, holding that Kalshi had not shown that sports event contracts are swaps and, alternatively, that the Commodity Exchange Act neither expressly nor impliedly preempts the states' gambling laws.[^35] Briefs for Kalshi were signed by [[Neal Katyal]] and Joshua Sterling of [[Milbank LLP]]. The opinion lists [[Elizabeth Prelogar]] of [[Cooley LLP]] and CFTC counsel Henry Dickman and M. Jordan Minot among counsel for amici, and cites the amicus brief of the Coalition for Prediction Markets "in support of Kalshi."[^35] Ohio's commission dated cease-and-desist notices October 2, 2026 to ten operators including Coinbase, Polymarket and Robinhood and did not include Kalshi; Covers reported that Ohio fined Kalshi 5 million dollars in April.[^36]
+In [[Ohio]], the [[Ohio Casino Control Commission]] sent cease-and-desist letters to prediction markets in 2025, and the Southern District of Ohio (District Judge Sarah Morrison) denied Kalshi a preliminary injunction on March 9, 2026. In [[Tennessee]], Judge Aleta Trauger had granted one on February 19, 2026. On September 25, 2026 a Sixth Circuit panel of Judges Clay, Gibbons and Bloomekatz, in an opinion by Judge Julia Gibbons after argument on July 30, 2026, affirmed the Ohio denial and vacated the Tennessee injunction, holding that Kalshi had not shown that sports event contracts are swaps and, alternatively, that the Commodity Exchange Act neither expressly nor impliedly preempts the states' gambling laws.[^35] Briefs for Kalshi were signed by [[Neal Katyal]] and Joshua Sterling of [[Milbank LLP]]. The opinion lists [[Elizabeth Prelogar]] of [[Cooley LLP]] and CFTC counsel Henry Dickman and M. Jordan Minot among counsel for amici, and cites the amicus brief of the Coalition for Prediction Markets "in support of Kalshi."[^35] Ohio's commission dated cease-and-desist notices October 2, 2026 to ten operators including Coinbase, Polymarket and Robinhood and did not include Kalshi; Covers reported that Ohio fined Kalshi 5 million dollars in April.[^36]
 
 On January 20, 2026 [[Suffolk Superior Court]] Judge [[Christopher Barry-Smith]] ruled in Commonwealth v. KalshiEX LLC (No. 2584CV02525) that Kalshi could not offer sports wagering in [[Massachusetts]] without a license and said he would issue a preliminary injunction. Attorney General [[Andrea Campbell]] called the ruling "a major step toward fortifying Massachusetts' gambling laws."[^37] The matter is before the Supreme Judicial Court as No. SJC-13906 (Appeals Court No. 2026-P-244), where the CFTC filed an amicus brief on April 24, 2026 in support of Kalshi and of reversal.[^38]
 

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Kobre & Kim.md

@@ -42,7 +42,7 @@ created: 2026-09-25
 updated: 2026-09-25
 ---
 
-Kobre & Kim LLP is a litigation firm founded in [[New York]] by [[Steven Kobre]] and [[Michael Kim]], former Assistant U.S. Attorneys in the securities and commodities fraud unit of the [[U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of New York]]. It describes itself as a "conflict-free, litigation-only" firm for cross-border disputes, government investigations and asset recovery, with offices in several countries, and most of its business referred by other law firms. Two supervisors of the [[U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of Florida]]'s 2006 to 2007 investigation of [[Jeffrey Epstein]] joined it on leaving government: [[Matthew Menchel]], chief of the Criminal Division, who left in August 2007 while the [[Epstein non-prosecution agreement]] was being negotiated, and [[Andrew Lourie]], who left the [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]] in February 2008.[^1][^2][^3]
+Kobre & Kim LLP is a litigation firm founded in [[New York City|New York]] by [[Steven Kobre]] and [[Michael Kim]], former Assistant U.S. Attorneys in the securities and commodities fraud unit of the [[U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of New York]]. It describes itself as a "conflict-free, litigation-only" firm for cross-border disputes, government investigations and asset recovery, with offices in several countries, and most of its business referred by other law firms. Two supervisors of the [[U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of Florida]]'s 2006 to 2007 investigation of [[Jeffrey Epstein]] joined it on leaving government: [[Matthew Menchel]], chief of the Criminal Division, who left in August 2007 while the [[Epstein non-prosecution agreement]] was being negotiated, and [[Andrew Lourie]], who left the [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]] in February 2008.[^1][^2][^3]
 
 ### Founders and Model
 

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Leading the Future.md

@@ -86,7 +86,7 @@ relations:
     role: "legal services"
     fn: 2
 created: 2026-09-23
-updated: 2026-09-23
+updated: 2026-10-15
 ---
 
 Leading the Future is a super PAC, a political committee that may make only independent expenditures, registered with the [[Federal Election Commission]] on August 15, 2025, under identifier C00916114. Its address is 675 South Green Valley Parkway, #1333, [[Henderson, Nevada]], and its treasurer of record is [[Britney Gonzalez]] of [[Mountain Brook, Alabama]]. The email contact on its filings uses the domain of the [[Crosby Ottenhoff Group]], which the committee also pays as a compliance consultant.[^1][^2] Its leaders, [[Zac Moffatt]] and [[Josh Vlasto]], described the [[RAISE Act]] of the New York Assembly member [[Alex Bores]] in November 2025 as "ideological and politically motivated legislation" and said that "bills like the RAISE Act threaten American competitiveness, limit economic growth."[^3]
@@ -108,7 +108,7 @@ Almost all of the committee's spending consists of transfers to other committees
 
 ### Think Big
 
-Think Big (FEC identifier C00923417) reported 23,021,600.71 dollars in receipts, 20,760,549.23 dollars in disbursements and 17,224,117.88 dollars in independent expenditures.[^5] Its largest single target was Bores, then a candidate in the Democratic primary for [[New York]]'s 12th congressional district;[^6] the FEC's aggregation of its independent expenditures by candidate shows 8,145,697.68 dollars spent opposing him, in 55 transactions, all through the vendor [[Lantern Production Consultants]].[^5] In February 2026 *[[TechCrunch]]* reported that Leading the Future had "already poured $1.1 million into ads attacking Bores" when the [[Anthropic]]-funded [[Public First Action]] began spending in his support.[^6] Think Big also reported expenditures supporting other candidates, among them [[Jesse Jackson Jr.]] and [[Melissa Bean]] in [[Illinois]], [[Ben McAdams]] in [[Utah]], [[Ritchie Torres]], [[Joseph Morelle]] and [[Yvette Clarke]] in New York, [[Jimmy Panetta]] in [[California]], [[Rob Menendez|Robert Menendez]] in [[New Jersey]], [[Greg Stanton]] in [[Arizona]] and [[Valerie Hoyle]] in [[Oregon]].[^5]
+Think Big (FEC identifier C00923417) reported 23,021,600.71 dollars in receipts, 20,760,549.23 dollars in disbursements and 17,224,117.88 dollars in independent expenditures.[^5] Its largest single target was Bores, then a candidate in the Democratic primary for [[New York]]'s 12th congressional district;[^6] the FEC's aggregation of its independent expenditures by candidate shows 8,155,897.68 dollars spent opposing him, in 56 transactions, all through the vendor [[Lantern Production Consultants]].[^5] In February 2026 *[[TechCrunch]]* reported that Leading the Future had "already poured $1.1 million into ads attacking Bores" when the [[Anthropic]]-funded [[Public First Action]] began spending in his support.[^6] Think Big also reported expenditures supporting other candidates, among them [[Jesse Jackson Jr.]] and [[Melissa Bean]] in [[Illinois]], [[Ben McAdams]] in [[Utah]], [[Ritchie Torres]], [[Joseph Morelle]] and [[Yvette Clarke]] in New York, [[Jimmy Panetta]] in [[California]], [[Rob Menendez|Robert Menendez]] in [[New Jersey]], [[Greg Stanton]] in [[Arizona]] and [[Valerie Hoyle]] in [[Oregon]].[^5]
 
 The counter-campaign for Bores was run by the Jobs and Democracy PAC, funded through the Public First super PAC, which the FEC's aggregation shows spent 15,026,937.99 dollars supporting him.[^7]
 
@@ -122,6 +122,6 @@ American Mission (FEC identifier C00916692) reported 23,943,009.62 dollars in re
 [^2]: Federal Election Commission, itemized disbursements (Schedule B) for committee C00916114, 53 records, retrieved September 23, 2026. https://www.fec.gov/data/disbursements/?committee_id=C00916114
 [^3]: Bellan, Rebecca. "a16z-backed super PAC is targeting Alex Bores, sponsor of New York's AI safety bill; he says bring it on." *TechCrunch,* November 17, 2025. https://techcrunch.com/2025/11/17/a16z-backed-super-pac-is-targeting-alex-bores-sponsor-of-new-yorks-ai-safety-bill-he-says-bring-it-on/
 [^4]: Federal Election Commission, financial totals for committee C00916114, 2025 to 2026 cycle, through the report of July 15, 2026. https://www.fec.gov/data/committee/C00916114/?tab=summary
-[^5]: Federal Election Commission, committees C00923417 ("Think Big") and C00916692 ("American Mission"), financial totals and independent expenditures (Schedule E), including the by-candidate aggregation for Alex Bores, retrieved September 23, 2026. https://www.fec.gov/data/committee/C00923417/ ; https://www.fec.gov/data/committee/C00916692/ ; https://www.fec.gov/data/independent-expenditures/?committee_id=C00923417
+[^5]: Federal Election Commission, committees C00923417 ("Think Big") and C00916692 ("American Mission"), financial totals and independent expenditures (Schedule E), including the by-candidate aggregation for Alex Bores, retrieved September 23, 2026 and queried again October 15, 2026. https://www.fec.gov/data/committee/C00923417/ ; https://www.fec.gov/data/committee/C00916692/ ; https://www.fec.gov/data/independent-expenditures/?committee_id=C00923417
 [^6]: Bellan, Rebecca. "Anthropic-funded group backs candidate attacked by rival AI super PAC." *TechCrunch,* February 20, 2026. https://techcrunch.com/2026/02/20/anthropic-funded-group-backs-candidate-attacked-by-rival-ai-super-pac/
 [^7]: Federal Election Commission, committees C00928374 ("Jobs and Democracy PAC") and C00928390 ("Defending Our Values PAC"), independent expenditures (Schedule E), including the by-candidate aggregation for Alex Bores, retrieved September 23, 2026. https://www.fec.gov/data/independent-expenditures/?committee_id=C00928374 ; https://www.fec.gov/data/independent-expenditures/?committee_id=C00928390

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Lockheed Aircraft Company.md

@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ tags:
   - USA
 category: "Private Organization"
 summary: "The Lockheed Aircraft Company is a U.S. aerospace manufacturer that built the U-2, named in Ari Ben-Menashe's account of a bribe in Israeli politics and in 1970s SEC disclosures of questionable overseas payments."
-updated: 2026-10-12
+updated: 2026-10-15
 start: 1926
 end: 1995
 location: "Burbank, California, USA"
@@ -36,9 +36,14 @@ The subcommittee's record also contains a statement by Representative [[Michael
 
 The commission's May 12, 1976 report to the Senate Banking Committee on questionable and illegal corporate payments and practices summarized its enforcement action against Lockheed: it alleged secret payments of at least 25 million dollars to foreign government officials, at least 750,000 dollars deposited in a secret Swiss bank account, and over 200 million dollars disbursed to consultants and commission agents without adequate records.[^4]
 
+### Merger into Lockheed Martin
+
+The company combined with [[Martin Marietta Corporation]] on March 15, 1995 under the holding company [[Lockheed Martin]], which had been incorporated on August 29, 1994 for that purpose. On January 28, 1996 the company was merged into its parent together with its Lockheed Missiles and Space Company and Lockheed Sanders subsidiaries.[^5] The parent's annual report for 1995 describes the businesses of Lockheed Martin as "the businesses previously conducted by Lockheed and Martin Marietta and their respective subsidiaries."[^5]
+
 ### Footnotes
 
 [^1]: Hersh, Seymour M. _The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy_. Random House, 1991. Chapter 4.
 [^2]: Ben-Menashe, Ari. _Profits of War: Inside the Secret U.S.-Israeli Arms Network_. Sheridan Square Press, 1992 (TrineDay reprint, 2015). 
 [^3]: Unlawful Corporate Payments Act of 1977, Hearings on H.R. 3815 and H.R. 1602 before the Subcommittee on Consumer Protection and Finance of the Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, House of Representatives, 95th Congress, 1st session, April 20 and 21, 1977 (Serial No. 95-11). Statement of Gordon Adams (beginning p. 26); statement of Rep. Michael J. Harrington (pp. 168-173). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-95hhrg91391O/pdf/CHRG-95hhrg91391O.pdf
 [^4]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, Report of the Securities and Exchange Commission on Questionable and Illegal Corporate Payments and Practices to the Senate Banking, Housing and Urban Affairs Committee, May 12, 1976, Securities Regulation and Law Report No. 353 (BNA), May 19, 1976, Special Supplement, Exhibit B (Lockheed Aircraft Corporation). https://sechistorical.org/wp-content/uploads/1976_0512_SECQuestionable.pdf
+[^5]: Lockheed Martin Corporation, Form 10-K405 for the fiscal year 1995, filed March 13, 1996, Item 1, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/936468/0000950109-96-001535.txt

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Lockheed Martin.md

@@ -0,0 +1,289 @@
+---
+aliases:
+  - Lockheed Martin Corporation
+category: "Private Organization"
+tags:
+  - Organization
+  - Private
+  - Aerospace
+  - Defense
+  - SkunkWorks
+  - UFO
+  - Intelligence
+  - Bribery
+  - Japan
+  - Sandia
+  - Area51
+summary: "Defense contractor formed by the 1995 combination of Lockheed and Martin Marietta, whose Skunk Works built the U-2 and flew from Groom Lake, and whose name recurs in attributed claims about recovered craft."
+location: "Bethesda, Maryland"
+start: 1995
+created: 2026-10-15
+updated: 2026-10-15
+relations:
+  - type: owned
+    with: "[[Lockheed Aircraft Company]]"
+    start: 1995-03-15
+    end: 1996-01-28
+    role: "combined with Martin Marietta on March 15, 1995 and merged into Lockheed Martin on January 28, 1996"
+    fn: 1
+  - type: owned
+    with: "[[Martin Marietta Corporation]]"
+    start: 1995-03-15
+    end: 1996-01-28
+    role: "combined with Lockheed on March 15, 1995 and merged into Lockheed Martin on January 28, 1996"
+    fn: 1
+  - type: owned
+    with: "[[Lockheed Skunk Works]]"
+    start: 1995-03-15
+    role: "Advanced Development Programs unit, which the annual report filed in March 1996 describes as performing a substantial amount of classified work"
+    fn: 2
+  - type: contractor_to
+    with: "[[Central Intelligence Agency]]"
+    start: 1955
+    role: "U-2 aircraft built by the predecessor Lockheed Aircraft Company under the agency's program run by Richard Bissell, and A-12 aircraft under the OXCART contract"
+    fn: 8
+  - type: contractor_to
+    with: "[[United States Department of Energy]]"
+    start: 1993
+    end: 2017
+    role: "operated Sandia National Laboratories through Sandia Corporation, a Lockheed Martin company"
+    fn: 39
+  - type: contractor_to
+    with: "[[United States Department of Energy]]"
+    start: 1996
+    role: "integrated subcontractor to Bechtel National for support services at the Nevada Test Site, through Lockheed Martin Nevada Technologies"
+    fn: 17
+  - type: contractor_to
+    with: "[[Federal Bureau of Investigation]]"
+    end: 2010-03
+    role: "lead contractor on the Sentinel case-management system, which received an FBI stop-work order in March 2010"
+    fn: 62
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[James Comey]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2005-09
+    end: 2010-09
+    role: "senior vice president and general counsel"
+    fn: 63
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Ron Blackburn]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1984
+    role: "retired Air Force lieutenant colonel at the Burbank Skunk Works, according to John B. Alexander"
+    fn: 35
+  - type: investigated
+    with: "[[Federal Trade Commission]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2022-01-25
+    end: 2022-02-13
+    role: "sued to block the proposed acquisition of Aerojet Rocketdyne"
+    fn: 70
+  - type: contractor_to
+    with: "[[Arabsat]]"
+    start: 2015-04-28
+    role: "built the Arabsat 6A and Hellas-Sat-4/SaudiGeoSat-1 communications satellites under a 2015 contract"
+    fn: 72
+---
+
+Lockheed Martin Corporation is a defense and aerospace contractor headquartered in [[Bethesda, Maryland]]. It was incorporated on August 29, 1994 to combine the businesses of [[Lockheed Aircraft Company|Lockheed]] and [[Martin Marietta Corporation|Martin Marietta]], and the combination was completed on March 15, 1995.[^1] Its aeronautics sector includes the [[Lockheed Skunk Works]], which the annual report filed in March 1996 describes as performing "a substantial amount of classified work." The unit's aircraft include the [[U-2 Spy Plane]], which was built for the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], and the [[F-117 Nighthawk|F-117]] stealth fighter, which the sector supports.[^2]
+
+### Formation and mergers, 1994 to 1996
+
+The filing for fiscal 1995 describes a reorganization agreement between Lockheed and Martin Marietta, dated August 29, 1994 and amended on February 7, 1995. Under it both companies became wholly owned subsidiaries of the new parent on March 15, 1995.[^1] On January 28, 1996 Lockheed, its Lockheed Missiles and Space Company and Lockheed Sanders subsidiaries, Martin Marietta, and Martin Marietta Technologies were merged into the parent. The filing states that the business of Lockheed Martin "consists of the businesses previously conducted by Lockheed and Martin Marietta and their respective subsidiaries."[^1]
+
+The company's acquisition of [[Loral Corporation]] was agreed on January 7, 1996 and completed in April 1996, and the annual report for 1996 lists the April 1996 combination among the items affecting its figures.[^3] [[Bernard L. Schwartz]], who had taken over Loral in 1972, sold the bulk of it to Lockheed Martin in 1996.[^4]
+
+The legal proceedings item of the same filing lists a series of government inquiries into the company's operations. They include a federal grand jury subpoena served on May 9, 1995 in Boise, Idaho, in an investigation that appeared to concern the handling of hazardous waste at the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory; Department of Defense Inspector General subpoenas concerning the LANTIRN program, a sonar array and the company's Advanced Concept Center; and a class action filed on June 7, 1990 in the Eastern District of Ohio against Martin Marietta Energy Systems, in which the plaintiffs sought $600 million over discharges of hazardous substances.[^5] The filing also describes a criminal investigation by the [[Environmental Protection Agency]] and the U.S. Army Criminal Investigation Command into "whether the Corporation improperly disposed of wastes from The Skunk Works at a government site in Nevada," and states that it did not appear the company was the target.[^6]
+
+### The Skunk Works, the U-2 and Groom Lake
+
+The Skunk Works is the nickname of the Advanced Development Projects unit that [[Kelly Johnson]] led as chief engineer from June 1943. [[Ben Rich]] headed it from January 1975 until his retirement on December 31, 1990.[^7] The CIA's history of its overhead reconnaissance programs records that Johnson placed the U-2 in Lockheed's Advanced Development facility at Burbank, California, "known as the Skunk Works," an area Lockheed had established in 1945 to develop the P-80 Shooting Star, and that the small unit then began making the detailed drawings for the aircraft. The company's own annual report calls the unit "a national asset since its inception during World War II."[^8][^9]
+
+[[Richard Bissell]] ran the U-2 program for the agency after [[Allen Dulles]] gave him charge of it on November 26, 1954. The CIA's general counsel, [[Lawrence Houston]], told Lockheed that the agency could budget only $22.5 million for the airframes, and the two sides agreed on a fixed-price contract. In the spring of 1958 Lockheed and the government settled the price for the original twenty aircraft at $17,025,542 plus a profit of $1,952,055, a total of $18,977,597, less than $1 million for each aircraft.[^8] On April 12, 1955 Bissell and Colonel [[Osmund Ritland]] of the Air Force flew over Nevada with Johnson in a Beechcraft piloted by Lockheed's chief test pilot [[Tony LeVier]], saw an airstrip beside a salt flat known as [[Groom Lake]], near the northeast corner of the [[Atomic Energy Commission]]'s Nevada Proving Ground, and landed on the lakebed. Johnson called the site the Paradise Ranch, shortened to the Ranch. The CIA history gives the map designation as [[Area 51]].[^10]
+
+The first U-2 was flown to Groom Lake on July 25, 1955. To move Lockheed employees from Burbank to Area 51 without attracting attention, the project staff began a weekly military air transport flight on October 3, 1955. A transport bound for Area 51 crashed on November 17, 1955 and killed all fourteen people aboard, among them the project security officer and personnel from Lockheed and Hycon, which the CIA history calls the greatest single loss of life in the U-2 program.[^11] The same history states that high-altitude U-2 flights above 60,000 feet produced a sharp increase in reports of unidentified flying objects from airline pilots, that [[Project Blue Book]] investigators regularly asked the agency's project staff to check reported sightings against U-2 flight logs, and that "U-2 and later OXCART flights accounted for more than one-half of all UFO reports during the late 1950s and most of the 1960s."[^12]
+
+The successor aircraft, the A-12 of the [[OXCART]] program, was built by the same unit. On September 10, 1959 [[EG&G]] agreed to move its radar test facility to the former U-2 testing site at Area 51, and Johnson trucked a full-scale mockup of the aircraft from Burbank to Nevada for radar cross section tests. An amendment to the OXCART contract reduced the order from twelve to ten A-12 aircraft at a total cost of $161 million. The first A-12 flew officially on April 30, 1962, piloted by Louis Schalk, after an unannounced flight on April 25.[^13]
+
+The agency's files on the program also include a 1963 cable from Johnson concerning the approval of [[Francis Gary Powers]] to fly U-2 aircraft after Powers, released by the Soviet Union in 1962, began working for Lockheed as a U-2 pilot.[^14]
+
+### The Groom Lake waste litigation
+
+Two suits filed in 1994 in the District of Nevada concerned hazardous waste at the Air Force's operating location near Groom Lake. In [[Frost v. Perry]], the widow of a former worker and others proceeding as Does, who had worked at the location, brought a citizen suit under the [[Resource Conservation and Recovery Act]] against the Air Force; in [[Kasza v. Browner]], a plaintiff and Does sued the Environmental Protection Agency. [[Jonathan Turley]] and [[Joan Manley]] of George Washington University represented the plaintiffs, and KLAS, Inc., the owner of [[KLAS-TV]], appeared as amicus.[^15] The Secretary of the Air Force, [[Sheila Widnall]], invoked the military and state secrets privilege over "security sensitive environmental data" and other categories of information, and the court reviewed classified declarations in camera, among them one from Air Force Vice Chief of Staff General [[Thomas S. Moorman Jr.]] The EPA inspected the operating location from December 6, 1994 to March 10, 1995. The district court granted summary judgment to the Air Force in Frost and dismissed Kasza as moot, and the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit|Ninth Circuit]] affirmed on January 8, 1998, applying the privilege defined in United States v. Reynolds.[^15]
+
+[[Bill Clinton]] signed Presidential Determination No. 95-45 on September 29, 1995. It exempts "the Air Force's operating location near Groom Lake, Nevada" from any provision "respecting control and abatement of solid waste or hazardous waste disposal that would require the disclosure of classified information concerning that operating location," and names both suits.[^16] The company's annual report for 1995, filed on March 13, 1996, records that it had won the support services contract for the [[Nevada Test Site]] as an integrated subcontractor to Bechtel National, Inc. beginning in 1996, through a new unit, Lockheed Martin Nevada Technologies, Inc.[^17]
+
+### Kelly Johnson's sightings
+
+On December 16, 1953 a five-man Lockheed flight test crew and Johnson watched the same object at different times. According to the study by [[Martin Shough]] of the [[National Aviation Reporting Centre on Anomalous Phenomena]], Johnson gathered five eyewitness reports "under special cover" and sent them on January 20, 1954 through [[Donald L. Putt]] to the [[Air Technical Intelligence Center]] at [[Wright-Patterson Air Force Base]].[^18]
+
+Putt's covering letter, addressed to Colonel [[George L. Wertenbaker]] and dated February 15, 1954 in Shough's appendix, says the report "was handed to me by Lockheed personnel with the explanation that Mr. Johnson was most reluctant to write the report in the first place and then refused to forward it on to you because of his belief that those who profess to have seen flying saucers are not usually considered to be logical and practical hard-headed engineers."[^19] Shough records that Johnson had described a fast-moving "flame or emanation" of "beautiful light blue" colour near [[Brents Junction]] around Christmas 1951, which he believed was a flying saucer.[^18]
+
+Shough found that the Project Blue Book card gives the conclusion "OTHER - CLOUD lenticular cloud." He wrote that "The only conventional explanation having even a little plausibility is an unusually compact and well-defined lenticular wave cloud," and that "such a cloud seems unlikely."[^18] The papers of Ben Rich at the [[Huntington Library]] include a file whose title reads "Sighting of a flying saucer by certain Lockheed Aircraft Corporation personnel on 16 December 1953."[^20]
+
+### Rich's remarks on the E.T. line
+
+The remarks of Ben Rich on the subject survive mainly in the accounts of those who heard them. [[Peter W. Merlin]] documented that Rich ended his lectures from the spring of 1983 with a joke: at a Defense Week symposium on September 20, 1983 he said "The Skunk Works has been assigned the task of getting E.T. back home," and on May 23, 1990 he told a chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution that "last week we received a contract to take E.T. back home."[^21]
+
+[[Jan Harzan]], later executive director of the [[Mutual UFO Network]], told a radio network in January 2012 and [[Alejandro Rojas]] of Open Minds in July 2013 that he attended a March 1993 alumni lecture by Rich at [[UCLA]] with the engineer Tom Keller. Harzan said Rich showed about two dozen slides, ended with one of a disk-shaped craft, and concluded: "We now have the technology to take E.T. home." Harzan said that afterward Rich told one engineer, "We now know how to travel to the stars. We found an error in the equations and it won't take a lifetime to do it," and that, when Harzan pressed him on interstellar propulsion, Rich asked "how does ESP work?" and answered Harzan's reply with "That's how it works." Merlin, who reported the account, wrote that in his view Rich had carried his joke too far, and that Keller's version in the May 2010 issue of the [[MUFON UFO Journal]] had misquoted the usual closing line. Merlin also reports Rich's remark in a 1994 interview with Popular Science that "There are some new programs, and there are certain things, some of them 20 or 30 years old, that are still breakthroughs and appropriate to keep quiet about," and a July 1986 letter in which Rich wrote to a model-kit designer, "I'm a believer in both categories. I feel everything is possible."[^22]
+
+### Accounts of recovered material
+
+The accounts that name the company or its Skunk Works are set out here in the order in which they became public, each attributed to the person who gave it.
+
+Notes attributed to the physicist [[Eric Davis]] and dated October 16, 2002 record a meeting with Vice Admiral [[Thomas R. Wilson]], who said that in June 1997 he found, in a records group of the [[Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Technology]], a program run by "an aerospace technology contractor," "one of the top ones in US," and that the contractor had intelligence "in their corporate portfolio." Asked to name it, the notes record Wilson replying "That is core secret." They describe a meeting in the contractor's "secure vault" with a program director, a corporate attorney and a retired [[National Security Agency]] security director who called themselves "the watch committee," and an "intact craft" that the program manager said was technology not made by man.[^23] Wilson told the reporter [[Billy Cox]] in 2020 that the account was "all fiction."[^24]
+
+[[Harry Reid]] told the New Yorker writer Gideon Lewis-Kraus in 2021: "I was told for decades that Lockheed had some of these retrieved materials." Reid said he had tried to obtain a classified approval from the Pentagon to see them, that "They would not approve that," and that this was why he had asked for special access program status for the [[Advanced Aerospace Threat Identification Program]]. Lewis-Kraus wrote that a July 2020 New York Times article by [[Leslie Kean]] and [[Ralph Blumenthal]] had been corrected to say that Reid "did not believe that crash debris had been allocated to private military contractors for study; he believed that U.F.O.s may have crashed, and that, if so, we should be studying the fallout," and that Reid told him he had "never seen proof of any remnants." A representative of Lockheed Martin declined to comment for the article.[^25]
+
+In his written testimony of September 9, 2025 the journalist [[George Knapp]] wrote that "It has been widely reported over many years that aerospace titan Lockheed Martin is one of the defense contractors entrusted with mystery material and perhaps entire craft," and that the "principal facility at Groom Lake was built to be a safe haven and testing ground for Lockheed's legendary spy plane, the U-2." He testified that he had "confirmed that Bigelow and a trusted colleague met with and negotiated with a senior executive at Lockheed and hammered out a deal wherein Bigelow's company, BAASS, would receive a quantity of unusual material that Lockheed was safeguarding at a facility in California," that a source who was in the room confirmed it, that the composition of the material "suggested it had been crafted in a zero-gravity environment," and that "The agreement was not completed." He also wrote that the former Nevada senator Howard Cannon "had a personal relationship with the top guys at Lockheed."[^26]
+
+The researcher [[Keith Basterfield]] wrote on November 30, 2023 that [[David Grusch]], in an interview with Joe Rogan, had said that Senator Reid sought under the contract of [[Robert Bigelow]]'s [[Bigelow Aerospace Advanced Space Studies]] (BAASS) to have retrieved material transferred from Lockheed Martin to BAASS, quoting Grusch: "the other government customer which was the Central Intelligence Agency for that specific Lockheed material...from the 50's...bits and pieces of hull structures." Basterfield juxtaposed this with a one-page "BAASS goals 2011/2012" document released by the Department of Homeland Security under the Freedom of Information Act, whose first goal reads "Advanced Technology Analysis Center - analyze recovered AAV technology in collaboration with aerospace companies."[^27]
+
+At a House Oversight hearing on November 13, 2024, Representative [[Eric Burlison]] asked [[Luis Elizondo]] about a transfer. Elizondo said that a document cleared by the Defense Department's Office of Prepublication and Security Review stated that "an aerospace contract company" had "requested to divest itself of the material" that "was collected in the 1950s," and that "that did not actually occur"; he agreed that the company was Bigelow Aerospace. Burlison then cited the journalist Christopher Sharp as reporting a transfer among Lockheed Martin, Bigelow Aerospace and the CIA that was blocked, and Elizondo answered: "it was blocked. Why it was blocked, I can only surmise." He said that contract personnel had later told him the account was accurate. Asked by Representative [[Nancy Mace]] about Lockheed's expertise, he answered "Aerospace, ma'am."[^28]
+
+The [[Wall Street Journal]] reported on June 21, 2025 that Davis had been part of a small group of defense experts who claimed knowledge of a program at the Skunk Works to hold extraterrestrial technology. The article says that in 2022 [[Sean Kirkpatrick]], then the [[Pentagon]]'s UFO investigator, asked executives of the six largest defense contractors whether any of their companies had gained access to alien technology; that the Lockheed answer was complicated because the Skunk Works had just tested and attempted to replicate a piece of metal said to have come from a crashed craft near [[Roswell Incident|Roswell]]; that [[To The Stars Academy of Arts & Science]] had bought fragments in 2019 from a UFO researcher; that the fragments had reached the radio host [[Art Bell]] by mail in 1996 from a listener; and that [[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]] tested the metal and concluded that it was probably a Second World War-era manufacturing test. The article reports that Lockheed declined to comment and referred questions to the [[United States Army|Army]].[^29] A Pentagon spokeswoman, Sue Gough, told the same newspaper that the investigation had found no verifiable information substantiating claims that programs for possessing or reverse-engineering extraterrestrial materials existed in the past or exist currently.[^30]
+
+The July 26, 2023 hearing of the [[House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform|House Oversight Committee]] subcommittee on national security produced testimony from Grusch describing a "multi-decade UAP crash retrieval and reverse engineering" program. Asked by Representative [[Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez]] about interactions between defense contractors and UAP-related programs, Grusch answered that "the contractors, you know, or the metal benders, so to speak, the ones actually doing specific performance on government contracts" were involved. Asked by Burlison whether there was evidence that the craft were produced by domestic military contractors, he answered "Not to my knowledge. Plus, the recoveries predate a lot of our advanced programs that I previously am waiving off."[^31]
+
+The [[All-domain Anomaly Resolution Office]] (AARO) wrote in February 2024 that it "found no empirical evidence for claims that the USG and private companies have been reverse-engineering extraterrestrial technology." Its report says that the executives, scientists and chief technology officers of companies named by interviewees "met with the Director of AARO and denied on the record that they have ever recovered, possessed, or engaged in reverse-engineering of extraterrestrial technology." The report describes a thirdhand account in which an organization held twelve spacecraft recovered before 1970 and "the CIA had a partnership with the company that ended in 1989," and a second account in which an organization held off-world material in 2009 and 2010, a separate interviewee took part in negotiations to return it to the government, and "a former named senior CIA official quashed the proposal to remove the material from the corporation." AARO stated that it "discovered no empirical evidence supporting these claims."[^32] Elsewhere the report describes Lockheed Martin's Advanced Development Program, "also known as 'Skunk Works,'" as the developer of the [[P-175 Polecat]] unmanned aircraft, first flown in 2005 and disclosed at the 2006 [[Farnborough Airshow]], and of the [[RQ-170 Sentinel]]. It lists the [[RQ-3 Dark Star]], developed by Lockheed Martin, [[Boeing]] and [[DARPA]], and states that some observers asserted that it "resembled a flying saucer with long narrow wings."[^33]
+
+Kirkpatrick wrote in Scientific American on January 19, 2024 of a story told by "conspiracists" in which the United States had hidden and tried to reverse engineer as many as twelve craft, abandoned the effort to private sector defense contractors, and later saw those contractors "want to bring the whole program back under U.S. government (USG) auspices," with the CIA apparently stopping the transfer. He called this "all without substantiating evidence."[^34]
+
+[[Ron Blackburn]], a retired Air Force lieutenant colonel, was working at the Burbank Skunk Works in 1984, according to [[John B. Alexander]], when the two met. A handwritten page by [[Jack Houck]] dated May 21, 1985 places Blackburn's name beside the word "Lockheed" in notes on the [[Advanced Theoretical Physics Working Group]].[^35]
+
+The attorney [[Daniel Sheehan]], interviewed by the [[Liberation Times]] on December 3, 2023, named [[Raytheon]], [[Radiance Technologies]] and the CIA's Directorate of Operations, along with Lockheed Martin, as entities that had pressured members of Congress against the [[Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena Disclosure Act]]. He said the companies had been "given particular discrete aspects of the technology to try to figure it out." The outlet reported that multiple sources described the claim as untrue.[^36]
+
+### Sandia National Laboratories and the Department of Energy
+
+The company's Energy and Environment sector managed several Department of Energy facilities. The 1995 filing states that "The Sector also manages the Sandia National Laboratories, a federally funded research and development center with responsibilities for national security programs in defense, energy and the environment."[^37] It also records an extension of the contract of Lockheed Martin Energy Systems to manage the Oak Ridge facilities and the environmental programs at Portsmouth, Ohio and Paducah, Kentucky through March 31, 1998, at an estimated Department of Energy budget of $3.5 billion, and a separate contract for Oak Ridge National Laboratory under a new unit, Lockheed Martin Energy Research Corporation.[^17] The 1996 annual report describes the company as "the largest management and operations contractor within the DoE's system of laboratories" and lists Sandia among the facilities it manages, with Sandia Corporation among its subsidiaries.[^38]
+
+The laboratory's own history states that "Originally a wholly owned subsidiary of Western Electric, Sandia Corporation was a Lockheed Martin company from 1993-2017," and that in 2017 management passed to National Technology and Engineering Solutions of Sandia, LLC, a wholly owned subsidiary of Honeywell International.[^39] The 1995 filing lists [[Albert Narath]] as president of Sandia Corporation from April 1989 to August 14, 1995, and then as president and chief operating officer of the company's Energy and Environment sector.[^40]
+
+Two records of the Defense Intelligence Agency's Advanced Aerospace Weapon System Applications Program fall within the years of Lockheed Martin's management of the laboratory. A DIA information memorandum of October 30, 2009 on the technical reports delivered by BAASS states that five of the reviews were performed by outside reviewers, "including three research staff members at Sandia National Laboratories," and that "all of the reviews were positive, some exceptionally so." The enclosure lists the titles of the 26 reports, among them "Antigravity for Aerospace Applications," "Wormholes in Space Time" and "Quantum Entanglement Communications," and marks the reports that Sandia reviewed.[^41] The BAASS ten-month report of July 30, 2009, as Keith Basterfield quotes it, records that BAASS sent a request for proposals for a $400,000 study of the effects of public confirmation of "advanced exotic aerospace craft" to Battelle Memorial Institute, Southwestern Research Institute, the Center for American Progress and Sandia, and that "Sandia National Laboratories volunteered that they did not have the expertise for the project."[^42]
+
+### Compact fusion
+
+On October 15, 2014 the company announced that its Skunk Works was pursuing a compact fusion reactor concept that "can be developed and deployed in as little as ten years." The release states that the design "offers a 90 percent size reduction over previous concepts" and that "Currently, there are several patents pending that cover their approach." It identifies Tom McGuire as the compact fusion lead for the Skunk Works' Revolutionary Technology Programs.[^43]
+
+### Japan and the 1976 bribery record
+
+The subcommittee on multinational corporations of the [[Senate Committee on Foreign Relations]], chaired by [[Frank Church]], held hearings on Lockheed Aircraft Corporation in February 1976. The printed record, Part 14, covers hearings of February 4 and 6 and May 4, 1976.[^44] In his opening statement Church said the hearings would show that Lockheed had "for many years employed as its agent, a prominent leader of the ultra right wing militarist political faction in Japan and has paid him millions of dollars in fees and commissions over the last few years."[^45] A statement at the hearing recorded that over $200 million in commissions were paid by Lockheed between 1970 and 1975, and that the company had told the Senate Finance Committee and the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] that approximately $22 million went to government officials.[^46]
+
+The Securities and Exchange Commission reported to the Senate Banking Committee on May 12, 1976 that its complaint against Lockheed named the company's chairman of the board from 1957 until February 1976 and its president from 1967 until October 1975. The complaint alleged that secret payments of at least $25 million, at times in cash, had been made to foreign government officials to obtain and keep contracts; that at least $750,000 recorded for other purposes had been deposited in a secret Swiss bank account; and that over $200 million had been paid to consultants and commission agents without adequate records. It described false accounting entries and cash and "bearer" drafts payable to officials, nominees and conduits.[^47]
+
+The Japanese agent was [[Yoshio Kodama]]. A biographical note printed in the hearing record, drawn from a 1960 study by Ivan Morris, describes him as a nationalist leader born in 1911 who founded the Independence Youth Society in 1932, ran a purchasing agency in China for the Imperial Army, and was held in Sugamo Prison as a Class A war criminal from 1945 to 1948.[^48] The [[Washington Post]] reported from Tokyo on June 3, 1977 that Kodama had admitted receiving about $45,000 a year from Lockheed between 1958 and 1969 and about $130,000 a year afterward, and that former prime minister [[Kakuei Tanaka]] and 17 other politicians and businessmen had been indicted in the scandal. The same dispatch says that Kodama, after his release from prison, "is said to have been paid by the CIA to bring out tungsten from China, but reportedly never delivered the metal."[^49] A [[New York Times]] report by [[Richard Halloran]], preserved in the CIA reading room, says that Kodama was indicted on charges of violating Japan's foreign currency control law by receiving secret payments totaling almost $1.5 million from Lockheed, and that the agency "reportedly" maintained a relationship with him beginning in the 1950s, and adds: "How long that lasted is not publicly known."[^50]
+
+The Tokyo prosecution, as the Washington Post reported it, alleged that Kodama was to receive $4 million on the sale of the first six TriStar aircraft to [[Korean Air Lines]], in which his friend [[Kenji Osano]] held shares, and $120,000 for each plane after that. The same account says that when J. W. Clutter, a Lockheed executive, was summoned to appear before the subcommittee, he telephoned Kodama's interpreter, Taro Fukuda, to warn of the consequences of the hearing. A prosecution statement quoted Kodama as saying, on February 4, 1976, that "Lockheed should pay for its mistakes" and "they should at least pay my taxes." Osano, who owned several hotels in Hawaii, was charged with perjury in connection with the case, and the prosecution described him as a friend of Tanaka.[^49]
+
+The agency's own reading-room file on the affair contains wire and newspaper items under headlines such as "CIA DENIES LOCKHEED PAYOFF TIES," "C.I.A. QUERIED ON TIE TO LOCKHEED AGENT" and "LOCKHEED AGENT HAD CONTACTS AMONG TOP JAPANESE." A reprinted editorial titled "The Lessons of the Lockheed Scandal" says that Japanese-American relations "have passed under a chilling shadow" and that untimely elections might be necessary in Japan.[^51]
+
+In the hearings, Lockheed's executive Kotchian answered Church's question about a $100,000 payment to a "high government official in the Netherlands" by saying that the records indicated it had been made. Asked whether it was the first payment to that official, he said "I believe there had been previous instances," and that the first had been in 1961 or 1962 to the best of his knowledge. Asked about an earlier $1 million payment to the same official, Kotchian attributed it to "general good will and helpfulness" on programs in the area.[^52] Representative [[Michael J. Harrington]], in the 1977 hearings on corporate payments, linked allegations that [[Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands]] had received $1.1 million in Lockheed payments to that official's resignation from his posts.[^53]
+
+The Italian section of the record contains two receipts from the consultant Com.El. S.p.A. to Lockheed Georgia Company at Marietta: one dated June 11, 1970 for 70 million lire (112,000 dollars), part of the commission due on execution of the Defense Ministry's letter of intent for fourteen C-130 Hercules aircraft, and one dated November 30, 1971 for 70 million lire as the balance of that commission.[^54] [[Ann Crittenden]] reported in [[The New York Times]] in April 1976 that the CIA had known of Lockheed's payments in the 1950s.[^55] William Shawcross, writing in [[The Observer]] in April 1976, summarized [[Tad Szulc]] in [[The New Republic]] on the agency's role.[^56]
+
+Jerome Alan Cohen, writing in 1976, described Lockheed's "$12 million payoffs in Japan" and said that the company's lawyer, the former Secretary of State [[William P. Rogers]], had prevailed upon [[Henry Kissinger]] in December to persuade a federal district court to bar the Securities and Exchange Commission from disclosing the names of foreign officials. Cohen wrote that Kissinger "persisted" in that position for a few days before the State Department changed course, and that Deputy Secretary of State [[Robert S. Ingersoll]] told Senator [[William Proxmire]]'s Banking Committee that the names would be turned over only after the commission finished its investigation.[^57]
+
+### The 1971 federal loan guarantee
+
+The [[Emergency Loan Guarantee Act]], approved on August 9, 1971, created an Emergency Loan Guarantee Board chaired by the [[United States Department of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]], with the chairman of the Federal Reserve Board among its members, to guarantee loans to major businesses.[^58] A guarantee required the board to find that the loan was needed to enable the borrower to continue to furnish goods or services, that failure to meet that need "would adversely and seriously affect the economy of or employment in the Nation or any region thereof," and that credit was not otherwise available to the borrower.[^58] A 1977 Naval Postgraduate School master's thesis on the company and the act, held by the [[Defense Technical Information Center]], describes the company as asking for $250 million in government-guaranteed loans, which was the ceiling the act set, and records that the guarantees covered bank loans totaling that amount.[^59]
+
+### Intelligence and classified work
+
+The Future Imagery Architecture satellite contract for the [[National Reconnaissance Office]] went to Boeing over Lockheed Martin on September 3, 1999. The NRO's history describes the program's technical problems and later restructuring.[^60] Federal award data on USAspending lists Lockheed Martin Corporation as the recipient of Department of the Navy contract N0001917C0001, with a total value of $35.1 billion, the largest of its Department of Defense awards in a search of fiscal years 2020 through 2025.[^61]
+
+The company's role in the FBI's Sentinel case-management system is recorded in the 2013 confirmation hearing of [[James Comey]]. Senator [[Chuck Grassley]] told the committee that the FBI had issued a stop-work order to Lockheed Martin, the leading contractor on Sentinel, in March 2010, which preceded the FBI's termination of the company as prime contractor, and that the Inspector General had repeatedly faulted the program, which ran past its deadline and cost significantly more than planned. Comey, who had been the company's general counsel, answered "None. I was aware of it internally at Lockheed Martin just in a general way," and added that he "had been Deputy Attorney General when the contract was first let."[^62] The nominee's questionnaire lists his service as senior vice president and general counsel of Lockheed Martin from September 2005 to September 2010, and states that he expected a lump-sum pension payment from the company of $400,000 in December 2015. The same hearing record covers his employment at the hedge fund [[Bridgewater Associates]] and his seat on the board of [[HSBC]].[^63]
+
+A Pentagon inquiry into the intelligence network of [[Michael Furlong]] in Asia, which the New York Times reported in October 2010 through [[Mark Mazzetti]], described the network as operating under a $22 million contract run by Lockheed Martin, with agents overseen by [[Dewey Clarridge]]. The results of the inquiry were classified.[^64]
+
+[[Logan Grumbach]], whose profile lists work as a missile defense manager at Boeing and Lockheed Martin, later became a vice president at [[Ignite Fueling Innovation]].[^65] The retired colonel [[Karl Nell]] describes his career as including senior systems engineering at Lockheed Martin Missiles and Space, in a biography published by the [[SALT]] investor conference.[^66]
+
+The company's radio work in West Texas appears in federal licensing records. An experimental license filed with the [[Federal Communications Commission]] for a transmitter at [[Sierra Blanca, Texas]], call sign WF9XKC, file 0041-EX-ST-2012, is listed to Lockheed Martin, and its exhibit is an antenna sketch for the Cassidian Electronics model TRxS radar antenna.[^67]
+
+The [[Center for a New American Security]] lists Lockheed Martin among donors giving between 100,000 and 249,999 dollars in the period from October 2024 to September 2025.[^68] The company's venture arm, [[Lockheed Martin Ventures]], was among the new investors in the August 2022 funding round of [[Xona Space Systems]].[^69]
+
+### Aerojet Rocketdyne and the commercial record
+
+On January 25, 2022 the [[Federal Trade Commission]] voted 4 to 0 to challenge Lockheed Martin's proposed $4.4 billion acquisition of [[Aerojet]], a missile propulsion supplier, and to seek a preliminary injunction in the United States District Court for the District of Columbia. The agency described Aerojet as the last independent U.S. supplier of critical inputs for missile systems.[^70] The merger agreement was terminated on February 13, 2022.[^71]
+
+In April 2015 [[Arabsat]] and the [[King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology]] awarded Lockheed Martin a contract for two A2100 communications satellites, Arabsat 6A and Hellas-Sat-4/SaudiGeoSat-1, built through a joint venture between Lockheed Martin and TAQNIA Space Company, with the Saudi agency as technology partner. The release quotes [[Turki bin Saud bin Mohammed Al Saud]].[^72]
+
+### Ben-Menashe's accounts
+
+The former Israeli intelligence officer [[Ari Ben-Menashe]] has described two incidents involving Lockheed. In his 1992 book he wrote that while serving as a duty officer in [[Unit 8200]] in 1976 he intercepted a telegram detailing bribes paid by a Lockheed representative in Israel to Defense Minister [[Shimon Peres]], with $3.5 million deposited in one of Peres's brother's business accounts in Europe. He wrote that the telegram, its translation and related logs were ordered erased and that no public disclosure or inquiry followed.[^73] Ben-Menashe also described his November 1989 arrest, on a charge of attempting to broker the sale of three Israeli-owned Lockheed [[C-130 Hercules]] transport aircraft.[^74]
+
+### Footnotes
+
+[^1]: Lockheed Martin Corporation, Form 10-K405 for the fiscal year 1995, filed March 13, 1996, Item 1 (the combination of March 15, 1995 and the mergers of January 28, 1996) and cover page (Bethesda, Maryland), https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/936468/0000950109-96-001535.txt
+[^2]: Lockheed Martin Corporation, Form 10-K405 for the fiscal year 1995, Item 1, Aeronautics Sector ("Through The Skunk Works, Aeronautics Sector performs a substantial amount of classified work"; "supports the F-117 stealth fighter bomber"), https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/936468/0000950109-96-001535.txt
+[^3]: Lockheed Martin Corporation, Form 10-K405 for fiscal 1995, Item 14 (exhibit list, Loral Merger Agreement dated as of January 7, 1996), https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/936468/0000950109-96-001535.txt ; Lockheed Martin Corporation, Form 10-K for fiscal 1996, financial statement notes on the April 1996 business combination with Loral, filed March 1997, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/936468/0000950109-97-002222.txt
+[^4]: Obituary of Bernard L. Schwartz (died March 12, 2024).
+[^5]: Lockheed Martin Corporation, Form 10-K405 for the fiscal year 1995, Item 3, Legal Proceedings (Boggs et al. v. Divested Atomic Energy Corporation et al., filed June 7, 1990; the grand jury subpoena of May 9, 1995; the Department of Defense Inspector General subpoenas of June 27, 1994, November 29, 1994, December 22, 1994, May 4, 1995 and February 12, 1996), https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/936468/0000950109-96-001535.txt
+[^6]: Lockheed Martin Corporation, Form 10-K405 for the fiscal year 1995, Item 3, Legal Proceedings (the EPA and Army Criminal Investigative Command inquiry), https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/936468/0000950109-96-001535.txt
+[^7]: Ben R. Rich and Leo Janos, Skunk Works: A Personal Memoir of My Years at Lockheed (Boston: Little, Brown, 1994), https://archive.org/details/skunk-works-apersonal-memoir-of-my-years-at-lockheed-ben-rrich (dates of Rich's tenure as head of the unit and his retirement).
+[^8]: Gregory W. Pedlow and Donald E. Welzenbach, The Central Intelligence Agency and Overhead Reconnaissance: The U-2 and OXCART Programs, 1954-1974 (Washington: CIA History Staff, 1992; released in less redacted form 2013), chapter 2, pp. 39 to 45 (the program's establishment on November 26, 1954, the contract, the price agreed in spring 1958, and the Skunk Works), https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB434/docs/U2%20-%20Chapter%202.pdf ; the same history was published as The CIA and the U-2 Program, 1954-1974 (Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1998).
+[^9]: Lockheed Martin Corporation, 1995 annual report to shareholders, reproduced as Exhibit 13 to the Form 10-K405 for fiscal 1995 ("Lockheed Martin Skunk Works, a national asset since its inception during World War II"), https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/936468/0000950109-96-001535.txt
+[^10]: Pedlow and Welzenbach, The Central Intelligence Agency and Overhead Reconnaissance, chapter 2, pp. 56 to 57 (flight of April 12, 1955, Groom Lake, the Paradise Ranch and Area 51), https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB434/docs/U2%20-%20Chapter%202.pdf
+[^11]: Pedlow and Welzenbach, The Central Intelligence Agency and Overhead Reconnaissance, chapter 2, pp. 66 and 72 (delivery of the first U-2 on July 25, 1955; the scheduled flight beginning October 3, 1955; the crash of November 17, 1955), https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB434/docs/U2%20-%20Chapter%202.pdf
+[^12]: Pedlow and Welzenbach, The Central Intelligence Agency and Overhead Reconnaissance, chapter 2, pp. 72 to 73 ("U-2s, UFOs, and Operation BLUE BOOK"), https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB434/docs/U2%20-%20Chapter%202.pdf
+[^13]: Pedlow and Welzenbach, The Central Intelligence Agency and Overhead Reconnaissance, chapter 6, pp. 274 to 275 (EG&G radar test facility moved to Area 51 on September 10, 1959; the mockup), p. 285 (Amendment No. 11, ten A-12 aircraft, $161 million) and pp. 288 to 289 (first flights of April 25 and 30, 1962), https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB434/docs/U2%20-%20Chapter%206.pdf
+[^14]: Central Intelligence Agency, cable from Kelly Johnson of Lockheed received April 19, 1963, and reply of April 25, 1963, concerning approval of Francis Gary Powers to fly U-2 aircraft, SECRET, CIA-RDP89B00739R000300110131-3, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp89b00739r000300110131-3.
+[^15]: Kasza v. Browner and Frost v. Perry, 133 F.3d 1159 (9th Cir. Jan. 8, 1998), affirming Frost v. Perry, 161 F.R.D. 434 (D. Nev. 1995) and 919 F. Supp. 1459 (D. Nev. 1996), and Kasza v. Browner, 902 F. Supp. 1240 (D. Nev. 1995), https://law.resource.org/pub/us/case/reporter/F3/133/133.F3d.1159.96-16930.96-16933.96-16895.96-16892.96-15537.html
+[^16]: Presidential Determination No. 95-45 of September 29, 1995, "Presidential Determination on Classified Information Concerning the Air Force's Operating Location Near Groom Lake, Nevada," 60 Fed. Reg. 52823 (Oct. 10, 1995), https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/full_text/text/1995/10/10/95-25244.txt
+[^17]: Lockheed Martin Corporation, 1995 annual report to shareholders, Energy & Environment Sector, reproduced as Exhibit 13 to the Form 10-K405 for fiscal 1995 (Nevada Test Site support services contract as integrated subcontractor to Bechtel National, Inc.; Lockheed Martin Nevada Technologies, Inc.; Lockheed Martin Energy Systems extension through March 31, 1998; Lockheed Martin Energy Research Corporation), https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/936468/0000950109-96-001535.txt
+[^18]: Martin Shough, "A Study of the Lockheed Sightings," National Aviation Reporting Centre on Anomalous Phenomena, July 2014, summary, sections 1 and 7 and appendix (Johnson's account of Christmas 1951, the five reports collected "under special cover" and forwarded on January 20, 1954, and the Blue Book card), https://mail.project1947.com/fig/Lockheed_Case_Dec_16_1953.pdf
+[^19]: D. L. Putt to Col. George L. Wertenbaker, covering letter reproduced in Shough, "A Study of the Lockheed Sightings," appendix (letter dated February 15, 1954 as cited there), https://mail.project1947.com/fig/Lockheed_Case_Dec_16_1953.pdf
+[^20]: Huntington Library, "Ben R. Rich papers, 1940-1995," Online Archive of California, https://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/c86d5rqx/admin/.
+[^21]: Peter W. Merlin, "Taking E.T. Home: Birth of a Modern Myth," SUNlite 5, no. 6 (November-December 2013), pp. 17 to 18 (Defense Week symposium of September 20, 1983; the Daughters of the American Revolution address of May 23, 1990), https://web.archive.org/web/20150321193509/home.comcast.net/~tprinty/UFO/SUNlite5_6.pdf
+[^22]: Merlin, "Taking E.T. Home," SUNlite 5, no. 6, pp. 16 to 19 (the Harzan interviews of January 2012 and July 2013, the account of the March 1993 UCLA lecture, the Popular Science interview of 1994 and the letter of July 1986), same URL.
+[^23]: "EWD NOTES 10/16/02, Eric Davis Meeting with Adm. Wilson," pp. 3 to 4 and 8 to 13, https://documents2.theblackvault.com/casefiles/wilsonleak.pdf
+[^24]: Billy Cox, Sarasota Herald-Tribune, 2020, as quoted in The Black Vault, "The Admiral Wilson Leak: An Analysis," https://www.theblackvault.com/casefiles/the-admiral-wilson-leak-an-analysis/
+[^25]: Gideon Lewis-Kraus, "How the Pentagon Started Taking U.F.O.s Seriously," The New Yorker, May 10, 2021, https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2021/05/10/how-the-pentagon-started-taking-ufos-seriously
+[^26]: George Knapp, written testimony, House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, Task Force on the Declassification of Federal Secrets, hearing "Restoring Public Trust Through UAP Transparency and Whistleblower Protection," Serial No. 119-44, September 9, 2025, https://oversight.house.gov/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/George-Knapp-Written-Testimony.pdf
+[^27]: Keith Basterfield, "Lockheed Martin and BAASS," November 30, 2023, quoting Lacatski, Kelleher and Knapp, Inside the US Government Covert UFO Program: Initial Revelations (RTMA, 2023) and the Department of Homeland Security response to the Freedom of Information Act request of Marc Cecotti, https://ufos-scientificresearch.blogspot.com/2023/11/lockheed-martin-and-baass.html
+[^28]: House Committee on Oversight and Accountability, "Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena: Exposing the Truth," joint hearing, November 13, 2024, Serial No. 118-135, questions of Representatives Burlison and Mace, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-118hhrg57440/html/CHRG-118hhrg57440.htm
+[^29]: Joel Schectman and Aruna Viswanatha, "Was It Scrap Metal or an Alien Spacecraft? The Army Asked an Elite Defense Lab to Investigate," The Wall Street Journal, June 21, 2025 (print edition June 23, 2025).
+[^30]: Schectman and Viswanatha, The Wall Street Journal, June 21, 2025, statement of the Pentagon spokeswoman Sue Gough.
+[^31]: House Committee on Oversight and Accountability, Subcommittee on National Security, the Border, and Foreign Affairs, hearing "Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena: Implications on National Security, Public Safety, and Government Transparency," July 26, 2023, Serial No. 118-53, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-118hhrg53022/html/CHRG-118hhrg53022.htm
+[^32]: Department of Defense, All-domain Anomaly Resolution Office, Report on the Historical Record of U.S. Government Involvement with Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena, Volume I, February 2024, Executive Summary and the section on claims of hidden programs, https://web.archive.org/web/2024id_/https://media.defense.gov/2024/Mar/08/2003409233/-1/-1/0/DOPSR-CLEARED-508-COMPLIANT-HRRV1-08-MAR-2024-FINAL.PDF
+[^33]: AARO, Report on the Historical Record, Volume I, February 2024, pp. 44 to 45 (RQ-3 Dark Star, P-175 Polecat and RQ-170 Sentinel sections), same URL.
+[^34]: Sean Kirkpatrick, "Here's What I Learned as the U.S. Government's UFO Hunter," Scientific American, January 19, 2024, https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/heres-what-i-learned-as-the-u-s-governments-ufo-hunter/
+[^35]: Jack Houck, handwritten page headed "Advanced Physics," May 21, 1985, and John B. Alexander, "UFOs: Myths, Conspiracies, and Realities" (2011), as quoted in Daniel Elizondo and The Hermetic Penetrator, "The Loose Threads Report," Anomaly Archives, 2022, pp. 15, 20 and 188, https://anomalyarchives.org/wp-content/uploads/PDF-Loose-Threads.pdf
+[^36]: Liberation Times, interview with Daniel Sheehan, December 3, 2023.
+[^37]: Lockheed Martin Corporation, Form 10-K405 for fiscal 1995, Item 1, Energy and Environment Sector, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/936468/0000950109-96-001535.txt
+[^38]: Lockheed Martin Corporation, Form 10-K for fiscal 1996, Item 1, Energy and Environment Sector, and list of subsidiaries, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/936468/0000950109-97-002222.txt
+[^39]: Sandia National Laboratories, "Sandia's Government Owned/Contractor Operated heritage," https://www.sandia.gov/about/history/goco.html
+[^40]: Lockheed Martin Corporation, Form 10-K405 for fiscal 1995, Part I, Item 4A, Executive Officers of the Registrant, entry for Albert Narath, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/936468/0000950109-96-001535.txt
+[^41]: Defense Intelligence Agency, Info Memo U-429-09, "Review of Advanced Aerospace Contract Deliverables," October 30, 2009, with the enclosure listing the FY 2009 technical reports, in the packet "Senator Harry Reid's Request to Put the Advanced Aerospace Threat and Identification Program under Special Access Protection" prepared for the Deputy Secretary of Defense's meeting of November 17, 2009, released to The Black Vault, https://documents2.theblackvault.com/documents/dia/AAWSAP/09117-Final_Packet_Presented_to_DepSecDef.pdf
+[^42]: Keith Basterfield, "The BAASS 'Project Campus,'" July 7, 2025, quoting the BAASS Ten Month Report (July 30, 2009), https://ufos-scientificresearch.blogspot.com/2025/07/the-baass-project-campus.html
+[^43]: Lockheed Martin news release, "Lockheed Martin Pursuing Compact Nuclear Fusion Reactor Concept," October 15, 2014, Palmdale, California, https://news.lockheedmartin.com/2014-10-15-Lockheed-Martin-Pursuing-Compact-Nuclear-Fusion-Reactor-Concept
+[^44]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, Multinational Corporations and United States Foreign Policy, Hearings, 94th Congress, 2d session, on Lockheed Aircraft Corporation, Part 14, February 4 and 6 and May 4, 1976 (Washington: GPO, 1976), https://archive.org/details/MultinationalCorporationsAndUSForeignPolicyUSSenateHearings (text file 1976_Multinationals_lockheed-japan-bribes)
+[^45]: Opening statement of Senator Frank Church, Part 14 of Multinational Corporations and United States Foreign Policy, February 4, 1976, same record.
+[^46]: Statement headed "Payments disclosed in the Lockheed hearing of September 12, 1975," Part 14 of Multinational Corporations and United States Foreign Policy, 1976, same record.
+[^47]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, Report of the Securities and Exchange Commission on Questionable and Illegal Corporate Payments and Practices to the Senate Banking, Housing and Urban Affairs Committee, May 12, 1976, Securities Regulation and Law Report No. 353 (BNA), Special Supplement, May 19, 1976, Lockheed Aircraft Corporation section, https://sechistorical.org/wp-content/uploads/1976_0512_SECQuestionable.pdf
+[^48]: Biographical note on "Kodama Yoshio (b. 1911)," quoting Ivan Morris, Nationalism and the Right Wing in Japan (Oxford University Press, 1960), printed in Part 14 of Multinational Corporations and United States Foreign Policy, 1976, same record.
+[^49]: Andrew Horvat, dispatch from Tokyo, The Washington Post, June 3, 1977 (Tokyo dateline June 2), CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP88-01315R000300450040-9, https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP88-01315R000300450040-9
+[^50]: Richard Halloran, The New York Times, 1976, CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP88-01315R000300450058-0, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01315r000300450058-0
+[^51]: "The Lessons of the Lockheed Scandal," reprinted article, CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP88-01315R000300450060-7, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01315r000300450060-7 ; the reading-room items cited in the same paragraph are CIA-RDP88-01315R000300450009-4, CIA-RDP88-01315R000300450026-5 and CIA-RDP88-01315R000300450058-0.
+[^52]: Testimony of Mr. Kotchian and exchanges with Senator Church on the Netherlands payments, Part 14 of Multinational Corporations and United States Foreign Policy, 1976, same record.
+[^53]: Statement of Representative Michael J. Harrington, Unlawful Corporate Payments Act of 1977, Hearings on H.R. 3815 and H.R. 1602 before the Subcommittee on Consumer Protection and Finance of the Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, House of Representatives, 95th Congress, 1st session, April 1977, Serial No. 95-11, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-95hhrg91391O/pdf/CHRG-95hhrg91391O.pdf
+[^54]: Part 14 of Multinational Corporations and United States Foreign Policy, 1976, section on political contributions in Italy, translated receipts of Com.El. S.p.A. to Lockheed Georgia Company of June 11, 1970 and November 30, 1971, same record.
+[^55]: Ann Crittenden, "C.I.A. Said to Have Known in '50's of Lockheed Bribes," The New York Times, April 1976, CIA reading room copy, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00552r000100650002-9
+[^56]: William Shawcross, "Did CIA back Lockheed bribes to Japanese?," The Observer, April 1976, summarizing Tad Szulc in The New Republic, CIA reading room copy, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01315r000300470050-6.
+[^57]: Jerome Alan Cohen, "Lockheed Cover-Up?," 1976, CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP88-01315R000300450030-0, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01315r000300450030-0
+[^58]: Public Law 92-70, Emergency Loan Guarantee Act, approved August 9, 1971, 85 Stat. 178, sections 1 to 3, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-85/pdf/STATUTE-85-Pg178.pdf
+[^59]: "An Assessment of Lockheed Aircraft Corporation and the Emergency Loan Guarantee Act," Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, California, master's thesis, 1977, Defense Technical Information Center, ADA040197 (guaranteed bank loans totaling $250 million).
+[^60]: Bruce Berkowitz, The National Reconnaissance Office at 50 Years: A Brief History, Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance, September 2011, pp. 20 to 29.
+[^61]: USAspending.gov, spending_by_award search, recipient text "LOCKHEED MARTIN," Department of Defense awards, fiscal years 2020 to 2025 (largest award N0001917C0001, Department of the Navy, $35,135,514,910.20), queried October 15, 2026, https://api.usaspending.gov/api/v2/search/spending_by_award/
+[^62]: Confirmation Hearing on the Nomination of James B. Comey, Jr., to Be Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, July 9, 2013, S. Hrg. 113-850, exchange between Senator Grassley and the nominee on Sentinel, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-113shrg23750/pdf/CHRG-113shrg23750.pdf
+[^63]: Confirmation Hearing on the Nomination of James B. Comey, Jr., July 9, 2013, S. Hrg. 113-850, nominee's Senate Judiciary Committee questionnaire (employment record, "Senior Vice President and General Counsel (9/05-9/10) Lockheed Martin" and the pension statement) and the opening exchanges on Lockheed Martin, Bridgewater and HSBC, same record.
+[^64]: Mark Mazzetti, "Inquiry Finds U.S. Official Set Up Spy Ring in Asia," The New York Times, October 28, 2010 (reprinted by RAWA News), https://www.rawa.org/temp/runews/2010/10/28/inquiry-finds-u-s-official-set-up-spy-ring-in-asia.phtml
+[^65]: Logan Grumbach, professional profile and Ignite Fueling Innovation announcement.
+[^66]: SALT investor conference, biography of Karl E. Nell.
+[^67]: Federal Communications Commission, Experimental Licensing System, generic search by transmitter city (Sierra Blanca, Fort Hancock), file 0041-EX-ST-2012 (WF9XKC), https://apps.fcc.gov/oetcf/els/reports/GenericSearch.cfm.
+[^68]: Center for a New American Security, "CNAS Supporters," contributions from October 1, 2024, to September 30, 2025, https://www.cnas.org/support-cnas/cnas-supporters
+[^69]: Mark Holmes, "Lockheed Martin Invests in Xona Space Systems $25M Funding Round," Via Satellite, August 8, 2022, https://www.satellitetoday.com/finance/2022/08/08/lockheed-martin-invests-in-xona-space-systems-25m-funding-round/
+[^70]: Federal Trade Commission, "FTC Sues to Block Lockheed Martin Corporation's $4.4 Billion Vertical Acquisition of Aerojet Rocketdyne," press release, January 25, 2022, https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/news/press-releases/2022/01/ftc-sues-block-lockheed-martin-corporations-44-billion-vertical-acquisition-aerojet-rocketdyne
+[^71]: Termination of the Lockheed Martin and Aerojet Rocketdyne merger agreement, February 13, 2022.
+[^72]: PR Newswire, "Arabsat and KACST Award Lockheed Martin Contract to Provide Satellite Systems," April 28, 2015, https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/arabsat-and-kacst-award-lockheed-martin-contract-to-provide-satellite-systems-to ; Lockheed Martin, "Lockheed Martin, Arabsat and KACST Achieve Significant Milestone on Arabsat 6A and Hellas-Sat-4/SaudiGeoSat-1," May 31, 2016, https://news.lockheedmartin.com/2016-05-31-Lockheed-Martin-Arabsat-and-KACST-Achieve-Significant-Milestone-on-Arabsat-6A-and-Hellas-Sat-4-SaudiGeoSat-1
+[^73]: Ari Ben-Menashe, Profits of War: Inside the Secret U.S.-Israeli Arms Network, Sheridan Square Press, 1992 (TrineDay reprint, 2015), the account of the 1976 telegram.
+[^74]: Ari Ben-Menashe, account of the November 1989 arrest.

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Lockheed Skunk Works.md

@@ -47,9 +47,9 @@ relations:
     with: "[[All-domain Anomaly Resolution Office]]"
     start: 2022
     role: "according to the Wall Street Journal, tested a purported Roswell metal fragment shortly before the Pentagon investigator asked six contractors in 2022 whether they held alien technology"
-    fn: 7
+    fn: 9
 created: 2026-10-03
-updated: 2026-10-03
+updated: 2026-10-15
 ---
 
 The Skunk Works is the nickname of [[Lockheed Aircraft Company]]'s Advanced Development Projects, later Advanced Development Programs of [[Lockheed Martin]]. The unit began in June 1943, when [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] "anxiously watched [[Germany]] develop the world's first jet fighter" and turned to the 33-year-old chief engineer [[Kelly Johnson]], who was given British jet engines and 180 days and "readied 'Lulu Bell' in 143 days," the [[P-80 Shooting Star]]. By 1980 the unit had at any one time between 2,000 and 8,000 engineers, machinists and test pilots; its work "often involves building a plane here and transporting it by night in a cargo aircraft or truck to some testing strip in the [[Nevada]] desert"; Lockheed declined to answer questions about it; and margins on such work could reach 12 percent against about 6 percent on most military contracts, according to a securities analyst quoted by the [[The Wall Street Journal|Wall Street Journal]].[^1] The name came from [[Al Capp]]'s "[[Li'l Abner]]" comic strip, whose moonshine still was "the skonk works"; that an engineer named [[Irv Culver]] answered a telephone "Skonk Works" while the staff worked in a circus tent beside a plastics factory, and in 1960 Capp's publisher objected, so "we changed it to Skunk Works and registered the name and logo as trademarks," according to [[Ben Rich]], who headed the unit from January 17, 1975.[^2]
@@ -58,39 +58,50 @@ The Skunk Works is the nickname of [[Lockheed Aircraft Company]]'s Advanced Deve
 
 Rich wrote that the test pilot [[Tony LeVier]] found from the air and landed on the dry lake bed now called [[Groom Lake]], that Kelly Johnson flew back with LeVier and "a tall civilian introduced to him only as 'Mr. B.'" ([[Richard Bissell]]), who remarked "This will do nicely," and that Johnson's private log recorded flying "very illegally" over an atomic bomb on its tower about nine hours before detonation; Johnson proposed the name Paradise Ranch.[^2] The site's later history, including the CIA's 2013 acknowledgment, is on the page for [[Area 51]]. The unit built the [[U-2 Spy Plane]], the [[A-12]] and the [[SR-71]], and later the [[F-117 Nighthawk|F-117]]; [[EG&G]] tested the radar cross sections of its aircraft at the site beginning in 1959.[^2][^3]
 
+The CIA's history of the U-2 and OXCART programs records that on April 12, 1955 Bissell and Colonel [[Osmund Ritland]] of the Air Force flew over Nevada with Johnson in a Beechcraft piloted by Lockheed's chief test pilot LeVier, saw an airstrip beside a salt flat known as Groom Lake near the northeast corner of the [[Atomic Energy Commission]]'s Nevada Proving Ground, and that Johnson called the site the Paradise Ranch.[^3] A military transport bound for Area 51 crashed on November 17, 1955 and killed fourteen people, among them personnel from Lockheed and Hycon.[^4] The same history states that Blue Book investigators "regularly called on the Agency's Project Staff in Washington to check reported UFO sightings against U-2 flight logs" and that "U-2 and later OXCART flights accounted for more than one-half of all UFO reports during the late 1950s and most of the 1960s."[^4]
+
+The annual report of [[Lockheed Martin]] on Form 10-K405 for 1995 states that the [[Environmental Protection Agency]] and the [[United States Army]] Criminal Investigative Command were conducting a criminal investigation "to determine whether the Corporation improperly disposed of wastes from The Skunk Works at a government site in Nevada."[^5]
+
 ### Kelly Johnson's sightings and the Blue Book file
 
-On December 16, 1953 a Lockheed WV-2 flight test crew of five, [[Roy E. Wimmer]], [[Rudy L. Thoren]], [[Philip A. Colman]], [[Charles Grugan]] and [[Joseph F. Ware Jr.]], and Johnson and his wife Althea at their ranch near [[Agoura, California|Agoura]], independently watched a black, sharp-edged object over the sea west of [[Los Angeles]] that dwindled and vanished. According to the study of the case by [[Martin Shough]] of the [[National Aviation Reporting Centre on Anomalous Phenomena]], on the next day Thoren mentioned the sighting in Johnson's office and Johnson described his own, whereupon the two groups found they had watched the same object; Johnson collected five reports "under special cover" and they were forwarded through Lieutenant General [[Donald L. Putt|D. L. Putt]] to the [[Air Technical Intelligence Center]] ([[Foreign Technology Division|ATIC]]) at [[Wright-Patterson Air Force Base]]. Putt's covering letter of February 15, 1954 to the ATIC commander, Colonel [[George L. Wertenbaker]], says the report "was handed to me by Lockheed personnel with the explanation that Mr. Johnson was most reluctant to write the report in the first place and then refused to forward it on to you because of his belief that those who profess to have seen flying saucers are not usually considered to be logical and practical hard-headed engineers." Johnson's own report of December 18, 1953 is addressed to the "Air Force Investigating Group on Flying Saucers." Shough records that Johnson stated, "in official confidence," that around Christmas 1951 he had seen a fast-moving "flame or emanation" of "beautiful light blue" colour near [[Brents Junction]] that he believed to be a "flying saucer," and that Ware's statement in the file describes a large circular object he watched from his own roof about Christmas 1951 and visits to "the group of people" at [[Giant Rock]] who "eat and sleep saucers." Shough found that the Blue Book file consists only of the reports as forwarded, with Ware's map missing and no recorded inquiry, and that the [[Project Blue Book]] record card gives the conclusion "OTHER - CLOUD lenticular cloud." Shough wrote that "The only conventional explanation having even a little plausibility is an unusually compact and well-defined lenticular wave cloud," but that "such a cloud seems unlikely."[^4]
+On December 16, 1953 a Lockheed WV-2 flight test crew of five, [[Roy E. Wimmer]], [[Rudy L. Thoren]], [[Philip A. Colman]], [[Charles Grugan]] and [[Joseph F. Ware Jr.]], and Johnson and his wife Althea at their ranch near [[Agoura, California|Agoura]], independently watched a black, sharp-edged object over the sea west of [[Los Angeles]] that dwindled and vanished. According to the study of the case by [[Martin Shough]] of the [[National Aviation Reporting Centre on Anomalous Phenomena]], on the next day Thoren mentioned the sighting in Johnson's office and Johnson described his own, whereupon the two groups found they had watched the same object; Johnson collected five reports "under special cover" and they were forwarded through Lieutenant General [[Donald L. Putt|D. L. Putt]] to the [[Air Technical Intelligence Center]] ([[Foreign Technology Division|ATIC]]) at [[Wright-Patterson Air Force Base]]. Putt's covering letter of February 15, 1954 to the ATIC commander, Colonel [[George L. Wertenbaker]], says the report "was handed to me by Lockheed personnel with the explanation that Mr. Johnson was most reluctant to write the report in the first place and then refused to forward it on to you because of his belief that those who profess to have seen flying saucers are not usually considered to be logical and practical hard-headed engineers." Johnson's own report of December 18, 1953 is addressed to the "Air Force Investigating Group on Flying Saucers." Shough records that Johnson stated, "in official confidence," that around Christmas 1951 he had seen a fast-moving "flame or emanation" of "beautiful light blue" colour near [[Brents Junction]] that he believed to be a "flying saucer," and that Ware's statement in the file describes a large circular object he watched from his own roof about Christmas 1951 and visits to "the group of people" at [[Giant Rock]] who "eat and sleep saucers." Shough found that the Blue Book file consists only of the reports as forwarded, with Ware's map missing and no recorded inquiry, and that the [[Project Blue Book]] record card gives the conclusion "OTHER - CLOUD lenticular cloud." Shough wrote that "The only conventional explanation having even a little plausibility is an unusually compact and well-defined lenticular wave cloud," but that "such a cloud seems unlikely."[^6]
 
-The Kelly Johnson file among the papers of Ben Rich at the [[Huntington Library]] includes the document "Sighting of a flying saucer by certain Lockheed Aircraft Corporation personnel on 16 December 1953."[^5]
+The Kelly Johnson file among the papers of Ben Rich at the [[Huntington Library]] includes the document "Sighting of a flying saucer by certain Lockheed Aircraft Corporation personnel on 16 December 1953."[^7]
 
 ### Accounts of recovered material at the Skunk Works
 
-The [[Wilson-Davis Memo|Wilson-Davis notes]] of October 16, 2002, attributed to [[Eric Davis]], quote Vice Admiral [[Thomas R. Wilson]] as saying that in June 1997 he found in a records group of the [[Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Technology]] a program run by "An aerospace technology contractor," "one of the top ones in US," "the best one of them," with intelligence "in their corporate portfolio," and declined to name it: "Core secret," "can't tell." The notes record Wilson describing a conference room "secure vault" meeting with a program director, a corporate attorney and a retired [[National Security Agency]] security director who called themselves "the watch committee," and an "intact craft" "not of this Earth."[^6] The contractor is not named in the notes. A letter of April 25, 2002 paper-clipped into them, from [[Will Miller]], offers "Particulars on a 'special team' involved (as a secondary mission) with recovering crashed 'craft' including, but not limited to, the previously classified F-117 Stealth Fighter" and "A list of civilian government contractors" likely to have "current involvement in and knowledge of USG work in alien-derived technologies."[^6] Wilson told the [[Sarasota Herald-Tribune]] reporter [[Billy Cox]] in 2020: "It's all fiction."[^6]
+The [[Wilson-Davis Memo|Wilson-Davis notes]] of October 16, 2002, attributed to [[Eric Davis]], quote Vice Admiral [[Thomas R. Wilson]] as saying that in June 1997 he found in a records group of the [[Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Technology]] a program run by "An aerospace technology contractor," "one of the top ones in US," "the best one of them," with intelligence "in their corporate portfolio," and declined to name it: "Core secret," "can't tell." The notes record Wilson describing a conference room "secure vault" meeting with a program director, a corporate attorney and a retired [[National Security Agency]] security director who called themselves "the watch committee," and an "intact craft" "not of this Earth."[^8] The contractor is not named in the notes. A letter of April 25, 2002 paper-clipped into them, from [[Will Miller]], offers "Particulars on a 'special team' involved (as a secondary mission) with recovering crashed 'craft' including, but not limited to, the previously classified F-117 Stealth Fighter" and "A list of civilian government contractors" likely to have "current involvement in and knowledge of USG work in alien-derived technologies."[^8] Wilson told the [[Sarasota Herald-Tribune]] reporter [[Billy Cox]] in 2020: "It's all fiction."[^8]
 
-The Wall Street Journal reported on June 21, 2025 that Davis, "for years ... was part of a small group of defense experts who had claimed to know about a top-secret program at Lockheed's Skunk Works to hoard extraterrestrial technology." The same account states that in 2022 [[Sean Kirkpatrick]], then the [[Pentagon]]'s UFO investigator, asked executives of the six largest defense contractors "Have any of your companies ever gained access to alien technology?"; that for Lockheed Martin "the answer was...complicated," because the Skunk Works "had, in fact, just tested, and attempted to replicate, a piece of metal that was said to have been gathered from a crashed UFO outside [[Roswell Incident|Roswell]]"; that [[To The Stars Academy of Arts & Science]] had bought the pieces of metal in 2019 for $35,000 from a UFO researcher, and that the fragments had reached the radio host [[Art Bell]] by mail in 1996 from a listener who wrote that a grandfather had collected them as part of a military crash-retrieval team at Roswell; that the [[United States Army|Army]] agreed to test the metal for antigravity and cloaking properties; and that Kirkpatrick's team obtained it and had [[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]] test it, finding that "the alloy isn't from outer space and doesn't have antigravity properties" and was probably from a [[World War II|Second World War]]-era manufacturing test of an aircraft part or an armament such as a shell casing. According to the Journal, "Lockheed declined to comment and referred questions to the Army."[^7]
+The Wall Street Journal reported on June 21, 2025 that Davis, "for years ... was part of a small group of defense experts who had claimed to know about a top-secret program at Lockheed's Skunk Works to hoard extraterrestrial technology." The same account states that in 2022 [[Sean Kirkpatrick]], then the [[Pentagon]]'s UFO investigator, asked executives of the six largest defense contractors "Have any of your companies ever gained access to alien technology?"; that for Lockheed Martin "the answer was...complicated," because the Skunk Works "had, in fact, just tested, and attempted to replicate, a piece of metal that was said to have been gathered from a crashed UFO outside [[Roswell Incident|Roswell]]"; that [[To The Stars Academy of Arts & Science]] had bought the pieces of metal in 2019 for $35,000 from a UFO researcher, and that the fragments had reached the radio host [[Art Bell]] by mail in 1996 from a listener who wrote that a grandfather had collected them as part of a military crash-retrieval team at Roswell; that the [[United States Army|Army]] agreed to test the metal for antigravity and cloaking properties; and that Kirkpatrick's team obtained it and had [[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]] test it, finding that "the alloy isn't from outer space and doesn't have antigravity properties" and was probably from a [[World War II|Second World War]]-era manufacturing test of an aircraft part or an armament such as a shell casing. According to the Journal, "Lockheed declined to comment and referred questions to the Army."[^9]
+
+In his written testimony of September 9, 2025 [[George Knapp]] wrote that "It has been widely reported over many years that aerospace titan Lockheed Martin is one of the defense contractors entrusted with mystery material and perhaps entire craft." He testified that he had "confirmed that Bigelow and a trusted colleague met with and negotiated with a senior executive at Lockheed and hammered out a deal wherein Bigelow's company, BAASS, would receive a quantity of unusual material that Lockheed was safeguarding at a facility in California," and that "The agreement was not completed."[^10] [[Keith Basterfield]] wrote on November 30, 2023 that [[David Grusch]], in an interview with Joe Rogan, had said that Senator [[Harry Reid]] sought under the contract of [[Robert Bigelow]]'s [[Bigelow Aerospace Advanced Space Studies]] to have retrieved material transferred from Lockheed Martin, quoting Grusch: "the other government customer which was the Central Intelligence Agency for that specific Lockheed material...from the 50's...bits and pieces of hull structures."[^11] At the House Oversight hearing of November 13, 2024 [[Luis Elizondo]] said that a document cleared by the Defense Department's Office of Prepublication and Security Review stated that "an aerospace contract company" had "requested to divest itself of the material" that "was collected in the 1950s," and agreed that the company was Bigelow Aerospace; when Representative [[Eric Burlison]] cited the journalist [[Christopher Sharp]] as reporting a transfer among Lockheed Martin, Bigelow Aerospace and the CIA that was blocked, Elizondo answered: "it was blocked. Why it was blocked, I can only surmise."[^12]
 
 ### Official statements
 
-The July 26, 2023 hearing of a subcommittee of the [[House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform|House Oversight Committee]], at which [[David Grusch]] testified under oath to "a multi-decade UAP crash retrieval and reverse-engineering program," names no company in its transcript: the words Lockheed, Skunk Works, EG&G and [[Battelle Memorial Institute|Battelle]] do not occur in it. Asked by Representative [[Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez]] about "the interactions between defense contractor companies and any UAP-related programs," Grusch answered "the contractors, you know, or the metal benders, so to speak, the ones actually doing specific performance on government contracts"; asked by Representative [[Eric Burlison]] whether there was evidence the recovered aircraft were produced by domestic military contractors, he said "Not to my knowledge. Plus, the recoveries predate a lot of our advanced programs" that he was "waiving off."[^8]
+The July 26, 2023 hearing of a subcommittee of the [[House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform|House Oversight Committee]], at which [[David Grusch]] testified under oath to "a multi-decade UAP crash retrieval and reverse-engineering program," names no company in its transcript: the words Lockheed, Skunk Works, EG&G and [[Battelle Memorial Institute|Battelle]] do not occur in it. Asked by Representative [[Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez]] about "the interactions between defense contractor companies and any UAP-related programs," Grusch answered "the contractors, you know, or the metal benders, so to speak, the ones actually doing specific performance on government contracts"; asked by Representative [[Eric Burlison]] whether there was evidence the recovered aircraft were produced by domestic military contractors, he said "Not to my knowledge. Plus, the recoveries predate a lot of our advanced programs" that he was "waiving off."[^13]
 
-The [[Department of Defense]]'s [[All-domain Anomaly Resolution Office]] stated in February 2024 that it "found no empirical evidence for claims that the USG and private companies have been reverse-engineering extraterrestrial technology"; that "The executives, scientists, and chief technology officers of the companies named by interviewees met with the Director of AARO and denied on the record that they have ever recovered, possessed, or engaged in reverse-engineering of extraterrestrial technology"; and, of a thirdhand account by one interviewee that an unnamed organization held twelve recovered craft and had a [[Central Intelligence Agency]] "partnership with the company that ended in 1989," that it "discovered no empirical evidence supporting these claims." The report does not name the companies. It describes "Lockheed Martin's Advanced Development Program organization, also known as 'Skunk Works'" as the developer of the [[P-175 Polecat]] unmanned aircraft (first flight 2005, disclosed at the 2006 [[Farnborough Airshow]]) and the [[RQ-170 Sentinel]], and Lockheed Martin with [[Boeing]] and [[DARPA|DARPA]] as developers of the [[RQ-3 Dark Star]], which "Some observers asserted ... resembled a flying saucer with long narrow wings."[^9] A Pentagon spokeswoman, [[Sue Gough]], told the Wall Street Journal that the investigation "has not discovered any verifiable information to substantiate claims that any programs regarding the possession or reverse-engineering of extraterrestrial materials have existed in the past or exist currently."[^7]
+The [[Department of Defense]]'s [[All-domain Anomaly Resolution Office]] stated in February 2024 that it "found no empirical evidence for claims that the USG and private companies have been reverse-engineering extraterrestrial technology"; that "The executives, scientists, and chief technology officers of the companies named by interviewees met with the Director of AARO and denied on the record that they have ever recovered, possessed, or engaged in reverse-engineering of extraterrestrial technology"; and, of a thirdhand account by one interviewee that an unnamed organization held twelve recovered craft and had a [[Central Intelligence Agency]] "partnership with the company that ended in 1989," that it "discovered no empirical evidence supporting these claims." The report also describes an interviewee's claim that an organization was in possession of off-world material in 2009 and 2010, and a separate interviewee's statement that he took part in negotiations to return the material to the government and that "a former named senior CIA official quashed the proposal to remove the material from the corporation." The report does not name the companies. It describes "Lockheed Martin's Advanced Development Program organization, also known as 'Skunk Works'" as the developer of the [[P-175 Polecat]] unmanned aircraft (first flight 2005, disclosed at the 2006 [[Farnborough Airshow]]) and the [[RQ-170 Sentinel]], and Lockheed Martin with [[Boeing]] and [[DARPA|DARPA]] as developers of the [[RQ-3 Dark Star]], which "Some observers asserted ... resembled a flying saucer with long narrow wings."[^14] A Pentagon spokeswoman, [[Sue Gough]], told the Wall Street Journal that the investigation "has not discovered any verifiable information to substantiate claims that any programs regarding the possession or reverse-engineering of extraterrestrial materials have existed in the past or exist currently."[^9]
 
 [[Ron Blackburn]], a retired Air Force lieutenant colonel then at the Skunk Works, helped [[John B. Alexander]] draw up the invitation list for the [[Advanced Theoretical Physics Working Group]] in 1984, according to Alexander (see those pages).
 
 ### Rich and the E.T. joke
 
-Rich's lecture line from 1983 that the Skunk Works had a contract to take E.T. home, and the 1993 account of it by [[Jan Harzan]], are on the page for Ben Rich.[^10]
+Rich's lecture line from 1983 that the Skunk Works had a contract to take E.T. home, and the 1993 account of it by [[Jan Harzan]], are on the page for Ben Rich.[^15]
 
 ### Footnotes
 
 [^1]: Roy J. Harris Jr., "The Skunk Works: Hush-Hush Projects Often Emerge There," The Wall Street Journal, October 13, 1980, CIA-RDP90-00806R000100660006-2, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000100660006-2
 [^2]: Ben R. Rich and Leo Janos, Skunk Works: A Personal Memoir of My Years at Lockheed (Boston: Little, Brown, 1994), https://archive.org/details/skunk-works-apersonal-memoir-of-my-years-at-lockheed-ben-rrich (text lines 180 to 200, 1440 to 1456, 2937 to 2950, 3462 to 3480 and the footnote at 9208).
-[^3]: Gregory W. Pedlow and Donald E. Welzenbach, The CIA and the U-2 Program, chapter 6, pp. 274 to 275, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB434/docs/U2%20-%20Chapter%206.pdf
-[^4]: Martin Shough, "A Study of the Lockheed Sightings," National Aviation Reporting Centre on Anomalous Phenomena, July 2014, summary, sections 1 and 7 and appendix (letters of Putt, February 15, 1954, and Johnson, January 23 and December 18, 1953; statements of Ware and others), https://mail.project1947.com/fig/Lockheed_Case_Dec_16_1953.pdf (scans at nicap.org/docs/lockufo3.pdf).
-[^5]: Huntington Library, "Ben R. Rich papers, 1940-1995," Online Archive of California, https://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/c86d5rqx/admin/
-[^6]: "EWD NOTES 10/16/02, Eric Davis Meeting with Adm. Wilson," pp. 3 to 4 and 8 to 13, https://documents2.theblackvault.com/casefiles/wilsonleak.pdf ; Wilson's 2020 statement to Billy Cox as reproduced in The Black Vault, https://www.theblackvault.com/casefiles/the-admiral-wilson-leak-an-analysis/ . Provenance of the notes unverified; Davis has not commented.
-[^7]: Joel Schectman and Aruna Viswanatha, "Was It Scrap Metal or an Alien Spacecraft? The Army Asked an Elite Defense Lab to Investigate," The Wall Street Journal, June 21, 2025 (print edition of June 23, 2025, as "A UFO Legend Lands Up at Elite Defense Lab"), read from an archived copy at https://gwern.net/doc/www/www.wsj.com/9c50364a40ee3cbeb3463a6068c4884ff0f637cc.html
-[^8]: House Committee on Oversight and Accountability, Subcommittee on National Security, the Border, and Foreign Affairs, hearing "Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena: Implications on National Security, Public Safety, and Government Transparency," July 26, 2023, Serial No. 118-53, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-118hhrg53022/html/CHRG-118hhrg53022.htm (full text searched; no company named in the testimony of Grusch, Ryan Graves or David Fravor other than Graves's reference to Boeing contractors at Vandenberg).
-[^9]: Department of Defense, All-domain Anomaly Resolution Office, Report on the Historical Record of U.S. Government Involvement with Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena, Volume I, February 2024, pp. 7 to 9, 28 to 29 and 44 to 45, https://media.defense.gov/2024/Mar/08/2003409233/-1/-1/0/DOPSR-CLEARED-508-COMPLIANT-HRRV1-08-MAR-2024-FINAL.PDF (read from the Wayback Machine raw copy).
-[^10]: Peter W. Merlin, "Taking E.T. Home: Birth of a Modern Myth," SUNlite 5, no. 6 (2013), https://web.archive.org/web/20150321193509/home.comcast.net/~tprinty/UFO/SUNlite5_6.pdf
+[^3]: Gregory W. Pedlow and Donald E. Welzenbach, The Central Intelligence Agency and Overhead Reconnaissance: The U-2 and OXCART Programs, 1954-1974 (Washington: CIA History Staff, 1992; published in 1998 by the Center for the Study of Intelligence as The CIA and the U-2 Program, 1954-1974), chapter 2, pp. 56 to 57 (flight of April 12, 1955, Groom Lake and the Paradise Ranch), https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB434/docs/U2%20-%20Chapter%202.pdf ; chapter 6, p. 274 (EG&G radar test facility moved to Area 51, September 10, 1959), https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB434/docs/U2%20-%20Chapter%206.pdf
+[^4]: Pedlow and Welzenbach, The Central Intelligence Agency and Overhead Reconnaissance, chapter 2, pp. 72 to 73 ("U-2s, UFOs, and Operation BLUE BOOK") and p. 72 (the crash of November 17, 1955), https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB434/docs/U2%20-%20Chapter%202.pdf
+[^5]: Lockheed Martin Corporation, Form 10-K405 for the fiscal year 1995, filed March 13, 1996, Item 3, Legal Proceedings, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/936468/0000950109-96-001535.txt
+[^6]: Martin Shough, "A Study of the Lockheed Sightings," National Aviation Reporting Centre on Anomalous Phenomena, July 2014, summary, sections 1 and 7 and appendix (letters of Putt, February 15, 1954, and Johnson, January 23 and December 18, 1953; statements of Ware and others), https://mail.project1947.com/fig/Lockheed_Case_Dec_16_1953.pdf (scans at nicap.org/docs/lockufo3.pdf).
+[^7]: Huntington Library, "Ben R. Rich papers, 1940-1995," Online Archive of California, https://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/c86d5rqx/admin/
+[^8]: "EWD NOTES 10/16/02, Eric Davis Meeting with Adm. Wilson," pp. 3 to 4 and 8 to 13, https://documents2.theblackvault.com/casefiles/wilsonleak.pdf ; Wilson's 2020 statement to Billy Cox as reproduced in The Black Vault, https://www.theblackvault.com/casefiles/the-admiral-wilson-leak-an-analysis/ . Provenance of the notes unverified; Davis has not commented.
+[^9]: Joel Schectman and Aruna Viswanatha, "Was It Scrap Metal or an Alien Spacecraft? The Army Asked an Elite Defense Lab to Investigate," The Wall Street Journal, June 21, 2025 (print edition of June 23, 2025, as "A UFO Legend Lands Up at Elite Defense Lab"), read from an archived copy at https://gwern.net/doc/www/www.wsj.com/9c50364a40ee3cbeb3463a6068c4884ff0f637cc.html
+[^10]: George Knapp, written testimony, House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, Task Force on the Declassification of Federal Secrets, hearing "Restoring Public Trust Through UAP Transparency and Whistleblower Protection," Serial No. 119-44, September 9, 2025, https://oversight.house.gov/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/George-Knapp-Written-Testimony.pdf
+[^11]: Keith Basterfield, "Lockheed Martin and BAASS," November 30, 2023, quoting Lacatski, Kelleher and Knapp, Inside the US Government Covert UFO Program: Initial Revelations (RTMA, 2023) and the Department of Homeland Security response to the Freedom of Information Act request of Marc Cecotti, https://ufos-scientificresearch.blogspot.com/2023/11/lockheed-martin-and-baass.html
+[^12]: House Committee on Oversight and Accountability, "Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena: Exposing the Truth," joint hearing, November 13, 2024, Serial No. 118-135, questions of Representatives Burlison and Mace, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-118hhrg57440/html/CHRG-118hhrg57440.htm
+[^13]: House Committee on Oversight and Accountability, Subcommittee on National Security, the Border, and Foreign Affairs, hearing "Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena: Implications on National Security, Public Safety, and Government Transparency," July 26, 2023, Serial No. 118-53, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-118hhrg53022/html/CHRG-118hhrg53022.htm (full text searched; no company named in the testimony of Grusch, Ryan Graves or David Fravor other than Graves's reference to Boeing contractors at Vandenberg).
+[^14]: Department of Defense, All-domain Anomaly Resolution Office, Report on the Historical Record of U.S. Government Involvement with Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena, Volume I, February 2024, pp. 7 to 9, 28 to 29 and 44 to 45, https://media.defense.gov/2024/Mar/08/2003409233/-1/-1/0/DOPSR-CLEARED-508-COMPLIANT-HRRV1-08-MAR-2024-FINAL.PDF (read from the Wayback Machine raw copy).
+[^15]: Peter W. Merlin, "Taking E.T. Home: Birth of a Modern Myth," SUNlite 5, no. 6 (2013), https://web.archive.org/web/20150321193509/home.comcast.net/~tprinty/UFO/SUNlite5_6.pdf

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Microsoft.md

@@ -0,0 +1,283 @@
+---
+created: 2026-10-15
+updated: 2026-10-15
+title: Microsoft
+aliases:
+  - Microsoft Corporation
+  - Microsoft Corp.
+tags:
+  - Organization
+  - Technology
+  - BillGates
+  - Skype
+  - LinkedIn
+  - OpenAI
+  - PRISM
+  - NSAKEY
+  - JEDI
+  - IVAS
+  - PhotoDNA
+  - UnitedStatesVMicrosoft
+  - JeffreyEpstein
+  - Surveillance
+  - DefenseContracts
+category: "Private Organization"
+summary: "Microsoft is the Redmond software company whose products, acquisitions, defense contracts and OpenAI stake appear in the record of NSA collection, Pentagon cloud and Army headset programs, and the Epstein network."
+location: "Redmond, Washington"
+start: 1975
+relations:
+  - type: founded
+    with: "[[Bill Gates]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "co-founder"
+    start: 1975
+    fn: 2
+  - type: founded
+    with: "[[Paul Allen]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "co-founder"
+    start: 1975
+    fn: 2
+  - type: head_of
+    with: "[[Steve Ballmer]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "chief executive officer from January 2000, still in office in the fiscal 2013 annual report"
+    start: 2000-01
+    fn: 3
+  - type: head_of
+    with: "[[Satya Nadella]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "chief executive officer from February 2014"
+    start: 2014-02
+    fn: 1
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Craig Mundie]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "Chief Research and Strategy Officer from June 2006, listed as an executive officer in July 2011"
+    start: 2006-06
+    fn: 5
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Steven Sinofsky]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "President, Windows and Windows Live Division, listed as an executive officer in July 2011; departure announced November 12, 2012"
+    start: 2011-07
+    end: 2012-11
+    fn: 5
+  - type: represented
+    with: "[[Kathryn Ruemmler]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "listed among counsel for Microsoft as intervenor-defendant in Amazon Web Services v. United States, opinion of February 13, 2020 (public version March 6, 2020)"
+    start: 2020-02
+    fn: 14
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Brad Smith]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "general counsel and senior vice president, quoted in the December 15, 2009 PhotoDNA donation"
+    start: 2009-12
+    fn: 53
+  - type: contractor_to
+    with: "[[Department of Defense]]"
+    start: 2019-10-25
+    end: 2021-07-06
+    role: "Joint Enterprise Defense Infrastructure cloud award of October 25, 2019, canceled July 6, 2021"
+    fn: 18
+  - type: contractor_to
+    with: "[[U.S. Army]]"
+    start: 2021-03-31
+    end: 2025-04-10
+    role: "Integrated Visual Augmentation System production agreement awarded March 26, 2021, contract novated to Anduril Industries"
+    fn: 19
+  - type: funded
+    with: "[[OpenAI]]"
+    start: 2019-07-22
+    role: "investment of 1 billion dollars, later a stake of roughly 27 percent after the October 28, 2025 recapitalization"
+    fn: 23
+  - type: owned
+    with: "[[Skype]]"
+    start: 2011
+    role: "acquired for 8.5 billion dollars in cash, announced May 10, 2011"
+    fn: 5
+  - type: owned
+    with: "[[LinkedIn]]"
+    start: 2016
+    role: "acquired for approximately 26.2 billion dollars"
+    fn: 42
+  - type: owned
+    with: "[[Yammer]]"
+    start: 2012
+    role: "acquired for 1.1 billion dollars in cash"
+    fn: 3
+  - type: funded
+    with: "[[Center for a New American Security]]"
+    start: 2024-10
+    end: 2025-09
+    role: "donor in the 50,000 to 99,999 dollar tier, October 1, 2024 to September 30, 2025"
+    fn: 57
+  - type: funded
+    with: "[[Counter Extremism Project]]"
+    start: 2016-06
+    role: "funding for hash-matching software, per Defense One"
+    fn: 55
+---
+
+Microsoft Corporation is a software company headquartered at One Microsoft Way in [[Redmond, Washington]].[^1] It was co-founded in 1975 by [[Bill Gates]] and [[Paul Allen]]. Gates served as its chief executive until 2000 and as chairman until February 2014.[^2] [[Steve Ballmer]], who joined the company in 1980, was appointed chief executive in January 2000 and held the post in the fiscal 2013 annual report; Nadella succeeded him in February 2014.[^3] Its operating systems, productivity software, cloud platform and government computing products, along with its acquisitions and its investments in artificial intelligence, appear in several areas of the record: the surveillance programs disclosed from 2013, a 1999 controversy over a cryptographic key labeled for the [[National Security Agency]], the Pentagon cloud and Army headset contracts, the [[OpenAI]] partnership, and the network around [[Jeffrey Epstein]].
+
+### Leadership and the Gates Years
+
+Gates gave up the chief executive post in 2000, the same year the [[Gates Foundation]] was started. He stepped down from the company's board in March 2020, saying he was leaving to devote more time to philanthropy.[^2] [[Satya Nadella]] has been chief executive since February 2014 and was appointed chairman in June 2021, according to the company's annual report for fiscal 2024.[^1]
+
+In May 2021 Microsoft disclosed that its board had examined a 2019 complaint about Gates. The company said it "received a concern in the latter half of 2019 that Bill Gates sought to initiate an intimate relationship with a company employee in the year 2000," and that "A committee of the Board reviewed the concern, aided by an outside law firm, to conduct a thorough investigation."[^2] Microsoft said the inquiry reached no conclusion because Gates had stepped down before it was completed.[^2] [[Dow Jones]] had reported earlier that directors found his involvement with the employee inappropriate and decided he should leave the board, citing unnamed people familiar with the matter. A spokeswoman for Gates said "There was an affair almost 20 years ago which ended amicably," and that his "decision to transition off the board was in no way related to this matter."[^2] Microsoft said it had put processes for investigating allegations in place since 2000 and had overhauled them to make them stronger.[^2]
+
+In the same coverage, [[Bloomberg]] wrote that several reports had said [[Melinda French Gates]] raised concerns about his dealings with Jeffrey Epstein, and recalled the [[New York Times]] report of 2019 that Gates had met Epstein several times and once stayed late at his New York townhouse. A Gates spokeswoman said the "characterization of his meetings with Epstein and others about philanthropy is inaccurate." A person familiar with the matter told Bloomberg that Gates's dealings with Epstein "weren't a part of the scope of the Microsoft investigation," but that "it was discussed by some board members."[^2] The Epstein meetings are set out below.
+
+[[Craig Mundie]] joined Microsoft in 1992 and was named Chief Research and Strategy Officer in June 2006; he co-wrote the 2024 book *Genesis* with [[Henry Kissinger]] and [[Eric Schmidt]].[^4][^5] The executive roster of July 2011 lists Nadella as President, Server and Tools, [[Steven Sinofsky]] as President of the Windows and Windows Live Division, and Brad Smith as Senior Vice President and General Counsel.[^5]
+
+### Intelligence Collection: PRISM and Outlook.com
+
+On July 11, 2013 [[The Guardian]] published NSA documents supplied by [[Edward Snowden]] showing that Microsoft had worked with the agency on the company's own consumer services. The paper wrote that "Microsoft has collaborated closely with US intelligence services to allow users' communications to be intercepted, including helping the National Security Agency to circumvent the company's own encryption, according to top-secret documents obtained by the Guardian."[^6]
+
+The documents describe a sequence of cooperation. A newsletter entry said that "For Prism collection against Hotmail, Live, and Outlook.com emails will be unaffected because Prism collects this data prior to encryption." The NSA had become concerned about the interception of encrypted chats on the Outlook.com portal from the moment Microsoft began testing it in July 2012, and within five months "Microsoft and the FBI had come up with a solution that allowed the NSA to circumvent encryption on Outlook.com chats."[^6] A further entry dated April 8, 2013 described the company working "for many months" with the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] to allow Prism access to the SkyDrive storage service without separate authorization. Another entry recorded an FBI unit working with Microsoft on an Outlook.com feature that creates email aliases, which "may affect our tasking processes."[^6]
+
+The Guardian had reported on June 6, 2013, from an NSA slide presentation, that the agency's Prism program drew on the systems of nine internet companies, and that Microsoft "was the first, with collection beginning in December 2007," followed by Yahoo in 2008, Google, Facebook and PalTalk in 2009, YouTube in 2010, Skype and AOL in 2011 and Apple.[^7] Microsoft's statement to the paper in July said that it provides customer data "only in response to government demands and we only ever comply with orders for requests about specific accounts or identifiers," and that its compliance team rejects demands it believes are invalid.[^6] The [[Office of the Director of National Intelligence]] and the NSA issued a joint statement which said that "The US operates its programs under a strict oversight regime, with careful monitoring by the courts, Congress and the Director of National Intelligence."[^6]
+
+Skype was the other point of contact. The Guardian reported that work on integrating Skype into PRISM began in November 2010, that the company was served with a directive to comply signed by the attorney general on February 4, 2011, and that collection began on February 6, 2011.[^6] Microsoft announced on May 10, 2011 that it would acquire Skype for $8.5 billion in cash.[^5] Slate also listed a June 2011 Microsoft patent for "legal intercept" technology designed for services like Skype, which the timeline described as able to "silently copy" communications.[^8] [[Slate]] placed the Skype collection in the months before that announcement and recorded that a Microsoft transparency report published in March 2013 said the company had handed over the content of no Skype communications in 2012.[^8] Slate quoted an emailed Microsoft statement that the company "does not provide any government with blanket or direct access to SkyDrive, Outlook.com, Skype or any Microsoft product."[^8] The same timeline reported that the New York Times had described an internal Skype program called "Project Chess," begun in 2008, to explore how Skype calls could be made readily available to intelligence agencies.[^8] The Guardian amended its article to record Microsoft's statement that it did not make any changes to Skype to allow PRISM collection on or around July 2012.[^6]
+
+### The NSAKEY Controversy
+
+In September 1999 [[Andrew Fernandes]], chief scientist at [[Cryptonym Corp.]], reported a second key in the CryptoAPI cryptography architecture of Windows, labeled "_NSAKEY." He had found it in the copy of the ADVAPI.DLL library shipped with Windows NT 4.0 Service Pack 5, whose debugging symbols had not been removed.[^9][^10] Fernandes said that "In the data security profession, those three initials only mean one thing: National Security Agency," and argued that the NSA held the second key. Fernandes said the key would let the agency load services onto users' machines without their authorization, an option he thought the NSA would more likely use against a corporation than an individual.[^9] The report came days after Microsoft had dealt with a breach of its Hotmail e-mail service.[^9]
+
+Microsoft denied this. Its spokesman, [[Dan Leach]], said "These reports are completely false," and the company said the label meant only that the cryptography architecture met the NSA's standards for export.[^9] Leach also said that "The key does not allow any other party to start or stop cryptographic services on anyone's computers."[^9] Fernandes posted a "fix" for the key on his website, and a demonstration utility that replaced it.[^9][^11]
+
+Early that month the [[NTBugtraq]] editor [[Russ Cooper]] posted a message that [[Robert Hettinga]] forwarded to the [[Cypherpunks]] list on September 3, 1999. Cooper wrote that "I'm told the NSA insisted there had to be a backup," and offered a theory that a backup key would let Microsoft rotate a compromised primary key. He also reported Fernandes's finding that replacing the second key let a party add a cryptographic provider signed with its own key, and quoted Fernandes as saying "Export controll is effectively dead for Windows."[^11] Cooper's account of the backup was secondhand. [[Ian Goldberg]] of the [[University of California, Berkeley]] told [[CNN]] that the discovery "highly suggests" that the NSA had a key that could be used on any Windows system.[^9] The Berkeley security researcher [[David Wagner]] called the Cryptonym finding "a small deal at least."[^9] Alec Muffett, a security consultant for [[Sun Microsystems]] professional services group, said that many international companies had decided not to trust Microsoft and described the situation as "a bit of a conundrum from a political strategy point of view."[^9]
+
+### Defense and Intelligence Contracts
+
+Microsoft announced a new classified cloud, Azure Government Top Secret, on December 7, 2020. Its blog post, by Corporate Vice President [[Tom Keane]], said "We have recently completed the buildout of new Azure Government Top Secret regions, and we are working with the US Government on accreditation," and that the regions were "designed to provide the same capabilities as Azure (commercial), Azure Government" and Azure Government Secret.[^12] In August 2021 Microsoft said its Top Secret regions had authorization to operate and were generally available for national security workloads.[^13]
+
+The Joint Enterprise Defense Infrastructure (JEDI) solicitation, HQ0034-18-R-0077, was issued by the [[Department of Defense]] on July 26, 2018, and on October 25, 2019 the department announced that it had awarded the contract (HQ0034-20-D-0001) to Microsoft over [[Amazon Web Services]].[^14] The Boston Globe reported a ceiling of $10 billion over ten years.[^15] Amazon Web Services sued in the [[United States Court of Federal Claims]] on November 22, 2019 (No. 19-1796C), with Microsoft as intervenor-defendant. Counsel listed for Microsoft in the February 2020 opinion included [[Kathryn Ruemmler]], the former White House Counsel who later appears in the Epstein records.[^14] On February 13, 2020 Judge Patricia Campbell-Smith granted Amazon's motion for a preliminary injunction against contract performance and ordered Amazon to post $42 million in security; the opinion recorded the department's estimate of $5 million to $7 million in monthly cost from delay.[^14] The department took voluntary corrective action on remand and confirmed its award to Microsoft on September 2, 2020. In an opinion of April 29, 2021 the court denied the government's and Microsoft's motions to dismiss the count of Amazon's amended complaint titled "Bias, Bad Faith, Improper Influence, and/or Conflict of Interest," which alleged that President [[Donald Trump]] had made clear to the department's highest officials his desire that Amazon not receive the contract; the court ruled on waiver grounds only and recited the allegation as Amazon's.[^16] [[Oracle]] had also challenged the procurement.[^17]
+
+On July 6, 2021 the department canceled the JEDI solicitation and initiated termination procedures. Its statement said the contract "no longer meets its needs" because of "evolving requirements, increased cloud conversancy, and industry advances," and announced a multi-vendor Joint Warfighter Cloud Capability (JWCC), with proposals to be sought from Microsoft and Amazon Web Services, "as available market research indicates that these two vendors are the only Cloud Service Providers (CSPs) capable of meeting the Department's requirements."[^18]
+
+The Army's headset program started with a 2018 prototype award. The Army's PEO Soldier release of March 31, 2021 stated that on March 26, 2021 the Army "awarded Microsoft Corporation a fixed price production agreement to manufacture the Integrated Visual Augmentation System (IVAS)," using Middle Tier of Acquisition and Other Transaction authorities and a "non-traditional defense contractor."[^19] The program was reported at up to $21.88 billion. In April 2022 the Department of Defense Inspector General reported that the Army had not defined minimum user acceptance levels and warned of "wasting up to $21.88 billion in taxpayer funds to field a system that Soldiers may not want to use or use as intended"; the PEO Soldier spokesman replied that the Army had defined prototype metrics.[^20] In February 2025 Microsoft and [[Anduril Industries]] announced that Anduril would take over production, hardware and software development and delivery schedules, pending Department of Defense approval. Microsoft said it would shift its focus to cloud and AI technologies, which would serve as the foundation for IVAS as a situational awareness platform, and that Azure would remain the preferred cloud service for related workloads.[^21] [[Breaking Defense]] reported in April 2025 that the Army had approved the transfer of the contract to Anduril.[^22] Anduril, which [[Palmer Luckey]] co-founded, is the company that took over the program.[^21]
+
+### OpenAI and the AI Cluster
+
+OpenAI and Microsoft announced on July 22, 2019 that Microsoft was "investing $1 billion in OpenAI to support us building artificial general intelligence (AGI) with widely distributed economic benefits." The announcement said that "Microsoft will become our exclusive cloud provider" and that the two companies would jointly develop new Azure supercomputing technologies. OpenAI said it intended to license some pre-AGI technologies, with Microsoft as its preferred commercialization partner. The reason given was cost: "The most obvious way to cover costs is to build a product, but that would mean changing our focus."[^23] The company's annual report for fiscal 2024 describes OpenAI as a long-term partner whose models Microsoft deploys across its consumer and enterprise products, and notes that Azure powers all of OpenAI's workloads as its exclusive cloud provider. The same report records that Microsoft announced a third phase of the partnership in January 2023.[^1]
+
+The partnership was restructured on October 28, 2025. OpenAI stated that "Following the recapitalization, Microsoft holds an investment in OpenAI Group PBC valued at approximately $135 billion, representing roughly 27 percent on an as-converted diluted basis."[^24] The same statement said that OpenAI had contracted to purchase an incremental $250 billion of Azure services, that Microsoft would no longer have a right of first refusal to be OpenAI's compute provider, that Microsoft's intellectual property rights to models and products were extended through 2032 and now included post-AGI models, and that any AGI declaration would be verified by an independent expert panel.[^24]
+
+The November 2023 board crisis at OpenAI turned on the company's relationship with Microsoft. After the board removed [[Sam Altman]] as chief executive on November 17, 2023, [[Greg Brockman]] quit and roughly 700 employees signed a letter threatening to follow Altman to Microsoft. On November 20 Satya Nadella announced that Altman and Brockman would lead a new advanced-research lab inside Microsoft.[^25] [[Mira Murati]], named interim chief executive that week, was among the signatories.[^25] [[Ilya Sutskever]] signed the letter and posted that he "deeply regret[ted]" his part in the board's actions.[^26] Altman returned on November 29, 2023 with a new initial board on which [[Bret Taylor]] served as chair. Taylor wrote to staff that the board would include "a non-voting observer for Microsoft."[^27]
+
+The partnership is also part of the litigation brought by [[Elon Musk]] against OpenAI. Musk sued in 2024 and later amended the complaint to name Microsoft as a defendant, alleging that OpenAI had become a closed-source de facto subsidiary of Microsoft.[^28] A federal jury dismissed all of Musk's claims against Altman in May 2026.[^29]
+
+Other figures in the AI sector are also tied to Microsoft through their work. [[Dario Amodei]] and a group of colleagues left OpenAI in December 2020 after a faction around Amodei came into conflict with OpenAI's leadership over, among other things, the 2019 Microsoft investment and the capped-profit restructuring.[^30] [[Scale AI]], whose founder [[Alexandr Wang]] testified before the [[House Armed Services Committee]] on July 18, 2023, named Microsoft among its technology partners, with [[Meta]] and OpenAI, and described its work for the Department of Defense's [[Chief Digital and Artificial Intelligence Office]], the Army and the [[U.S. Air Force|Air Force]].[^31] [[Ben Buchanan]], then at the [[Johns Hopkins University]] School of Advanced International Studies, defended the AI diffusion rule at a university symposium on April 7, 2025 and said that Microsoft and [[NVIDIA]] were lobbying the Trump administration to reverse it.[^32] [[Asana]] disclosed in its 2026 proxy statement that [[Andrew Lindsay]], a director since 2021, is a corporate vice president at Microsoft.[^33]
+
+### The Epstein Network
+
+The New York Times reported in October 2019 that Gates had met Jeffrey Epstein many times from 2011, and on at least one occasion stayed at Epstein's New York townhouse late into the night.[^34] The [[Wall Street Journal]] reported on May 21, 2023 that Epstein had written to Gates in 2017 in terms that implied knowledge of Gates's past relationship with a Russian bridge player, after Gates declined to join a charitable fund Epstein was trying to build with [[JPMorgan Chase]]. A Gates spokeswoman told the paper that "Mr. Gates met with Epstein solely for philanthropic purposes."[^35] On June 10, 2026 Gates gave a closed-door interview to the [[House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform|House Oversight Committee]]. [[Fortune]] reported that he said "I should never have met with Epstein in the first place."[^36]
+
+Other Microsoft names appear in the Epstein records released by the [[Department of Justice]]. On June 7, 2013 a message from [[David Stern (business adviser)|David Stern]] to Epstein read "PA is in Silicon Valley on 25 & 26 June. Anyone you want him to see ?" Epstein then wrote to Steven Sinofsky, "PA is prince andrew."[^37] Sinofsky replied with an offer to arrange meetings for [[Prince Andrew]]: "Do you want me to get him any meetings? Can I help with any folks? A dinner?"[^38] In the same reply he wrote that "I think he would love spending an hour hearing startup guys pitch their products." Microsoft's executive roster of July 2011 listed Sinofsky as President of the Windows and Windows Live Division, and Visual Studio Magazine reported that his departure was announced on November 12, 2012.[^5][^39]
+
+A December 23, 2015 set of board minutes for [[Reporty Homeland Security]], an Israeli company whose directors included [[Amir Elichai]] and [[Ehud Barak]], recorded a demonstration of the Reporty system and a discussion of the company's "current business relationships and partners such as [[Haifa Municipality]], Microsoft, [[Taldor]] as well as integrators." The Department of Justice released the minutes among Epstein's records.[^40]
+
+Kathryn Ruemmler, whom Epstein telephoned in 2014 about her interest in Gates and his foundation, is listed among Microsoft's counsel in the JEDI litigation described above.[^14]
+
+### Acquisitions and Investments
+
+Skype had been co-founded by [[Jaan Tallinn]], and [[eBay]] bought the company in September 2005 for about 2.6 billion dollars, a transaction that converted Tallinn's founding stake into a fortune.[^41] Microsoft bought Skype outright in 2011 for $8.5 billion in cash, which the company's annual report described as an acquisition that would "extend Skype's brand and reach of its network platform."[^5]
+
+Microsoft acquired [[LinkedIn]] in 2016 for approximately $26.2 billion, according to the company's fiscal 2016 annual report.[^42] LinkedIn had been founded in 2002 by [[Reid Hoffman]], who had served as executive vice president of external relations at [[PayPal]] and belonged to the [[PayPal Mafia]] cohort.[^43] Microsoft acquired [[Yammer]] in 2012 for $1.1 billion in cash, according to its fiscal 2013 annual report.[^3] Yammer was founded by [[David Sacks]], who had been chief operating officer of PayPal.[^44]
+
+The [[Horowitz Family Foundation]], tied to [[Ben Horowitz]], filed tax returns reporting gifts made in shares, including 63,758 shares of Microsoft worth 7,128,028 dollars for the year ended June 2019.[^45] According to a 2025 [[Forbes]] report, [[Good Ventures]], the vehicle of [[Cari Tuna]] and [[Dustin Moskovitz]], held Microsoft among its largest holdings, alongside [[Impossible Foods]], its first impact investment, and the chipmakers [[TSMC]], [[ASML]] and Nvidia.[^46]
+
+### United States v. Microsoft
+
+The Department of Justice filed suit against Microsoft in July 1994, charging it with unlawfully maintaining a monopoly in the operating system market through licensing terms. The trial court issued conclusions of law on April 3, 2000, finding Microsoft liable on the tying and monopoly maintenance counts, and later a final judgment with a remedial order. Mediation had failed after nearly four months of settlement talks, and the court had found Microsoft liable on all but one count.[^47]
+
+On June 28, 2001 the [[United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit]] ruled in a per curiam opinion. The court said it would "affirm in part and reverse in part the District Court's judgment that Microsoft violated 2 of the Sherman Act by employing anticompetitive means to maintain a monopoly in the operating system market." It reversed the finding that Microsoft had illegally attempted to monopolize the internet browser market and remanded the tying finding for further proceedings.[^47]
+
+The appellate court also vacated the final judgment on remedies. It found "impermissible ex parte contacts by holding secret interviews with members of the media" by the trial judge, along with offensive public comments about Microsoft officials outside the courtroom, and it required that the case be assigned to a different trial judge on remand. The court said, "Although we find no evidence of actual bias," the trial judge's actions had seriously tainted the proceedings.[^47]
+
+[[David Boies]], who later chaired [[Boies Schiller Flexner]] from 1997 to 2024, served as Special Trial Counsel for the Department of Justice in the case from 1998 to 2000, according to the firm's biography.[^48]
+
+### Cryptography and Early Digital Cash
+
+In the mid-1990s the eCash system of [[David Chaum]] and [[DigiCash]] was seeking larger distribution partners. Negotiations with several of them fell through, among them a [[Visa]] investment and a Microsoft proposal to bundle eCash with Windows 95, over terms that Chaum and Bill Gates reportedly could not agree. DigiCash filed for bankruptcy in November 1998.[^49][^50]
+
+The cryptographer [[Wei Dai]], who released the Crypto++ library in 1995, worked for a period in Microsoft's cryptography research group, where he co-proposed the VMAC authentication algorithm and held cryptography patents.[^51][^52]
+
+### Child Safety and Hash Matching
+
+Microsoft donated its PhotoDNA image-matching technology to the [[National Center for Missing and Exploited Children]] on December 15, 2009. The company's general counsel, [[Brad Smith]], said that "PhotoDNA is a powerful technology that will help combat online child pornography," and that "We are very pleased to donate PhotoDNA to the National Center for Missing & Exploited Children to support the battle against this horrific crime."[^53] The technology creates "a unique signature for a digital photograph, like a fingerprint," against which other copies of the same image can be matched. The company and the center issued a joint call to consumers, policy makers and online services to help stamp out child pornography.[^53]
+
+In [[United States v. Ackerman]], decided August 5, 2016, the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit]] held that NCMEC was a "governmental entity or agent" for Fourth Amendment purposes. The opinion lists Microsoft among the amici supporting the government, with [[Dropbox]], [[Facebook]], [[Google]], [[Pinterest]], [[Snapchat]] and [[Twitter]].[^54] In June 2016 [[Defense One]] reported that Microsoft had provided funding for the hash-matching software developed for the [[Counter Extremism Project]].[^55] Microsoft has been a member of the [[Internet Watch Foundation]] since 2001, in the tier of members contributing over 90,000 pounds. [[Discord]] joined in November 2023 in a lower tier.[^56]
+
+### Funding, Think Tanks and Corporate Networks
+
+The [[Center for a New American Security]] published a supporters list for October 1, 2024 to September 30, 2025 that placed Microsoft in the 50,000 to 99,999 dollar tier, alongside NVIDIA and Scale AI.[^57] The [[Foundation for American Innovation]] lists Microsoft among its corporate supporters and event sponsors, alongside OpenAI, [[Anthropic]] and Meta.[^58]
+
+In Saudi Arabia, [[Echelon (company)|Echelon]] describes its Technologies division as "led by [[Omar Saleh]]," who "spent the last 20 years at Microsoft, successfully running its enterprise business in the Kingdom."[^59] [[Abdulrahman Alfozan]], an engineer later arrested in connection with the bugging of an OpenAI executive conference room, is described on his LinkedIn profile as having interned at Microsoft, [[SAP]] in [[Berlin]] and [[Akamai Technologies]], according to the San Francisco Standard.[^60] The Riyadh venture firm [[RAED Ventures]] describes its co-founder Nashef, who also co-founded Sadara Ventures, as having begun as a software engineer at Microsoft in 1994.[^61]
+
+### Footnotes
+
+[^1]: Microsoft Corporation, Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2024, cover page (One Microsoft Way, Redmond, Washington 98052), Item 1 (the OpenAI partnership and the January 2023 third phase), and the executive officers section (Satya Nadella appointed Chief Executive Officer in February 2014 and Chairman in June 2021). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/789019/000095017024087843/msft-20240630.htm
+[^2]: Bass, Dina and Ian King, "Microsoft investigated Bill Gates's involvement with an employee," *Bloomberg,* May 17, 2021, as published by *Al Jazeera,* reporting the Microsoft statement, the Dow Jones report, Gates's March 2020 announcement that he was leaving the board, the 1975 founding, the chief executive tenure to 2000 and chairmanship to February 2014, and the Gates Foundation's 2000 start. https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2021/5/17/bmicrosoft-investigated-bill-gatess-involvement-with-an-employee
+[^3]: Microsoft Corporation, Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2013, Item 1 ("we acquired Yammer, Inc. ... for $1.1 billion in cash" in 2012). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/789019/000119312513310206/d527745d10k.htm
+[^4]: *Genesis: Artificial Intelligence, Hope, and the Human Spirit* by Henry A. Kissinger, Eric Schmidt and Craig Mundie, PR Newswire release on the Little, Brown publication of November 19, 2024. https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/genesis-artificial-intelligence-hope-and-the-human-spirit-by-henry-a-kissinger-eric-schmidt-and-craig-mundie-302221817.html
+[^5]: Microsoft Corporation, Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2011, Item 7, "Definitive Agreement with Skype" (announced May 10, 2011, for $8.5 billion in cash), and the executive officers section as of July 28, 2011 (Steven A. Ballmer, Craig J. Mundie, Satya Nadella, Steven Sinofsky, Bradford L. Smith). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/789019/000119312511200680/d10k.htm
+[^6]: Greenwald, Glenn, Ewen MacAskill, Laura Poitras, Spencer Ackerman and Dominic Rushe, "Microsoft handed the NSA access to encrypted messages," *The Guardian,* July 11, 2013, including the NSA newsletter and document quotations, the April 8, 2013 SkyDrive entry, the Microsoft statement, the joint statement of the Office of the Director of National Intelligence and the NSA, the Skype timeline of November 2010, February 4 and February 6, 2011, and the amendment on Microsoft's July 2012 statement. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/11/microsoft-nsa-collaboration-user-data
+[^7]: Greenwald, Glenn and Ewen MacAskill, "NSA Prism program taps in to user data of Apple, Google and others," *The Guardian,* June 6, 2013, on the NSA slide presentation and the collection dates by company. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/06/us-tech-giants-nsa-data
+[^8]: "Timeline: How the World Was Misled About Government Skype Eavesdropping," *Slate,* Future Tense, July 12, 2013, including the March 2013 transparency report entry, the emailed Microsoft statement, and the summary of the *New York Times* report on "Project Chess." https://www.slate.com/blogs/future_tense/2013/07/12/skype_surveillance_a_timeline_of_public_claims_and_private_government_dealings.html
+[^9]: "NSA key to Windows: an open question," *CNN,* September 3, 1999, carrying the Fernandes quotations, the Microsoft statement of Dan Leach, the Ian Goldberg and David Wagner quotations, and the description of the "fix" posted on the Cryptonym site. https://us.cnn.com/TECH/computing/9909/03/windows.nsa.02/index.html
+[^10]: "Secret Doors and Mystery Keys," *Enterprise Systems,* October 6, 1999, describing Andrew Fernandes of Cryptonym Corp. and the discovery in the ADVAPI.DLL library shipped with Windows NT 4.0 Service Pack 5 that the debugging symbols had not been removed and the keys were labeled KEY and NSAKEY. https://esj.com/articles/1999/10/06/secret-doors-and-mystery-keys.aspx
+[^11]: Russ Cooper, NTBugtraq message, forwarded by Robert Hettinga to the Cypherpunks list, "Re: [dc-sage] Microsoft, the NSA, and you," September 3, 1999. https://diswww.mit.edu/menelaus/cpunks/117471
+[^12]: Keane, Tom, "The broadest range of cloud innovation across US Government data classifications," *Microsoft Azure Blog,* December 7, 2020. https://azure.microsoft.com/en-us/blog/the-broadest-range-of-cloud-innovation-across-us-government-data-classifications/
+[^13]: "Microsoft touts top secret cloud as 'generally available,'" *Washington Technology,* August 2021, on the authorization to operate of the Azure top secret regions. https://www.washingtontechnology.com/2021/08/microsoft-touts-top-secret-cloud-as-generally-available/355432/
+[^14]: *Amazon Web Services, Inc. v. United States* and *Microsoft Corp.,* No. 19-1796C (Fed. Cl.), opinion and order of Judge Campbell-Smith filed under seal February 13, 2020 and publicly March 6, 2020 (Document 173), on the July 26, 2018 solicitation, the October 25, 2019 award, the preliminary injunction, the $42 million security, the $5 to $7 million monthly delay estimate and the list of counsel. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCOURTS-cofc-1_19-cv-01796/pdf/USCOURTS-cofc-1_19-cv-01796-0.pdf
+[^15]: "Microsoft awarded Pentagon's $10 billion JEDI contract," *The Boston Globe,* October 25, 2019, on the $10 billion ceiling over ten years. https://www.bostonglobe.com/business/2019/10/25/microsoft-awarded-pentagon-billion-jedi-contract/peB5FA7P24QOHvoG0qOlrN/story.html
+[^16]: *Amazon Web Services, Inc. v. United States* and *Microsoft Corp.,* No. 19-1796C (Fed. Cl.), opinion and order filed April 29, 2021 (Document 266), on the preliminary injunction, the remand, the September 2, 2020 confirmation of the award and the fourth count of the amended complaint. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCOURTS-cofc-1_19-cv-01796/pdf/USCOURTS-cofc-1_19-cv-01796-1.pdf
+[^17]: "Pentagon Cancels JEDI Cloud Contract," *Defense One,* July 2021, on the Amazon and Oracle challenges that delayed the contract. https://defenseone.com/business/2021/07/pentagon-cancels-jedi-cloud-contract/183082
+[^18]: U.S. Department of Defense, "Future of the Joint Enterprise Defense Infrastructure Cloud Contract," release, July 6, 2021 (statement of John Sherman, acting DoD Chief Information Officer), Wayback capture. https://www.defense.gov/News/Releases/Release/Article/2682992/
+[^19]: PEO Soldier, PM IVAS press release, "IVAS Production Contract Award," March 31, 2021, Wayback capture. https://www.peosoldier.army.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/2556870/ivas-production-contract-award/
+[^20]: South, Todd, "DoD audit says Army's $22 billion 'mixed reality' goggle needs more soldier input," *Military Times,* April 22, 2022, on Department of Defense Inspector General report DODIG-2022-085 and the response of PEO Soldier. https://www.militarytimes.com/news/pentagon-congress/2022/04/22/dod-audit-says-armys-22-billion-mixed-reality-goggle-needed-more-soldier-input/
+[^21]: "IVAS: Microsoft and Anduril plan handover, reins to Army," *DefenseScoop,* February 11, 2025, on the joint statement of Microsoft and Anduril, the Microsoft statement on cloud and AI, and the Azure preference. https://defensescoop.com/2025/02/11/ivas-microsoft-anduril-plan-handover-reins-army/
+[^22]: "Anduril gets green light from Army to take over Microsoft's IVAS project," *Breaking Defense,* April 2025, on the Army's approval of the contract novation on April 10, 2025. https://breakingdefense.com/2025/04/anduril-gets-green-light-from-army-to-take-over-microsofts-ivas-project-exec/
+[^23]: "Microsoft invests in and partners with OpenAI to support us build beneficial AGI," *OpenAI,* July 22, 2019. https://openai.com/index/microsoft-invests-in-and-partners-with-openai
+[^24]: "The next chapter of the Microsoft-OpenAI partnership," *OpenAI,* October 28, 2025, on the recapitalization, the 27 percent stake, the $250 billion Azure commitment, the 2032 intellectual property term, and the independent expert panel. https://openai.com/index/next-chapter-of-microsoft-openai-partnership/
+[^25]: "Effective Altruism's Role in the OpenAI Chaos, Explained," *Bloomberg,* November 22, 2023, on the board crisis, the interim leadership sequence, the employee letter, and Nadella's November 20 announcement of the new lab. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-11-22/effective-altruism-s-role-in-the-openai-chaos-explained
+[^26]: "Ilya Sutskever, OpenAI co-founder and chief scientist, is leaving the company," *CNBC,* May 14, 2024, on the November 20, 2023 post and the employee letter. https://www.cnbc.com/2024/05/14/ilya-sutskever-openai-co-founder-and-chief-scientist-is-leaving.html
+[^27]: "Sam Altman returns as CEO, OpenAI has a new initial board," *OpenAI,* November 29, 2023, with update of December 8, 2023, archived September 13, 2026. http://web.archive.org/web/20260913004743/https://openai.com/index/sam-altman-returns-as-ceo-openai-has-a-new-initial-board/
+[^28]: "Elon Musk sues OpenAI and CEO Sam Altman over contract breach," *CNBC,* March 1, 2024, on the 2024 complaint and the founding agreement. https://www.cnbc.com/2024/03/01/elon-musk-sues-openai-and-ceo-sam-altman-over-contract-breach.html
+[^29]: "Jury dismisses all claims in Elon Musk's lawsuit against OpenAI CEO Sam Altman," *NPR,* May 18, 2026, on the refiled federal suit, the amendment naming Microsoft, and the May 2026 dismissal. https://www.npr.org/2026/05/18/nx-s1-5822366/musk-altman-openai-jury
+[^30]: Kantrowitz, Alex, "The Making of Anthropic CEO Dario Amodei," on the internal OpenAI conflict and the December 2020 departure. https://kantrowitz.medium.com/the-making-of-anthropic-ceo-dario-amodei-449777529dd6
+[^31]: U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Armed Services, Subcommittee on Cyber, Information Technologies, and Innovation, "Man and Machine: Artificial Intelligence on the Battlefield," hearing of July 18, 2023, H.A.S.C. No. 118-37 (statement and testimony of Alexandr Wang). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-118hhrg53627/pdf/CHRG-118hhrg53627.pdf
+[^32]: Johns Hopkins School of Advanced International Studies, "Ben Buchanan," faculty biography, archived October 10, 2025, on the April 7, 2025 Emerging Technologies symposium and the diffusion rule. http://web.archive.org/web/20251010173145/https://sais.jhu.edu/users/bbuchan8
+[^33]: Asana, Inc., Schedule 14A definitive proxy statement, filed April 20, 2026, director biographies. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1477720/000162828026025998/asan-20260420.htm
+[^34]: Stewart, James B., Matthew Goldstein and Jessica Silver-Greenberg, "Bill Gates Met With Jeffrey Epstein Many Times, Despite His Past," *The New York Times,* October 12, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/12/business/jeffrey-epstein-bill-gates.html
+[^35]: Safdar, Khadeeja and Emily Glazer, "Jeffrey Epstein Apparently Threatened Bill Gates Over Affair," *The Wall Street Journal,* May 21, 2023.
+[^36]: "Gates testifies on Epstein: previous Fortune investigation reveals payments to his ex-girlfriend, $1M Microsoft deal," *Fortune,* June 10, 2026. https://fortune.com/2026/06/10/bill-gates-epstein-mistress-bankrolled-testifying-congress/
+[^37]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00657628, DataSet 9, email from David Stern to Jeffrey Epstein, June 7, 2013, 16:33 UTC. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00657628.pdf
+[^38]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00657674, DataSet 9, email from Steven Sinofsky to Jeffrey Epstein, June 7, 2013, 17:25 UTC, quoting Epstein's message of 10:20 AM the same day. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00657674.pdf
+[^39]: "Windows Chief Sinofsky Leaves Microsoft," *Visual Studio Magazine,* November 13, 2012, reporting the Microsoft announcement of November 12, 2012. https://visualstudiomagazine.com/Articles/2012/11/13/Windows-Chief-Sinofsky-Leaves-Microsoft.aspx
+[^40]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01074544, DataSet 9, minutes of the meeting of the board of directors of Reporty Homeland Security Ltd., December 23, 2015. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA01074544.pdf
+[^41]: "Skype and Kazaa co-founder Jaan Tallinn on AI and the Singularity," *Singularity Weblog,* on the Estonian engineering team and Skype. https://www.singularityweblog.com/jaan-tallinn/
+[^42]: Microsoft Corporation, Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2016, Item 1A ("we announced our acquisition of LinkedIn for approximately $26.2 billion"). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/789019/000119312516662209/d187868d10k.htm
+[^43]: Cameron, Dell and Yulia Almazova, "Leak Exposes Members of Peter Thiel's Secretive 'Dialog' Society," *WIRED,* June 16, 2026, on the PayPal Mafia cohort. https://www.wired.com/story/leak-exposes-members-of-peter-thiels-secretive-dialog-society/
+[^44]: Contemporaneous Silicon Valley press on David Sacks's PayPal role and his post-PayPal ventures, including Yammer.
+[^45]: Horowitz Family Foundation (EIN 35-7050910), Form 990-PF e-file returns for fiscal years ended June 30, 2019 through 2024, listing gifts made in shares, including 63,758 shares of Microsoft (IRS object 201903169349101270 and later returns). https://apps.irs.gov/pub/epostcard/990/xml/
+[^46]: Liu, Phoebe, "Inside A Billionaire Couple's Plan To Give Away A $20 Billion Facebook Fortune," *Forbes,* November 7, 2025, updated version, archived. http://web.archive.org/web/20260730221730id_/https://www.forbes.com/sites/phoebeliu/2025/11/07/cari-tuna-billionaire-open-philanthropy-facebook/
+[^47]: *United States v. Microsoft Corp.,* 253 F.3d 34 (D.C. Cir. 2001) (per curiam), Nos. 00-5212 and 00-5213, decided June 28, 2001. https://law.resource.org/pub/us/case/reporter/F3/253/253.F3d.34.00-5213.00-5212.html
+[^48]: Boies Schiller Flexner LLP, "David Boies," firm biography, on his service as chairman from 1997 to 2024 and as Special Trial Counsel for the Department of Justice in the Microsoft antitrust suit from 1998 to 2000. https://www.bsfllp.com/people/david-boies.html
+[^49]: "The Genesis Files: How David Chaum's eCash Spawned a Cypherpunk Dream," *Bitcoin Magazine,* April 2018, on the eCash licensees, the Visa and Microsoft talks, and the 1998 bankruptcy. https://bitcoinmagazine.com/culture/genesis-files-how-david-chaums-ecash-spawned-cypherpunk-dream
+[^50]: Mahler, Till Antonio, "'82: The Birth of Digital Cash," *blockwhat?,* on the Mark Twain Bank, the limited adoption figures, the Microsoft and Visa negotiations, and the November 1998 bankruptcy. https://medium.com/blockwhat/82-the-birth-of-digital-cash-ea08b53379d8
+[^51]: "Cypherpunks Write Code: Wei Dai and B-money," *Medium,* on Dai's biography, including his work at Microsoft and on VMAC, and the Crypto++ library. https://medium.com/@Carrsos1/cypherpunks-write-code-wei-dai-and-b-money-or-a-coin-before-bitcoin-8bf5836bfb36
+[^52]: Crypto++ Library, weidai11/cryptopp, GitHub, on the June 1995 first release and the library's history. https://github.com/weidai11/cryptopp
+[^53]: "Microsoft and National Center for Missing & Exploited Children Push for Action to Fight Child Pornography," *Microsoft Source,* December 15, 2009. https://news.microsoft.com/source/2009/12/15/microsoft-and-national-center-for-missing-exploited-children-push-for-action-to-fight-child-pornography/
+[^54]: *United States v. Ackerman,* 831 F.3d 1292 (10th Cir. 2016), No. 14-3265 (Gorsuch, J.), on the NCMEC holding and the list of amici. https://openjurist.org/831/f3d/1292/united-states-v-ackerman
+[^55]: Tucker, Patrick, "How to Stop the Next Viral Jihadi Video," *Defense One,* June 17, 2016. http://www.defenseone.com/technology/2016/06/how-stop-next-viral-jihadi-video/129210/
+[^56]: Internet Watch Foundation, "Our Members," membership list (Microsoft since 2001 in the tier of members contributing over 90,000 pounds; Discord member since November 1, 2023 in the over 25,000 pound tier). https://www.iwf.org.uk/membership/our-members/
+[^57]: Center for a New American Security, "CNAS Supporters," contributions from October 1, 2024 to September 30, 2025. https://www.cnas.org/support-cnas/cnas-supporters
+[^58]: Foundation for American Innovation, "About Us," corporate supporters and event sponsors list. https://www.thefai.org/about-us
+[^59]: Echelon, website, "Introducing Echelon" founder's letter and partner section, archived October 13, 2026. https://web.archive.org/web/20261013213650/https://www.echelon.inc/
+[^60]: "OpenAI engineer arrested in bugging of executive conference room," *San Francisco Standard,* October 13, 2026. https://sfstandard.com/2026/10/13/openai-engineer-arrested-alleged-bugging-executive-conference-room/
+[^61]: RAED Ventures, "About," English about page, with team roster, and Arabic team page, Wayback capture of May 29, 2023. https://raed.vc/about/ ; https://web.archive.org/web/20230529114145/https://raed.vc/ar/team/

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Morgan Guaranty Trust.md

@@ -130,7 +130,7 @@ The proxy statement for the annual meeting of April 12, 2000 nominated 15 direct
 
 ### Sumitomo Copper Litigation
 
-In August 1999 [[Sumitomo Corporation]] sued J.P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated, Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York "and a former J.P. Morgan employee" in the [[Southern District of New York]], alleging that from 1993 to 1996 Morgan had assisted a Sumitomo employee in copper trading.[^12]
+In August 1999 [[Sumitomo Corporation]] sued J.P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated, Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York "and a former J.P. Morgan employee" in the [[U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York|Southern District of New York]], alleging that from 1993 to 1996 Morgan had assisted a Sumitomo employee in copper trading.[^12]
 
 ### The Chase Merger
 

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/National Security Archive.md

@@ -72,45 +72,45 @@ relations:
     reverse: true
     role: "20 grants listed in the foundation's database, 1985 to 2025, totaling $9,968,770"
     start: 1985
-    fn: 9
+    fn: 10
   - type: funded
     with: "[[Carnegie Corporation of New York]]"
     reverse: true
     role: "payments for archival programs on U.S.-Russia relations and nuclear security"
     start: 2020
-    fn: 10
+    fn: 11
   - type: funded
     with: "[[Ford Foundation]]"
     reverse: true
     role: "grants for freedom of information, Colombia and Cuba projects"
     start: 2013
-    fn: 11
+    fn: 12
   - type: funded
     with: "[[Foundation to Promote Open Society]]"
     reverse: true
     role: "general support"
     start: 2020
     end: 2021
-    fn: 12
+    fn: 13
   - type: funded
     with: "[[William and Flora Hewlett Foundation]]"
     reverse: true
     role: "Cyber Vault"
     start: 2021
     end: 2022
-    fn: 13
+    fn: 14
   - type: funded
     with: "[[Bernard and Anne Spitzer Charitable Trust]]"
     reverse: true
     role: "general purpose"
     start: 2021
     end: 2024
-    fn: 14
+    fn: 15
   - type: participant_in
     with: "[[Armstrong v. Executive Office of the President]]"
     role: "plaintiff"
     start: 1989-01-19
-    fn: 21
+    fn: 22
 ---
 
 The National Security Archive is a nongovernmental research institute and library at [[George Washington University]] in Washington, D.C. It was founded in 1985 by journalists and scholars to check rising government secrecy. The Archive describes itself as an investigative journalism center, a research institute on international affairs, a library and archive of declassified U.S. documents, a leading nonprofit user of the [[Freedom of Information Act]], a public interest law firm and a publisher of former secrets.[^1] Its legal entity is the National Security Archive Fund, Inc., a District of Columbia nonprofit.[^2] Until 1998 its press releases described it as a project of the nonprofit [[Fund for Peace]], Inc.[^3]
@@ -119,11 +119,11 @@ The National Security Archive is a nongovernmental research institute and librar
 
 [[Scott Armstrong]], formerly of the [[Washington Post]], served as founding director from 1985 to 1989. The Archive credits him with the vision for what the organization became.[^4] Its list of founders also names [[Raymond Bonner]] of the [[New York Times]], Congressman [[Jim Moody]] of Wisconsin, [[Ruth Chojnacki]], who worked for Moody and ran the Central America Papers Project he started in 1984, [[Morton H. Halperin]], who provided space for the papers at the [[American Civil Liberties Union]] Washington Office in 1984 and sponsored the Archive in 1985 through the Fund for Peace and the [[Center for National Security Studies]], and [[Stephen R. Paschke]], who set up the financial records in 1985 as chief financial officer of the Fund for Peace and is the Archive's vice president for finance.[^4] The list adds [[Jeffrey T. Richelson]], [[John Prados]] and [[Stan Norris]], who with Bonner and Armstrong formed an early 1980s discussion group on SI/TK-BYEMAN documents that shared documents and declassification requests.[^4]
 
-Board chairs were [[John Shattuck]] (1985 to 1989), [[Walter B. Slocombe]] (1989 to 1992), [[Joseph N. Onek]] (1989 to 1994), [[Russell Hemenway]] (1994 to 2014), [[Sheila S. Coronel]] (2014 to 2019) and [[Edgar N. James]] (2019 to 2025).[^4] [[Thomas S. Blanton]] has served as executive director since 1992 and is listed as president on the current governance page.[^4][^5] [[Malcolm Byrne]] served as deputy director and is listed as director of research.[^4][^6] [[Peter Kornbluh]] is director of the Cuba and Chile Documentation Projects.[^6]
+Board chairs were [[John Shattuck]] (1985 to 1989), [[Walter B. Slocombe]] (1989 to 1992), [[Joseph N. Onek]] (1989 to 1994), [[Russell Hemenway]] (1994 to 2014), [[Sheila S. Coronel]] (2014 to 2019) and [[Edgar N. James]] (2019 to 2025).[^4] [[Thomas S. Blanton]] has served as executive director since 1992 and is listed as president on the current governance page.[^4][^5] [[Malcolm Byrne]] served as deputy director and is listed as director of research.[^4][^6] [[Peter Kornbluh]] is director of the Cuba and Chile Documentation Projects.[^6] Electronic Briefing Book No. 222, "The CIA's Family Jewels," was posted June 21, 2007 and updated June 26, 2007.[^7]
 
 ### Board and Officers
 
-The Archive's Form 990 for 2023 lists as directors Edgar N. James (chair), [[Nancy E. Soderberg]] (vice chair), [[Cliff Sloan]] (secretary), [[Nancy Kranich]] (treasurer), [[Michael Abramowitz]], Sheila S. Coronel, [[Sajit Gandhi]], [[Danielle R. Holley]] and [[Vivian Schiller]], with Thomas S. Blanton as director and president, Malcolm M. Byrne as vice president for programs and Stephen R. Paschke as vice president for finance. The returns for 2021, 2022 and 2024 list the same slate. The reportable compensation shown for Blanton was $175,000 in each of those years and for Paschke $140,000.[^7]
+The Archive's Form 990 for 2023 lists as directors Edgar N. James (chair), [[Nancy E. Soderberg]] (vice chair), [[Cliff Sloan]] (secretary), [[Nancy Kranich]] (treasurer), [[Michael Abramowitz]], Sheila S. Coronel, [[Sajit Gandhi]], [[Danielle R. Holley]] and [[Vivian Schiller]], with Thomas S. Blanton as director and president, Malcolm M. Byrne as vice president for programs and Stephen R. Paschke as vice president for finance. The returns for 2021, 2022 and 2024 list the same slate. The reportable compensation shown for Blanton was $175,000 in each of those years and for Paschke $140,000.[^8]
 
 The governance page gives these biographical lines for the directors. Soderberg is described as a former U.S. Alternate Representative to the [[United Nations]], former Deputy Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs, former Staff Director of the [[National Security Council]], former vice president of the [[International Crisis Group]] and chair of the [[Public Interest Declassification Board]] from January 2012. Sloan is described as a retired partner of [[Skadden, Arps, Slate, Meagher & Flom]], Special Envoy for Guantanamo Closure at the [[State Department]] in 2013 and 2014 and general counsel of Washingtonpost.Newsweek Interactive from 2000 to 2008. Abramowitz is described as director of [[Voice of America]] News, former president of [[Freedom House]], former director of the National Institute for Holocaust Education of the [[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]] and former White House correspondent and national editor of the Washington Post. Gandhi is described as a senior professional staff member of the House Committee on Foreign Affairs and a former Presidential Management Fellow at the State Department. Schiller is described as executive director of [[Aspen Digital]], former president and chief executive of [[National Public Radio]], former head of news partnerships at [[Twitter]], former chief digital officer of [[NBC News]] and former senior vice president of the [[New York Times Company]]. James is described as a partner of James & Hoffman and pro bono litigator for the Archive; Kranich as a former president of the [[American Library Association]]; Coronel as director of the Toni Stabile Center for Investigative Journalism at [[Columbia University]]; and Holley as president of [[Mount Holyoke College]].[^5]
 
@@ -131,71 +131,71 @@ The advisory board listed on the same page includes [[Anne Cahn]], described as
 
 ### Funders and Filings
 
-The funders page lists the [[Carnegie Corporation of New York]], the [[Ford Foundation]] and its program-related investment division, the [[John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation]], the [[J. Roderick MacArthur Foundation]], the [[Democracy Fund]], the [[William and Flora Hewlett Foundation]], the [[John S. and James L. Knight Foundation]] and [[Fundación Ford]] in [[Santiago]], Chile.[^8] The founding funders named in the Archive's 2025 anniversary booklet are Ruth Adams, the Arca Foundation, Anne Bartley, the Deer Creek Foundation, the Field Foundation, the Ford Foundation, Lance Lindblom, both MacArthur foundations, Stewart Mott, Aryeh Neier, the Norman Foundation, Gary Sick, Philip M. Stern and Margery Tabankin.[^4] The Carnegie Corporation published a collection of the Archive's declassified documents under the title "Carnegie Results: The National Security Archive," covering Area 51 and the Cuban Missile Crisis among other topics.[^1]
+The funders page lists the [[Carnegie Corporation of New York]], the [[Ford Foundation]] and its program-related investment division, the [[John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation]], the [[J. Roderick MacArthur Foundation]], the [[Democracy Fund]], the [[William and Flora Hewlett Foundation]], the [[John S. and James L. Knight Foundation]] and [[Fundación Ford]] in [[Santiago]], Chile.[^9] The founding funders named in the Archive's 2025 anniversary booklet are Ruth Adams, the Arca Foundation, Anne Bartley, the Deer Creek Foundation, the Field Foundation, the Ford Foundation, Lance Lindblom, both MacArthur foundations, Stewart Mott, Aryeh Neier, the Norman Foundation, Gary Sick, Philip M. Stern and Margery Tabankin.[^4] The Carnegie Corporation published a collection of the Archive's declassified documents under the title "Carnegie Results: The National Security Archive," covering Area 51 and the Cuban Missile Crisis among other topics.[^1]
 
-The MacArthur Foundation's grants database lists 20 grants to the Archive totaling $9,968,770. Eleven are made out to the Fund for Peace National Security Archive: $25,000 in 1985 "To provide seed money for planning and development"; $200,000 in 1986 "To establish this organization, a central repository for all documentation released under the Freedom of Information Act and the Mandatory Declassification Review procedures"; $200,000 in 1987; $200,000 in 1988; $500,000 in 1990; $50,000 in 1992 for the Cuba Documentation Project; $300,000 in 1993 for "Recovering the Secret History of Eastern Europe and Russia"; $543,770 in 1995; $330,000 in 1996; $150,000 in 1997; and $600,000 in 1998 for the Project on Openness and Archives in Latin America. Nine are made out to the National Security Archive Fund: $600,000 in 1999 "To establish a reserve fund"; $900,000 in 2000 for "greater transparency in U.S. foreign policy and intelligence operations and for special projects in Mexico and Cuba"; $200,000 in 2001; $1,000,000 in 2003 for general operations; $900,000 in 2010 for the International Human Rights Evidence Program; $1,500,000 in 2013 for international human rights and nuclear security; $620,000 in 2016 and $900,000 in 2018 for the Nuclear Risks Documentation Project; and $250,000 in 2025 for general operations.[^9]
+The MacArthur Foundation's grants database lists 20 grants to the Archive totaling $9,968,770. Eleven are made out to the Fund for Peace National Security Archive: $25,000 in 1985 "To provide seed money for planning and development"; $200,000 in 1986 "To establish this organization, a central repository for all documentation released under the Freedom of Information Act and the Mandatory Declassification Review procedures"; $200,000 in 1987; $200,000 in 1988; $500,000 in 1990; $50,000 in 1992 for the Cuba Documentation Project; $300,000 in 1993 for "Recovering the Secret History of Eastern Europe and Russia"; $543,770 in 1995; $330,000 in 1996; $150,000 in 1997; and $600,000 in 1998 for the Project on Openness and Archives in Latin America. Nine are made out to the National Security Archive Fund: $600,000 in 1999 "To establish a reserve fund"; $900,000 in 2000 for "greater transparency in U.S. foreign policy and intelligence operations and for special projects in Mexico and Cuba"; $200,000 in 2001; $1,000,000 in 2003 for general operations; $900,000 in 2010 for the International Human Rights Evidence Program; $1,500,000 in 2013 for international human rights and nuclear security; $620,000 in 2016 and $900,000 in 2018 for the Nuclear Risks Documentation Project; and $250,000 in 2025 for general operations.[^10]
 
-The Carnegie Corporation's Form 990-PF reports payments to the National Security Archive Fund of $546,000 in the fiscal year ended September 30, 2020, $404,000 in 2021, $555,000 and $200,000 in 2022, $395,000 in 2023, and $560,000 and $175,000 in 2024. The larger payments are described as for archival programs on U.S.-Russia relations, nuclear security and cooperative threat reduction, and the smaller as for a study on nuclear targeting, civilian casualties and the laws of war. The returns list further approved payments of $404,000 (2020 return), $395,000 (2022 return), and $390,000 and $125,000 (2024 return).[^10]
+The Carnegie Corporation's Form 990-PF reports payments to the National Security Archive Fund of $546,000 in the fiscal year ended September 30, 2020, $404,000 in 2021, $555,000 and $200,000 in 2022, $395,000 in 2023, and $560,000 and $175,000 in 2024. The larger payments are described as for archival programs on U.S.-Russia relations, nuclear security and cooperative threat reduction, and the smaller as for a study on nuclear targeting, civilian casualties and the laws of war. The returns list further approved payments of $404,000 (2020 return), $395,000 (2022 return), and $390,000 and $125,000 (2024 return).[^11]
 
-The Ford Foundation's Form 990-PF for 2020 lists payments to the Archive of $250,000 to use freedom of information laws to access, analyze and publish evidence of grave human rights violations, $100,000 for the Colombia Truth Commission Documentation Project and $50,000 for a collaborative effort with Cuban historians; the return for 2021 lists $100,000 for the Colombia project and $75,000 for the Cuba effort. The foundation's grants database lists a $100,000 grant approved in May 2021 for the Colombia project, and a $63,000 grant approved in July 2013 for the IFTI Watch and freedominfo.org project on the openness practices of global institutions that make the rules for finance, trade and economic development.[^11] The [[Foundation to Promote Open Society]] reported grants of $185,000 in 2020 and $300,000 in 2021 for general support.[^12] The William and Flora Hewlett Foundation reported payments of $250,000 and $50,000 in 2021 and $130,000 in 2022 for the creation of a Cyber Vault and its website.[^13] The Bernard and Anne Spitzer Charitable Trust reported general-purpose payments of $300,000 in 2021, $300,000 in 2022, $650,000 in 2023 and $350,000 in 2024.[^14]
+The Ford Foundation's Form 990-PF for 2020 lists payments to the Archive of $250,000 to use freedom of information laws to access, analyze and publish evidence of grave human rights violations, $100,000 for the Colombia Truth Commission Documentation Project and $50,000 for a collaborative effort with Cuban historians; the return for 2021 lists $100,000 for the Colombia project and $75,000 for the Cuba effort. The foundation's grants database lists a $100,000 grant approved in May 2021 for the Colombia project, and a $63,000 grant approved in July 2013 for the IFTI Watch and freedominfo.org project on the openness practices of global institutions that make the rules for finance, trade and economic development.[^12] The [[Foundation to Promote Open Society]] reported grants of $185,000 in 2020 and $300,000 in 2021 for general support.[^13] The William and Flora Hewlett Foundation reported payments of $250,000 and $50,000 in 2021 and $130,000 in 2022 for the creation of a Cyber Vault and its website.[^14] The Bernard and Anne Spitzer Charitable Trust reported general-purpose payments of $300,000 in 2021, $300,000 in 2022, $650,000 in 2023 and $350,000 in 2024.[^15]
 
-Form 990 filings for the National Security Archive Fund, Inc. (employer identification number 22-2127884) show total revenue for tax years 2011 through 2023 ranging from $1,483,438 in 2014 to $4,482,160 in 2013, and contributions ranging from $834,300 in 2012 to $3,955,097 in 2013. For 2023 the filing reports total revenue of $2,400,353, functional expenses of $2,638,330 and year-end assets of $2,675,321. For 2024 it reports revenue of $1,807,989, contributions of $1,272,164, expenses of $2,531,878, year-end assets of $2,147,279 and 22 employees.[^2][^15]
+Form 990 filings for the National Security Archive Fund, Inc. (employer identification number 22-2127884) show total revenue for tax years 2011 through 2023 ranging from $1,483,438 in 2014 to $4,482,160 in 2013, and contributions ranging from $834,300 in 2012 to $3,955,097 in 2013. For 2023 the filing reports total revenue of $2,400,353, functional expenses of $2,638,330 and year-end assets of $2,675,321. For 2024 it reports revenue of $1,807,989, contributions of $1,272,164, expenses of $2,531,878, year-end assets of $2,147,279 and 22 employees.[^2][^16]
 
 ### Fee Status Under the Freedom of Information Act
 
-In 1988 the Archive challenged the Department of Defense over its fee category. The District Court found the dispute ripe but granted the Defense Department summary judgment.[^16] On appeal, the D.C. Circuit held that the Archive "is not an educational institution" and that "it is a representative of the news media by reason of its publication activities," so that it could be charged only duplication costs for requests furthering that function.[^17]
+In 1988 the Archive challenged the Department of Defense over its fee category. The District Court found the dispute ripe but granted the Defense Department summary judgment.[^17] On appeal, the D.C. Circuit held that the Archive "is not an educational institution" and that "it is a representative of the news media by reason of its publication activities," so that it could be charged only duplication costs for requests furthering that function.[^18]
 
-The [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] reached different conclusions. In September 2004 it placed the National Security Archive Fund in the news media fee category. In October 2004 it withheld the 2004 National Intelligence Estimate on Iraq in full under Exemptions 1 and 3, and on September 30, 2005 the District Court granted the CIA summary judgment and dismissed the case.[^18] In 2005 the CIA had also placed the Archive itself in its "all other" category, and the Archive sued in 2006. The CIA then acknowledged it had acted in error and granted news media status, which mooted the claims about past requests. The court dismissed the rest for lack of jurisdiction.[^19] In November 2008 the court granted the Archive's motion for reconsideration.[^20]
+The [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] reached different conclusions. In September 2004 it placed the National Security Archive Fund in the news media fee category. In October 2004 it withheld the 2004 National Intelligence Estimate on Iraq in full under Exemptions 1 and 3, and on September 30, 2005 the District Court granted the CIA summary judgment and dismissed the case.[^19] In 2005 the CIA had also placed the Archive itself in its "all other" category, and the Archive sued in 2006. The CIA then acknowledged it had acted in error and granted news media status, which mooted the claims about past requests. The court dismissed the rest for lack of jurisdiction.[^20] In November 2008 the court granted the Archive's motion for reconsideration.[^21]
 
 ### Armstrong v. Executive Office of the President
 
-On January 19, 1989, the final day of the [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] presidency, the Archive filed several Freedom of Information Act requests for all material stored on the [[Executive Office of the President]] and National Security Council electronic communications systems from their installation in the mid-1980s. The same day the plaintiffs filed suit for a declaration that the electronic documents were federal and presidential records and an injunction against their destruction. The plaintiffs were Scott Armstrong, [[Gary M. Stern]], [[Eddie Becker]], the Archive, the Center for National Security Studies, the [[American Historical Association]] and the American Library Association. The defendants included the White House Communications Agency and Acting Archivist of the United States [[Trudy Peterson]].[^21] The Executive Office of the President had used the [[PROFS]] electronic mail system, which ceased operations in 1992. The National Security Council kept its own PROFS system and a similar system called All-In-One.[^21]
+On January 19, 1989, the final day of the [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] presidency, the Archive filed several Freedom of Information Act requests for all material stored on the [[Executive Office of the President]] and National Security Council electronic communications systems from their installation in the mid-1980s. The same day the plaintiffs filed suit for a declaration that the electronic documents were federal and presidential records and an injunction against their destruction. The plaintiffs were Scott Armstrong, [[Gary M. Stern]], [[Eddie Becker]], the Archive, the Center for National Security Studies, the [[American Historical Association]] and the American Library Association. The defendants included the White House Communications Agency and Acting Archivist of the United States [[Trudy Peterson]].[^22] The Executive Office of the President had used the [[PROFS]] electronic mail system, which ceased operations in 1992. The National Security Council kept its own PROFS system and a similar system called All-In-One.[^22]
 
-In 1991 the D.C. Circuit found that the plaintiffs had standing, that the President is not an agency under the Administrative Procedure Act, and that the Presidential Records Act impliedly precluded judicial review of the President's record decisions, while the agency guidelines remained reviewable.[^22] On January 6, 1993, the District Court ruled that the electronic communications on these systems were federal records within the Federal Records Act, found the agencies' practices arbitrary and capricious, and enjoined the Archivist to preserve electronic federal records, including backup tapes. On May 21, 1993, it held the defendants in civil contempt over the preservation orders. The rulings are reported at 810 F. Supp. 335 and 821 F. Supp. 761.[^21] The D.C. Circuit's opinion of August 13, 1993 found that the electronic communications systems contain preservable records.[^21]
+In 1991 the D.C. Circuit found that the plaintiffs had standing, that the President is not an agency under the Administrative Procedure Act, and that the Presidential Records Act impliedly precluded judicial review of the President's record decisions, while the agency guidelines remained reviewable.[^23] On January 6, 1993, the District Court ruled that the electronic communications on these systems were federal records within the Federal Records Act, found the agencies' practices arbitrary and capricious, and enjoined the Archivist to preserve electronic federal records, including backup tapes. On May 21, 1993, it held the defendants in civil contempt over the preservation orders. The rulings are reported at 810 F. Supp. 335 and 821 F. Supp. 761.[^22] The D.C. Circuit's opinion of August 13, 1993 found that the electronic communications systems contain preservable records.[^22]
 
-A February 14, 1995 memorandum opinion by Judge Charles R. Richey recounted the case as filed in 1989 at the close of the Reagan administration.[^23] On August 29, 1995, after a July 28, 1995 opinion ordering in camera review of four of seventeen documents, the court granted summary judgment to the government on 88 White House Intelligence Summaries that had been reprocessed.[^24] On August 2, 1996, the D.C. Circuit reversed the district court on the question of whether the National Security Council is an agency under the FOIA. The panel held that the NSC is not an agency because it operates close to the President, who chairs it, and does not exercise substantial independent authority.[^25]
+A February 14, 1995 memorandum opinion by Judge Charles R. Richey recounted the case as filed in 1989 at the close of the Reagan administration.[^24] On August 29, 1995, after a July 28, 1995 opinion ordering in camera review of four of seventeen documents, the court granted summary judgment to the government on 88 White House Intelligence Summaries that had been reprocessed.[^25] On August 2, 1996, the D.C. Circuit reversed the district court on the question of whether the National Security Council is an agency under the FOIA. The panel held that the NSC is not an agency because it operates close to the President, who chairs it, and does not exercise substantial independent authority.[^26]
 
-The Archive states that it has filed more than 75 Freedom of Information lawsuits against the U.S. government, 30 of them successful, and that its White House e-mail lawsuits against the Reagan, Bush, Clinton, Bush and Obama administrations preserved 220 million electronic records, 22 million of them recovered from the George W. Bush White House when the Obama administration settled the case in 2009.[^26]
+The Archive states that it has filed more than 75 Freedom of Information lawsuits against the U.S. government, 30 of them successful, and that its White House e-mail lawsuits against the Reagan, Bush, Clinton, Bush and Obama administrations preserved 220 million electronic records, 22 million of them recovered from the George W. Bush White House when the Obama administration settled the case in 2009.[^27]
 
-In 2019 the Archive joined [[Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington]] in a suit over White House use of message-deleting applications under the Presidential Records Act. The district court held that nothing in the Act "obligates the President to perform any duty with the requisite level of specificity that mandamus requires," and the D.C. Circuit affirmed the dismissal on May 28, 2019.[^27]
+In 2019 the Archive joined [[Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington]] in a suit over White House use of message-deleting applications under the Presidential Records Act. The district court held that nothing in the Act "obligates the President to perform any duty with the requisite level of specificity that mandamus requires," and the D.C. Circuit affirmed the dismissal on May 28, 2019.[^28]
 
 ### Bay of Pigs and the Official History
 
-The Archive's Cuba project obtained the declassification of the CIA's 1961 inspector general's report on the [[Bay of Pigs]], written by [[Lyman Kirkpatrick]] as the "Inspector General's Survey of the Cuban Operation." The Archive's press release of February 22, 1998 announced that the 150-page report had been made public that day after a two-year Freedom of Information Act effort, with Kornbluh as the requester. The release stated that CIA director [[John McCone]] had ordered all but one copy destroyed and that the original, with rebuttals by the officials in charge of the invasion, remained in a safe in the director's office. It quoted an attached memorandum by [[Charles P. Cabell]], then deputy director: "In unfriendly hands, it can become a weapon unjustifiably to attack the entire mission, organization, and functioning of the Agency."[^3] The report was published that year as *Bay of Pigs Declassified*, edited by Peter Kornbluh.[^28] On June 4, 1998 the CIA, under Director [[George Tenet]], announced the transfer to the [[National Archives and Records Administration]] of about 3,200 pages of Bay of Pigs records, and stated that the Inspector General's assessment and the Directorate of Plans' response had been released in February 1998 to the Archive in response to a FOIA request.[^29]
+The Archive's Cuba project obtained the declassification of the CIA's 1961 inspector general's report on the [[Bay of Pigs]], written by [[Lyman Kirkpatrick]] as the "Inspector General's Survey of the Cuban Operation." The Archive's press release of February 22, 1998 announced that the 150-page report had been made public that day after a two-year Freedom of Information Act effort, with Kornbluh as the requester. The release stated that CIA director [[John McCone]] had ordered all but one copy destroyed and that the original, with rebuttals by the officials in charge of the invasion, remained in a safe in the director's office. It quoted an attached memorandum by [[Charles P. Cabell]], then deputy director: "In unfriendly hands, it can become a weapon unjustifiably to attack the entire mission, organization, and functioning of the Agency."[^3] The report was published that year as *Bay of Pigs Declassified*, edited by Peter Kornbluh.[^29] On June 4, 1998 the CIA, under Director [[George Tenet]], announced the transfer to the [[National Archives and Records Administration]] of about 3,200 pages of Bay of Pigs records, and stated that the Inspector General's assessment and the Directorate of Plans' response had been released in February 1998 to the Archive in response to a FOIA request.[^30]
 
-The CIA released only Volume III of the five-volume official history by its staff historian [[Jack B. Pfeiffer]] that year, under the Kennedy Assassination Records Act. The volume was found in the National Archives in 2005 by the Villanova political scientist [[David Barrett]] and posted on his university's website. Pfeiffer had himself sued in 1987 for Volume V, and the court accepted the CIA's position that the volume could not be declassified.[^30]
+The CIA released only Volume III of the five-volume official history by its staff historian [[Jack B. Pfeiffer]] that year, under the Kennedy Assassination Records Act. The volume was found in the National Archives in 2005 by the Villanova political scientist [[David Barrett]] and posted on his university's website. Pfeiffer had himself sued in 1987 for Volume V, and the court accepted the CIA's position that the volume could not be declassified.[^31]
 
-The Archive requested Volumes I, II, IV and V in August 2005. It filed suit on April 14, 2011, and on July 25, 2011, the CIA released Volumes I, II and IV. In May 2012 the District Court granted the CIA summary judgment on Volume V, a draft, under the deliberative process privilege of Exemption 5.[^31] The D.C. Circuit affirmed on May 20, 2014, in an opinion by Judge Kavanaugh. The panel held that a draft of an agency's official history is pre-decisional and deliberative and that the draft of Volume V "is exempt in its entirety under Exemption 5."[^32]
+The Archive requested Volumes I, II, IV and V in August 2005. It filed suit on April 14, 2011, and on July 25, 2011, the CIA released Volumes I, II and IV. In May 2012 the District Court granted the CIA summary judgment on Volume V, a draft, under the deliberative process privilege of Exemption 5.[^32] The D.C. Circuit affirmed on May 20, 2014, in an opinion by Judge Kavanaugh. The panel held that a draft of an agency's official history is pre-decisional and deliberative and that the draft of Volume V "is exempt in its entirety under Exemption 5."[^33]
 
 ### The Perroots Memorandum
 
-In January 1989, as [[Leonard Perroots]], a lieutenant general of the U.S. Air Force, was retiring, he wrote an "End of Tour Report Addendum." The D.C. Circuit's opinion describes the background in these words: in 1983, "during the Cold War, Leonard H. Perroots, then an Assistant Chief of Staff for Intelligence in the United States Air Forces in Europe, allegedly recommended a course of action to his Commander in response to an elevated alert status demonstrated by the military forces of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics ('Soviet Union'), which helped avert a nuclear crisis." In the addendum he wrote to "detail the 'chain of events' from 1983 to help the U.S. Intelligence Community learn lessons 'as relates to our [Indications and Warning] capability and exercise planning.'"[^33]
+In January 1989, as [[Leonard Perroots]], a lieutenant general of the U.S. Air Force, was retiring, he wrote an "End of Tour Report Addendum." The D.C. Circuit's opinion describes the background in these words: in 1983, "during the Cold War, Leonard H. Perroots, then an Assistant Chief of Staff for Intelligence in the United States Air Forces in Europe, allegedly recommended a course of action to his Commander in response to an elevated alert status demonstrated by the military forces of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics ('Soviet Union'), which helped avert a nuclear crisis." In the addendum he wrote to "detail the 'chain of events' from 1983 to help the U.S. Intelligence Community learn lessons 'as relates to our [Indications and Warning] capability and exercise planning.'"[^34]
 
-The Archive describes the 1983 events as the Soviet reaction to [[Able Archer 83]], a NATO command post exercise held in November 1983, and states that Perroots served as director of the [[Defense Intelligence Agency]] from 1985 to 1989. According to the Archive, the addendum reported that signals intelligence showed the Soviet 4th Air Army issuing an alert that "included preparations for immediate use of nuclear weapons," that it warned of an "ominous picture," and that it warned the exercise could have led to "a potentially disastrous situation." The Archive states that the addendum set off an all-source investigation by the [[President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board]], whose report was declassified in 2015 after a 12-year appeals effort by the Archive through an interagency panel.[^34]
+The Archive describes the 1983 events as the Soviet reaction to [[Able Archer 83]], a NATO command post exercise held in November 1983, and states that Perroots served as director of the [[Defense Intelligence Agency]] from 1985 to 1989. According to the Archive, the addendum reported that signals intelligence showed the Soviet 4th Air Army issuing an alert that "included preparations for immediate use of nuclear weapons," that it warned of an "ominous picture," and that it warned the exercise could have led to "a potentially disastrous situation." The Archive states that the addendum set off an all-source investigation by the [[President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board]], whose report was declassified in 2015 after a 12-year appeals effort by the Archive through an interagency panel.[^35]
 
-The State Department published a transcribed version of the memorandum in February 2021 in *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1981-1988, Volume IV, Soviet Union, January 1983 to March 1985*. The volume thanked CIA staff "for arranging full access to CIA records" and stated that its declassification review "began in 2015 and was completed in 2019." Six months later the Archive filed a FOIA request with the CIA for the memorandum, and in October 2021 it sued. In April 2022 the CIA provided Perroots' cover letter and a completely redacted copy of the memorandum, citing Exemptions 1 and 3. On October 4, 2022 Judge [[James E. Boasberg]] granted the CIA summary judgment, finding that the CIA was not properly involved in the disclosure to the Foreign Relations volume and so had not waived the exemptions, and on November 16, 2022 the court denied the Archive's motion to amend the judgment. The Archive was represented pro bono by [[Beveridge & Diamond]].[^33][^34]
+The State Department published a transcribed version of the memorandum in February 2021 in *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1981-1988, Volume IV, Soviet Union, January 1983 to March 1985*. The volume thanked CIA staff "for arranging full access to CIA records" and stated that its declassification review "began in 2015 and was completed in 2019." Six months later the Archive filed a FOIA request with the CIA for the memorandum, and in October 2021 it sued. In April 2022 the CIA provided Perroots' cover letter and a completely redacted copy of the memorandum, citing Exemptions 1 and 3. On October 4, 2022 Judge [[James E. Boasberg]] granted the CIA summary judgment, finding that the CIA was not properly involved in the disclosure to the Foreign Relations volume and so had not waived the exemptions, and on November 16, 2022 the court denied the Archive's motion to amend the judgment. The Archive was represented pro bono by [[Beveridge & Diamond]].[^34][^35]
 
-The D.C. Circuit affirmed on June 7, 2024 in an opinion for the court by Circuit Judge Childs, joined by Circuit Judge Rao and Senior Circuit Judge Ginsburg. The court stated that the Archive had conceded that the response was justified under Exemptions 1 and 3 and held that the CIA had not waived them by the publication in the Foreign Relations volume.[^33] According to the Archive's account of November 14, 2025, which cites reporting by the Washington Post, a State Department official confirmed that the Department had republished the volume without a 15-page appendix on Able Archer 83 that contained the memorandum, a CIA response to it and a 1988 memorandum on Oleg Gordievsky's reporting. The official told the Post that the Department removed the documents because the Archive's case "was litigated in District Court and the Court of Appeals and [b]oth courts upheld withholding the information," and that "[t]he Department was not required to provide public notice." The Archive states that the Court of Appeals "said nothing about removing the already published record" from the volume.[^35]
+The D.C. Circuit affirmed on June 7, 2024 in an opinion for the court by Circuit Judge Childs, joined by Circuit Judge Rao and Senior Circuit Judge Ginsburg. The court stated that the Archive had conceded that the response was justified under Exemptions 1 and 3 and held that the CIA had not waived them by the publication in the Foreign Relations volume.[^34] According to the Archive's account of November 14, 2025, which cites reporting by the Washington Post, a State Department official confirmed that the Department had republished the volume without a 15-page appendix on Able Archer 83 that contained the memorandum, a CIA response to it and a 1988 memorandum on Oleg Gordievsky's reporting. The official told the Post that the Department removed the documents because the Archive's case "was litigated in District Court and the Court of Appeals and [b]oth courts upheld withholding the information," and that "[t]he Department was not required to provide public notice." The Archive states that the Court of Appeals "said nothing about removing the already published record" from the volume.[^36]
 
 ### Records Requests Over the Years
 
-Electronic Briefing Book No. 2, "The Contras, Cocaine, and U.S. Covert Operations," prints the handwritten notebooks of [[Oliver North]] that the Archive obtained through a Freedom of Information Act lawsuit filed in 1989. It includes North's entry for August 9, 1985, which summarizes a meeting with [[Robert Owen]], his liaison with the contras.[^36] The notebooks bear on the [[Iran-Contra Affair]].
+Electronic Briefing Book No. 2, "The Contras, Cocaine, and U.S. Covert Operations," prints the handwritten notebooks of [[Oliver North]] that the Archive obtained through a Freedom of Information Act lawsuit filed in 1989. It includes North's entry for August 9, 1985, which summarizes a meeting with [[Robert Owen]], his liaison with the contras.[^37] The notebooks bear on the [[Iran-Contra Affair]].
 
-Electronic Briefing Book No. 123, "The Kissinger Telcons," was posted on May 26, 2004, five years after the Archive initiated legal action to compel the State Department and the National Archives to recover the transcripts of [[Henry A. Kissinger|Henry Kissinger]]'s telephone calls. On October 29, 1976, while still Secretary of State, Kissinger had arranged to move the telephone notes from the State Department to the New York estate of [[Nelson Rockefeller]], and the Supreme Court held in 1980 that the Freedom of Information Act did not reach the transcripts.[^37][^38] The Archive's correspondence with the Archivist of the [[United States]] [[John W. Carlin]] began in January 1999. A complaint written by pro bono counsel Lee Rubin and Craig Isenberg of [[Mayer Brown]] was presented to the Archivist and the Secretary of State on January 25, 2001, and attorneys for the Archive wrote again to the State Department, the National Archives and the Justice Department on April 25, 2001. The State Department announced on August 8, 2001, that Kissinger had provided copies of the transcripts to the department, and a statement by spokesman Richard Boucher credited the Archive with prompting the recovery. The Archive's account states that the transcripts had been held at the [[Library of Congress]] under a 1976 deed of gift. On May 26, 2004 the National Archives released about 20,000 pages of the telcons, covering Kissinger's service from 1969 to August 1974.[^38]
+Electronic Briefing Book No. 123, "The Kissinger Telcons," was posted on May 26, 2004, five years after the Archive initiated legal action to compel the State Department and the National Archives to recover the transcripts of [[Henry A. Kissinger|Henry Kissinger]]'s telephone calls. On October 29, 1976, while still Secretary of State, Kissinger had arranged to move the telephone notes from the State Department to the New York estate of [[Nelson Rockefeller]], and the Supreme Court held in 1980 that the Freedom of Information Act did not reach the transcripts.[^38][^39] The Archive's correspondence with the Archivist of the [[United States]] [[John W. Carlin]] began in January 1999. A complaint written by pro bono counsel Lee Rubin and Craig Isenberg of [[Mayer Brown]] was presented to the Archivist and the Secretary of State on January 25, 2001, and attorneys for the Archive wrote again to the State Department, the National Archives and the Justice Department on April 25, 2001. The State Department announced on August 8, 2001, that Kissinger had provided copies of the transcripts to the department, and a statement by spokesman Richard Boucher credited the Archive with prompting the recovery. The Archive's account states that the transcripts had been held at the [[Library of Congress]] under a 1976 deed of gift. On May 26, 2004 the National Archives released about 20,000 pages of the telcons, covering Kissinger's service from 1969 to August 1974.[^39]
 
-On June 21, 2007 the Archive posted the CIA's "[[CIA Family Jewels|Family Jewels]]," the compilation that Director James Schlesinger had ordered on May 9, 1973 and that [[William Colby]] assembled into 693 pages. The posting reports that CIA director [[Michael Hayden]] announced that day that the agency was declassifying the full file, which had been the subject of multiple Freedom of Information Act requests over the years and of which only a few dozen heavily censored pages had been declassified. Thomas Blanton was quoted: "This is the first voluntary CIA declassification of controversial material since George Tenet in 1998 reneged on the 1990s promises of greater openness at the Agency." Hayden also announced the declassification of some 11,000 pages of the CAESAR, POLO and ESAU papers and hundreds of pages on the A-12. The Archive separately obtained and posted a six-page summary prepared by Justice Department lawyers after a CIA briefing in December 1974 and the memorandum of conversation of the January 3, 1975 briefing of President [[Gerald R. Ford]]. On June 26, 2007 the 702-page collection was delivered to the Archive at about 11:30 a.m., fifteen years after the Archive filed its Freedom of Information Act request for the documents.[^39]
+On June 21, 2007 the Archive posted the CIA's "[[CIA Family Jewels|Family Jewels]]," the compilation that Director James Schlesinger had ordered on May 9, 1973 and that [[William Colby]] assembled into 693 pages. The posting reports that CIA director [[Michael Hayden]] announced that day that the agency was declassifying the full file, which had been the subject of multiple Freedom of Information Act requests over the years and of which only a few dozen heavily censored pages had been declassified. Thomas Blanton was quoted: "This is the first voluntary CIA declassification of controversial material since George Tenet in 1998 reneged on the 1990s promises of greater openness at the Agency." Hayden also announced the declassification of some 11,000 pages of the CAESAR, POLO and ESAU papers and hundreds of pages on the A-12. The Archive separately obtained and posted a six-page summary prepared by Justice Department lawyers after a CIA briefing in December 1974 and the memorandum of conversation of the January 3, 1975 briefing of President [[Gerald R. Ford]]. On June 26, 2007 the 702-page collection was delivered to the Archive at about 11:30 a.m., fifteen years after the Archive filed its Freedom of Information Act request for the documents.[^40]
 
-In 2001 the Archive posted a memorandum of March 13, 1962, from the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]] to the Secretary of Defense, signed by Chairman [[Lyman Lemnitzer]], under the subject "Justification for US Military Intervention in Cuba (TS)." It responds to a request from the Chief of Operations, Cuba Project, for "brief but precise description of pretexts which would provide justification for US military intervention in Cuba," and recommends forwarding the enclosed memorandum as a preliminary planning submission. The request for pretexts belongs to the planning record of [[Operation NORTHWOODS]].[^40]
+In 2001 the Archive posted a memorandum of March 13, 1962, from the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]] to the Secretary of Defense, signed by Chairman [[Lyman Lemnitzer]], under the subject "Justification for US Military Intervention in Cuba (TS)." It responds to a request from the Chief of Operations, Cuba Project, for "brief but precise description of pretexts which would provide justification for US military intervention in Cuba," and recommends forwarding the enclosed memorandum as a preliminary planning submission. The request for pretexts belongs to the planning record of [[Operation NORTHWOODS]].[^41]
 
-Its electronic briefing books have published the planning record of the 1964 coup in [[Brazil]]. No. 118, "Brazil Marks 40th Anniversary of Military Coup," was edited by Kornbluh in 2004, and No. 465, "Brazil Marks 50th Anniversary of Military Coup," was edited by [[James G. Hershberg]] and Kornbluh and posted on April 2, 2014.[^41] No. 118 includes the planning for tankers carrying petroleum and a naval task force to be positioned for intervention in the overthrow of [[Joao Goulart]] on April 1, 1964.[^42]
+Its electronic briefing books have published the planning record of the 1964 coup in [[Brazil]]. No. 118, "Brazil Marks 40th Anniversary of Military Coup," was edited by Kornbluh in 2004, and No. 465, "Brazil Marks 50th Anniversary of Military Coup," was edited by [[James G. Hershberg]] and Kornbluh and posted on April 2, 2014.[^42] No. 118 includes the planning for tankers carrying petroleum and a naval task force to be positioned for intervention in the overthrow of [[Joao Goulart]] on April 1, 1964.[^43]
 
-In 1998 the Archive's Electronic Briefing Book No. 8, "Chile and the United States: Declassified Documents Relating to the Military Coup, September 11, 1973," by Peter Kornbluh, appeared on the twenty-fifth anniversary of the coup in [[Chile]].[^43] Electronic Briefing Book No. 33, "New Information on the Murders of U.S. Citizens [[Charles Horman]] and [[Frank Teruggi]] by the Chilean Military," was published on June 30, 2000, under Kornbluh as project director.[^44]
+In 1998 the Archive's Electronic Briefing Book No. 8, "Chile and the United States: Declassified Documents Relating to the Military Coup, September 11, 1973," by Peter Kornbluh, appeared on the twenty-fifth anniversary of the coup in [[Chile]].[^44] Electronic Briefing Book No. 33, "New Information on the Murders of U.S. Citizens [[Charles Horman]] and [[Frank Teruggi]] by the Chilean Military," was published on June 30, 2000, under Kornbluh as project director.[^45]
 
-In November 2023 the Archive posted documents on the confessions of [[Michael Townley]], an agent of [[DINA]], including a letter in which Townley wrote in March 1978: "I accuse the government of Chile of my death." Townley was turned over to the FBI on April 8, 1978.[^45] In October 2024 it published documents on the assassination of General [[Carlos Prats]] and [[Sofía Cuthbert]] by a car bomb in [[Buenos Aires]].[^46] In 2025 the Archive's posting *Chile in Their Hearts* challenged the theory that Charles Horman was targeted because he "knew too much."[^47] The May 7, 2025 posting presents fifteen documents on the deaths of Horman and Frank Teruggi that were assembled for John Dinges's 2025 book. It includes the embassy cable of September 25, 1973 that the Chilean judge [[Jorge Zepeda]] cited as evidence of foreknowledge, which the Archive reproduces with a note that the cable was dated eight days after Horman was taken from his home.[^47] An editor's note added to the 2000 posting states that "new information has emerged casting doubt on the theory that the U.S. had a role in Charles Horman's death or that he was killed because he had stumbled across evidence of U.S. involvement in the Chilean coup."[^44]
+In November 2023 the Archive posted documents on the confessions of [[Michael Townley]], an agent of [[DINA]], including a letter in which Townley wrote in March 1978: "I accuse the government of Chile of my death." Townley was turned over to the FBI on April 8, 1978.[^46] In October 2024 it published documents on the assassination of General [[Carlos Prats]] and [[Sofía Cuthbert]] by a car bomb in [[Buenos Aires]].[^47] In 2025 the Archive's posting *Chile in Their Hearts* challenged the theory that Charles Horman was targeted because he "knew too much."[^48] The May 7, 2025 posting presents fifteen documents on the deaths of Horman and Frank Teruggi that were assembled for John Dinges's 2025 book. It includes the embassy cable of September 25, 1973 that the Chilean judge [[Jorge Zepeda]] cited as evidence of foreknowledge, which the Archive reproduces with a note that the cable was dated eight days after Horman was taken from his home.[^48] An editor's note added to the 2000 posting states that "new information has emerged casting doubt on the theory that the U.S. had a role in Charles Horman's death or that he was killed because he had stumbled across evidence of U.S. involvement in the Chilean coup."[^45]
 
-In 2016 the Archive published documents on the editing of the [[Rockefeller Commission 1975|Rockefeller Commission]] report by the Ford [[White House]], including handwritten edits by [[Dick Cheney]] to the commission's draft and the removal, on White House orders, of the report's entire 86-page section on CIA plots to assassinate foreign leaders.[^48] In October 2025 the Archive published the Top Secret transcripts of [[Sidney Gottlieb]]'s testimony to the [[Church Committee]], given in closed hearings held October 15 to 18, 1975, together with declassified CIA memoranda on [[Project MKUltra|MKULTRA]]. The transcripts had been classified Top Secret at the time and were released through FOIA.[^49]
+In 2016 the Archive published documents on the editing of the [[Rockefeller Commission 1975|Rockefeller Commission]] report by the Ford [[White House]], including handwritten edits by [[Dick Cheney]] to the commission's draft and the removal, on White House orders, of the report's entire 86-page section on CIA plots to assassinate foreign leaders.[^49] In October 2025 the Archive published the Top Secret transcripts of [[Sidney Gottlieb]]'s testimony to the [[Church Committee]], given in closed hearings held October 15 to 18, 1975, together with declassified CIA memoranda on [[Project MKUltra|MKULTRA]]. The transcripts had been classified Top Secret at the time and were released through FOIA.[^50]
 
-In 2012 the Archive published its collection on [[Jonathan Pollard]], compiled by Richelson, which includes a 1987 CIA damage assessment. The assessment was initially heavily redacted and was later substantially restored after an Archive appeal to an interagency panel.[^50] Electronic Briefing Book No. 434, "The Secret History of the U-2 and Area 51," edited by Richelson and posted on August 15, 2013, collects the CIA history of the U-2 and OXCART programs by Gregory Pedlow and Donald Welzenbach, with material on [[Area 51]].[^51]
+In 2012 the Archive published its collection on [[Jonathan Pollard]], compiled by Richelson, which includes a 1987 CIA damage assessment. The assessment was initially heavily redacted and was later substantially restored after an Archive appeal to an interagency panel.[^51] Electronic Briefing Book No. 434, "The Secret History of the U-2 and Area 51," edited by Richelson and posted on August 15, 2013, collects the CIA history of the U-2 and OXCART programs by Gregory Pedlow and Donald Welzenbach, with material on [[Area 51]].[^52]
 
 ### Footnotes
 
@@ -205,48 +205,49 @@ In 2012 the Archive published its collection on [[Jonathan Pollard]], compiled b
 [^4]: National Security Archive, "The National Security Archive 1985 to 2025," anniversary booklet with founders, founding funders, board chairs and executive directors. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/sites/default/files/2025-12/Celebrating%20%2040%20YEARS%20%288c%29.pdf The governance page (note below) gives 1999 to 2014 for Russell Hemenway's term as chair of the Board of Directors.
 [^5]: National Security Archive, "Governance" (Board of Directors, President, In Memoriam and Advisory Board, with the biographical lines quoted). https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/about/governance
 [^6]: National Security Archive, "Staff and Fellows." Lists Malcolm Byrne as deputy director and research director, and Peter Kornbluh as director of the Cuba and Chile Documentation Projects. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/about/staff-fellows
-[^7]: Internal Revenue Service, Form 990 of the National Security Archive Fund Inc., EIN 22-2127884, Part VII (officers, directors and key employees), tax years 2021 to 2024 (return IDs 202243189349308164, 202323189349304972, 202423209349305017 and 202513189349305171, from the IRS TEOS e-file XML batches 2022_TEOS_XML_02A, 2023_TEOS_XML_11A, 2024_TEOS_XML_11A and 2025_TEOS_XML_11D). https://apps.irs.gov/pub/epostcard/990/xml/2024/2024_TEOS_XML_11A.zip
-[^8]: National Security Archive, "Funders and Supporters." https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/about/funders-supporters
-[^9]: John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, grants database, grantee pages "Fund for Peace National Security Archive" (11 grants, 1985 to 1998) and "National Security Archive Fund" (9 grants, 1999 to 2025), grant amounts, years and purposes as listed. https://www.macfound.org/grantee/fund-for-peace-national-security-archive-683/ and https://www.macfound.org/grantee/national-security-archive-fund-29961/
-[^10]: Internal Revenue Service, Form 990-PF of the Carnegie Corporation of New York, EIN 13-1628151, Part XV (grants and contributions paid during the year and approved for future payment), fiscal years ended September 30, 2020 to 2024 (returns 202131949349100773, 202241899349100304, 202342269349100709, 202442259349101009 and 202531929349101203). https://apps.irs.gov/pub/epostcard/990/xml/2025/2025_TEOS_XML_07A.zip
-[^11]: Internal Revenue Service, Form 990-PF of the Ford Foundation, EIN 13-1684331, Part XV, calendar years 2020 and 2021 (returns 202123199349107292 and 202203199349101880; https://apps.irs.gov/pub/epostcard/990/xml/2021/2021_TEOS_XML_01A.zip and https://apps.irs.gov/pub/epostcard/990/xml/2022/2022_TEOS_XML_02A.zip); Ford Foundation, grants database entries 120611 (IFTI Watch/freedominfo.org Project, $63,000, July 2013) and 140176 (Colombia Truth Commission Documentation Project, $100,000, May 2021). https://www.fordfoundation.org/work/our-grants/awarded-grants/grants-database/national-security-archive-fund-120611/ and https://www.fordfoundation.org/work/our-grants/awarded-grants/grants-database/national-security-archive-fund-140176/
-[^12]: Internal Revenue Service, Form 990-PF of the Foundation to Promote Open Society, EIN 26-3753801, Part XV, calendar years 2020 and 2021 (returns 202113519349100511 and 202213209349101601). https://apps.irs.gov/pub/epostcard/990/xml/2021/2021_TEOS_XML_01A.zip and https://apps.irs.gov/pub/epostcard/990/xml/2022/2022_TEOS_XML_02A.zip
-[^13]: Internal Revenue Service, Form 990-PF of the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation, EIN 94-1655673, Part XV, calendar years 2021 and 2022 (returns 202233189349104163 and 202343179349104459). https://apps.irs.gov/pub/epostcard/990/xml/2022/2022_TEOS_XML_02A.zip and https://apps.irs.gov/pub/epostcard/990/xml/2023/2023_TEOS_XML_11A.zip
-[^14]: Internal Revenue Service, Form 990-PF of the Bernard and Anne Spitzer Charitable Trust, EIN 13-7298842, Part XV, calendar years 2021 to 2024 (returns 202203189349106530, 202303189349102710, 202403189349101555 and 202513119349100441). https://apps.irs.gov/pub/epostcard/990/xml/2025/2025_TEOS_XML_11D.zip and the corresponding 2022, 2023 and 2024 batches
-[^15]: Internal Revenue Service, Form 990 of the National Security Archive Fund Inc., tax year 2024 (return 202513189349305171): revenue, contributions, expenses, assets and employee count. https://apps.irs.gov/pub/epostcard/990/xml/2025/2025_TEOS_XML_11D.zip
-[^16]: National Security Archive v. U.S. Department of Defense, 690 F. Supp. 17 (D.D.C. June 16, 1988). https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/2359370/national-security-archive-v-us-department-of-defense/
-[^17]: National Security Archive v. U.S. Department of Defense, 880 F.2d 1381 (D.C. Cir. 1989) (Ginsburg, J.). https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/526958/national-security-archive-v-us-department-of-defense/
-[^18]: National Security Archive Fund, Inc. v. Central Intelligence Agency, 402 F. Supp. 2d 211 (D.D.C. Sept. 30, 2005), Civ. A. 04-1821 (RMC). https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/2426293/national-security-archive-fund-inc-v-central-intelligence-agency/
-[^19]: National Security Archive v. Central Intelligence Agency, 564 F. Supp. 2d 29 (D.D.C. July 14, 2008), Civil Action No. 06-1080 (GK). https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/1407597/national-security-archive-v-central-intelligence-agency/
-[^20]: National Security Archive v. Central Intelligence Agency, 584 F. Supp. 2d 144 (D.D.C. Nov. 4, 2008), Civil Action No. 06-1080 (GK), granting reconsideration. https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/2356756/national-security-archive-v-central-intelligence-agency/
-[^21]: Armstrong v. Executive Office of the President, 1 F.3d 1274 (D.C. Cir. Aug. 13, 1993), Nos. 93-5002 et al., describing 810 F. Supp. 335 (D.D.C. 1993) and 821 F. Supp. 761 (D.D.C. 1993), and the January 19, 1989 requests and suit. https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/7025904/armstrong-v-executive-office-of-the-president/
-[^22]: Scott Armstrong v. George Bush, 924 F.2d 282 (D.C. Cir. Jan. 25, 1991), No. 90-5173. https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/555040/scott-armstrong-v-george-bush/
-[^23]: Armstrong v. Executive Office of the President, 877 F. Supp. 690 (D.D.C. Feb. 14, 1995), Civ. A. No. 89-142 (CRR). https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/1396736/armstrong-v-executive-office-of-the-president/
-[^24]: Armstrong v. Executive Office of the President, 897 F. Supp. 10 (D.D.C. Aug. 29, 1995), Civ. A. No. 89-0142 (CRR), on the July 28, 1995 opinion and the reprocessing of 88 White House Intelligence Summaries. https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/1470396/armstrong-v-executive-office-of-the-president/
-[^25]: Armstrong v. Executive Office of the President, 90 F.3d 553 (D.C. Cir. Aug. 2, 1996), Nos. 95-5057 and 95-5061, reversed. https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/722513/scott-armstrong-appelleescross-appellants-v-executive-office-of/
-[^26]: National Security Archive, "Accomplishments." https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/about/accomplishments
-[^27]: Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington v. Trump, 924 F.3d 602 (D.C. Cir. May 28, 2019), No. 18-5150, affirming dismissal of the mandamus petition by CREW and the National Security Archive; district court quoted at 302 F. Supp. 3d 127. https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/4623612/citizens-for-responsibility-ethics-in-wash-natl-sec-archive-v-trump/
-[^28]: National Security Archive, "Bay of Pigs: 40 Years After," listing Peter Kornbluh, *Bay of Pigs Declassified: The Secret CIA Report on the Invasion of Cuba* (New Press, 1998). https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/bayofpigs/
-[^29]: Central Intelligence Agency, press release "CIA Releases Documents Pertaining to Bay of Pigs," June 4, 1998. https://irp.fas.org/cia/news/pr060498.html
-[^30]: National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 341, "CIA Sued for 'Holding History Hostage' on Bay of Pigs Invasion." Covers the 1998 declassification of the Inspector General's Survey and of Volume III, the 1987 Pfeiffer suit, the 2005 discovery of Volume III by David Barrett, and the 2011 suit. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB341/index.htm
-[^31]: National Security Archive v. Central Intelligence Agency, 859 F. Supp. 2d 65 (D.D.C. May 10, 2012), Civil Action No. 11-724 (GK). https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/2662444/national-security-archive-v-central-intelligence-agency/
-[^32]: National Security Archive v. Central Intelligence Agency, 752 F.3d 460 (D.C. Cir. May 20, 2014), No. 12-5201 (Kavanaugh, J.). https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/2675034/national-security-archive-v-central-intelligence-agency/
-[^33]: National Security Archive v. Central Intelligence Agency, No. 23-5017 (D.C. Cir. June 7, 2024) (Childs, J.; Rao, J.; Ginsburg, Sr. J.), affirming No. 1:21-cv-02857 (D.D.C. Oct. 4, 2022, 2022 WL 5062523) and the order of Nov. 16, 2022 (2022 WL 18493099). https://media.cadc.uscourts.gov/opinions/docs/2024/06/23-5017-2058350.pdf
-[^34]: National Security Archive, "The Censored History of Able Archer 83," November 14, 2025, with the 2021 posting "Able Archer War Scare 'Potentially Disastrous'," February 17, 2021. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/able-archer-83/2025-11-14/censored-history-able-archer-83 and https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/aa83/2021-02-17/able-archer-war-scare-potentially-disastrous
-[^35]: National Security Archive, "The Censored History of Able Archer 83," November 14, 2025, reporting the Washington Post's account and the State Department official's statements. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/able-archer-83/2025-11-14/censored-history-able-archer-83
-[^36]: National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 2, "The Contras, Cocaine, and U.S. Covert Operations." https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB2/index.html
-[^37]: Kissinger v. Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press, 445 U.S. 136 (1980) (statement of facts on the October 29, 1976 removal of the telephone notes to the Rockefeller estate). https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/445/136
-[^38]: National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 123, "The Kissinger Telcons," posted May 26, 2004. Document list includes the correspondence with Archivist John W. Carlin of January 15 and 21, 1999, the complaint presented January 25, 2001, the attorneys' letter of April 25, 2001, and State Department press release "Former Secretary of State Kissinger Provides Department with Documents," August 8, 2001. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB123/index.htm
-[^39]: National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 222, "The CIA's Family Jewels," posted June 21, 2007, updated June 26, 2007. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB222/index.htm
-[^40]: Joint Chiefs of Staff, memorandum for the Secretary of Defense, "Justification for US Military Intervention in Cuba (TS)," March 13, 1962, signed by L. L. Lemnitzer, Chairman, with its enclosure, as posted by the National Security Archive in 2001. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/news/20010430/northwoods.pdf
-[^41]: National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 118, "Brazil Marks 40th Anniversary of Military Coup," edited by Peter Kornbluh, 2004, and Electronic Briefing Book No. 465, "Brazil Marks 50th Anniversary of Military Coup," edited by James G. Hershberg and Peter Kornbluh, posted April 2, 2014. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB118/ and https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB465/
-[^42]: National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 118, introduction and planning documents on the 1964 coup. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB118/
-[^43]: National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 8, "Chile and the United States: Declassified Documents Relating to the Military Coup, September 11, 1973," by Peter Kornbluh. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB8/nsaebb8.htm
-[^44]: National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 33, "New Information on the Murders of U.S. Citizens Charles Horman and Frank Teruggi by the Chilean Military," published June 30, 2000, with the editor's note cross-referencing "CHILE IN THEIR HEARTS, published May 7, 2025." https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB33/index.html
-[^45]: National Security Archive, "The Pinochet Dictatorship Declassified: Confessions of a DINA Hit Man," November 22, 2023, Kornbluh, ed. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/chile/2023-11-22/pinochet-dictatorship-declassified-confessions-dina-hit-man
-[^46]: National Security Archive, "The Pinochet Regime at 50: The Assassination of General Carlos Prats and Sofía Cuthbert," October 1, 2024. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/chile/2024-10-01/pinochet-regime-50-assassination-general-carlos-prats-and-sofia
-[^47]: National Security Archive, "Chile in Their Hearts," May 7, 2025. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/chile/2025-05-07/chile-their-hearts
-[^48]: National Security Archive, "Gerald Ford White House Altered Rockefeller Commission Report in 1975," Electronic Briefing Book No. 543, February 29, 2016, edited by John Prados and Arturo Jimenez-Bacardi. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/intelligence/2016-02-29/gerald-ford-white-house-altered-rockefeller-commission-report
-[^49]: National Security Archive, "The Top Secret Testimony of CIA's MKULTRA Chief, 50 Years Later," October 30, 2025. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/dnsa-intelligence/2025-10-30/top-secret-testimony-cias-mkultra-chief-50-years-later
-[^50]: National Security Archive, "Jonathan Pollard: Revisiting a Still Sensitive Case," Electronic Briefing Book No. 407, edited by Jeffrey T. Richelson, posted December 14, 2012. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/intelligence/2012-12-14/jonathan-pollard-spy-case-cias-1987-damage-assessment-declassified and https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB407/
-[^51]: National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 434, "The Secret History of the U-2 and Area 51," edited by Jeffrey T. Richelson, posted August 15, 2013. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB434/
+[^7]: National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 222, "The CIA's Family Jewels," posted June 21, 2007, updated June 26, 2007. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB222/index.htm
+[^8]: Internal Revenue Service, Form 990 of the National Security Archive Fund Inc., EIN 22-2127884, Part VII (officers, directors and key employees), tax years 2021 to 2024 (return IDs 202243189349308164, 202323189349304972, 202423209349305017 and 202513189349305171, from the IRS TEOS e-file XML batches 2022_TEOS_XML_02A, 2023_TEOS_XML_11A, 2024_TEOS_XML_11A and 2025_TEOS_XML_11D). https://apps.irs.gov/pub/epostcard/990/xml/2024/2024_TEOS_XML_11A.zip
+[^9]: National Security Archive, "Funders and Supporters." https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/about/funders-supporters
+[^10]: John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, grants database, grantee pages "Fund for Peace National Security Archive" (11 grants, 1985 to 1998) and "National Security Archive Fund" (9 grants, 1999 to 2025), grant amounts, years and purposes as listed. https://www.macfound.org/grantee/fund-for-peace-national-security-archive-683/ and https://www.macfound.org/grantee/national-security-archive-fund-29961/
+[^11]: Internal Revenue Service, Form 990-PF of the Carnegie Corporation of New York, EIN 13-1628151, Part XV (grants and contributions paid during the year and approved for future payment), fiscal years ended September 30, 2020 to 2024 (returns 202131949349100773, 202241899349100304, 202342269349100709, 202442259349101009 and 202531929349101203). https://apps.irs.gov/pub/epostcard/990/xml/2025/2025_TEOS_XML_07A.zip
+[^12]: Internal Revenue Service, Form 990-PF of the Ford Foundation, EIN 13-1684331, Part XV, calendar years 2020 and 2021 (returns 202123199349107292 and 202203199349101880; https://apps.irs.gov/pub/epostcard/990/xml/2021/2021_TEOS_XML_01A.zip and https://apps.irs.gov/pub/epostcard/990/xml/2022/2022_TEOS_XML_02A.zip); Ford Foundation, grants database entries 120611 (IFTI Watch/freedominfo.org Project, $63,000, July 2013) and 140176 (Colombia Truth Commission Documentation Project, $100,000, May 2021). https://www.fordfoundation.org/work/our-grants/awarded-grants/grants-database/national-security-archive-fund-120611/ and https://www.fordfoundation.org/work/our-grants/awarded-grants/grants-database/national-security-archive-fund-140176/
+[^13]: Internal Revenue Service, Form 990-PF of the Foundation to Promote Open Society, EIN 26-3753801, Part XV, calendar years 2020 and 2021 (returns 202113519349100511 and 202213209349101601). https://apps.irs.gov/pub/epostcard/990/xml/2021/2021_TEOS_XML_01A.zip and https://apps.irs.gov/pub/epostcard/990/xml/2022/2022_TEOS_XML_02A.zip
+[^14]: Internal Revenue Service, Form 990-PF of the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation, EIN 94-1655673, Part XV, calendar years 2021 and 2022 (returns 202233189349104163 and 202343179349104459). https://apps.irs.gov/pub/epostcard/990/xml/2022/2022_TEOS_XML_02A.zip and https://apps.irs.gov/pub/epostcard/990/xml/2023/2023_TEOS_XML_11A.zip
+[^15]: Internal Revenue Service, Form 990-PF of the Bernard and Anne Spitzer Charitable Trust, EIN 13-7298842, Part XV, calendar years 2021 to 2024 (returns 202203189349106530, 202303189349102710, 202403189349101555 and 202513119349100441). https://apps.irs.gov/pub/epostcard/990/xml/2025/2025_TEOS_XML_11D.zip and the corresponding 2022, 2023 and 2024 batches
+[^16]: Internal Revenue Service, Form 990 of the National Security Archive Fund Inc., tax year 2024 (return 202513189349305171): revenue, contributions, expenses, assets and employee count. https://apps.irs.gov/pub/epostcard/990/xml/2025/2025_TEOS_XML_11D.zip
+[^17]: National Security Archive v. U.S. Department of Defense, 690 F. Supp. 17 (D.D.C. June 16, 1988). https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/2359370/national-security-archive-v-us-department-of-defense/
+[^18]: National Security Archive v. U.S. Department of Defense, 880 F.2d 1381 (D.C. Cir. 1989) (Ginsburg, J.). https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/526958/national-security-archive-v-us-department-of-defense/
+[^19]: National Security Archive Fund, Inc. v. Central Intelligence Agency, 402 F. Supp. 2d 211 (D.D.C. Sept. 30, 2005), Civ. A. 04-1821 (RMC). https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/2426293/national-security-archive-fund-inc-v-central-intelligence-agency/
+[^20]: National Security Archive v. Central Intelligence Agency, 564 F. Supp. 2d 29 (D.D.C. July 14, 2008), Civil Action No. 06-1080 (GK). https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/1407597/national-security-archive-v-central-intelligence-agency/
+[^21]: National Security Archive v. Central Intelligence Agency, 584 F. Supp. 2d 144 (D.D.C. Nov. 4, 2008), Civil Action No. 06-1080 (GK), granting reconsideration. https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/2356756/national-security-archive-v-central-intelligence-agency/
+[^22]: Armstrong v. Executive Office of the President, 1 F.3d 1274 (D.C. Cir. Aug. 13, 1993), Nos. 93-5002 et al., describing 810 F. Supp. 335 (D.D.C. 1993) and 821 F. Supp. 761 (D.D.C. 1993), and the January 19, 1989 requests and suit. https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/7025904/armstrong-v-executive-office-of-the-president/
+[^23]: Scott Armstrong v. George Bush, 924 F.2d 282 (D.C. Cir. Jan. 25, 1991), No. 90-5173. https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/555040/scott-armstrong-v-george-bush/
+[^24]: Armstrong v. Executive Office of the President, 877 F. Supp. 690 (D.D.C. Feb. 14, 1995), Civ. A. No. 89-142 (CRR). https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/1396736/armstrong-v-executive-office-of-the-president/
+[^25]: Armstrong v. Executive Office of the President, 897 F. Supp. 10 (D.D.C. Aug. 29, 1995), Civ. A. No. 89-0142 (CRR), on the July 28, 1995 opinion and the reprocessing of 88 White House Intelligence Summaries. https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/1470396/armstrong-v-executive-office-of-the-president/
+[^26]: Armstrong v. Executive Office of the President, 90 F.3d 553 (D.C. Cir. Aug. 2, 1996), Nos. 95-5057 and 95-5061, reversed. https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/722513/scott-armstrong-appelleescross-appellants-v-executive-office-of/
+[^27]: National Security Archive, "Accomplishments." https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/about/accomplishments
+[^28]: Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington v. Trump, 924 F.3d 602 (D.C. Cir. May 28, 2019), No. 18-5150, affirming dismissal of the mandamus petition by CREW and the National Security Archive; district court quoted at 302 F. Supp. 3d 127. https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/4623612/citizens-for-responsibility-ethics-in-wash-natl-sec-archive-v-trump/
+[^29]: National Security Archive, "Bay of Pigs: 40 Years After," listing Peter Kornbluh, *Bay of Pigs Declassified: The Secret CIA Report on the Invasion of Cuba* (New Press, 1998). https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/bayofpigs/
+[^30]: Central Intelligence Agency, press release "CIA Releases Documents Pertaining to Bay of Pigs," June 4, 1998. https://irp.fas.org/cia/news/pr060498.html
+[^31]: National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 341, "CIA Sued for 'Holding History Hostage' on Bay of Pigs Invasion." Covers the 1998 declassification of the Inspector General's Survey and of Volume III, the 1987 Pfeiffer suit, the 2005 discovery of Volume III by David Barrett, and the 2011 suit. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB341/index.htm
+[^32]: National Security Archive v. Central Intelligence Agency, 859 F. Supp. 2d 65 (D.D.C. May 10, 2012), Civil Action No. 11-724 (GK). https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/2662444/national-security-archive-v-central-intelligence-agency/
+[^33]: National Security Archive v. Central Intelligence Agency, 752 F.3d 460 (D.C. Cir. May 20, 2014), No. 12-5201 (Kavanaugh, J.). https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/2675034/national-security-archive-v-central-intelligence-agency/
+[^34]: National Security Archive v. Central Intelligence Agency, No. 23-5017 (D.C. Cir. June 7, 2024) (Childs, J.; Rao, J.; Ginsburg, Sr. J.), affirming No. 1:21-cv-02857 (D.D.C. Oct. 4, 2022, 2022 WL 5062523) and the order of Nov. 16, 2022 (2022 WL 18493099). https://media.cadc.uscourts.gov/opinions/docs/2024/06/23-5017-2058350.pdf
+[^35]: National Security Archive, "The Censored History of Able Archer 83," November 14, 2025, with the 2021 posting "Able Archer War Scare 'Potentially Disastrous'," February 17, 2021. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/able-archer-83/2025-11-14/censored-history-able-archer-83 and https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/aa83/2021-02-17/able-archer-war-scare-potentially-disastrous
+[^36]: National Security Archive, "The Censored History of Able Archer 83," November 14, 2025, reporting the Washington Post's account and the State Department official's statements. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/able-archer-83/2025-11-14/censored-history-able-archer-83
+[^37]: National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 2, "The Contras, Cocaine, and U.S. Covert Operations." https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB2/index.html
+[^38]: Kissinger v. Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press, 445 U.S. 136 (1980) (statement of facts on the October 29, 1976 removal of the telephone notes to the Rockefeller estate). https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/445/136
+[^39]: National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 123, "The Kissinger Telcons," posted May 26, 2004. Document list includes the correspondence with Archivist John W. Carlin of January 15 and 21, 1999, the complaint presented January 25, 2001, the attorneys' letter of April 25, 2001, and State Department press release "Former Secretary of State Kissinger Provides Department with Documents," August 8, 2001. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB123/index.htm
+[^40]: National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 222, "The CIA's Family Jewels," posted June 21, 2007, updated June 26, 2007. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB222/index.htm
+[^41]: Joint Chiefs of Staff, memorandum for the Secretary of Defense, "Justification for US Military Intervention in Cuba (TS)," March 13, 1962, signed by L. L. Lemnitzer, Chairman, with its enclosure, as posted by the National Security Archive in 2001. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/news/20010430/northwoods.pdf
+[^42]: National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 118, "Brazil Marks 40th Anniversary of Military Coup," edited by Peter Kornbluh, 2004, and Electronic Briefing Book No. 465, "Brazil Marks 50th Anniversary of Military Coup," edited by James G. Hershberg and Peter Kornbluh, posted April 2, 2014. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB118/ and https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB465/
+[^43]: National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 118, introduction and planning documents on the 1964 coup. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB118/
+[^44]: National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 8, "Chile and the United States: Declassified Documents Relating to the Military Coup, September 11, 1973," by Peter Kornbluh. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB8/nsaebb8.htm
+[^45]: National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 33, "New Information on the Murders of U.S. Citizens Charles Horman and Frank Teruggi by the Chilean Military," published June 30, 2000, with the editor's note cross-referencing "CHILE IN THEIR HEARTS, published May 7, 2025." https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB33/index.html
+[^46]: National Security Archive, "The Pinochet Dictatorship Declassified: Confessions of a DINA Hit Man," November 22, 2023, Kornbluh, ed. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/chile/2023-11-22/pinochet-dictatorship-declassified-confessions-dina-hit-man
+[^47]: National Security Archive, "The Pinochet Regime at 50: The Assassination of General Carlos Prats and Sofía Cuthbert," October 1, 2024. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/chile/2024-10-01/pinochet-regime-50-assassination-general-carlos-prats-and-sofia
+[^48]: National Security Archive, "Chile in Their Hearts," May 7, 2025. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/chile/2025-05-07/chile-their-hearts
+[^49]: National Security Archive, "Gerald Ford White House Altered Rockefeller Commission Report in 1975," Electronic Briefing Book No. 543, February 29, 2016, edited by John Prados and Arturo Jimenez-Bacardi. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/intelligence/2016-02-29/gerald-ford-white-house-altered-rockefeller-commission-report
+[^50]: National Security Archive, "The Top Secret Testimony of CIA's MKULTRA Chief, 50 Years Later," October 30, 2025. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/dnsa-intelligence/2025-10-30/top-secret-testimony-cias-mkultra-chief-50-years-later
+[^51]: National Security Archive, "Jonathan Pollard: Revisiting a Still Sensitive Case," Electronic Briefing Book No. 407, edited by Jeffrey T. Richelson, posted December 14, 2012. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/intelligence/2012-12-14/jonathan-pollard-spy-case-cias-1987-damage-assessment-declassified and https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB407/
+[^52]: National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 434, "The Secret History of the U-2 and Area 51," edited by Jeffrey T. Richelson, posted August 15, 2013. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB434/

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Newsweek.md

@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ tags:
   - DarkAlliance
   - NewsweekQuranStory
 summary: "American news weekly founded in 1933, owned by the Washington Post Company from 1961 to 2010, whose staff and stringers appear in Carl Bernstein's 1977 account of CIA press relations."
-updated: 2026-10-14
+updated: 2026-10-15
 relations:
   - type: owned
     with: "[[Vincent Astor]]"
@@ -134,7 +134,7 @@ The historian [[Howard Schonberger]] wrote that Kern, as foreign affairs editor,
 
 Bernstein wrote that about a dozen columnists and broadcast commentators were regarded at the Agency as "known assets." He named [[Stewart Alsop]], whose column appeared in Newsweek among other publications, as one of three columnists with such ties, and wrote that CIA files contain reports of specific tasks all three undertook.[^26]
 
-[[Arnaud de Borchgrave]] became Newsweek's Paris bureau chief in 1951 and went on to a career as a roving correspondent. A Washington Times obituary of February 2015 describes him as the magazine's chief foreign correspondent for 25 years and quotes Osborn Elliott, onetime editor of Newsweek: "de Borchgrave has played a role in world affairs known to no other journalist." He became editor in chief of the [[Washington Times]] in 1985 and later president of [[United Press International]].[^27]
+[[Arnaud de Borchgrave]] became Newsweek's Paris bureau chief in 1951 and went on to a career as a roving correspondent. A Washington Times obituary of February 2015 describes him as the magazine's chief foreign correspondent for 25 years and quotes Osborn Elliott, onetime editor of Newsweek: "de Borchgrave has played a role in world affairs known to no other journalist." He became editor in chief of the [[Washington Times]] in 1985 and in January 1999 president and chief executive officer of [[United Press International]].[^27][^44]
 
 ### IBT Media and the Manhattan District Attorney
 
@@ -215,3 +215,4 @@ According to [[Gary Webb]]'s account, [[William J. Casey]] himself leaked news o
 [^41]: Neda Ulaby, "'Newsweek' Retracts Story Alleging Quran Abuse," NPR *Morning Edition*, May 17, 2005. https://www.npr.org/2005/05/17/4654641/newsweek-retracts-story-alleging-quran-abuse.
 [^42]: "Newsweek retracts Quran report," Al Jazeera (Reuters), May 17, 2005. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2005/5/17/newsweek-retracts-quran-report.
 [^43]: Howard B. Schonberger, *Aftermath of War: Americans and the Remaking of Japan, 1945-1952* (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1989), pp. 7, 135, 157-158. https://archive.org/details/aftermathofwaram0000scho
+[^44]: United Press International, "De Borchgrave named CEO of UPI," December 16, 1998, https://www.upi.com/Archives/1998/12/16/De-Borchgrave-named-CEO-of-UPI/2072913784400/ (appointment; start January 4; editor in chief of The Washington Times, 1985 to 1991; Newsweek chief foreign correspondent, 1963 to 1980; senior adviser at CSIS and director of the Global Organized Crime Project).

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Nuclear Materials and Equipment Corporation.md

@@ -6,11 +6,15 @@ tags:
   - USA
 category: "Private Organization"
 summary: "Nuclear Materials and Equipment Corporation (NUMEC) was a privately owned nuclear enriching plant in Apollo, Pennsylvania, owned by Zalman Mordecai Shapiro."
+updated: 2026-10-15
 start: 1957
 location: "Apollo, Pennsylvania, USA"
 ---
 Nuclear Materials and Equipment Corporation (NUMEC) was a privately owned nuclear enriching plant in [[Apollo]], [[Pennsylvania]], owned by [[Zalman Mordecai Shapiro]]. It was suspected by the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] and others of having smuggled more than two hundred pounds of weapons-grade uranium to [[Israel]], enough for four bombs. This alleged diversion was a major factor in [[Carl E. Duckett]]'s [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] estimates of [[Israel]]'s nuclear arsenal.[^1]
 
+The Comptroller General's report to Congress of December 18, 1978, *Nuclear Diversion in the U.S.? 13 Years of Contradiction and Confusion*, was classified until its redacted release on May 6, 2010. It records that an inspection in April 1965, the sixth consecutive inspection to find fundamental problems with NUMEC's control of material, concluded that "safeguards control of [nuclear material] at NUMEC is inadequate," and that about 206 pounds of uranium-235 could not be accounted for. In February 1966 the [[Atomic Energy Commission]] asked the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] to determine whether a theft or diversion had occurred; the report states that the agency's files contain a memorandum recording that the Bureau had decided not to investigate, and that the Bureau "did not focus on the question of a possible nuclear diversion until May 1976 nearly 11 years later," after a request by President [[Gerald Ford]] in April 1976.[^2]
+
 ### Footnotes
 
-[^1]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991. Chapter 14, 18.
+[^1]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991. Chapter 14, 18.
+[^2]: Comptroller General of the United States, *Nuclear Diversion in the U.S.? 13 Years of Contradiction and Confusion*, report EMD-79-8 (December 18, 1978), redacted release of May 6, 2010, Introduction and the account of the April 1965 inspection, the November 1965 investigation and the Federal Bureau of Investigation. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/sites/default/files/documents/3149993/38-Nuclear-Diversion-in-the-U-S-13-Years-of.pdf

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/OpenAI.md

@@ -11,161 +11,163 @@ tags:
 summary: "OpenAI is an artificial-intelligence company founded as a nonprofit in 2015 with a billion-dollar pledge from backers including Elon Musk, Sam Altman, Reid Hoffman, and Peter Thiel, whose 2023 firing and reinstatement of CEO Sam Altman exposed the conflict between its effective-altruism-aligned safety board and its commercial expansion."
 location: "San Francisco, California"
 created: 2026-06-19
-updated: 2026-10-13
+updated: 2026-10-15
 relations:
   - type: employed_by
     with: "[[Abdulrahman Alfozan]]"
     reverse: true
     start: 2025-07
     role: "engineer; arrested October 9, 2026"
-    fn: 10
+    fn: 12
   - type: owned
     with: "[[MGX]]"
     reverse: true
     start: 2025-10
     role: "held shares acquired in a secondary sale of about 6.6 billion dollars at a valuation of around 500 billion dollars"
-    fn: 20
+    fn: 22
   - type: funded
     with: "[[Andreessen Horowitz]]"
     reverse: true
     start: 2026-03
     role: "named co-lead, per Bloomberg, of a roughly 10 billion dollar financing said to be set to close the following week"
-    fn: 21
+    fn: 23
   - type: funded
     with: "[[MGX]]"
     reverse: true
     start: 2026-03
     role: "named co-lead, per Bloomberg, of a roughly 10 billion dollar financing said to be set to close the following week"
-    fn: 21
+    fn: 23
   - type: partner_of
     with: "[[G42]]"
     start: 2025-05
     role: "Stargate UAE, 1 GW cluster in Abu Dhabi, 200 MW expected to go live in 2026"
-    fn: 17
+    fn: 19
   - type: director_of
     with: "[[Paul Nakasone]]"
     reverse: true
     start: 2024-06-13
     role: "board member; also named to the board's security and safety subcommittee"
-    fn: 22
+    fn: 24
   - type: partner_of
     with: "[[Anduril Industries]]"
     start: 2024-12-04
     role: "counter-drone models partnership"
-    fn: 23
+    fn: 25
   - type: partner_of
     with: "[[Los Alamos]]"
     start: 2025-01-30
     role: "o-series models on the Venado supercomputer, moved to a classified network"
-    fn: 24
+    fn: 26
   - type: contractor_to
     with: "[[Chief Digital and Artificial Intelligence Office]]"
     start: 2025-06-16
     end: 2026-07
     role: "200 million dollar prototype other transaction agreement, estimated completion July 2026"
-    fn: 26
+    fn: 28
   - type: contractor_to
     with: "[[General Services Administration]]"
     start: 2025-08-06
     role: "OneGov agreement, ChatGPT Enterprise at 1 dollar per agency for one year"
-    fn: 27
+    fn: 29
 ---
 
 OpenAI is an artificial-intelligence research company founded in [[San Francisco]] on December 11, 2015 as a nonprofit laboratory whose stated mission was to ensure that artificial general intelligence benefits humanity. Its founding was announced with a one-billion-dollar funding pledge from [[Elon Musk]], [[Sam Altman]], [[Greg Brockman]], [[Reid Hoffman]], [[Jessica Livingston]], [[Peter Thiel]], [[Amazon Web Services]], and [[Infosys]], though tax filings later showed that only about 133 million dollars had actually been received by 2021. The organization grew out of the same AI-existential-risk concern that animates the [[Rationalist Community]] and [[Effective Altruism]] movements, and its 2023 governance crisis exposed the fault line between that safety-focused mission and its commercial trajectory.[^1][^2]
 
 ### Founding and the Capped-Profit Pivot
 
-OpenAI was established as a counterweight to the concentration of AI capability in a single corporation, with Musk and Altman as co-chairs, Brockman as chief technology officer, and [[Ilya Sutskever]] as chief scientist. Musk departed the board in 2018 amid conflicts of interest with [[Tesla]]'s own AI work. In 2019 OpenAI created a "capped-profit" subsidiary beneath the nonprofit, took a one-billion-dollar investment from [[Microsoft]], and installed Altman as chief executive, restructuring a nonprofit research mission into an entity capable of raising commercial capital. The 2022 release of [[ChatGPT]] made OpenAI the central company of the generative-AI period.[^1][^3]
+OpenAI was established as a counterweight to the concentration of AI capability in a single corporation, with Musk and Altman as co-chairs, Brockman as chief technology officer, and [[Ilya Sutskever]] as chief scientist. Musk departed the board in 2018 amid conflicts of interest with [[Tesla]]'s own AI work. In 2019 OpenAI created a "capped-profit" subsidiary beneath the nonprofit, took a one-billion-dollar investment from [[Microsoft]], and installed Altman as chief executive, restructuring a nonprofit research mission into an entity capable of raising commercial capital.[^3] The 2022 release of [[ChatGPT]] made OpenAI the central company of the generative-AI period.[^1][^4]
 
-The 2019 capped-profit entity, OpenAI LP, limited early investors to a return of 100 times their money, with lower caps for later backers such as Microsoft; profit above the cap would flow to the controlling nonprofit. Microsoft expanded its commitment to a reported 13 billion dollars by January 2023, receiving a large share of OpenAI's profits up to its cap until repaid. On October 28, 2025 OpenAI completed a further restructuring that retired the capped-profit model entirely: the nonprofit, renamed the OpenAI Foundation, took a roughly 26 percent equity stake valued near 130 billion dollars in a new public-benefit corporation called OpenAI Group PBC, Microsoft took a 27 percent stake worth about 135 billion dollars, and employees and investors held the remaining 47 percent, at a 500-billion-dollar valuation. The revised Microsoft agreement moved the power to declare that artificial general intelligence had been reached from OpenAI's board to an independent expert panel jointly established by the two companies.[^4][^5]
+The 2019 capped-profit entity, OpenAI LP, limited early investors to a return of 100 times their money, with lower caps for later backers such as Microsoft; profit above the cap would flow to the controlling nonprofit. Microsoft expanded its commitment to a reported 13 billion dollars by January 2023, receiving a large share of OpenAI's profits up to its cap until repaid. On October 28, 2025 OpenAI completed a further restructuring that retired the capped-profit model entirely: the nonprofit, renamed the OpenAI Foundation, took a roughly 26 percent equity stake valued near 130 billion dollars in a new public-benefit corporation called OpenAI Group PBC, Microsoft took a 27 percent stake worth about 135 billion dollars,[^5] and employees and investors held the remaining 47 percent, at a 500-billion-dollar valuation. The revised Microsoft agreement moved the power to declare that artificial general intelligence had been reached from OpenAI's board to an independent expert panel jointly established by the two companies.[^6][^7]
 
 ### The November 2023 Board Crisis
 
-On November 17, 2023, the nonprofit board removed Altman as chief executive, stating that he had not been "consistently candid." The voting directors were Sutskever, [[Adam D'Angelo]], the entrepreneur [[Tasha McCauley]], and [[Helen Toner]] of the Georgetown Center for Security and Emerging Technology; McCauley and Toner had ties to the effective-altruism movement, and the board's concern centered on the pace of AI commercialization relative to safety. Brockman quit in protest, roughly 700 employees threatened to resign, and within 48 hours directors discussed merging OpenAI with [[Anthropic]], a step *Bloomberg* reported Toner had supported and that would have ended OpenAI as an independent entity. Altman was reinstated within days under a reconstituted board chaired by [[Bret Taylor]] and including [[Larry Summers]], and Sutskever, McCauley, and Toner left.[^6][^7]
+On November 17, 2023, the nonprofit board removed Altman as chief executive, stating that he had not been "consistently candid." The voting directors were Sutskever, [[Adam D'Angelo]], the entrepreneur [[Tasha McCauley]], and [[Helen Toner]] of the Georgetown Center for Security and Emerging Technology; McCauley and Toner had ties to the effective-altruism movement, and the board's concern centered on the pace of AI commercialization relative to safety. Brockman quit in protest, roughly 700 employees threatened to resign, and within 48 hours directors discussed merging OpenAI with [[Anthropic]], a step *Bloomberg* reported Toner had supported and that would have ended OpenAI as an independent entity. Altman was reinstated within days under a reconstituted board chaired by [[Bret Taylor]] and including [[Larry Summers]], and Sutskever, McCauley, and Toner left.[^8][^9]
 
-The crisis was widely read as a defeat for the effective-altruism and AI-safety wing of the company by the commercial and accelerationist wing aligned with Altman and Microsoft. Sutskever left OpenAI in 2024, and Musk sued the company and Altman the same year, alleging a betrayal of the original nonprofit mission.[^6][^8]
+The crisis was widely read as a defeat for the effective-altruism and AI-safety wing of the company by the commercial and accelerationist wing aligned with Altman and Microsoft. Sutskever left OpenAI in 2024, and Musk sued the company and Altman the same year, alleging a betrayal of the original nonprofit mission.[^8][^10]
 
-Musk's suit, filed in 2024 and later amended to name Microsoft as a defendant, alleged that OpenAI had become a "closed-source de facto subsidiary" of Microsoft and accused Altman of "rampant self-dealing." Musk amended the complaint so that any of the roughly 150 billion dollars in damages he sought would go to OpenAI's nonprofit rather than to himself, and sought to remove Altman as chief executive and director. In May 2026 a nine-member advisory jury found that Musk had filed outside the statute of limitations, and Judge Yvonne Gonzalez Rogers dismissed the case.[^9]
+Musk's suit, filed in 2024 and later amended to name Microsoft as a defendant, alleged that OpenAI had become a "closed-source de facto subsidiary" of Microsoft and accused Altman of "rampant self-dealing." Musk amended the complaint so that any of the roughly 150 billion dollars in damages he sought would go to OpenAI's nonprofit rather than to himself, and sought to remove Altman as chief executive and director. In May 2026 a nine-member advisory jury found that Musk had filed outside the statute of limitations, and Judge Yvonne Gonzalez Rogers dismissed the case.[^11]
 
 ### The 2026 Recording Device Case
 
-On October 13, 2026 the United States Attorney's Office for the Northern District of California announced that [[Abdulrahman Alfozan]], an OpenAI engineer and a Saudi national, had been arrested on October 9 and charged with using or attempting to use a device to intercept oral communications.[^10] The Justice Department release states that the complaint alleges he concealed a recording device inside a USB port on the back of a television in an executive conference room at one of OpenAI's San Francisco buildings. OpenAI personnel found the device on September 30, 2026, concealed in toilet paper, and OpenAI determined that it had been installed on or about September 28 and that its contents were encrypted.[^10]
+On October 13, 2026 the United States Attorney's Office for the Northern District of California announced that [[Abdulrahman Alfozan]], an OpenAI engineer and a Saudi national, had been arrested on October 9 and charged with using or attempting to use a device to intercept oral communications.[^12] The Justice Department release states that the complaint alleges he concealed a recording device inside a USB port on the back of a television in an executive conference room at one of OpenAI's San Francisco buildings. OpenAI personnel found the device on September 30, 2026, concealed in toilet paper, and OpenAI determined that it had been installed on or about September 28 and that its contents were encrypted.[^12]
 
-OpenAI said that it had found a "sophisticated" device, which it described as having "advanced encryption, audio monitoring capabilities, and a mechanism for transferring data designed to evade monitoring." The company said that it used its internal models to analyze the device and identified that "a specific employee had planted it a few days earlier," and that it had referred the matter to the FBI.[^11] On X the company said that "at this time, we have no indications of this individual inappropriately accessing or exfiltrating model weights, source code, or customer data."[^11] OpenAI said it fired the employee on October 9, the day of his arrest, after coordinating the timing with the FBI, and that it had restricted his access to systems and spaces beginning September 30.[^12]
+OpenAI said that it had found a "sophisticated" device, which it described as having "advanced encryption, audio monitoring capabilities, and a mechanism for transferring data designed to evade monitoring." The company said that it used its internal models to analyze the device and identified that "a specific employee had planted it a few days earlier," and that it had referred the matter to the FBI.[^13] On X the company said that "at this time, we have no indications of this individual inappropriately accessing or exfiltrating model weights, source code, or customer data."[^13] OpenAI said it fired the employee on October 9, the day of his arrest, after coordinating the timing with the FBI, and that it had restricted his access to systems and spaces beginning September 30.[^14]
 
-OpenAI's spokesperson said the employee started with the company in July 2025 and worked on the product team.[^11] A LinkedIn profile under his name gives September 2025 as the start of the OpenAI role.[^13] The company's own GitHub organization lists six pull requests from an account under his handle to the openai-agents-python repository, opened between April 15 and May 7, 2026.[^14]
+OpenAI's spokesperson said the employee started with the company in July 2025 and worked on the product team.[^13] A LinkedIn profile under his name gives September 2025 as the start of the OpenAI role.[^15] The company's own GitHub organization lists six pull requests from an account under his handle to the openai-agents-python repository, opened between April 15 and May 7, 2026.[^16]
 
-[[RAED Ventures]], a Riyadh venture firm whose investors include the Saudi Venture Capital Company, Riyadh Valley Company and [[Jada Fund of Funds]] (owned by the [[Public Investment Fund]]), announced Alfozan as a venture partner on February 8, 2025, when he was a founding engineer at [[Nash (company)]]. The firm's team page captured on January 23, 2026 describes him as "Engineering Lead at OpenAI, with a focus on AI Agents and the data platform," and the page live on October 13, 2026 carries the same text and an MIT degree; the San Francisco Standard reported that his LinkedIn profile lists a master's degree in data science from the University of California, Berkeley.[^11][^15] Prince [[Khalid bin Bader Al Saud]] is listed as a venture partner of the same firm; [[Echelon (company)]], which he founded, announced a round from East40, RAED Ventures and Avra on October 7, 2026.[^15][^16]
+[[RAED Ventures]], a Riyadh venture firm whose investors include the Saudi Venture Capital Company, Riyadh Valley Company and [[Jada Fund of Funds]] (owned by the [[Public Investment Fund]]), announced Alfozan as a venture partner on February 8, 2025, when he was a founding engineer at [[Nash (company)]]. The firm's team page captured on January 23, 2026 describes him as "Engineering Lead at OpenAI, with a focus on AI Agents and the data platform," and the page live on October 13, 2026 carries the same text and an MIT degree; the San Francisco Standard reported that his LinkedIn profile lists a master's degree in data science from the University of California, Berkeley.[^13][^17] Prince [[Khalid bin Bader Al Saud]] is listed as a venture partner of the same firm; [[Echelon (company)]], which he founded, announced a round from East40, RAED Ventures and Avra on October 7, 2026.[^17][^18]
 
 ### Gulf Investment and Partnerships
 
-On May 22, 2025 OpenAI announced Stargate UAE, which it described as "the first international deployment of Stargate, OpenAI's AI infrastructure platform," with "a 1GW Stargate UAE cluster in Abu Dhabi with 200MW expected to go live in 2026." The announcement names G42, Oracle, NVIDIA, Cisco and SoftBank as partners in an agreement that it says "was developed in close coordination with the U.S. government."[^17] The project brings together [[G42]], OpenAI, [[Oracle]], [[NVIDIA]], [[Cisco]] and [[SoftBank]] under the name [[Stargate (AI infrastructure)]] in [[Abu Dhabi]].[^18] In October 2025 a G42 spokesperson said that "work is progressing rapidly on the first 200 megawatts of capacity, which is expected to be completed by 2026."[^18]
+On May 22, 2025 OpenAI announced Stargate UAE, which it described as "the first international deployment of Stargate, OpenAI's AI infrastructure platform," with "a 1GW Stargate UAE cluster in Abu Dhabi with 200MW expected to go live in 2026." The announcement names G42, Oracle, NVIDIA, Cisco and SoftBank as partners in an agreement that it says "was developed in close coordination with the U.S. government."[^19] The project brings together [[G42]], OpenAI, [[Oracle]], [[NVIDIA]], [[Cisco]] and [[SoftBank]] under the name [[Stargate (AI infrastructure)]] in [[Abu Dhabi]].[^20] In October 2025 a G42 spokesperson said that "work is progressing rapidly on the first 200 megawatts of capacity, which is expected to be completed by 2026."[^20]
 
-On May 13, 2025 Sam Altman attended the Saudi-U.S. Investment Forum in [[Riyadh]] during the visit of President [[Donald Trump]] to [[Saudi Arabia]].[^19] A Reuters photograph of the forum carries the caption "OpenAI CEO Sam Altman looks on as he visits Riyadh with U.S. President Donald Trump and Tesla CEO Elon Musk (both not pictured), in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, May 13, 2025."[^19]
+On May 13, 2025 Sam Altman attended the Saudi-U.S. Investment Forum in [[Riyadh]] during the visit of President [[Donald Trump]] to [[Saudi Arabia]].[^21] A Reuters photograph of the forum carries the caption "OpenAI CEO Sam Altman looks on as he visits Riyadh with U.S. President Donald Trump and Tesla CEO Elon Musk (both not pictured), in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, May 13, 2025."[^21]
 
-In October 2025 [[MGX]], an Abu Dhabi investment firm, took part in a secondary sale of about 6.6 billion dollars in OpenAI shares, a transaction that set the company's valuation at around 500 billion dollars. The sale allowed employees and early investors to sell part of their holdings. Other participants named in Reuters reporting were [[Thrive Capital]], SoftBank, [[Dragoneer Investment Group]] and [[T. Rowe Price]].[^20]
+In October 2025 [[MGX]], an Abu Dhabi investment firm, took part in a secondary sale of about 6.6 billion dollars in OpenAI shares, a transaction that set the company's valuation at around 500 billion dollars. The sale allowed employees and early investors to sell part of their holdings. Other participants named in Reuters reporting were [[Thrive Capital]], SoftBank, [[Dragoneer Investment Group]] and [[T. Rowe Price]].[^22]
 
-In March 2026 Bloomberg reported that the company had said [[Andreessen Horowitz]], MGX, [[D.E. Shaw Ventures]], [[TPG]] and T. Rowe Price "will co-lead the financing, which is set to close next week." Coatue Management, Thrive Capital and Altimeter Capital were also named as set to participate in the roughly 10 billion dollar financing.[^21]
+In March 2026 Bloomberg reported that the company had said [[Andreessen Horowitz]], MGX, [[D.E. Shaw Ventures]], [[TPG]] and T. Rowe Price "will co-lead the financing, which is set to close next week." Coatue Management, Thrive Capital and Altimeter Capital were also named as set to participate in the roughly 10 billion dollar financing.[^23]
 
 ### Government and National Security Engagements
 
-On June 13, 2024 OpenAI added [[Paul Nakasone]] to its board. TechCrunch reported that the former National Security Agency head "will also sit on the board's 'security and safety' subcommittee."[^22]
+On June 13, 2024 OpenAI added [[Paul Nakasone]] to its board. TechCrunch reported that the former National Security Agency head "will also sit on the board's 'security and safety' subcommittee."[^24]
 
-On December 4, 2024 [[Anduril Industries]] announced a partnership with OpenAI to apply OpenAI models to counter-drone systems. Anduril said the models "will help protect U.S. and allied military personnel and ensure mission success."[^23]
+On December 4, 2024 [[Anduril Industries]] announced a partnership with OpenAI to apply OpenAI models to counter-drone systems. Anduril said the models "will help protect U.S. and allied military personnel and ensure mission success."[^25]
 
-On January 30, 2025 [[Los Alamos]] announced that it had entered a partnership with OpenAI to install its o-series reasoning models on the Venado supercomputer, which was to be moved to a secure, classified network as a shared resource for Los Alamos, [[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]] and [[Sandia National Laboratories]].[^24] On August 28, 2025 the laboratory reported that Venado was running OpenAI's o3 reasoning model.[^25]
+On January 30, 2025 [[Los Alamos]] announced that it had entered a partnership with OpenAI to install its o-series reasoning models on the Venado supercomputer, which was to be moved to a secure, classified network as a shared resource for Los Alamos, [[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]] and [[Sandia National Laboratories]].[^26] On August 28, 2025 the laboratory reported that Venado was running OpenAI's o3 reasoning model.[^27]
 
-On June 16, 2025 the [[Chief Digital and Artificial Intelligence Office]] of the [[Department of Defense]] made an award of 200 million dollars, a prototype other transaction agreement, to OpenAI Public Sector, with an estimated completion date of July 2026. The Department of Defense contracts announcement described the work as meant to "develop prototype frontier AI capabilities to address critical national security challenges in both warfighting and enterprise domains." OpenAI's own description of the work centered on administrative operations, with the aim to "identify and prototype how frontier AI can transform its administrative operations."[^26]
+On June 16, 2025 the [[Chief Digital and Artificial Intelligence Office]] of the [[Department of Defense]] made an award of 200 million dollars, a prototype other transaction agreement, to OpenAI Public Sector, with an estimated completion date of July 2026. The Department of Defense contracts announcement described the work as meant to "develop prototype frontier AI capabilities to address critical national security challenges in both warfighting and enterprise domains." OpenAI's own description of the work centered on administrative operations, with the aim to "identify and prototype how frontier AI can transform its administrative operations."[^28]
 
-On August 6, 2025 the [[General Services Administration]] announced a OneGov partnership with OpenAI under which federal agencies could purchase ChatGPT Enterprise at "$1 per agency pricing" for one year.[^27]
+On August 6, 2025 the [[General Services Administration]] announced a OneGov partnership with OpenAI under which federal agencies could purchase ChatGPT Enterprise at "$1 per agency pricing" for one year.[^29]
 
-The Justice Department release of October 13, 2026 states that the complaint describes meetings in the executive conference room as involving "nonpublic information about Open AI's technical progress and strategic decisions, capabilities, priorities, government engagements, and commercial relationships," and that the prosecution is in support of [[NSPM-11]], "designed to support American superiority in super intelligence technology."[^28]
+The Justice Department release of October 13, 2026 states that the complaint describes meetings in the executive conference room as involving "nonpublic information about Open AI's technical progress and strategic decisions, capabilities, priorities, government engagements, and commercial relationships," and that the prosecution is in support of [[NSPM-11]], "designed to support American superiority in super intelligence technology."[^30]
 
 ### Personnel Security and Insider Threat
 
-The New York Times reported on July 4, 2024, citing two people familiar with the incident, that a hacker had accessed an online forum where OpenAI employees discussed the company's latest technologies. Executives told employees and the board at an all-hands meeting in April 2023, and did not inform federal law enforcement agencies, because they "didn't consider the incident a national security threat" and believed the hacker was a private individual with no known connection to a foreign government.[^29] TechCrunch wrote that unnamed company sources told the Times the hacker "only got access to an employee discussion forum."[^30]
+The New York Times reported on July 4, 2024, citing two people familiar with the incident, that a hacker had accessed an online forum where OpenAI employees discussed the company's latest technologies. Executives told employees and the board at an all-hands meeting in April 2023, and did not inform federal law enforcement agencies, because they "didn't consider the incident a national security threat" and believed the hacker was a private individual with no known connection to a foreign government.[^31] TechCrunch wrote that unnamed company sources told the Times the hacker "only got access to an employee discussion forum."[^32]
 
-In a June 4, 2024 podcast interview, [[Leopold Aschenbrenner]] said that he had written an internal memo on OpenAI's security which he thought was "egregiously insufficient to protect against the theft of model weights or key algorithmic secrets from foreign actors." He said that "a major security incident occurred" a few weeks after he circulated it, that he then shared the memo with board members, and that he received "an official HR warning for sharing the memo with the board." He said that a human resources representative "told me it was racist to worry about CCP espionage and that it was unconstructive." A footnote on the transcript at the words "major security incident" reads: "The previous linked item here was not the major security incident Leopold was referring to."[^31] TechCrunch reported that Aschenbrenner had hinted at the forum incident in the podcast, calling it a "major security incident."[^30]
+In a June 4, 2024 podcast interview, [[Leopold Aschenbrenner]] said that he had written an internal memo on OpenAI's security which he thought was "egregiously insufficient to protect against the theft of model weights or key algorithmic secrets from foreign actors." He said that "a major security incident occurred" a few weeks after he circulated it, that he then shared the memo with board members, and that he received "an official HR warning for sharing the memo with the board." He said that a human resources representative "told me it was racist to worry about CCP espionage and that it was unconstructive." A footnote on the transcript at the words "major security incident" reads: "The previous linked item here was not the major security incident Leopold was referring to."[^33] TechCrunch reported that Aschenbrenner had hinted at the forum incident in the podcast, calling it a "major security incident."[^32]
 
-On August 4, 2026 the Justice Department's Civil Rights Division announced a combined 3.2 million dollar settlement with OpenAI OpCo LLC and its subsidiary Statsig Inc. over allegations that the companies violated the Immigration and Nationality Act by discriminating against U.S. workers in favor of workers with temporary employment visas during recruiting under the Permanent Labor Certification (PERM) process. The department's investigation found that OpenAI did not advertise PERM positions on its external job website, required paper applications by mail for those positions, and advertised positions on the radio late at night. There were fewer than ten PERM positions at issue. OpenAI agreed to pay 1.2 million dollars in civil penalties and to establish a 2 million dollar back-pay fund, to post PERM positions on its public career website, accept electronic applications, train its personnel, revise its employment policies, and be subject to departmental monitoring and reporting requirements. Reuters reported that the company denied wrongdoing in the settlement agreement.[^32]
+On August 4, 2026 the Justice Department's Civil Rights Division announced a combined 3.2 million dollar settlement with OpenAI OpCo LLC and its subsidiary Statsig Inc. over allegations that the companies violated the Immigration and Nationality Act by discriminating against U.S. workers in favor of workers with temporary employment visas during recruiting under the Permanent Labor Certification (PERM) process. The department's investigation found that OpenAI did not advertise PERM positions on its external job website, required paper applications by mail for those positions, and advertised positions on the radio late at night. There were fewer than ten PERM positions at issue. OpenAI agreed to pay 1.2 million dollars in civil penalties and to establish a 2 million dollar back-pay fund, to post PERM positions on its public career website, accept electronic applications, train its personnel, revise its employment policies, and be subject to departmental monitoring and reporting requirements. Reuters reported that the company denied wrongdoing in the settlement agreement.[^34]
 
-In October 2025 OpenAI reported that it had banned accounts apparently tied to Chinese government entities that sought assistance designing social media monitoring tools and profiling dissidents. The same report describes alleged China-linked groups that crafted phishing content and debugged malware targeting Taiwan's semiconductor sector.[^33]
+In October 2025 OpenAI reported that it had banned accounts apparently tied to Chinese government entities that sought assistance designing social media monitoring tools and profiling dissidents. The same report describes alleged China-linked groups that crafted phishing content and debugged malware targeting Taiwan's semiconductor sector.[^35]
 
-In November 2025 Anthropic reported that a threat actor it assessed with high confidence was "a Chinese state-sponsored group" had manipulated its Claude Code tool into attempting infiltration of "roughly thirty global targets," with success in a small number of cases.[^34]
+In November 2025 Anthropic reported that a threat actor it assessed with high confidence was "a Chinese state-sponsored group" had manipulated its Claude Code tool into attempting infiltration of "roughly thirty global targets," with success in a small number of cases.[^36]
 
 ### Footnotes
 
 [^1]: "OpenAI launches as a nonprofit with a billion-dollar pledge," December 11, 2015; founding donors including Musk, Altman, Brockman, Reid Hoffman, Jessica Livingston, Peter Thiel, AWS, and Infosys. See IEEE Spectrum, December 2015. https://spectrum.ieee.org/billiondollar-nonprofit-ai-research-lab-to-open-in-san-francisco
 [^2]: "OpenAI says Musk only ever contributed $45 million," *TechCrunch,* March 5, 2024, on actual versus pledged funding. https://techcrunch.com/2024/03/05/openai-response-elon-musk-lawsuit/
-[^3]: "The messy, secretive reality behind OpenAI's bid to save the world," *MIT Technology Review,* February 17, 2020. https://www.technologyreview.com/2020/02/17/844721/ai-openai-moonshot-elon-musk-sam-altman-greg-brockman-messy-secretive-reality/
-[^4]: "Microsoft's $13 billion bet on OpenAI carries huge potential along with plenty of uncertainty," *CNBC,* April 8, 2023, on the 100x return cap and Microsoft's expanded investment. https://www.cnbc.com/2023/04/08/microsofts-complex-bet-on-openai-brings-potential-and-uncertainty.html
-[^5]: "OpenAI completes restructure, solidifying Microsoft as a major shareholder," *CNBC,* October 28, 2025, on the OpenAI Foundation, OpenAI Group PBC, the 27 percent Microsoft stake, and the AGI declaration panel. https://www.cnbc.com/2025/10/28/open-ai-for-profit-microsoft.html
-[^6]: "Effective Altruism's Role in the OpenAI Chaos, Explained," *Bloomberg,* November 22, 2023. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-11-22/effective-altruism-s-role-in-the-openai-chaos-explained
-[^7]: "Inside the Deposition That Showed How OpenAI Nearly Destroyed Itself," *Decrypt,* on the Sutskever deposition and the discussed Anthropic merger. https://decrypt.co/347349/inside-deposition-showed-openai-nearly-destroyed-itself
-[^8]: "OpenAI, Sam Altman and Failed Governance," AKF Partners, postmortem of the November 2023 board crisis. https://akfpartners.com/growth-blog/openai-sam-altman-and-failed-governance-a-postmortem-of-the-openai-governance-soap-opera
-[^9]: "Jury dismisses all claims in Elon Musk's lawsuit against OpenAI CEO Sam Altman," *NPR,* May 18, 2026; "Musk's amended lawsuit against OpenAI names Microsoft as defendant," *TechCrunch,* November 14, 2024. https://www.npr.org/2026/05/18/nx-s1-5822366/musk-altman-openai-jury-verdict-claims-dismissed
-[^10]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Public Affairs, "Saudi National Arrested for Installing Surreptitious Audio Recording Device at OpenAI," October 13, 2026, press release 26-1173. https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/saudi-national-arrested-installing-surreptitious-audio-recording-device-openai
-[^11]: TechCrunch, "FBI arrests OpenAI employee accused of planting hidden recording device in conference room," October 13, 2026. https://techcrunch.com/2026/10/13/fbi-arrests-openai-employee-accused-of-planting-hidden-recording-device-in-conference-room/
-[^12]: "OpenAI engineer arrested in bugging of executive conference room," *San Francisco Standard,* October 13, 2026. https://sfstandard.com/2026/10/13/openai-engineer-arrested-alleged-bugging-executive-conference-room/
-[^13]: LinkedIn, public profile of Abdulrahman Alfozan. https://www.linkedin.com/in/alfozan
-[^14]: GitHub, pull requests by the author alfozan in openai/openai-agents-python, queried October 13, 2026. https://api.github.com/search/issues?q=repo:openai/openai-agents-python+author:alfozan
-[^15]: RAED Ventures, "About," English about page, Wayback capture of January 23, 2026 (https://web.archive.org/web/20260123220439/https://raed.vc/about/) and live on October 13, 2026 (https://raed.vc/about/); announcement dated February 8, 2025 (https://raed.vc/news/raed-ventures-welcomes-new-venture-partner-abdulrahman-alfozan/). Listing as venture partner first appears in the homepage capture of August 21, 2025 (https://web.archive.org/web/20250821032650/https://raed.vc/).
-[^16]: "Saudi AI startup Echelon secures backing from East40, RAED Ventures and Avra," Wamda, October 7, 2026. https://www.wamda.com/ar/2026/10/saudi-ai-startup-echelon-secures-backing-east40-raed-ventures-avra
-[^17]: OpenAI, "Introducing Stargate UAE," May 22, 2025 (Wayback capture of May 22, 2025: https://web.archive.org/web/20250522id_/https://openai.com/index/introducing-stargate-uae/). https://openai.com/index/introducing-stargate-uae/
-[^18]: "New update on Stargate UAE: First phase of 200MW to complete by 2026," *Gulf News*, October 16, 2025. The article states: "Announced in May 2025, the project brings together G42, OpenAI, Oracle, NVIDIA, Cisco, and SoftBank," and quotes a G42 spokesperson: "work is progressing rapidly on the first 200 megawatts of capacity, which is expected to be completed by 2026." https://gulfnews.com/business/markets/stargate-uae-first-phase-of-200mw-to-complete-by-2026-1.500310364
-[^19]: "Photos: Tech CEOs mingle with Trump and Saudi crown prince at investment forum in Riyadh," *NBC* (NBC San Diego), May 13, 2025. The article names "OpenAI CEO Sam Altman" among the executives present; the Reuters photograph caption reads "OpenAI CEO Sam Altman looks on as he visits Riyadh with U.S. President Donald Trump and Tesla CEO Elon Musk (both not pictured), in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, May 13, 2025." https://www.nbcsandiego.com/news/business/money-report/photos-tech-ceos-mingle-with-trump-and-saudi-crown-prince-at-investment-forum-in-riyadh/3824637
-[^20]: Reuters report on the secondary sale, as reproduced by *Wamda*, October 8, 2025: "MGX has participated in a $6.6 billion secondary share sale in OpenAI," at a valuation of "around $500 billion." Named participants: Thrive Capital, SoftBank, Dragoneer, T. Rowe Price and MGX. https://www.wamda.com/en/2025/10/mgx-joins-6-6-billion-openai-share-sale-valuing-chatgpt-maker-500-billion
-[^21]: Bloomberg, "OpenAI Set to Raise $10 Billion From MGX, Coatue, Thrive," March 24, 2026, as reproduced by Bloomberg Government: "Andreessen Horowitz, Abu Dhabi's MGX, D.E. Shaw Ventures, TPG and T. Rowe Price will co-lead the financing, which is set to close next week, the company told Bloomberg Tuesday. Coatue Management, Thrive Capital and Altimeter Capital are also set to participate." https://news.bgov.com/california-brief/openai-set-to-raise-10-billion-from-mgx-coatue-thrive-2
-[^22]: Coldewey, Devin, "Former NSA head joins OpenAI board and safety committee," *TechCrunch*, June 13, 2024: "Former head of the National Security Agency, retired Gen. Paul Nakasone, will join OpenAI's board of directors, the AI company announced Thursday afternoon. He will also sit on the board's 'security and safety' subcommittee." https://techcrunch.com/2024/06/13/former-nsa-head-joins-openai-board-and-safety-committee
-[^23]: *Defense News*, "Anduril, OpenAI join to boost counter-drone tech for US bases, troops," December 5, 2024: "Anduril and OpenAI will partner to improve the military's counter-drone capabilities." https://www.defensenews.com/pentagon/2024/12/05/anduril-openai-join-to-boost-counter-drone-tech-for-us-bases-troops/
-[^24]: Los Alamos National Laboratory, "Los Alamos Lab partners with OpenAI to boost national security," January 30, 2025: the Venado machine "will be moved to a secure, classified network where it will be a shared resource for researchers from Los Alamos, Lawrence Livermore, and Sandia national labs." https://www.lanl.gov/media/news/0130-open-ai
-[^25]: Los Alamos National Laboratory, "Lab launches frontier AI models on the Venado supercomputer," August 28, 2025: "the Venado supercomputer at Los Alamos National Laboratory is now running OpenAI's latest o3 reasoning model to accelerate national security research." https://www.lanl.gov/media/news/0828-venado-ai-models
-[^26]: *DefenseScoop*, June 17, 2025: the Department of Defense contracts list announced on June 16, 2025 that the CDAO "had awarded a $200 million prototype other transaction agreement to OpenAI Public Sector" to "develop prototype frontier AI capabilities to address critical national security challenges in both warfighting and enterprise domains"; "The estimated completion date for the work is July 2026"; OpenAI's phrase "identify and prototype how frontier AI can transform its administrative operations." https://defensescoop.com/2025/06/17/pentagon-openai-frontier-ai-projects-cdao/
-[^27]: General Services Administration, "GSA Announces New Partnership with OpenAI, Delivering Deep Discount to ChatGPT Gov-Wide Through MAS," August 6, 2025: "$1 per agency pricing for ChatGPT." https://www.gsa.gov/about-us/newsroom/news-releases/gsa-announces-new-partnership-with-openai-delivering-deep-discount-to-chatgpt-08062025
-[^28]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Public Affairs, "Saudi National Arrested for Installing Surreptitious Audio Recording Device at OpenAI," press release 26-1173, October 13, 2026. https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/saudi-national-arrested-installing-surreptitious-audio-recording-device-openai
-[^29]: "Hacker accessed OpenAI's internal AI details in 2023 breach: report," *Fox Business,* July 7, 2024, summarizing the *New York Times* report of July 4, 2024: "OpenAI executives told employees and the company's board about the breach at an all-hands meeting in April 2023." https://www-ak-ms.foxbusiness.com/technology/hacker-accessed-openais-internal-ai-details-2023-breach-report
-[^30]: Coldewey, Devin, "OpenAI breach is a reminder that AI companies are treasure troves for hackers," *TechCrunch,* July 5, 2024: "The New York Times reported the hack in more detail after former OpenAI employee Leopold Aschenbrenner hinted at it recently in a podcast." https://techcrunch.com/2024/07/05/openai-breach-is-a-reminder-that-ai-companies-are-treasure-troves-for-hackers/
-[^31]: Aschenbrenner, Leopold, interview with Dwarkesh Patel, June 4, 2024, transcript at approximately 02:33: "egregiously insufficient to protect against the theft of model weights or key algorithmic secrets from foreign actors"; "A few weeks later, a major security incident occurred"; "I got an official HR warning for sharing the memo with the board"; "The HR person told me it was racist to worry about CCP espionage and that it was unconstructive." https://www.dwarkesh.com/p/leopold-aschenbrenner
-[^32]: U.S. Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division, press release of August 4, 2026 (https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/civil-rights-division-secures-settlement-openai-discriminating-against-us-workers); Reuters report datelined August 4, 2026, carried by *The Star* (Malaysia): "The company denied wrongdoing in the settlement agreement." https://www.thestar.com.my/tech/tech-news/2026/08/05/openai-pays-32-million-in-us-probe-over-hiring-foreign-workers
-[^33]: *SiliconANGLE*, "OpenAI details expanding efforts to disrupt malicious use of AI in new report," October 7, 2025 (summarizing the OpenAI threat report): alleged China-linked groups "were found to be crafting phishing content and debugging malware targeting Taiwan's semiconductor sector, U.S. academia and political groups"; users "sought assistance designing social media monitoring tools, profiling dissidents and generating propaganda proposals." https://siliconangle.com/2025/10/07/openai-details-expanding-efforts-disrupt-malicious-use-ai-new-report/
-[^34]: Anthropic, threat intelligence report published November 13, 2025, stating that the threat actor was "a Chinese state-sponsored group" that targeted "roughly thirty global targets." https://www.anthropic.com/news/disrupting-AI-espionage
+[^3]: "Microsoft invests in and partners with OpenAI to support us building beneficial AGI," *OpenAI,* July 22, 2019, stating that "Microsoft is investing $1 billion in OpenAI" and that "Microsoft will become our exclusive cloud provider." https://openai.com/index/microsoft-invests-in-and-partners-with-openai
+[^4]: "The messy, secretive reality behind OpenAI's bid to save the world," *MIT Technology Review,* February 17, 2020. https://www.technologyreview.com/2020/02/17/844721/ai-openai-moonshot-elon-musk-sam-altman-greg-brockman-messy-secretive-reality/
+[^5]: "The next chapter of the Microsoft-OpenAI partnership," *OpenAI,* October 28, 2025, stating that Microsoft's investment was "valued at approximately $135 billion, representing roughly 27 percent on an as-converted diluted basis." https://openai.com/index/next-chapter-of-microsoft-openai-partnership/
+[^6]: "Microsoft's $13 billion bet on OpenAI carries huge potential along with plenty of uncertainty," *CNBC,* April 8, 2023, on the 100x return cap and Microsoft's expanded investment. https://www.cnbc.com/2023/04/08/microsofts-complex-bet-on-openai-brings-potential-and-uncertainty.html
+[^7]: "OpenAI completes restructure, solidifying Microsoft as a major shareholder," *CNBC,* October 28, 2025, on the OpenAI Foundation, OpenAI Group PBC, the 27 percent Microsoft stake, and the AGI declaration panel. https://www.cnbc.com/2025/10/28/open-ai-for-profit-microsoft.html
+[^8]: "Effective Altruism's Role in the OpenAI Chaos, Explained," *Bloomberg,* November 22, 2023. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-11-22/effective-altruism-s-role-in-the-openai-chaos-explained
+[^9]: "Inside the Deposition That Showed How OpenAI Nearly Destroyed Itself," *Decrypt,* on the Sutskever deposition and the discussed Anthropic merger. https://decrypt.co/347349/inside-deposition-showed-openai-nearly-destroyed-itself
+[^10]: "OpenAI, Sam Altman and Failed Governance," AKF Partners, postmortem of the November 2023 board crisis. https://akfpartners.com/growth-blog/openai-sam-altman-and-failed-governance-a-postmortem-of-the-openai-governance-soap-opera
+[^11]: "Jury dismisses all claims in Elon Musk's lawsuit against OpenAI CEO Sam Altman," *NPR,* May 18, 2026; "Musk's amended lawsuit against OpenAI names Microsoft as defendant," *TechCrunch,* November 14, 2024. https://www.npr.org/2026/05/18/nx-s1-5822366/musk-altman-openai-jury-verdict-claims-dismissed
+[^12]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Public Affairs, "Saudi National Arrested for Installing Surreptitious Audio Recording Device at OpenAI," October 13, 2026, press release 26-1173. https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/saudi-national-arrested-installing-surreptitious-audio-recording-device-openai
+[^13]: TechCrunch, "FBI arrests OpenAI employee accused of planting hidden recording device in conference room," October 13, 2026. https://techcrunch.com/2026/10/13/fbi-arrests-openai-employee-accused-of-planting-hidden-recording-device-in-conference-room/
+[^14]: "OpenAI engineer arrested in bugging of executive conference room," *San Francisco Standard,* October 13, 2026. https://sfstandard.com/2026/10/13/openai-engineer-arrested-alleged-bugging-executive-conference-room/
+[^15]: LinkedIn, public profile of Abdulrahman Alfozan. https://www.linkedin.com/in/alfozan
+[^16]: GitHub, pull requests by the author alfozan in openai/openai-agents-python, queried October 13, 2026. https://api.github.com/search/issues?q=repo:openai/openai-agents-python+author:alfozan
+[^17]: RAED Ventures, "About," English about page, Wayback capture of January 23, 2026 (https://web.archive.org/web/20260123220439/https://raed.vc/about/) and live on October 13, 2026 (https://raed.vc/about/); announcement dated February 8, 2025 (https://raed.vc/news/raed-ventures-welcomes-new-venture-partner-abdulrahman-alfozan/). Listing as venture partner first appears in the homepage capture of August 21, 2025 (https://web.archive.org/web/20250821032650/https://raed.vc/).
+[^18]: "Saudi AI startup Echelon secures backing from East40, RAED Ventures and Avra," Wamda, October 7, 2026. https://www.wamda.com/ar/2026/10/saudi-ai-startup-echelon-secures-backing-east40-raed-ventures-avra
+[^19]: OpenAI, "Introducing Stargate UAE," May 22, 2025 (Wayback capture of May 22, 2025: https://web.archive.org/web/20250522id_/https://openai.com/index/introducing-stargate-uae/). https://openai.com/index/introducing-stargate-uae/
+[^20]: "New update on Stargate UAE: First phase of 200MW to complete by 2026," *Gulf News*, October 16, 2025. The article states: "Announced in May 2025, the project brings together G42, OpenAI, Oracle, NVIDIA, Cisco, and SoftBank," and quotes a G42 spokesperson: "work is progressing rapidly on the first 200 megawatts of capacity, which is expected to be completed by 2026." https://gulfnews.com/business/markets/stargate-uae-first-phase-of-200mw-to-complete-by-2026-1.500310364
+[^21]: "Photos: Tech CEOs mingle with Trump and Saudi crown prince at investment forum in Riyadh," *NBC* (NBC San Diego), May 13, 2025. The article names "OpenAI CEO Sam Altman" among the executives present; the Reuters photograph caption reads "OpenAI CEO Sam Altman looks on as he visits Riyadh with U.S. President Donald Trump and Tesla CEO Elon Musk (both not pictured), in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, May 13, 2025." https://www.nbcsandiego.com/news/business/money-report/photos-tech-ceos-mingle-with-trump-and-saudi-crown-prince-at-investment-forum-in-riyadh/3824637
+[^22]: Reuters report on the secondary sale, as reproduced by *Wamda*, October 8, 2025: "MGX has participated in a $6.6 billion secondary share sale in OpenAI," at a valuation of "around $500 billion." Named participants: Thrive Capital, SoftBank, Dragoneer, T. Rowe Price and MGX. https://www.wamda.com/en/2025/10/mgx-joins-6-6-billion-openai-share-sale-valuing-chatgpt-maker-500-billion
+[^23]: Bloomberg, "OpenAI Set to Raise $10 Billion From MGX, Coatue, Thrive," March 24, 2026, as reproduced by Bloomberg Government: "Andreessen Horowitz, Abu Dhabi's MGX, D.E. Shaw Ventures, TPG and T. Rowe Price will co-lead the financing, which is set to close next week, the company told Bloomberg Tuesday. Coatue Management, Thrive Capital and Altimeter Capital are also set to participate." https://news.bgov.com/california-brief/openai-set-to-raise-10-billion-from-mgx-coatue-thrive-2
+[^24]: Coldewey, Devin, "Former NSA head joins OpenAI board and safety committee," *TechCrunch*, June 13, 2024: "Former head of the National Security Agency, retired Gen. Paul Nakasone, will join OpenAI's board of directors, the AI company announced Thursday afternoon. He will also sit on the board's 'security and safety' subcommittee." https://techcrunch.com/2024/06/13/former-nsa-head-joins-openai-board-and-safety-committee
+[^25]: *Defense News*, "Anduril, OpenAI join to boost counter-drone tech for US bases, troops," December 5, 2024: "Anduril and OpenAI will partner to improve the military's counter-drone capabilities." https://www.defensenews.com/pentagon/2024/12/05/anduril-openai-join-to-boost-counter-drone-tech-for-us-bases-troops/
+[^26]: Los Alamos National Laboratory, "Los Alamos Lab partners with OpenAI to boost national security," January 30, 2025: the Venado machine "will be moved to a secure, classified network where it will be a shared resource for researchers from Los Alamos, Lawrence Livermore, and Sandia national labs." https://www.lanl.gov/media/news/0130-open-ai
+[^27]: Los Alamos National Laboratory, "Lab launches frontier AI models on the Venado supercomputer," August 28, 2025: "the Venado supercomputer at Los Alamos National Laboratory is now running OpenAI's latest o3 reasoning model to accelerate national security research." https://www.lanl.gov/media/news/0828-venado-ai-models
+[^28]: *DefenseScoop*, June 17, 2025: the Department of Defense contracts list announced on June 16, 2025 that the CDAO "had awarded a $200 million prototype other transaction agreement to OpenAI Public Sector" to "develop prototype frontier AI capabilities to address critical national security challenges in both warfighting and enterprise domains"; "The estimated completion date for the work is July 2026"; OpenAI's phrase "identify and prototype how frontier AI can transform its administrative operations." https://defensescoop.com/2025/06/17/pentagon-openai-frontier-ai-projects-cdao/
+[^29]: General Services Administration, "GSA Announces New Partnership with OpenAI, Delivering Deep Discount to ChatGPT Gov-Wide Through MAS," August 6, 2025: "$1 per agency pricing for ChatGPT." https://www.gsa.gov/about-us/newsroom/news-releases/gsa-announces-new-partnership-with-openai-delivering-deep-discount-to-chatgpt-08062025
+[^30]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Public Affairs, "Saudi National Arrested for Installing Surreptitious Audio Recording Device at OpenAI," press release 26-1173, October 13, 2026. https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/saudi-national-arrested-installing-surreptitious-audio-recording-device-openai
+[^31]: "Hacker accessed OpenAI's internal AI details in 2023 breach: report," *Fox Business,* July 7, 2024, summarizing the *New York Times* report of July 4, 2024: "OpenAI executives told employees and the company's board about the breach at an all-hands meeting in April 2023." https://www-ak-ms.foxbusiness.com/technology/hacker-accessed-openais-internal-ai-details-2023-breach-report
+[^32]: Coldewey, Devin, "OpenAI breach is a reminder that AI companies are treasure troves for hackers," *TechCrunch,* July 5, 2024: "The New York Times reported the hack in more detail after former OpenAI employee Leopold Aschenbrenner hinted at it recently in a podcast." https://techcrunch.com/2024/07/05/openai-breach-is-a-reminder-that-ai-companies-are-treasure-troves-for-hackers/
+[^33]: Aschenbrenner, Leopold, interview with Dwarkesh Patel, June 4, 2024, transcript at approximately 02:33: "egregiously insufficient to protect against the theft of model weights or key algorithmic secrets from foreign actors"; "A few weeks later, a major security incident occurred"; "I got an official HR warning for sharing the memo with the board"; "The HR person told me it was racist to worry about CCP espionage and that it was unconstructive." https://www.dwarkesh.com/p/leopold-aschenbrenner
+[^34]: U.S. Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division, press release of August 4, 2026 (https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/civil-rights-division-secures-settlement-openai-discriminating-against-us-workers); Reuters report datelined August 4, 2026, carried by *The Star* (Malaysia): "The company denied wrongdoing in the settlement agreement." https://www.thestar.com.my/tech/tech-news/2026/08/05/openai-pays-32-million-in-us-probe-over-hiring-foreign-workers
+[^35]: *SiliconANGLE*, "OpenAI details expanding efforts to disrupt malicious use of AI in new report," October 7, 2025 (summarizing the OpenAI threat report): alleged China-linked groups "were found to be crafting phishing content and debugging malware targeting Taiwan's semiconductor sector, U.S. academia and political groups"; users "sought assistance designing social media monitoring tools, profiling dissidents and generating propaganda proposals." https://siliconangle.com/2025/10/07/openai-details-expanding-efforts-disrupt-malicious-use-ai-new-report/
+[^36]: Anthropic, threat intelligence report published November 13, 2025, stating that the threat actor was "a Chinese state-sponsored group" that targeted "roughly thirty global targets." https://www.anthropic.com/news/disrupting-AI-espionage

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Ordo Templi Orientis.md

@@ -78,7 +78,7 @@ The Ordo Templi Orientis (O.T.O.) is described in the findings of fact of a Unit
 
 On April 21, 1912 the German [[Theodor Reuss]] issued a charter making Crowley National Grand Master X for [[Great Britain]] and [[Ireland]], with a British section called the [[Mysteria Mystica Maxima]] (M.M.M.).[^2] Reuss visited Crowley that May and accused him of publishing the Order's secrets in The Book of Lies.[^3] In January 1915 [[Wilfred Talbot Smith]] joined the M.M.M.[^4]
 
-In his examination by agents of the Bureau of Investigation in 1918 Crowley described the Order as "just like masonry," said that its actual head was Reuss, "a German," who had left England with the German ambassador and was reported in October 1918 to be running the [[Continental Times]] in [[Berlin]] and a branch of the Order under another name in [[Switzerland]], and said that the English lodge at 93 Regent Street had been raided in June 1917 and its nominal head, [[Mary Davies]], arrested as a fortune-teller. He stated that he had "just organized a branch in this country," that its funds were on deposit with the [[Title Guarantee and Trust Company]], [[New York]], and that he was supporting himself "principally through the funds of the Ordo Templi Orientis."[^5] On November 27, 1921, at the [[Abbey of Thelema]] in [[Cefalù]], Crowley proclaimed himself Outer Head.[^6]
+In his examination by agents of the Bureau of Investigation in 1918 Crowley described the Order as "just like masonry," said that its actual head was Reuss, "a German," who had left England with the German ambassador and was reported in October 1918 to be running the [[Continental Times]] in [[Berlin]] and a branch of the Order under another name in [[Switzerland]], and said that the English lodge at 93 Regent Street had been raided in June 1917 and its nominal head, [[Mary Davies]], arrested as a fortune-teller. He stated that he had "just organized a branch in this country," that its funds were on deposit with the [[Title Guarantee and Trust Company]], [[New York City|New York]], and that he was supporting himself "principally through the funds of the Ordo Templi Orientis."[^5] On November 27, 1921, at the [[Abbey of Thelema]] in [[Cefalù]], Crowley proclaimed himself Outer Head.[^6]
 
 ### The California lodge
 

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Palantir Technologies.md

@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ tags:
 summary: "Palantir Technologies is a data-analytics and defense contractor cofounded in 2003 by Peter Thiel, Alex Karp, Joe Lonsdale, Stephen Cohen and Nathan Gettings with In-Q-Tel seed funding, supplying U.S. intelligence, defense and ICE."
 location: "Denver, Colorado (headquarters)"
 created: 2026-06-17
-updated: 2026-10-14
+updated: 2026-10-15
 ---
 
 Palantir Technologies is an American data-analytics and software company founded in 2003 by [[Peter Thiel]], [[Alex Karp]], [[Joe Lonsdale|Joseph Lonsdale]], [[Stephen Cohen]], and [[Nathan Gettings]]. The company builds data-integration and decision-support platforms for government and commercial clients, and is structured around two principal products: [[Palantir Gotham|Gotham]], oriented to intelligence and defense users, and [[Palantir Foundry|Foundry]], oriented to commercial enterprises. The company received early institutional backing from the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] venture-capital arm [[In-Q-Tel]], and Thiel has served as chairman since founding. The company went public on the [[New York Stock Exchange]] in September 2020 under the ticker PLTR.[^1]
@@ -24,15 +24,15 @@ The company's client base spans the agencies that consume intelligence and law-e
 
 ### Founding and In-Q-Tel
 
-Palantir was founded in 2003 in the aftermath of the [[September 11 attacks|9/11 attacks]], with Thiel as the founding financier and chairman. The company's stated founding premise was that U.S. intelligence agencies possessed large volumes of data in mutually incompatible silos and lacked the software to fuse it into operational intelligence, a gap the [[9/11 Commission]] had identified. The Central Intelligence Agency venture arm In-Q-Tel provided early funding, two rounds "totaling more than $2 million" according to Forbes, which reported that "from 2005 to 2008 the CIA was Palantir's patron and only customer, alpha-testing and evaluating its software."[^10] Karp, a law-school contemporary of Thiel at [[Stanford Law School]], serves as chief executive and is the public face of the company.[^1][^2]
+Palantir was founded in 2003 in the aftermath of the [[September 11 attacks|9/11 attacks]], with Thiel as the founding financier and chairman. The company's stated founding premise was that U.S. intelligence agencies possessed large volumes of data in mutually incompatible silos and lacked the software to fuse it into operational intelligence, a gap the [[9/11 Commission]] had identified. The Central Intelligence Agency venture arm In-Q-Tel provided early funding, two rounds "totaling more than $2 million" according to Forbes, which reported that "from 2005 to 2008 the CIA was Palantir's patron and only customer, alpha-testing and evaluating its software."[^3] Karp, a law-school contemporary of Thiel at [[Stanford Law School]], serves as chief executive and is the public face of the company.[^1][^2]
 
-The founding team included Lonsdale, then a recent [[Stanford University]] graduate who had worked at Thiel's [[Clarium Capital]], as a founding engineer. Cohen and Gettings rounded out the technical cofounding group. The [[PayPal Mafia]] lineage is direct: the fraud-detection heritage is consciously modeled on the anti-fraud data systems Thiel and [[Max Levchin]] built at [[PayPal]]. [[Forbes]] reported in 2013 that Thiel's "concept for Palantir was to use the fraud-recognition software designed for PayPal to stop terrorist attacks," and that where PayPal "had started with perfectly structured and organized information for its fraud analysis," intelligence customers "had mismatched collections of e-mails, recordings and spreadsheets."[^10] Palantir's data-fusion architecture for intelligence and law enforcement is an adaptation of the payments-fraud-detection architecture, the basis for the recurring internal claim that the company "does for governments what PayPal did for fraud."[^2]
+The founding team included Lonsdale, then a recent [[Stanford University]] graduate who had worked at Thiel's [[Clarium Capital]], as a founding engineer. Cohen and Gettings rounded out the technical cofounding group. The [[PayPal Mafia]] lineage is direct: the fraud-detection heritage is consciously modeled on the anti-fraud data systems Thiel and [[Max Levchin]] built at [[PayPal]]. [[Forbes]] reported in 2013 that Thiel's "concept for Palantir was to use the fraud-recognition software designed for PayPal to stop terrorist attacks," and that where PayPal "had started with perfectly structured and organized information for its fraud analysis," intelligence customers "had mismatched collections of e-mails, recordings and spreadsheets."[^3] Palantir's data-fusion architecture for intelligence and law enforcement is an adaptation of the payments-fraud-detection architecture, the basis for the recurring internal claim that the company "does for governments what PayPal did for fraud."[^2]
 
 ### Founding Account in the 2020 Registration Statement
 
-Palantir Technologies Inc.'s registration statement of August 25, 2020 states: "We were founded in 2003 and started building software for the intelligence community in the United States to assist in counterterrorism investigations and operations. We later began working with commercial enterprises."[^6] The filing describes Gotham, its first platform, as "constructed for analysts at defense and intelligence agencies."[^6] Among the government users it names are the U.S. Army, Navy and Air Force, U.S. Special Operations Command, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Department of Agriculture, the Department of Homeland Security, the Department of Veterans Affairs and the Food and Drug Administration.[^7]
+Palantir Technologies Inc.'s registration statement of August 25, 2020 states: "We were founded in 2003 and started building software for the intelligence community in the United States to assist in counterterrorism investigations and operations. We later began working with commercial enterprises."[^4] The filing describes Gotham, its first platform, as "constructed for analysts at defense and intelligence agencies."[^4] Among the government users it names are the U.S. Army, Navy and Air Force, U.S. Special Operations Command, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Department of Agriculture, the Department of Homeland Security, the Department of Veterans Affairs and the Food and Drug Administration.[^5]
 
-The filing states that Thiel "is one of our co-founders and has served as the Chairman of our Board of Directors since 2003," and that he has been a partner of Founders Fund since 2005. The PayPal name appears in the filing only in Thiel's biography, which states that he "served as Chief Executive Officer, President, and Chairman of its board of directors from 2000 until its acquisition by eBay in 2002."[^8] PayPal's 2001 registration statement describes its IGOR system, a fraud-detection program that "monitors account and transaction patterns in order to control our loss exposure once fraudulent funds enter the PayPal system."[^9]
+The filing states that Thiel "is one of our co-founders and has served as the Chairman of our Board of Directors since 2003," and that he has been a partner of Founders Fund since 2005. The PayPal name appears in the filing only in Thiel's biography, which states that he "served as Chief Executive Officer, President, and Chairman of its board of directors from 2000 until its acquisition by eBay in 2002."[^6] PayPal's 2001 registration statement describes its IGOR system, a fraud-detection program that "monitors account and transaction patterns in order to control our loss exposure once fraudulent funds enter the PayPal system."[^7]
 
 ### Gotham and the Intelligence Client Base
 
@@ -42,11 +42,11 @@ The ontology approach distinguishes Gotham from a data warehouse. Rather than co
 
 ### ICE and Immigration Enforcement
 
-The ICE relationship began in 2013 with the [[FALCON]] analytical platform, which integrates data from multiple federal and state sources (including [[Homeland Security Investigations]] and state [[Department of Motor Vehicles]] records) into a unified analytical view. In 2014, ICE awarded Palantir the [[Investigative Case Management]] (ICM) contract for over 41 million dollars, extending FALCON's analytical capability into the full case-management lifecycle from criminal and civil detention through deportation. [[EPIC]] (Electronic Privacy Information Center) documented the system's capabilities through the [[EPIC v. ICE|EPIC v. ICE]] FOIA litigation.[^1][^3]
+The ICE relationship began in 2013 with the [[FALCON]] analytical platform, which integrates data from multiple federal and state sources (including [[Homeland Security Investigations]] and state [[Department of Motor Vehicles]] records) into a unified analytical view. In 2014, ICE awarded Palantir the [[Investigative Case Management]] (ICM) contract for over 41 million dollars, extending FALCON's analytical capability into the full case-management lifecycle from criminal and civil detention through deportation. [[EPIC]] (Electronic Privacy Information Center) documented the system's capabilities through the [[EPIC v. ICE|EPIC v. ICE]] FOIA litigation.[^1][^8]
 
-The [[WNYC]] reporting documented, on the basis of obtained emails, that Palantir created a smartphone application ICE uses to plan and execute workplace raids. The [[404 Media]] reporting documented the [[ELITE (app)|ELITE]] app, which ICE uses to identify neighborhoods for enforcement operations. In the second [[Donald Trump|Trump]] administration, ICE awarded Palantir a 30 million dollar contract for [[ImmigrationOS]], extending the FALCON/ICM capability into a comprehensive immigration-tracking system. The [[ACLU]] published "All the Ways Palantir is Assisting Trump's Abusive Removal Campaign" documenting the expanded role.[^3][^4]
+The [[WNYC]] reporting documented, on the basis of obtained emails, that Palantir created a smartphone application ICE uses to plan and execute workplace raids. The [[404 Media]] reporting documented the [[ELITE (app)|ELITE]] app, which ICE uses to identify neighborhoods for enforcement operations. In the second [[Donald Trump|Trump]] administration, ICE awarded Palantir a 30 million dollar contract for [[ImmigrationOS]], extending the FALCON/ICM capability into a comprehensive immigration-tracking system. The [[ACLU]] published "All the Ways Palantir is Assisting Trump's Abusive Removal Campaign" documenting the expanded role.[^8][^9]
 
-[[Amnesty International]] published a September 2020 briefing finding that Palantir's ICM and FALCON platforms risk contributing to human rights violations of asylum-seekers and migrants. The [[American Immigration Council]] documented that FALCON and ICM have been used in workplace raids since deployment. Palantir employees in 2018 and 2019 circulated petitions asking the company to cancel the ICE work. The company declined.[^1][^3][^4]
+[[Amnesty International]] published a September 2020 briefing finding that Palantir's ICM and FALCON platforms risk contributing to human rights violations of asylum-seekers and migrants. The [[American Immigration Council]] documented that FALCON and ICM have been used in workplace raids since deployment. Palantir employees in 2018 and 2019 circulated petitions asking the company to cancel the ICE work. The company declined.[^1][^8][^9]
 
 ### Foundry and Commercial Expansion
 
@@ -56,19 +56,24 @@ The company took its initial public offering in September 2020 via a direct list
 
 ### The Israel Strategic Partnership
 
-In January 2024, Palantir announced a strategic partnership with the [[Israeli Ministry of Defense]] to supply technology for "war-related missions" during the [[Gaza war]], following a visit to Israel by Karp and Thiel. The official Palantir statement reads: "We have agreed to a strategic partnership with the Israeli Ministry of Defense to supply Palantir technology to help the country's war effort." [[Bloomberg]] reported the partnership on January 12, 2024, and [[Calcalist]] confirmed the defense-ministry relationship.[^5]
+In January 2024, Palantir announced a strategic partnership with the [[Israeli Ministry of Defense]] to supply technology for "war-related missions" during the [[Gaza war]], following a visit to Israel by Karp and Thiel. The official Palantir statement reads: "We have agreed to a strategic partnership with the Israeli Ministry of Defense to supply Palantir technology to help the country's war effort." [[Bloomberg]] reported the partnership on January 12, 2024, and [[Calcalist]] confirmed the defense-ministry relationship.[^10]
 
-Gotham is marketed on Palantir's own website as supporting soldiers with an "AI-powered kill chain," integrating target identification and targeting capabilities. Karp publicly told [[CNBC]] that the company's technology is being used in the [[Middle East]] war. Multiple reports (including [[Middle East Eye]]) link Palantir's Gotham platform to Israeli military operations in Gaza and Lebanon. [[Jeremy Corbyn]] criticized the UK government's 240 million pound Palantir contract for NHS data work in light of the Israeli partnership.[^5]
+Gotham is marketed on Palantir's own website as supporting soldiers with an "AI-powered kill chain," integrating target identification and targeting capabilities. Karp publicly told [[CNBC]] that the company's technology is being used in the [[Middle East]] war. Multiple reports (including [[Middle East Eye]]) link Palantir's Gotham platform to Israeli military operations in Gaza and Lebanon. [[Jeremy Corbyn]] criticized the UK government's 240 million pound Palantir contract for NHS data work in light of the Israeli partnership.[^10]
+
+### Cambridge Analytica
+
+[[Nicholas Confessore]] and [[Matthew Rosenberg]] reported in [[The New York Times]] on March 27, 2018 that in summer 2014, while [[Cambridge Analytica]] was seeking to collect the [[Facebook]] data of tens of millions of Americans, the company "received help from at least one employee at Palantir Technologies." A Palantir employee in London, [[Alfredas Chmieliauskas]], whose LinkedIn page describes business development work, suggested that the data scientists building the firm's psychological profiling technology create their own mobile-phone personality quiz to reach Facebook users' friend networks. The report states that Chmieliauskas corresponded from 2013 with [[Christopher Wylie]] and a colleague, both then working for the British contractor [[SCL Group]], on a behavioral profiling product code-named "Big Daddy"; that [[Sophie Schmidt]], a former SCL intern and the daughter of [[Eric Schmidt]], urged the company in June 2013 to link up with Palantir; and that in early 2013 [[Alexander Nix]] and a Palantir executive discussed working together on election campaigns. Palantir first said it had "never had a relationship with Cambridge Analytica, nor have we ever worked on any Cambridge Analytica data," and later the same day that "an employee, in 2013-2014, engaged in an entirely personal capacity with people associated with Cambridge Analytica." Wylie told British lawmakers: "There were senior Palantir employees that were also working on the Facebook data." He acknowledged that Palantir and Cambridge Analytica never signed a contract. Thiel, who co-founded Palantir in 2003, was then a member of Facebook's board.[^11]
 
 ### Footnotes
 
 [^1]: For Palantir corporate history, products, and client base, see primary corporate filings (SEC EDGAR, Form S-1 filed September 2020 for the direct listing) and the company's annual reports at investors.palantir.com.
 [^2]: Lonsdale's account of the Palantir founding and his role as founding engineer is documented in his own writing and in contemporaneous Silicon Valley press; synthesized here.
-[^3]: ICE FALCON contract documented through EPIC v. ICE FOIA litigation (https://epic.org/documents/epic-v-ice-palantir-databases/) and ICE contract HSCETC-15-C-00001 (https://www.ice.gov/doclib/foia/contracts/palantirTechHSCETC15C00001.pdf). For the smartphone raid app, see WNYC (https://www.wnyc.org/story/palantir-directly-powers-ice-workplace-raids-emails-show/). For ImmigrationOS, see Immigration Policy Tracking Project (https://immpolicytracking.org/policies/reported-palantir-awarded-30-million-to-build-immigrationos-surveillance-platform-for-ice/). For the ACLU analysis, see https://www.aclu.org/news/privacy-technology/palantir-deportation-roundup. For the Amnesty International briefing, see https://www.amnestyusa.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/Amnest-International-Palantir-Briefing-Report-092520_Final.pdf.
-[^4]: For the ELITE neighborhood-targeting app, see *404 Media* reporting. For the American Immigration Council analysis, see https://www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org/blog/ice-immigrationos-palantir-ai-track-immigrants/.
-[^5]: "Palantir, Israel Agree Strategic Partnership for Battle Tech." *Bloomberg,* January 12, 2024. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-01-12/palantir-israel-agree-to-strategic-partnership-for-battle-tech ; "Palantir supplying Israel with technology to help in war effort." *Calcalist CTech.* https://www.calcalistech.com/ctechnews/article/rymy7ret6 ; "Corbyn slams UK for deal with Israel-linked US tech giant Palantir." *Middle East Eye.* https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/corbyn-slams-uk-ps240m-deal-israeli-military-linked-tech-giant-palantir
-[^6]: Palantir Technologies Inc. Form S-1 registration statement, August 25, 2020, "Overview." https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1321655/000119312520230013/d904406ds1.htm
-[^7]: Palantir Technologies Inc. Form S-1, August 25, 2020, "Government," list of departments and agencies currently using the platforms. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1321655/000119312520230013/d904406ds1.htm
-[^8]: Palantir Technologies Inc. Form S-1, August 25, 2020, "Management," biography of Peter Thiel. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1321655/000119312520230013/d904406ds1.htm
-[^9]: PayPal, Inc. Form S-1 registration statement, filed September 28, 2001, "Business," subsection "Risk Management." https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1103415/000091205701533855/a2059025zs-1.htm
-[^10]: Andy Greenberg, "How A 'Deviant' Philosopher Built Palantir, A CIA-Funded Data-Mining Juggernaut," *Forbes*, August 14, 2013. https://www.forbes.com/sites/andygreenberg/2013/08/14/agent-of-intelligence-how-a-deviant-philosopher-built-palantir-a-cia-funded-data-mining-juggernaut/
+[^3]: Andy Greenberg, "How A 'Deviant' Philosopher Built Palantir, A CIA-Funded Data-Mining Juggernaut," *Forbes*, August 14, 2013. https://www.forbes.com/sites/andygreenberg/2013/08/14/agent-of-intelligence-how-a-deviant-philosopher-built-palantir-a-cia-funded-data-mining-juggernaut/
+[^4]: Palantir Technologies Inc. Form S-1 registration statement, August 25, 2020, "Overview." https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1321655/000119312520230013/d904406ds1.htm
+[^5]: Palantir Technologies Inc. Form S-1, August 25, 2020, "Government," list of departments and agencies currently using the platforms. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1321655/000119312520230013/d904406ds1.htm
+[^6]: Palantir Technologies Inc. Form S-1, August 25, 2020, "Management," biography of Peter Thiel. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1321655/000119312520230013/d904406ds1.htm
+[^7]: PayPal, Inc. Form S-1 registration statement, filed September 28, 2001, "Business," subsection "Risk Management." https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1103415/000091205701533855/a2059025zs-1.htm
+[^8]: ICE FALCON contract documented through EPIC v. ICE FOIA litigation (https://epic.org/documents/epic-v-ice-palantir-databases/) and ICE contract HSCETC-15-C-00001 (https://www.ice.gov/doclib/foia/contracts/palantirTechHSCETC15C00001.pdf). For the smartphone raid app, see WNYC (https://www.wnyc.org/story/palantir-directly-powers-ice-workplace-raids-emails-show/). For ImmigrationOS, see Immigration Policy Tracking Project (https://immpolicytracking.org/policies/reported-palantir-awarded-30-million-to-build-immigrationos-surveillance-platform-for-ice/). For the ACLU analysis, see https://www.aclu.org/news/privacy-technology/palantir-deportation-roundup. For the Amnesty International briefing, see https://www.amnestyusa.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/Amnest-International-Palantir-Briefing-Report-092520_Final.pdf.
+[^9]: For the ELITE neighborhood-targeting app, see *404 Media* reporting. For the American Immigration Council analysis, see https://www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org/blog/ice-immigrationos-palantir-ai-track-immigrants/.
+[^10]: "Palantir, Israel Agree Strategic Partnership for Battle Tech." *Bloomberg,* January 12, 2024. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-01-12/palantir-israel-agree-to-strategic-partnership-for-battle-tech ; "Palantir supplying Israel with technology to help in war effort." *Calcalist CTech.* https://www.calcalistech.com/ctechnews/article/rymy7ret6 ; "Corbyn slams UK for deal with Israel-linked US tech giant Palantir." *Middle East Eye.* https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/corbyn-slams-uk-ps240m-deal-israeli-military-linked-tech-giant-palantir
+[^11]: Nicholas Confessore and Matthew Rosenberg, "Spy Contractor's Idea Helped Firm Harvest Facebook Data," *The New York Times,* March 27, 2018, as republished by WRAL. https://www.wral.com/spy-contractor-s-idea-helped-firm-harvest-facebook-data/17447632/

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/PayPal Mafia.md

@@ -14,12 +14,12 @@ tags:
 summary: "The PayPal Mafia is the network of PayPal founders and early executives who after the 2002 eBay sale founded or led YouTube, LinkedIn, Yelp, Palantir, Founders Fund, Tesla, SpaceX and Dialog."
 location: "San Francisco Bay Area"
 created: 2026-06-18
-updated: 2026-10-14
+updated: 2026-10-15
 ---
 
 The PayPal Mafia is the informal network of founders and early executives of [[PayPal]] who, after the company's 2002 sale to [[eBay]] for 1.5 billion dollars, dispersed to found or lead much of the subsequent generation of [[Silicon Valley]] companies. The cohort acquired the "Mafia" label as a recognizable social and commercial network whose members sit on each other's boards, invest in each other's ventures, and convene, through [[Dialog]], in the same off-the-record settings. WIRED reported on June 16, 2026 that a leaked Dialog website directory names "six members of the Paypal Mafia," and the documented commercial, convening, ideological, and political infrastructure of the [[Thiel Influence Network]] runs substantially through the PayPal Mafia cohort.[^1][^2][^3]
 
-The company's registration statement of September 2001 lists Peter Thiel as chief executive and president since September 2000, Max Levchin as chief technology officer since March 2000, David Sacks as executive vice president of product and Reid Hoffman as executive vice president of business development, both since May 2000.[^6] Elon Musk, who had been chief executive of X.com from March to December 1999 and of PayPal from May to September 2000, was in May 2001 party to a separation agreement with the company as its former president and chief executive.[^6]
+The company's registration statement of September 2001 lists Peter Thiel as chief executive and president since September 2000, Max Levchin as chief technology officer since March 2000, David Sacks as executive vice president of product and Reid Hoffman as executive vice president of business development, both since May 2000.[^4] Elon Musk, who had been chief executive of X.com from March to December 1999 and of PayPal from May to September 2000, was in May 2001 party to a separation agreement with the company as its former president and chief executive.[^4]
 
 ### The PayPal Period (1998-2002)
 
@@ -33,9 +33,9 @@ Max Levchin was PayPal's chief technology officer and cofounder. Levchin subsequ
 
 [[Reid Hoffman]] served as executive vice president and a founding board member, responsible for external relations and partnerships. Hoffman subsequently founded [[LinkedIn]] (2002, before the eBay sale closed), took it public in 2011, sold it to [[Microsoft]] for 26.2 billion dollars in 2016, and joined [[Greylock Partners|Greylock]] as a general partner in 2009. Hoffman's politics diverge from the Thiel-Musk Republican alignment: he has been a prominent [[Democratic Party|Democratic]] donor supporting [[Joe Biden]] and [[Kamala Harris]]. His documented [[Jeffrey Epstein|Epstein]] relationship (the image-rehabilitation apology, the 2015 dinner) places a Democratic-aligned PayPal Mafia principal inside the same post-conviction Epstein network as the Republican-aligned Thiel.[^2]
 
-Elon Musk founded X.com (the precursor to PayPal) and was PayPal's largest shareholder before and after the Confinity merger. Musk subsequently founded [[SpaceX]] (2002), joined [[Tesla, Inc.|Tesla]] as lead investor and chairman in 2004 (later chief executive), and acquired [[X (social media)|X (formerly Twitter)]] in 2022. Musk's documented [[Vladimir Putin|Putin]] contact channel (since late 2022, per the [[Wall Street Journal]]), the [[Jonathan Buma|Buma]]-documented GRU targeting of Musk, the [[Igor Kurganov|Kurganov]] infiltration, and the [[NLRB Data Exfiltration|NLRB data exfiltration]] through [[Department of Government Efficiency|DOGE]] all place Musk at the intersection of the PayPal Mafia commercial network and the documented Russian-intelligence and federal-data-access questions.[^2][^4]
+Elon Musk founded X.com (the precursor to PayPal) and was PayPal's largest shareholder before and after the Confinity merger. Musk subsequently founded [[SpaceX]] (2002), joined [[Tesla, Inc.|Tesla]] as lead investor and chairman in 2004 (later chief executive), and acquired [[X (social media)|X (formerly Twitter)]] in 2022. Musk's documented [[Vladimir Putin|Putin]] contact channel (since late 2022, per the [[Wall Street Journal]]), the [[Jonathan Buma|Buma]]-documented GRU targeting of Musk, the [[Igor Kurganov|Kurganov]] infiltration, and the [[NLRB Data Exfiltration|NLRB data exfiltration]] through [[Department of Government Efficiency|DOGE]] all place Musk at the intersection of the PayPal Mafia commercial network and the documented Russian-intelligence and federal-data-access questions.[^2][^5]
 
-[[David Sacks]] served as chief operating officer. Sacks subsequently founded [[Yammer]] (acquired by Microsoft in 2012), produced the film *[[Thank You for Smoking|Thank You for Smoking]]*, and served in the second [[Donald Trump|Trump]] administration as the [[White House]] [[AI and cryptocurrency|AI and cryptocurrency]] czar, formally the Special Advisor on Artificial Intelligence and Cryptocurrency. Sacks hosted the [[All-In Podcast|All-In Podcast]], which became a documented media channel for the PayPal Mafia cohort's political positions during the 2022-2025 period.[^5]
+[[David Sacks]] served as chief operating officer. Sacks subsequently founded [[Yammer]] (acquired by Microsoft in 2012), produced the film *[[Thank You for Smoking|Thank You for Smoking]]*, and served in the second [[Donald Trump|Trump]] administration as the [[White House]] [[AI and cryptocurrency|AI and cryptocurrency]] czar, formally the Special Advisor on Artificial Intelligence and Cryptocurrency. Sacks hosted the [[All-In Podcast|All-In Podcast]], which became a documented media channel for the PayPal Mafia cohort's political positions during the 2022-2025 period.[^6]
 
 [[Ken Howery]] served as chief financial officer and subsequently cofounded [[Founders Fund]] with Thiel and [[Luke Nosek]]. Howery served as the [[United States Ambassador to Sweden|U.S. Ambassador to Sweden]] during the first Trump administration (2019-2021), receiving a formal diplomatic appointment through the Thiel-Trump relationship.
 
@@ -45,7 +45,7 @@ Luke Nosek was a founding team member and subsequently a Founders Fund partner.
 
 [[Keith Rabois]] served in an executive role and subsequently held positions at Founders Fund, [[OpenStore]], and PayPal-adjacent ventures. Rabois has been a documented intermediary between the PayPal Mafia cohort and the broader [[Khosla Ventures|Khosla Ventures]] and Founders Fund networks.
 
-[[Jeremy Stoppelman]] subsequently cofounded Yelp. [[Chad Hurley]], [[Steve Chen]], and [[Jawed Karim]] were early PayPal engineers who subsequently cofounded YouTube, which [[Google]] acquired for 1.65 billion dollars in 2006.[^1][^2]
+[[Jeremy Stoppelman]] subsequently cofounded Yelp. [[Chad Hurley]], [[Steve Chen]], and [[Jawed Karim]] were early PayPal engineers who subsequently cofounded YouTube, which [[Google]] acquired for 1.65 billion dollars in 2006.[^7]
 
 ### The 2016 Trump Campaign and Mercer Money
 
@@ -58,6 +58,7 @@ The cohort's internal political divergence has been documented across the 2016-2
 [^1]: Cameron, Dell, and Yulia Almazova. "Leak Exposes Members of Peter Thiel's Secretive 'Dialog' Society." *WIRED,* June 16, 2026. https://www.wired.com/story/leak-exposes-members-of-peter-thiels-secretive-dialog-society/
 [^2]: "Exclusive: Reid Hoffman apologizes for role in Epstein-linked donations to MIT." *Axios,* September 12, 2019. https://www.axios.com/2019/09/12/reid-hoffman-jeffrey-epstein-mit-donations ; "Epstein's Silicon Valley ties extended beyond just Musk and Gates." *CNBC,* February 9, 2026. https://www.cnbc.com/2026/02/09/tech-leaders-epstein-records-silicon-valley-sergey-brin-thiel-sinofsky-reid-hoffman-musk-gates.html
 [^3]: Founders Fund, "Portfolio," documenting the firm's Palantir, SpaceX, Anduril, and Affirm positions; the firm was founded in 2005 by Thiel, Ken Howery, and Luke Nosek. https://foundersfund.com/portfolio/
-[^4]: "FBI whistleblower claims he tried to get to Musk to warn him he was being targeted by Russia." *The Guardian,* May 22, 2025. https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/ng-interactive/2025/may/22/fbi-whistleblower-musk-russia
-[^5]: "Statement by President-elect Donald J. Trump Announcing the Appointment of David O. Sacks as 'White House A.I. & Crypto Czar.'" December 5, 2024, archived at The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/statement-president-elect-donald-j-trump-announcing-the-appointment-david-o-sacks-white
-[^6]: PayPal, Inc. Form S-1 registration statement, filed September 28, 2001, "Management" and "Certain Relationships" sections, and the footnotes to the executive compensation table. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1103415/000091205701533855/a2059025zs-1.htm
+[^4]: PayPal, Inc. Form S-1 registration statement, filed September 28, 2001, "Management" and "Certain Relationships" sections, and the footnotes to the executive compensation table. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1103415/000091205701533855/a2059025zs-1.htm
+[^5]: "FBI whistleblower claims he tried to get to Musk to warn him he was being targeted by Russia." *The Guardian,* May 22, 2025. https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/ng-interactive/2025/may/22/fbi-whistleblower-musk-russia
+[^6]: "Statement by President-elect Donald J. Trump Announcing the Appointment of David O. Sacks as 'White House A.I. & Crypto Czar.'" December 5, 2024, archived at The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/statement-president-elect-donald-j-trump-announcing-the-appointment-david-o-sacks-white
+[^7]: Google, Inc., "Google To Acquire YouTube for $1.65 Billion in Stock Combination," press release, October 9, 2006, reproduced in "Google To Acquire YouTube In Stock Transaction," Search Engine Watch, October 9, 2006. https://www.searchenginewatch.com/2006/10/09/google-to-acquire-youtube-in-stock-transaction/

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Princeton University.md

@@ -0,0 +1,272 @@
+---
+created: 2026-10-15
+updated: 2026-10-15
+title: Princeton University
+aliases:
+  - Princeton
+  - Princeton University
+  - College of New Jersey
+tags:
+  - Organization
+  - AcademicInstitution
+  - RemoteViewing
+  - PEAR
+  - Parapsychology
+  - Stargate
+  - CIA
+  - ColdWar
+  - RadioPropaganda
+  - PublicOpinionResearch
+  - WoodrowWilsonSchool
+  - ForrestalPapers
+  - DullesBrothers
+  - ProjectMatterhorn
+  - GlobalConsciousnessProject
+  - InstituteForAdvancedStudy
+category: "Private Organization"
+summary: "Princeton University, chartered 1746, houses the Engineering Anomalies Research laboratory that held an SRI subcontract, and the papers and trustees tying it to the Dulles brothers, Forrestal and Laurance Rockefeller."
+start: 1746
+location: "Princeton, New Jersey"
+relations:
+  - type: funded
+    with: "[[Rockefeller Foundation]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "financed the Princeton Listening Center, November 1939 to June 1941"
+    start: 1939
+    end: 1941
+    fn: 3
+  - type: director_of
+    with: "[[Laurance Rockefeller]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "charter trustee, 1967 to 1980"
+    start: 1967
+    end: 1980
+    fn: 16
+  - type: director_of
+    with: "[[Allen Dulles]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "trustee, by his own letter of August 28, 1961"
+    start: 1961
+    fn: 10
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Frederick S. Dunn]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "Director, Center of International Studies; member of the Quantico Vulnerabilities Panel, June 1955"
+    start: 1954
+    end: 1955
+    fn: 9
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Henry Bienen]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "James S. McDonnell Distinguished University Professor and Director, Center of International Studies, 1987"
+    start: 1987
+    end: 1987
+    fn: 19
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Hadley Cantril]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "chairman of the Psychology Department in the 1950s; member of the Listening Center committee"
+    start: 1939
+    fn: 6
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Robert Jahn]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "professor from 1962, dean of the School of Engineering and Applied Science, founder of the Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research laboratory in 1979"
+    start: 1962
+    fn: 24
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Brenda Dunne]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "laboratory manager of the Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research laboratory"
+    start: 1979
+    end: 2007
+    fn: 38
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Roger Nelson]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "research staff of the Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research laboratory from 1980; director of the Global Consciousness Project"
+    start: 1980
+    fn: 43
+  - type: funded
+    with: "[[James S. McDonnell]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "alumnus and donor to the Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research laboratory"
+    start: 1979
+    end: 2007
+    fn: 38
+  - type: funded
+    with: "[[Laurance Rockefeller]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "alumnus and donor to the Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research laboratory"
+    start: 1979
+    end: 2007
+    fn: 38
+  - type: funded
+    with: "[[John E. Fetzer]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "foundation support acknowledged in Robert Jahn's 1982 paper and in 1989 consciousness research"
+    start: 1979
+    fn: 24
+  - type: contractor_to
+    with: "[[SRI International]]"
+    role: "Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research laboratory subcontract under SRI Project 1291, fiscal 1987, conference at Princeton April 9 and 10, 1987"
+    start: 1987
+    end: 1987
+    fn: 32
+---
+Princeton University is a private university in [[Princeton, New Jersey]], whose first charter as the College of New Jersey passed the provincial seal on October 22, 1746.[^1] The record in this vault runs through the Princeton Listening Center and Cold War public opinion work, the papers and trustees connected to [[Allen Dulles]], [[John Foster Dulles]], [[James Forrestal]] and [[Laurance Rockefeller]], the plasma project that began as Project Matterhorn, and the Engineering Anomalies Research laboratory of [[Robert Jahn]], which appears in Army, DIA and National Research Council documents on psychoenergetics.
+
+### Founding
+
+The first charter of the College of New Jersey passed the seal of the Province of New Jersey on October 22, 1746, issued by John Hamilton, president of the Council and acting governor.[^1] A second charter, dated September 14, 1748 and issued by Governor Jonathan Belcher in the name of George II, incorporated twenty-three trustees as "The Trustees of the College of New Jersey."[^2]
+
+### The Princeton Listening Center and the Radio Research Project
+
+At the end of 1938 the School of Public and International Affairs appointed a committee to plan a continuing study of short-wave propaganda. The committee was administered by Harold N. Graves Jr. and included [[John B. Whitton]], [[Hadley Cantril]], William S. Carpenter and [[Harwood L. Childs]], with O. W. Riegel of Washington and Lee University and the engineer Brunson S. McCutchen.[^3] The resulting [[Princeton Listening Center]] began as an experiment in November 1939. It was financed by the [[Rockefeller Foundation]] and took quarters in a house on Alexander Street. Its staff recorded news bulletins, talks and features from England, Germany, France, Italy, the Soviet Union, Japan, the Netherlands and Hungary through May 1941.[^3]
+
+The Center's work passed to the [[Federal Communications Commission]] in mid-1941. The Commission had developed a strong interest in the project as propaganda became a matter of national policy.[^3] The staff published their results as [[Propaganda by Short Wave]], edited by Childs and Whitton and issued by [[Princeton University Press]] in 1942.[^3]
+
+The Foundation's own account of its communications work places the Princeton monitoring in a larger program. In May 1937 [[Paul Lazarsfeld]] and colleagues proposed the [[Radio Research Project]] to the Foundation, arguing that "If radio in the United States is to serve the best interests of the people, it is essential that an objective analysis be made of what these interests are and how the unique psychological and social characteristics of radio may be devoted to them." The project was housed initially at the School of Public and International Affairs and moved to Columbia University after 1939. In 1940 scholars at Princeton received Foundation funds to record and study shortwave broadcasts from Europe to the United States.[^4]
+
+### Hadley Cantril, Public Opinion and the Intelligence Community
+
+Hadley Cantril was a psychologist who studied propaganda and public opinion research, president of the Institute for Propaganda Analysis, a member of the Princeton Radio Research Project that studied the public reaction to the Orson Welles broadcast of "The War of the Worlds," and a pollster overseas during the Second World War who "subsequently advised several U.S. Presidents on public opinion studies both domestically and abroad."[^5] Robert Jahn's 1978 account of psychic research at Princeton records that in the 1950s Cantril, then chairman of the Psychology Department, "displayed some interest in parapsychology, especially in poltergeist phenomena, but apparently did not publish anything of substance in the field."[^6]
+
+An April 1, 1955 memorandum from the Deputy Director (Plans) of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], [[Frank Wisner]], to the Director of Central Intelligence records a luncheon meeting in [[Nelson Rockefeller]]'s office on foreign public opinion work. The attendees were Streibert and Loomis of the [[United States Information Agency]], "Messrs. Hadley Cantril and Lloyd Free of the Research Council, Inc.," Rockefeller and Wisner. Rockefeller said the President was holding him accountable for providing a briefing on foreign public opinion, as distinguished from the intelligence briefings the Director rendered to the National Security Council. Wisner recommended that the Information Agency be encouraged to act as the main collator and collector of public opinion information, and wrote that Cantril and Free joined in urging that it be supported as the "executive agent" within government; they also suggested the technique of "small sampling" and offered to assist Loomis in recruiting key personnel.[^7]
+
+The January 1953 [[Robertson Panel]] of the CIA's Office of Scientific Intelligence consisted of [[H. P. Robertson]], [[Luis Alvarez]], [[Thornton Page]], [[Samuel Goudsmit]] and [[Lloyd Berkner]]. Cantril was not among the members. In the section on an educational program to reduce public interest in "flying saucers," the memorandum written by Durant states that psychologists familiar with mass psychology should advise on the program, and continues: "In this connection, Dr. Hadley Cantril (Princeton University) was suggested. Cantril authored 'Invasion from Mars', (a study in the psychology of panic, written about the famous Orson Welles radio broadcast in 1936) and has since performed advanced laboratory studies in the field of perception." The names of [[Don Marquis]] and [[Leo Rosten]] were mentioned as possible consultant psychologists.[^8]
+
+Cantril corresponded with the Director of Central Intelligence. On May 29, 1954 Allen Dulles wrote to Frederick S. Dunn, Director of Princeton's Center of International Studies, that he would take part in a discussion following remarks by Dunn, Ed Barrett and Cantril at a Princeton class event.[^9] On August 28, 1961 Dulles answered a letter from Cantril of July 21, 1961 about contacts with a group Cantril had met, saying that "I am seeing to it that this gap is not left open," and adding that he hoped to be in Princeton more often "since I have become a trustee of the University."[^10]
+
+### The Dulles Brothers
+
+Allen Dulles was a Princeton graduate (B.A., class of 1914; M.A., 1916) and the nephew of Secretary of State [[Robert Lansing]], who served in Vienna, Berne, Berlin and Constantinople before joining the Wall Street law firm [[Sullivan & Cromwell]], where his brother John Foster was a managing partner. He was a friend of the fellow Princetonian [[Hamilton Fish Armstrong]] '16, editor of Foreign Affairs, with whom he wrote two books in 1936 and 1939; he served as chief of the Berne office of the [[Office of Strategic Services]], was appointed Deputy Director of Plans of the CIA in 1950, and directed it from 1953 until his resignation after the Bay of Pigs invasion in April 1961.[^11] The papers were donated by Clover Todd Dulles in 1973.[^11]
+
+John Foster Dulles graduated from Princeton in 1908 after serving as secretary to his grandfather John Watson Foster at the Second Hague Peace Conference in 1907. He took an LL.B. from [[George Washington University]] in 1911 and worked at Sullivan & Cromwell from 1911 to 1949, rising to senior partner. During the First World War he served as assistant to the chairman of the War Trade Board, then as counsel to the reparations section of the American Commission to Negotiate Peace.[^12] Princeton holds his papers, an oral history collection of 282 transcribed interviews with people who knew and worked with him, including a 1965 interview with Allen Dulles whose listed topics include Princeton University, Sullivan & Cromwell, Alger Hiss, McCarthyism, and official relations with John Foster Dulles (State Department and Central Intelligence Agency), and files copied from the Eisenhower Library.[^13]
+
+### James Forrestal, the Diaries and Laurance Rockefeller
+
+The James Forrestal Papers (MC051) are held in Princeton's Public Policy Papers. Forrestal transferred from Dartmouth to Princeton in 1912 as a member of the class of 1915 and became chairman of The Daily Princetonian; his diaries "were purchased from the New York Herald Tribune and donated to Princeton University by Clarence Dillon and Laurance S. Rockefeller in December 1952"; the papers were a gift of Josephine Ogden Forrestal in January 1953; and the Willcutts Report on Forrestal's Death, 1949, is a folder in Series 2, Personal Files. He resigned as Secretary of Defense on March 28, 1949 and died on May 23, 1949 at the National Naval Medical Center.[^14] A caption in the University Archives' account of the digitization of the papers gives March 2, 1949 as the date of the resignation letter (Box 151).[^15]
+
+Laurance Rockefeller graduated from Princeton in 1932 and served as a charter trustee from 1967 to 1980. The Alumni Weekly's memorial records his gifts to the University, among them the University Center for Human Values and the Department of Molecular Biology, and his investment in McDonnell Aircraft Corp.[^16]
+
+### The Center of International Studies and the Quantico Panel
+
+[[Frederick S. Dunn]], Director of Princeton's Center of International Studies, was one of the eleven members of the Quantico Vulnerabilities Panel that Nelson Rockefeller convened at the Marine Corps School in Virginia in June 1955. A White House memorandum to Allen Dulles on his planned visit to the evening session of June 9, with Richard Bissell, enclosed the participant list: Dunn, [[C. D. Jackson]] of Time-Life, Ellis A. Johnson and George Pettee of the Operations Research Office, [[Paul Linebarger]] of Johns Hopkins, [[Max Millikan]] and [[Walt Rostow]] of the Center for International Studies at MIT, [[Philip Mosely]] of Columbia, [[Stefan Possony]] of the Air Force, [[Hans Speier]] of the [[RAND Corporation]] and Charles A. H. Thomson of the Brookings Institution.[^17] The panel's report of June 10, 1955 carries a section titled "Alliance and Coalition Problems" by Dunn.[^18]
+
+A March 26, 1987 memorandum of the CIA Public Affairs Office records that Henry S. Bienen, a James S. McDonnell Distinguished University Professor at Princeton and Director of the Center of International Studies, invited the Acting Director of Central Intelligence, [[Robert Gates]], to be the first visiting speaker at the Woodrow Wilson School Conference, a twelve-week course for about twenty undergraduates on the role of intelligence agencies in foreign policy, covering congressional oversight and the relationship of intelligence to executive authority. Gates accepted by letter for Tuesday, September 29, 1987.[^19]
+
+### Lyman Kirkpatrick
+
+[[Lyman Kirkpatrick]] was a member of the Princeton class of 1938, majoring in politics, and was undergraduate chairman of the [[Woodrow Wilson School]]. He enlisted in the Office of Strategic Services in June 1942, was briefing officer for General [[Omar Bradley]] in 1944, and joined the Central Intelligence Agency at its founding in 1947. He was inspector general of the CIA during the Bay of Pigs invasion, and died at his home in Middleburg, Virginia, on March 3, 1995.[^20] Princeton holds his papers, which document his CIA career from 1947 to 1965.[^21]
+
+### Project Matterhorn and the Forrestal Campus
+
+The Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory was first known as Project Matterhorn. In the early 1950s [[Lyman Spitzer]]'s vision for plasma physics culminated in Project Matterhorn, which gained the approval of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission; its stated mission was to contain and harness the nuclear burning of hydrogen at temperatures above those found in the sun. Spitzer was the laboratory's director until 1961.[^22] The laboratory was first located on the A and B sites of the James Forrestal Campus, Princeton's research center named for Forrestal, class of 1915 and first Secretary of Defense, and moved to its present C site in 1959.[^23]
+
+### Robert Jahn and the Psychic Research Program, 1977 to 1978
+
+In the spring of 1977 the undergraduate [[Carol Kay Curry]] asked Robert Jahn, then dean of the School of Engineering and Applied Science, to supervise independent work in psychic phenomena. Jahn wrote in 1978 that he provisionally agreed, pending a full summer of background research. The two visited laboratories around the country, and that winter Jahn was on leave at Stanford, where they worked with a small research group at the nearby [[SRI International]] laboratory.[^6]
+
+A lecture by Jahn in April 1978 drew more than 200 members of the Princeton community to the Wilson School Auditorium. In his report in the [[Princeton Alumni Weekly]] of December 4, 1978 Jahn wrote that Princeton's own history of psychic research was "rather thin, but not entirely void," citing [[Upton Sinclair]]'s 1930s writing on his wife's clairvoyance and telepathy and his dialogues with [[Albert Einstein]], and the statistics professor [[Samuel Wilks]]'s 1937 recommendations for telepathy experiments. He wrote that he was aware of "some eight to ten faculty members in as many disciplines who have a substantial interest in psychic process," and that the question may be posed "whether it is proper and productive for a university such as Princeton to involve itself to any significant degree in so slippery, soggy, and suspect a field as psychic research." He added that "there will doubtless be many opinions on this. My own is not at all fully formed."[^6]
+
+Jahn's invited paper "The Persistent Paradox of Psychic Phenomena: An Engineering Perspective," in the February 1982 issue of the [[Proceedings of the IEEE]] (vol. 70, no. 2, p. 136), was written as Dean of the School of Engineering and Applied Science at Princeton, where he had been since 1962; the manuscript was received July 15, 1981. The journal's note on the issue recalls that in March 1976 the Proceedings had published a paper on remote viewing. The paper's footnote states that the work was supported in part by the McDonnell Foundation, the John E. Fetzer Foundation, the Explorers Club, the Institute of Noetic Sciences and the Little River Foundation. It thanks "Ms. B. J. Dunne" as laboratory manager of the Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research program, credits "Dr. R. D. Nelson" with a heavy contribution, and reproduces remote perception transcripts headed "Princeton, NJ," including a target figure captioned "Remote perception target: Woodrow Wilson School, Princeton, NJ" with an August 28, 1980 time.[^24]
+
+### Army and Intelligence Interest, 1979 to 1985
+
+The [[Grill Flame Scientific Evaluation Committee]] report of December 1979, chaired by Manfred Gale, lists among the committee's site visits "8 Sep Princeton University & Bell Labs, Holmdel, NJ" with "Dean Jahn & Dr. Lucky," meaning [[Robert Lucky]] of [[Bell Laboratories]], and names "Dr. Jahn at Princeton University" among those engaged in PK-related research.[^25] The Defense Intelligence Agency's later GRILL FLAME project report cites Jahn's 1982 paper.[^26]
+
+A memorandum recording the House Standing Intelligence Oversight Committee session of February 13, 1979 lists the questions put at the session. Asked what other organizations besides SRI were working on the subject, the answer recorded was "Only maybe Dr. Jahn at Princeton."[^27]
+
+In January 1980 Major [[William Stoner]] of the Army staff wrote a memorandum of conversation on a briefing by Mr. Gale on the final report of the GRILL FLAME science evaluation group. Stoner wrote that "Dean Jahn at Princeton has a two-year leash on his PK program and had to invoke freedom of inquiry, the academic Magna Carta, before the University President allowed him to go ahead." He then set out Jahn's own position: "In fact, Dean Jahn does not have a drop dead time two years out." Stoner recorded that Jahn named the two-year marker as the point at which he expected to have credible results.[^28]
+
+A Defense Intelligence Agency briefing document on psychoenergetics research dated August 7, 1984 reports that a panel of scientists recommended a five to ten year multi-laboratory program and that "additional laboratories have been contacted and are under consideration for contracts in FY 1985." The list of those being considered includes McDonnell Douglas, the Mind Science Foundation, Lawrence Livermore Laboratories, the "Engineering Anomalies Laboratory, Princeton University," the [[Psychophysical Research Laboratories]], the University of California at Davis, the Communications Studies Laboratory at Syracuse University, the Mobius Group and Aberdeen Proving Ground.[^29]
+
+On February 6, 1985 [[William Odom|Lieutenant General Odom]], the Army's assistant chief of staff for intelligence, attended an [[United States Army Intelligence and Security Command|INSCOM]] briefing for the Under Secretary of the Army, [[James Ambrose]], on the Center Lane project. The discussion opened with Jahn's work. Odom replied that INSCOM had not completed any work on the Jahn theories, but that [[Garrison Rapmund|Major General Rapmund]] was now an active participant in the field and planned to award an R&D contract to SRI International, "which would include a subcontract to Dr. Jahn." The INSCOM record says the Under Secretary's interest had been renewed by an inquiry from Secretary of the Army [[John Marsh]], who had been asked about Army involvement in psychoenergetics by Senator [[Claiborne Pell]].[^30]
+
+A December 1985 evaluation of parapsychology prepared under a U.S. Army contract by [[John Palmer]] of the Utrecht parapsychology laboratory describes the "other major research program in parapsychology using REGs" as Jahn's, undertaken at Princeton in collaboration with the psychologists Roger Nelson and Brenda Dunne.[^31]
+
+The subcontract followed. SRI's final report for Project 1291, dated December 1987, states that in fiscal 1987 SRI awarded a subcontract to the Princeton University Engineering Anomalies Research Laboratory to organize and host a conference of SRI cognitive science staff, subcontractors and consultants. The conference was held at Princeton's Scanticon Conference Center on April 9 and 10, 1987, to discuss "What constitutes proof of a controversial claim?" Thirty-one people attended, and the PEAR staff afterward prepared a proceedings volume. The same report records a purchase order contract let on August 4, 1987 to Psychophysical Research Laboratories, a separate laboratory in Princeton, and data on two subjects from the PEAR laboratory added to the PAS database.[^32]
+
+### The National Research Council and the Office of Technology Assessment
+
+The [[National Research Council]] Committee on Techniques for the Enhancement of Human Performance, chaired by John A. Swets of Bolt Beranek and Newman, with Daniel Druckman as study director, published *Enhancing Human Performance: Issues, Theories, and Techniques* in 1988 under Army sponsorship. Its first conclusion on parapsychology reads: "The committee finds no scientific justification from research conducted over a period of 130 years for the existence of parapsychological phenomena." It recommended that the Army not become directly involved but that "the best work in the United States" be monitored, a list that began with "that being done at Princeton University by Robert Jahn," followed by Charles Honorton, Helmut Schmidt and Edward May. The parapsychology subcommittee visited Jahn's Engineering Anomalies Research Laboratory, where it "witnessed presentations and demonstrations regarding psychokinetic experiments on random number generators" and was briefed on the status of the lab's remote viewing work.[^33]
+
+The report's review of random number generator experiments states that the programs of Schmidt and Jahn had accounted for almost 60 percent of all known experiments on such generators and had been the most consistently successful in reaching statistically significant outcomes. The committee also wrote that a single subject had contributed about 23 percent of the data in Jahn's formal series and that, when that subject's results were removed, the remainder was no longer significantly different from chance; and that the Princeton experiments provided inadequate documentation of precautions against tampering. The authors attributed those points to the reviewers Palmer and James Alcock.[^33]
+
+The Office of Technology Assessment held a workshop on experimental parapsychology on September 30, 1988 and issued its report on February 22, 1989. Jahn attended, alongside Alcock, Daryl Bem, Charles Honorton and Ray Hyman. The report states that Jahn described criteria he and his colleagues found useful, including the use of impeccable equipment and the largest possible data base, that the largest REG data base, more than 750,000 trials compiled at the Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research Laboratory, shifted the overall means in the intended direction by 0.035 percent, and that Jahn's research is built on the earlier work of Schmidt on random number generators and of Puthoff on remote viewing.[^34]
+
+### The Engineering Anomalies Research Laboratory and its Funders
+
+Radin and Nelson's meta-analysis of the random physical systems literature, published in Foundations of Physics in 1989, reviewed more than 800 experiments reported in parapsychology and concluded that the results suggested "the existence of some form of consciousness-related anomaly in random physical systems." The study "was supported by major grants from the McDonnell Foundation, Inc. and the John E. Fetzer Foundation, Inc." and thanks York Dobyns of the Princeton Engineering Anomalies Laboratory.[^35]
+
+The Defense Intelligence Agency's STAR GATE Long-Range Comprehensive Plan of June 28, 1991 lists the "Princeton Engineering Anomalies Laboratory" in Appendix G, "Potential Research Support Facilities," under anomalous mental phenomena, with Science Applications International Corporation, the Mind Science Foundation, the American Society for Psychical Research, St. John's University and the Foundation for Research into the Nature of Man.[^36] The same list appears in the June 1994 Project STAR GATE Research and Peer Review Plan.[^37]
+
+The laboratory's own account, in its press release of February 10, 2007, states that the program was established in 1979 by Jahn, then Dean of the School of Engineering and Applied Science, "to study the potential vulnerability of engineering devices and information processing systems to the anomalous influence of the consciousness of their human operators," and that the research "was funded by gifts from Princeton alumni James S. McDonnell, patriarch of the McDonnell Douglas Aerospace empire, Laurance Rockefeller, Donald C. Webster, and by numerous other philanthropic benefactors." It describes Dunne as a developmental psychologist from the [[University of Chicago]] who served throughout as laboratory manager, names the [[International Consciousness Research Laboratories]], established in 1996, as the body that would oversee future work, and lists Jahn and Dunne as advisers to Psyleron, a Princeton enterprise producing devices for public exploration of human and machine anomalies. It also cites their textbook *Margins of Reality: The Role of Consciousness in the Physical World* (Harcourt, 1987).[^38]
+
+On the closure, the Daily Pennsylvanian reported on February 19, 2007 that Dunne and Jahn would retire and serve as consultants for the consciousness research laboratories, a group associated with the lab for a number of years. Dunne said that "there has been some discomfort among a lot of people in the administration who feel that we're an embarrassment."[^39] The Daily Princetonian reported that the lab "received almost no funding from the University" and "survived on private donations," with sponsors including James S. McDonnell, the former Detroit Tigers owner John Fetzer and Prince Hans Adam II of Liechtenstein. Jahn said that in the lab's heyday "we would spend upwards of half a million dollars per year." The same report states that University staff dismantled the laboratory on the Tuesday before publication, that Jahn, then 76, would retire that year, that a former PEAR researcher, John Valentino, had founded the company Psyleron in 2005, and that many of the lab's supporters had died in a short period and the researchers had not been able to replace much of the equipment.[^40]
+
+### The Global Consciousness Project
+
+The Global Consciousness Project ran its data server, named "noosphere" after the idea of [[Pierre Teilhard de Chardin]], at noosphere.princeton.edu. Its 2001 abstract describes a synchronized network of random event generators at dozens of sites around the world reporting by Internet to central computers, with a database generated at a rate of one trial per second at each node and a complete historical record beginning in August 1998.[^41] The project's formal analysis of September 11, 2001 is signed "Roger Nelson, Director, GCP" and refers to a network of 37 such devices, called "eggs."[^42] In the project's book Nelson wrote that he had come to Princeton in 1980 to help coordinate a research program in the School of Engineering on whether human consciousness might affect sensitive electronic devices, in the laboratory known as PEAR.[^43]
+
+### The Institute for Advanced Study
+
+The [[Institute for Advanced Study]] is a separate institution in Princeton, New Jersey, and is not part of the University.
+
+[[Seymour Hersh]] wrote that in the fall of 1966 [[Lewis L. Strauss]] used his influence at the Institute to obtain a two-month visiting fellowship for the Israeli chemist [[Ernst David Bergmann]], although the Institute rarely took chemists. Hersh wrote that the Institute's new director, [[Carl Kaysen]], recalled that Strauss "had nudged me about Bergmann," and that neither Strauss's biographer nor his son knew the two had met.[^44]
+
+### Alumni in the Federal Record
+
+Claiborne Pell graduated from Princeton in 1940 and took a master's degree at [[Columbia University]] in 1946; the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress gives his Senate service as January 3, 1961 to January 3, 1997.[^45] [[Ted Cruz]] graduated from Princeton with a B.A. in 1992.[^46] [[James A. Baker III]] graduated in 1952, according to the biography on his law firm's site.[^47] [[Sanford McDonnell]], a nephew of McDonnell Aircraft founder James S. McDonnell, earned a bachelor's degree in economics from Princeton in 1945.[^48]
+
+### Footnotes
+
+[^1]: John Maclean, *History of the College of New Jersey, from its Origin in 1746 to the Commencement of 1854*, vol. 2 (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1877), passage on the centennial celebration: the first charter "passed the seal of the Province of New Jersey on the 22d of October, 1746, John Hamilton, Esq., being the President of the Council and the acting Governor." Archive.org copy: https://archive.org/details/historycollegen01maclgoog
+[^2]: *Charter of the College of New Jersey, with Amendments, and the Laws of New Jersey Relative to the College* (Newark: Daily Advertiser Office, 1868), charter dated September 14, 1748 (witnessed by Jonathan Belcher; attorney general's approval and Council consent September 13, 1748) and the amending act reciting incorporation of twenty-three persons. https://archive.org/details/charterofcollege00prin
+[^3]: *Princeton Listening Center Records, 1939-1941*, Princeton University Library, University Archives, administrative history and scope and content (finding aid, AC015). https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/PRIN_MUDD_AC015
+[^4]: Rockefeller Archive Center, "Rockefeller Foundation Support for Communications Media in the 1930s and 1940s," citing RG 1.1, Series 200R, Box 271, Folder 3234 (John Marshall, May 1937) and the Princeton University radio study file, 1940-1948. https://resource.rockarch.org/story/rockefeller-foundation-support-for-communications-media-in-the-1930s-and-1940s/
+[^5]: *Hadley Cantril Papers*, Public Policy Papers, Princeton University Library (MC308), biography and scope and content. https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/PRIN_MUDD_MC308
+[^6]: Robert G. Jahn, "Psychic Process, Energy Transfer, and Things That Go Bump in the Night," *A PAW Special Report*, *Princeton Alumni Weekly*, December 4, 1978. CIA reading room, CIA-RDP96-00787R000500380004-4. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00787r000500380004-4
+[^7]: Frank G. Wisner, Deputy Director (Plans), memorandum for the Director of Central Intelligence, "Meeting with Nelson Rockefeller et al on Public Opinion Report," April 1, 1955. CIA reading room, CIA-RDP61S00750A000700100046-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp61s00750a000700100046-2
+[^8]: F. C. Durant, memorandum, "Report of Meetings of the Scientific Advisory Panel on Unidentified Flying Objects Convened by Office of Scientific Intelligence, CIA, January 14-18, 1953," list of members present and section on the educational program. CIA reading room, CIA-RDP79B00752A000300100010-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp79b00752a000300100010-4
+[^9]: Allen W. Dulles to Frederick S. Dunn, Director, Center of International Studies, Princeton University, May 29, 1954. CIA reading room, CIA-RDP80R01731R001200070114-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001200070114-0
+[^11]: *Allen W. Dulles Papers*, Public Policy Papers, Princeton University Library (MC019), biography/history and acquisition information. https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/PRIN_MUDD_MC019
+[^10]: Allen W. Dulles to Hadley Cantril, August 28, 1961, replying to a letter of July 21, 1961. CIA reading room, CIA-RDP80B01676R003500040028-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003500040028-2
+[^12]: *John Foster Dulles Papers*, Public Policy Papers, Princeton University Library (MC016), biography/history. https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/PRIN_MUDD_MC016
+[^13]: *John Foster Dulles Oral History Collection* (MC017), including the 1965 interview with Allen W. Dulles, and *Dwight D. Eisenhower Library Files Relating to John Foster Dulles* (MC018), Public Policy Papers, Princeton University Library . https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/PRIN_MUDD_MC017 and https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/PRIN_MUDD_MC018
+[^14]: *James V. Forrestal Papers*, Public Policy Papers, Princeton University Library (MC051), biography/history, acquisition information and Series 2 folder list. https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/PRIN_MUDD_MC051
+[^15]: "Forrestal Digitization Completes Grant's First Phase," Princeton University Archives, October 2014, caption for the resignation letter dated March 2, 1949 (James V. Forrestal Papers, MC051, Box 151). https://universityarchives.princeton.edu/2014/10/forrestal-digitization-completes-grants-first-phase-more-than-a-quarter-of-a-million-documents-now-online
+[^16]: "Laurance S. Rockefeller '32," *Princeton Alumni Weekly* memorial (published December 4, 2013; he died July 11, 2004). https://paw.princeton.edu/memorial/laurance-s-rockefeller-32
+[^17]: T. W. Parker, Executive Secretary, Planning Coordination Group, memorandum for Allen W. Dulles with "Quantico Panel Participants" list. CIA reading room, CIA-RDP80B01676R004300080005-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r004300080005-4
+[^18]: Report of the Quantico Vulnerabilities Panel, June 10, 1955, Tab 3 "Alliance and Coalition Problems" by Dr. Frederick S. Dunn. CIA reading room, CIA-RDP86B00269R000800070001-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp86b00269r000800070001-5
+[^19]: George V. Lauder, Director, Public Affairs, memorandum for the Acting Director of Central Intelligence, "Invitation to Speak at the Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs, Princeton University," March 26, 1987 (CIA-RDP89G00720R000600850012-9), and Robert M. Gates to Henry S. Bienen, letter of acceptance, May 1987 (CIA-RDP89G00720R000600850011-0). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp89g00720r000600850012-9 and https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp89g00720r000600850011-0
+[^20]: "Lyman Bickford Kirkpatrick Jr. '38," *Princeton Alumni Weekly* memorial, died at home in Middleburg, Va., March 3, 1995. https://paw.princeton.edu/memorial/lyman-bickford-kirkpatrick-jr-38
+[^21]: Lyman B. Kirkpatrick Papers, Public Policy Papers, Princeton University Library, scope and biographical note (PRIN_MUDD_MC209). https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/PRIN_MUDD_MC209
+[^22]: Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory, *Annual Site Environmental Report for Calendar Year 2004* (PPPL-4396), introduction. OSTI 951313. https://www.osti.gov/biblio/951313
+[^23]: Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory, *2016 Annual Site Environmental Report* (PPPL-5443), chapter 1. OSTI 1394831. https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1394831
+[^24]: Robert G. Jahn, "The Persistent Paradox of Psychic Phenomena: An Engineering Perspective," *Proceedings of the IEEE* 70, no. 2 (February 1982): 136ff, with the issue's "Scanning the Issue" note, manuscript note (received July 15, 1981; revised October 26, 1981), acknowledgments, and figure 20. CIA reading room, CIA-RDP96-00788R001100010004-6. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001100010004-6
+[^25]: Report by the Grill Flame Scientific Evaluation Committee, Mr. Manfred Gale, Chairman, December 1979, itinerary and findings on PK-related research. CIA reading room, CIA-RDP96-00788R001300120001-5. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001300120001-5
+[^26]: Defense Intelligence Agency, Directorate for Scientific and Technical Intelligence, *Grill Flame Project Report*, footnote 2 citing Jahn's 1982 Proceedings paper. CIA reading room, CIA-RDP96-00788R001000410001-6. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001000410001-6
+[^27]: Memorandum, "Comments made at 13 February 1979 Session of House Standing Intelligence Oversight Committee," Defense Department, February 15, 1979. CIA reading room, CIA-RDP96-00788R001100060007-8. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001100060007-8
+[^28]: William L. Stoner, memorandum of conversation, "Gale Briefing to ZA, Science Evaluation Group Final Report on GRILL FLAME, 14 Jan 80," January 17, 1980. CIA reading room, CIA-RDP96-00788R001200230017-7. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001200230017-7
+[^29]: Defense Intelligence Agency, Directorate for Scientific and Technical Intelligence, "Psychoenergetics Research (U)," August 7, 1984, concluding pages on the panel's recommendations and laboratories under consideration. CIA reading room, CIA-RDP96-00788R001800210001-0. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001800210001-0
+[^30]: INSCOM memorandum, TAGPA-F-SD, Fort George G. Meade, February 11, 1985, on the February 6, 1985 briefing of the Under Secretary of the Army on the INSCOM Center Lane project. CIA reading room, CIA-RDP96-00788R001500020021-2. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001500020021-2
+[^31]: John Palmer, "An Evaluative Report on the Current Status of Parapsychology," December 1985, prepared under contract DAJA 45-84-M-0405 for the U.S. Army, section "Princeton Research Program." CIA reading room, CIA-RDP96-00789R003800360001-1. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00789r003800360001-1
+[^32]: SRI International, *Enhanced Human Performance Investigation*, final technical report, SRI Project 1291, December 1987, Objective I Task 4 and PAS database section. CIA reading room, CIA-RDP96-00787R000300100001-9. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00787r000300100001-9
+[^33]: National Research Council, Committee on Techniques for the Enhancement of Human Performance, *Enhancing Human Performance: Issues, Theories, and Techniques*, ed. Daniel Druckman and John A. Swets (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1988), summary conclusions, "Evaluation of the Scientific Evidence" and the chapter on paranormal phenomena (random number generator review). CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP96-00791R000200320001-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp96-00791r000200320001-1
+[^34]: Office of Technology Assessment, International Security and Commerce Program, *Report of a Workshop on Experimental Parapsychology*, workshop of September 30, 1988, report dated February 22, 1989. CIA reading room, CIA-RDP96-00789R002200450001-8. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00789r002200450001-8
+[^35]: Dean I. Radin and Roger D. Nelson, "Evidence for Consciousness-Related Anomalies in Random Physical Systems," *Foundations of Physics* 19, no. 12 (1989), abstract and acknowledgment. CIA reading room, CIA-RDP96-00789R002200520001-0. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00789r002200520001-0
+[^36]: Defense Intelligence Agency, *STAR GATE Long-Range Comprehensive Plan: Basic Approach*, DT-S-1035-SL, June 28, 1991, Appendix G. CIA reading room, CIA-RDP96-00789R002900330001-4. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00789r002900330001-4
+[^37]: Defense Intelligence Agency, *Project STAR GATE Research and Peer Review Plan*, PAG-TA-1068-SL, June 1994. CIA reading room, CIA-RDP96-00789R002700010001-1. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00789r002700010001-1
+[^38]: "Princeton's PEAR Laboratory to Close," Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research press release, February 10, 2007 (pearlab.icrl.org/press-statement.html, Internet Archive capture). https://web.archive.org/web/2007/http://pearlab.icrl.org/press-statement.html
+[^39]: "Anomalous Princeton lab shuts its doors," *The Daily Pennsylvanian*, February 19, 2007. https://www.thedp.com/article/2007/02/anomalous_princeton_lab_shuts_its_doors
+[^40]: "Weird science loses its home," *The Daily Princetonian*, February 22, 2007. https://www.dailyprincetonian.com/article/2007/02/weird-science-loses-its-home
+[^41]: Global Consciousness Project, "Abstract," noosphere.princeton.edu (Internet Archive capture, 2001). https://web.archive.org/web/2001/http://noosphere.princeton.edu/abstract.html
+[^42]: Roger Nelson, "Formal Analysis, September 11 2001," Global Consciousness Project (Internet Archive capture, 2003). https://web.archive.org/web/2003/http://noosphere.princeton.edu/911formal.html
+[^43]: Roger Nelson, introduction to the project's book, noosphere.princeton.edu/book/1.1.html (Internet Archive capture, 2003). https://web.archive.org/web/2003/http://noosphere.princeton.edu/book/1.1.html
+[^44]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (New York: Random House, 1991), passages on Ernst David Bergmann, Lewis Strauss and Carl Kaysen.
+[^45]: "PELL, Claiborne de Borda," Biographical Directory of the United States Congress (Internet Archive capture of the Congress bioguide page, 2012). https://web.archive.org/web/2012/http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=P000193
+[^46]: "CRUZ, Rafael Edward (Ted)," Biographical Directory of the United States Congress (Internet Archive capture, 2015). https://web.archive.org/web/2015/http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=C001098
+[^47]: "James A. Baker, III," Baker Botts L.L.P. attorney biography (Internet Archive capture, 2020). https://web.archive.org/web/2020/https://www.bakerbotts.com/people/b/baker-james-a-iii
+[^48]: "Sanford N. McDonnell," Boeing history of McDonnell Douglas (Internet Archive capture of November 20, 2010). https://web.archive.org/web/20101120111514/http://boeing.com/history/mdc/snm.htm

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Robert R. Mullen Company.md

@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ summary: "Washington public relations firm that gave cover to CIA officers abroa
 start: 1963-06
 location: "Washington, D.C."
 created: 2026-09-21
-updated: 2026-09-21
+updated: 2026-10-15
 ---
 
 Robert R. Mullen and Company was a public relations firm in Washington whose founder, [[Robert R. Mullen]], placed officers of the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] in its overseas offices. [[Howard Hunt|E. Howard Hunt]] was on its payroll when he organized the break-in at the [[Watergate scandal|Watergate]]. The agency's cryptonym for the arrangement was QKENCHANT.[^1][^2]
@@ -39,6 +39,14 @@ In March 1972, while employed by the firm, Hunt went to [[Denver]] in a wig and
 
 Director [[William Colby]] reported to [[Henry Kissinger]] on the use of the firm for cover on February 9, 1974. Mullen was released from his secrecy agreement for a single interview with the [[Senate Watergate Committee|Senate Watergate committee]] on February 5, 1974.[^5]
 
+### The Senate Select Committee's account
+
+The final report of the Senate Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities states that the firm had maintained a relationship with the agency since its incorporation in 1959 and provided cover for an agent in Europe and an agent in the Far East at the time of the break-in. Hunt left the agency in 1970 and joined the firm with what Mullen understood to be the blessing of Director Helms; his covert security clearance was extended by the agency, and he remained witting of the Mullen cover and negotiated with the agency about it after he joined the White House.[^8]
+
+Robert F. Bennett, the son of Senator [[Wallace F. Bennett]], became president in 1971 and brought the Hughes Tool Company account. The committee wrote that agency records indicated consideration was given to using Mullen's Hughes relationship for a cover arrangement in South America and to gather information on Robert Maheu. Robert Oliver, the firm's Washington lobbyist for Hughes Tool, is the father of R. Spencer Oliver Jr., whose telephone was tapped at the Democratic National Committee, and Bennett met with the Olivers after the break-in to discuss the bugging.[^9]
+
+According to the case officer's memorandum of July 10, 1972, forwarded to Helms on or before July 14, Bennett had established a "back door entry" to E. B. Williams, the Democratic National Committee's attorney, in order to "kill off" revelations of the agency's relationship with the firm in the course of the committee's lawsuit, and agreed to check with the agency before contacting Williams. The committee staff confirmed that Bennett funneled information to Williams through the attorney [[Hobart Taylor]], and that the flow was more extensive than what Bennett had given the grand jury. The agency acknowledged paying one-half of Bennett's attorney fee for his grand jury appearance.[^10] A contact report of July 24, 1972 shows that the agency persuaded Mullen to withdraw its Far East cover through an "agreed upon scenario" that included a falsified Watergate publicity crisis, and the memorandum refers to a "WH flap" that the agency told the committee concerned a matter threatening Western Hemisphere operations, deleted at its request. A memorandum of March 1, 1973 records that Bennett felt he could handle the Ervin Committee if the agency could handle Hunt, and that he was feeding stories to [[Bob Woodward]] without attribution to Bennett.[^11]
+
 ### Footnotes
 
 [^1]: Central Intelligence Agency, Central Cover Staff, "CIA Utilization of the Robert R. Mullen Company," memorandum to the Office of Security, June 20, 1972, CIA Reading Room documents C00573275 and C00320174.
@@ -48,3 +56,7 @@ Director [[William Colby]] reported to [[Henry Kissinger]] on the use of the fir
 [^5]: Central Intelligence Agency, contact report, July 10, 1972, C03210463; "Meeting with Senator Baker, 11 December 1973," C01482353; "Select Committee Testimony of 5 February 1974," C01474422; Colby, W.E., memorandum to Henry Kissinger, February 9, 1974, C01474417.
 [^6]: House Committee on Armed Services, Special Subcommittee on Intelligence, *Inquiry into the Alleged Involvement of the Central Intelligence Agency in the Watergate and Ellsberg Matters,* 93rd Cong., 1973; "Whispers About Colson," *Newsweek,* March 5, 1973.
 [^7]: Ruth, Henry S., Jr., Watergate Special Prosecution Force, letter to John S. Warner, July 26, 1973, CIA Reading Room document C01482382; Chief, Cover and Commercial Staff, "Inquiry Regarding Possible ITT Association with CIA and Robert R. Mullen and Company," August 7, 1973, C01367838.
+[^8]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), section "Robert Bennett and the Mullen and Company", p. 1121, citing the executive session testimony of Robert R. Mullen (February 5, 1974) and the CIA memorandum "Wrap-Up of Agency's Association with Robert R. Mullen and Company." https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities
+[^9]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), section "Robert Bennett and the Mullen and Company", pp. 1121-1123, citing the executive session testimony of Robert F. Bennett (February 1, 1974) and E. Howard Hunt (December 18, 1973) and staff interviews. https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities
+[^10]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), section "Robert Bennett and the Mullen and Company", p. 1124, citing the Mullen case officer's memorandum for record of July 10, 1972 and the Hobart Taylor interview report of February 11, 1974. https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities
+[^11]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), section "Robert Bennett and the Mullen and Company", pp. 1125-1128, citing the case officer's memoranda of July 10 and July 24, 1972 and the memorandum for the Deputy Director for Plans of March 1, 1973. https://archive.org/details/FinalReportOfTheSenateSelectCommitteeOnPresidentialCampaignActivities

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Southern Air Transport.md

@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ aliases:
   - Southern Air
   - Southern Air Holdings
 created: 2026-05-17
-updated: 2026-10-05
+updated: 2026-10-15
 category: "Private Organization"
 tags:
   - Organization
@@ -68,7 +68,7 @@ Southern Air Transport was incorporated in [[Florida]] on October 31, 1949, as a
 
 The Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities (the [[Church Committee]]) reported that the CIA bought Southern Air Transport because in June 1960 the [[U.S. Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] and the [[Civil Aeronautics Board]] changed the rules for [[Military Air Transport Service]] contracts, requiring a supplemental certificate and participation in the [[Civil Reserve Air Fleet]], which [[Air America]] could not obtain. Director of Central Intelligence [[Allen Dulles]] approved the purchase on July 15, 1960. Air America management surveyed the 18 remaining supplemental carriers and chose Southern Air Transport, which operated two C-46s; the ownership was kept completely separate from Air America to avoid public hearings, but the new company was to fly on equipment under conditional sale from Air America and with transferred personnel, and the Committee wrote that it "was actually an integral part of the complex from a management perspective," its management decisions made by the same CIA consultant and advisory team that set Air America policy. The Agency later acquired [[Boeing]] 727s that Boeing modified to enlarge the ventral exit for airdrops.[^1]
 
-By 1972 the Agency decided to sell. The DCI on May 5, 1972 approved selling the equity to current management; the Committee wrote that "none of the employees of SAT had ever been an employee of the Agency." An accounting firm valued the company, the asking price was set at $2.7 million for stock plus $3.2 million to pay off a note to Air America, and a former owner, who is not named in the report, made offers in December 1972 and January 1973. The DCI approved a sale at $5.605 million on January 19, 1973 ($2.145 million for stock, $3.125 million in debt and a $335,000 credit). Competing supplemental carriers lobbied [[Congress]], the [[General Accounting Office]] and the General Services Administration against the sale and one offered about $2 million more; on July 31, 1973 the DCI ordered the company dissolved, then on October 1 agreed to entertain a sale if the buyer obtained prompt financing. The sale closed on December 31, 1973 after a $4.5 million loan commitment from the [[First National Bank of Chicago]] on November 29. In early 1974 Southern Air Transport exercised its option on a [[Lockheed]] L-100-30 Hercules for $3.15 million and resold it to [[Saturn Airways]] for $4.35 million; the CIA read this as a breach of the agreement against windfall profit, an arbitrator ruled for Air America on September 5, 1974, and the Agency received an additional $1,304,243. Employees filed a class action in March 1974 alleging the sale was illegal; the federal court dismissed it with prejudice on July 17, 1974. The Agency received $6.47 million in total.[^1] *The [[The Christian Science Monitor]]* reported in 1986 that the buyer was [[Stanley Williams]], who had run the company for the CIA for 11 years, and that [[Lawrence Houston]], the CIA's general counsel at the time of the sale, said that as far as he knew there was no continuing relationship; a company spokesman, [[William Kress]], said Southern had "no contracts with the CIA, nor have we since they owned the airline prior to 1973."[^3]
+By 1972 the Agency decided to sell. The DCI on May 5, 1972 approved selling the equity to current management; the Committee wrote that "none of the employees of SAT had ever been an employee of the Agency." An accounting firm valued the company, the asking price was set at $2.7 million for stock plus $3.2 million to pay off a note to Air America, and a former owner, who is not named in the report, made offers in December 1972 and January 1973. The DCI approved a sale at $5.605 million on January 19, 1973 ($2.145 million for stock, $3.125 million in debt and a $335,000 credit). Competing supplemental carriers lobbied [[Congress]], the [[General Accounting Office]] and the General Services Administration against the sale and one offered about $2 million more; on July 31, 1973 the DCI ordered the company dissolved, then on October 1 agreed to entertain a sale if the buyer obtained prompt financing. The sale closed on December 31, 1973 after a $4.5 million loan commitment from the [[First National Bank of Chicago]] on November 29. In early 1974 Southern Air Transport exercised its option on a [[Lockheed Aircraft Company|Lockheed]] L-100-30 Hercules for $3.15 million and resold it to [[Saturn Airways]] for $4.35 million; the CIA read this as a breach of the agreement against windfall profit, an arbitrator ruled for Air America on September 5, 1974, and the Agency received an additional $1,304,243. Employees filed a class action in March 1974 alleging the sale was illegal; the federal court dismissed it with prejudice on July 17, 1974. The Agency received $6.47 million in total.[^1] *The [[The Christian Science Monitor]]* reported in 1986 that the buyer was [[Stanley Williams]], who had run the company for the CIA for 11 years, and that [[Lawrence Houston]], the CIA's general counsel at the time of the sale, said that as far as he knew there was no continuing relationship; a company spokesman, [[William Kress]], said Southern had "no contracts with the CIA, nor have we since they owned the airline prior to 1973."[^3]
 
 ### Contra resupply and the Enterprise, 1983 to 1986
 

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Standard Oil.md

@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 ---
 created: 2026-06-13
-updated: 2026-10-14
+updated: 2026-10-15
 title: Standard Oil
 aliases:
   - Standard Oil Company
@@ -59,34 +59,34 @@ relations:
     reverse: true
     start: 1942-03-25
     role: "criminal information, complaint and consent decree of March 25, 1942"
-    fn: 35
+    fn: 36
   - type: investigated
     with: "[[Federal Trade Commission]]"
     reverse: true
     start: 1949-12-02
     end: 1951-10
     role: "international petroleum cartel staff investigation; staff report filed October 1951"
-    fn: 40
+    fn: 41
   - type: prosecuted
     with: "[[Department of Justice]]"
     reverse: true
     start: 1953-04-14
     role: "civil antitrust complaint in the international petroleum cartel case, Civil No. 86-27"
-    fn: 56
+    fn: 57
   - type: owned
     with: "[[Creole Petroleum Company]]"
     role: "Venezuelan subsidiary; Nelson Rockefeller sat on its board"
-    fn: 71
+    fn: 72
   - type: partner_of
     with: "[[Arabian American Oil Company]]"
     start: 1948-12
     role: "30 percent stake in Aramco from December 1948; Socony-Vacuum held 10 percent"
-    fn: 50
+    fn: 51
   - type: participant_in
     with: "[[Iranian Consortium]]"
     start: 1954-04-01
     role: "eight percent share of the 1954 consortium"
-    fn: 63
+    fn: 64
 ---
 
 Standard Oil was the petroleum monopoly founded in 1870 by [[John D. Rockefeller]] that controlled roughly ninety percent of American oil refining before the [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]] ordered its dissolution in 1911 under the [[Sherman Antitrust Act]]. The breakup created successor companies, including Standard Oil of [[New Jersey]] (later [[Exxon]]), Standard Oil of New York ([[Mobil]]), and Standard Oil of California ([[Chevron]]), whose combined assets preserved the [[Rockefeller Foundation|Rockefeller]] family's financial power.[^1] Between 1929 and 1942 the New Jersey company's patent and licensing arrangements ran through the German chemical combine [[I.G. Farben]]; after the war it held a 30 percent interest in the [[Arabian American Oil Company]] (Aramco) and an 8 percent share of the 1954 [[Iranian Consortium]].
@@ -123,57 +123,57 @@ The company issued a release on the day of the consent decree, introduced as Exh
 
 ### Ethyl, aviation fuel and the German plants
 
-Standard and [[General Motors]] each held 50 per cent of the [[Ethyl Gasoline Corporation]], described in the 1942 criminal information as sole producer of the tetraethyl lead used in nearly all American motor fuels.[^29] Howard's February 6, 1940 letter reported that [[Ethyl G.m.b.H.]], a German company owned half by the [[British Associated Ethyl Company]] and half by I.G. Farbenindustrie, paid in full a debt of nearly $900,000 owed to the Ethyl Gasoline Corporation about one month after the war began, although it could have deferred payment for two more months.[^30]
+Standard and [[General Motors]] each held 50 per cent of the [[Ethyl Gasoline Corporation]], described in the 1942 criminal information as sole producer of the tetraethyl lead used in nearly all American motor fuels.[^29] In 1940 the Supreme Court recorded that Standard "owns one-half of the capital stock" of Ethyl and that "The remainder is owned by General Motors Corporation and E. I. du Pont de Nemours Company."[^30] Howard's February 6, 1940 letter reported that [[Ethyl G.m.b.H.]], a German company owned half by the [[British Associated Ethyl Company]] and half by I.G. Farbenindustrie, paid in full a debt of nearly $900,000 owed to the Ethyl Gasoline Corporation about one month after the war began, although it could have deferred payment for two more months.[^31]
 
-The committee's summary states that Standard, through the New Jersey company as well as its subsidiary, helped build an aviation gasoline plant for Germany at [[Hamburg]] as late as 1939. It cites a memorandum signed by E.J. Gohr dated August 1, 1939 describing I.G. representatives leaving [[New York City|New York]] on August 4 for a week in the South and [[Indiana]] and returning to New York for discussions on the detailed design of the plant, and a letter of August 11, 1939 from R.P. Russell of the Standard Oil Development Company stating that the company was "not only willing but anxious to do everything we can to assist the Kellogg and I. G. gentlemen in preparing the process design."[^31] Farish's statement of March 31, 1942 answered the charge that the German subsidiary D.A.P.G. had planned a plant at Hamburg in 1938 or 1939 with the words "This is true and as a German corporation, operating in Germany, with which country we were not then at war, it could not have done otherwise," and called the charge that Standard shipped to Italian and German air lines in [[Brazil]] contrary to the wishes of the State Department "unfounded."[^32]
+The committee's summary states that Standard, through the New Jersey company as well as its subsidiary, helped build an aviation gasoline plant for Germany at [[Hamburg]] as late as 1939. It cites a memorandum signed by E.J. Gohr dated August 1, 1939 describing I.G. representatives leaving [[New York City|New York]] on August 4 for a week in the South and [[Indiana]] and returning to New York for discussions on the detailed design of the plant, and a letter of August 11, 1939 from R.P. Russell of the Standard Oil Development Company stating that the company was "not only willing but anxious to do everything we can to assist the Kellogg and I. G. gentlemen in preparing the process design."[^32] Farish's statement of March 31, 1942 answered the charge that the German subsidiary D.A.P.G. had planned a plant at Hamburg in 1938 or 1939 with the words "This is true and as a German corporation, operating in Germany, with which country we were not then at war, it could not have done otherwise," and called the charge that Standard shipped to Italian and German air lines in [[Brazil]] contrary to the wishes of the State Department "unfounded."[^33]
 
-The summary also quotes a memorandum from Howard to Teagle and Farish on the effect of the cartel agreement on fuels for the [[Army Air Corps]]: "To meet the very proper desires of the Air Corps as expressed to us we shall have to violate our agreements and perhaps forfeit the confidence of our associates, both American and foreign." The summary concludes that Standard "met with difficulties in developing aviation gasoline for our own Army because of the cartel agreement."[^33]
+The summary also quotes a memorandum from Howard to Teagle and Farish on the effect of the cartel agreement on fuels for the [[Army Air Corps]]: "To meet the very proper desires of the Air Corps as expressed to us we shall have to violate our agreements and perhaps forfeit the confidence of our associates, both American and foreign." The summary concludes that Standard "met with difficulties in developing aviation gasoline for our own Army because of the cartel agreement."[^34]
 
-Standard's Brazilian subsidiary and the German-controlled line [[Condor Syndikat|Condor]] and the [[Lineas Aereas Transcontinentales Italianas|Lati]] line, which ran from [[Italy]] to Brazil, were the subject of testimony by [[Adolf Berle]], the assistant secretary of state. Berle said the Secretary of State requested in March 1941 that Standard Oil of New Jersey make no sales to the two lines except from New York or [[Aruba]]; that the department had reason to believe, and Standard had reported, that the lines were drawing supplies from the Brazilian subsidiary; and that after a conference on April 14, 1941 the company agreed to supply them, if at all, only through that subsidiary, which would deliver only with the approval of the American ambassador in [[Rio de Janeiro]].[^34]
+Standard's Brazilian subsidiary and the German-controlled line [[Condor Syndikat|Condor]] and the [[Lineas Aereas Transcontinentales Italianas|Lati]] line, which ran from [[Italy]] to Brazil, were the subject of testimony by [[Adolf Berle]], the assistant secretary of state. Berle said the Secretary of State requested in March 1941 that Standard Oil of New Jersey make no sales to the two lines except from New York or [[Aruba]]; that the department had reason to believe, and Standard had reported, that the lines were drawing supplies from the Brazilian subsidiary; and that after a conference on April 14, 1941 the company agreed to supply them, if at all, only through that subsidiary, which would deliver only with the approval of the American ambassador in [[Rio de Janeiro]].[^35]
 
 ### The 1942 consent decree
 
-On March 25, 1942 the [[Department of Justice]] filed a criminal information and a complaint against Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) and entered a consent decree with it. The information named as defendants the New Jersey company, the Delaware corporation of similar name, the Standard Oil Development Company, the Standard Oil Company of Louisiana, the Standard Catalytic Company, Jasco, Inc., the [[Hydro Engineering and Chemical Company]], and Teagle, Farish and Howard.[^29] Arnold told the committee on March 27 that the company pleaded nolo contendere and paid fines of $50,000. Asked by [[Harry S. Truman]], the committee's chairman, why the fines were so small, Arnold said the department judged that getting the patents loose was more important than fines large enough to involve years of litigation. The chairman remarked that the fines were "rather out of proportion with other fines," and Arnold answered, "I have to confess they are somewhat out of proportion." Arnold said he had not been present at the New York negotiations, which covered a period of weeks, and that "when the smoke all cleared away and the matter reached my office, it was simply a take-it-or-leave-it proposition, and at that point, after consultation with a number of people, I finally took it." Asked by the committee's chief counsel, [[Hugh A. Fulton]], whether the company had held back the butyl patents during the negotiations, Arnold said: "Butyl had not been made available."[^35]
+On March 25, 1942 the [[Department of Justice]] filed a criminal information and a complaint against Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) and entered a consent decree with it. The information named as defendants the New Jersey company, the Delaware corporation of similar name, the Standard Oil Development Company, the Standard Oil Company of Louisiana, the Standard Catalytic Company, Jasco, Inc., the [[Hydro Engineering and Chemical Company]], and Teagle, Farish and Howard.[^29] Arnold told the committee on March 27 that the company pleaded nolo contendere and paid fines of $50,000. Asked by [[Harry S. Truman]], the committee's chairman, why the fines were so small, Arnold said the department judged that getting the patents loose was more important than fines large enough to involve years of litigation. The chairman remarked that the fines were "rather out of proportion with other fines," and Arnold answered, "I have to confess they are somewhat out of proportion." Arnold said he had not been present at the New York negotiations, which covered a period of weeks, and that "when the smoke all cleared away and the matter reached my office, it was simply a take-it-or-leave-it proposition, and at that point, after consultation with a number of people, I finally took it." Asked by the committee's chief counsel, [[Hugh A. Fulton]], whether the company had held back the butyl patents during the negotiations, Arnold said: "Butyl had not been made available."[^36]
 
-Arnold said the decree compelled Standard to license anyone royalty-free under the crucial rubber patents and the other patents involved in the conspiracy, including the toluol patents, and required the company to transfer the know-how for them; he said he was reluctant to sign because the decree had no provision allowing the Attorney General or the court to pass on future relations between I.G. Farben and Standard. He said the company had indicated its willingness to make restitution "in the sum of millions of dollars and at the cost of its future domination of the industry."[^36] He put the cost of the royalty-free licensing to the company at possibly $10,000,000, and said the company's release gave $6,000,000.[^37] The final judgment required the defendants to dissolve the [[Hydro Patents Company]] and the Hydro Engineering and Chemical Company within one year, enjoined them from entering into patent transfer arrangements with I.G. Farben without notice to the Attorney General, and recorded the Alien Property Custodian's consent to the decree, including limits on royalties and compulsory licensing under the patents.[^38] The information had described the Hydro Patents Company as the vehicle for the hydrogenation process in the United States under the Mutual Licensing Plan of July 11, 1930.[^39]
+Arnold said the decree compelled Standard to license anyone royalty-free under the crucial rubber patents and the other patents involved in the conspiracy, including the toluol patents, and required the company to transfer the know-how for them; he said he was reluctant to sign because the decree had no provision allowing the Attorney General or the court to pass on future relations between I.G. Farben and Standard. He said the company had indicated its willingness to make restitution "in the sum of millions of dollars and at the cost of its future domination of the industry."[^37] He put the cost of the royalty-free licensing to the company at possibly $10,000,000, and said the company's release gave $6,000,000.[^38] The final judgment required the defendants to dissolve the [[Hydro Patents Company]] and the Hydro Engineering and Chemical Company within one year, enjoined them from entering into patent transfer arrangements with I.G. Farben without notice to the Attorney General, and recorded the Alien Property Custodian's consent to the decree, including limits on royalties and compulsory licensing under the patents.[^39] The information had described the Hydro Patents Company as the vehicle for the hydrogenation process in the United States under the Mutual Licensing Plan of July 11, 1930.[^40]
 
 ### The Federal Trade Commission staff report
 
-The Federal Trade Commission resolved on December 2, 1949 to investigate agreements among American petroleum companies and with their foreign partners; the Department of Justice deferred its own investigation to avoid duplicating the commission's work, and the commission's staff filed its report in October 1951.[^40] Published in 1952 as a committee print of the Senate Select Committee on Small Business, the report listed Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey) as one of seven international companies, with crude production in 1949 of 1,317.7 thousand barrels daily.[^41] It recorded that Creole Petroleum Corp. was a subsidiary of the New Jersey company and that the company owned 30 percent of the Trans-Arabian Pipe Line.[^42] It described the board of Aramco as three members each from Standard Oil Co. (N.J.), Standard Oil Co. of California and Texas Co., one from Socony-Vacuum and one with no listed affiliation, and stated that the directors of Standard of New Jersey and Socony-Vacuum who determined Aramco policy also shaped the behavior of the Iraq Petroleum Company.[^43]
+The Federal Trade Commission resolved on December 2, 1949 to investigate agreements among American petroleum companies and with their foreign partners; the Department of Justice deferred its own investigation to avoid duplicating the commission's work, and the commission's staff filed its report in October 1951.[^41] Published in 1952 as a committee print of the Senate Select Committee on Small Business, the report listed Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey) as one of seven international companies, with crude production in 1949 of 1,317.7 thousand barrels daily.[^42] It recorded that Creole Petroleum Corp. was a subsidiary of the New Jersey company and that the company owned 30 percent of the Trans-Arabian Pipe Line.[^43] It described the board of Aramco as three members each from Standard Oil Co. (N.J.), Standard Oil Co. of California and Texas Co., one from Socony-Vacuum and one with no listed affiliation, and stated that the directors of Standard of New Jersey and Socony-Vacuum who determined Aramco policy also shaped the behavior of the Iraq Petroleum Company.[^44]
 
-The Justice Department report to the National Security Council of January 1953 stated that "an indictment could have been returned on the basis of the Federal Trade Commission's staff report and a small number of documents in the possession of the Department of Justice," and that the pending investigation was being conducted "with the aid of a committee composed of representatives of State, CIA, Defense and Justice."[^44] The commission's evidence also covered the domestic side of the cartel, including production curtailment on the Gulf Coast and the profit Standard of California earned on its Middle East oil at prices charged to the [[United States Navy|Navy]].[^45]
+The Justice Department report to the National Security Council of January 1953 stated that "an indictment could have been returned on the basis of the Federal Trade Commission's staff report and a small number of documents in the possession of the Department of Justice," and that the pending investigation was being conducted "with the aid of a committee composed of representatives of State, CIA, Defense and Justice."[^45] The commission's evidence also covered the domestic side of the cartel, including production curtailment on the Gulf Coast and the profit Standard of California earned on its Middle East oil at prices charged to the [[United States Navy|Navy]].[^46]
 
 ### Aramco and the Saudi concessions
 
-Standard of California obtained a petroleum concession in Saudi Arabia in 1933, located wholly within the territory of the 1928 [[Red Line Agreement]]; the concession passed to Aramco, which was owned by Standard of California and The Texas Company.[^46] The Achnacarry Agreement, which Walter Teagle of Standard, Sir [[Henri Deterding]] of Royal Dutch Shell and the Anglo-Persian Oil Company made in September 1928, aimed to eliminate competition among the parties, prevent overproduction and divide world markets on an "as is" basis.[^47]
+Standard of California obtained a petroleum concession in Saudi Arabia in 1933, located wholly within the territory of the 1928 [[Red Line Agreement]]; the concession passed to Aramco, which was owned by Standard of California and The Texas Company.[^47] The Achnacarry Agreement, which Walter Teagle of Standard, Sir [[Henri Deterding]] of Royal Dutch Shell and the Anglo-Persian Oil Company made in September 1928, aimed to eliminate competition among the parties, prevent overproduction and divide world markets on an "as is" basis.[^48]
 
-Aramco's production rose from 21,296 barrels daily in 1944 to 58,386 in 1945, most of it for military use, and its owners sought a permanent market.[^48] Discussions between Standard of New Jersey, Socony-Vacuum and the two owners began before mid-1946; an agreement in principle was reached in December 1946, and formal agreements were signed on March 12, 1947 giving Jersey a 30 percent and Socony a 10 percent interest in Aramco and the Trans-Arabian Pipe Line, conditional on a favorable settlement of the red-line controversy by March 12, 1951.[^49] Jersey was to pay $76,500,000 and Socony $25,500,000 for their stock, and both guaranteed $102,000,000 in bank loans. The agreements became effective in December 1948, after the withdrawal in November 1948 of the suit brought by the [[Compagnie Française des Pétroles]]; the Commission's staff put the total financial cost to the two companies for their 40 percent interest at nearly one-half billion dollars, and noted that they obtained a veto over amendments to Aramco's bylaws.[^50] The 1974 print's account of operations under the Red Line agreement states that, on the excuse that Aramco's owners were "unable to finance" a pipeline to the Mediterranean, Jersey and Socony-Vacuum were admitted to partnership; that both agreed to guarantee loans totaling $273,000,000 and became parties to joint contracts for oil from Aramco for eighteen years in the ratio 3:3:3:1; and that this "provided for the transfer of effective control of Aramco to the two American companies, Jersey and Socony."[^46]
+Aramco's production rose from 21,296 barrels daily in 1944 to 58,386 in 1945, most of it for military use, and its owners sought a permanent market.[^49] Discussions between Standard of New Jersey, Socony-Vacuum and the two owners began before mid-1946; an agreement in principle was reached in December 1946, and formal agreements were signed on March 12, 1947 giving Jersey a 30 percent and Socony a 10 percent interest in Aramco and the Trans-Arabian Pipe Line, conditional on a favorable settlement of the red-line controversy by March 12, 1951.[^50] Jersey was to pay $76,500,000 and Socony $25,500,000 for their stock, and both guaranteed $102,000,000 in bank loans. The agreements became effective in December 1948, after the withdrawal in November 1948 of the suit brought by the [[Compagnie Française des Pétroles]]; the Commission's staff put the total financial cost to the two companies for their 40 percent interest at nearly one-half billion dollars, and noted that they obtained a veto over amendments to Aramco's bylaws.[^51] The 1974 print's account of operations under the Red Line agreement states that, on the excuse that Aramco's owners were "unable to finance" a pipeline to the Mediterranean, Jersey and Socony-Vacuum were admitted to partnership; that both agreed to guarantee loans totaling $273,000,000 and became parties to joint contracts for oil from Aramco for eighteen years in the ratio 3:3:3:1; and that this "provided for the transfer of effective control of Aramco to the two American companies, Jersey and Socony."[^47]
 
-In April 1945, when Standard of California and Texas still owned Aramco, Assistant Secretary of State [[William L. Clayton]] wrote to Assistant Secretary [[James C. Dunn]] on ways of helping the government of [[Saudi Arabia]] meet its budget deficit that the department "should avoid putting the Arabian American Oil Company in an embarrassing position without giving it every opportunity to stand on its own feet."[^51] In June 1945 the American minister in Saudi Arabia, [[William A. Eddy]], predicted that the king's alternative to American assistance would be "to bleed Aramco for loans to stabilize his economy," and wrote that the company's opinion was that "Aramco is the substance and the Legation the shadow."[^52] In August 1945 the State Department described a proposed arrangement under which Navy oil would carry a royalty of 15 cents a barrel, against the 23 cents specified in the existing Aramco concession.[^53]
+In April 1945, when Standard of California and Texas still owned Aramco, Assistant Secretary of State [[William L. Clayton]] wrote to Assistant Secretary [[James C. Dunn]] on ways of helping the government of [[Saudi Arabia]] meet its budget deficit that the department "should avoid putting the Arabian American Oil Company in an embarrassing position without giving it every opportunity to stand on its own feet."[^52] In June 1945 the American minister in Saudi Arabia, [[William A. Eddy]], predicted that the king's alternative to American assistance would be "to bleed Aramco for loans to stabilize his economy," and wrote that the company's opinion was that "Aramco is the substance and the Legation the shadow."[^53] In August 1945 the State Department described a proposed arrangement under which Navy oil would carry a royalty of 15 cents a barrel, against the 23 cents specified in the existing Aramco concession.[^54]
 
 ### The grand jury and the cartel case
 
-The Attorney General's report to the National Security Council of January 1953 stated that the cartel had existed since 1928 and that seven of the major oil companies controlled all major oil producing areas outside the United States, all foreign refining operations and the patents covering refining processes, divided world markets and maintained non-competitive world prices. It stated that a decision to terminate the investigation "would be regarded by the world as a confession that our abhorrence of monopoly and restrictive cartel activities does not extend to the world's most important single industry."[^40][^54] [[Frank Church]]'s preface to the 1974 print records the sequence: the Attorney General announced a grand jury investigation on July 17, 1952, subpoenas went to 21 companies in August, and the State Department had opposed the investigation from the outset (Acheson memorandum of April 16, 1952).[^55] On January 12, 1953, in the last days of the Truman administration, Truman wrote to Attorney General [[James P. McGranery]] directing a civil suit instead of the grand jury, conditioned on the voluntary production of documents; the department filed a civil complaint on April 14, 1953 in the District Court for the District of Columbia naming Standard Oil of New Jersey, Socony-Vacuum, Standard Oil of California, The Texas Company and Gulf Oil, alleging violations of the Sherman Act from 1928, and the case was transferred to the Southern District of New York at the defendants' request.[^56]
+The Attorney General's report to the National Security Council of January 1953 stated that the cartel had existed since 1928 and that seven of the major oil companies controlled all major oil producing areas outside the United States, all foreign refining operations and the patents covering refining processes, divided world markets and maintained non-competitive world prices. It stated that a decision to terminate the investigation "would be regarded by the world as a confession that our abhorrence of monopoly and restrictive cartel activities does not extend to the world's most important single industry."[^41][^55] [[Frank Church]]'s preface to the 1974 print records the sequence: the Attorney General announced a grand jury investigation on July 17, 1952, subpoenas went to 21 companies in August, and the State Department had opposed the investigation from the outset (Acheson memorandum of April 16, 1952).[^56] On January 12, 1953, in the last days of the Truman administration, Truman wrote to Attorney General [[James P. McGranery]] directing a civil suit instead of the grand jury, conditioned on the voluntary production of documents; the department filed a civil complaint on April 14, 1953 in the District Court for the District of Columbia naming Standard Oil of New Jersey, Socony-Vacuum, Standard Oil of California, The Texas Company and Gulf Oil, alleging violations of the Sherman Act from 1928, and the case was transferred to the Southern District of New York at the defendants' request.[^57]
 
 ### Iran and the 1954 consortium
 
-Church wrote that in March 1951 [[Iran]] had nationalized all local assets of the [[Anglo-Iranian Oil Company]], that Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] had considered developing an American capability to restore Iranian production even in the absence of the company, and that the Justice Department believed the cooperation of the established major American companies was not required.[^55][^56] [[Herbert Hoover Jr.]] was appointed the new administration's special representative on the Iranian problem. On August 6, 1953 National Security Council Action Memorandum No. 875b designated the Attorney General to "develop a solution which would protect the interests of the free world in the Near East as a vital source of petroleum supplies," and in October 1953 overall authority was transferred from the Attorney General to the Secretary of State.[^56][^57] Church wrote that the American majors, encouraged by the downgrading of the cartel case to a civil action, stated that they would be willing to participate in a solution because of the "large national security interests involved" (letter from [[Orvil Harden]], December 4, 1953).[^57]
+Church wrote that in March 1951 [[Iran]] had nationalized all local assets of the [[Anglo-Iranian Oil Company]], that Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] had considered developing an American capability to restore Iranian production even in the absence of the company, and that the Justice Department believed the cooperation of the established major American companies was not required.[^56][^57] [[Herbert Hoover Jr.]] was appointed the new administration's special representative on the Iranian problem. On August 6, 1953 National Security Council Action Memorandum No. 875b designated the Attorney General to "develop a solution which would protect the interests of the free world in the Near East as a vital source of petroleum supplies," and in October 1953 overall authority was transferred from the Attorney General to the Secretary of State.[^57][^58] Church wrote that the American majors, encouraged by the downgrading of the cartel case to a civil action, stated that they would be willing to participate in a solution because of the "large national security interests involved" (letter from [[Orvil Harden]], December 4, 1953).[^58]
 
-Representatives of eight companies, namely the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, Royal Dutch Shell, Compagnie Française des Pétroles, Standard Oil France, Standard of California, Texas, Gulf and Socony, met in [[London]] on December 14, 15 and 17, 1953 at the invitation of the Anglo-Iranian company, with Hoover attending as an observer at the request of the Justice Department.[^58] [[John Foster Dulles]]'s memorandum of January 8, 1954 records that after the meeting of the National Security Council that day he, Wilson, Humphrey, Attorney General [[Herbert Brownell Jr.]] and Anderson discussed legal clearance for the American companies, and that the Attorney General "felt that he could give some sort of agreement not to sue" if requested in the national interest, and that the pending lawsuit would be continued in a way that would avoid undesirable publicity, which "would require some cooperation from the attorneys for the oil companies."[^59] On January 13, 1954 the assistant attorney general [[Stanley N. Barnes]] and the antitrust attorney [[Leonard Emmerglick]] gave Brownell the division's two primary objections to the consortium agreement: the possible use of a veto by the Anglo-Iranian company, the British government and the Iranian government, and the lack of freedom to set prices and markets.[^60] The National Security Council decided on January 14 that the security interests of the United States required the American petroleum companies to participate in an international consortium.[^57]
+Representatives of eight companies, namely the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, Royal Dutch Shell, Compagnie Française des Pétroles, Standard Oil France, Standard of California, Texas, Gulf and Socony, met in [[London]] on December 14, 15 and 17, 1953 at the invitation of the Anglo-Iranian company, with Hoover attending as an observer at the request of the Justice Department.[^59] [[John Foster Dulles]]'s memorandum of January 8, 1954 records that after the meeting of the National Security Council that day he, Wilson, Humphrey, Attorney General [[Herbert Brownell Jr.]] and Anderson discussed legal clearance for the American companies, and that the Attorney General "felt that he could give some sort of agreement not to sue" if requested in the national interest, and that the pending lawsuit would be continued in a way that would avoid undesirable publicity, which "would require some cooperation from the attorneys for the oil companies."[^60] On January 13, 1954 the assistant attorney general [[Stanley N. Barnes]] and the antitrust attorney [[Leonard Emmerglick]] gave Brownell the division's two primary objections to the consortium agreement: the possible use of a veto by the Anglo-Iranian company, the British government and the Iranian government, and the lack of freedom to set prices and markets.[^61] The National Security Council decided on January 14 that the security interests of the United States required the American petroleum companies to participate in an international consortium.[^58]
 
-On January 20, 1954 Brownell advised the National Security Council that the consortium, if organized as described and with the freedom of each member to sell oil at prices it determined, did not violate the antitrust laws. The opinion was given "subject to the express reservation of all rights of the United States" to continue prosecuting the action against Standard Oil Company of New Jersey and others, pending in the Southern District of New York as Civil No. 86-27.[^61] Hoover wrote on January 21 that the "five United States companies now named in the Cartel antitrust case are the only ones from this country who meet such a criteria" for participation in an Iranian settlement.[^62]
+On January 20, 1954 Brownell advised the National Security Council that the consortium, if organized as described and with the freedom of each member to sell oil at prices it determined, did not violate the antitrust laws. The opinion was given "subject to the express reservation of all rights of the United States" to continue prosecuting the action against Standard Oil Company of New Jersey and others, pending in the Southern District of New York as Civil No. 86-27.[^62] Hoover wrote on January 21 that the "five United States companies now named in the Cartel antitrust case are the only ones from this country who meet such a criteria" for participation in an Iranian settlement.[^63]
 
-The consortium's composition as set out on April 1, 1954 gave the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company 40 per cent, Royal Dutch Shell 14 per cent, Compagnie Française des Pétroles 6 per cent, and 8 per cent each to Jersey Standard, Socony-Vacuum, California Standard, Gulf Oil and Texas, making the American share 40 per cent; its negotiating representatives for [[Tehran]] were Harden of Jersey Standard, Snow of the Anglo-Iranian company and Loudon of Royal Dutch Shell.[^63] By May 1954 the consortium insisted that it control extraction and refining as principals, while the Iranians insisted that management remain under the [[National Iranian Oil Company]], and Ambassador [[Loy Henderson]] reported that the two sides were moving toward an agency arrangement.[^64] A joint Iranian-British statement of August 5, 1954 set compensation at 25 million pounds payable over ten years, free of interest, with payments beginning no earlier than January 1, 1957.[^65] On September 21, 1954 the Finance Minister, [[Ali Amini]], introduced into the [[Majlis]] a single-article bill to ratify an agreement signed by Iran and the National Iranian Oil Company on one side and by Gulf, Socony Vacuum, Standard Oil Company of New Jersey, Standard Oil Company of California, the Texas Oil Company, the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, N.V. Bataafsche Petroleum Maatschappij and Compagnie Française des Pétroles on the other.[^66] The Iranian Senate ratified the agreement on October 28, 1954 by 41 votes to 4, with 3 abstentions.[^67]
+The consortium's composition as set out on April 1, 1954 gave the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company 40 per cent, Royal Dutch Shell 14 per cent, Compagnie Française des Pétroles 6 per cent, and 8 per cent each to Jersey Standard, Socony-Vacuum, California Standard, Gulf Oil and Texas, making the American share 40 per cent; its negotiating representatives for [[Tehran]] were Harden of Jersey Standard, Snow of the Anglo-Iranian company and Loudon of Royal Dutch Shell.[^64] By May 1954 the consortium insisted that it control extraction and refining as principals, while the Iranians insisted that management remain under the [[National Iranian Oil Company]], and Ambassador [[Loy Henderson]] reported that the two sides were moving toward an agency arrangement.[^65] A joint Iranian-British statement of August 5, 1954 set compensation at 25 million pounds payable over ten years, free of interest, with payments beginning no earlier than January 1, 1957.[^66] On September 21, 1954 the Finance Minister, [[Ali Amini]], introduced into the [[Majlis]] a single-article bill to ratify an agreement signed by Iran and the National Iranian Oil Company on one side and by Gulf, Socony Vacuum, Standard Oil Company of New Jersey, Standard Oil Company of California, the Texas Oil Company, the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, N.V. Bataafsche Petroleum Maatschappij and Compagnie Française des Pétroles on the other.[^67] The Iranian Senate ratified the agreement on October 28, 1954 by 41 votes to 4, with 3 abstentions.[^68]
 
-Church's preface describes the later course of the consortium and the cartel case. Clause 28 of the Participants Agreement, which he printed for the first time, permitted companies holding an aggregate of 31 percent or more of the equity to set crude production at any level below the desires of the rest of the members; the Antitrust Division attorney Emmerglick wrote on August 19, 1954 that the "plan goes beyond the premises upon which the Attorney General's opinion delivered to the National Security Council was based." The Attorney General, who "felt that he had already crossed this bridge on January 20," approved the plan, and on September 15, 1954 "agreed that approval of the consortium was inconsistent with the cartel case as the complaint is drawn and that necessarily the case must proceed with emphasis on the marketing aspects and not on the production control aspects."[^57][^68] The Statement of Claims prepared in 1961 concerned marketing; consent decrees were entered against Gulf, Exxon and Texaco, and the case against Mobil and Socal was dismissed without prejudice. Church wrote that the National Security Council "perverted the law" and that "nowhere is there any reference to consultation with the United States Congress."[^68]
+Church's preface describes the later course of the consortium and the cartel case. Clause 28 of the Participants Agreement, which he printed for the first time, permitted companies holding an aggregate of 31 percent or more of the equity to set crude production at any level below the desires of the rest of the members; the Antitrust Division attorney Emmerglick wrote on August 19, 1954 that the "plan goes beyond the premises upon which the Attorney General's opinion delivered to the National Security Council was based." The Attorney General, who "felt that he had already crossed this bridge on January 20," approved the plan, and on September 15, 1954 "agreed that approval of the consortium was inconsistent with the cartel case as the complaint is drawn and that necessarily the case must proceed with emphasis on the marketing aspects and not on the production control aspects."[^58][^69] The Statement of Claims prepared in 1961 concerned marketing; consent decrees were entered against Gulf, Exxon and Texaco, and the case against Mobil and Socal was dismissed without prejudice. Church wrote that the National Security Council "perverted the law" and that "nowhere is there any reference to consultation with the United States Congress."[^69]
 
 ### Guatemala, June 1954
 
-On June 16, 1954, in a telephone call recorded by Secretary of State Dulles's secretary, [[Allen Dulles]], the Director of Central Intelligence, told John Foster Dulles that he was seeing that morning "men from Standard of NJ" who would "lay before him their position with regard to the small country down south," and that besides finding out their position he would "possibly slow things up without formalized action." The call concerned the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] operation against the government of [[Jacobo Arbenz]] in [[Guatemala]]; the Secretary asked whether [[Bourke B. Hickenlooper]] might introduce a sanctions bill in the Senate.[^69]
+On June 16, 1954, in a telephone call recorded by Secretary of State Dulles's secretary, [[Allen Dulles]], the Director of Central Intelligence, told John Foster Dulles that he was seeing that morning "men from Standard of NJ" who would "lay before him their position with regard to the small country down south," and that besides finding out their position he would "possibly slow things up without formalized action." The call concerned the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] operation against the government of [[Jacobo Arbenz]] in [[Guatemala]]; the Secretary asked whether [[Bourke B. Hickenlooper]] might introduce a sanctions bill in the Senate.[^70]
 
 ### Latin America and the Rockefeller Network
 
-Standard Oil of New Jersey's extensive holdings in [[Venezuela]] and across [[Latin America]] made the region central to the family's interests, and the young [[Nelson Rockefeller]] became a director of the company's Venezuelan subsidiary, Creole Petroleum, in the 1930s. His effort to manage the political risk to those holdings led to his 1940 appointment as [[Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs]], the wartime office that fused commercial interests, intelligence collection, and propaganda across the hemisphere.[^70] Creole Petroleum Corp. was a subsidiary of Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey) in 1949.[^71] Executive Order 8840 of July 30, 1941 established the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs within the Executive Office of the President and defined its functions and duties.[^72]
+Standard Oil of New Jersey's extensive holdings in [[Venezuela]] and across [[Latin America]] made the region central to the family's interests, and the young [[Nelson Rockefeller]] became a director of the company's Venezuelan subsidiary, Creole Petroleum, in the 1930s. His effort to manage the political risk to those holdings led to his 1940 appointment as [[Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs]], the wartime office that fused commercial interests, intelligence collection, and propaganda across the hemisphere.[^71] Creole Petroleum Corp. was a subsidiary of Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey) in 1949.[^72] Executive Order 8840 of July 30, 1941 established the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs within the Executive Office of the President and defined its functions and duties.[^73]
 
 ### Footnotes
 
@@ -206,46 +206,47 @@ Standard Oil of New Jersey's extensive holdings in [[Venezuela]] and across [[La
 [^27]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4307 (Exhibit 359, release issued by Standard Oil on March 25, 1942, appendix p. 4560-4561; "The developments made under these agreements have advanced the progress of American industry and its ability to meet the war emergency"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
 [^28]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4308 (refusal to let the British have a rubber sample as late as 1941). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
 [^29]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Exhibit 441, information in the District Court of the United States for the District of New Jersey, appendix pp. 4693-4697 (defendants; Standard and General Motors each owning 50 per cent of the Ethyl Gasoline Corporation, "sole producer of tetraethyl lead," p. 4697). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
-[^30]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Howard letter of February 6, 1940 (Exhibit 371), appendix pp. 4589-4590 (Ethyl G.m.b.H. "owned 50% by the British Associated Ethyl Co. and 50% by I. G. Farbenindustrie," payment of "nearly $900,000"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
-[^31]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), committee summary, pp. 4825-4826 (memorandum signed by E.J. Gohr, August 1, 1939, Exhibit S. 69, appendix p. 4907; letter of R.P. Russell to E.V. Murphree, August 11, 1939, on the process design of the "D. A. P. G. catalytic cracking plant"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
-[^32]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Farish statement, March 31, 1942, p. 4360 (items 3 and 4 of the charges Farish listed; "This is true and as a German corporation, operating in Germany ... it could not have done otherwise"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
-[^33]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), committee summary, pp. 4827-4828 (memorandum of Frank A. Howard to Messrs. Teagle and Farish, Exhibit S. 75, appendix p. 4916; "Thus Standard met with difficulties in developing aviation gasoline for our own Army because of the cartel agreement," p. 4828). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
-[^34]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), testimony of Adolf A. Berle Jr., Assistant Secretary of State, April 3, 1942, pp. 4506-4508 (Lati and Condor; request of March 1941; conference of April 14, 1941). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
-[^35]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold, March 27, 1942, p. 4345 (information, complaint and consent decree filed "day before yesterday"; nolo contendere; fines of $50,000; exchange with the chairman); consent decree of March 25, 1942 indexed at p. 4346. https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
-[^36]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold, pp. 4346-4347 (royalty-free licensing under the rubber and toluol patents; transfer of know-how; no provision for the Attorney General or the court to pass on future relations with I.G.; "in the sum of millions of dollars and at the cost of its future domination of the industry," p. 4347). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
-[^37]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold, p. 4328 (royalty-free licensing and compulsory licensing after the war; cost to the company "possibly $10,000,000. I think their release says $6,000,000"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
-[^38]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Exhibit 440, "Final Judgment," United States v. Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) et al., District Court of the United States for the District of New Jersey, appendix pp. 4677-4687 (defendants named at p. 4677; paragraph (14), dissolution of Hydro Patents Co. and Hydro Engineering and Chemical Co. one year after entry, p. 4684; Alien Property Custodian consent and compulsory licensing, p. 4686). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
-[^39]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Exhibit 441, information, paragraphs 34 and 35 (Hydro Patents Company and the Mutual Licensing Plan of July 11, 1930), appendix p. 4702. https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
-[^40]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), pp. 29-33 (Report of the Attorney General to the National Security Council relative to the grand jury investigation of the international oil cartel, January 1953): pp. 29-30 (Federal Trade Commission resolution of December 2, 1949; subpoenas duces tecum of January 1950; staff report filed October 1951; instruction of June 23, 1952); p. 31 (cartel since 1928); p. 32 (committee of State, CIA, Defense and Justice). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
-[^41]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), p. 24, Table 9 (crude oil production of seven international companies, 1949: Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey) 1,317.7 thousand barrels daily). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
-[^42]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 27-28 (pipeline ownership: Creole Petroleum Corp., "a subsidiary of Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey)"; Trans-Arabian Pipe Line, Jersey 30 per cent, Texas 30, Standard of California 30, Socony-Vacuum 10; Interprovincial Pipe Line and Imperial Oil). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
-[^43]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 31-32 (interlocking directorates; Aramco board of three members each from Standard Oil Co. (N.J.), Standard Oil Co. of California and Texas Co., one from Socony-Vacuum and one unaffiliated; summary: four of the seven companies own all the shares of Aramco). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
-[^44]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 32 (Justice Department report of January 1953: "an indictment could have been returned on the basis of the Federal Trade Commission's staff report and a small number of documents in the possession of the Department of Justice"). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
-[^45]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), pp. 5-6 and 29 (Federal Trade Commission material on production curtailment and on Navy prices). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
-[^46]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 10 (1933 Saudi concession; Standard of New Jersey 30 per cent and Socony 10 per cent of Aramco stock; loans totaling $273,000,000; eighteen-year contracts; ratio 3:3:3:1). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
-[^47]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 7 (Achnacarry Agreement of September 1928; Walter Teagle of Standard, Sir Henri Deterding of Shell and Anglo-Persian; "as is" basis; "Standard's fear of the American antitrust laws" and the parties' decision not to sign the final agreement). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
-[^48]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 118-119 (Aramco in 1944 to 1946; Standard of California and Texas as owners; Ras Tanura refinery; production of 21,296 barrels daily in 1944 and 58,386 in 1945). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
-[^49]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 119-121 (agreement in principle in December 1946; formal agreements of March 12, 1947; condition of settlement of the red-line controversy by March 12, 1951). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
-[^50]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 122-124 (stock subscription agreements of March 12, 1947; Jersey $76,500,000 and Socony $25,500,000; guaranty of $102,000,000 in bank loans; effective December 1948 after the withdrawal of the Compagnie Francaise des Petroles suit in November 1948; limited veto; "nearly one-half billion dollars"). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
-[^51]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, Volume VIII, *The Near East and Africa*, Document 850, Clayton to Dunn, April 7, 1945. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v08/d850
-[^52]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, Volume VIII, *The Near East and Africa*, Document 892, Eddy to the Secretary of State, Jidda, June 21, 1945. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v08/d892
-[^53]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, Volume VIII, *The Near East and Africa*, Document 920, Secretary of State to the Ambassador in the United Kingdom, August 8, 1945. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v08/d920
-[^54]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 33 ("A decision at this time to terminate the pending investigation would be regarded by the world as a confession that our abhorrence of monopoly and restrictive cartel activities does not extend to the world's most important single industry"; letter of Harry S. Truman to Attorney General James P. McGranery, January 12, 1953). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
-[^55]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. V (policies of "prosecution of the International Petroleum Cartel Case" and "creation of the Iranian Consortium"; announcement of July 17, 1952; subpoenas of August 1952 against 21 companies; Acheson memorandum of April 16, 1952). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
-[^56]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VI (Truman letter of January 12, 1953; civil complaint filed April 14, 1953 in the District Court for the District of Columbia naming Standard Oil of New Jersey, Socony-Vacuum, Standard Oil Company of California, The Texas Company and Gulf Oil; transfer to the Southern District of New York at the defendants' request; Hoover appointed; National Security Council Action Memorandum No. 875b of August 6, 1953). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
-[^57]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VII (transfer of authority in October 1953; letter from Harden, December 4, 1953; National Security Council decision of January 14, 1954; opinion of January 20, 1954; clause 28 of the Participants Agreement; Emmerglick memorandum of August 19, 1954). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
-[^58]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 397, Butterworth to the Department of State, London, December 18, 1953. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d397
-[^59]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 61 (memorandum of John Foster Dulles, January 8, 1954, following the meeting of the National Security Council). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
-[^60]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 62 (memorandum to the files, Stanley N. Barnes, January 13, 1954). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
-[^61]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 411, Brownell to the National Security Council, January 20, 1954 (action pending as Civil No. 86-27, Southern District of New York). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d411
-[^62]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 413, Hoover to the Secretary of State, January 21, 1954. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d413
-[^63]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 449, Aldrich to the Department of State, London, April 1, 1954. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d449
-[^64]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 458, Henderson to the Department of State, Tehran, May 8, 1954. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d458
-[^65]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 490, Henderson to the Department of State, Tehran, August 5, 1954 (joint Iranian-British statement: compensation of 25 million pounds payable over ten years, free of interest, payments not to begin before January 1, 1957). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d490
-[^66]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 496, Henderson to the Department of State, Tehran, September 21, 1954 (single-article bill introduced by Finance Minister Amini). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d496
-[^67]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 502, Secretary of State to the Embassy in Iran, October 28, 1954, editorial note (agreement in principle signed August 5, 1954 between the Government of Iran and the International Oil Consortium; ratified by the Iranian Senate on October 28, 1954, 41 votes to 4, with 3 abstentions). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d502
-[^68]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VIII (memorandum to Barnes, September 15, 1954; Statement of Claims of 1961; consent decrees against Gulf, Exxon and Texaco; dismissal as to Mobil and Socal without prejudice; Emmerglick, September 15, 1954). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
-[^69]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Guatemala, Document 189, Memorandum of Telephone Conversation between Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and Director of Central Intelligence Allen Dulles, Washington, June 16, 1954, 11:20 a.m. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54Guat/d189
-[^70]: Colby, Gerard, and Charlotte Dennett. *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon: Nelson Rockefeller and Evangelism in the Age of Oil.* HarperCollins, 1995.
-[^71]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), p. 27 (Creole Petroleum Corp., a subsidiary of Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey)). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
-[^72]: Executive Order 8840, "Establishing the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs in the Executive Office of the President and Defining Its Functions and Duties," July 30, 1941. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-8840-establishing-the-office-the-coordinator-inter-american-affairs-the
+[^30]: Ethyl Gasoline Corp. v. United States, 309 U.S. 436 (1940), Harvard Caselaw Access Project, https://static.case.law/us/309/cases/0436-01.json.
+[^31]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Howard letter of February 6, 1940 (Exhibit 371), appendix pp. 4589-4590 (Ethyl G.m.b.H. "owned 50% by the British Associated Ethyl Co. and 50% by I. G. Farbenindustrie," payment of "nearly $900,000"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
+[^32]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), committee summary, pp. 4825-4826 (memorandum signed by E.J. Gohr, August 1, 1939, Exhibit S. 69, appendix p. 4907; letter of R.P. Russell to E.V. Murphree, August 11, 1939, on the process design of the "D. A. P. G. catalytic cracking plant"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
+[^33]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Farish statement, March 31, 1942, p. 4360 (items 3 and 4 of the charges Farish listed; "This is true and as a German corporation, operating in Germany ... it could not have done otherwise"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
+[^34]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), committee summary, pp. 4827-4828 (memorandum of Frank A. Howard to Messrs. Teagle and Farish, Exhibit S. 75, appendix p. 4916; "Thus Standard met with difficulties in developing aviation gasoline for our own Army because of the cartel agreement," p. 4828). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
+[^35]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), testimony of Adolf A. Berle Jr., Assistant Secretary of State, April 3, 1942, pp. 4506-4508 (Lati and Condor; request of March 1941; conference of April 14, 1941). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
+[^36]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold, March 27, 1942, p. 4345 (information, complaint and consent decree filed "day before yesterday"; nolo contendere; fines of $50,000; exchange with the chairman); consent decree of March 25, 1942 indexed at p. 4346. https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
+[^37]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold, pp. 4346-4347 (royalty-free licensing under the rubber and toluol patents; transfer of know-how; no provision for the Attorney General or the court to pass on future relations with I.G.; "in the sum of millions of dollars and at the cost of its future domination of the industry," p. 4347). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
+[^38]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold, p. 4328 (royalty-free licensing and compulsory licensing after the war; cost to the company "possibly $10,000,000. I think their release says $6,000,000"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
+[^39]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Exhibit 440, "Final Judgment," United States v. Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) et al., District Court of the United States for the District of New Jersey, appendix pp. 4677-4687 (defendants named at p. 4677; paragraph (14), dissolution of Hydro Patents Co. and Hydro Engineering and Chemical Co. one year after entry, p. 4684; Alien Property Custodian consent and compulsory licensing, p. 4686). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
+[^40]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Exhibit 441, information, paragraphs 34 and 35 (Hydro Patents Company and the Mutual Licensing Plan of July 11, 1930), appendix p. 4702. https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
+[^41]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), pp. 29-33 (Report of the Attorney General to the National Security Council relative to the grand jury investigation of the international oil cartel, January 1953): pp. 29-30 (Federal Trade Commission resolution of December 2, 1949; subpoenas duces tecum of January 1950; staff report filed October 1951; instruction of June 23, 1952); p. 31 (cartel since 1928); p. 32 (committee of State, CIA, Defense and Justice). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
+[^42]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), p. 24, Table 9 (crude oil production of seven international companies, 1949: Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey) 1,317.7 thousand barrels daily). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
+[^43]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 27-28 (pipeline ownership: Creole Petroleum Corp., "a subsidiary of Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey)"; Trans-Arabian Pipe Line, Jersey 30 per cent, Texas 30, Standard of California 30, Socony-Vacuum 10; Interprovincial Pipe Line and Imperial Oil). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
+[^44]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 31-32 (interlocking directorates; Aramco board of three members each from Standard Oil Co. (N.J.), Standard Oil Co. of California and Texas Co., one from Socony-Vacuum and one unaffiliated; summary: four of the seven companies own all the shares of Aramco). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
+[^45]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 32 (Justice Department report of January 1953: "an indictment could have been returned on the basis of the Federal Trade Commission's staff report and a small number of documents in the possession of the Department of Justice"). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
+[^46]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), pp. 5-6 and 29 (Federal Trade Commission material on production curtailment and on Navy prices). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
+[^47]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 10 (1933 Saudi concession; Standard of New Jersey 30 per cent and Socony 10 per cent of Aramco stock; loans totaling $273,000,000; eighteen-year contracts; ratio 3:3:3:1). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
+[^48]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 7 (Achnacarry Agreement of September 1928; Walter Teagle of Standard, Sir Henri Deterding of Shell and Anglo-Persian; "as is" basis; "Standard's fear of the American antitrust laws" and the parties' decision not to sign the final agreement). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
+[^49]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 118-119 (Aramco in 1944 to 1946; Standard of California and Texas as owners; Ras Tanura refinery; production of 21,296 barrels daily in 1944 and 58,386 in 1945). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
+[^50]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 119-121 (agreement in principle in December 1946; formal agreements of March 12, 1947; condition of settlement of the red-line controversy by March 12, 1951). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
+[^51]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 122-124 (stock subscription agreements of March 12, 1947; Jersey $76,500,000 and Socony $25,500,000; guaranty of $102,000,000 in bank loans; effective December 1948 after the withdrawal of the Compagnie Francaise des Petroles suit in November 1948; limited veto; "nearly one-half billion dollars"). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
+[^52]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, Volume VIII, *The Near East and Africa*, Document 850, Clayton to Dunn, April 7, 1945. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v08/d850
+[^53]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, Volume VIII, *The Near East and Africa*, Document 892, Eddy to the Secretary of State, Jidda, June 21, 1945. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v08/d892
+[^54]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, Volume VIII, *The Near East and Africa*, Document 920, Secretary of State to the Ambassador in the United Kingdom, August 8, 1945. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v08/d920
+[^55]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 33 ("A decision at this time to terminate the pending investigation would be regarded by the world as a confession that our abhorrence of monopoly and restrictive cartel activities does not extend to the world's most important single industry"; letter of Harry S. Truman to Attorney General James P. McGranery, January 12, 1953). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
+[^56]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. V (policies of "prosecution of the International Petroleum Cartel Case" and "creation of the Iranian Consortium"; announcement of July 17, 1952; subpoenas of August 1952 against 21 companies; Acheson memorandum of April 16, 1952). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
+[^57]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VI (Truman letter of January 12, 1953; civil complaint filed April 14, 1953 in the District Court for the District of Columbia naming Standard Oil of New Jersey, Socony-Vacuum, Standard Oil Company of California, The Texas Company and Gulf Oil; transfer to the Southern District of New York at the defendants' request; Hoover appointed; National Security Council Action Memorandum No. 875b of August 6, 1953). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
+[^58]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VII (transfer of authority in October 1953; letter from Harden, December 4, 1953; National Security Council decision of January 14, 1954; opinion of January 20, 1954; clause 28 of the Participants Agreement; Emmerglick memorandum of August 19, 1954). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
+[^59]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 397, Butterworth to the Department of State, London, December 18, 1953. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d397
+[^60]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 61 (memorandum of John Foster Dulles, January 8, 1954, following the meeting of the National Security Council). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
+[^61]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 62 (memorandum to the files, Stanley N. Barnes, January 13, 1954). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
+[^62]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 411, Brownell to the National Security Council, January 20, 1954 (action pending as Civil No. 86-27, Southern District of New York). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d411
+[^63]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 413, Hoover to the Secretary of State, January 21, 1954. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d413
+[^64]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 449, Aldrich to the Department of State, London, April 1, 1954. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d449
+[^65]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 458, Henderson to the Department of State, Tehran, May 8, 1954. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d458
+[^66]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 490, Henderson to the Department of State, Tehran, August 5, 1954 (joint Iranian-British statement: compensation of 25 million pounds payable over ten years, free of interest, payments not to begin before January 1, 1957). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d490
+[^67]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 496, Henderson to the Department of State, Tehran, September 21, 1954 (single-article bill introduced by Finance Minister Amini). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d496
+[^68]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 502, Secretary of State to the Embassy in Iran, October 28, 1954, editorial note (agreement in principle signed August 5, 1954 between the Government of Iran and the International Oil Consortium; ratified by the Iranian Senate on October 28, 1954, 41 votes to 4, with 3 abstentions). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d502
+[^69]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VIII (memorandum to Barnes, September 15, 1954; Statement of Claims of 1961; consent decrees against Gulf, Exxon and Texaco; dismissal as to Mobil and Socal without prejudice; Emmerglick, September 15, 1954). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
+[^70]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Guatemala, Document 189, Memorandum of Telephone Conversation between Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and Director of Central Intelligence Allen Dulles, Washington, June 16, 1954, 11:20 a.m. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54Guat/d189
+[^71]: Colby, Gerard, and Charlotte Dennett. *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon: Nelson Rockefeller and Evangelism in the Age of Oil.* HarperCollins, 1995.
+[^72]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), p. 27 (Creole Petroleum Corp., a subsidiary of Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey)). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
+[^73]: Executive Order 8840, "Establishing the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs in the Executive Office of the President and Defining Its Functions and Duties," July 30, 1941. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-8840-establishing-the-office-the-coordinator-inter-american-affairs-the

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/United Press International.md

@@ -0,0 +1,303 @@
+---
+aliases:
+  - United Press International
+  - UPI
+  - U.P.I.
+  - United Press
+  - United Press Associations
+  - United Press International, Inc.
+  - UP
+category: "Private Organization"
+tags:
+  - Organization
+  - NewsAgency
+  - WireService
+  - Media
+  - CIA
+  - PROMIS
+  - Bankruptcy
+  - ContraWar
+  - UnificationChurch
+summary: "Wire service founded in 1907 by E. W. Scripps, merged with Hearst's International News Service in 1958, bankrupted in 1985 and 1991, and later owned by Earl Brian, Saudi investors and the Unification Church."
+start: 1907
+location: "Washington, D.C."
+created: 2026-10-15
+updated: 2026-10-15
+relations:
+  - type: founded
+    with: "[[E. W. Scripps]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1907
+    role: "founder of the United Press"
+    fn: 1
+  - type: owned
+    with: "[[Scripps-Howard]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1907
+    end: 1982
+    role: "owner until the sale to Media News Corporation"
+    fn: 16
+  - type: owned
+    with: "[[Media News Corporation]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1982
+    end: 1986
+    role: "owner (majority stockholders Douglas Ruhe and William Geissler) until the confirmed sale to New UPI Inc."
+    fn: 15
+  - type: owned
+    with: "[[Mario Vázquez Raña]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1986-06
+    role: "majority owner through New UPI Inc."
+    fn: 28
+  - type: owned
+    with: "[[Joe Russo]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1986-06
+    role: "10 percent partner in New UPI Inc."
+    fn: 28
+  - type: head_of
+    with: "[[Luis Nogales]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1985
+    end: 1986
+    role: "chairman, chief executive officer and president"
+    fn: 18
+  - type: owned
+    with: "[[Infotechnology]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1988
+    end: 1991
+    role: "holding company with controlling interests in UPI and Financial News Network"
+    fn: 2
+  - type: head_of
+    with: "[[Earl Brian]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1988
+    end: 1991
+    role: "chairman"
+    fn: 2
+  - type: owned
+    with: "[[Middle East Broadcasting Centre]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1992
+    role: "buyer out of bankruptcy for $3.95 million in cash"
+    fn: 35
+  - type: owned
+    with: "[[News World Communications]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2000-05
+    role: "buyer; parent of The Washington Times"
+    fn: 37
+  - type: head_of
+    with: "[[Arnaud de Borchgrave]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1999-01
+    role: "president and chief executive officer"
+    fn: 36
+  - type: head_of
+    with: "[[Roderick Beaton]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1972
+    role: "president"
+    fn: 4
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Richard Helms]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1935
+    end: 1937
+    role: "United Press staff correspondent in Europe"
+    fn: 11
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Helen Thomas]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1943
+    end: 2000-05
+    role: "White House bureau chief from 1974"
+    fn: 13
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Gregory Gordon]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 1985
+    end: 1987
+    role: "investigative reporter"
+    fn: 39
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Richard Sale]]"
+    reverse: true
+    start: 2003-04
+    role: "intelligence correspondent"
+    fn: 48
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Seymour Hersh]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "reporter, Pierre, South Dakota"
+    fn: 14
+---
+
+United Press International (UPI) was created in 1958 by the merger of the United Press, founded by [[E. W. Scripps]] in 1907, with [[William Randolph Hearst]]'s [[International News Service]].[^1] The agency passed from [[Scripps-Howard]] to [[Media News Corporation]] in 1982, entered Chapter 11 in 1985 and again in 1991, and was bought in turn by [[Mario Vázquez Raña]], [[Infotechnology]], the [[Middle East Broadcasting Centre]] and [[News World Communications]]. Its copy is a principal source for reporting on [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International|BCCI]], the [[PROMIS]] software dispute, Contra arms finance and the Mafia prosecutions of the 1980s.[^1][^2]
+
+### Founding and the 1958 merger
+
+The United Press was founded in 1907 by E. W. Scripps.[^1] Hearst's International News Service was owned by William Randolph Hearst. After three years of talks, the two agencies announced on May 24, 1958, that they had combined into United Press International.[^1]
+
+In hearings before the [[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]] in 1963, Senator [[J. William Fulbright]] questioned [[Earl J. Johnson]], UPI's vice president and editor, about a UPI special service supplied to clients that included public relations firms representing foreign governments. Johnson told the committee that the service did not involve special pleading and provided only facts. The hearings also took testimony that in 1956 the International News Service had distributed dispatches financed by the Dominican Republic's dictator [[Rafael Trujillo]].[^3] On August 22, 1972, UPI president [[Roderick Beaton]] met Premier [[Chou En-lai|Zhou Enlai]] in [[Beijing]] to discuss UPI news and picture agreements with the New China News Agency.[^4]
+
+### Cover arrangements in the Church Committee and Bernstein record
+
+The final report of the [[Church Committee]] in 1976 describes CIA use of the American press in a passage that begins on page 192 of Book I. The committee wrote that the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] had used the U.S. media for both intelligence collection and cover.[^5] Book I says that CIA placements in foreign outlets were often picked up by international wire services, and it describes two proprietary news services the CIA maintained in Europe, one of which was subscribed to by more than 30 U.S. newspapers.[^5][^6]
+
+The committee also reproduces the agency's 1976 restrictions. A letter from [[William Colby]] limited operational use of full-time staff at major U.S. news magazines, newspapers, wire services and television networks, with less restriction on stringers and occasional correspondents.[^7] On February 11, 1976, the agency announced that it would not enter into any paid or contractual relationship with any full-time or part-time correspondent accredited by any U.S. news service, periodical, radio or television network, and that existing relationships in those categories would be ended as soon as feasible.[^7]
+
+[[Carl Bernstein]]'s article "The CIA and the Media," published in [[Rolling Stone]] on October 20, 1977, named UPI among the major media whose top executives lent cooperation to the agency. The same list names the [[Associated Press]], [[Reuters]], [[Hearst Newspapers]] and Scripps-Howard.[^8] Bernstein reported that CIA files recorded further cover arrangements with news-gathering organizations that included the Associated Press, UPI, Reuters and the [[Miami Herald]].[^9] The article records former Associated Press general manager [[Wes Gallagher]] denying that the wire service had employed agency staff, and it records agency officials saying that cover had been arranged through an unnamed person in the upper management of the Associated Press.[^9]
+
+Bernstein also identified the officials who initiated contacts with the heads of news organizations. They included [[Frank Wisner]], [[Cord Meyer]], [[Richard Bissell]], [[Desmond FitzGerald]], [[Tracy Barnes]], [[Thomas Karamessines]] and Helms, whom Bernstein described as "himself a former UPI correspondent."[^10]
+
+### Helms, the wire desk and Hitler
+
+[[Richard Helms]] worked as a United Press staff correspondent from 1935 to 1937, according to the finding aid for his papers at [[Georgetown University]]. The finding aid says he covered the 1936 Berlin Olympics and attended a lunch given by [[Adolf Hitler]] in 1936.[^11] Helms himself wrote in his memoir, *A Look Over My Shoulder* (2003), that in 1936 he interviewed Hitler at [[Nuremberg]] along with other correspondents.[^12] From 1937 to 1942 he wrote for the [[Indianapolis Times]]. In 1942 he entered the U.S. Navy and was transferred to the [[Office of Strategic Services]]. He then spent a career at the CIA that began in 1947.[^11]
+
+### Helen Thomas and the wire's reporters
+
+[[Helen Thomas]] joined what was then called United Press in 1943, after beginning as a copy girl at the [[Washington Daily News]], according to a 2013 obituary distributed by Reuters. UPI assigned her to the White House in 1961. In 1974 she became the agency's White House bureau chief, the first woman to head a wire service bureau there. She later wrote a column for Hearst.[^13]
+
+The agency's reporting staff also included [[Seymour Hersh]], whom UPI sent to [[Pierre, South Dakota|Pierre]], South Dakota, before he joined the Associated Press in 1963.[^14]
+
+### The 1982 sale and the 1985 bankruptcy
+
+Scripps-Howard sold UPI to Media News Corporation in 1982. Scripps received $1 from the buyers and agreed to spend a further $5 million on the service during the transition.[^1] The principal stockholders of Media News were [[Douglas Ruhe]] and [[William Geissler]].[^15] The agency reported its first profitable quarter in 20 years in the last quarter of 1984.[^16] In March 1985 Ruhe and Geissler fired [[Luis Nogales]] as UPI president.[^17]
+
+UPI's principal lender, Foothill Capital Corporation of [[Los Angeles]], cut off funding in April 1985, and the agency announced that it could not meet the payroll for its 2,000 employees. The board voted unanimously on Friday, April 26, to authorize Nogales to file under Chapter 11, and an agreement in principle with Foothill followed on Saturday.[^18] UPI filed for protection on Sunday, April 28, 1985, reporting $45 million in liabilities against an estimated $20 million in assets. On Tuesday a federal bankruptcy judge approved an interim plan that allowed the agency to keep paying its employees. UPI's attorney, Richard Levine, then put the liabilities at $35.4 million against about $12.8 million in assets, with annual revenue of about $92 million. The agency was negotiating with Reuters and with a Florida investor group headed by Pedro Ramon Lopez, chairman of General Federal Savings and Loan Association of [[Miami]].[^16]
+
+On May 20, 1985, a Delaware vice chancellor, Joseph Walsh, granted Ruhe and Geissler a preliminary injunction that removed Nogales as chairman of UPI's parent company and removed its board.[^17] A consent order entered on May 28, 1985, in the [[United States Bankruptcy Court for the District of Columbia]] abolished UPI's own board of directors and gave Nogales exclusive operating authority as chairman and chief executive officer. Media News and its principal stockholders, Ruhe and Geissler, signed the order. In an opinion dated April 22, 1986, Judge [[George Francis Bason, Jr.|George Bason]] extended the debtor's exclusive period to file a plan to June 30, 1986, granted UPI leave to file a plan and overruled Media News's objection that the consent order had unlawfully abolished the board. Charles R. Dougherty of the Boston firm Hill and Barlow appeared for the debtor and Emil Hirsch for Media News (Bankruptcy No. 85-00257).[^15]
+
+### The 1985 bidders
+
+By September 1985 UPI's bankruptcy attorney, Richard Levine, said a prospectus had been circulated to more than 100 parties. The joint investment advisers were Bear, Stearns and Ladenburg Thalmann, and September 16 was the deadline for expressions of interest.[^19][^20] Four bidders were named in the press. [[Max Hugel]], a New Hampshire businessman who had served as the CIA's chief of covert operations and was then chairman of the Republican committee Project 88, said he and investors "with great knowledge and experience in the telecommunications business" had submitted a proposal.[^21] Robert H. Cunningham, who left the CIA in 1964 after helping organize its domestic operations division, said he had bid for a group of investors he would not name, with a plan for an employee trust that would finance an international news supplement. The Houston developer [[Joe Russo]] bid for a nationwide investor group, and the [[Wire Service Guild]], representing about 750 UPI employees, filed a bid of its own.[^21][^20][^22]
+
+The fourth bidder, [[Beurt SerVaas]], chairman of the Indianapolis-based [[Curtis Publishing Company]], said he represented a previously unidentified group that had made an offer of $13.9 million to $17.9 million on July 1, which UPI allowed to expire on July 15. According to the [[Washington Post]], the group was represented by a Washington attorney named David M. Rubenstein.[^20] Records found do not establish whether he is the Washington lawyer [[David Rubenstein]] who co-founded [[The Carlyle Group]] in 1987.
+
+A UPI story by Gregory Gordon in November 1985 reported that SerVaas, president of UPI Acquisition Group, Inc., had offered $21 million in cash plus a pledge of $20 million in working capital over five years, and had not named his partners. SerVaas said he had served as a naval officer in the American intelligence command that became the Office of Strategic Services and later the CIA, that he left "nearly 40 years ago," and that he had been assisting General [[George Marshall]] in China when the agency was formed. He dismissed as lacking any evidence or proof published reports that he had invested in a South African newspaper operating as a government front, but acknowledged that he had considered it. Former employees of his revived [[Saturday Evening Post]] criticized his wage practices and his control of editorial content, and Securities and Exchange Commission records showed Curtis Publishing as defendant in suits to collect unpaid bills.[^23]
+
+### Vázquez Raña and the June 1986 confirmation
+
+By October 1985 about 25 would-be buyers had informally expressed interest, and 300 to 400 UPI workers had been laid off.[^24] In November 1985 UPI's chairman, its employees union and a committee of key creditors announced that they would ask the bankruptcy judge to approve a $41 million sale to the Mexican newspaper publisher Vázquez Raña, with Russo as a 10 percent partner. The UPI report describes Vázquez Raña as president of the Mexican Olympic Committee and owner of the El Sol group of 70 newspapers. The package provided $21 million in cash, $9.5 million to unsecured creditors owed about $22.8 million, $3.4 million to the [[Internal Revenue Service]] and state tax authorities, and about $4 million for claims of current and former employees. UPI reported reservations about foreign ownership of the agency, which Vázquez Raña answered by accepting Russo as a partner and pledging an independent board.[^25]
+
+Vázquez Raña had asked about 30 associates to meet him at the [[Madison Hotel]] in [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] in September 1985 to hear a plan to rescue the agency. Few would invest. Russo put up 10 percent of the money and Vázquez Raña the rest. After a short legal contest with another bidder, the offer was accepted.[^26] In a 1987 interview he said that the Mexican government had taken over the El Sol chain four years before he bought it, assuming its debts of nearly $80 million, and that when radio stations on the U.S. border complained of interference from Mexican transmitters he met President [[Miguel de la Madrid]] and a cabinet minister, after which the transmissions were adjusted.[^26] In March 1986 he pledged to keep UPI editorially independent if the bankruptcy court approved the purchase. UPI's president Nogales said the buyer had been chosen on personal integrity, entrepreneurial skill and available capital.[^27]
+
+On June 10, 1986, Bason confirmed the sale after the largest creditors voted 130 to 5 in favor. Vázquez Raña testified through an interpreter at the judge's request that he had placed more than $29 million in a Washington bank to complete the transaction and that he owned 62 newspapers in Mexico. The wire reported that the sale was valued at $36 million to $40 million.[^28]
+
+### Infotechnology and the Financial News Network
+
+Vázquez Raña, who held 90 percent of the company, kept UPI as a general news service. UPI lost between $1 million and $2 million a month, and in 1988 he turned operational control over to Infotechnology, a New York company that held 46 percent of the cable network [[Financial News Network]] (FNN). Company histories report that ownership remained with Vázquez Raña, who arranged lines of credit to cover losses, and that [[Earl Brian]], Infotechnology's chairman, became chairman of UPI. A 1988 Washington Post article by Elizabeth Tucker reported that Infotechnology planned to make UPI the cornerstone of a high-tech information network.[^29]
+
+In July 1993 the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] charged Brian and others with inflating FNN's revenue and earnings. Brian settled the charges without admitting guilt. UPI and FNN both filed for bankruptcy in 1991.[^2]
+
+A federal grand jury in Los Angeles returned a 24-count indictment, reported on September 6, 1995, against Brian and his chief operating officer, [[John F. Berentson]]. The indictment charged that they obtained $56 million in loans from [[Security Pacific]] and [[Toronto-Dominion Bank|Toronto-Dominion]] in 1989 by misstating FNN's books. FNN's chief financial officer, [[C. Steven Bolen]], and [[Gary Prince]] pleaded guilty and cooperated.[^2]
+
+A Los Angeles jury convicted Brian on ten counts of conspiracy, bank fraud and securities fraud in October 1996, after a trial of twelve weeks. He was sentenced to four years and nine months in federal prison and a $25,000 fine, with prison to begin on August 18. Prosecutors said the scheme involved $72 million in fraudulent lease transactions, some using equipment that did not exist and some pledged to more than one leasing company.[^30]
+
+### Bankruptcy courts and the PROMIS case
+
+The agency's bankruptcy file also intersects with the [[INSLAW]] dispute. [[Charles Docter]], INSLAW's bankruptcy counsel, told the [[House Committee on the Judiciary]] that in July 1987 [[Roger Whelan]], a former bankruptcy judge, came to his office and threatened to oppose the reappointment of Judge Bason over a delay in ruling on a fee application Whelan had filed in the UPI case. Bason ruled on the application on July 17, 1987. The special counsel [[Nicholas J. Bua]] reported that Whelan acknowledged representing a party in the UPI case and being frustrated by the delay, said his pleading was an application for compensation for his client and not for attorney's fees, and denied speaking to Docter about the case or trying to pressure Bason.[^31]
+
+Bua's report also records a 1990 approach to [[Patricof and Company]]. [[Patricia Cloherty]] told Bua that Brian had contacted the firm in 1990 with a deal proposal regarding UPI, that she never met with Brian directly, that she sent an associate to look into it, and that the firm decided not to pursue it.[^32]
+
+The report also sets out the 1986 testimony of [[Cornelius Blackshear]], who was later a bankruptcy judge in the Southern District of New York, before the House Judiciary Subcommittee on Monopolies and Commercial Law on March 20, 1986. As the report quotes it, Blackshear described an Internal Revenue Service motion to convert a case, which the U.S. trustee opposed. In a later recantation, Blackshear said he had confused the INSLAW case with the UPI case, in which the trustee had told him of IRS pressure to join a motion to convert. The Bua staff found the recantation implausible, noting that Blackshear had four times before it said the trustee had told him of pressure from the Justice Department's trustee program head to convert the INSLAW case. The staff reported that the trustee said he had never been pressured to convert the UPI case and that the IRS and the Justice Department's Tax Division told INSLAW their offices had never attempted to have it converted. The report concludes that there was not sufficient evidence to find the recantation false.[^33]
+
+### The 1992 sale to Middle East Broadcasting Centre
+
+UPI filed its second Chapter 11 petition on August 28, 1991. In June 1992 the Middle East Broadcasting Centre (MBC), a London-based Arabic television network privately owned by Saudi investors, bought UPI out of bankruptcy for $3.95 million in cash, outbidding a group of American businessmen at a bankruptcy court hearing in New York. Creditors were owed about $60 million. The other bidders included [[Leon Charney]], who had financed UPI's operations for about ten days before the sale, and [[Pat Robertson]], who withdrew from a $6 million bid for the assets and offered a smaller sum for the name. The sale was approved on June 23 and finalized on June 30.[^34] MBC's chairman, [[Walid Al-Ibrahim]], committed up to $12 million to the agency over two years and pledged that it would remain independent and free of political associations. UPI had lost money for 30 years, and the sale was its second reorganization in a decade.[^35]
+
+### News World Communications and Arnaud de Borchgrave
+
+On December 16, 1998, UPI announced that [[Arnaud de Borchgrave]] had been appointed president and chief executive officer, starting January 4 at the Washington headquarters. The announcement lists his earlier posts as editor in chief of the [[Washington Times]] from 1985 to 1991 and as chief foreign correspondent of [[Newsweek]] from 1963 to 1980, and says he began at UP as Brussels bureau chief. He kept his posts as a senior adviser at the [[Center for Strategic and International Studies]], where he directed the Global Organized Crime Project, and as editor at large of the Washington Times.[^36]
+
+On May 15, 2000, UPI was sold to News World Communications, the parent company of the Washington Times, which was founded by [[Sun-Myung Moon|Sun Myung Moon]], leader of the [[Unification Church]].[^37] The financial terms were not disclosed.[^38] Thomas resigned the next day. The Associated Press reported that she gave no reason for leaving and that she had no plans to join the new UPI. De Borchgrave, then chief executive, said she had outrun the best of them because she was the best of them.[^37]
+
+### Searle and NutraSweet
+
+In October 1987 UPI distributed a three-part series by the investigative reporter Gregory Gordon, who had spent eight months examining industry research on the sweetener NutraSweet and the Food and Drug Administration's handling of its approval. The series reported that more than ten federal officials involved in the review had taken private sector jobs linked to the industry. The NutraSweet Company's president, [[Robert Shapiro]], said that the series would leave a misleading impression, and a company spokesman said the firm was contemplating litigation. Senator [[Howard Metzenbaum]] quoted the series at a hearing of the Senate Committee on Labor and Human Resources on November 3, 1987.[^39] Parts 2 and 3 of the series cover the tenure of [[Donald Rumsfeld]] as chief executive of [[G. D. Searle and Company]] from 1977 to 1985.
+
+### Contra arms finance, Bayshore and GeoMiliTech
+
+A UPI story of June 10, 1987, reported a Miami Herald account of the chief executive of the [[Bayshore Bank of Florida]], [[Louis Petrillo]], who resigned as the bank was being sold. The Herald tied the sale to records showing that the bank had sent $2 million in 1986 on behalf of [[GeoMiliTech Consultants Corp.]] of Washington.[^40] GeoMiliTech was run by [[Barbara Studley]], a former Miami radio talk-show host, and it listed retired Maj. Gen. [[John Singlaub]] as an adviser. The company acknowledged that it had helped arrange rebel arms supplies. Petrillo denied knowing of any arms deals and said he had left because the bank was changing hands. Studley declined to discuss details. The story reported that federal authorities, including the [[Iran-Contra Affair|Iran-Contra]] special prosecutor [[Lawrence Walsh]], had begun investigating the transactions as Petrillo left the bank.[^40]
+
+### Counter Terrorism Consultants and the FBI alumni
+
+On August 2, 1988, UPI reported from Washington that [[Carter Cornick]], a former [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] special agent, and [[Eugene Propper]], a former assistant United States attorney, had formed [[Counter Terrorism Consultants, Inc.]], a private security consultancy seeded with about $500,000 from investors the founders declined to name. Its clients were to include foreign "democratic" governments, airline and shipping companies, sponsors of large international gatherings such as the Olympic Games, and multinational corporations.[^41] Cornick, who spent 16 of his 21 years with the bureau as a terrorist specialist, was its president and had directed the investigations into the bombing of the U.S. Embassy and the Marine barracks in [[Beirut]], the hijacking of [[TWA Flight 847]] and the Achille Lauro seizure. Propper, an attorney with the Washington firm [[Lane and Edson]], was a full partner with no title and had been the government's chief prosecutor in the [[Letelier assassination]] case, with [[E. Lawrence Barcella, Jr.]] as his deputy. Barcella, by then with the firm Laxalt, Washington, Perito and Dubuc, and [[Robert Scherrer]] joined as consultants. The services offered included hostage negotiation and handling of the news media during a crisis.[^41]
+
+### Pell's psychic research aide
+
+On July 17, 1988, UPI carried a report from [[Providence, Rhode Island|Providence]] on the [[Providence Sunday Journal]]'s account of [[Claiborne Pell]]'s interest in psychic phenomena. Pell's special assistant [[C.B. Scott Jones]], a former naval intelligence officer, researched telepathy, unconventional healing and near-death experiences. The story says Jones kept a top secret security clearance and earned nearly $50,000 a year on the public payroll. In 1987 Pell invited the self-proclaimed psychic [[Uri Geller]] to Washington, where he performed before 30 congressional and Pentagon aides. [[Ray Hyman]], a University of Oregon psychologist who had evaluated the military applications of psychic research for the Army, said Pell had been arguing very forcefully for a Manhattan Project-style effort to catch up with the Russians. Pell called Hyman's assessment "vastly exaggerated."[^42]
+
+### Straight, Blunt and the 1981 interview
+
+On March 26, 1981, UPI carried a Washington story by [[Daniel Gilmore]] in which [[Michael Whitney Straight]] said that [[Anthony Blunt]] had approached him at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]] in February 1937. Straight said Blunt tried to recruit him as a Soviet agent, and "I flatly refused."[^43]
+
+### Radford and the Joint Chiefs
+
+On February 20, 1974, a UPI report from Washington described the testimony of Navy yeoman [[Charles Radford]] before the [[Senate Armed Services Committee]]. Radford said that he had taken secret White House documents on the [[Vietnam]] peace talks and other matters at the request of two [[Department of Defense|Pentagon]] admirals, beginning in 1970. He named [[Rembrandt Robinson]], a Pentagon liaison clerk who had been killed in a helicopter crash in Vietnam, as the first supervisor who taught him to take information the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]] wanted. He said that [[Robert Welander]] continued passing information to the office of Adm. [[Thomas Moorer]]. Moorer and [[Henry Kissinger]] had dismissed Radford's conduct as the independent work of an overzealous enlisted man. Radford also said he had funneled papers belonging to [[Alexander Haig]] back to the Pentagon.[^44]
+
+### Sadat trial and the Los Angeles mafia
+
+On March 6, 1982, a three-man Supreme Military Court in [[Cairo]] sentenced five men to death for the assassination of [[Anwar Sadat]]. UPI described Lieutenant [[Khaled Islambouli]], 24, as the accused mastermind. It reported that two defendants were acquitted, including Sheikh [[Omar Abdel Rahman]], a blind preacher whom the prosecutor had described as the group's spiritual leader, and it reported the prosecution's claim that the killing was the first stage of an attempt to overthrow the government and install an Iranian-style Islamic revolution.[^45]
+
+On April 5, 1988, UPI reported from Los Angeles that the racketeering trial of [[Luigi Gelfuso Jr.]], [[John DeMattia]] and [[John Vaccaro]] had opened in federal court. The story said that eleven other men, including [[Peter Milano]], reputed boss of the [[Los Angeles Crime Family]], had already pleaded guilty, and that the remaining three were named in some or all of an 18-count indictment returned the previous May. It records that Police Chief [[Daryl Gates]] had dubbed the group the "Mickey Mouse Mafia."[^46]
+
+### BCCI sentencing in Abu Dhabi
+
+On June 14, 1994, UPI reported from [[Abu Dhabi]] that the Abu Dhabi Court of First Instance, presided over by Judge [[Shehab Abdul-Rehman]], had sentenced twelve former BCCI executives to a combined 56 years in prison. The longest terms, six years each, went to [[Zafar Iqbal]] Chaudhry, [[Hasan Mahmood Kazmi]] and [[Abdul Hafeez Mohammed Ahmed]]. [[Swaleh Naqvi]], who had been handed over to U.S. officials on May 7, received sentences in his absence. The court also ordered the executives to pay the former Abu Dhabi majority shareholders civil damages of more than $9.13 billion plus costs.[^47]
+
+### Richard Sale and the Iraqi file
+
+On April 10, 2003, UPI published a story by [[Richard Sale]], identified as its intelligence correspondent, that placed [[Saddam Hussein]] in a "CIA-authorized six-man squad" tasked with assassinating [[Iraq]]'s prime minister, [[Abd al-Karim Qasim]], in 1959. The story says that, according to a former senior State Department official, Saddam was installed in an apartment opposite Qasim's office, and it attributes to the writer [[Adel Darwish]] the account that the CIA handler was an Iraqi dentist. The story quotes [[Con Coughlin]] and reports that [[Miles Copeland]] told UPI in the mid-1980s that the CIA had close ties with Qasim's [[Baath Party]]. The former [[National Security Council]] staffer [[Roger Morris]] is also quoted on the Baath Party's role.[^48]
+
+[^1]: "United Press International, Inc. History," *International Directory of Company Histories*, reproduced at FundingUniverse, http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/united-press-international-inc-history/ (June 21, 1907 founding by E. W. Scripps; the three years of talks and the May 24, 1958 announcement of the merger; the $1 sale price and $5 million transition commitment in 1982). A Christian Science Monitor note of April 29, 1985, "Playing the underdog: UPI's history is a scrappy one," https://www.csmonitor.com/1985/0429/a1pi-f.html, dates the founding January 21, 1907.
+[^2]: United Press International, "Former UPI execs charged with fraud," September 6, 1995, https://www.upi.com/Archives/1995/09/06/Former-UPI-execs-charged-with-fraud/3824810360000/ (Brian as former chairman of UPI and FNN; Infotechnology's controlling interests in both companies; the 1993 SEC settlement; the 24-count indictment and the $56 million in 1989 loans from Security Pacific and Toronto-Dominion; Bolen and Prince; UPI's 1991 bankruptcy filing).
+[^3]: Richard L. Lyons, Washington Post report on the hearings of the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations (Fulbright questioning Earl J. Johnson of UPI on its special service for public relations firms; testimony on International News Service dispatches financed by the Dominican Republic's Trujillo government in 1956), clipping in the CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP75-00149R000200930062-3, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00149r000200930062-3; U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, *Activities of Nondiplomatic Representatives of Foreign Principals in the United States*, 88th Cong., 1st sess. (1963).
+[^4]: United Press International, "Chou En-lai Meets UPI President," Peking, August 22, 1972, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP88-01314R000300240014-2, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01314r000300240014-2.
+[^5]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Final Report*, Book I, *Foreign and Military Intelligence* (April 26, 1976), p. 193 (CIA use of the U.S. media for collection and cover; placements picked up by international wire services), https://archive.org/download/ChurchCommittee_FullReport/_Book-I_Foreign-and-Military-Intelligence_djvu.txt.
+[^6]: Church Committee, Book I, pp. 199-200 (the two proprietary European news services, one subscribed to by over 30 U.S. newspapers), same URL.
+[^7]: Church Committee, Book I, p. 198 (the letter from William Colby on operational use of staff at major U.S. news magazines, newspapers, wire services or television networks; the CIA public statement of February 11, 1976), same URL.
+[^8]: Carl Bernstein, "The CIA and the Media," *Rolling Stone*, October 20, 1977, text as reproduced at https://archive.org/stream/nsia-BernsteinRollingStoneArticlesCIA/nsia-BernsteinRollingStoneArticlesCIA/Bernstein%20CIA%2001_djvu.txt (passage on the major media whose top executives cooperated with the CIA, and the list of other cooperating organizations).
+[^9]: Bernstein, "The CIA and the Media," same text (section on other major news organizations and cover arrangements, and the passage on the Associated Press and Wes Gallagher's denial).
+[^10]: Bernstein, "The CIA and the Media," same text (passage on the deputy directors and division chiefs who initiated contacts with heads of news-gathering organizations, including Richard Helms, "himself a former UPI correspondent").
+[^11]: Georgetown University Library, Booth Family Center for Special Collections, "Richard M. Helms Papers," biographical note, https://findingaids.library.georgetown.edu/repositories/15/resources/10290 (United Press staff correspondent 1935 to 1937; coverage of the 1936 Olympics; a lunch given by Adolph Hitler in 1936; Indianapolis Times 1937 to 1942; Navy and OSS in 1942; CIA career from 1947).
+[^12]: Richard Helms with William Hood, *A Look Over My Shoulder: A Life in the Central Intelligence Agency* (New York: Random House, 2003) (Helms's account of interviewing Hitler at Nuremberg in 1936 with other correspondents).
+[^13]: Reuters, "Long-time White House reporter Helen Thomas dies at 92," July 20, 2013, https://www.bangordailynews.com/2013/07/20/news/long-time-white-house-reporter-helen-thomas-dies-at-92/ (copy girl at the Washington Daily News; joined United Press in 1943; White House assignment in 1961; bureau chief in 1974 as the first woman to head a wire service bureau there; later Hearst column).
+[^14]: EBSCO Research Starters, "Seymour M. Hersh," https://ebsco.com/research-starters/biography/seymour-m-hersh (Hersh's assignment to UPI in Pierre, South Dakota, and his 1963 hire by the Associated Press).
+[^15]: *In re United Press International, Inc.*, 60 B.R. 265 (Bankr. D.D.C. Apr. 22, 1986) (Bason, J.) (Bankruptcy No. 85-00257; the consent order of May 28, 1985; Ruhe and Geissler as majority shareholders of Media News Corporation; the extension of exclusivity to June 30, 1986; counsel for the debtor and for Media News), https://static.case.law/br/60/cases/0265-01.json.
+[^16]: Barbara Bradley, "Court gives UPI breathing room to seek buyer and reorganize its news operation," *Christian Science Monitor*, May 2, 1985, https://www.csmonitor.com/1985/0502/awir.html (the 1982 sale to Media News Corporation; the Chapter 11 filing on Sunday; the interim plan approved on Tuesday; liabilities and assets at filing and as restated by Richard Levine; annual revenue; the 1984 profitable quarter; negotiations with Reuters and the Lopez group).
+[^17]: Robert Engler, United Press International, Wilmington, Del., May 20, 1985, https://www.upi.com/Archives/1985/05/20/In-a-ruling-that-soon-may-be-moot-a/3317485409600/ (Vice Chancellor Joseph Walsh's preliminary injunction for owners Douglas Ruhe and William Geissler; their firing of Nogales as UPI president in March 1985; removal of Nogales and the Media News board).
+[^18]: Warren Richey, "UPI gets reprieve as it struggles to stay in business," *Christian Science Monitor*, April 29, 1985, https://www.csmonitor.com/1985/0429/api.html (Foothill Capital; the payroll shortfall; the board's unanimous vote on Friday authorizing Nogales to file; the weekend agreement in principle).
+[^19]: Gregory Gordon, United Press International, September 15, 1985, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP91-00587R000100330001-6, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp91-00587r000100330001-6 (prospectus circulated to more than 100 parties; SerVaas's July offer; Russo; the employees' 25 percent wage cut of 1984).
+[^20]: Nell Henderson, "UPI Receives at Least 4 Bids for Company," *Washington Post*, September 17, 1985, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP91-00587R000100600014-2, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp91-00587r000100600014-2 (SerVaas, Russo, Hugel and the Guild; Bear, Stearns and Ladenburg Thalmann as advisers; the July 1 offer and its expiry; the attorney David M. Rubenstein).
+[^21]: Theo Stamos, "Former CIA officials among UPI bidders," *Washington Times*, September 17, 1985, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP91-00587R000100600011-5, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp91-00587r000100600011-5 (Hugel and Cunningham; Russo; the Wire Service Guild).
+[^22]: "UPI union unit offers to buy troubled news service," Associated Press in the *Baltimore Sun*, September 17, 1985, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP91-00587R000100600012-4, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp91-00587r000100600012-4 (the Guild's offer; William Morrissey as union president; Nogales's statement).
+[^23]: Gregory Gordon, "UPI bidder faces questions about intelligence service, South African ties," United Press International, November 1985, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP90-00806R000201120001-4, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000201120001-4 (UPI Acquisition Group; the $21 million offer and the $20 million working-capital pledge; SerVaas's account of his wartime service and the South African newspaper reports).
+[^24]: Christian Science Monitor, "Financial offers give UPI new lease on life after near bankruptcy," October 1, 1985, https://csmonitor.com/1985/1001/aupi.html (about 25 interested buyers; 300 to 400 workers laid off).
+[^25]: United Press International, "Mexican may purchase UPI," November 12, 1985, as printed in the *University Daily Kansan*, November 13, 1985, p. 11, https://digital.lib.ku.edu/islandora/object/ku-udk%3A26507/datastream/OCR/download (the $41 million proposal and its components; Vázquez Raña as president of the Mexican Olympic Committee; the El Sol group; Russo's 10 percent; the foreign-ownership reservations).
+[^26]: Michael Zamba, "What saved a chain of papers in Mexico is being tried at UPI," *Christian Science Monitor*, February 13, 1987, https://csmonitor.com/1987/0213/fupi.html (the Madison Hotel meeting in September 1985; Russo's 10 percent; the $41 million offer in early November 1985; the Mexican government's takeover and sale of El Sol; the meeting with President de la Madrid).
+[^27]: United Press International, "Vazquez-Rana pledges to maintain UPI independence," March 6, 1986, https://www.upi.com/Archives/1986/03/06/Vazquez-Rana-pledges-to-maintain-UPI-independence/9729510469200/ (the pledge conditioned on bankruptcy court approval; Luis Nogales on the choice of buyer).
+[^28]: Greg Gordon, "Bankruptcy Judge Approves Sale of UPI," United Press International, Washington, June 10, 1986, text reproduced at http://www.downhold.org/lowry/bank.html (Bason's confirmation; the 130 to 5 creditor vote; Vázquez Raña's testimony and the $29 million deposit; Russo as 10 percent partner).
+[^29]: "United Press International, Inc. History," FundingUniverse, same URL as note 1 (Vázquez Raña's 90 percent ownership; the 1988 transfer of operational control to Infotechnology, which held 46 percent of FNN; lines of credit; Brian as chairman; Elizabeth Tucker's 1988 Washington Post article quoted on the high-tech information network).
+[^30]: United Press International, "Ex-UPI chief gets prison term," May 20, 1997, https://www.upi.com/Archives/1997/05/20/Ex-UPI-chief-gets-prison-term/7027864100800/ (conviction on 10 counts after a 12-week jury trial in October of the previous year; four years and nine months; $25,000 fine; prison beginning August 18; the fraudulent lease transactions).
+[^31]: Bua Report, pp. 169-170 (Charles Docter's House Judiciary testimony as summarized in the report; Whelan's application in the UPI case before Judge Bason; the ruling of July 17, 1987; Whelan's account and denials), same URL.
+[^32]: U.S. Department of Justice, *Report of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua to the Attorney General Regarding the Allegations of Inslaw, Inc.* (March 1993), p. 96 (Patricia Cloherty's account of Brian's 1990 approach to Patricof and Company regarding UPI), https://archive.org/download/InslawPROMISBuaReport/Inslaw%3APROMIS%20Bua%20Report_djvu.txt.
+[^33]: Bua Report, pp. 194-201 and 216-220 (Blackshear's first deposition, his recantation, the staff's conclusion that the recantation was implausible, the statements of the trustee, the IRS and the Tax Division, the report's statement that there was insufficient evidence to conclude the recantation false, and the March 20, 1986 subcommittee testimony as quoted in the report), same URL.
+[^34]: United Press International, "Middle East Broadcasting finalizes purchase of UPI," June 30, 1992, https://www.upi.com/Archives/1992/06/30/Middle-East-Broadcasting-finalizes-purchase-of-UPI/7013709876800/ (approval on June 23 in federal bankruptcy court in New York; the three bidders; creditors owed about $60 million; Chapter 11 since August 28, 1991; MBC's London base and Saudi investors).
+[^35]: Associated Press, "New owners say UPI will stay politically free," *Deseret News*, June 29, 1992, https://www.deseret.com/1992/6/29/18991932/new-owners-say-upi-will-stay-politically-free/ (Middle East Broadcasting Centre purchase for $3.95 million in cash, outbidding American businessmen at a bankruptcy court hearing in New York the previous week; up to $12 million over two years; about $60 million owed to creditors; losses for 30 years; second reorganization in a decade; Walid Al-Ibrahim's pledge of independence).
+[^36]: United Press International, "De Borchgrave named CEO of UPI," December 16, 1998, https://www.upi.com/Archives/1998/12/16/De-Borchgrave-named-CEO-of-UPI/2072913784400/ (appointment as president and chief executive officer; start date of January 4; prior posts at The Washington Times and Newsweek; his start at UP as Brussels bureau chief; the Global Organized Crime Project at CSIS; editor at large of The Washington Times).
+[^37]: Associated Press, "Venerable correspondent leaves UPI," *Deseret News*, May 17, 2000, https://www.deseret.com/2000/5/17/19507080/venerable-correspondent-leaves-upi (the sale to News World Communications on the day before the Tuesday resignation; News World as parent of The Washington Times and founded by Sun Myung Moon; Thomas's statements; de Borchgrave's statement).
+[^38]: Agence Europe, Europe Daily Bulletin No. 7720, May 19, 2000, https://agenceurope.eu/en/bulletin/article/7720/53 (News World Communications' entry into the capital of UPI; financial conditions not disclosed).
+[^39]: Gregory Gordon, UPI series on NutraSweet, October 1987, reprinted in *NutraSweet: Health and Safety Concerns*, hearing before the Senate Committee on Labor and Human Resources, November 3, 1987, S. Hrg. 100-567 (the editor's note on the eight-month investigation; Part 1; The NutraSweet Company's response; Senator Metzenbaum's quotation of the series), https://archive.org/details/micro_IA41152617_0380.
+[^40]: United Press International, "Newspaper says banker involved in loans for Contra arms," June 10, 1987, https://www.upi.com/Archives/1987/06/10/Newspaper-says-banker-involved-in-loans-for-Contra-arms/9700550296000/ (the Miami Herald account; Petrillo's resignation; the $2 million transfer on behalf of GeoMiliTech; Studley; Singlaub listed as an adviser; the company's acknowledgment; Walsh's investigation; Petrillo's denials).
+[^41]: Jeff Stein, United Press International, Washington, August 2, 1988, "A group of top former FBI agents and federal prosecutors," https://www.upi.com/Archives/1988/08/02/A-group-of-top-former-FBI-agents-and-federal/9684730900658/ (formation of Counter Terrorism Consultants; founders; investors; stated clients; Cornick's and Propper's careers; Barcella and Scherrer as consultants; services offered).
+[^42]: United Press International, "Pell keen on psychic research," Providence, July 17, 1988, https://www.upi.com/Archives/1988/07/17/Pell-keen-on-psychic-research/3613585115200/ (report on the Providence Sunday Journal story; Jones's clearance and salary; Geller's 1987 Washington appearance; Hyman's assessment and Pell's response).
+[^43]: Daniel F. Gilmore, United Press International, Washington, March 26, 1981, "Michael W. Straight, former deputy chairman of the National...," https://www.upi.com/Archives/1981/03/26/Michael-W-Straight-former-deputy-chairman-of-the-National/9678354430800/ (Straight's account of the February 1937 approach at Cambridge and his refusal).
+[^44]: "Pentagon spied on White House?," United Press International, Washington, February 20, 1974, published in the *Oregon Daily Emerald*, February 21, 1974, p. 8, https://oregonnews.uoregon.edu/lccn/2004260239/1974-02-21/ed-1/seq-8/ (Radford's testimony before the Senate Armed Services Committee; Rembrandt Robinson; Welander and Moorer; the responses of Moorer and Kissinger; the papers from Haig).
+[^45]: W. G. Kirolos, "Five given death for Sadat assassination," United Press International, Cairo, March 6, 1982, https://www.upi.com/Archives/1982/03/06/Five-given-death-for-Sadat-assassination/6203384238800/ (the three-man Supreme Military Court; Islambouli as accused mastermind; the acquittals including Omar Abdel Rahman; the prosecution's stated aim).
+[^46]: Catherine Gewertz, "Trial begins for reputed members of 'Mickey Mouse' Mafia," United Press International, Los Angeles, April 5, 1988, https://www.upi.com/Archives/1988/04/05/Trial-begins-for-reputed-members-of-Mickey-Mouse-Mafia/4166576216000/ (the opening of the trial in federal court; eleven guilty pleas including Milano's; the 18-count indictment returned the previous May; Gates's nickname).
+[^47]: Thomas Hussain, "UAE jails and fines BCCI executives," United Press International, Abu Dhabi, June 14, 1994, https://www.upi.com/Archives/1994/06/14/UAE-jails-and-fines-BCCI-executives/7650771566400/ (the court and its judge; the sentences; Naqvi's handover to U.S. officials on May 7; damages of more than $9.13 billion plus costs).
+[^48]: Richard Sale, "Exclusive: Saddam key in early CIA plot," United Press International, April 10, 2003, https://www.upi.com/Exclusive-Saddam-key-in-early-CIA-plot/65571050017416/ (the six-man squad and the 1959 date; the apartment opposite Qasim's office; Darwish's account of the CIA handler; Coughlin; Copeland; Morris).

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/University of Oxford.md

@@ -0,0 +1,204 @@
+---
+created: 2026-10-15
+updated: 2026-10-15
+title: University of Oxford
+aliases:
+  - Oxford University
+  - Oxford University, England
+tags:
+  - Organization
+  - AcademicInstitution
+  - RhodesScholarship
+  - FutureOfHumanityInstitute
+  - EffectiveAltruism
+  - Longtermism
+  - Parapsychology
+  - ProjectULTRA
+  - CIA
+  - MaxwellFamily
+  - Zizians
+category: "Private Organization"
+summary: "The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university whose Future of Humanity Institute, parapsychology laboratory, Rhodes Scholarships and Balliol College appear in the record of effective altruism, CIA psi research and the Maxwell family."
+location: "Oxford, England"
+relations:
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Nick Bostrom]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "director of the Future of Humanity Institute, 2005 to 2024"
+    start: 2005
+    end: 2024
+    fn: 30
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Toby Ord]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "senior research fellow, Future of Humanity Institute"
+    fn: 39
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Stephen I. Abrams]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "director of the Parapsychological Laboratory, Oxford University, per the 1977 Kress article"
+    fn: 3
+  - type: funded
+    with: "[[Open Philanthropy]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "recommended gift of 20,000 pounds (26,086 dollars) for D.Phil support of Andrew Snyder-Beattie"
+    fn: 36
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Alister Hardy]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "Linacre Professor of Zoology from 1945; founder-director of the Religious Experience Unit, Manchester College"
+    start: 1945
+    fn: 25
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[James D. Theberge]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "instructor of economics, 1969 to 1970"
+    start: 1969
+    end: 1970
+    fn: 14
+  - type: funded
+    with: "[[Cecil Rhodes]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "bequest for the Rhodes Scholarships at Oxford, in the will published after his death in 1902"
+    start: 1902
+    fn: 4
+---
+
+The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university in [[Oxford, England]], a federation of colleges and departments governed as one institution. There is no clear date of foundation, but teaching existed at Oxford in some form in 1096, and the university describes itself as the oldest in the English-speaking world.[^1] Its [[Future of Humanity Institute]] was closed on 16 April 2024 after nearly two decades as the academic base of [[Nick Bostrom]]'s work on existential risk.[^2] [[Stephen I. Abrams]], director of the university's parapsychology laboratory, prepared a 1965 review of ESP research for the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] under [[Project ULTRA]] after technical project officers contacted him.[^3] The university also appears in the record through [[Rhodes Scholarship|Rhodes Scholarships]], the Oxford education of [[Ghislaine Maxwell]], a group of doctoral students and staff tied to [[Effective Altruism|effective altruism]], and a 2025 murder case in California.
+
+### Rhodes Scholarships and the Round Table group
+
+The will of [[Cecil Rhodes]], published after his death in 1902, set aside part of his estate for scholarships at Oxford under a section headed "The Scholarships at Oxford." The preamble to that section states that "the education of young Colonists at one of the Universities in the United Kingdom is of great advantage to them for giving breadth to their views," and links the scheme to "the retention of the unity of the Empire."[^4] Notes printed with the will quote Rhodes speaking to [[Iwan-Müller]] about the scholarships: "a very poor man can never get the full value of an Oxford training."[^4] The will also gave £100,000 to [[Oriel College, Oxford]], Rhodes's old college.[^4] By a codicil executed in South Africa, Rhodes created fifteen scholarships at Oxford for students of German birth, five in each of the first three years after his death, worth 250 pounds a year for three years and to be nominated by the German Emperor, on the stated ground that a good understanding between England, Germany and the United States of America would secure the peace of the world.[^4] The will directed that elections regard the candidate's literary and scholastic attainments, his fondness for and success in manly outdoor sports, his qualities of manhood, truth, courage, devotion to duty and sympathy for the protection of the weak, and his exhibition during school days of moral force of character and of instincts to lead.[^4] The [[Rhodes Trust]] supports exceptional students worldwide with Oxford scholarships.[^5]
+
+The historian [[Carroll Quigley]] wrote in [[Tragedy and Hope]] (1966) that Rhodes left part of his fortune to found the Rhodes Scholarships at Oxford in order to spread what Quigley called the English ruling class tradition throughout the English-speaking world, as [[John Ruskin]] had wanted.[^6] Quigley placed the origin of the scheme in a circle of Ruskin's disciples at Oxford, among them [[Alfred Milner]], Arnold Toynbee, George Parkin and Philip Lyttelton Gell. On February 5, 1891, according to Quigley, Rhodes and the journalist [[William T. Stead]] organized a secret society with Milner and [[Reginald Brett]] on its executive committee, and an outer circle known as the Association of Helpers, which Milner later organized as the [[Round Table (Milner group)]].[^6] Quigley wrote that Milner was the chief Rhodes Trustee and that Parkin became Organizing Secretary of the Rhodes Trust after 1902.[^6]
+
+Quigley wrote that Milner, as governor-general and high commissioner of South Africa from 1897 to 1905, recruited young men chiefly from Oxford and from Toynbee Hall, known in South Africa as Milner's Kindergarten until 1910. He wrote that in 1909 to 1913 they organized semi-secret Round Table Groups in the chief British dependencies and the United States, and that the group's quarterly, [[The Round Table]], was founded in 1910 and largely supported by [[Abe Bailey]]'s money.[^6] In 1919, according to Quigley, the group founded the [[Royal Institute of International Affairs]], whose chief financial supporters were Bailey and the Astor family, owners of The Times.[^6]
+
+Rhodes Scholars include [[Dean Rusk]], who took an A.B. in political science at [[Davidson College]] in 1931 and then entered St. John's College, Oxford, on a Rhodes Scholarship; he was [[United States Secretary of State]] from January 21, 1961 to January 20, 1969.[^7] [[Lincoln Gordon]] received a doctorate from Oxford as a Rhodes Scholar in 1936, joined the [[Harvard University|Harvard]] faculty and served as ambassador to Brazil.[^8] [[Stansfield Turner]] entered Oxford as a Rhodes Scholar, studied at Exeter College, took a master's degree in philosophy, politics and economics, and was appointed Director of Central Intelligence by [[Jimmy Carter]] in 1977.[^9] [[Bill Clinton]], a Rhodes Scholar from 1968, studied at Oxford for two years.[^10] On June 8, 1994, at the Sheldonian Theatre, he received a Doctorate in Civil Law by diploma and an honorary fellowship from his college, and told the assembly that "once again at Oxford I was another Yank a half step behind."[^11] [[Cory Booker]] attended The Queen's College as a Rhodes Scholar, received a graduate degree in 1994 and went on to [[Yale Law School]].[^12] [[Jim Himes]] took a Rhodes Scholarship to Oxford, where he continued his studies of Latin America with research in [[El Salvador]], and began his career at [[Goldman Sachs]].[^13] [[James D. Theberge]], later ambassador to [[Nicaragua]], took an M.A. at Oxford in 1960 and was an instructor of economics there from 1969 to 1970.[^14]
+
+### Ghislaine Maxwell and the Maxwell companies
+
+[[Robert Maxwell]] first appears in Oxford as a tenant. The city had bought Headington Hill Hall in 1953, and in 1959 he tendered to rent the whole site from [[Oxford City Council]] for 2,400 pounds a year, using it first for [[Pergamon Press]] business and later as the family home, with Pergamon moving into the old stables.[^15] A 1973 advertisement in the Oxford Times recruiting staff for Headington Hill Hall read "Too good to be true? Not if you join one of the Maxwell group of companies."[^16] In early 1982 he rescued [[Oxford United]], then at Headington, from bankruptcy (The Times of January 8, 1982 had reported the club "a mere two weeks away from bankruptcy"), owned the club for ten years, was its chairman until May 1987 and passed it to his son [[Kevin Maxwell]].[^16] When Oxford Polytechnic was to become a university he offered 1 million pounds if it would be named Oxford Maxwell University; it declined and became Oxford Brookes University in 1992, which later took the lease of his former home.[^16] [[Balliol College]] received a reported 60,000 pounds from him in the 1960s, his name (Ian Robert Maxwell) appears among the benefactors in the college's Bidding Prayer, and the college has a Robert Maxwell Fellowship in Politics; his sons Philip and Kevin studied at Balliol and his wife [[Elisabeth Maxwell]] took an Oxford doctorate.[^17]
+
+Ghislaine Maxwell was educated at [[Marlborough College]] and at Balliol College, Oxford.[^18] The 1983 Balliol College Record places her at the college in the early 1980s, a few years after Balliol began admitting women in 1979, and she graduated in 1985 in history and modern languages.[^17] The journalist [[Michael Crick]], who tutored her before admission, said "her father was extremely keen for her to go to Oxford because several of her siblings had already gone to Oxford." The photographer Dafydd Jones said that "I knew of male students who everyone said that they got in because their fathers donated," and that he could not say whether that was how she was admitted.[^17] Her public-facing roles in her father's business empire included work connected to Oxford United and to the newspaper [[The European]].[^18]
+
+Investigators from the [[Department of Trade and Industry]] who examined Maxwell's management of Pergamon in 1971 reported that he was not in their opinion a person who could be relied on to exercise proper stewardship of a publicly quoted company; he regained Pergamon in 1974 with borrowed money, sat as Labour member of Parliament from 1964 to 1970, and rented Headington Hill Hall from the city council, which he called the best council house in the country.[^19] At his death in 1991 the empire carried about 2 billion pounds of debt and around 460 million pounds had been taken from employee pension funds.[^19]
+
+The university's Global Capitalism Project issued a case study in February 2023 on Robert Maxwell, titled "Robert Maxwell's Expectations Gap: Regulation and Reputation in the British Communications Industry, 1981-91." The case study states that Goldman Sachs sold 25 million shares in [[Mirror Group Newspapers]] on Maxwell's instruction, shares that were clearly marked as owned by the pension fund, and that the pension scheme lost £55 million. It says the bank "committed stock fraud on Maxwell's instruction" and quotes the Department of Trade and Industry as saying later that Goldman Sachs "bear a substantial responsibility in respect of the manipulation that occurred in the market."[^19]
+
+### Parapsychology in the Oxford laboratory
+
+The university's connection to the CIA's psi research runs most directly through Abrams, director of the university's parapsychology laboratory in the Department of Biometry. In a 1977 article in [[Studies in Intelligence]], [[Kenneth A. Kress]] wrote that one of the earliest US Government parapsychology investigations was prompted when the chief of the [[Office of Technical Service]], then the Technical Services Division, became interested in claims of ESP. Technical project officers contacted Abrams, who under the auspices of Project ULTRA prepared a review article which, in Kress's words, claimed ESP was demonstrated but not understood or controllable. Kress wrote that the report was read with interest but produced no further action for another decade.[^3]
+
+Kress cited the review as Abrams's "Extrasensory Perception," a draft report dated December 14, 1965.[^20] Kress opened his account with the 1952 Pentagon lecture given by [[Andrija Puharich]], citing Puharich's paper "On the Possible Usefulness of Extrasensory Perception in Psychological Warfare."[^3]
+
+A typescript article titled "The World of the Supra-Sensory," held in the CIA Reading Room and catalogued under February 10, 1966, describes a grant-supported program at Oxford. Its author describes himself as a behavior scientist and says he does not intend to take a side on the existence of ESP.[^21] The article states that Oxford, through grants, supported the research of "a proverbial Yank at Oxford," that Abrams worked in the Biometry Department from 1960 to 1963, and that his interests were ESP and hypnosis. It says he worked with Mr. Shackleton, described as a well known English sensitive, on the transmission of drawings from an artist to a subject in another room, and that the data could not be analyzed by any valid or reliable method. It records that Abrams established good contact with Professor Vasiliev and visited Moscow and Leningrad to lecture. The same article names the Oxford biologist [[Alister Hardy]] and the Oxford philosopher [[H. H. Price]] among the prominent names in other fields who took part in ESP studies.[^21]
+
+Abrams's own papers, held by the [[Wellcome Collection]] as the Stephen Abrams (1938-2012) archive, give a fuller chronology. He began corresponding with [[Carl Jung]] in 1957 on synchronicity, and the correspondence continued until Jung's death in 1961. He moved to England in 1960 to work on an ESP doctoral thesis at Oxford and headed the university's parapsychology laboratory in the Department of Biometry. In 1961 he visited [[Duke University]] for LSD experiments with [[J. B. Rhine]], and in 1962 he visited the Soviet Union. Oxford closed the Parapsychology Laboratory in 1964, and he was never awarded a doctorate.[^22] A typed letter signed by Jung to Abrams, dated October 21, 1957, was later sold at auction by Christie's.[^23] Jung's letters to him of June 28, 1957, October 21, 1957 and March 5, 1959 are listed in [[Parapsychology Abstracts International]], reproduced in a CIA Reading Room file, under the name Stephen J. Abrams.[^24]
+
+Hardy appears in a compilation of parapsychology research submitted by Captain [[Edgar Mitchell]], USN, as "Sir Alister Hardy, F.R.S., Biologist and Founder-Director of the Religious Experience Unit at Manchester College, Oxford," who "earned his several degrees at Oxford University." The compilation states that he returned to Oxford in 1945 as Linacre Professor of Zoology, that he had long been interested in parapsychological phenomena and that he was a past president of the [[Society for Psychical Research]].[^25] The Society's list of presidents shows Hardy for 1965 to 1969, Price (Henry Habberley Price, philosopher) for 1939 to 1941 and 1960 to 1961, [[E. R. Dodds]] (Regius Professor of Greek at Oxford) for 1960 to 1963, the philosopher F. C. S. Schiller for 1914, [[Gilbert Murray]] for 1915 to 1916 and 1952, and the psychologist [[William McDougall]] for 1920 to 1921.[^26]
+
+A CIA report on government-sponsored research in psychoenergetics, dated February 1989, gives a different chronology. It states that the CIA's work began in 1961, when the Office of Technical Service, then the Technical Services Division, became interested in ESP claims. It says that under the auspices of Project ULTRA, Abrams, then described as director of the parapsychological laboratory at Oxford University, reviewed the research and prepared an article, after which the field lay dormant at the CIA for ten years.[^27]
+
+In a thesis submitted to the [[Defense Intelligence College]] in November 1992, Captain [[Michael E. Zarbo]] of the US Army states that the Office of Technical Service commissioned the director of the parapsychological laboratory at Oxford University to review the validity of ESP. The thesis is titled "Remote Viewing: Parapsychological Potential for Intelligence Collection?"[^28]
+
+The [[Parapsychological Association]], formed in 1957, elected a founding council of seven. Its councilmen included [[W. G. Roll]] of Oxford University, [[Karlis Osis]] and [[Margaret Anderson]]. [[Gertrude Schmeidler]] was its vice-president.[^29]
+
+### Effective altruism, the Future of Humanity Institute and the Global Priorities Institute
+
+The Future of Humanity Institute was founded in 2005 by Bostrom, and it sat within the university's Faculty of Philosophy and the [[Oxford Martin School]]. Bostrom held an Oxford professorship from 2008 to 2024, and he later founded the [[Macrostrategy Research Initiative]].[^30] The institute's website states that it closed on 16 April 2024, and that research in the fields where it was active may continue elsewhere within the university and in many external organizations that have sprung up.[^2] The [[Oxford Student]] reported that the [[Faculty of Philosophy]] shut the institute down on April 16. Bostrom, in an emailed statement to [[The Guardian]] quoted in that report, said there had been "a death by bureaucracy." [[Anders Sandberg]], a former senior research fellow, said the institute had been "affected by a gradual suffocation by Faculty bureaucracy."[^31] The institute's own account of the closure stated that the Faculty of Philosophy imposed a freeze on fundraising and hiring in 2020 and decided not to renew staff contracts in late 2023. The institute received 1 million pounds from Musk in 2015 for research on the threat of artificial intelligence, and its largest team, the Governance of AI Program, became an independent organization in 2021. An Oxford spokesperson said the decision to close the institute followed consideration of the best structures for the university's academic research, and that researchers elsewhere in the university were likely to continue its work.[^31] A retrospective in [[Asterisk]] covers the institute's 2005 founding, its nineteen-year run, the 2020 fundraising and hiring freeze, the late-2023 contract decision and the April 16, 2024 closure statement.[^32]
+
+[[Elon Musk]] funded AI-safety work at the institute, and [[Jaan Tallinn]] gave to it as one of its donors.
+
+The [[Centre for Effective Altruism]] appears in the same record. The charity's trustees' report for the year to June 30, 2021 says it is affiliated with both the Future of Humanity Institute and the [[Global Priorities Institute]] of the university, and states that it shares office space with them. The same report records that both institutes' funds held by the charity were in deficit after their move to [[Trajan House]].[^33] The Companies House register lists [[Effective Ventures|Effective Ventures Foundation (UK)]] under company number 07962181.[^34] The [[Charity Commission for England and Wales]] published an inquiry into Effective Ventures Foundation UK on May 22, 2024.[^35]
+
+Open Philanthropy recommended a gift of 20,000 pounds, 26,086 dollars at the conversion used, to the university "to support the research of the Mathematical Ecology Research Group and the research costs of Andrew Snyder-Beattie," who had recently served as the institute's Director of Research.[^36] Other archived Open Philanthropy grant records list £323,646 (429,769 dollars at the conversion used) to the university for research on the global politics of advanced artificial intelligence, $41,800 to the university for animal welfare research, £5,217 (6,683 dollars at the conversion used) to the [[Uehiro Centre for Practical Ethics]] for a workshop on animal sentience, £14,500 (about 18,309 dollars) to the [[Oxford AI Safety Initiative]] for access fees on a shared office space in Oxford, and $35,000 to the [[Berkeley Existential Risk Initiative]] to support research at the [[Oxford Martin AI Governance Initiative]].[^37]
+
+Effective Ventures acquired [[Wytham Abbey]], a manor house near Oxford, in 2022, and [[Civil Society]] published a story on April 3, 2024 under the headline "Crypto-backed charity plans closure and £17m Oxford property sale."[^38]
+
+The [[Giving What We Can]] pledge society was launched at Oxford in November 2009 by [[Toby Ord]], with [[William MacAskill]]. Ord was a senior research fellow at the institute, and wrote [[The Precipice]] in 2020.[^39] MacAskill is an associate professor at the university and one of the originators of effective altruism. [[Derek Parfit]] was a fellow of All Souls College, and his work on future generations is cited as foundational by Bostrom, Ord and MacAskill.
+
+Other figures with Oxford records include [[Julian Savulescu]], who held the Uehiro Chair in Practical Ethics and founded the Uehiro Centre for Practical Ethics, and who trained under [[Peter Singer]] and Parfit.[^40] Singer took a BPhil at Oxford in 1971 under [[R. M. Hare]].[^41] [[Amanda Askell]] took a BPhil in philosophy at Oxford in 2011 before her doctorate at [[New York University]].[^42] [[Carla Cremer]] appears among the alumni of the [[Human Information Processing Lab]], which lists her among its PhD students and research assistants.[^43] [[Max More]] read philosophy, politics and economics at [[St Anne's College, Oxford|St Anne's College]], Oxford, graduating in 1987.[^44] [[Jason Matheny]] worked for the university before joining the intelligence community. [[Helen Toner]] was a research affiliate of the [[Center for the Governance of AI]] at the university.
+
+### Maximilian Snyder and the Zizian case
+
+[[Maximilian Snyder]] studied philosophy and computer science at the university from 2020 to 2024.[^45] Prosecutors in [[Solano County, California]] charged him with the January 17, 2025 murder of [[Curtis Lind]], an 82-year-old landlord in [[Vallejo]]. They alleged the killing was carried out to stop Lind testifying against other members of the [[The Zizians|Zizian]] group.[^46] Open Vallejo reported on June 20, 2025 that a federal grand jury indicted the group's namesake with Vallejo ties.[^47]
+
+### Intelligence and Cold War figures
+
+[[Frederick A. Lindemann]], later Lord Cherwell, was an Oxford scientist who became [[Winston Churchill]]'s chief science adviser in the years before the Second World War. According to [[Seymour Hersh]]'s account in [[The Samson Option]], Lindemann came to know [[Ernst David Bergmann]] and [[Chaim Weizmann]] during this period.[^48]
+
+Lincoln Gordon, the Rhodes Scholar, was United States ambassador to Brazil in 1964. A top secret telegram from Gordon to the State Department, dated March 28, 1964, is printed in the [[Foreign Relations of the United States]] series.[^49] The same day [[McGeorge Bundy]] sent a telegram to [[Lyndon B. Johnson]], who was then in Texas.[^50] The [[National Security Archive]]'s Electronic Briefing Book No. 118 reproduces a top secret cable from Gordon dated March 29, 1964.[^51] A State Department telegram to the embassy in Brazil, drafted and approved by Dean Rusk, is dated March 30, 1964.[^52] In [[Thy Will Be Done]], [[Gerard Colby]] and [[Charlotte Dennett]] record Gordon's sworn denial that the American Embassy or he personally played any part in the 1964 military coup in Brazil.[^53]
+
+[[Richard Aldrich]] wrote in a 1997 article that a 1962 Oxford thesis by [[F. X. Rebattet]] confirmed that most funds of the [[American Committee on United Europe]] originated with the CIA.[^54] [[David Barnby]], in a self-published account, cites the same thesis, titled "The European Movement 1945-1953," as held in the [[Bodleian Library]], and gives the committee's membership as 380 in 1950.[^55] The committee's officers include [[Allen Dulles]], its vice-chairman, and [[Max Ascoli]] is listed among its media figures.
+
+[[Michael Gibson]], the author of the [[1517 Fund]] blog, wrote in a July 22, 2018 post that he had dropped out of the university, where he was working toward a doctorate in philosophy, before MIT's Technology Review hired him as a writer. In the same post he describes interviewing with the Central Intelligence Agency in the fall of 2006 after applying for a political analyst role.[^56]
+
+### Other alumni and dons
+
+[[Margaret Thatcher]] studied chemistry at Oxford before qualifying as a barrister, according to the Encyclopaedia Britannica.[^57] [[Benazir Bhutto]] was educated at Harvard and at Oxford, according to the BBC's report of her death in 2007.[^58] [[Jed Rakoff]] took an M.Phil. at Balliol College, Oxford, in 1966 before a J.D. from Harvard Law School in 1969.[^59] [[Ian Smart]] was described in a 1982 volume's contributor note as educated at Oxford and Leeds universities.[^60] [[Walt Rostow]]'s memorial record lists professorships at Oxford, [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] and [[Columbia University]].[^61] [[Frank Meyer]] joined the British Communist Party in 1931 as a student at Oxford, and became a senior editor of [[National Review]] in 1957.[^62] [[Jim Schnabel]] is linked to [[Lincoln College, Oxford]] in the context of a 1991 recording, a connection the college said in early 1992 no longer existed.
+
+### Footnotes
+
+[^1]: University of Oxford, history page, Internet Archive capture dated January 9, 2025, https://web.archive.org/web/20250109093226/https://www.ox.ac.uk/about/organisation/history. The page calls Oxford the oldest university in the English-speaking world and says there is no clear date of foundation but that teaching existed at Oxford in some form in 1096.
+[^2]: University of Oxford, Future of Humanity Institute, home page as captured by the Internet Archive on December 31, 2024, https://web.archive.org/web/20241231200603/https://www.fhi.ox.ac.uk/. The capture states that the institute closed on 16 April 2024 and that research in its fields may continue to be pursued elsewhere within the University and in many external organizations that have sprung up.
+[^3]: Kenneth A. Kress, "Parapsychology in Intelligence: A Personal Review and Conclusions," Studies in Intelligence 21, no. 4 (Winter 1977), CIA-RDP96-00791R000200030040-0, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp96-00791r000200030040-0.
+[^4]: Cecil John Rhodes, The Last Will and Testament of Cecil John Rhodes, with elucidatory notes (1902), section 4, "Bequests to Oriel College, Oxford," section 5, "The Scholarships at Oxford," and the notes on the scholarships, https://archive.org/details/lastwilltestamen00rhoduoft.
+[^5]: Rhodes Trust, home page, https://www.rhodeshouse.ox.ac.uk/, viewed October 15, 2026.
+[^6]: Carroll Quigley, Tragedy and Hope: A History of the World in Our Time (New York: Macmillan, 1966), chapter 9, sections "Cecil Rhodes Organized a Secret Society in 1891," "Financial Backing of the Secret Society," "The Royal Institute and Council on Foreign Relations Are Set Up."
+[^7]: "David Dean Rusk," People, Department History, Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State, https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/rusk-david-dean. The entry gives the A.B. from Davidson College in 1931, entry to St. John's College, Oxford, on a Rhodes Scholarship, and service as Secretary from January 21, 1961 to January 20, 1969.
+[^8]: Lincoln Gordon, "a long and productive life," Brookings Institution, December 28, 2009, https://www.brookings.edu/blog/up-front/2009/12/28/lincoln-gordon-a-long-and-productive-life/, on the doctorate from Oxford as a Rhodes Scholar and five years as ambassador to Brazil.
+[^9]: "Turner Named to Naval Academy Board of Visitors," White House press release, September 13, 1996, https://clintonwhitehouse6.archives.gov/1996/09/1996-09-13-turner-named-to-naval-academy-board-of-visitors.html; the U.S. Naval Academy list of Rhodes Scholars gives 1947, https://www.usna.edu/Notables/rhodes-scholars.php.
+[^10]: "William J. Clinton," The White House (Clinton administration), https://clintonwhitehouse3.archives.gov/WH/glimpse/presidents/html/bc42.html.
+[^11]: "Remarks by the President at Oxford University," Sheldonian Theatre, Oxford, June 8, 1994, Clinton White House archive, https://clintonwhitehouse6.archives.gov/1994/06/1994-06-09-remarks-by-president-at-oxford-university.html.
+[^12]: "BOOKER, Cory Anthony," Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress, as presented by History, Art & Archives, U.S. House of Representatives, https://history.house.gov/People/Detail/15032398446.
+[^13]: "About Jim," Congressman Jim Himes, https://himes.house.gov/about/about-jim/.
+[^14]: "Nomination of James D. Theberge To Be Ambassador to Nicaragua," White House press release, May 30, 1975, Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library, https://fordlibrarymuseum.gov/sites/default/files/pdf_documents/library/document/0248/whpr19750530-004.pdf. The release gives an M.A. from Oxford University in 1960 and service as an Instructor of Economics, Oxford University, from 1969 to 1970.
+[^15]: Friends of Headington Hill Park, "History of the park and the hall," https://friendsofheadingtonhillpark.org.uk/history/ (sale of the hall to Oxford City Council in 1953; lease to the Maxwell family; lease to Oxford Brookes University since 1992); "Robert Maxwell," Headington.org.uk local history, https://headington.org.uk/history/famous_people/maxwell.htm (1959 tender at 2,400 pounds a year).
+[^16]: "Robert Maxwell," Headington.org.uk local history, https://headington.org.uk/history/famous_people/maxwell.htm, citing The Times, January 8, 1982, and the Oxford Times advertisement of 1973.
+[^17]: Christine Savino, "Tracing former Oxford socialite Ghislaine Maxwell's path to convict," The Oxford Student, March 8, 2026, Internet Archive capture, https://web.archive.org/web/2026/https://www.oxfordstudent.com/2026/03/08/tracing-former-oxford-socialite-ghislaine-maxwells-path-to-convict/. The article cites the 1983 Balliol College Record and quotes Crick and Jones.
+[^18]: "Ghislaine Maxwell: The British socialite who became Epstein's confidante," BBC, December 2021, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-53100417.
+[^19]: Global Capitalism Project, University of Oxford, Case Study #29, "Robert Maxwell's Expectations Gap: Regulation and Reputation in the British Communications Industry, 1981-91," February 2023. The case study quotes the report of the Department of Trade and Industry inspectors on Mirror Group Newspapers. https://globalcapitalism.history.ox.ac.uk/sites/g/files/vzsiac2111/files/globalcapitalism/documents/media/case_29_-_robert_maxwells_expectations_gap.pdf.
+[^20]: Stephen I. Abrams, "Extrasensory Perception," draft report, December 14, 1965, as cited in note 2 of Kress, "Parapsychology in Intelligence," Studies in Intelligence 21, no. 4 (1977).
+[^21]: "The World of the Supra-Sensory," typescript article, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP96-00787R000400040032-1, catalogued by the Internet Archive as February 10, 1966, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp96-00787r000400040032-1. The Oxford passages appear on pages 18 and 19 of the article.
+[^22]: Wellcome Collection, "Parapsychology papers," Stephen Abrams (1938-2012) archive, https://wellcomecollection.org/works/a6txyub5; "Originals," PP/SAB/A/6/5, comprising photocopied letters from Jung to Abrams, https://wellcomecollection.org/works/g6ky37bv.
+[^23]: Christie's, "Carl Jung (1875-1961), Typed letter signed ('C.G. Jung') to Stephen Abrams, [Kusnacht], 21 October 1957," sale 22135, lot 295, https://onlineonly.christies.com.cn/s/alphabet-genius-important-autograph-letters-manuscripts/carl-jung-1875-1961-295/205078. The lot provenance gives the name as Stephen I Abrams (1938-2012).
+[^24]: Parapsychology Abstracts International, abstract 01663, C. G. Jung, "Letters on parapsychology," Part I, Zeitschrift für Parapsychologie und Grenzgebiete der Psychologie, 1973, reproduced in CIA-RDP96-00792R000700650006-4, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp96-00792r000700650006-4.
+[^25]: Compilation of parapsychology research submitted by Captain Edgar D. Mitchell, USN, CIA reading-room document CIA-RDP96-00787R000100190001-2, pp. vii-viii (Alister Hardy), https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp96-00787r000100190001-2.
+[^26]: Society for Psychical Research, list of past presidents, https://www.spr.ac.uk/about/past-presidents.
+[^27]: "Government Sponsored Research in Psychoenergetics," CIA report, dated February 1989, CIA-RDP96-00789R002200440001-9, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp96-00789r002200440001-9.
+[^28]: Michael E. Zarbo, Captain, US Army, "Remote Viewing: Parapsychological Potential for Intelligence Collection?" thesis submitted to the Faculty of the Defense Intelligence College, November 1992, CIA-RDP96-00789R002600250001-6, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp96-00789r002600250001-6.
+[^29]: "Announcement of Formation of the Parapsychological Association," Journal of Parapsychology 21, no. 4 (December 1957), pp. 315-316, https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-parapsychology_1957-12_21_4.
+[^30]: Nick Bostrom, Curriculum Vitae, St Cross College, on the 2008 to 2024 Oxford professorship and the founding of the Macrostrategy Research Initiative, https://nickbostrom.com/cv.pdf.
+[^31]: "Oxford shuts down Elon Musk-funded Future of Humanity Institute," The Oxford Student, April 20, 2024, Internet Archive capture dated April 28, 2024, https://web.archive.org/web/20240428172104/https://www.oxfordstudent.com/2024/04/20/oxford-shuts-down-elon-musk-funded-future-of-humanity-institute/. The article reports the Faculty of Philosophy closure date and quotes the Bostrom and Sandberg statements.
+[^32]: "Looking Back at the Future of Humanity Institute," Asterisk, https://asteriskmag.com/issues/08/looking-back-at-the-future-of-humanity-institute.
+[^33]: Centre for Effective Altruism, Trustees' Report and Financial Statements for the year ended 30 June 2021, filed at Companies House 5 April 2022, Trustees' Report, structure and affiliation sections.
+[^34]: Companies House, company record for Effective Ventures Foundation (UK), company number 07962181, https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/07962181, viewed October 15, 2026.
+[^35]: Charity Commission for England and Wales, "Charity Inquiry: Effective Ventures Foundation UK," published 22 May 2024, https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/charity-inquiry-effective-ventures-foundation-uk/charity-inquiry-effective-ventures-foundation-uk.
+[^36]: Open Philanthropy, "Oxford University: D.Phil Support for Andrew Snyder-Beattie," grant record, archived August 14, 2022, https://web.archive.org/web/20220814010142/https://www.openphilanthropy.org/grants/oxford-university-d-phil-support-for-andrew-snyder-beattie/.
+[^37]: Open Philanthropy grant records, archived on the Internet Archive: global politics of advanced artificial intelligence, Oxford University (archived July 1, 2022), https://web.archive.org/web/20220701170331/https://www.openphilanthropy.org/grants/oxford-university-research-on-the-global-politics-of-ai/; animal welfare research, Oxford University (archived August 17, 2022), https://web.archive.org/web/20220817074720/https://www.openphilanthropy.org/grants/oxford-university-animal-welfare-research/; animal sentience workshop, Oxford Uehiro Centre for Practical Ethics (archived August 18, 2022), https://web.archive.org/web/20220818203930/https://www.openphilanthropy.org/grants/oxford-uehiro-centre-for-practical-ethics-animal-sentience-workshop/; office access, Oxford AI Safety Initiative (archived April 16, 2025), https://web.archive.org/web/20250416003334/https://www.openphilanthropy.org/grants/oxford-ai-safety-initiative-office-access/; Oxford Martin AI Governance Initiative, Berkeley Existential Risk Initiative (archived January 15, 2025), https://web.archive.org/web/20250115165710/https://www.openphilanthropy.org/grants/berkeley-existential-risk-initiative-oxford-martin-ai-governance-initiative/.
+[^38]: "Crypto-backed charity plans closure and £17m Oxford property sale," Civil Society, April 3, 2024, https://www.civilsociety.co.uk/news/crypto-backed-charity-plans-closure-and-17m-oxford-property-sale.html.
+[^39]: "Toby Ord," Giving What We Can profile, on the Oxford position and the Future of Humanity Institute fellowship, https://www.givingwhatwecan.org/people/toby-ord.
+[^40]: "Training Transhumanists at Oxford University," Europe in the World, University of Notre Dame, https://eitw.nd.edu/articles/training-transhumanists-at-oxford-university/.
+[^41]: "Peter Singer," Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy and Princeton University Center for Human Values, https://uchv.princeton.edu/people/peter-singer, on the 1971 Oxford BPhil.
+[^42]: "The Philosopher Trying to Give AI a Conscience," The Wall Street Journal, https://www.wsj.com/tech/ai/anthropic-amanda-askell-philosopher-ai-3c031883.
+[^43]: Human Information Processing Lab, Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, people page, "Alumni (PhD Students / RAs)," https://humaninformationprocessing.com/people.
+[^44]: Max More, "About," maxmore.com, on the 1987 Oxford PPE degree from St Anne's College, https://www.maxmore.com/about/.
+[^45]: "22-year-old University of Oxford grad charged with murder of elderly landlord," The Tab, March 7, 2025, https://thetab.com/2025/03/07/22-year-old-university-of-oxford-grad-charged-with-murder-of-elderly-landlord.
+[^46]: "A timeline of activities of a cultlike group tied to the killing of a Border Patrol agent," Associated Press via PBS NewsHour, 2025, https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/a-timeline-of-cultlike-zizian-group-tied-to-killing-of-a-border-patrol-agent-in-vermont.
+[^47]: "Federal grand jury indicts Zizian namesake with Vallejo ties," Open Vallejo, June 20, 2025, https://openvallejo.org/2025/06/20/federal-grand-jury-indicts-zizian-namesake-with-vallejo-ties/.
+[^48]: Seymour M. Hersh, The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy (New York: Random House, 1991), chapter 2.
+[^49]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-68, vol. XXXI, Document 187, Telegram from the Ambassador to Brazil (Gordon) to the Department of State, Rio de Janeiro, March 28, 1964, top secret, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v31/d187.
+[^50]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-68, vol. XXXI, Document 189, Telegram from the President's Special Assistant for National Security Affairs (Bundy) to President Johnson in Texas, March 28, 1964, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v31/d189.
+[^51]: National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 118, Document 3, Top Secret Cable, Ambassador Lincoln Gordon to Department of State, March 29, 1964.
+[^52]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-68, vol. XXXI, Document 194, Telegram from the Department of State to the Embassy in Brazil, Washington, March 30, 1964, 9:52 p.m., drafted and approved by Secretary Rusk, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v31/d194.
+[^53]: Gerard Colby and Charlotte Dennett, Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon (New York: HarperCollins, 1995), chapter 29.
+[^54]: Richard J. Aldrich, "OSS, CIA and European Unity: The American Committee on United Europe, 1948-60," Diplomacy & Statecraft 8, no. 1 (1997), p. 192, DOI 10.1080/09592299708406035.
+[^55]: David Barnby, The EU: A Corporatist Racket (Orinoco Standard, 2014), pp. 85-88, citing F. X. Rebattet, "The European Movement 1945-1953" (thesis, 1962, Bodleian Library, Oxford). Self-published.
+[^56]: Michael Gibson, "Human Intelligence," 1517 Fund blog, July 22, 2018, https://www.1517fund.com/post/human-intelligence.
+[^57]: "Margaret Thatcher," Encyclopaedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Margaret-Thatcher.
+[^58]: "Benazir Bhutto killed in attack," BBC News, December 27, 2007, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7161590.stm.
+[^59]: Federal Judicial Center, "Rakoff, Jed Saul," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/rakoff-jed-saul.
+[^60]: Ian Smart, contributor note, in Nuclear Power in Developing Countries: An Analysis of Decision Making (1982), chapter 2, https://archive.org/details/nuclearpowerinde0000unse.
+[^61]: "Dr. Walt Whitman Rostow (1916-2003)," Find a Grave, memorial 62181838, https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/62181838.
+[^62]: John B. Judis, "The Godfather of American Conservatism," Alicia Patterson Foundation, https://aliciapatterson.org/john-judis/the-godfather-of-american-conservatism/.

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Yale University.md

@@ -0,0 +1,269 @@
+---
+created: 2026-10-15
+updated: 2026-10-15
+title: Yale University
+aliases:
+  - Yale
+  - Yale University
+category: "Private Organization"
+tags:
+  - Organization
+  - AcademicInstitution
+  - SkullAndBones
+  - RussellTrustAssociation
+  - OfficeOfStrategicServices
+  - CentralIntelligenceAgency
+  - ColdWar
+  - Parapsychology
+  - NeuroelectricResearch
+  - BehavioralResearch
+  - RemoteViewing
+  - CocaineEpidemic
+  - FederalJudiciary
+  - Philanthropy
+summary: "Yale University, the New Haven university whose senior society Skull and Bones and whose faculty, alumni and research staff appear in the records of wartime intelligence, behavioral research, parapsychology, the federal courts and philanthropy."
+location: "New Haven, Connecticut"
+relations:
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Joseph Toy Curtiss]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "assistant professor of English; OSS Library Project collector in Istanbul from April 1943; returned to Yale in the summer of 1946"
+    start: 1943
+    end: 1946
+    fn: 13
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Richard Bissell]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "doctorate in economics, 1939; taught economics at Yale before moving to MIT in 1942"
+    start: 1939
+    end: 1942
+    fn: 22
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Sherman Kent]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "history professor before 1941; left for the OSS Research and Analysis Branch; returned in 1947 or 1949 (the CIA essays give both); left for the CIA in 1950"
+    start: 1933
+    end: 1950
+    fn: 21
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Mark A. May]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "professor of educational psychology; director of the Institute of Human Relations, 1935 to 1961"
+    start: 1927
+    end: 1960
+    fn: 25
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Stanley Milgram]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "conducted the obedience experiments in the Yale interaction laboratory; at Harvard by 1963"
+    start: 1960
+    end: 1963
+    fn: 28
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Myron S. Malkin]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "member of the physics faculty"
+    start: 1952
+    end: 1961
+    fn: 37
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[José M. R. Delgado]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "Department of Psychiatry; came to Yale in 1952 as an instructor"
+    start: 1952
+    fn: 30
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Robert B. Livingston]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "School of Medicine, instructor to assistant professor of physiology under John F. Fulton"
+    start: 1946
+    end: 1952
+    fn: 31
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[Robert Byck]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine; testified before the House Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control on July 26, 1979"
+    start: 1979
+    end: 1979
+    fn: 42
+  - type: employed_by
+    with: "[[José A. Cabranes]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "general counsel and director of government relations"
+    start: 1975
+    end: 1979
+    fn: 47
+  - type: head_of
+    with: "[[Richard Levin]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "twenty-second president"
+    start: 1993
+    end: 2013
+    fn: 66
+  - type: funded
+    with: "[[Thiel Foundation]]"
+    reverse: true
+    role: "$25,000 grant to Yale University for education, 2006"
+    start: 2006
+    end: 2006
+    fn: 65
+---
+
+Yale University is a private university in [[New Haven, Connecticut]], chartered by the [[Connecticut Colony]] in 1701 as a collegiate school. Its senior society [[Skull and Bones]], its wartime faculty recruited into the [[Office of Strategic Services]] and the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], its psychology, psychiatry and neurophysiology laboratories, and its alumni in the federal courts and the executive branch appear in the records of intelligence services, behavioral research, parapsychology, drug policy and finance.
+
+### The 1701 charter
+
+The General Court of the Colony of Connecticut passed an "Act for a Collegiate School" at its October 1701 session. It recites petitions for "full liberty and priviledg" for undertakers to found a school "wherein youth may be instructed in the arts and sciences, who through the blessing of Almighty God, may be fitted for publick imployments both in church and civill state," and grants "full liberty, right and priviledge" to ten ministers, [[James Noyes]], [[Israel Chauncey]], [[Thomas Buckingham]], [[Abraham Pierson]], [[Samuel Mather]], [[Timothy Woodbridge]], [[James Pierpont]], [[Samuel Andrew]], [[Joseph Webb]] and [[Noadiah Russell]], "to erect, forme, direct, order, establish, improve" the school.[^1] The colony's act of May 1745 "for the more full and compleat Establishment of Yale College in New Haven" recites that the General Court "assembled at New Haven, on the ninth day of October in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and one" had made the grant, and that the trustees had "founded a Collegiate School at New Haven, known by the name of Yale College."[^2]
+
+### Skull and Bones and the Russell Trust Association
+
+[[David A. Richards]], who is writing a history of American college societies and whose name the magazine's editors note appears in the Class of 1967 list of Skull and Bones members, wrote in the Yale Alumni Magazine in 2015 that Skull and Bones was founded in 1832 on the conception of [[William Huntington Russell]], the valedictorian of the Class of 1833, with [[Alphonso Taft]] as a cofounder, and that its members called it the Eulogian Club before a skull and crossbones sketched on a chapel-door notice gave it its name and its badge number, 322. He wrote that in 1856 the society's alumni incorporated it in Connecticut as a trust called the Russell Trust Association, so that a corporation could hold title to the windowless "tomb" on High Street, which was later estimated to have cost about $30,000.[^3] A reader's letter in the same magazine, citing [[James Bradley]]'s book *The China Mirage*, stated that the money for the 1856 building was "Russell money" traced to [[Russell and Company]] of Canton, "America's biggest smuggler of Turkish opium into China."[^4] The Connecticut Secretary of the State's business registry lists "The Russell Trust Association" as a domestic business of the type "Special Chartered," status "Active," account number 0269315.[^5]
+
+[[Ron Rosenbaum]] wrote in [[Esquire]] in September 1977 that the society's members included [[McGeorge Bundy]], [[Averell Harriman]], [[Henry L. Stimson]], [[Henry Luce]] and Supreme Court Justice [[Potter Stewart]]. He wrote that Bundy's brother [[William P. Bundy]] and [[William F. Buckley]] entered the Central Intelligence Agency after their years in the society.[^6] Bundy majored in mathematics at Yale and then returned to [[Harvard University]] and its Society of Fellows after the war.[^7] A [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] memorandum of October 20, 1950 from [[Louis B. Nichols]] to [[Clyde Tolson]] records that Buckley "graduated at Yale in 1950, and was chairman of" the Yale Daily News, and that the editor of the News had promoted a forum at the Yale Law School in 1949 at which Nichols spoke.[^8]
+
+[[George W. Bush]] entered Yale in 1964 and received a bachelor's degree in history in 1968.[^9] [[Jacques Leslie]], a member of the Class of 1968, wrote in [[Salon]] in March 2000 that he and Bush had both been asked to join Skull and Bones, that he refused on Tap Night, and that "Bush, on the other hand, joined Bones." Leslie cited [[Bill Minutaglio]]'s biography *First Son* for the account that Bush had considered a society called Gin and Tonic but was swayed when his father, then a congressman, conducted the tapping himself. Leslie listed Stimson (Class of 1888), Stewart, Harriman, Luce, [[John Hersey]] and [[William Sloane Coffin]] as members, and wrote that students heard rumors that the society's assets made it the largest corporation in Connecticut and that each member was guaranteed a lifetime annual stipend of $20,000, adding that "Nobody knew whether the rumors were true."[^10]
+
+The [[George H. W. Bush Presidential Library]] describes its file FOIA 2009-0116-F as records "related to the Skull and Bones Society at Yale University, of which George H. W. Bush and his father Prescott Bush were both members." The file contains correspondence from President Bush to Buckley and [[Thomas W. Ludlow Ashley]] about a Buckley article in [[National Review]] answering [[Pat Buchanan]]'s characterization of Bush's foreign policy as "Skull and Bones foreign policy" during the 1992 campaign, administrative forms for a Skull and Bones tea held at the White House on October 20, 1989, and newspaper articles on the rumor that [[Prescott Bush]] and a group of Skull and Bones members had taken the skull of the Apache leader [[Geronimo]].[^11] Vesting Order 248 of the Alien Property Custodian, executed October 20, 1942 and published in the Federal Register on November 7, 1942, vested "All of the capital stock of Union Banking Corporation," 4,000 shares held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N.V., Rotterdam, "which bank is owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family." It lists the registered owners as [[E. Roland Harriman]] (3,991 shares), Cornelius Lievense (4), Harold D. Pennington (1), Ray Morris (1), Prescott S. Bush (1), H. J. Kouwenhoven (1) and Johann G. Groeninger (1).[^12]
+
+### The Library Project, the Research and Analysis Branch and X-2
+
+Yale's wartime collection of enemy publications served as cover for an Office of Strategic Services operation. In April 1943 Joseph Toy Curtiss, an assistant professor of English, sailed for Istanbul with a $25,000 fund to acquire books and war material for Yale and other libraries; he had been recruited to collect intelligence on the Axis powers, and the operation was called the Library Project. [[Donald Downes]], an OSS officer and Yale graduate, formed the plan after reading a notice in the Yale Library Gazette. Only Curtiss and the collection's two curators, [[Russell Pruden]] and [[Thomas Mendenhall]], knew the purpose at Yale; President [[Charles Seymour]] was not told. The OSS sent the money to [[Walter Pforzheimer|Walter L. Pforzheimer]], a trustee of the Yale Library Associates, who presented it to the university as a gift from anonymous alumni, and two sets of accounts were kept, one for Yale and one for the OSS. The Library Project remained secret until 1953, and Curtiss returned to Yale in the summer of 1946 and taught there for twenty more years.[^13] The Yale research archivist who wrote that account cites [[Robin W. Winks]], a Yale history professor, and his book *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* for the Yale connections of the new intelligence service.[^14] A Walter Pforzheimer received a letter from the chief investigator of the [[Senate Internal Security Subcommittee]] on May 9, 1955, and a letter from [[Daniel O. Graham]] on September 23, 1980 enclosing a partial membership list of the [[National Strategy Committee]]; the records found do not state whether that recipient is the Yale trustee of the same name.[^15]
+
+[[Norman Holmes Pearson]], a Yale University professor, headed [[X-2]], the OSS counterintelligence branch, in London, according to a review in the CIA's Studies in Intelligence of the memoirs of Richard W. Cutler, a Yale-educated lawyer who built X-2's agent vetting section at Pearson's direction.[^16] [[James Jesus Angleton]] (class of 1941) entered Yale in 1937, majored in English literature, and edited the poetry review [[Furioso]], which published [[T.S. Eliot]] and [[Ezra Pound]]; he entered [[Harvard Law School]] and then joined the Army in 1943.[^17] According to [[Tom Mangold]]'s biography, he co-founded the magazine with the poet [[Reed Whittemore]] and developed close ties to Eliot and Pound during those years.[^18] [[David Robarge]] wrote in the CIA's Studies in Intelligence in 2009 that Winks's chapter "The Theorist" in *Cloak and Gown*, partly derived from conversations with Angleton, was "the most insightful biographical sketch of Angleton yet written," and described the argument of the scholar David Holzman that the New Criticism prominent at Yale when Angleton attended shaped his approach to counterintelligence.[^19]
+
+[[Sherman Kent]] was born in Chicago in 1903, graduated from Yale in 1926 and received a Ph.D. in history there in 1933. In 1941 he left Yale for the Research and Analysis Branch of the Coordinator of Information, later the OSS, and in January 1943 became chief of its Europe-Africa Division. The CIA's collected essays on his years as chairman of the [[Board of National Estimates]], 1952 to 1967, say that his Yale classes had been popular because his enthusiasm brought history to life, and that he bestowed D's and F's "with abandon" on sham or lack of preparation.[^20] One essay says he served on the staff of the [[National War College]] before "returning to Yale in 1947," where he wrote *[[Strategic Intelligence for American World Policy]]*, published in 1949, and that a year after its publication he left Yale for the CIA in the wake of the [[Korean War]]. The editor's note to another essay says Kent "did not return to teach at Yale until 1949," having taught at the National War College in 1946-1947 and held a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1947-1948, and that he joined the CIA's Office of National Estimates in late 1950 under [[William L. Langer]].[^21]
+
+[[Richard Bissell]] took a doctorate at Yale in 1939 and taught economics there before moving to the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] in 1942, according to the CIA's official history of the U-2 program by [[Gregory W. Pedlow]] and [[Donald E. Welzenbach]].[^22] [[Tracy Barnes]] graduated from Yale and Harvard Law School before joining the OSS, and served in Europe as a paramilitary operative.[^23]
+
+### The 1958 Conference on America's Human Resources
+
+A letter of February 7, 1958 from [[Howard L. Bevis]], chairman of the [[President's Committee on Scientists and Engineers]], to [[Allen Dulles]], then Director of Central Intelligence, thanks Dulles for addressing the Conference on America's Human Resources at Yale on February 3 and 4, 1958 and for an address that "was a distinct contribution." The enclosed list of participants names [[Max Ascoli]] ("Editor and Publisher, The Reporter," of [[The Reporter]]), the publisher [[William Benton]], [[Lloyd Berkner]] of Associated Universities, and [[Frank H. Bartholomew]], president of [[United Press]]. The program's campus map locates the Institute of Human Relations, the Cowles Foundation, the Institute of Far Eastern Languages and the society buildings Skull and Bones, Scroll and Key, Wolf's Head, Book and Snake and the Elihu Club.[^24]
+
+### The Institute of Human Relations and behavioral research
+
+The Yale Institute of Human Relations was first organized in 1929 to integrate teaching at Yale on the study of man. [[Mark A. May]], professor of educational psychology at Yale from 1927 to 1960, was its executive secretary and then its director from 1935 to 1961; its work addressed juvenile delinquency, psychotherapy, cultural conflicts and child rearing. May was a scientific consultant to the War Department in the Second World War on psychological warfare and the psychological effects of weaponry, conducted research for the Office of Scientific Research and Development on psychological damage in soldiers caused by different weapons, and after the war served on the Advisory Commission on Information of the [[United States Information Agency]], chairing it from 1952; Yale holds his papers.[^25] [[Ernst Kris]] joined Yale's Child Study Center in 1949 and became professor of psychology there in 1951 and of psychiatry in 1953, after attending the September 1947 Project RAND conference of social scientists.[^26]
+
+The congressional record of the CIA's behavioral modification program cites Yale work on drug interrogation. A survey titled "'Truth' Drugs in Interrogation," which [[Stansfield Turner]], Director of Central Intelligence, supplied for the record of the August 3, 1977 joint Senate hearing on [[Project MKULTRA]], reports that "Redlich and his associates at Yale" administered sodium amytal to nine volunteers who had invented cover stories for guilty episodes in their pasts, and cites F. C. Redlich, L. J. Ravitz and G. H. Dession, "Narcoanalysis and truth," *American Journal of Psychiatry* 107 (1951).[^27]
+
+[[Stanley Milgram]] described his obedience experiments in the *Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology* in 1963 while "Now at Harvard University." The paper reports that the subjects were 40 men aged 20 to 50 drawn from New Haven and surrounding communities by newspaper advertisement and direct mail, who believed they were taking part in a study of memory and learning at Yale; that they were paid $4.50; and that the experiment was conducted "on the grounds of Yale University in the elegant interaction laboratory." Of the 40, 26 obeyed the experimenter's orders to the end, up to the 450-volt switch on a 30-switch shock generator, while fourteen Yale seniors asked beforehand to predict the behavior of 100 hypothetical subjects estimated from 0 to 3 percent, with a mean of 1.2 percent. Milgram acknowledged a grant (NSF G-17916) from the [[National Science Foundation]] and a 1960 grant for exploratory studies from the Higgins Fund at Yale, thanked the research assistants [[Alan C. Elms]] and Jon Wayland, and wrote that he gave the National Science Foundation a first report in January 1961 and first submitted the article to the journal on December 27, 1961.[^28]
+
+### Neuroelectric research, psychoenergetics and the STARGATE file
+
+[[José M. R. Delgado]] is listed as a contributor to the 1971 proceedings of the Fourth Annual National Conference of the [[Neuroelectric Society]], held in San Antonio, Texas, with the affiliation "Department of Psychiatry, Yale University." The proceedings, edited by [[Norman L. Wulfsohn]] and [[Anthony Sances]], Jr., were filed as CIA-RDP96-00787R000500200005-2 in the [[Project Stargate]] collection.[^29] An early proposal titled "Direct Brain Perception," submitted by [[Edgar Mitchell]] and prepared by [[Andrija Puharich]], includes biographical sketches of its consultants. One states that Delgado "came to Yale in 1952 as an Instructor."[^30]
+
+The 1992 "Phenomenological Research and Analysis Technical Volume" of [[Science Applications International Corporation]], by [[Edwin May]] and Wanda L. W. Luke, lists [[Robert B. Livingston]], M.D., of the [[University of California, San Diego]] as a member of its Institutional Review Board with [[Louis Jolyon West|Louis J. West]] of the [[University of California, Los Angeles]], and prints Livingston's 1991 curriculum vitae: Yale University School of Medicine, instructor to assistant professor of physiology under [[John F. Fulton]], 1946-1952, with a publication list that includes work "with José Delgado." The same volume adds Professor [[Steven A. Hillyard]] of UC San Diego to its Scientific Oversight Committee and states that his resume is included in its Section IV, which holds a curriculum vitae recording a Yale Ph.D. in psychology in 1968 with a traineeship under [[Robert Galambos]].[^31]
+
+[[Annie Jacobsen]] wrote that Puharich's theory of an energy linking the brain and the cells gained traction when [[Lloyd H. Beck]] and [[Walter S. Miles]] of Yale reported that the olfactory nerve of a bee radiated energy in the infrared range.[^32] [[Harold Saxton Burr]] published "Diurnal Potentials in the Maple Tree" in the [[Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine]] in July 1945.[^33] A 1984 interim report on a geophysical effects study, prepared by [[Harold Puthoff]] and Marsha Adams of [[SRI International]] for the U.S. Army Intelligence and Security Command under the [[Center Lane]] special access program, states that its ultra-low-frequency measurements "were stimulated by the work of Burr on relatively steady-state tree potentials," and its reference list cites Burr's 1945 and 1947 papers in the Yale journal and his 1956 paper in *Science*.[^34]
+
+A survey of international parapsychology research, held in the CIA reading room as a chapter of the book *[[New Psychic Frontiers]]*, lists Yale University, New Haven, among the institutions with parapsychology activity. The entry names [[Henry Margenau]] and [[Dieter Brill]] as the professors involved.[^35] A Defense Intelligence Agency report of August 7, 1984, titled "Psychoenergetics Research," prints an Exhibit 7 headed "Universities Involved in Courses, Research, or Degrees in Parapsychology," on which Yale University appears on the same line as the University of California, Berkeley.[^36]
+
+### Physics, the Space Shuttle and Dimona
+
+[[Myron S. Malkin]] was a member of the Yale physics faculty from 1952 to 1961. He then worked at [[General Electric]] on re-entry vehicles and later directed the [[Space Shuttle program]] at [[NASA]] headquarters from 1973 to 1980.[^37] [[Robert T. Webber]] earned a doctorate in physics at Yale and served as scientific attache at the American embassy in [[Tel Aviv]]. According to [[Seymour Hersh]]'s account in *[[The Samson Option]]*, he shared the interest of [[William N. Dale]] in the [[Dimona]] reactor.[^38]
+
+### Walt Rostow, Eugene Rostow and the Yale Law School
+
+[[Walt Rostow]] received a Ph.D. in economics from Yale in 1940.[^39] His brother [[Eugene V. Rostow]], dean of the [[Yale Law School]], is listed as a member of Panel IV of the [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund]] [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund Special Studies Project]], whose 1961 report *[[Prospect for America]]* names him as "dean, Yale University Law School."[^40] [[Max Millikan]] took a B.S. in physics at Yale in 1935 and a Yale Ph.D. in 1941 before working at the [[Office of Price Administration]] in 1942.[^41]
+
+### Pharmacology and the 1979 cocaine hearings
+
+[[Robert Byck]] of the Yale Department of Pharmacology, described in the hearing record as a professor of psychiatry and pharmacology at Yale who had just returned from an international conference on cocaine in Peru, testified on July 26, 1979 before the [[House Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control]] in the hearings published as *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*.[^42] He opened by saying that, cocaine as then used in the United States was not dangerous in the usual sense, and that the emphasis had been placed in the wrong place. His prepared statement, printed in the same volume, says that freebase smoking "can represent the same threat that the speed epidemics of the 1960's represented in their time," that the United States did not yet have an epidemic of freebase or coca paste smoking, and that "The possibility is strong that this might occur. It is occurring in the countries of South America."[^43] [[Gary Webb]] wrote in *[[Dark Alliance]]* in 1998 that Byck had warned Congress of the coming [[Crack Cocaine|crack]] epidemic in 1979 and had been ignored.[^44]
+
+### Yale-China
+
+The Yale-China Association, known first as Yale-in-China, was founded on February 10, 1901 by young Yale alumni, who chose Hunan Province as the field; a renovated building in central [[Changsha]] provided classrooms and a Western medicine clinic by Christmas 1906. [[Edward H. Hume]], Yale class of 1897, opened a small hospital and with [[Yan Fuqing]] secured land and funding for the medical school, and the 1913 Xiang-ya Agreement with the Hunan authorities was described as a turning point; the preparatory school became Yali High School.[^45] Yale's own China timeline records that Yan Fuqing graduated from the Yale School of Medicine in 1909 and became head of Xiangya Hospital, founder of Shanghai Medical College of Fudan University, and Minister of Health, and that [[Yung Wing]] graduated from Yale College in 1854 and organized the Chinese Educational Mission that sent 120 students to New England.[^46]
+
+### Courts, the Law School and the executive branch
+
+[[José A. Cabranes]] graduated from [[Columbia University]] in 1961 and from Yale Law School in 1965. He was general counsel and director of government relations at Yale from 1975 to 1979. [[Jimmy Carter]] nominated him to the District of Connecticut on November 6, 1979, and [[Bill Clinton]] nominated him to the Second Circuit on May 24, 1994. He served on the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review from 2013 to 2020, presiding from 2018 to 2020.[^47] [[Robert W. Sweet]] graduated from Yale in 1944 and from Yale Law School in 1948, after service as a Navy lieutenant junior grade from 1943 to 1946. Carter nominated him to the Southern District of New York on February 17, 1978.[^48]
+
+[[Stephen Cutler]] graduated summa cum laude from Yale and received his law degree there before being named Enforcement Director of the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] in October 2001.[^49] [[William Bradford Reynolds]] received a B.A. from Yale in 1964.[^50] [[Richard Thornburgh]] earned a B.S. in engineering from Yale in 1954.[^51] [[Cyrus Vance]] graduated from Yale in 1939 and received his law degree there in 1942.[^52] [[Dean Acheson]] also graduated from Yale.[^53] [[Mark W. Everson]] received a B.A. in history from Yale.[^54] [[Porter Goss]] took a B.A. in classics and Greek from Yale in 1960.[^55]
+
+Other lawyers and officials who took their law degrees at Yale include [[David Boies]] (LL.B. 1966),[^56] [[Alan Dershowitz]],[^57] [[Hillary Clinton]], who met Bill Clinton there,[^58] [[Cory Booker]],[^59] [[Ro Khanna]],[^60] [[JD Vance]] (2013)[^61] and [[Mariano-Florentino Cuéllar]].[^62] [[John Morley]] of Yale Law School helped design the governance structure of [[Anthropic]]'s [[Long-Term Benefit Trust]].[^63] [[William H. Draper III]], nominated by [[Ronald Reagan]] in 1981 to head the [[Export-Import Bank of the United States]], held a Yale B.A. from 1950.[^64]
+
+### Money, presidents and families
+
+The [[Thiel Foundation]]'s 2006 return reports a grant of $25,000 to Yale University in the education category.[^65] [[Richard Levin]], the economist who served as Yale's twenty-second president from 1993 to 2013, is the father of [[Jonathan Levin]], who was named president of [[Stanford University]] in 2024.[^66] [[Larry Summers]] left his advisory role at the Yale Budget Lab in November 2025.[^67] [[Nick Bostrom]] was teaching at Yale in 2001 when he met [[James Hughes]] and [[Mark Walker]] in the meeting that began the second phase of the [[World Transhumanist Association]].[^68] [[David Goslin]] took his doctorate in sociology at Yale in 1962.[^69]
+
+The [[Yale Center for British Art]] describes [[Paul Mellon]] as its founder.[^70] [[Cari Tuna]] studied political science at Yale and worked on the college paper before she and [[Dustin Moskovitz]] began the giving that became [[Good Ventures]].[^71] [[Francis Shelden]], the owner of [[North Fox Island]], testified in a 1982 deposition that he received a bachelor of arts degree from Yale.[^72] [[Frederic J. Truslow]] is recorded in the 1963 Harvard Law School yearbook as "B.A. Yale '61."[^73]
+
+Yale's Manuscripts and Archives holds the papers of [[Alvin Johnson]] (MS 615, 1902 to 1969), given by Johnson, [[Agnes de Lima]] and Edith Levy in 1967.[^74] [[Christopher Mellon]] took a master's degree in international affairs at Yale.[^75] [[Rob Reich]] holds a B.A. in philosophy from Yale.[^76]
+
+### Footnotes
+
+[^1]: "Act for a Collegiate School," General Court of the Colony of Connecticut, October 1701 session, in *The Public Records of the Colony of Connecticut, from August, 1689, to May, 1706*, ed. J. Hammond Trumbull (Hartford: Case, Lockwood and Brainard, 1868), pp. 363-364. https://archive.org/details/bwb_P9-CDP-546
+[^2]: "An Act for the more full and compleat Establishment of Yale College in New Haven, and for enlarging the Powers and Priviledges thereof," General Court, May 1745, in *The Public Records of the Colony of Connecticut, from May, 1744, to November, 1750*, ed. Charles J. Hoadly (Hartford: Case, Lockwood and Brainard, 1876), pp. 113-114. https://archive.org/details/publicrecordsofc009conn
+[^3]: David A. Richards, "The origins of the tomb," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2015, with editors' note on the author's listing among Skull and Bones members in the Class of 1967 graduation book. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4072-the-origins-of-the-tomb
+[^4]: Bruce L. Reynolds '66, letter, "More secrets of the Tomb," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, responding to the May/June 2015 article; the letter cites James Bradley, *The China Mirage* (Little, Brown, 2015). The passage is the letter writer's account. https://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4127-more-secrets-of-the-tomb
+[^5]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, Connecticut Business Registry - Business Master, open data set n7gp-d28j, record "RUSSELL TRUST ASSOCIATION, THE" (business type Special Chartered; status Active; citizenship Domestic; account number 0269315). https://data.ct.gov/resource/n7gp-d28j.json
+[^6]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. Cited as the McGeorge Bundy page cites it.
+[^7]: "Mac Bundy," *The Harvard Crimson*, November 10, 1956. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1956/11/10/mac-bundy-pwhen-mcgeorge-bundy-became/
+[^8]: FBI headquarters file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 1, memorandum L. B. Nichols to Mr. Tolson, October 20, 1950, and summary memoranda. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1
+[^9]: White House, "Biography of President George W. Bush" (archived). Born July 6, 1946, in New Haven; bachelor's degree in history from Yale University in 1968. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov ; Biography.com, "George W. Bush" (Yale enrollment in 1964). https://www.biography.com/us-president/george-w-bush
+[^10]: Jacques Leslie, "Smirk from the past" ("Yale"), *Salon*, March 1, 2000. https://www.salon.com/2000/03/01/yale/
+[^11]: George H. W. Bush Presidential Library, "Records on Skull and Bones Society," FOIA 2009-0116-F, processed August 2009 (Records of the White House Office of Policy Development, Emily Mead Subject Files, 23348-002; Press Office of the Vice President, Subject Files, 14925-046; White House Social Office, Cathy Fenton Subject Files, 07104, "10/20/89 Skull and Bones Tea"). The library text describes the Geronimo rumor and does not endorse it. https://www.bush41library.gov/download/file/4777
+[^12]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 248, executed October 20, 1942 (Leo T. Crowley, Alien Property Custodian), 7 Fed. Reg. 9097-9098 (November 7, 1942), F.R. Doc. 42-11567 series. Federal Register, vol. 7, no. 220.
+[^13]: Judith Ann Schiff, "The library at war," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, Nov/Dec 2019. https://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4991-the-library-at-war
+[^14]: Robin W. Winks, *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* (New York: William Morrow, 1987), cited in the Schiff article.
+[^15]: Letter from the chief investigator of the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee to Walter Pforzheimer, May 9, 1955, CIA-RDP58-00597A000100240018-8, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp58-00597a000100240018-8 ; Daniel O. Graham to Walter Pforzheimer, September 23, 1980, enclosing a partial membership list of the National Strategy Committee, CIA-RDP02T06251R000900300002-4, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom). Both are cited on the Senate Judiciary Committee and Daniel O. Graham pages.
+[^16]: Kevin C. Ruffner, review of Richard W. Cutler, *Counterspy: Memoirs of a Counterintelligence Officer in World War II and the Cold War* (Washington: Brassey's, 2004), *Studies in Intelligence* 49, no. 3. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/volume-49-no-3/counterspy-memoirs-of-a-counterintelligence-officer-in-world-war-ii-and-the-cold-war
+[^17]: David Robarge, "'Cunning Passages, Contrived Corridors': Wandering in the Angletonian Wilderness," *Studies in Intelligence* 53, no. 4 (2009), biographical backdrop. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Cunning-Passages-Contrived-Corridors.pdf
+[^18]: Tom Mangold, *Cold Warrior: James Jesus Angleton, the CIA's Master Spy Hunter* (Simon & Schuster, 1991).
+[^19]: Robarge, "'Cunning Passages, Contrived Corridors,'" *Studies in Intelligence* 53, no. 4 (2009), sections on Winks, *Cloak and Gown*, and on Holzman. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Cunning-Passages-Contrived-Corridors.pdf
+[^20]: Donald P. Steury, ed., *Sherman Kent and the Board of National Estimates: Collected Essays* (CIA History Staff, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1994), foreword, the essay on Kent's biography, and Harold P. Ford, "A Tribute to Sherman Kent." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/sherman-kent-and-the-board-of-national-estimates-collected-essays.pdf
+[^21]: Steury, *Sherman Kent and the Board of National Estimates*, the essay on *Strategic Intelligence* ("before returning to Yale in 1947"; "A year after *Strategic Intelligence* was published, Sherm left Yale for the CIA") and editor's note 6 to the Kent biography essay. The two passages are printed in the same volume.
+[^22]: Gregory W. Pedlow and Donald E. Welzenbach, *The CIA and the U-2 Program, 1954-1974* (CIA History Staff, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1998), biographical passage on Richard M. Bissell. https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA355539
+[^23]: Evan Thomas, *The Very Best Men: Four Who Dared: The Early Years of the CIA* (Simon & Schuster, 1995).
+[^24]: Howard L. Bevis to Allen W. Dulles, February 7, 1958, with program, campus map and list of participants, "America's Human Resources: To Meet the Scientific Challenge," Yale University, February 3-4, 1958, sponsored by the President's Committee on Scientists and Engineers, CIA-RDP80B01676R003800020106-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003800020106-4
+[^25]: Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, "Guide to the Mark Arthur May papers," MS 1447, biographical/historical note and scope and contents. https://ead-pdfs.library.yale.edu/3894.pdf
+[^26]: Deutsche Biographie, "Kris, Ernst" (NDB 13, 1982). https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/sfz46084.html ; Library of Congress Manuscript Division, Ernst Kris Papers (MSS84824), register; Daniel M. Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State," Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 2013, p. 190 note 88 (attendee list of RAND R-106). Cited as the Ernst Kris page cites them.
+[^27]: "'Truth' Drugs in Interrogation," material supplied by Admiral Stansfield Turner for the record, *Project MKULTRA, the CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification*, Joint Hearing before the Select Committee on Intelligence and the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research of the Committee on Human Resources, U.S. Senate, 95th Cong., 1st sess., August 3, 1977; reference 25, F. C. Redlich, L. J. Ravitz and G. H. Dession, "Narcoanalysis and truth," *American Journal of Psychiatry* 107 (1951): 586-593. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/hearings/95mkultra.pdf
+[^28]: Stanley Milgram, "Behavioral Study of Obedience," *Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology* 67, no. 4 (1963): 371-378, author's note 1 and 2, methods, "Preliminary Notions" and "Result of Experiment I." https://archive.org/details/milgram370551
+[^29]: *The Nervous System and Electric Currents*, Volume 2, Proceedings of the Fourth Annual National Conference of the Neuroelectric Society, San Antonio, Texas, March 10-12, 1971, edited by Norman L. Wulfsohn and Anthony Sances, Jr. CIA-RDP96-00787R000500200005-2, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
+[^30]: Edgar D. Mitchell (submitter) and Henry (Andrija) Puharich, M.D. (editor), "Direct Brain Perception" research proposal, biographical sketches of the researchers. CIA-RDP96-00787R000100190001-2, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
+[^31]: Edwin C. May and Wanda L. W. Luke, "Phenomenological Research and Analysis Technical Volume," Science Applications International Corporation, Cognitive Sciences Laboratory, May 8, 1992, Contract MDA908-91-C-0037 (Scientific Oversight Committee and Institutional Review Board sections; Section IV curricula vitae). CIA-RDP96-00789R003100170001-9, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
+[^32]: Annie Jacobsen, *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis* (Little, Brown, 2017).
+[^33]: H. S. Burr, "Diurnal Potentials in the Maple Tree," *Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine* 17, no. 6 (July 1945): 727-734. PMC2601777. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2601777/
+[^34]: Harold E. Puthoff and Marsha Adams, "Geophysical Effects Study," Interim Report, July 1984, SRI Project 6600, prepared for the Department of the Army, USAINSCOM, Center Lane special access program, text and reference list. CIA-RDP96-00788R001800160001-6, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
+[^35]: "Research, Investigation and Teaching: A Survey of the International Scene," in *New Psychic Frontiers*, p. 208, CIA-RDP96-00788R001200230018-6, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
+[^36]: Defense Intelligence Agency, Directorate for Scientific and Technical Intelligence, "Psychoenergetics Research," 7 August 1984, Exhibit 7, "Universities Involved in Courses, Research, or Degrees in Parapsychology." CIA-RDP96-00788R001800210001-0, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
+[^37]: Warren E. Leary, "Myron S. Malkin Is Dead at 70; Designed Space Shuttle Program," *New York Times*, October 26, 1994, Section B, page 13. https://www.nytimes.com/1994/10/26/obituaries/myron-s-malkin-is-dead-at-70-designed-space-shuttle-program.html
+[^38]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapter 12.
+[^39]: Encyclopedia.com, "Rostow, Walt Whitman (1916-2003)," Gale biography. https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/us-history-biographies/walt-whitman-rostow
+[^40]: Rockefeller Brothers Fund, *Prospect for America: The Rockefeller Panel Reports* (Garden City: Doubleday, 1961), Panel IV member list. https://archive.org/details/prospect-for-america
+[^41]: MIT Libraries, Department of Distinctive Collections, Max F. Millikan papers (MC-0188), biographical note. https://archivesspace.mit.edu/repositories/2/resources/722
+[^42]: *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*, Hearings before the Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control, House of Representatives, Ninety-sixth Congress, first session, July 24, 26 and October 10, 1979, Thursday, July 26, 1979, testimony of Robert Byck, M.D., Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine. NCJ 65411. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/65411NCJRS.pdf
+[^43]: *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*, NCJ 65411, prepared statement of Robert Byck ("My name is Robert Byck ..."), printed in the volume. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/65411NCJRS.pdf
+[^44]: Gary Webb, *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion* (Seven Stories Press, 1998), chapter 15.
+[^45]: Aurelia Dochnal, "120th anniversary of Yale-China: the beginnings," *China Hands Magazine*, February 10, 2021. https://chinahandsmagazine.org/2021/02/10/120th-anniversary-of-yale-china-the-beginnings/
+[^46]: Yale Center Beijing, "Yale-China History Timeline" (entries for 1854, 1872 and 1909). https://centerbeijing.yale.edu/node/365
+[^47]: Federal Judicial Center, "Cabranes, Jose Alberto," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/cabranes-jose-alberto
+[^48]: Federal Judicial Center, "Sweet, Robert Workman," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/sweet-robert-workman
+[^49]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, "Stephen M. Cutler Named SEC Enforcement Director," Press Release 2001-120, October 25, 2001. https://www.sec.gov/news/press/2001-120.txt
+[^50]: Federalist Society, "Wm. Bradford Reynolds," fedsoc.org.
+[^51]: Office of the Attorney General, U.S. Department of Justice, "Richard Lewis Thornburgh," *Attorneys General of the United States*.
+[^52]: Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State, "Cyrus Roberts Vance (1917-2002)." https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/vance-cyrus-roberts
+[^53]: Dean Acheson, *Present at the Creation: My Years in the State Department* (Norton, 1969), and Robert L. Beisner, *Dean Acheson: A Life in the Cold War* (Oxford University Press, 2006).
+[^54]: National Archives and Records Administration, Catalog Record ID 3936205.
+[^55]: Congressional Directory for the 108th Congress (2003 to 2004), August 2004, Florida delegation, Representative Porter J. Goss, Biography, p. 62. Cited on the Porter Goss page.
+[^56]: Boies Schiller Flexner LLP, "David Boies," firm biography. https://www.bsfllp.com/people/david-boies.html
+[^57]: Harvard Law School, "Alan M. Dershowitz, Felix Frankfurter Professor of Law, Emeritus," faculty biography. https://hls.harvard.edu/faculty/alan-m-dershowitz/
+[^58]: "Biography of Hillary Rodham Clinton," The White House, Office of the First Lady (Clinton administration archive, National Archives). https://clintonwhitehouse4.archives.gov/WH/EOP/First_Lady/html/HILLARY_Bio.html
+[^59]: "About Cory," Office of U.S. Senator Cory Booker. https://www.booker.senate.gov/about-cory
+[^60]: Office of Representative Ro Khanna, "About Rep. Khanna," official biography. https://khanna.house.gov/about/about-rep-khanna
+[^61]: J. D. Vance, *Hillbilly Elegy: A Memoir of a Family and Culture in Crisis* (Harper, 2016).
+[^62]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, "Mariano-Florentino (Tino) Cuellar," biography. https://carnegieendowment.org/people/mariano-florentino-tino-cuellar
+[^63]: Anthropic, "The Long-Term Benefit Trust," September 19, 2023. https://www.anthropic.com/news/the-long-term-benefit-trust
+[^64]: Ronald Reagan, "Nomination of William H. Draper III To Be President and Chairman of the Export-Import Bank of the United States," March 18, 1981, American Presidency Project. https://presidency.ucsb.edu/node/247393
+[^65]: The Thiel Foundation, Form 990-PF for 2006, Part VIII and Statement A, grants paid (line 3, Yale University, Education, $25,000). https://990s.foundationcenter.org/990pf_pdf_archive/203/203846597/203846597_200612_990PF.pdf
+[^66]: Yale Daily News, "Stanford appoints son of former Yale president Rick Levin as president," April 5, 2024. https://yaledailynews.com/blog/2024/04/05/stanford-appoints-son-of-former-yale-president-rick-levin-as-president/
+[^67]: "Larry Summers banned for life from American Economic Association," Associated Press via *Fortune*, December 3, 2025. https://fortune.com/2025/12/03/larry-summers-banned-for-life-from-american-economic-association
+[^68]: Nick Bostrom, "A History of Transhumanist Thought," *Journal of Evolution and Technology* 14, no. 1 (April 2005), section 4. https://jetpress.org/volume14/bostrom.pdf
+[^69]: American Institutes for Research, "The American Institutes for Research Honors the Life and Legacy of David Goslin," January 6, 2025.
+[^70]: "Paul Mellon: Founder," Yale Center for British Art. https://britishart.yale.edu/stories/paul-mellon-founder
+[^71]: Ariana Eunjung Cha, "Cari Tuna and Dustin Moskovitz: Young Silicon Valley billionaires pioneer new approach to philanthropy," *The Washington Post*, December 26, 2014; "Billionaire from Evansville to spread the wealth," WFIE 14 News, December 2014. Cited on the Cari Tuna page.
+[^72]: *National Bank of Detroit v. Shelden*, 730 F.2d 421 (6th Cir. 1984) (Nos. 82-1737, 82-1905), on the Amsterdam deposition of 1982. https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/433085/national-bank-of-detroit-v-francis-d-shelden-the-trust-company-of-the/
+[^73]: *Harvard Law School Year Book*, 1963, entry "Frederic Jennings Truslow, B.A. Yale '61." https://books.google.com/books?id=8oc8AAAAIAAJ
+[^74]: Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, "Alvin Saunders Johnson papers," MS 615. https://archives.yale.edu/repositories/12/resources/3846
+[^75]: "Unholy Alliance?" *Roll Call*, February 12, 2003. https://rollcall.com/2003/02/12/unholy-alliance/
+[^76]: Rob Reich, curriculum vitae, Department of Political Science, Stanford University. https://robreich.people.stanford.edu/files/reich-cv.pdf

20 - ORGANIZATIONS/RapeWaffen Division.md

@@ -26,7 +26,7 @@ The RapeWaffen Division Telegram channel appears to have functioned as a radical
 
 Melzer's participation in RapeWaffen Division is the basis for the most significant documented case of O9A military penetration in the public record. In May 2020, while with the [[173rd Airborne Brigade Combat Team]] in [[Vicenza, Italy]] and preparing for a deployment to [[Turkey]], Melzer transmitted classified information about his unit's locations, personnel strength, troop movements, and defensive capabilities to RapeWaffen Division members via Telegram. The channel's CC-1, a UK-based O9A contact identified only by the CC-1 designation in court documents, relayed the intelligence to a second co-conspirator, CC-2, with the stated purpose of enabling a mass-casualty attack combining O9A members and Al-Qaeda-affiliated forces.
 
-The FBI had embedded an operative in the RapeWaffen Division channel. The operative, whom Melzer believed was a fellow O9A member with operational access to jihadist networks, was the primary recipient of Melzer's intelligence disclosures. The FBI arrested Melzer on June 10, 2020, before the planned deployment. Melzer was charged in [[Southern District of New York]] case 1:20-cr-00314-GHW and pleaded guilty on June 24, 2022. He was sentenced to 45 years by [[U.S. District Judge Gregory H. Woods]] on March 6, 2023.[^3]
+The FBI had embedded an operative in the RapeWaffen Division channel. The operative, whom Melzer believed was a fellow O9A member with operational access to jihadist networks, was the primary recipient of Melzer's intelligence disclosures. The FBI arrested Melzer on June 10, 2020, before the planned deployment. Melzer was charged in [[U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York|Southern District of New York]] case 1:20-cr-00314-GHW and pleaded guilty on June 24, 2022. He was sentenced to 45 years by [[U.S. District Judge Gregory H. Woods]] on March 6, 2023.[^3]
 
 ### UK Nexus and Uncharged Co-Conspirators