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---
category: "City"
tags:
- City
- Lebanon
- CentralIntelligenceAgency
- HostageCrisis
- IranContra
- StargateProject
- RemoteViewing
- BCCI
- KimPhilby
- SabraAndShatila
- Mossad
- KahanCommission
- MarineBarracksBombing
summary: "Capital of Lebanon, site of the Philby disappearance of 1963, the Sabra and Shatila killings of 1982, the 1983 embassy and Marine barracks bombings, and the captivity of CIA station chief William Buckley."
aliases:
- Beyrouth
- Bayrut
- Beirut, Lebanon
created: 2026-10-15
updated: 2026-10-15
location: "Beirut, Lebanon"
---
Beirut is the capital of [[Lebanon]].[^1] The events on this page run from 1954 to 1991. In that period the city housed the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] station that handled Lebanese affairs, served as the meeting ground of British, American, Israeli and Palestinian services, and was the place where Americans were seized and held and where bombs killed Americans in 1983 and 1984.
### Philby and the 1963 Departure
[[Kim Philby]], the British intelligence officer recruited into Soviet intelligence at [[Cambridge University]] in 1934, disappeared from Beirut on January 23, 1963. [[Ben Macintyre]]'s account, based on British files and interviews, dates the departure to that day.[^2] On July 1, 1963 the [[Foreign Office]] told the [[House of Commons]] that it had made inquiries about Philby's whereabouts "from the Governments in both Cairo and Beirut, without success." The statement added that "when he left Beirut he may have gone to one of the countries of the Soviet bloc."[^3] Macintyre places Philby in [[Moscow]] by July of that year.[^2] The departure is also recorded on the [[James Jesus Angleton]] page, which dates Philby's disappearance from Beirut to the same day.[^4]
### Robert Maheu and the 1954 Papers
On September 24, 1954 Paul Gerrity of [[Maheu Associates]] called on State Department officials with a file containing a statement attributed to Cotopadis on the negotiation of the Onassis agreement with the Saudi government. Gerrity said that [[Stavros Niarchos]] had bought the statement and photostats, that a second copy was held by the CIA in Washington, and that a third copy was "in possession of Mr. Maheu who was in Beirut." Gerrity said the papers should reach King Saud quickly, before any publicity about bribery in the Onassis agreement. The official [[John Jernegan]] said the CIA should remain the channel.[^5] The Senate committee later described [[Robert Maheu]] as an ex-FBI agent who had entered a career as a private investigator in 1954.[^6]
### Saddam Hussein and the 1959 Attempt
On April 10, 2003 the journalist [[Richard Sale]] reported in [[United Press International]] that [[Saddam Hussein]] had been part of a CIA-authorized squad tasked with the 1959 attempt on [[Abd al-Karim Qasim]]. After the attempt failed, he crossed into Syria and was transferred by Egyptian intelligence agents to Beirut. The report states: "While Saddam was in Beirut, the CIA paid for Saddam's apartment and put him through a brief training course, former CIA officials said."[^7] Sale attributed the Beirut account to former officials and to the writer [[Adel Darwish]], who said the CIA handler was an Iraqi dentist working for the CIA and Egyptian intelligence.[^7]
### MI6 and the Nasser Plots
[[Stephen Dorril]] reported in 1985 that [[Wilbur Crane Eveland]]'s memoir *Ropes of Sand* describes a Beirut meeting at which a drunk envoy of the [[MI6]] deputy director George Young said that "Teams had been fielded to assassinate Nasser." Dorril placed the remark among the British plans against [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] in the period of the Suez crisis.[^8]
### Black September and Operation Spring of Youth
Operation Spring of Youth, the April 1973 Israeli operation in Beirut that targeted the [[Black September]] leadership, was led on the ground by [[Ehud Barak]], then commanding the Sayeret Matkal reconnaissance unit, who is recorded as having led the ground team disguised as a woman.[^9] Barak's later career took him to the head of Israeli military intelligence in 1983 and to the post of chief of the General Staff.[^9]
### The 1981 Beirut Cable on Osirak
The Israeli strike on the Iraqi reactor at [[Osirak bombing|Osirak]] took place on June 7, 1981. The Security Council resolution that condemned it, Resolution 487 of June 19, 1981, was adopted unanimously, and its text refers to the "premeditated Israeli air attack on Iraqi nuclear installations on 7 June 1981."[^10] On June 11 the U.S. embassy in Beirut cabled Washington that [[Yasser Arafat|Yasir Arafat]], speaking at a graduation ceremony for Palestinian commandos in Beirut the previous day, had claimed that the raid "had been carried out with full assistance from American satellites and radar." The cable reports that Arafat also claimed the raid took place "with the official approval of the Pentagon."[^11] The same cable reports that the Beirut newspaper As-Safir, citing "East European and Arab diplomatic sources," charged that U.S. AWACS aircraft had charted the route used by the Israeli aircraft and provided air cover over Saudi Arabia, and that a CIA network in Iraq had helped gather information about the Iraqi missile system.[^11]
### The 1982 War and the Siege of West Beirut
The Israeli campaign in Lebanon, which the Israeli government called Peace for the Galilee, began on June 6, 1982. According to the Kahan Commission, Israeli forces took over the suburbs of Beirut on June 12 to 14 and linked up with the Christian forces who controlled East Beirut, and on June 25 the encirclement of West Beirut was completed. About one and a half months of negotiations on the evacuation of the Palestinian fighters and the Syrian forces followed.[^12] After a negotiation mediated by the American diplomat [[Philip Habib]], Arafat and approximately fifteen thousand [[Palestine Liberation Organization|PLO]] personnel left Beirut by sea in August 1982 for Tunis and other Arab capitals.[^13]
[[Frank Terpil]], the former CIA officer, is recorded as having kept contacts with Palestinian clients from his Lebanon assignments, including reportedly figures connected to the PLO leadership in Beirut before the 1982 Israeli invasion.[^14] Robert Ames of the CIA had developed a relationship with the PLO intelligence chief [[Ali Hassan Salameh]], a Black September commander who was also a CIA asset before his assassination by Mossad in 1979.[^15]
### The Mossad, the Phalangists and the Kahan Commission
The Israeli Commission of Inquiry into the Events at the Refugee Camps in Beirut, chaired by Justice Yitzhak Kahan and known as the Kahan Commission, reported on February 8, 1983. Its report states that the link between the Christian forces and Israel was formed shortly after the start of the Lebanese civil war in 1975, that Israel supplied the Christian forces with arms, uniforms, training and instruction, and that "the Mossad was the organization that actually handled the relations between the Phalangists and Israel, and its representatives maintained close contacts with the Phalangist leadership."[^16] The [[Mossad]] and Israeli military intelligence disagreed about the relationship. The report states that the Mossad, "to a not inconsiderable extent under the influence of constant and close contact with the Phalangist elite," felt positively about strengthening it, while military intelligence emphasized the danger in the link because of the organization's unreliability and military weakness. The head of the Mossad testified on December 27, 1982 that "subjective, and not only objective, relations also emerged."[^17]
On the afternoon of September 14, 1982 a large bomb exploded in a building in the Ashrafiyeh district of Beirut where the Phalangist leader and president-elect [[Bashir Gemayel]] was meeting with Phalangist commanders. The report records that the news reached the Prime Minister, the Defense Minister and the Chief of Staff, and that Israeli forces entered West Beirut the next morning.[^18] Defense Minister [[Ariel Sharon]] went from the forward command post to Phalangist headquarters on September 15. The record of that meeting, which the commission cites as exhibit 79, was attended by Phalangist commanders, Sharon, the director of military intelligence, the head of the General Security Services and representatives of the Mossad, and in it Sharon stated that the Phalangist army would also have to enter West Beirut after the Israeli forces.[^19]
On Thursday, September 16, 1982 at about 6 p.m. members of the Phalangists entered the Shatila camp from the west and south in two groups. The Divisional Intelligence Officer on the roof of the forward command post tried to follow their movements with binoculars and could not.[^20] That evening a Phalangist officer in the camps was overheard on the Phalangist radio asking a commander what to do with 45 people; the reported reply, which the commission cites from the testimony of Brigadier General Amos Yaron, was to do with them what God orders.[^21] During the night between Thursday and Friday a Phalangist liaison officer asked for more illumination, and a staff officer at the command post answered that the Phalangists had killed 300 people and that he was unwilling to provide it; limited illumination was nevertheless ordered.[^22] The head of the Mossad gave the Cabinet a briefing on the situation after Bashir's assassination at the session of September 16 at 19:30 hours and made no reference to the Phalangists' entry into the camps.[^23]
The commission's summary states that the massacre was carried out by a Phalangist unit acting on its own, but that its entry was known to Israel. It found that no Israeli was directly responsible, and that Israel bore indirect responsibility because the Israeli forces held the area.[^24] The report found that Prime Minister [[Menachem Begin]] bore responsibility for not exercising greater involvement and awareness in introducing the Phalangists into the camps, that Sharon was responsible for ignoring the danger of bloodshed and revenge when he approved the entry, that Foreign Minister [[Yitzhak Shamir]] erred by not acting after he was alerted by the Communications Minister, and that Chief of Staff [[Rafael Eitan]] did not give the appropriate orders. Of Sharon it said that he "bears personal responsibility" and that it was fitting for him to draw the appropriate personal conclusions, and if necessary for the Prime Minister to consider removing him from office.[^25] The commission recommended that the Director of Military Intelligence, Major General [[Yehoshua Sagi|Yehoshua Saguy]], not continue in that post, and that Brigadier General Amos Yaron not serve as a field commander for three years.[^25] On the head of the Mossad the report found that he had learned of the Phalangists' role only at the Cabinet session of September 16, and that he was nevertheless obligated to express his opinion on the dangers there.[^26]
The head of the Mossad received cables from the Mossad representative in Beirut on Friday, September 15, reporting the meetings of the Chief of Staff and the Defense Minister with the Phalangist leaders. The report records that neither cable mentioned a role for the Phalangists in the camps, and that a third cable sent on Thursday at noon stated that a coordination meeting with the commander of the northern front had taken place to prepare the Phalangists for operations to clear the city.[^27]
[[Ari Ben-Menashe]] wrote that Sharon was aware in advance that the massacres were likely, and that a letter from [[Pierre Gemayel]], leader of the Christian forces, to Sharon indicated an intention to seek revenge for the assassination of his son Bashir and that many Palestinians would die; Ben-Menashe wrote that the letter was delivered to Sharon's office and read by [[Moshe Hebroni]] and Saguy.[^28] [[Seymour Hersh]] writes in chapter 21 of *The Samson Option* that Sharon's plan for the invasion had the Israeli forces act as an anti-Syrian blocking force while the Phalangists cleaned out the city of PLO followers, that the Phalangists failed to move, and that the Israeli Air Force was called on to bomb Beirut.[^29] The [[Sabra and Shatila refugee camps]] are in Beirut, and the killings there are covered on the page for the [[Sabra and Shatila massacres]].
### The April 1983 Embassy Bombing
On April 18, 1983 a car bomb struck the [[United States Embassy in Beirut]]. Seventeen Americans died in the attack, among them [[Robert C. Ames]], the CIA's chief Middle East analyst, and several other CIA officers.[^30] [[Imad Mughniyah]] is recorded as having overseen the bombing, which killed sixty-three people in all, mostly CIA and embassy staff.[^31] A column by [[Jack Anderson]] published on May 10, 1983 reported that the [[National Security Agency]] had intercepted communications, and that the CIA had gathered human intelligence, warning that a pro-Iranian Shiite group planned to bomb the embassy about a month before the attack. The column said the warnings were hedged with the statement that the information could not be verified, and that the CIA had lost seven people in the bombing. It described the material as contained in the National Intelligence Daily of April 20, a document circulated to fewer than one hundred officials, and said Anderson's associate [[Dale Van Atta]] had reviewed it.[^32]
### The October 1983 Marine Barracks Bombing
On October 23, 1983 a truck carrying the equivalent of more than twelve thousand pounds of TNT crashed through the perimeter of the compound of the U.S. contingent of the Multinational Force at Beirut International Airport, entered the Battalion Landing Team Headquarters building and detonated; 241 American servicemen were killed.[^33] A Department of Defense commission chaired by Admiral [[Robert L. J. Long]] investigated the attack. [[Frederic C. Hof]], writing on the commission's report, quotes its central message: the attack was "tantamount to an act of war using the medium of terrorism."[^34] The commission concluded that the bombing "was committed by a revolutionary organization within the cognizance of, and with possible support from two neighboring states," and that it met the criteria of a terrorist act as defined in Department of Defense Directive 2000.12. Hof records the commission's description of Lebanon as "a veritable jungle of threats."[^35] Hof writes that the Shiite neighbors of the Marines in Beirut's southern suburbs had regarded the American forces as protectors after the September 1982 Sabra and Shatila killings and by October 1983 viewed them as partisans of their enemies, and that the United States had in September 1983 entered the Lebanese conflict openly with naval gunfire on Suq al-Gharb on behalf of Gemayel's army.[^36]
On November 17, 1983 the RAND analyst [[Brian Michael Jenkins]] gave the commission a briefing on the attack, later published as a RAND note titled "The Lessons of Beirut." The note describes the attack as one calculated to cause heavy casualties, involving a vehicle loaded with explosives, with "a high probability that the attack was instigated by a government."[^37]
A Washington Post report of February 1984 by [[Bob Woodward]], Richard Harwood and Christian Williams, in the CIA reading room, stated that three days before the bombing a man named Hassan Hamiz was given a voucher for approximately $50,000 that could be cashed only at Iranian embassies in Beirut or Damascus, according to reliable intelligence reports, and that after the bombing it was cashed at the embassy in Damascus. The report described the payment as believed to be a primary link in the financing of the two suicide truck-bomb attacks of that morning, which also killed 58 soldiers at the French military headquarters. It described Hamiz as a fixer with very close relations with the Iranian ambassador in Damascus, Ali Akbar Mohtashami, whom the CIA had identified as a key figure in Middle East terrorism. Among the thirteen individuals the report said intelligence services had tied to the bombings was Hussein Musawi, who the report said had denied a direct or indirect role while praising the bombing. The cleric [[Mohammed Hussein Fadlallah]], described as the leader of Hezbollah, denied involvement in an interview in Beirut and called the charges a frame-up by Phalangist militiamen and Lebanese Army intelligence.[^38]
A CIA reading room file of 1984 press clippings carries the headlines "Americans in Beirut threatened" and "New peril for Beirut Yanks," and reports that a "new strategy" had followed the October bombing of the barracks.[^39]
[[Carter Cornick]], a former [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] special agent, is recorded in a 1990 resume packet as having supervised the investigations of the 1983 bombings of the American embassy and the Marine compound in Beirut, and of the 1984 seizure of American hostages in Lebanon. The packet also credits him with creating the bureau's crisis management protocol for special events.[^40] In August 1988 United Press International reported that Cornick and the former assistant United States attorney [[Eugene Propper]] had formed [[Counter Terrorism Consultants, Inc.]], a security consultancy seeded with about $500,000 from investors the founders declined to name. The UPI report also said Cornick had directed the investigations into the bombing of the U.S. Embassy and the Marine barracks in Beirut.[^41] [[E. Lawrence Barcella, Jr.]] is recorded as having worked on the inquiries into the 1983 bombings of the American embassies in Beirut and Kuwait and of the Marine garrison in Beirut.[^42]
Imad Mughniyah's page records that six months after the embassy attack he also oversaw the Marine barracks bombing, in which 241 service personnel died, including 220 Marines.[^31]
### The Inman Panel
After the second attack on the embassy in Beirut in September 1984, the State Department asked Congress for $366 million and 247 additional positions for security.[^43] The Secretary of State's Advisory Panel on Overseas Security, appointed in July 1984 and headed by the retired vice admiral [[Bobby Ray Inman]], former deputy director of Central Intelligence, made 91 recommendations in June 1985. The Washington Post reported that they included strengthening security at 126 of the department's 262 embassies and consulates and creating a diplomatic security bureau with more than 1,000 officers, at a cost of $3.5 billion over five years for rebuilding and refurbishing.[^44] The panel recommended creation of a Bureau for Diplomatic Security reporting to the Under Secretary for Management.[^45] At a House subcommittee hearing on diplomatic security on November 13, 1985, the chairman criticized the Administration for failing to supply a legislative package from the Inman recommendations more than four months after the report.[^46]
### William Buckley
[[William Buckley]], a lieutenant colonel of the [[United States Army]] who served as the CIA's chief of station in Beirut, was kidnapped in the city on March 16, 1984.[^47] The CIA's own memorial page lists him as an officer of the agency and a lieutenant colonel of the Army.[^47] The Washington Post reported that he had been assigned to Lebanon in mid-1983 to help the Lebanese develop methods for thwarting terrorism and to rebuild the American intelligence presence after the embassy bombing, and that the CIA called his kidnapping its "private hostage crisis."[^30] The District Court for the District of Columbia, in [[Surette v. Islamic Republic of Iran]] (2002), found that he was held for 444 days and died in captivity on June 3, 1985.[^48] The court's findings describe him as "the highest-ranking CIA official in Beirut," a position that was an "open secret" within the official Lebanese government and among the violent religious factions vying for power in the city.[^49]
Iran-Contra records place the first reports of his death in the autumn of 1985. In the spring of 1985 reports reached the CIA that Buckley was being tortured, and according to former Attorney General [[Edwin Meese]], his fate was of special concern to [[William Casey]].[^50] [[Lawrence Walsh]]'s final report records that in early October 1985 "the terrorist group believed to be holding the hostages in Beirut reported that Buckley was dead."[^51] The report of the [[Tower Commission]] quotes a memorandum that [[Oliver North]] sent on December 5, 1985, which states: "We are relatively confident of information that former Beirut Chief of Station, Bill Buckley, is dead."[^52] His remains were found on a Beirut highway in December 1991.[^53]
Buckley was also the subject of remote viewing tasks. A May 4, 1984 memorandum by Lieutenant Colonel Brian Buzby of the [[U.S. Army Intelligence and Security Command]] argued that the [[Center Lane]] program should continue, because it "has established the feasibility and soundness of the remote viewing phenomenon as an intelligence collection tool."[^54] The memorandum's attached summary covers the Buckley case.[^55] The [[Stargate Project]] record places eleven remote viewing interviews on Buckley between March 21 and April 20, 1984, made at the request of the CIA.[^55]
A November 1984 final report from [[SRI International]], prepared under a Grill Flame contract with the Defense Intelligence Agency and written by [[Harold Puthoff]], [[Edwin C. May]] and Beverly Humphrey, carries a "Search Task, U.S. Envoy to Beirut, Buckley." Its product states that the individual of interest was alive, "in Lebanon but not in Beirut proper," south of the city, and it names a town called Jdaide.[^56]
### The Hostage Channel and Terry Waite
By the end of June 1985 six Americans were being held in Beirut by pro-Iranian Shiite groups: Buckley, the Presbyterian minister Benjamin Weir, the Catholic priest Lawrence Martin Jenco, the Associated Press reporter [[Terry Anderson]], the hospital administrator [[David Jacobsen]], and the university dean Thomas P. Sutherland.[^57] Walsh records that on September 14, 1985 a second shipment of 408 TOW missiles went from Israel to Iran, "finally resulting in the release of one American hostage, Reverend Benjamin Weir," and that [[Michael Ledeen]] said the release "confirmed the legitimacy of Ghorbanifar as a channel to powerful people in Iran." Officials had expected more, particularly the release of Buckley, whom the administration had sought first.[^58] A note by the Shultz aide Nicholas Platt of September 15, 1985, recording that "Polecat [is] beginning to Pay off" and that Weir "has been released," is quoted in the report.[^59] Walsh also reproduces a State Department cable of September 17, 1985 addressed to the embassies in Beirut, Damascus and London.[^60]
The report records that Poindexter's plan for the May 1986 Tehran trip by [[Robert McFarlane]] called for two American hostages to be released to the U.S. ambassador in Beirut when the American party arrived in Tehran, two more after a second aircraft carrying HAWK parts left Tel Aviv, and, after a third aircraft, for the remains of Buckley to be turned over.[^61] On May 27, 1986 the Iranian adviser told the American delegation that the hostage-holders in Beirut had been contacted and had put heavy conditions on the release, including the release of Dawa prisoners held in Kuwait.[^62] The release of Father Jenco on July 26, 1986 was attributed to the Iranians in a July 28 memorandum from Casey to [[John Poindexter]].[^63] Walsh also records the account of Ledeen that the CIA official [[Theodore Shackley|Shackley]] asked in April or May 1985 about ransoming Buckley.[^64]
Israeli accounts of the same period were published in the Israeli press in December 1986. [[Yoel Marcus]] of [[Haaretz]] wrote, from Israeli sources, that in March 1985 [[Shimon Peres]] told his adviser [[Al Schwimmer]] that the Americans had asked for help freeing their hostages, particularly the CIA station chief in Beirut, William Buckley. Marcus wrote that Schwimmer suggested using [[Yaacov Nimrodi]] and "came up with the idea of 'arms for Buckley.'"[^65] The [[New York Times]] correspondent [[Thomas L. Friedman]] reported that the Israeli account contained factual errors and conflicted with the American version, and Ledeen called it "total nonsense."[^66]
[[Terry Waite]], the special representative of the Archbishop of Canterbury, visited Beirut in November 1985.[^67] North's December 5, 1985 memorandum cites that November 14 visit, together with a separate contact through Canada, as the basis for the statement that the other five American hostages (Anderson, Jacobsen, Jenco, Kilburn and Sutherland) were then alive.[^52] The same memorandum says that Waite and others reported the hostage holders were under "immense political and military pressure from the Syrians, Druze, Phalange, and Amal."[^52] North wrote again on December 9, 1985: "Terry Waite, our only access to events in Lebanon, readily admits that his influence is marginal at best."[^68] Waite was freed on November 18, 1991.[^69]
[[Ian Stuart Spiro]] is recorded as having lived in Beirut during the 1970s and 1980s, making contacts with Lebanese religious leaders and the Islamic Jihad, and as having helped negotiate the release of hostages according to the former hostage David Jacobsen.[^70]
### Sun Streak, Middle East Collection 10 and the Lebanon Hostages
The Defense Intelligence Agency's [[Sun Streak]] program ran remote viewing tasks from 1987 through 1990, including tasks on the Lebanon hostages. Project 8806 was tasked to locate the building in Beirut where Waite was held. Viewers 003, 011 and 095 worked the target in sessions on February 16, 1988. The report of one session records that viewer 003 determined the direction to Waite's present location from a map of Lebanon.[^71]
Project 8808 reports are headed "WRV," for written remote viewing, the method associated with [[Angela Dellafiora]].[^72] A DIA operational report of February 24, 1988 on Project 8808 describes a Lebanese Christian who had served with the [[Amal]] militia, and identifies him as involved in the execution of the kidnapping of Marine lieutenant colonel [[William Richard Higgins]], seized on February 17, 1988.[^73] A session report from viewer 011 in the same project records the tasking "to determine the current location" of the same officer.[^74] Higgins's mummified remains were found in a bag left in a school parking lot in southern Beirut about two and a half years later.[^75] The [[Louis Andre]] page draws on the same reports for its account of viewer 079.[^73]
[[Lester Coleman]], a [[Defense Intelligence Agency|DIA]] officer, is described in [[Cheri Seymour]]'s account as having run a network of agents in Beirut for six years with the secret unit [[Middle East Collection 10]] in [[Cyprus]], with the mission of finding American hostages. Two senior members of the cell, [[Matthew Kevin Gannon]] and Major [[Charles Dennis McKee]], were on [[Pan Am Flight 103]] after returning from a mission in Beirut. After the explosion the Beirut end of the cell was reportedly "blown": the German Lebanese member [[Werner Tony Asmar]] was killed in a bomb explosion at his office in east Beirut on May 26, 1988, and the Lebanese army officer [[Charlie Frezeli]] was shot dead at his home in east Beirut in November 1989.[^76] The account also describes a Beirut-Nicosia-United States pipeline of heroin, cash and documents running through the [[Euramae Trading Company]].[^77]
### The Army's Intelligence Support Activity
The [[United States Army Intelligence Support Activity]] page records that a five-person team of the unit returned to Beirut after the October 23, 1983 bombing, that in 1983 a survey team led by Lieutenant Colonel William V. Cowan had warned that the Marine headquarters was a tempting target, and that a 1985 message from North to Poindexter said "We already have one ISA officer in Beirut." It also records that in mid-September 1985 the CIA ordered the unit to cease contact with Lebanese Christian forces.[^78] CBS News reported on November 22, 1985 that a Sea Spray helicopter had flown a representative of the Lebanese Christian leader [[Camille Chamoun]] out of Beirut to Israel in 1981.[^79]
### FIDCO and the 1983 Reconstruction Letters
The July 12, 1983 letter from [[George K. Pender]], signing as president of [[First Intercontinental Development Corporation]] (FIDCO), was addressed to [[Amin Gemayel]], president of Lebanon. As reproduced by Cheri Seymour, the letter says that Pender had visited Beirut in February and May 1983 for meetings with the Chamouns, [[Maurice Ghanem]] and [[Mourad Baroudy]], and that FIDCO offered to arrange financing for government-sector projects, including the rebuilding of Damour and Alkhyam. The letter asks to meet Gemayel in Washington on July 21, 1983 and states: "As per copy of attached letter, the White House is actively interested in our efforts."[^80]
### BCCI, Bank of America and Mohammed Hammoud
[[Roy P. M. Carlson|Roy Carlson]] spent twenty years at [[Bank of America]], was stationed in [[Tehran]] in the 1960s and in Beirut in the early 1970s, and advised [[Agha Hasan Abedi]] on the formation of [[BCCI]] in 1972. The Senate report on BCCI records this career.[^81]
[[Mohammed Hammoud]], a Lebanese merchant, is described in the Senate report by the former BCCI general manager in New York, [[Abdur Sakhia]], who first knew him in Beirut, as "a small time money changer."[^82] Hammoud purchased the shares in [[First American Bank|First American]] that had been held by [[Clark Clifford]] and [[Robert Altman]]. The report records that Hammoud "had contact with officials from the State Department concerning the release of U.S. hostages from Beirut."[^83] His U.S. real estate investments were managed by [[Charles W. Hostler]], later U.S. ambassador to [[Bahrain]], who had met Hammoud in the 1960s, when Hostler was a young Air Force officer attached to Lebanon, Jordan and Cyprus and based in Beirut.[^83]
According to [[Michael Pillsbury]], Hammoud provided him with intelligence on U.S. hostages held in Lebanon, which Pillsbury then passed to U.S. government agencies. The report records this account and Pillsbury's denial of a separate allegation about the identification of Hammoud's body.[^84] The report also records that Hammoud allegedly died in [[Geneva]] in 1990 while visiting his doctor, that he is buried in Beirut, and that insurance companies reportedly refused to pay on his life policy because his body was found to be several inches shorter than the height recorded at his last medical examination.[^85]
### Other Records Placed in Beirut
An FBI memorandum of July 23, 1968 on the Sirhan investigation, in the CIA reading room, reports that a source told the bureau's Beirut representative that on June 22, 1968 [[Salim Lawzi]], publisher of the Beirut newspaper Hawadith, told [[Anwar Jamal]], press counselor of the United Arab Republic, that he had met Lebanese figures to organize Sirhan's defense; the memorandum records that the United Arab Republic considered Lawzi a strong pro-Nasserist who "sometimes strays for opportunistic reasons."[^86]
The Ninth Circuit's opinion in *United States v. Abouammo* describes a $100,000 wire in February 2015 to a Beirut account opened under the father's name of [[Ahmad Abouammo]], the former Twitter employee convicted of acting as an agent of Saudi Arabia, followed by a second $100,000 wire in July 2015 to the same Lebanese account.[^87]
### Carnegie Middle East Center
The [[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]] operates a Middle East center in Beirut. The Malcolm H. Kerr Carnegie Middle East Center was founded in 2006. The endowment also runs centers in Asia, Berlin, Brussels and New Delhi.[^88]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Walsh, Lawrence E. *Final Report of the Independent Counsel for Iran/Contra Matters*, 1993, chapter 1, note 73, identifying Buckley as "the CIA's chief of station in the Lebanese capital." https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/chap_01.htm
[^2]: Macintyre, Ben. *A Spy Among Friends: Kim Philby and the Great Betrayal*. Crown, 2014, on Philby's departure from Beirut on January 23, 1963 and his later presence in Moscow.
[^3]: House of Commons, statement "Mr. Harold Philby," *Hansard*, HC Deb, July 1, 1963. https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1963/jul/01/mr-harold-philby
[^4]: Macintyre, Ben. *A Spy Among Friends: Kim Philby and the Great Betrayal*. Crown, 2014, on Philby's departure from Beirut on January 23, 1963.
[^5]: U.S. Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, vol. IX, *The Near and Middle East*, part 1, doc. 367, memorandum of conversation by Jernegan, September 24, 1954, pp. 856-858. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v09p1/d367
[^6]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders: An Interim Report*, S. Rept. 94-465 (November 20, 1975), p. 74.
[^7]: Sale, Richard, "Exclusive: Saddam key in early CIA plot," United Press International, April 10, 2003. https://www.upi.com/Exclusive-Saddam-key-in-early-CIA-plot/65571050017416/
[^8]: Dorril, Stephen. "Trying to kill Nasser." *Lobster*, issue 9 (1985), citing Wilbur Crane Eveland, *Ropes of Sand* (Norton, 1980), on the Beirut meeting with the envoy of MI6 deputy director George Young.
[^9]: Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, "Ehud Barak," official biography. https://www.gov.il/en/departments/people/ehud_barak
[^10]: U.S. Mission to the United Nations cable 2074, June 19, 1981, transmitting the text of Security Council Resolution 487 (adopted unanimously, 15-0, June 19, 1981). FOIA case F-1982-00753, document C09000076. https://archive.org/details/F-1982-00753
[^11]: U.S. Embassy Beirut, cable 3859, June 11, 1981, "Israeli Raid on Iraq: Claims of U.S. Involvement," FOIA case F-1982-00753, document C09000042, pp. 1 to 4. https://archive.org/details/F-1982-00753
[^12]: Commission of Inquiry into the Events at the Refugee Camps in Beirut, *Report*, February 8, 1983, chapter on the background of the events (war of June 1982 and the encirclement of West Beirut), Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, *Israel's Foreign Relations: Selected Documents*, vol. 8, 1982-1984, doc. 104. https://mfa.gov.il/MFA/ForeignPolicy/MFADocuments/Yearbook6/Pages/104%20Report%20of%20the%20Commission%20of%20Inquiry%20into%20the%20e.aspx
[^13]: Rubin, Barry, and Judith Colp Rubin, *Yasser Arafat: A Political Biography* (Oxford University Press, 2003), and Shlaim, Avi, *The Iron Wall* (W.W. Norton, 2000), on the evacuation of Arafat and about 15,000 PLO personnel from Beirut by sea in August 1982 after Habib's mediation.
[^14]: Corn, David. *Blond Ghost: Ted Shackley and the CIA's Crusades*. Simon & Schuster, 1994, pp. 298-330.
[^15]: Rubin, Barry. *Revolution Until Victory? The Politics and History of the PLO* (Harvard University Press, 1994); Quandt, William B., *Peace Process*.
[^16]: Kahan Commission, *Report*, February 8, 1983, background chapter on the relations between the Christian forces and Israel. https://mfa.gov.il/MFA/ForeignPolicy/MFADocuments/Yearbook6/Pages/104%20Report%20of%20the%20Commission%20of%20Inquiry%20into%20the%20e.aspx
[^17]: Kahan Commission, *Report*, background chapter, on the differences between the Mossad and Military Intelligence and the testimony of the head of the Mossad of December 27, 1982, transcript p. 1437.
[^18]: Kahan Commission, *Report*, chapter "The Assassination of Bashir Gemayel and the I.D.F.'s entry into West Beirut."
[^19]: Kahan Commission, *Report*, chapter on the events of September 15, 1982, record of the meeting at Phalangist headquarters (exhibit 79).
[^20]: Kahan Commission, *Report*, chapter on the entry of the Phalangists into the camps on Thursday, September 16, 1982.
[^21]: Kahan Commission, *Report*, section on the conversation overheard on the Phalangist transmitter, citing the testimony of Lieutenant Elul and of Brigadier General Yaron (pp. 696 and 730).
[^22]: Kahan Commission, *Report*, section on the night of Thursday to Friday, citing the testimony of Lieutenant Elul, pp. 1212-1213.
[^23]: Kahan Commission, *Report*, section on the Cabinet session of September 16, 1982 at 19:30 hours.
[^24]: Kahan Commission, *Report*, summary of the findings. https://mfa.gov.il/MFA/ForeignPolicy/MFADocuments/Yearbook6/Pages/104%20Report%20of%20the%20Commission%20of%20Inquiry%20into%20the%20e.aspx
[^25]: Kahan Commission, *Report*, section "Recommendations," on the Minister of Defense, the Chief of Staff, the Director of Military Intelligence and the Division Commander.
[^26]: Kahan Commission, *Report*, section on the head of the Mossad (Institute for Intelligence and Special Projects).
[^27]: Kahan Commission, *Report*, section on the head of the Mossad, citing cables from the Mossad representative in Beirut of September 15, 1982 (exhibits 161 and 162).
[^28]: Ben-Menashe, Ari. *Profits of War: Inside the Secret U.S.-Israeli Arms Network*. Sheridan Square Press, 1992 (TrineDay reprint, 2015). The claim about Sharon is Ben-Menashe's.
[^29]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991, chapter 21.
[^30]: Woodward, Bob, and Charles R. Babcock, "Captive Galvanized Hostage Search: Buckley's Plight Became Agency Crusade," *The Washington Post*, CIA reading room copy CIA-RDP96-00788R001900530002-3.
[^31]: Jacobsen, Annie. *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis*. Little, Brown and Company, 2017.
[^32]: Anderson, Jack, "U.S. Was Warned of Bombing at Beirut Embassy," *The Washington Post*, May 10, 1983, CIA reading room copy CIA-RDP90-00965R000100140083-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000100140083-8
[^33]: Hof, "The Beirut Bombing of October 1983," *Parameters* 15, no. 2, section "Circumstances of the Bombing," DTIC ADA520359. https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA520359
[^34]: Hof, "The Beirut Bombing of October 1983," opening epigraph quoting the report of the Department of Defense Commission on Beirut International Airport Terrorist Act, December 20, 1983, DTIC ADA520359.
[^35]: Hof, "The Beirut Bombing of October 1983," *Parameters* 15, no. 2, notes 3, 6 and 9, quoting the Long Commission on "a veritable jungle of threats," on the perpetrators, and on DOD Directive 2000.12.
[^36]: Hof, "The Beirut Bombing of October 1983," on the altered perception of the American presence between September 1982 and October 1983 and the naval gunfire on Suq al-Gharb.
[^37]: Jenkins, Brian Michael. *The Lessons of Beirut: Testimony Before the Long Commission*. RAND Note N-2114-RC, February 1984, preface and text. https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA153072
[^38]: Woodward, Bob, Richard Harwood and Christian Williams, "Beirut Bombing: Mysterious Death Warriors," first report in the series on terrorism, *The Washington Post*, February 1984, CIA reading room copy CIA-RDP90-00965R000807600023-9.
[^39]: CIA reading room file CIA-RDP96-00788R000100330001-5, 1984 press clippings headed "Americans in Beirut threatened" and "New peril for Beirut Yanks."
[^40]: Counter Terrorism Consultants, Inc., resume packet for Carter Cornick, 1990.
[^41]: United Press International, report of August 2, 1988, on the formation of Counter Terrorism Consultants, Inc.
[^42]: Hevesi, Dennis. "E. Lawrence Barcella, Prosecutor of Terrorism Cases, Dies at 65." *The New York Times*, November 17, 2010 (corrected November 23, 2010). https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/18/us/18barcella.html
[^43]: Report of the Secretary of State's Advisory Panel on Overseas Security (the Inman Report), part 4, "FY-1985 Security Supplemental." https://irp.fas.org/threat/inman/part04.htm
[^44]: Lee, Gary, "Shultz Endorses Advice To Rebuild Embassies," *The Washington Post*, June 26, 1985, CIA reading room copy CIA-RDP90-00965R000403740009-8.
[^45]: Report of the Secretary of State's Advisory Panel on Overseas Security, part 1, introduction. https://irp.fas.org/threat/inman/part01.htm
[^46]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum on the hearing "Diplomatic Security" before the Subcommittee on International Operations of the House Foreign Affairs Committee, November 13, 1985, CIA-RDP87M01152R001101400030-7.
[^47]: Central Intelligence Agency, "William F. Buckley," Honoring Our Heroes. https://cia.gov/legacy/honoring-heroes/heroes/william-f-buckley
[^48]: *Surette v. Islamic Republic of Iran*, 231 F. Supp. 2d 260 (D.D.C. 2002) (Friedman, J.), Civil Action No. 01-0570 (PLF), findings of fact I.A and I.B and conclusions of law. Reporter text at https://thecjf.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/final-opinion-Surette.pdf
[^49]: *Surette*, 231 F. Supp. 2d 260, findings of fact I.A, quoting the court's description of Buckley's position in Beirut.
[^50]: Walsh, *Final Report*, chapter 15, "William J. Casey," citing Meese, Grand Jury, November 20, 1987, p. 83. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/chap_15.htm
[^51]: Walsh, *Final Report*, chapter 1, text and note 101 (citing Ledeen grand jury testimony of September 18, 1987, p. 105). https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/chap_01.htm
[^52]: *Report of the President's Special Review Board* (Tower Commission), February 26, 1987, pp. 177-178, text of the North memorandum of December 5, 1985. https://archive.org/details/towercommission00unit
[^53]: Abu-Nasr, Donna. "Hostage Crisis Is Finally Over for America: William Buckley's Remains Found on Beirut Highway," Associated Press, *The Seattle Times*, December 27, 1991.
[^54]: Buzby, Brian, Lieutenant Colonel, "Purpose: To Provide an Overview of Center Lane," May 4, 1984, CIA-RDP96-00788R001600510001-9, recommended position and points supporting it.
[^55]: Buzby, "Purpose: To Provide an Overview of Center Lane," May 4, 1984, with attached summary of information on the Buckley case and the CIA memorandum "Comments on Recent CENTER LANE Experience," May 1, 1984, CIA-RDP96-00788R001700220003-8.
[^56]: SRI International (Harold E. Puthoff, Edwin C. May and Beverly S. Humphrey), *Final Report, Covering the Period October 1983 to October 1984*, SRI/GF-0267, November 1984, Operational RV Tasks, item 2, "Search Task, U.S. Envoy to Beirut, Buckley (JS #44)," CIA-RDP96-00788R001800220001-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp96-00788r001800220001-9
[^57]: Walsh, *Final Report*, chapter 1, text and note 73, listing the American hostages held in Beirut by the end of June 1985. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/chap_01.htm
[^58]: Walsh, *Final Report*, chapter 1, text and notes 101 and 102, on the September 14, 1985 shipment of 408 TOW missiles and the release of Weir. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/chap_01.htm
[^59]: Walsh, *Final Report*, chapter 24, text and note 64, Platt note of September 15, 1985 (ALW 0036343). https://irp.fas.org/offdocs/walsh/chap_24.htm
[^60]: Walsh, *Final Report*, chapter 24, text and notes, citing the Department of State cable to Beirut, Damascus and London of September 17, 1985. https://irp.fas.org/offdocs/walsh/chap_24.htm
[^61]: Walsh, *Final Report*, chapter 1, text and note 143, citing McFarlane, FBI 302, March 13, 1987, pp. 10-11. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/chap_01.htm
[^62]: Walsh, *Final Report*, chapter 1, text and note 151, citing Teicher Note, May 26, 1986. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/chap_01.htm
[^63]: Walsh, *Final Report*, chapter 15, text and note 71, citing Casey to Poindexter, July 28, 1986, ER 31324-26. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/chap_15.htm
[^64]: Walsh, *Final Report*, chapter 1, text and notes 73, 76 to 78, 82, 101 to 102, on Ledeen's account of Shackley's April or May 1985 inquiry. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/chap_01.htm
[^65]: Marcus, Yoel, *Haaretz*, December 1986, Israeli reconstruction of the arms channel, as summarized in Friedman, Thomas L., "Israelis' Account on Arms: How U.S. Set Up the Deals," *The New York Times*, December 11, 1986, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP90-00965R000403730010-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000403730010-7
[^66]: Friedman, "Israelis' Account on Arms," *The New York Times*, December 11, 1986, CIA-RDP90-00965R000403730010-7, on the factual errors Friedman found and Ledeen's reply.
[^67]: *Report of the President's Special Review Board* (Tower Commission), February 26, 1987, pp. 158 and 380, on Terry Waite's role in the hostage negotiations. https://archive.org/details/towercommission00unit
[^68]: *Report of the President's Special Review Board* (Tower Commission), pp. 193-194, North memorandum of December 9, 1985.
[^69]: BBC News, "Terry Waite freed," November 18, 1991, archive.org item bbc-news-report-terry-waite-freed-18th-november-1991.
[^70]: Seymour, Cheri. *The Last Circle: Danny Casolaro's Investigation into the Octopus and the PROMIS Software Scandal*. TrineDay, 2010.
[^71]: DIA, Sun Streak Project 8806 session reports of February 16, 1988 (viewers 003, 011 and 095), CIA-RDP96-00789R003400090001-5. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP96-00789R003400090001-5
[^72]: DIA, "8808 WRV Session 1 - 18 Feb 88, Source 079, Summary, Notes & Drawings," CIA-RDP96-00789R003400750002-1, catalogued in the CIA FOIA reading room STARGATE collection on archive.org.
[^73]: DIA, "SUN STREAK Operational Report - 8808," February 24, 1988, CIA-RDP96-00789R003400980001-7. https://archive.org/download/CIA-RDP96-00789R003400980001-7/CIA-RDP96-00789R003400980001-7_djvu.txt
[^74]: DIA, "PROJECT SUN STREAK," project 8808, session of February 28, 1988, viewer 011, CIA-RDP96-00789R003401110001-1. https://archive.org/download/CIA-RDP96-00789R003401110001-1/CIA-RDP96-00789R003401110001-1_djvu.txt
[^75]: Jacobsen, Annie. *Phenomena*. Little, Brown and Company, 2017.
[^76]: Seymour, Cheri. *The Last Circle*. TrineDay, 2010.
[^77]: Seymour, *The Last Circle*.
[^78]: Emerson, Steven. *Secret Warriors*, pp. 185 to 193 and 231 to 233; CBS Evening News, "CIA Activities," July 18, 1985, CIA reading room copy CIA-RDP90-00965R000504260013-4.
[^79]: Martin, David, "Secret Army Units," CBS Evening News, November 22, 1985, CIA reading room copy CIA-RDP90-00965R000504260010-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000504260010-7
[^80]: Seymour, Cheri. *The Last Circle*. TrineDay, 2010, chapter 7 (letters of July 12, 1983 as reproduced there).
[^81]: Kerry, John, and Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate*. December 1992, chapter 11. https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm
[^82]: Kerry and Brown, *The BCCI Affair*, chapter 15, "Mohammed Hammoud: BCCI's Flexible Front-Man," testimony of Abdur Sakhia. https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/15hammoud.htm
[^83]: Kerry and Brown, *The BCCI Affair*, chapter 15, on Hammoud's State Department contacts, the First American shares, and Hostler's management of his U.S. investments.
[^84]: Kerry and Brown, *The BCCI Affair*, chapter 15, on Michael Pillsbury's account and his denial.
[^85]: Kerry and Brown, *The BCCI Affair*, chapter 15, on Hammoud's death, burial and the insurance claim.
[^86]: Deputy Director to FBI, "Sirhan Investigation," July 23, 1968, CIA reading room document 07169746. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-07169746
[^87]: *United States v. Abouammo*, 122 F.4th 1072, No. 22-10348 (9th Cir. Dec. 4, 2024). https://cdn.ca9.uscourts.gov/datastore/opinions/2024/12/04/22-10348.pdf
[^88]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, "Our Story." https://carnegieendowment.org/our-story

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@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ Jerusalem is an ancient city in the [[Middle East]], situated on a plateau in th
### Political and Intelligence Significance
Jerusalem is the seat of Israel's government, including the [[Knesset]] (parliament), the [[Supreme Court]], and the prime minister's residence at Beit Aghion. Israel's intelligence community is centered on [[Tel Aviv]] (Mossad headquarters at Glilot), but political oversight, including [[Mossad]] director briefings to the prime minister, occurs in Jerusalem. Key decisions documented in this vault - including Prime Minister [[Menachem Begin]]'s authorization of the [[Sabra and Shatila massacres|Sabra and Shatila]] operation, Begin's negotiations at [[Camp David summit|Camp David]], and the political direction of Israeli intelligence operations during the Iran-Contra period - were made by officials based in Jerusalem.[^1]
Jerusalem is the seat of Israel's government, including the [[Knesset]] (parliament), the [[Supreme Court of Israel|Supreme Court]], and the prime minister's residence at Beit Aghion. Israel's intelligence community is centered on [[Tel Aviv]] (Mossad headquarters at Glilot), but political oversight, including [[Mossad]] director briefings to the prime minister, occurs in Jerusalem. Key decisions documented in this vault - including Prime Minister [[Menachem Begin]]'s authorization of the [[Sabra and Shatila massacres|Sabra and Shatila]] operation, Begin's negotiations at [[Camp David summit|Camp David]], and the political direction of Israeli intelligence operations during the Iran-Contra period - were made by officials based in Jerusalem.[^1]
### Camp David and Peace Negotiations

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@ -0,0 +1,201 @@
---
aliases:
- Philly
- Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
category: "City"
tags:
- Geography
- Pennsylvania
- OrganizedCrime
- ScarfoFamily
- BustOutBars
- PoliceCorruption
- MOVEBombing
- HolmesburgPrison
- PhiladelphiaExperiment
- MethamphetamineTrade
- BlackMass
- TissueTrafficking
- NuclearProcurement
summary: "Pennsylvania city whose vault record runs through the Locust Street bust-out bars, the Scarfo family and its methamphetamine trade, the 1985 MOVE bombing, the Holmesburg Army tests and the Horsch case."
created: 2026-10-15
updated: 2026-10-15
---
Philadelphia is the seat of Philadelphia County in southeastern [[Pennsylvania]], where the city and the county have operated under one government since the Act of Consolidation of 1854, the law that also created the [[Philadelphia Police Department]].[^1]
### Police payoffs and the Locust Street bust-out bars
The [[Pennsylvania Crime Commission]] issued its report on police corruption in Philadelphia in March 1974. It found that police corruption in the city was "ongoing, widespread, systematic, and occurring at all levels of the Police Department," in every police district and at ranks from patrolman to inspector, and it identified more than 400 individual officers by first name, last initial and badge or payroll number as having received improper payments in cash, merchandise, sexual services or meals. Among the liquor-licence findings, more than 20 officers had received illegal cash payments from bars and about 50 from after-hours clubs, and the commission found "widespread shakedowns of licensed liquor operators on the 'Locust Street Strip'" by members of the department, with evidence that payments to the police were directly responsible for several illegal and open "bust-out" operations.[^2] One bust-out bar owner cooperated with the commission for more than a year and recorded conversations about payoffs; the owner and his employees paid an aggregate of $800 a month to policemen in every unit that covered the area.[^2] The commission separately reported that in narcotics enforcement the corruption it found was more individual than squad-wide, with about eight officers identified and an estimated fifteen more unidentified.[^3]
The report traces the Strip back through earlier inquiries. A [[United States Senate]] subcommittee examined the failure of local unions to stop employers from forcing employees to solicit drinks in 1962, and heard from the commissioner of police and the inspector of the Central Division in which the Strip lies; under oath the inspector said the record would show that the department had done a job in this area "that cannot be equaled by any police department in the country." The commission's note to that passage records that in 1962 the inspector in charge of the Central Division, where most of the bust-out operations were located, was [[Frank Rizzo|Frank L. Rizzo]].[^4] Rizzo was police commissioner from 1967 to 1971 and mayor from 1972 to 1980, and the commission's history of the department cites accusations concerning Mayor Rizzo's use of a special squad from the Internal Affairs Bureau, drawn from the presentment of a special grand jury of June Term 1972.[^1][^4] The same history records [[Joseph F. O'Neill]] as acting commissioner from February 1971 and commissioner from 1972.[^4]
The Why Not Lounge, in a building that also housed the Versailles restaurant, was run by [[Irvin Goltzer]]. Goltzer paid an inspector each month through a "bagman" because he had not had enough contact with the officers to be trusted; his manager, [[Salvatore La Russa]], negotiated the payoffs, and when Goltzer did not want to pay, La Russa advised him that otherwise "they will bust the joint."[^5] For a month, at the request of its owner, Goltzer and La Russa also ran the [[Brass Monkey]] at 1227 Walnut Street as a bust-out, while the protection payments made for the Why Not Lounge kept police away.[^6] A separate chapter of the report describes a police lieutenant working as a bartender at a Gaslight Lounge, where obscene shows were performed when he was on duty.[^7]
La Russa, known as "Sam the Barber," immigrated from Sicily in 1951, worked as a barber in South Philadelphia, and later ran a series of bars on Locust Street that he called "bust-out" joints, then restaurants and clubs on South Street and Delaware Avenue.[^8] The 1990 report of the Pennsylvania Crime Commission lists his prior arrests for liquor law violations at bust-out bars around 13th and Locust Streets and his ownership of La Cucina Ristorante at 121 South Street, which it describes as a hangout for members of Scarfo's family. The former [[La Cosa Nostra|LCN]] members and government witnesses [[Thomas DelGiorno]] and [[Nicholas Caramandi]] testified that La Russa's house in Whitemarsh Township was used by [[Nicodemo Scarfo]] for an LCN induction ceremony.[^9] La Russa died of a heart attack at Chestnut Hill Hospital on Sunday, August 18, 1996, aged 58. He had said under oath that he first met Scarfo as a teenager around 11th and Carpenter Streets in South Philadelphia, and Scarfo hosted a Christmas party at La Cucina in 1985 that drew intense law-enforcement surveillance. Questioned before a federal grand jury in 1987 about the induction at his house, La Russa said he had invited Scarfo several times, that he was called away to work that day and did not share in the catered meal for about 40 people brought in from his restaurant, that he was a frequent guest at Scarfo's waterfront home in Fort Lauderdale and had supervised some construction work there, and that he was in the dark about Scarfo's mob activities: "I never ask him any questions." Caramandi testified later that he and two other mob figures were formally initiated that afternoon after La Russa left the house.[^8]
### The Bruno and Scarfo family
The Philadelphia branch of La Cosa Nostra was led by [[Angelo Bruno]]. The 1990 Pennsylvania Crime Commission report dates his tenure as boss from 1959 until his murder on March 21, 1980.[^9] The Third Circuit gave the start of his tenure as "approximately 1960," and wrote that [[Phillip Testa]] succeeded him, that Scarfo served as consigliere under Testa and became boss after Testa was "blown up in his house in early 1981."[^10] Scarfo and [[Salvatore Merlino]] took over the one-third interest in a business held by [[Salvatore Testa]], a partner, after Salvatore Testa was murdered on September 14, 1984.[^10]
In a RICO trial that ran ten weeks and concluded on November 19, 1988, in the [[United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania]], members of the Scarfo crime family were convicted of conspiring to participate in, and participating in, an enterprise through a pattern of racketeering activity. [[Joseph Pungitore]] was also convicted of participating in a conspiracy to distribute methamphetamine; Scarfo, Merlino and Joseph Ciancaglini were convicted of possession of methamphetamine with intent to distribute it; and Scarfo, Merlino and Pungitore were convicted of illegal sports bookmaking. The court of appeals called the case "the latest saga in the government's dismantling of the Philadelphia branch of La Cosa Nostra."[^11] DelGiorno testified that in May 1983 Ciancaglini, then a captain, authorized him to arrange a methamphetamine deal between two dealers, with Merlino's approval, under which members of the enterprise would receive $3,000 for every pound sold, and that he received $150,000 from transactions involving fifty pounds.[^11]
The Pennsylvania Crime Commission's 1990 report states that the Scarfo family was particularly active in methamphetamine production and distribution during the 1980s, that Philadelphia was known as the "meth" capital of the world in the early 1980s, that the [[Drug Enforcement Administration]] had labeled the city the "methamphetamine capital of the world," that the mob associate [[Raymond Martorano]], who became a made member in April 1981, entered the Philadelphia methamphetamine market in the late 1970s, and that the family collected extortion payments from three major methamphetamine networks in the city.[^9] The same report records that a Scarfo family member became involved in 1981 with members of the [[Pagans Motorcycle Club|Pagan outlaw motorcycle gang]] in manufacturing and distributing methamphetamine.[^9] The 1990 report describes the chemical P2P as the precursor imported from Western Europe and names a Dresher, Pennsylvania, supplier who sold it to Martorano.[^9]
### Film, the Horsch circle and the Black Mass
Raymond Charles Hoersch, who later used the name [[R.C. Horsch]], opened [[Underground Cinema 16]], a 16-millimeter theater at 2021 Sansom Street, in October 1969. The [[Philadelphia Department of Licenses and Inspections]], whose deputy commissioner was [[Leo Goldstein]], closed the theater that month in a license dispute.[^12] The [[Bandbox Theater]] then ran the Vietnam documentary [[In the Year of the Pig]], which Cinema 16 had under contract.[^13] [[Art Carduner]] bought the Bandbox in Germantown in 1966 and ran it until 1975; he exhibited foreign and art films and died at 90.[^14]
Horsch's directorial debut was [[The Erotic Memoirs of a Male Chauvinist Pig]], shot in Philadelphia in February 1973 with [[John Butterworth]], a photographer and cameraman whom Horsch described as a news cameraman for [[KYW-TV]]. The film was financed by La Russa, a nightclub owner and friend of Scarfo, and it depicts rape, bondage, underage sex and the title character's violent relationship with a drug-addicted woman.[^15] Its performers included [[Georgina Spelvin]], [[Tina Russell]] and [[Darby Lloyd Rains]].[^16] Horsch told the podcaster Ashley West that he sold the film to [[Sam Lake]], a New York distributor, for 50,000 dollars, and that the sale was arranged through La Russa and Philadelphia organized crime.[^17] The trade chart in *Boxoffice* listed the film's distributor as "Mature," with a review date of October 15, 1973, and *Take One* reported in the spring of 1973 that "Bob Sumner's Mature Films in New York followed up Memoirs of a Male Chauvinist Pig (starring Ms. Spelvin) with High Rise."[^18][^19] In the same article John Morthland wrote that pornography "operates on the fringes of legality, and that area has always been ripe for organized crime, which started calling on various exhibitors around the country to offer 'protection' within a couple of weeks of the Court ruling," and named "the Mitchells, Mature Films, etc." among the few in the business in a highly visible way.[^19] On February 14, 1975, Judge Kevin Thomas Duffy of the [[United States District Court for the Southern District of New York]] issued a preliminary injunction in *Walt Disney Productions v. Mature Pictures Corp.*, in a suit over the use of the "Mickey Mouse March" in a film titled *The Life and Times of the Happy Hooker* or *The Life and Times of Xaviera*; the opinion does not say whether the defendant is the distributor of the 1973 film.[^20]
*Black Mass*, Horsch's satanic-mass film, drew a public protest in February 1975. On Thursday, February 27, 1975, Christian and Jewish leaders of Greater Philadelphia combined to discourage the showing of the film, which was reported to be scheduled to open that weekend at a center-city theater and one in Germantown. The center-city house said the report "was a mistake," and the Germantown theater said it was not yet known whether the film would be shown. The producer-director, Ray Hoersch, was quoted as describing it as "the Satanic Mass ... the exact inverse of the Catholic ceremony." The statement was signed by 16 leaders, among them [[John Krol|John Cardinal Krol]], archbishop of Philadelphia, and Rabbis Charles Lacks and Harold Goldfarb of the Greater Philadelphia Board of Rabbis, together with Friends, Presbyterian, Episcopal, Greek Orthodox, Baptist, Methodist and Byzantine-Ukrainian Rite leaders. It called on those in the film industry in the Philadelphia area "to resist and reject every attempt to market or portray this film."[^21] The [[Arcadia Theatre (Philadelphia)]] on Chestnut Street cancelled a midnight showing, and the film was then booked at the Bandbox.[^22] The condemnation was reported in the diocesan press in Erie in March 1975.[^23] Horsch later said he made *Black Mass* with the proceeds of *Erotic Memoirs* and other films.[^17]
### The Horsch family and the Olney house
Raymond Horsch's criminal record begins with a counterfeiting arrest in the late 1970s and a methamphetamine laboratory a few years later. He skipped bail after the second arrest and went to coastal New Zealand after taking the identity of a real chemist. He worked at a chemical plant in Timaru under that alias, with a forged Stanford diploma, and was caught in New Zealand with five fake passports. He was later apprehended in Florida and returned to Philadelphia, where he was sentenced to federal prison.[^15] The Timaru employment is linked to [[Chemical Technology Limited]], a Clandeboye company working on milk byproducts that the Christchurch lawyer [[John Rutherford (New Zealand lawyer)|John Rutherford]] set up with a man he knew as Dr. Stanley Stokowski.[^24] He had married [[Myroslawa Ferkuniak]], the mother of Eugene Horsch, in Reno on September 12, 1980, while using that identity.[^25] The sentencing judge, [[Joseph L. McGlynn Jr.]], said in April 1985 that "anybody who has a speed lab ought to know he's going to jail," and a second judge, [[Donald W. Van Artsdalen]], added a year and a day for bail-jumping.[^26] The Drug Enforcement Administration, which the 1990 Crime Commission report credits with labelling Philadelphia the methamphetamine capital of the world, had arrested Horsch in February 1977.[^26][^9]
His father, [[Raymond C. Hoersch]], was an engineer and former glider pilot in the [[United States Army Air Forces]]. His grandfather, [[Albert Hoersch]], lived on West Chew Street in the [[Olney, Philadelphia|Olney]] section of the city and died on July 1, 1972, aged 81; his wife [[Helen E. Hoersch]] had died on August 27, 1968, and their daughter [[Helen M. Hoersch]] died on April 5, 2004.[^27][^28] His mother, [[Clara Hoersch]], was a daughter of [[Cecilia T. Hagerty]] of Stroudsburg, where he was born in 1943.[^29] [[Krista Killen]] is credited as a performer in multiple films he directed.[^30]
His son, [[Eugene Horsch]], was stopped in June 2026 near Independence Mall with a woman, carrying drugs, illegal guns and fake identification, one card bearing the name of a woman who had been missing for three years. That led local and federal investigators to the family's twin house in Olney, where they recovered vats of chemicals, notes describing serial killings and bank cards. Police had not charged him with any crime relating to the missing women.[^15] The [[Philadelphia District Attorney's Office]] had prosecuted him in 2025 on drug counts after a fire at the house, and after his June 2026 arrest it charged him with illegal gun and drug possession; on August 6, 2026, it withdrew those charges because the [[United States Attorney for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania|United States Attorney's Office]] would handle the case.[^31] On September 16, 2026, Police Commissioner [[Kevin Bethel]], with Deputy Commissioner [[Frank Vanore]] and the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]], said that 58 people had been identified in the material recovered.[^32] The case is covered on the [[Olney House Investigation]] page.
### Garzone Funeral Home and the tissue trade
The [[Garzone Funeral Home]] in the [[Kensington, Philadelphia|Kensington]] section of the city was operated by [[Louis Garzone]] and [[Gerald Garzone]], who with [[James McCafferty]] owned the Liberty Crematorium. In early 2004 the brothers and McCafferty agreed to supply cadavers to [[Michael Mastromarino]], owner of [[Biomedical Tissue Services]], for $1,000 each, without the knowledge or consent of the families; the arrangement continued until September 2005, when Mastromarino learned that the [[Food and Drug Administration]] was investigating him and advised the Garzones to destroy their records, which they did by incinerating them in a crematory just days before FDA investigators arrived. At least 244 cadavers were provided, for which the Garzones and McCafferty received more than $245,000.[^33][^34] The Superior Court of Pennsylvania affirmed Louis Garzone's sentence in 2010 except for the award of costs for prosecutors' and detectives' salaries, and the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania held on January 19, 2012, that the costs-of-prosecution statute did not permit the district attorney's office to recover those salaries.[^35][^33] Raymond Horsch had access to a Kensington crematorium linked to illegal sales of body parts, years before the missing persons investigation.[^36]
The body-parts case centred on Biomedical Tissue Services, a New Jersey company based in Fort Lee. In February 2006 [[National Public Radio]] reported that Brooklyn prosecutors had indicted four men in connection with the company, including its principals, for harvesting bones and skin from corpses.[^37] Mastromarino, a former oral surgeon, pleaded guilty in Brooklyn in March 2008 to 14 counts, admitting that he had carried out the scheme from 2001 to 2005; he faced 18 to 54 years in prison and agreed to forfeit $4.68 million. The company shipped bones, skin and tendons to tissue processors, and about 10,000 people received tissue it supplied in transplant operations.[^38] In Philadelphia, after a grand jury investigation that began on May 4, 2006, Mastromarino entered an open guilty plea on August 29, 2008, and on October 22, 2008, was sentenced to 25 to 58 years, concurrent with his New York sentence. The trial court found that he had received more than $1,105,751 from tissue banks for the Philadelphia material alone, and gave aggravated sentences for abuse of corpse because the conduct was "so beyond the pale of what the guidelines contemplate." Because he had forfeited $800,000 in cash, the Commonwealth sought no further restitution. The Superior Court affirmed the sentence on July 21, 2010.[^34]
### The MOVE bombing of 1985
The Philadelphia Special Investigation Commission was established by Executive Order 5-85, signed by Mayor [[W. Wilson Goode]] on June 19, 1985, to examine the events at 6221 Osage Avenue in West Philadelphia. Its chairman was [[William H. Brown III]], and its members included the former Pennsylvania Supreme Court justice [[Bruce W. Kauffman]], the Watergate special prosecutor [[Henry S. Ruth Jr.]] and the former FBI assistant director [[Neil J. Welch]]. It conducted more than 900 interviews, gathered the records of 36 government agencies, and held public hearings from October 8, 1985, with 90 witnesses over five weeks, broadcast live by [[WHYY]]. Its report of March 6, 1986, contains 68 findings, conclusions and recommendations, 66 of them unanimous.[^39]
The chronology in the report begins with the emergence of [[MOVE]], led by [[John Africa]] (Vincent Leaphart), in the early 1970s, and the 1978 blockade of its headquarters in Powelton Village, which ended in a gunfight in which Police Officer James Ramp was shot to death; nine MOVE members were sentenced to 30 to 100 years each. MOVE adults and children later took up residence at 6221 Osage Avenue, and the occupants made threats by loudspeaker. The commission found that the Mayor's policy toward MOVE was one of "appeasement, non-confrontation and avoidance," that in the summer of 1984 he was told that a legal basis existed to act against certain MOVE members, and that in May 1985, after neighbors pressed him, he authorized the Police Commissioner to prepare and execute a tactical plan under the supervision of the Managing Director. Police Commissioner [[Gregore J. Sambor]] chose as planners the head of the Bomb Disposal Unit, a sergeant from the pistol range and a uniformed patrolman, excluding the command structure of the department; no written plan was sought or received.[^40][^39]
On May 13, 1985, police fired more than 10,000 rounds of ammunition in under 90 minutes at the row house, which the commission called "clearly excessive and unreasonable," and used explosives to blow holes in the party walls. At 5:27 P.M. a bomb of Tovex and C-4, dropped from a [[Pennsylvania State Police]] helicopter, detonated on the roof, where, according to a police memo corroborated by a news photograph, a five-gallon gasoline can had been hoisted, and the commission found that the fire began a millisecond afterward when friction-heated metal fragments penetrated the can. Between 6:08 and 6:12 P.M. the Police Commissioner and the Fire Commissioner decided to let the bunker burn, which the commission called "unconscionable." Eleven people died, five of them children. The commission found that police gunfire prevented some occupants from escaping to the rear alley, that the deaths of the five children "appear to be unjustified homicides which should be investigated by a grand jury," that the medical examiner's performance was unprofessional, and that the fire destroyed the neighborhood and left sixty-one families homeless.[^41][^40][^42]
Finding 21 concerns the Federal Bureau of Investigation. In January 1985 an agent of the bureau's Philadelphia office delivered nearly 38 pounds of C-4, a military plastic explosive, to the Philadelphia police bomb squad. Neither agency kept any record of the transaction; the agent told the commission he "never had to keep any kind of records or anything" regarding C-4. After May 13, at least one agent deliberately withheld information about the cache from his own superiors, saying he was "in fear of losing my job," and FBI officials "unwittingly furnished the Commission with inaccurate and untruthful accounts" of the bureau's involvement. The commission wrote that because of the absence of record keeping "all the facts of the use of C-4 on May 13th may never be known." The commission's explosives expert found that the bomb contained substantially more C-4 than the officer who constructed it had reported.[^43][^42] Commissioner Kauffman dissented from several findings, including the finding on the alley gunfire, and from the majority's accusation of racism against the Mayor, the Managing Director, the Police Commissioner and the Fire Commissioner, writing that the events were caused "purely and simply, by incompetence, bad judment, and other errors."[^44] No city officials or employees were charged after the commission's report and a county grand jury report of May 15, 1986, and a federal grand jury declined to indict.[^45]
### Holmesburg Prison and the Army's human tests
[[Holmesburg Prison]] in northeast Philadelphia was the site of the experiments of [[Albert Kligman]], a University of Pennsylvania dermatologist who began testing on people incarcerated there in 1951 for such companies as [[Johnson & Johnson]] and [[Dow Chemical]] as well as the United States Army, which commissioned him to test hallucinogenic and psychotropic drugs. The program ran 23 years; Philadelphia banned medical testing at Holmesburg in 1974.[^46]
The Army's contract record was placed before the Senate in 1975. Lt. Gen. R. R. Taylor, the Surgeon General of the Army, told the joint hearings of the Senate health and judiciary subcommittees, questioned by Senator [[Edward M. Kennedy]], that in the period from the mid-1960s volunteers at Edgewood Arsenal had been active-duty personnel, and, asked about contract work, said the subjects were students and, "in one case they are prisoners in Holmesburg Prison near the University of Pennsylvania," adding when pressed, "Prisoners in one contract that I am aware of." The list the Army then supplied for the record shows prisoners at Holmesburg as the volunteers under three contracts of [[Edgewood Arsenal]]: "Threshold Doses in Humans" with the [[University of Pennsylvania]] from April 1, 1964, to March 31, 1967 (contract DA-18-035-AMC-126(A)), testing Ditran, atropine, scopolamine and a glycolate-type anticholinergic compound; and two contracts with [[Ivy Research Laboratories]], Inc., the first running from June 28, 1968, to December 1, 1969 ($78,135), to determine threshold doses of incapacitating agents, irritant agents and other chemicals, including a glycolate anticholinergic, an apomorphine-type emetic and a series of isomers of tetrahydrocannabinol, and the second ending September 30, 1971 ($46,700), in which an intravenous emetic was tested and "the study was discontinued after the fourth subject reacted adversely with retching and fainting."[^47]
Two years later Deanne C. Siemer, General Counsel of the Department of Defense, told Senator Kennedy's Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research, with Senator [[Richard S. Schweiker]] of Pennsylvania questioning her, that the Edgewood compound EA 3167 had been tested "in a different form and for different purposes at the Holmesburg State Prison in Pennsylvania" before the [[Central Intelligence Agency]]'s involvement in 1971, a testing that "may have involved from 5 to 12 prisoners; one document says 5, another one says 12." The Department of Defense's written account of the Edgewood project, part of [[MKOFTEN]] and recorded in the vault's [[MKSEARCH]] entry, states that Edgewood "also engaged in clinical testing on human volunteers at the Holmesburg State Prison in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, using prisoners as test subjects," that in 1971 the CIA reviewed that earlier work and transferred $37,000 to Edgewood, and that the CIA-sponsored human testing consisted of one experiment in June 1973 with two military volunteers.[^48][^49]
The University's own Army work was reported in 1995. Kligman worked at the University from 1951 to 1972 and conducted scores of experiments on inmates at Holmesburg, many through Ivy Research Laboratories, one of four research groups he founded in the mid-1960s. In 1964 he tested dioxin on prisoners under contract from Dow Chemical and the Department of Defense; Vernon Rowe, a former Dow employee to whom Kligman reported, testified before an [[Environmental Protection Agency]] hearing in January 1981 that Kligman applied 7,500 micrograms to ten prisoners, "468 times" Dow's authorized maximum, and that eight developed chloracne lasting more than seven months; Kligman has said the records were destroyed. In 1966 the Food and Drug Administration banned him from testing drugs on humans, and in about the same period the University signed a $386,486 contract with the Army to test chemical warfare agents, which the *Philadelphia Inquirer* reported at the time. His 1967 report to Edgewood Arsenal on skin "hardening" against blistering and other agents records that three prisoners exposed to ethylene glycol monomethyl ether "exhibited psychotic reactions (hallucinations, disorientation, stupor) within two weeks and had to be hospitalized." According to the 1975 report of the Army Inspector General, "Ivy Research [Laboratories] used at least 94 inmates to test choking agents, nerve agents, blister agents, vomiting agents, incapacitating agents, and toxins" and was banned from Holmesburg after its tests were blamed for a 1972 prison riot.[^50] A former inmate told Allen Hornblum, whose *Acres of Skin* (1998) first documented the program in detail, that researchers had injected him in a padded cell and videotaped him, after which he hallucinated.[^51][^52] Kligman is reported to have told a reporter in 1966, "All I saw before me were acres of skin."[^51] A suit by about 300 former participants against Kligman, the University, the city, Dow and Johnson & Johnson was filed in 2000 and a court ruled in 2001 that the statute of limitations had expired; the city apologized in 2022.[^46]
### The Navy Yard and the Philadelphia Experiment
The [[Philadelphia Navy Yard]] is the site named in the [[Philadelphia Experiment]] account, which places a Navy ship there in 1943. The [[Office of Naval Research]] states that the origin of the story dates to 1955 with the publication of *The Case for the UFO* by [[Morris K. Jessup]], who afterward received correspondence from a Carlos Miquel Allende giving details of an alleged secret naval experiment in Philadelphia in 1943 in which a ship was rendered invisible and teleported to and from Norfolk. In 1956 a copy of Jessup's book, with hand-written annotations, was mailed anonymously to ONR; two officers assigned to ONR "took a personal interest in the book," showed it to Jessup, and arranged for a typewritten reprint of 25 copies. ONR's information sheet of September 8, 1996, states that personnel at the Fourth Naval District believe the stories arise from "quite routine research" during the war at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard, with degaussing experiments and a 1950s experiment on the generating plant of the destroyer USS Timmerman using a 1,000 hertz generator as the likely sources, and that "ONR has never conducted any investigations on invisibility, either in 1943 or at any other time."[^53][^54]
The Naval Historical Center's statement of June 17, 1996, says its Operational Archives had repeatedly searched and located no documents confirming the event, that the ship named in the account, the USS Eldridge, was commissioned on August 27, 1943, at the New York Navy Yard and was "never in Philadelphia" during the period reviewed, and that no records of a "Project Rainbow" relating to teleportation had been found.[^55]
### Frankford Arsenal and the Army in the city
The [[Frankford Arsenal]], the Army installation in the city, appears in a CIA memorandum for the record dated November 13, 1957, about a visit on October 30, 1957. The memorandum reviews a 24-hour clockwork project, including low-temperature failures of the mechanisms, and a planned comparison of three lubricants. It also records a .38 caliber slug of sintered tungsten carbide that the arsenal planned to test, and roughly $6,000 of the original project funds remaining.[^56]
### Nuclear procurement and the 1987 Philadelphia arrest
[[Arshad Pervez]], a native of Pakistan who moved to Canada in 1967, incorporated A.P. Enterprises in Toronto in 1986. In October 1986 he sought a source of maraging steel, a high-strength alloy used in gas centrifuge enrichment plants, and was referred to [[Carpenter Technology]], a Pennsylvania steelmaker. Carpenter had previously been directed by the Department of Commerce not to make maraging steel for Pakistan, because the material was believed to be destined for Pakistan's nuclear facility. Pervez identified his client as Inam Ul-Haq of the Multinational Corporation of Lahore.[^57] In November 1986 a U.S. Customs agent, working undercover as an international marketing analyst for Carpenter, met Pervez in Toronto. Pervez offered several contradictory end uses for the steel, among them a rocket motor project and a university engineering project. On January 13, 1987, he met an undercover Commerce Department licensing officer, [[Frank Rovello]], in Philadelphia and asked how to obtain an export license.[^57]
In July 1987 Pervez drove to Philadelphia to facilitate the first shipment of the steel and to make another payment to Rovello, and was arrested there. A federal grand jury returned an eight-count indictment on July 28, 1987, against Pervez and Ul-Haq.[^57] In 1989 the Third Circuit vacated his conspiracy and beryllium-export convictions and ordered a new trial on those counts, and it remanded for a limited hearing on entrapment for the false-documentation counts.[^57] Declassified prosecution records published by the [[National Security Archive]] describe Ul-Haq as "a key figure in the A. Q. Khan nuclear procurement network" who evaded arrest by leaving the United States, and describe the Khan front company Multinational as Pervez's counterparty.[^58]
[[James Guerin]], the founder of [[International Signal and Control]], was indicted in the Eastern District of Pennsylvania in 1991 with 19 codefendants, in a 67-count indictment over a conspiracy to evade the arms embargo against [[South Africa]].[^59] The Third Circuit described Guerin as ISC's majority shareholder, who founded the company in 1971 and afterwards served as an officer and director of its successor companies, after ISC went public in 1982.[^59] In September 1989 the British defense company [[Ferranti]] called in accountants to investigate ISC's contracts.[^60] In November 1992, at the trial of [[Thomas Jasin]], the *Baltimore Sun* reported that Guerin had already pleaded guilty and had begun serving a 15-year federal sentence.[^61]
### Police leadership, prosecutors and the courts
In 1974, the peak year under Rizzo, Philadelphia police shot ninety-seven suspects and killed thirty-one, and in August 1970 Rizzo's police raided the offices of the Black Panther Party and strip-searched members in front of news photographers.[^1] Goode, who as mayor approved the 1985 order, was the city's first black mayor.[^1]
[[Danielle Outlaw]] resigned as police commissioner in September 2023, and [[John M. Stanford Jr.]] and Vanore were appointed interim commissioner and interim first deputy commissioner on September 22, 2023.[^62][^63] Bethel was sworn in as commissioner on January 2, 2024.[^64] The city's courts include [[Jill Fertel]], a lawyer who was an assistant district attorney in the District Attorney's Office, and the criminal defense lawyer [[Jerome Brown]], who represented Horsch.[^65] The United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania sits in Philadelphia and tried the Scarfo family RICO case in 1988.[^10] [[J.J. Klaver]] was a special agent of the FBI's Philadelphia field office from 1998 and its spokesman for his last seven years, until he retired on August 31, 2015.[^66]
### Companies, churches and the press
[[George R. Wackenhut]], who founded the [[Wackenhut Corporation]], was born in Philadelphia.[^67] On April 24, 1962, FBI SAC Letter 62-24(B) instructed all offices to refrain from any contact with the company, stating that the firm "has utilized misleading advertisements, attempts to capitalize on former FBI affiliation of its employees and its officials have reportedly engaged in personal misconduct and questionable business activities"; the bar was lifted by SAC Letter 65-1 of January 5, 1965.[^68] In May 1962 the investigative firm of [[Charles B. Flack Jr.]], a New Jersey firm, merged into Wackenhut, and Flack became district manager of the company's Philadelphia office at Two Penn Center Plaza, supervising operations in the Pennsylvania and New Jersey area; the FBI's Newark office forwarded his letter and a Wackenhut folder to the Director on May 4, 1962.[^68] Horsch said in a recorded interview that after leaving high school in 1961 he worked freelance for Wackenhut, "a security firm staffed by FBI agents," until about 1965: "I bugged telephones and committed burglaries for them." He said one regular client, introduced as "Mr. Smith," was [[Howard Hunt|E. Howard Hunt]] of the CIA, and described jobs at the [[Fairchild Hiller]] plant in [[Hagerstown, Maryland]], in [[Trenton, New Jersey]], and in Philadelphia.[^69] When the Secret Service arrested him, then Raymond Hoersch, for counterfeiting in December 1974, authorities described him as unemployed and quoted him as saying that he "hadn't worked for 11 years."[^70] The law firm [[Troutman Pepper Hamilton Sanders|Pepper Hamilton]] employed [[John B. Hannum]] as a litigator in Philadelphia, and on July 1, 2020, it combined with [[Troutman Sanders]] of [[Atlanta]].[^71][^72]
Krol led the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Philadelphia]] from 1961 and died in March 1996.[^73] *The Philadelphia Inquirer* was founded in 1829 as the Pennsylvania Inquirer.[^74]
### Natives and residents
[[John J. McCloy]] was born in Philadelphia on March 31, 1895.[^75] [[Noam Chomsky]], the linguist, was born in the city.[^76] [[Alex Karp]] grew up in the Philadelphia area and attended Central High School and Haverford College.[^77] [[Ro Khanna]] was born on September 13, 1976.[^78] [[Jed Rakoff]] was born in Philadelphia in 1943, [[Alison Nathan]] in 1972, [[John Milton Younge]] in 1955, and McGlynn on February 13, 1925.[^79] [[Marcus Foster]] moved to Philadelphia at the age of three, earned a doctorate in education at the University of Pennsylvania, and later served as superintendent of schools in [[Oakland, California]].[^80] [[Jack LaSota]], the leader of the [[The Zizians|Zizian]] group, staged a death in August 2022 after going off a boat in San Francisco Bay and next appeared on law enforcement's radar on January 12, 2023, at an airport hotel on the outskirts of Philadelphia, where state police came to serve a warrant in connection with a murder investigation.[^81]
[^1]: Alex Elkins, "Police Department, Philadelphia," *The Encyclopedia of Greater Philadelphia* (Rutgers University, 2016), https://philadelphiaencyclopedia.org/essays/police-department-philadelphia/.
[^2]: Pennsylvania Crime Commission, *Report on Police Corruption and the Quality of Law Enforcement in Philadelphia* (Harrisburg, March 1974), Summary of findings ("Police Corruption" and "Liquor"), https://archive.org/details/reportonpoliceco00penn.
[^3]: Pennsylvania Crime Commission, *Report on Police Corruption* (1974), Summary of findings, "Narcotics," https://archive.org/details/reportonpoliceco00penn.
[^4]: Pennsylvania Crime Commission, *Report on Police Corruption* (1974), chapter on the Locust Street Strip, with its note citing the 1962 United States Senate subcommittee inquiry and stating that "In 1962, the inspector in charge of the Central Division where most of the bust-out operations were located was Frank L. Rizzo"; and the history of the Police Department (commissioners Gibbons, Brown, Leary, Bell and Rizzo; Joseph F. O'Neill acting commissioner from February 1971, permanent 1972), https://archive.org/details/reportonpoliceco00penn.
[^5]: Pennsylvania Crime Commission, *Report on Police Corruption* (1974), Locust Street Strip chapter, the Why Not Lounge: Goltzer's monthly payments through a "bagman" to an inspector, with the manager Sam LaRussa negotiating them and advising Goltzer to pay or "they will bust the joint," https://archive.org/details/reportonpoliceco00penn.
[^6]: Pennsylvania Crime Commission, *Report on Police Corruption* (1974), Locust Street Strip chapter, the Brass Monkey, 1227 Walnut Street, https://archive.org/details/reportonpoliceco00penn.
[^7]: Pennsylvania Crime Commission, *Report on Police Corruption* (1974), chapter on lewd shows, the Gaslight Lounge, https://archive.org/details/reportonpoliceco00penn.
[^8]: George Anastasia, "Salvatore Larussa, 58, Friend Of Mob Figures," *Philadelphia Inquirer*, August 21, 1996, Wayback copy, https://web.archive.org/web/20150928205738id_/http://articles.philly.com/1996-08-21/news/25645305_1_nicodemo-little-nicky-scarfo-grand-jury-mob-activities.
[^9]: Pennsylvania Crime Commission, *Organized Crime in Pennsylvania: A Decade of Change, 1990 Report* (Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, 1991), sections on the Bruno/Scarfo Family, drugs, and the entry for Salvatore "Sam" LaRussa, p. 159, https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/133208NCJRS.pdf.
[^10]: *United States v. Pungitore*, 910 F.2d 1084 (3d Cir. 1990) (Greenberg, J.), https://static.case.law/f2d/910/cases/1084-01.json.
[^11]: *United States v. Pungitore*, 910 F.2d 1084 (3d Cir. 1990), Part I (convictions of Pungitore, Scarfo, Merlino and Ciancaglini on methamphetamine counts) and the discussion of Ciancaglini, including DelGiorno's testimony about a May 1983 methamphetamine arrangement, https://static.case.law/f2d/910/cases/1084-01.json.
[^12]: "Police to Inspect Building: Cinema 16 Shut Down In License Dispute; Owner Is 'Confused'," *Philadelphia Inquirer*, October 30, 1969, p. 19, https://www.newspapers.com/image/169186622/.
[^13]: *The Distant Drummer*, no. 65, December 25, 1969, to January 1, 1970, p. 8, Temple University Libraries, Special Collections Research Center, https://digital.library.temple.edu/digital/collection/p16002coll34/id/473.
[^14]: "Art Carduner, a pioneer in exhibiting foreign films in Phila.," *Philadelphia Inquirer*, December 9, 2009, https://www.inquirer.com/philly/obituaries/20091209_Art_Carduner__a_pioneer_in_exhibiting_foreign_films_in_Phila_.html.
[^15]: Barbara Laker, Max Marin, Ryan W. Briggs and Ellie Rushing, "A fugitive pornographer, his troubled son, and missing women: 5 takeaways," *Philadelphia Inquirer*, August 4, 2026, https://www.inquirer.com/news/raymond-eugene-horsch-olney-missing-women-20260804.html.
[^16]: Performer credits for *The Erotic Memoirs of a Male Chauvinist Pig*, Internet Adult Film Database, https://www.iafd.com/title.rme/id=b609e8df-4df6-46c4-8925-639ed9e91852; and John Morthland, *Take One* (March-April 1973) ("starring Ms. Spelvin").
[^17]: Ashley West, *The Rialto Report*, Podcast 172, "Unknowing Ray Horsch, Episode 2: Performance," September 20, 2026 (republishing interviews recorded in 2013; passages at 25:43 to 25:45, 28:59 to 29:09 and 29:19 to 29:42), https://www.therialtoreport.com/2026/09/20/ray-horsch-3/. The account of the sale is Horsch's own.
[^18]: "Boxoffice Bookinguide," *Boxoffice* (Canadian edition), February 4, 1974, national booking chart, entry "Erotic Memoirs/Male Chauvinist Pig" (75 minutes, distributor "Mature," dated 10-15-73), https://archive.org/details/boxoffice-canadian-1974-02-04.
[^19]: John Morthland, "Porn Films: An In-Depth Report," *Take One*, vol. 3, no. 6 (March-April 1973), https://archive.org/details/take-one-1973-03.
[^20]: *Walt Disney Productions v. Mature Pictures Corp.*, 389 F. Supp. 1397 (S.D.N.Y. 1975) (Duffy, J., February 14, 1975), https://static.case.law/f-supp/389/cases/1397-01.json.
[^21]: "Protest Raised Here On 'Black Mass' Film," *Philadelphia Inquirer*, February 28, 1975, p. 11, https://www.newspapers.com/image/173364962/.
[^22]: Society and nightlife column, *Philadelphia Inquirer*, February 28, 1975, p. 21, https://www.newspapers.com/image/173366667/.
[^23]: "Offensive Material: Leaders Condemn Black Mass Film," Religious News Service, *Lake Shore Visitor* (Erie), March 7, 1975, p. 3, https://www.newspapers.com/image/951794835/.
[^24]: Anna Leask, "Man linked to multiple missing women in US had fled NZ 40 years ago after posing as scientist," *New Zealand Herald*, September 23, 2026, https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/raymond-horsch-man-linked-to-philadelphia-house-of-horrors-lived-near-timaru-under-stolen-name/BVQSWBL3LZDL3.
[^25]: "Anna M. Horsch," obituary, *The Morning Call*, August 1, 1989, p. 18; Inquirer, "How a pornographer's violent fantasies blurred fact and fiction as cops searched Olney house for missing women," August 2, 2026, https://www.inquirer.com/news/a/raymond-eugene-horsch-olney-philadelphia-missing-women-history-20260802.html.
[^26]: Jim Smith, "Fugitive's Luck Runs Out With 4-Year Jail Sentence," *Philadelphia Daily News*, April 27, 1985, p. 8, https://www.newspapers.com/image/185948055/.
[^27]: "Hoersch, Albert," death notice, *Philadelphia Inquirer*, July 3, 1972, p. 10, https://www.newspapers.com/image/180006503/.
[^28]: "Hoersch, Helen E. Wissman," death notice, *Philadelphia Inquirer*, August 29, 1968, p. 32, https://www.newspapers.com/image/182120759/; "Hoersch, Helen M.," death notice, *Philadelphia Inquirer*, April 7, 2004, p. B12, https://www.newspapers.com/image/201102740/.
[^29]: "Cecilia T. Hagerty," obituary, *The Morning Call*, October 26, 1991, p. 115, https://www.newspapers.com/image/283774999/.
[^30]: Ryan W. Briggs, Max Marin and Barbara Laker, "A woman missing since 2016 had close ties to the Olney house that's now the target of a massive investigation," *Philadelphia Inquirer*, June 27, 2026, https://www.inquirer.com/news/olney-raid-missing-women-mystery-drugs-20260627.html.
[^31]: Ellie Rushing, "Feds will take over gun case of Olney man at center of missing women investigation, as Philly DA withdraws charges," *Philadelphia Inquirer*, August 6, 2026, https://www.inquirer.com/crime/eugene-horsch-federal-charges-olney-missing-women-20260806.html; Max Marin, Ryan W. Briggs, Ellie Rushing and Barbara Laker, "Police searched Olney home last summer, but drugs, not missing women, were the focus," *Philadelphia Inquirer*, July 1, 2026, https://www.inquirer.com/news/eugene-raymond-horsch-olney-home-search-guns-drugs-20260701.html.
[^32]: Cory Sharber, "Police, FBI provide updates on Horsch missing women case," *WHYY*, September 16, 2026, https://whyy.org/articles/olney-home-investigation-abuse/.
[^33]: *Commonwealth v. Garzone*, 34 A.3d 67 (Pa. January 19, 2012) (Castille, C.J.), https://static.case.law/a3d/34/cases/0067-01.json.
[^34]: *Commonwealth v. Mastromarino*, 2 A.3d 581 (Pa. Super. Ct. July 21, 2010) (Stevens, J.), https://static.case.law/a3d/2/cases/0581-01.json.
[^35]: *Commonwealth v. Garzone*, 993 A.2d 1245 (Pa. Super. Ct. April 14, 2010) (Stevens, J.), https://static.case.law/a2d/993/cases/1245-01.json.
[^36]: Ryan W. Briggs, Max Marin, Barbara Laker and Ellie Rushing, "Raymond Horsch had access to a Kensington crematorium linked to illegal body parts sales, years before missing persons investigation," *Philadelphia Inquirer*, 2026.
[^37]: "Four Named in New York 'Body-Snatcher' Crimes," *Day to Day*, NPR, February 23, 2006, https://www.npr.org/transcripts/5230097.
[^38]: Adam Goldman, "Body-parts big pleads guilty," *Philadelphia Daily News* (also *Philadelphia Inquirer*), March 19, 2008, https://www.inquirer.com/philly/hp/news_update/20080319_Body-parts_big_pleads_guilty.html.
[^39]: PSIC, *Findings, Conclusions and Recommendations* (1986), Introduction, "The Investigation," "Public Hearings" and Chronology.
[^40]: PSIC, *Findings, Conclusions and Recommendations* (1986), Findings 1 to 31, including Findings 11 and 12 (the plan and its three planners), 18 (10,000 rounds), 21 (FBI C-4), 24 to 27 (the bomb and the decision to let the fire burn), 28 (gunfire in the alley) and 29 (the children).
[^41]: Philadelphia Special Investigation Commission, *The Findings, Conclusions and Recommendations of the Philadelphia Special Investigation Commission* (Philadelphia, March 6, 1986), Special Collections Research Center, Temple University Libraries (published online by *The Philly Declaration*, May 13, 2015), https://phillydeclaration.org/2015/05/13/30-years-later-primary-sources-on-the-move-conflagration/.
[^42]: PSIC, *Findings, Conclusions and Recommendations* (1986), Finding 25 and its supporting text (the Tovex and C-4 device, dropped at 5:27 P.M.).
[^43]: PSIC, *Findings, Conclusions and Recommendations* (1986), Finding 21 and its supporting text.
[^44]: PSIC, *Findings, Conclusions and Recommendations* (1986), statement of Commissioner Bruce W. Kauffman (dissenting from several findings, among them the finding on police gunfire in the alley, and from the accusation of racism), and the recommendation on law enforcement investigations.
[^45]: Austin Nolen, "30 Years Later: Primary Sources on the MOVE Conflagration," *The Philly Declaration*, May 13, 2015, https://phillydeclaration.org/2015/05/13/30-years-later-primary-sources-on-the-move-conflagration/ (publishing the Report of the County Investigating Grand Jury of May 15, 1986).
[^46]: Lynette Hazelton, "A brief history of the Holmesburg Prison experiments," *Philadelphia Inquirer*, October 22, 2024, https://www.inquirer.com/news/philadelphia/holmesburg-prison-experiments-timeline-20241022.html.
[^47]: *Biomedical and Behavioral Research, 1975*, joint hearings before the Subcommittee on Health of the Committee on Labor and Public Welfare and the Subcommittee on Administrative Practice and Procedure of the Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, 94th Cong., 1st sess., September 10, 12 and November 7, 1975, testimony of Lt. Gen. R. R. Taylor, Surgeon General of the Army, and the Army list of "Research Contracts from Edgewood Arsenal Involving Drug Testing Volunteers, 1965-75," https://archive.org/details/US-Government-Medical-Experimentation-On-Humans.
[^48]: Statement of Deanne C. Siemer, General Counsel, Department of Defense, *Human Drug Testing by the CIA, 1977*, hearings before the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research of the Committee on Human Resources, United States Senate, 95th Cong., 1st sess., September 20 and 21, 1977 (testimony of September 20), https://archive.org/details/human-drug-testing-by-the-cia-1977.
[^49]: *Human Drug Testing by the CIA, 1977*, Senate Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research, September 20, 1977, Department of Defense submission on the Edgewood project "Determination of clinical effects of a glycolate class chemical" (MKOFTEN), https://archive.org/details/human-drug-testing-by-the-cia-1977.
[^50]: Jonathan Kaye and Jeremy Kahn, "U. involved in chemical tests on prisoners," *The Daily Pennsylvanian*, May 19, 1995, https://thedp.com/article/1995/05/u-involved-in-chemical-tests-on-prisoners.
[^51]: Jennifer Gonnerman, "Living Lab Rats," *The Village Voice*, July 7, 1998, https://www.villagevoice.com/1998/07/07/lab-rats/.
[^52]: Allen M. Hornblum, *Acres of Skin: Human Experiments at Holmesburg Prison* (New York: Routledge, 1998), as described in Gonnerman, *The Village Voice*, July 7, 1998.
[^53]: Office of Naval Research, "Information Sheet: Philadelphia Experiment," September 8, 1996, as published by the Naval Historical Center, https://web.archive.org/web/19981203102110/http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq21-2.htm.
[^54]: Morris K. Jessup, *The Case for the UFO* (New York: Citadel Press, 1955), https://archive.org/details/caseforufo0000mkje.
[^55]: Naval Historical Center, Department of the Navy, "The 'Philadelphia Experiment'," June 17, 1996, https://web.archive.org/web/19981203102110/http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq21-1.htm.
[^56]: Memorandum for the record, "Trip to Frankford Arsenal," November 13, 1957, CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP78-03642A002500040063-1, https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP78-03642A002500040063-1.
[^57]: *United States v. Pervez*, 871 F.2d 310 (3d Cir. 1989) (Scirica, J.), https://static.case.law/f2d/871/cases/0310-01.json.
[^58]: William Burr, ed., "The Pervez Case and Reagan Administration Nuclear Nonproliferation Policy, 1987," National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 446, November 22, 2013, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/nukevault/ebb446/.
[^59]: *United States v. Jasin*, 280 F.3d 355 (3d Cir. 2002) (Greenberg, J.), https://static.case.law/f3d/280/cases/0355-01.json.
[^60]: Computer Business Review, "Ferranti calls in Coopers & Lybrand to investigate ISC contracts," September 17, 1989, https://www.techmonitor.ai/?p=208120.
[^61]: Knight-Ridder News Service, "Weapons-smuggling plot tied to Pa. executive on trial for trade violations," *Baltimore Sun*, November 10, 1992, https://www.baltimoresun.com/1992/11/10/weapons-smuggling-plot-tied-to-pa-executive-on-trial-for-trade-violations/.
[^62]: Chris Palmer, Anna Orso and Oona Goodin-Smith, "Danielle Outlaw, Philadelphia Police Commissioner, resigns for a job at Port Authority of New York and New Jersey," *Philadelphia Inquirer*, September 5, 2023.
[^63]: Office of the Mayor, City of Philadelphia, "Mayor Jim Kenney Appoints John M. Stanford, Jr. as Interim Police Commissioner for the Philadelphia Police Department & Frank Vanore as Interim 1st Deputy Commissioner," September 22, 2023, https://www.phila.gov/2023-09-22-mayor-jim-kenney-appoints-john-m-stanford-jr-as-interim-police-commissioner-for-the-philadelphia-police-department-frank-vanore-as-interim-1st-deputy-commissioner/.
[^64]: "Kevin J. Bethel sworn in as Philadelphia's newest police commissioner," *Philadelphia Inquirer*, January 2, 2024, https://www.inquirer.com/crime/kevin-bethel-philadelphia-police-commissioner-sworn-in-20240102.html.
[^65]: *United States v. Horsch*, No. 2:09-cr-00794 (E.D. Pa.), notices of appearance of Jerome M. Brown; practice biography of Jill Fertel, https://klalegal.com/jill-fertel/.
[^66]: John Kopp, "Philly FBI spokesman J.J. Klaver retiring after 26-year career," *PhillyVoice*, August 31, 2015, https://www.phillyvoice.com/retiring-fbi-agent-reflects/.
[^67]: The Wackenhut Corporation, biographical sketch of George R. Wackenhut, company files, https://archive.org/details/WackenhutCorporation; "Security industry pioneer George Wackenhut dies at 85," *SecurityInfoWatch*, January 2005.
[^68]: Federal Bureau of Investigation, "Wackenhut Corporation," headquarters file, Newark memorandum to the Director, May 4, 1962, and *Miami News* clipping on the Flack merger, https://archive.org/details/WackenhutCorporation.
[^69]: Ashley West, *The Rialto Report*, Podcast 171, "Unknowing Ray Horsch, Episode 1: Youth," September 13, 2026 (audio at 18:34 to 22:49), https://www.therialtoreport.com/2026/09/13/ray-horsch-2/. The account is Horsch's own.
[^70]: "[...] bogus $180,000 in Bucks raid," *The Morning Call* (Allentown), December 11, 1974, p. 5, https://www.newspapers.com/image/275702319/.
[^71]: Sally A. Downey, "John B. Hannum, 92, judge," *Philadelphia Inquirer*, April 25, 2007, https://www.inquirer.com/philly/obituaries/20070425_John_B__Hannum__92__judge.html.
[^72]: "Troutman Pepper Officially Launches," *PR Newswire*, July 1, 2020, https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/troutman-pepper-officially-launches-301086794.html.
[^73]: Martin Weil, "Cardinal John Krol Dies; Philadelphia Archbishop," *The Washington Post*, March 4, 1996, https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1996/03/04/cardinal-john-krol-dies/8d845f35-61a2-4b44-934a-0bdc39ca14df/.
[^74]: "The History of the Philadelphia Inquirer," Broadcast Pioneers of Philadelphia, https://www.broadcastpioneers.com/inquirerhistory.html.
[^75]: John J. McCloy (AC 1916) Papers, finding aid MA.00035, Historical Note and Chronology, Amherst College Archives and Special Collections, https://www.amherst.edu/media/view/393545/original/McCloy%2BPapers.pdf.
[^76]: Noam Chomsky, biographical entry (born December 7, 1928, Philadelphia), Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
[^77]: Fallon Roth, "Palantir CEO Alex Karp was raised in a liberal household outside Philly. Now he's a top Trump administration contractor," *Philadelphia Inquirer*, December 16, 2025, https://www.inquirer.com/politics/nation/palantir-ceo-alex-karp-trump-administration-20251216.html.
[^78]: United States Congress, legislator record for Ro Khanna (bioguide K000389), born 1976-09-13, congress-legislators dataset, https://unitedstates.github.io/congress-legislators/legislators-current.json.
[^79]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges: "Rakoff, Jed Saul," https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/rakoff-jed-saul; "Nathan, Alison Julie," https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/nathan-alison-julie; "Younge, John Milton," https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/younge-john-milton; "McGlynn, Joseph Leo, Jr.," https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/mcglynn-joseph-leo-jr.
[^80]: "50 Years After He Was Assassinated, Why Marcus Foster Is More Relevant Than Ever," *EdSource*, November 2023, https://edsource.org/2023/50-years-after-he-was-assassinated-why-marcus-foster-is-more-relevant-than-ever/688423.
[^81]: "The Radicalization of Ziz LaSota: How an AI Doomer Became an Accused Cult Leader," *Rolling Stone*, 2025, https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/culture-features/ziz-lasota-zizians-ai-cult-1235468289/.