diff --git a/00 - META/CHANGELOG.md b/00 - META/CHANGELOG.md index 3e9d897d..45a5bd85 100644 --- a/00 - META/CHANGELOG.md +++ b/00 - META/CHANGELOG.md @@ -1,21 +1,78 @@ +- 2026-10-27T0018 · [[Phelps family]] +- 2026-10-27T0018 · [[Albert Hofmann]] +- 2026-10-27T0018 · [[Oliver Hazard Payne]] +- 2026-10-27T0018 · [[Michael Whitney Straight]] +- 2026-10-27T0017 · [[Morgan Guaranty Trust]] +- 2026-10-27T0016 · [[New York Times]] +- 2026-10-27T0016 · [[Henry A. Kissinger]] +- 2026-10-27T0016 · [[Council on Foreign Relations]] +- 2026-10-27T0015 · [[Richard Nixon]] +- 2026-10-27T0015 · [[Harvey H. Bundy]] +- 2026-10-27T0015 · [[John Foster Dulles]] +- 2026-10-27T0015 · [[Dean Acheson]] +- 2026-10-27T0015 · [[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]] +- 2026-10-27T0014 · [[Russell and Company]] +- 2026-10-27T0014 · [[William Huntington Russell]] +- 2026-10-27T0013 · [[Stuart Symington]] +- 2026-10-27T0013 · [[Whitney family]] +- 2026-10-27T0011 · [[Prescott Bush]] +- 2026-10-27T0011 · [[Daniel Coit Gilman]] +- 2026-10-27T0011 · [[Yale University]] +- 2026-10-27T0011 · [[Antony C. Sutton]] +- 2026-10-27T0010 · [[Skull and Bones]] +- 2026-10-27T0008 · [[Samuel Russell]] +- 2026-10-27T0005 · [[Alger Hiss]] +- 2026-10-27T0004 · [[Lord family]] +- 2026-10-27T0004 · [[Wadsworth family]] +- 2026-10-27T0004 · [[J. P. Morgan & Co.]] +- 2026-10-26T2336 · [[Pillsbury family]] +- 2026-10-26T2329 · [[Federal Reserve Board]] +- 2026-10-26T2329 · [[Henry Luce]] +- 2026-10-26T2329 · [[Perkins family]] +- 2026-10-26T2329 · [[Nelson Rockefeller]] +- 2026-10-26T2329 · [[CIAA]] +- 2026-10-26T2329 · [[J. P. Morgan]] +- 2026-10-26T2329 · [[F. Trubee Davison]] +- 2026-10-26T2329 · [[Zbigniew Brzezinski]] +- 2026-10-26T2329 · [[William J. Casey]] +- 2026-10-26T2329 · [[W. Averell Harriman]] +- 2026-10-26T2329 · [[Thomas A. Flannery]] +- 2026-10-26T2329 · [[Jimmy Carter]] +- 2026-10-26T2329 · [[Dick Cheney]] +- 2026-10-26T2329 · [[Cyrus Vance]] +- 2026-10-26T2329 · [[Delano family]] +- 2026-10-26T2329 · [[Allen Dulles]] +- 2026-10-26T2320 · [[Frederic Adrian Delano]] +- 2026-10-26T2319 · [[Henry P. Davison]] +- 2026-10-26T2319 · [[John Hay Whitney]] +- 2026-10-26T2319 · [[Thomas Nelson Perkins]] +- 2026-10-26T2319 · [[Dresser Industries]] +- 2026-10-26T2242 · [[Weyerhaeuser family]] +- 2026-10-26T2242 · [[William Sloane Coffin]] +- 2026-10-26T2242 · [[Warren Delano Jr.]] +- 2026-10-26T2242 · [[Payne Whitney]] +- 2026-10-26T2241 · [[McGeorge Bundy]] +- 2026-10-26T2240 · [[Dorothy Payne Whitney]] +- 2026-10-26T2240 · [[William P. Bundy]] +- 2026-10-26T2240 · [[Manhattan Project]] +- 2026-10-26T2234 · [[Trilateral Commission]] +- 2026-10-26T2234 · [[George H.W. Bush]] +- 2026-10-26T2233 · [[R. Gordon Wasson]] +- 2026-10-26T2232 · [[Henry L. Stimson]] +- 2026-10-26T2231 · [[Central Intelligence Agency]] +- 2026-10-26T2225 · [[John D. Rockefeller Jr.]] +- 2026-10-26T2127 · [[Forbes family]] +- 2026-10-26T2127 · [[Alphonso Taft]] +- 2026-10-26T2122 · [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] +- 2026-10-26T2122 · [[John Kerry]] +- 2026-10-26T2122 · [[Standard Oil]] - 2026-10-26T2017 · [[Newsweek]] -- 2026-10-26T2016 · [[Council on Foreign Relations]] -- 2026-10-26T2016 · [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] - 2026-10-26T2016 · [[Point Four Program]] - 2026-10-26T2016 · [[Nicaragua]] -- 2026-10-26T2015 · [[W. Averell Harriman]] -- 2026-10-26T2015 · [[George H.W. Bush]] -- 2026-10-26T2015 · [[Allen Dulles]] -- 2026-10-26T2014 · [[Antony C. Sutton]] -- 2026-10-26T2013 · [[Yale University]] - 2026-10-26T2013 · [[Brown Brothers Harriman]] - 2026-10-26T2012 · [[Union Banking Corporation]] -- 2026-10-26T2012 · [[Prescott Bush]] -- 2026-10-26T2009 · [[Skull and Bones]] - 2026-10-26T2006 · [[William Howard Taft]] - 2026-10-26T2005 · [[Neil Mallon]] -- 2026-10-26T2005 · [[Russell and Company]] -- 2026-10-26T2004 · [[William Huntington Russell]] - 2026-10-26T2004 · [[Knight Woolley]] - 2026-10-26T2003 · [[E. Roland Harriman]] - 2026-10-26T1935 · [[Columbia University]] @@ -27,74 +84,17 @@ - 2026-10-26T1931 · [[Dalton School]] - 2026-10-26T1931 · [[Donald Barr]] - 2026-10-26T1925 · [[Eugenics]] -- 2026-10-26T1925 · [[Whitney family]] - 2026-10-26T1925 · [[Robert A. Lovett]] -- 2026-10-26T1925 · [[Henry Luce]] -- 2026-10-26T1925 · [[William P. Bundy]] - 2026-10-26T1925 · [[William F. Buckley Jr.]] -- 2026-10-26T1925 · [[F. Trubee Davison]] - 2026-10-26T1925 · [[Cuban Missile Crisis]] - 2026-10-26T1925 · [[Church Committee]] - 2026-10-26T1925 · [[Time]] -- 2026-10-26T1925 · [[Standard Oil]] - 2026-10-26T1925 · [[Rockefeller Foundation]] - 2026-10-26T1925 · [[National Review]] - 2026-10-26T1925 · [[President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board]] -- 2026-10-26T1925 · [[Central Intelligence Agency]] -- 2026-10-26T1925 · [[Dorothy Payne Whitney]] - 2026-10-26T1925 · [[Joseph McCarthy]] - 2026-10-26T1925 · [[Howard Hunt]] -- 2026-10-26T1925 · [[McGeorge Bundy]] -- 2026-10-26T1925 · [[Dean Acheson]] - 2026-10-26T1838 · [[World War II]] - 2026-10-26T1838 · [[Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service]] - 2026-10-26T1838 · [[John J. McCloy]] -- 2026-10-26T1837 · [[John Foster Dulles]] - 2026-10-26T1837 · [[Ngo Dinh Diem]] -- 2026-10-26T1836 · [[Morgan Guaranty Trust]] -- 2026-10-26T1836 · [[Business Plot]] -- 2026-10-26T1835 · [[George W. Bush]] -- 2026-10-26T1834 · [[Rockefeller family]] -- 2026-10-26T1834 · [[John Kerry]] -- 2026-10-26T1829 · [[Henry L. Stimson]] -- 2026-10-15T2143 · [[Project Monarch]] -- 2026-10-15T2143 · [[Kalshi]] -- 2026-10-15T2142 · [[Battelle Memorial Institute]] -- 2026-10-15T2142 · [[Annie Farmer]] -- 2026-10-15T2142 · [[Project Blue Book]] -- 2026-10-15T2141 · [[Ohio]] -- 2026-10-15T2140 · [[Spencer Oliver]] -- 2026-10-15T2140 · [[Robert R. Mullen Company]] -- 2026-10-15T2139 · [[Democratic National Committee]] -- 2026-10-15T2137 · [[Department of Energy]] -- 2026-10-15T2137 · [[Norman Lamont]] -- 2026-10-15T2137 · [[Ruth Davis]] -- 2026-10-15T2137 · [[R. S. Hawke]] -- 2026-10-15T2137 · [[Gerald G. Oplinger]] -- 2026-10-15T2137 · [[Donald M. Kerr]] -- 2026-10-15T2131 · [[Princeton University]] -- 2026-10-15T2131 · [[Richard Secord]] -- 2026-10-15T2131 · [[NSA]] -- 2026-10-15T2131 · [[Area 51]] -- 2026-10-15T2131 · [[Nicholas J. Bua]] -- 2026-10-15T2131 · [[Danny Casolaro]] -- 2026-10-15T2130 · [[J. Edgar Hoover]] -- 2026-10-15T2130 · [[Jack Anderson]] -- 2026-10-15T2129 · [[National Security Archive]] -- 2026-10-15T2129 · [[HumRRO]] -- 2026-10-15T2128 · [[George Washington University]] -- 2026-10-15T2127 · [[General Motors]] -- 2026-10-15T2126 · [[Hughes Aircraft Company]] -- 2026-10-15T2126 · [[Joe Biden]] -- 2026-10-15T2124 · [[Galo Plaza]] -- 2026-10-15T2124 · [[Rockefeller Commission 1975]] -- 2026-10-15T2124 · [[Project MKUltra]] -- 2026-10-15T2124 · [[Center for Security and Emerging Technology]] -- 2026-10-15T2124 · [[Geschickter Fund for Medical Research]] -- 2026-10-15T2122 · [[Georgetown University]] -- 2026-10-15T2024 · [[Lockheed Martin]] -- 2026-10-15T2024 · [[United States v. Hasbajrami]] -- 2026-10-15T2024 · [[Project FUBELT]] -- 2026-10-15T2022 · [[Beirut]] -- 2026-10-15T2022 · [[United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit]] -- 2026-10-15T2022 · [[Barack Obama]] diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Allen Dulles.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Allen Dulles.md index 3f5eeeba..dbf09f0d 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Allen Dulles.md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Allen Dulles.md @@ -27,12 +27,12 @@ relations: with: "[[American Committee on United Europe]]" start: 1949 role: "vice-chairman" - fn: 4 + fn: 5 - type: member_of with: "[[Warren Commission]]" start: 1963-11-29 end: 1964-09-24 - fn: 20 + fn: 23 --- Allen Welsh Dulles (April 7, 1893 - January 29, 1969) served as [[Director of Central Intelligence]] from February 26, 1953, to November 29, 1961 - the longest tenure of any DCI, the first civilian DCI, and the only brother of a sitting Secretary of State to hold the position. Dulles built the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] into the instrument of Cold War covert action that executed [[Operation AJAX]] in [[Iran]] (1953), [[Operation PBSUCCESS]] in [[Guatemala]] (1954), and the [[Bay of Pigs]] invasion of [[Cuba]] (1961). The Bay of Pigs disaster cost him his position - President [[John F. Kennedy]] forced his resignation, along with [[Richard Bissell]] and [[Charles P. Cabell|C.P. Cabell]] - and his subsequent appointment by President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] to the [[Warren Commission]] investigating Kennedy's assassination placed him in the remarkable position of overseeing the investigation of the event that had ended both his patron's life and his own career.[^1] @@ -42,6 +42,8 @@ Dulles was born in Watertown, [[New York]], to a Presbyterian minister. His mate After [[Princeton University|Princeton]] (B.A. 1914, M.A. 1916)[^2] and brief missionary work in [[India]], Dulles entered the diplomatic service and served at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 as an intelligence analyst. He joined the law firm [[Sullivan & Cromwell]] - which also employed his brother [[John Foster]] - where Sullivan & Cromwell represented major corporate interests including [[United Fruit Company]]. This connection became significant two decades later when the Dulles brothers, now respectively CIA Director and Secretary of State, authorized operations against a Guatemalan government that had expropriated United Fruit's landholdings. He was a trustee of Princeton by August 1961.[^3] +As a State Department officer in 1925 Dulles wrote memoranda of conversations on the [[League of Nations]] Commission of Enquiry into the Production of Opium in Persia. Arnold H. Taylor cites his memoranda of conversations with Elizabeth Washburn Wright and Helen H. Moorhead (November and December 1925), with Representative Stephen G. Porter (December 16) and, on December 22, 1925, with [[Frederic Adrian Delano]], the former Federal Reserve Board member who chaired the commission.[^4] + During World War II, Dulles served the [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]] as station chief in [[Bern]], [[Switzerland]] from 1942 to 1945 - the most significant OSS posting in Europe, given Switzerland's position as a neutral intelligence hub. His operational achievements included: - [[Fritz Kolbe]] (codenamed "George Wood"), a German Foreign Ministry official who provided hundreds of authentic diplomatic cables, widely considered the most valuable Allied human source of the war in Europe. @@ -56,7 +58,7 @@ The unverifiable provenance of Gehlen's Soviet networks meant that the intellige ### American Committee on United Europe -Dulles was vice-chairman of the [[American Committee on United Europe]] (ACUE), which [[Richard Aldrich]] describes as formed to support [[Winston Churchill]] and the [[European Movement]] and officially incorporated in February 1949. [[William J. Donovan]] was its chairman, and [[Thomas W. Braden]], a former OSS officer, was its executive director.[^4] Aldrich reports Braden's assertion in the 1980s that ACUE funds originated with the CIA, and writes that the 1962 Oxford thesis of [[F. X. Rebattet]], son of the European Movement's secretary-general [[George Rebattet]], "confirms that most ACUE funds originated with the CIA."[^5] Dulles also corresponded with [[Max Ascoli]], whose papers index a photocopy of a typed letter from Dulles dated May 27 among the 1968 letters on the closing of [[The Reporter]].[^6] A February 7, 1958 letter to Dulles from the chairman of the President's Committee on Scientists and Engineers thanks him for addressing the Conference on America's Human Resources at [[Yale University]] and encloses a participant list that includes "Mr. Max Ascoli, Editor and Publisher, The Reporter."[^7] [[Hugh Wilford]] writes that The Reporter's deputy [[Philip Horton]] used contacts with Donovan, Dulles and James Jesus Angleton to enhance its foreign coverage.[^8] +Dulles was vice-chairman of the [[American Committee on United Europe]] (ACUE), which [[Richard Aldrich]] describes as formed to support [[Winston Churchill]] and the [[European Movement]] and officially incorporated in February 1949. [[William J. Donovan]] was its chairman, and [[Thomas W. Braden]], a former OSS officer, was its executive director.[^5] Aldrich reports Braden's assertion in the 1980s that ACUE funds originated with the CIA, and writes that the 1962 Oxford thesis of [[F. X. Rebattet]], son of the European Movement's secretary-general [[George Rebattet]], "confirms that most ACUE funds originated with the CIA."[^6] Dulles also corresponded with [[Max Ascoli]], whose papers index a photocopy of a typed letter from Dulles dated May 27 among the 1968 letters on the closing of [[The Reporter]].[^7] A February 7, 1958 letter to Dulles from the chairman of the President's Committee on Scientists and Engineers thanks him for addressing the Conference on America's Human Resources at [[Yale University]] and encloses a participant list that includes "Mr. Max Ascoli, Editor and Publisher, The Reporter."[^8] [[Hugh Wilford]] writes that The Reporter's deputy [[Philip Horton]] used contacts with Donovan, Dulles and James Jesus Angleton to enhance its foreign coverage.[^9] ### DCI: Iran, Guatemala, and the Covert Action Doctrine @@ -64,25 +66,29 @@ Dulles was named Deputy Director (Plans) in 1951 and became DCI on February 26, Operation AJAX (August 1953): Working with British intelligence, Dulles's CIA executed the coup that overthrew Iranian Prime Minister [[Mohammad Mosaddegh]] and returned [[Mohammed Reza Shah Pahlavi|Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]] to full power. The operation was designed and led in the field by [[Kermit Roosevelt|Kermit Roosevelt Jr.]], grandson of Theodore Roosevelt. Operation AJAX established the operational template that Dulles and Bissell believed could be replicated elsewhere. -Operation PBSUCCESS (June 1954): The CIA's overthrow of Guatemalan President [[Jacobo Arbenz]] was presented to Eisenhower as a vindication of covert action - a small paramilitary force, CIA air assets, and psychological warfare had collapsed a government with minimal U.S. exposure. Dulles and his team drew exactly the wrong lesson: that the model was transferable. The direct organizational line from PBSUCCESS to the Bay of Pigs ran through the same personnel - [[Howard Hunt]], [[Tracy Barnes]], [[David Atlee Phillips]] - applying the same framework to a target that had fundamentally different characteristics.[^9] +Operation PBSUCCESS (June 1954): The CIA's overthrow of Guatemalan President [[Jacobo Arbenz]] was presented to Eisenhower as a vindication of covert action - a small paramilitary force, CIA air assets, and psychological warfare had collapsed a government with minimal U.S. exposure. Dulles and his team drew exactly the wrong lesson: that the model was transferable. The direct organizational line from PBSUCCESS to the Bay of Pigs ran through the same personnel - [[Howard Hunt]], [[Tracy Barnes]], [[David Atlee Phillips]] - applying the same framework to a target that had fundamentally different characteristics.[^10] [[MKULTRA]]: Dulles authorized the CIA's human experimentation program in April 1953 under Technical Services Staff chief [[Sidney Gottlieb]]. The program used LSD and other substances on unconsenting subjects, including mental patients, prisoners, and unwitting CIA employees. Dulles's authorization memorandum noted concerns about Soviet brainwashing capabilities and framed the program as defensive research. The program's scope - eventually comprising 150 subprojects at 80 institutions - far exceeded what Dulles's authorization documents described. -On August 26, 1960 Dulles cabled the Leopoldville station that the station officer was to be given "wider authority," including "even more aggressive action if it can remain covert," and wrote that "we realize that targets of opportunity may present themselves to you."[^10] The cable authorized up to $100,000 "to carry out any crash programs on which you do not have the opportunity to consult HQS," and assured the station officer that the message had been "seen and approved at competent level" in the State Department.[^10] The Church Committee documented the cable as one of a sequence that began with Tweedy's cable of August 18, 1960 and Bissell's of August 19.[^10] +On August 26, 1960 Dulles cabled the Leopoldville station that the station officer was to be given "wider authority," including "even more aggressive action if it can remain covert," and wrote that "we realize that targets of opportunity may present themselves to you."[^11] The cable authorized up to $100,000 "to carry out any crash programs on which you do not have the opportunity to consult HQS," and assured the station officer that the message had been "seen and approved at competent level" in the State Department.[^11] The Church Committee documented the cable as one of a sequence that began with Tweedy's cable of August 18, 1960 and Bissell's of August 19.[^11] ### Correspondence with Senator McCarthy, 1953 -In July 1953 [[Joseph McCarthy]], as chairman of the [[Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations]], wrote to Dulles about [[William P. Bundy]], an employee of the Central Intelligence Agency, whom McCarthy linked to a $400 contribution to the defense of [[Alger Hiss]].[^11] McCarthy's letter of July 27, 1953 said the contribution "raises the gravest question as to his holding a sensitive post in an intelligence agency."[^12] The CIA reply of July 22, 1953, signed by [[Alba W. Doan]] as director, gave the agency's account of Bundy's disclosure on his March 1951 application and of the field investigation and loyalty determinations that followed. It deferred comment on the reasons Bundy gave for the contribution until a review was complete.[^11] A newspaper article by [[Allen Drury]] dated August 4, 1953 reported that Dulles had refused to tell McCarthy Bundy's explanation, and reported that on July 22 Dulles informed McCarthy of the results of a CIA security check on Bundy and of Bundy's 1940 membership in the United Public Workers of America.[^13] Dulles's reply of August 1, 1953, as quoted in that article, read: "After most careful consideration of your letter, I feel that the proper course to pursue is to follow the procedure described in the President's executive order," and he declined to comment on certain phases of the matter pending the conclusion of those proceedings.[^13] McCarthy replied on August 3 that Bundy's contributions to Hiss predated his CIA employment and that Congress was entitled to information about improper conduct by the agency's top officers.[^14] An FBI memorandum of July 10, 1953 recorded that Dulles told the Bureau's liaison agent [[Sam Papich]] he had taken the position that permitting CIA employees to testify before the McCarthy committee would be prejudicial to the interests of the United States, that he had been in touch with the White House about the position and had its support, and that he wanted to know where McCarthy obtained his information; Papich answered that the Bureau was not supplying it.[^15] +In July 1953 [[Joseph McCarthy]], as chairman of the [[Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations]], wrote to Dulles about [[William P. Bundy]], an employee of the Central Intelligence Agency, whom McCarthy linked to a $400 contribution to the defense of [[Alger Hiss]].[^12] McCarthy's letter of July 27, 1953 said the contribution "raises the gravest question as to his holding a sensitive post in an intelligence agency."[^13] The CIA reply of July 22, 1953, signed by [[Alba W. Doan]] as director, gave the agency's account of Bundy's disclosure on his March 1951 application and of the field investigation and loyalty determinations that followed. It deferred comment on the reasons Bundy gave for the contribution until a review was complete.[^12] A newspaper article by [[Allen Drury]] dated August 4, 1953 reported that Dulles had refused to tell McCarthy Bundy's explanation, and reported that on July 22 Dulles informed McCarthy of the results of a CIA security check on Bundy and of Bundy's 1940 membership in the United Public Workers of America.[^14] Dulles's reply of August 1, 1953, as quoted in that article, read: "After most careful consideration of your letter, I feel that the proper course to pursue is to follow the procedure described in the President's executive order," and he declined to comment on certain phases of the matter pending the conclusion of those proceedings.[^14] McCarthy replied on August 3 that Bundy's contributions to Hiss predated his CIA employment and that Congress was entitled to information about improper conduct by the agency's top officers.[^15] An FBI memorandum of July 10, 1953 recorded that Dulles told the Bureau's liaison agent [[Sam Papich]] he had taken the position that permitting CIA employees to testify before the McCarthy committee would be prejudicial to the interests of the United States, that he had been in touch with the White House about the position and had its support, and that he wanted to know where McCarthy obtained his information; Papich answered that the Bureau was not supplying it.[^16] -On October 22, 1953 Dulles wrote to McCarthy that a check of the agency's reproduction facilities had found that "no classified CIA material is printed in the main GPO plant." The letter answered press reports that CIA classified material had been printed at the [[Government Printing Office]]. It said the agency's legislative counsel had informed the subcommittee's staff of these facts on August 12, 1953, and it asked that the letter be placed in the record.[^16] +On October 22, 1953 Dulles wrote to McCarthy that a check of the agency's reproduction facilities had found that "no classified CIA material is printed in the main GPO plant." The letter answered press reports that CIA classified material had been printed at the [[Government Printing Office]]. It said the agency's legislative counsel had informed the subcommittee's staff of these facts on August 12, 1953, and it asked that the letter be placed in the record.[^17] + +### Correspondence with William Sloane Coffin, 1958 + +On March 27, 1958, Dulles wrote to [[William Sloane Coffin]] about his recent appointment as chaplain of Yale University, and wished him every success in the year ahead.[^18] The appointment had been announced in the New York Times on March 17, 1958, with Coffin then serving as chaplain of [[Williams College]].[^19] ### MKULTRA: The Sandoz Panic and the Olson Death -Dulles approved MKULTRA on April 13, 1953, ten days after Richard Helms proposed a program for the "covert use of biological and chemical materials," with an initial $300,000 exempt from normal financial controls and payable blindly on the signatures of Gottlieb and TSS chief [[Willis Gibbons]]. Acting in a climate of Cold War urgency, that same month Dulles approved a $240,000 payment after an intelligence report claimed [[Sandoz]] wanted to sell 10 kilograms of [[LSD]] on the open market; CIA officers flew to Switzerland with a black bag of cash only to learn Sandoz had produced barely 40 grams in fifteen years, the entire panic stemming from a military attaché who confused milligrams with kilograms. When [[Frank Olson]] died in November 1953 after Gottlieb dosed him with LSD at [[Deep Creek Lodge]], Dulles ordered Inspector General [[Lyman Kirkpatrick]] to investigate; the resulting reprimands were softened through six drafts and placed in no personnel file.[^17] +Dulles approved MKULTRA on April 13, 1953, ten days after Richard Helms proposed a program for the "covert use of biological and chemical materials," with an initial $300,000 exempt from normal financial controls and payable blindly on the signatures of Gottlieb and TSS chief [[Willis Gibbons]]. Acting in a climate of Cold War urgency, that same month Dulles approved a $240,000 payment after an intelligence report claimed [[Sandoz]] wanted to sell 10 kilograms of [[LSD]] on the open market; CIA officers flew to Switzerland with a black bag of cash only to learn Sandoz had produced barely 40 grams in fifteen years, the entire panic stemming from a military attaché who confused milligrams with kilograms. When [[Frank Olson]] died in November 1953 after Gottlieb dosed him with LSD at [[Deep Creek Lodge]], Dulles ordered Inspector General [[Lyman Kirkpatrick]] to investigate; the resulting reprimands were softened through six drafts and placed in no personnel file.[^20] ### Rockefeller's Special Group and the Human Ecology Front -Under Eisenhower, Dulles reported all CIA covert operations, including MKULTRA, the coups, and assassination planning, to the NSC "[[Special Group]]" chaired by [[Nelson Rockefeller]], the structure formalized by NSC 5412/2 in December 1955 that gave the president plausible deniability; in a 1955 "Family Jewels" briefing Dulles described the full range of covert programs to Rockefeller's board. When MKULTRA needed a research hospital, Dulles sought Rockefeller's approval for a scheme to channel CIA money through private foundations to win matching federal grants for a wing at [[Georgetown University Hospital]]. The program's primary funding front, the [[Society for the Investigation of Human Ecology]], was organized at Dulles's initiative through [[Harold Wolff]], the Cornell neurologist who had treated Dulles's brain-damaged son; Dulles attended one of its first board meetings. His relationship with [[D. Ewen Cameron]] predated the funding: in November 1945, still with the OSS, Dulles had sent Cameron to Nuremberg to assess whether [[Rudolf Hess]] was fit to stand trial.[^18] +Under Eisenhower, Dulles reported all CIA covert operations, including MKULTRA, the coups, and assassination planning, to the NSC "[[Special Group]]" chaired by [[Nelson Rockefeller]], the structure formalized by NSC 5412/2 in December 1955 that gave the president plausible deniability; in a 1955 "Family Jewels" briefing Dulles described the full range of covert programs to Rockefeller's board. When MKULTRA needed a research hospital, Dulles sought Rockefeller's approval for a scheme to channel CIA money through private foundations to win matching federal grants for a wing at [[Georgetown University Hospital]]. The program's primary funding front, the [[Society for the Investigation of Human Ecology]], was organized at Dulles's initiative through [[Harold Wolff]], the Cornell neurologist who had treated Dulles's brain-damaged son; Dulles attended one of its first board meetings. His relationship with [[D. Ewen Cameron]] predated the funding: in November 1945, still with the OSS, Dulles had sent Cameron to Nuremberg to assess whether [[Rudolf Hess]] was fit to stand trial.[^21] ### Bay of Pigs and Forced Resignation @@ -90,68 +96,71 @@ The Bay of Pigs invasion of April 17-19, 1961 was the catastrophic failure that Kennedy publicly accepted responsibility but was privately furious. He reportedly told aide [[Ted Sorensen]] that he wanted to "splinter the CIA into a thousand pieces and scatter it to the winds" - a remark almost certainly apocryphal in its precise wording but consistent with his documented anger. The Taylor Commission's findings and the classified Kirkpatrick IG report both pointed to fundamental CIA failures in planning, execution, and judgment. -Dulles submitted his resignation in September 1961; it was formally accepted November 29, 1961. He was replaced by [[John McCone]]. The CIA's own history states that a "humiliated President Kennedy did not wait for either report before cleaning house at CIA" and that he accepted resignations from Dulles and from Deputy Director for Plans Richard Bissell, who stayed at their posts until their successors were selected a few months later.[^19] Bissell and Cabell were also forced out. CIA veterans viewed their dismissal as Kennedy scapegoating the agency for a failure the [[White House]] had co-created by canceling the air strikes.[^1] +Dulles submitted his resignation in September 1961; it was formally accepted November 29, 1961. He was replaced by [[John McCone]]. The CIA's own history states that a "humiliated President Kennedy did not wait for either report before cleaning house at CIA" and that he accepted resignations from Dulles and from Deputy Director for Plans Richard Bissell, who stayed at their posts until their successors were selected a few months later.[^22] Bissell and Cabell were also forced out. CIA veterans viewed their dismissal as Kennedy scapegoating the agency for a failure the [[White House]] had co-created by canceling the air strikes.[^1] ### The Warren Commission -On November 29, 1963 - exactly two years after Dulles's forced resignation - President Lyndon Johnson appointed the Warren Commission to investigate Kennedy's assassination. Among the seven commissioners Johnson named was Allen Dulles despite Kennedy’s firing of Dulles.[^20] +On November 29, 1963 - exactly two years after Dulles's forced resignation - President Lyndon Johnson appointed the Warren Commission to investigate Kennedy's assassination. Among the seven commissioners Johnson named was Allen Dulles despite Kennedy’s firing of Dulles.[^23] The investigation was examining whether CIA-connected parties (specifically the anti-Castro exile networks and organized crime figures that Dulles had directly overseen) had any role in the assassination. He was now in a position to shape what evidence the Commission sought, what witnesses it called, and what conclusions it reached regarding the CIA programs he had run. -Dulles was reportedly among the most active commissioners in shaping the investigation's scope. He briefed commissioners on CIA history and procedures. Book V of the Church Committee's final report states that, with the exception of Dulles, it is unlikely anyone on the Warren Commission knew of the CIA's assassination efforts, and that Dulles knew of the plots with underworld figures that had taken place during his tenure as Director of Central Intelligence.[^21] The Church Committee's 1975 interim report states that Dulles "did not inform the other members about the plots that had occurred during his term as DCI,"[^22] and also states that "it is not entirely certain that Dulles was ever made aware of the true nature of the underworld operation."[^23] The [[ZR/RIFLE]] assassination plotting program was, in the same period, not disclosed to the Commission at the agency level by [[Richard Helms]] as Deputy Director for Plans. Helms testified that Dulles "was sitting right there" in the Commission's deliberations and "knew about this," and that he did not know what Dulles had said to the Commission about the plots.[^24] The CIA's failure to disclose the assassination plots to the Warren Commission was documented by the Church Committee in 1975; Dulles's role as both a commissioner and the former DCI who had authorized the programs is the structural conflict of interest the Commission's composition created. +Dulles was reportedly among the most active commissioners in shaping the investigation's scope. He briefed commissioners on CIA history and procedures. Book V of the Church Committee's final report states that, with the exception of Dulles, it is unlikely anyone on the Warren Commission knew of the CIA's assassination efforts, and that Dulles knew of the plots with underworld figures that had taken place during his tenure as Director of Central Intelligence.[^24] The Church Committee's 1975 interim report states that Dulles "did not inform the other members about the plots that had occurred during his term as DCI,"[^25] and also states that "it is not entirely certain that Dulles was ever made aware of the true nature of the underworld operation."[^26] The [[ZR/RIFLE]] assassination plotting program was, in the same period, not disclosed to the Commission at the agency level by [[Richard Helms]] as Deputy Director for Plans. Helms testified that Dulles "was sitting right there" in the Commission's deliberations and "knew about this," and that he did not know what Dulles had said to the Commission about the plots.[^27] The CIA's failure to disclose the assassination plots to the Warren Commission was documented by the Church Committee in 1975; Dulles's role as both a commissioner and the former DCI who had authorized the programs is the structural conflict of interest the Commission's composition created. -Angleton testified that Dulles consulted him before agreeing to President Johnson's request that he serve, that the two were in frequent contact, and that they informally discussed the progress of the investigation and what further work the CIA could do.[^25] At the January 22, 1964 executive session, the Commission took up a report that [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] had been a paid FBI informant. Dulles asked whether the purpose of such a hire could have been to penetrate the [[Fair Play for Cuba Committee]]. He said that practically any American could obtain a passport good for anywhere, and that the Passport Bureau had no record of Oswald's defection. Near the end of the meeting, Dulles said: "I think this record ought to be destroyed."[^26] FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]]'s files held an index card on Dulles that cross-referenced a November 29, 1963 memorandum.[^27] +Angleton testified that Dulles consulted him before agreeing to President Johnson's request that he serve, that the two were in frequent contact, and that they informally discussed the progress of the investigation and what further work the CIA could do.[^28] At the January 22, 1964 executive session, the Commission took up a report that [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] had been a paid FBI informant. Dulles asked whether the purpose of such a hire could have been to penetrate the [[Fair Play for Cuba Committee]]. He said that practically any American could obtain a passport good for anywhere, and that the Passport Bureau had no record of Oswald's defection. Near the end of the meeting, Dulles said: "I think this record ought to be destroyed."[^29] FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]]'s files held an index card on Dulles that cross-referenced a November 29, 1963 memorandum.[^30] -The [[HSCA|House Select Committee on Assassinations]] (1979) found that the Warren Commission's failure to investigate adequately the possibility of a conspiracy was "attributable in part to the failure of the Commission to receive all the relevant information that was in the possession of other agencies and departments of the Government," and that the CIA "was deficient in its collection and sharing of information both prior to and subsequent to the assassination."[^28] The report does not name Dulles in those findings. It states that the committee did not ignore the possibility that certain CIA officials who knew that close scrutiny of United States-Cuban relations could have exposed the CIA-Mafia plots might have tried to keep the CIA's or the Warren Commission's inquiry from the question of Cuban complicity, and that it determined that only Deputy Director Helms was in a position to have both the knowledge and the power to accomplish such a cover-up and was satisfied, on the basis of its investigation, that it was "highly unlikely he in fact did so."[^29] It found that the details of the AMLASH plot and the CIA-Mafia plots should have been provided to the Warren Commission.[^30] +The [[HSCA|House Select Committee on Assassinations]] (1979) found that the Warren Commission's failure to investigate adequately the possibility of a conspiracy was "attributable in part to the failure of the Commission to receive all the relevant information that was in the possession of other agencies and departments of the Government," and that the CIA "was deficient in its collection and sharing of information both prior to and subsequent to the assassination."[^31] The report does not name Dulles in those findings. It states that the committee did not ignore the possibility that certain CIA officials who knew that close scrutiny of United States-Cuban relations could have exposed the CIA-Mafia plots might have tried to keep the CIA's or the Warren Commission's inquiry from the question of Cuban complicity, and that it determined that only Deputy Director Helms was in a position to have both the knowledge and the power to accomplish such a cover-up and was satisfied, on the basis of its investigation, that it was "highly unlikely he in fact did so."[^32] It found that the details of the AMLASH plot and the CIA-Mafia plots should have been provided to the Warren Commission.[^33] ### Dallas Council on World Affairs and Neil Mallon -A Dallas News editorial of October 27, 1953 refers to a meeting of the Dallas Council on World Affairs the previous week, which had drawn interest in what the head of the Central Intelligence Agency might say.[^31] On February 27, 1954, Dulles wrote to Vice President [[Richard Nixon|Richard M. Nixon]] that a Texas correspondent had sent him a copy of a February 24, 1954 letter that the correspondent had written to Nixon about the council. Dulles described the council as "an excellent forum of persons who take a deep interest in our foreign relations." He wrote that he had known [[Neil Mallon]] "for several years," and that Mallon had made "a real accomplishment in organizing the Council and keeping it a live and vigorous organization." The routing block of the letter shows a copy sent to Mallon.[^32] On February 5, 1958, the council's executive director, Roger Kennedy, wrote to Dulles asking him to speak in Dallas in April or May; Dulles's reply to Kennedy, dated February 13, 1958 (drafted February 7), declined the invitation at that time.[^33] The council's letterhead on Kennedy's letter lists [[Earle Cabell]] and "H. N. Mallon" (executive committee) among its members. The Handbook of Texas names Earle Cabell's brother as Charles Pearre Cabell, deputy director of the Central Intelligence Agency from 1953.[^34] +A Dallas News editorial of October 27, 1953 refers to a meeting of the Dallas Council on World Affairs the previous week, which had drawn interest in what the head of the Central Intelligence Agency might say.[^34] On February 27, 1954, Dulles wrote to Vice President [[Richard Nixon|Richard M. Nixon]] that a Texas correspondent had sent him a copy of a February 24, 1954 letter that the correspondent had written to Nixon about the council. Dulles described the council as "an excellent forum of persons who take a deep interest in our foreign relations." He wrote that he had known [[Neil Mallon]] "for several years," and that Mallon had made "a real accomplishment in organizing the Council and keeping it a live and vigorous organization." The routing block of the letter shows a copy sent to Mallon.[^35] On February 5, 1958, the council's executive director, Roger Kennedy, wrote to Dulles asking him to speak in Dallas in April or May; Dulles's reply to Kennedy, dated February 13, 1958 (drafted February 7), declined the invitation at that time.[^36] The council's letterhead on Kennedy's letter lists [[Earle Cabell]] and "H. N. Mallon" (executive committee) among its members. The Handbook of Texas names Earle Cabell's brother as Charles Pearre Cabell, deputy director of the Central Intelligence Agency from 1953.[^37] -[[Anthony L. Kimery]]'s article in the CovertAction Information Bulletin (number 41, Summer 1992) states that Mallon, a Dresser Industries chairman, "steered prospective candidates for spy work to Dulles and often provided cover employment to CIA operatives." Kimery's article gives this as its own claim.[^35] +[[Anthony L. Kimery]]'s article in the CovertAction Information Bulletin (number 41, Summer 1992) states that Mallon, a Dresser Industries chairman, "steered prospective candidates for spy work to Dulles and often provided cover employment to CIA operatives." Kimery's article gives this as its own claim.[^38] ### Death and Legacy Dulles spent his post-CIA years writing, lecturing, and defending the covert action programs he had built. His book *The Craft of Intelligence* (1963) was the first major public account of CIA operations by a former director. He died in Washington on January 29, 1969, of influenza complicated by pneumonia, eighteen months before the full extent of MKULTRA and the assassination plots became public. -The 2022 report of the United Nations Eminent Person summarized the argument of Greg Poulgrain's 2020 book, *JFK vs. Allen Dulles: Battleground Indonesia*, which posits that Dulles formed a motive to remove [[Dag Hammarskjöld]] following a policy conflict over the United Nations' intended intervention in the dispute over the sovereignty of West New Guinea.[^36] The report recorded Poulgrain's proposition that the Operation Celeste documents, which refer to a plan to kill Hammarskjöld by causing his plane to crash, mention Dulles by name, stating: "UNO is becoming troublesome and it is felt that Hammarskjöld should be removed. Allen Dulles agrees and has promised full cooperation from his people."[^36] Poulgrain compared this with the Church Committee's account of Dulles expressing a "wish [to] give every possible support" to a plan to kill Lumumba.[^36] The report stated that it was not necessary at that stage to assess the probative value of Poulgrain's information, and that it underscored the importance of "proving or disproving the veracity of the Operation Celeste hypothesis and Dulles's alleged involvement (as relied on by Poulgrain)."[^37] +The 2022 report of the United Nations Eminent Person summarized the argument of Greg Poulgrain's 2020 book, *JFK vs. Allen Dulles: Battleground Indonesia*, which posits that Dulles formed a motive to remove [[Dag Hammarskjöld]] following a policy conflict over the United Nations' intended intervention in the dispute over the sovereignty of West New Guinea.[^39] The report recorded Poulgrain's proposition that the Operation Celeste documents, which refer to a plan to kill Hammarskjöld by causing his plane to crash, mention Dulles by name, stating: "UNO is becoming troublesome and it is felt that Hammarskjöld should be removed. Allen Dulles agrees and has promised full cooperation from his people."[^39] Poulgrain compared this with the Church Committee's account of Dulles expressing a "wish [to] give every possible support" to a plan to kill Lumumba.[^39] The report stated that it was not necessary at that stage to assess the probative value of Poulgrain's information, and that it underscored the importance of "proving or disproving the veracity of the Operation Celeste hypothesis and Dulles's alleged involvement (as relied on by Poulgrain)."[^40] ### Footnotes [^1]: Kinzer, Stephen. *The Brothers: John Foster Dulles, Allen Dulles, and Their Secret World War.* Times Books, 2013 (covers both brothers, the Sullivan & Cromwell connections, and the covert action programs). Grose, Peter. *Gentleman Spy: The Life of Allen Dulles.* Houghton Mifflin, 1994. [^2]: *Allen W. Dulles Papers*, Public Policy Papers, Princeton University Library (MC019), biography/history and acquisition information. https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/PRIN_MUDD_MC019 [^3]: Allen W. Dulles to Hadley Cantril, August 28, 1961, replying to a letter of July 21, 1961. CIA reading room, CIA-RDP80B01676R003500040028-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003500040028-2 -[^4]: Richard J. Aldrich, "OSS, CIA and European Unity: The American Committee on United Europe, 1948-60," Diplomacy & Statecraft 8, no. 1 (1997), p. 192, DOI 10.1080/09592299708406035, https://text.www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/pais/people/aldrich/publications/oss_cia_united_europe_eec_eu.pdf. -[^5]: Aldrich (1997), pp. 211-212 (Braden's 1980s assertion at p. 211; Rabattet passage at p. 212), same URL. -[^6]: Senato della Repubblica, Archivio storico, Max Ascoli fonds, sottofascicolo 15, index of names, https://patrimonio.archivio.senato.it/inventario/scheda/max-ascoli/IT-AFS-005-002785/letters-expressing-regrets-upon-closing-of-the-reporter-from-personal-friends-of-max-ascoli-1968. -[^7]: Howard L. Bevis to Allen W. Dulles, February 7, 1958, CIA-RDP80B01676R003800020106-4, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003800020106-4. -[^8]: Hugh Wilford, The Mighty Wurlitzer (Harvard University Press, 2008), pp. 230-231. -[^9]: Kornbluh, Peter, ed. *Bay of Pigs Declassified: The Secret CIA Report on the Invasion of Cuba.* New Press, 1998. Church Committee. "Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders." Senate Report No. 94-465, 1975. Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy.* Random House, 1991. Chapter 4. -[^10]: United States Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, Senate Report No. 94-465, 1975, section on the Congo, quoting the CIA cables of August 18, August 19 and August 26, 1960. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94465.pdf -[^11]: Letter from Alba W. Doan, Director, Central Intelligence Agency, to Joseph R. McCarthy, July 22, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080014-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080014-6 -[^12]: Letter from Joseph R. McCarthy, Chairman, Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, to Allen W. Dulles, July 27, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080022-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080022-7 -[^13]: Allen Drury, "McCarthy Warns CIA Head Fight on Bundy Isn't Over," newspaper article, August 4, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP74-00297R000401370024-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp74-00297r000401370024-4 -[^14]: Letter from Joseph R. McCarthy to Allen W. Dulles, August 3, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080020-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080020-9 -[^15]: Federal Bureau of Investigation memorandum, "Information Concerning Allen W. Dulles," July 10, 1953, FBI file 62-HQ-80750, "FBI Files on CIA Liaison," section 31, https://archive.org/details/FBI-CIA-Liaison -[^16]: Letter from Allen W. Dulles to Joseph R. McCarthy, October 22, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP86B00269R000100130103-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp86b00269r000100130103-2 -[^17]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979, Chapter 4; "Project MKULTRA, the CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification," Joint Senate Hearing, August 3, 1977. -[^18]: Gerard Colby and Charlotte Dennett, *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon*. HarperCollins, 1995, Ch. 18; John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979, Chapter 9. -[^19]: Warner, Michael, "The CIA's Internal Probe of the Bay of Pigs Affair: Lessons Unlearned," *Studies in Intelligence*, Winter 1998-1999. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Internal-Probe-Bay-Pigs.pdf -[^20]: Executive Order 11130, "Appointing a Commission To Report Upon the Assassination of President John F. Kennedy," November 29, 1963. The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-11130-appointing-commission-report-upon-the-assassination-president-john-f -[^21]: U.S. Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *The Investigation of the Assassination of President John F. Kennedy: Performance of the Intelligence Agencies*, Book V, Final Report, April 23, 1976, pp. 67-68. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_V.pdf -[^22]: U.S. Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders: An Interim Report*, Senate Report No. 94-465, 1975, p. 269, note 1. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit -[^23]: *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, p. 267. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit -[^24]: Book V, p. 70 (Helms testimony of July 18, 1975). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_V.pdf -[^25]: Book V, p. 69 (note 134, Angleton testimony of February 6, 1976, pp. 31-34). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_V.pdf -[^26]: Warren Commission, executive session transcript, January 22, 1964, 5:30 to 7:00 p.m. https://aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcexec/pdf/WcEx0122.pdf -[^27]: U.S. Assassination Records Review Board, memorandum by Ronald G. Haron, "Assassination Records Among the Files of J. Edgar Hoover (FBI-36)," January 8, 1998. https://documents3.theblackvault.com/documents/jfkfiles/NARA-Oct2017/ARRB/RHARON/HARON/FBIMEM.002.pdf -[^28]: House Select Committee on Assassinations, *Report,* H. Rept. 95-1828, 95th Cong., 2d sess. (1979), summary Findings I.D.4 and I.D.5(b) (p. 4). https://archive.org/details/reportofselectco1979unit -[^29]: House Select Committee on Assassinations, *Report,* H. Rept. 95-1828, p. 128. https://archive.org/details/reportofselectco1979unit -[^30]: House Select Committee on Assassinations, *Report,* H. Rept. 95-1828, pp. 112-116. https://archive.org/details/reportofselectco1979unit -[^31]: "World Affairs Council," editorial, Dallas News, October 27, 1953, CIA reading room clipping, CIA-RDP70-00058R000100080037-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp70-00058r000100080037-2 -[^32]: Allen W. Dulles, letter to the Honorable Richard M. Nixon, Vice-President of the United States, February 27, 1954, with distribution "cc - Neil Mallon," CIA-RDP80R01731R000900110025-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r000900110025-8 -[^33]: Roger Kennedy, Executive Director, Dallas Council on World Affairs, letter of February 5, 1958 to Allen Dulles, Central Intelligence Agency, with council letterhead, and Dulles's reply to Kennedy drafted February 7 and dated February 13, 1958, CIA-RDP80B01676R003800110043-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003800110043-4 -[^34]: Michael V. Hazel, "Cabell, Earle," and "Cabell, Charles Pearre," Handbook of Texas Online, Texas State Historical Association (brothers; sons of Ben E. and Sadie Pearre Cabell; Earle on the Dallas Council on World Affairs; Charles deputy director of the CIA from 1953). https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/cabell-earle ; https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/cabell-charles-pearre -[^35]: Anthony L. Kimery, "George Bush and the CIA: In the Company of Friends," CovertAction Information Bulletin no. 41 (Summer 1992), passage on Henry Neil Mallon, CIA-RDP99-01448R000401570011-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401570011-0 -[^36]: A/76/892, report of the Eminent Person, August 25, 2022, paragraphs 241 to 244. https://documents.un.org/api/symbol/access?s=A%2F76%2F892&l=en&t=pdf -[^37]: A/76/892, paragraph 246. https://documents.un.org/api/symbol/access?s=A%2F76%2F892&l=en&t=pdf +[^4]: Arnold H. Taylor, *American Diplomacy and the Narcotics Traffic, 1900-1939* (Durham: Duke University Press, 1969), pp. 312-313 and notes 38 to 42 (Dulles memoranda of November 2, November 5 and December 7, 1925 on Wright and Moorhead, of December 16, 1925 with Representative Stephen G. Porter, and of December 22, 1925 with Delano, file SDR 511.4A2/444). https://archive.org/details/americandiplomac02tayl +[^5]: Richard J. Aldrich, "OSS, CIA and European Unity: The American Committee on United Europe, 1948-60," Diplomacy & Statecraft 8, no. 1 (1997), p. 192, DOI 10.1080/09592299708406035, https://text.www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/pais/people/aldrich/publications/oss_cia_united_europe_eec_eu.pdf. +[^6]: Aldrich (1997), pp. 211-212 (Braden's 1980s assertion at p. 211; Rabattet passage at p. 212), same URL. +[^7]: Senato della Repubblica, Archivio storico, Max Ascoli fonds, sottofascicolo 15, index of names, https://patrimonio.archivio.senato.it/inventario/scheda/max-ascoli/IT-AFS-005-002785/letters-expressing-regrets-upon-closing-of-the-reporter-from-personal-friends-of-max-ascoli-1968. +[^8]: Howard L. Bevis to Allen W. Dulles, February 7, 1958, CIA-RDP80B01676R003800020106-4, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003800020106-4. +[^9]: Hugh Wilford, The Mighty Wurlitzer (Harvard University Press, 2008), pp. 230-231. +[^10]: Kornbluh, Peter, ed. *Bay of Pigs Declassified: The Secret CIA Report on the Invasion of Cuba.* New Press, 1998. Church Committee. "Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders." Senate Report No. 94-465, 1975. Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy.* Random House, 1991. Chapter 4. +[^11]: United States Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, Senate Report No. 94-465, 1975, section on the Congo, quoting the CIA cables of August 18, August 19 and August 26, 1960. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94465.pdf +[^12]: Letter from Alba W. Doan, Director, Central Intelligence Agency, to Joseph R. McCarthy, July 22, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080014-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080014-6 +[^13]: Letter from Joseph R. McCarthy, Chairman, Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, to Allen W. Dulles, July 27, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080022-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080022-7 +[^14]: Allen Drury, "McCarthy Warns CIA Head Fight on Bundy Isn't Over," newspaper article, August 4, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP74-00297R000401370024-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp74-00297r000401370024-4 +[^15]: Letter from Joseph R. McCarthy to Allen W. Dulles, August 3, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080020-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080020-9 +[^16]: Federal Bureau of Investigation memorandum, "Information Concerning Allen W. Dulles," July 10, 1953, FBI file 62-HQ-80750, "FBI Files on CIA Liaison," section 31, https://archive.org/details/FBI-CIA-Liaison +[^17]: Letter from Allen W. Dulles to Joseph R. McCarthy, October 22, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP86B00269R000100130103-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp86b00269r000100130103-2 +[^18]: Allen W. Dulles to William Sloane Coffin Jr., March 27, 1958, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80B01676R003800030070-3. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp80b01676r003800030070-3 +[^19]: CIA Reading Room, "Former Infantry Officer Named Yale Chaplain," special dispatch to *The New York Times*, March 17, 1958, CIA-RDP75-00001R000300020009-4. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp75-00001r000300020009-4 +[^20]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979, Chapter 4; "Project MKULTRA, the CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification," Joint Senate Hearing, August 3, 1977. +[^21]: Gerard Colby and Charlotte Dennett, *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon*. HarperCollins, 1995, Ch. 18; John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979, Chapter 9. +[^22]: Warner, Michael, "The CIA's Internal Probe of the Bay of Pigs Affair: Lessons Unlearned," *Studies in Intelligence*, Winter 1998-1999. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Internal-Probe-Bay-Pigs.pdf +[^23]: Executive Order 11130, "Appointing a Commission To Report Upon the Assassination of President John F. Kennedy," November 29, 1963. The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-11130-appointing-commission-report-upon-the-assassination-president-john-f +[^24]: U.S. Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *The Investigation of the Assassination of President John F. Kennedy: Performance of the Intelligence Agencies*, Book V, Final Report, April 23, 1976, pp. 67-68. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_V.pdf +[^25]: U.S. Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders: An Interim Report*, Senate Report No. 94-465, 1975, p. 269, note 1. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit +[^26]: *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, p. 267. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit +[^27]: Book V, p. 70 (Helms testimony of July 18, 1975). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_V.pdf +[^28]: Book V, p. 69 (note 134, Angleton testimony of February 6, 1976, pp. 31-34). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_V.pdf +[^29]: Warren Commission, executive session transcript, January 22, 1964, 5:30 to 7:00 p.m. https://aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcexec/pdf/WcEx0122.pdf +[^30]: U.S. Assassination Records Review Board, memorandum by Ronald G. Haron, "Assassination Records Among the Files of J. Edgar Hoover (FBI-36)," January 8, 1998. https://documents3.theblackvault.com/documents/jfkfiles/NARA-Oct2017/ARRB/RHARON/HARON/FBIMEM.002.pdf +[^31]: House Select Committee on Assassinations, *Report,* H. Rept. 95-1828, 95th Cong., 2d sess. (1979), summary Findings I.D.4 and I.D.5(b) (p. 4). https://archive.org/details/reportofselectco1979unit +[^32]: House Select Committee on Assassinations, *Report,* H. Rept. 95-1828, p. 128. https://archive.org/details/reportofselectco1979unit +[^33]: House Select Committee on Assassinations, *Report,* H. Rept. 95-1828, pp. 112-116. https://archive.org/details/reportofselectco1979unit +[^34]: "World Affairs Council," editorial, Dallas News, October 27, 1953, CIA reading room clipping, CIA-RDP70-00058R000100080037-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp70-00058r000100080037-2 +[^35]: Allen W. Dulles, letter to the Honorable Richard M. Nixon, Vice-President of the United States, February 27, 1954, with distribution "cc - Neil Mallon," CIA-RDP80R01731R000900110025-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r000900110025-8 +[^36]: Roger Kennedy, Executive Director, Dallas Council on World Affairs, letter of February 5, 1958 to Allen Dulles, Central Intelligence Agency, with council letterhead, and Dulles's reply to Kennedy drafted February 7 and dated February 13, 1958, CIA-RDP80B01676R003800110043-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003800110043-4 +[^37]: Michael V. Hazel, "Cabell, Earle," and "Cabell, Charles Pearre," Handbook of Texas Online, Texas State Historical Association (brothers; sons of Ben E. and Sadie Pearre Cabell; Earle on the Dallas Council on World Affairs; Charles deputy director of the CIA from 1953). https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/cabell-earle ; https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/cabell-charles-pearre +[^38]: Anthony L. Kimery, "George Bush and the CIA: In the Company of Friends," CovertAction Information Bulletin no. 41 (Summer 1992), passage on Henry Neil Mallon, CIA-RDP99-01448R000401570011-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401570011-0 +[^39]: A/76/892, report of the Eminent Person, August 25, 2022, paragraphs 241 to 244. https://documents.un.org/api/symbol/access?s=A%2F76%2F892&l=en&t=pdf +[^40]: A/76/892, paragraph 246. https://documents.un.org/api/symbol/access?s=A%2F76%2F892&l=en&t=pdf diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Daniel Coit Gilman.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Daniel Coit Gilman.md new file mode 100644 index 00000000..b66beb6c --- /dev/null +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Daniel Coit Gilman.md @@ -0,0 +1,347 @@ +--- +aliases: + - Daniel C. Gilman + - D. C. Gilman +category: "Scientists & Researchers" +tags: + - Person + - SkullAndBones + - RussellTrustAssociation + - YaleUniversity + - JohnsHopkins + - CarnegieInstitution + - VenezuelaBoundary + - CivilServiceReform + - GeneralEducationBoard + - SlaterFund + - PeabodyFund + - RussellSageFoundation + - SuttonHypothesis +summary: "Yale librarian who became president of the University of California, Johns Hopkins University and the Carnegie Institution of Washington, and who is named in the 1856 act incorporating the Russell Trust Association." +born: 1831-07-06 +died: 1908-10-13 +location: "Baltimore, Maryland" +created: 2026-10-26 +updated: 2026-10-26 +relations: + - type: member_of + with: "[[Skull and Bones]]" + start: 1851 + role: "class of 1852" + fn: 10 + - type: founded + with: "[[Russell Trust Association]]" + role: "named incorporator in the 1856 act" + start: 1856 + fn: 2 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Yale University]]" + role: "assistant librarian, then librarian" + start: 1856 + end: 1865 + fn: 37 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Sheffield Scientific School]]" + role: "professor of physical and political geography; secretary; incorporator in 1871" + start: 1863 + end: 1872 + fn: 39 + - type: reported_to + with: "[[Thomas H. Seymour]]" + role: "attache of the United States legation at St. Petersburg" + start: 1853 + end: 1854 + fn: 21 + - type: head_of + with: "[[University of California]]" + start: 1872 + end: 1875 + fn: 41 + - type: head_of + with: "[[Johns Hopkins University]]" + start: 1875 + end: 1901 + fn: 50 + - type: head_of + with: "[[Carnegie Institution of Washington]]" + start: 1902 + end: 1904 + fn: 69 + - type: director_of + with: "[[General Education Board]]" + role: "member and named incorporator" + start: 1902 + fn: 86 + - type: head_of + with: "[[John F. Slater Fund]]" + role: "president, succeeding Rutherford B. Hayes" + start: 1893 + end: 1908 + fn: 61 + - type: director_of + with: "[[John F. Slater Fund]]" + role: "original trustee" + start: 1882 + fn: 61 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Peabody Education Fund]]" + role: "trustee, later vice president" + start: 1893 + fn: 81 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Russell Sage Foundation]]" + role: "trustee on its establishment" + start: 1907 + fn: 91 + - type: head_of + with: "[[National Civil Service Reform League]]" + start: 1901 + end: 1907 + fn: 92 + - type: head_of + with: "[[American Social Science Association]]" + start: 1879 + fn: 61 + - type: head_of + with: "[[American Bible Society]]" + start: 1903 + fn: 61 + - type: participant_in + with: "[[Venezuela Boundary Commission]]" + role: "commissioner" + start: 1896 + end: 1897 + fn: 65 + - type: appointed + with: "[[Grover Cleveland]]" + reverse: true + role: "member of the Venezuela Boundary Commission" + start: 1896 + fn: 65 + - type: partner_of + with: "[[Andrew Dickson White]]" + role: "fellow attache of the United States legation at St. Petersburg; fellow commissioner" + start: 1853 + fn: 21 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Edward W. Gilman]]" + role: "brother" + fn: 8 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Joseph Parrish Thompson]]" + role: "brother-in-law" + fn: 8 + - type: spouse_of + with: "[[Elizabeth Dwight Woolsey]]" + start: 1877 + end: 1908 + fn: 94 +--- + +Daniel Coit Gilman (July 6, 1831 to October 13, 1908) was a [[Yale University]] librarian and professor of geography who became president of the [[University of California]], of [[Johns Hopkins University]] and of the [[Carnegie Institution of Washington]], and a trustee of the [[John F. Slater Fund]], the [[Peabody Education Fund]], the [[General Education Board]] and the [[Russell Sage Foundation]].[^1] The 1856 act of the [[Connecticut General Assembly]] incorporating the [[Russell Trust Association]], the corporate body of [[Skull and Bones]], names him among its six incorporators.[^2] [[Antony C. Sutton]] placed the Gilman family on his chart of old-line American families with a settlement at Hingham, Massachusetts, in 1638.[^3] + +### Family and origins + +Edward Gilman, the progenitor of most of the Gilman name in America, came from Hingham, Norfolk, England, with his wife and family in 1638 and settled at Hingham on Massachusetts Bay; a few years later he removed to Exeter, New Hampshire.[^4] Daniel Coit Gilman was born at [[Norwich, Connecticut]], on July 6, 1831, the son of William Charles Gilman and Eliza Coit.[^5] Sutton and [[Kris Millegan]] give the birth date as July 8, 1831.[^6] + +At fourteen he moved with his parents to [[New York City]] and prepared for college under John J. Owen, principal of the Cornelius Institute. During his college course he lived in the household of his uncle, Professor James L. Kingsley of Yale, was president of the Linonian Society and was an editor of the Yale Literary Magazine.[^7] His brother Edward W. Gilman (Yale 1843) was for thirty years secretary of the [[American Bible Society]], and his brother-in-law, the clergyman Joseph Parrish Thompson (Yale 1838), was an author whose works Gilman edited together with those of [[Francis Lieber]].[^8] Millegan wrote that Gilman's uncle Henry Coit Kingsley (class of 1834), treasurer of Yale from 1862 to 1886, and his brother-in-law Thompson were both members of the Order.[^9] + +### Yale class of 1852 and Skull and Bones + +Gilman entered Yale in 1848 and graduated in 1852; of fifty-five prizes awarded to twenty-eight members of the class, he took four.[^10] The class secretary, Ephraim Cutter, listed Gilman's society memberships by college year in the memorial volume the class published in 1909 after his death, and gave "Skull and Bones" with Phi Beta Kappa for his senior year.[^10] + +An 1876 pamphlet, The Fall of Skull and Bones, compiled from the minutes of the seventh regular meeting of the Order of the [[File and Claw]], described the contents of the society's hall after a night entry by that body. It reported a framed engraving of an open burial vault accompanied by a card on which was written "From the German Chapter. Presented by Patriarch D.C. Gilman of D. 50."[^11] Millegan reproduced the passage and glossed the name on the card as that of "Daniel Coit Gilman, initiated into the Order of Skull and Bones 1850."[^12] + +Sutton lists him as "Daniel Coit Gilman ('52)" and Millegan as "S&B 1852."[^13] Millegan wrote that Gilman, [[Timothy Dwight]] (class of 1849) and [[Andrew Dickson White]] (class of 1853) "formed a troika which still influences American life today."[^14] [[Lyman Bagg]], in his 1871 account of Yale, described the society as founded in 1832 by fifteen members of the class that graduated the following year, with William H. Russell, "the valedictorian of that class," as its reputed founder and [[Alphonso Taft]] of Cincinnati as the best known of his associates.[^15] + +### Russell Trust Association + +The act of the Connecticut General Assembly passed in 1856 reads: "Resolved by this Assembly, That William H. Russell, John S. Beach, Henry B. Harrison, Daniel C. Gilman, Henry T. Blake and Henry D. White, and all such other persons as may be from time to time associated with them, together with their successors, be and they are hereby constituted a body corporate and politic," under the name of the Russell Trust Association "for the purpose of the intellectual and moral improvement of its members, and for that only." Section 1 limited the real and personal estate the association could hold to fifteen thousand dollars; section 2 fixed the first meeting at New Haven on the last Wednesday of July 1856; section 3 made the act subject to alteration or repeal by the General Assembly.[^2] + +Lyman Bagg listed the six names with their class years ("William H. Russell of '33, John S. Beach of '39, Henry B. Harrison of '46, Henry T. Blake of '48, Henry D. White of '51, and Daniel C. Gilman of '52") and wrote that "the first of whom has since acted as president, the one next the last as treasurer, of the association." In Bagg's list the name next to the last is Henry D. White.[^15] Sutton wrote that Gilman became treasurer and that [[William Huntington Russell]], the cofounder, was president, and Millegan gave the same offices.[^16] Millegan also wrote that there is no mention of the Order or the Russell Trust "in Gilman's biography, nor in open records."[^17] Millegan further described Gilman as "a Russell & Co. partner relation" who "incorporated the Order of Skull & Bones as the Russell Trust Association."[^18] + +John S. Beach, one of the other five incorporators of the association, was with Gilman among the six incorporators of the Sheffield Scientific School in 1871, together with [[William Walter Phelps]], whom Sutton's list places in the Order in 1860.[^19] Gilman's papers at Yale include correspondence with William H. Russell dated 1855, the year before the act.[^20] + +### Saint Petersburg and Berlin, 1853 to 1855 + +In December 1853 Gilman and White sailed for Europe as attaches of the United States legation at [[Saint Petersburg]] under [[Thomas H. Seymour]], the former governor of Connecticut, minister plenipotentiary.[^21] White wrote that Gilman, "then of the class above mine," had been invited by Seymour to go as an attache and that, at Seymour's suggestion, a similar invitation would be extended to him; White also wrote that on a train to New York he found himself beside Seymour, whom he described as "pro-slavery" while he was "anti-slavery."[^22] White sailed on December 10, 1853 with Gilman.[^23] A classmate, William W. Crapo, told the [[Massachusetts Historical Society]] that Seymour, "not a diplomat by training or experience," had "desired a friendly companionship which might at times be of assistance to him."[^24] + +While the minister was detained in America, the attaches waited in England. Gilman, by invitation of [[Richard Cobden]] and [[John Bright]], addressed a meeting of the National Public School Association at Manchester on "Common School Education in America," which the Manchester newspapers reported as "enthusiastically received."[^25] A letter of February 23, 1854 describes his attendance at the reception ball of the Emperor and Empress at the Tuileries in Paris, which Seymour had declined to attend over the question of diplomatic costume.[^26] He arrived in St. Petersburg on March 24, 1854, after nine days from Berlin.[^27] + +A letter of June 19, 1854 describes how Seymour wrote to the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Count Nesselrode, asking leave for Gilman to see the public establishments of the city; a diplomatic letter sealed with the double-headed eagle answered that the request had been referred to the Grand Duke Heritier, and similar notes followed from the Grand Duke Constantine, the Ministry of War and the Ministry of the Appanages. Officers then called in their carriages to conduct him through the military corps, the naval corps, the Lyceum and the corps of pages. He wrote that the attentions were "intended by the authorities as a compliment to the Legation."[^28] He inspected the flagship of the Russian fleet at Kronstadt under the escort of the admiral.[^29] + +In April 1854 he wrote to his sister from St. Petersburg: "Day and night I think of that time, and in all I see and do I am planning for being useful at home. I find my wishes cling more and more towards a home in New England, and I long for an opportunity to influence New England minds." He added: "I look therefore more and more to the ministry as probably the place where I can do more good than anywhere else."[^30] Sutton quotes the same letter.[^31] The family of William Ropes, an American merchant long resident in the city, drew him to the American Chapel, whose deacons asked him to conduct services after the pastor's departure; he declined.[^32] + +White did not arrive in the Russian capital until October 31, 1854, after nearly a year in Paris, and lived in Seymour's household for the rest of his stay; he wrote that part of his duty was to accompany the minister as interpreter in his interviews with Nesselrode, Gortschakoff "and others then in power."[^33] White later wrote that when he succeeded Gilman as attache he found at St. Petersburg "a number of the best people" who spoke of Gilman "in the highest terms."[^34] Gilman spent the winter of 1854 to 1855 at Berlin, where he formed friendships with the historian Georg Pertz, the geographer Karl Ritter, Adolf Trendelenburg and Karl Lepsius.[^35] In 1855 Connecticut appointed him its commissioner to the [[Paris Universal Exposition]], and he served as secretary of the board of associated commissioners.[^36] + +### Yale librarian and Sheffield + +Gilman returned at the end of 1855 and in the summer of 1856 was made assistant librarian of Yale College and, two years later, librarian; he resigned the librarianship in 1865. From 1856 to 1860 he was also acting visitor of the schools of [[New Haven]], and from 1865 to the close of 1866 secretary of the State Board of Education of Connecticut. He assisted in preparing the 1864 edition of Webster's Unabridged Dictionary and edited the Yale Obituary Record of graduates for 1863 to 1865.[^37] White wrote that on his own return in 1856 he was urged by "Porter and Gilman" to remain in New Haven, where they "virtually pledged" him a position in the school of art about to be established.[^38] + +He held the Yale Corporation's appointment as professor of physical and political geography at the [[Sheffield Scientific School]] from 1863, and in September 1866 the governing board of the school elected him its secretary.[^39] In February 1871 Professors Brush, Gilman and Trowbridge and Messrs. John S. Beach, William Walter Phelps and Charles J. Sheffield associated themselves as a body corporate for the school, with a board of nine in which the Governor of Connecticut, the President of Yale and the chairman of the trustees of the Peabody Museum sat ex officio and the six incorporators filled the remaining seats.[^19] Millegan wrote that three of the six were members of the Order, that Gilman's report on the reorganization of the school was prepared while members of the Order obtained Connecticut's share of the federal land scrip under the Morrill Act, and that Gilman was rewarded with the professorship.[^40] + +### University of California + +Gilman was offered the presidency of the University of California on its opening in 1870 and declined; the Regents elected Professor Henry Durant, and after Durant insisted in the summer of 1872 that they find a successor, Gilman accepted.[^41] A letter of April 5, 1874 to White, written during a legislative contest with the Granges over the university, says: "I could not conclude on any new proposition without conferring upon it with some of my family friends; and I have not felt at liberty to do so. I confess that the Baltimore scheme has ofttimes suggested itself to me, but I have no personal relations in that quarter."[^42] Sutton wrote that the board of the Johns Hopkins trust did not adopt by-laws until March 7, 1874, and that Gilman "knew what was happening over in Baltimore BEFORE HIS NAME HAD BEEN PRESENTED TO THE TRUSTEES."[^43] He resigned in 1875 after three years.[^44] + +### Johns Hopkins University + +Johns Hopkins died on December 24, 1873. His will divided seven million dollars between a university and a hospital: to the university he gave his estate at Clifton and the shares he owned in the [[Baltimore and Ohio Railroad]], fifteen thousand of them.[^45] The founder, a director of the railroad for many years, directed the trustees "to watch over and protect the interests of the road."[^46] Gilman later wrote that when the board was organized, "the chairman of the finance committee of the railroad, Mr. Galloway Cheston, was made president of the trustees of the University, and Mr. John W. Garrett, the president of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, was made chairman of the finance committee in the University board," and that "Originally nine of the twelve trustees were trustees in both corporations," the university and the hospital. Of the combination he wrote: "The combination was most unfortunate. It was likewise a misfortune that so many eggs were placed in one basket, and that the founder explicitly advised that they be so carried."[^47] The original board had seven members in business, two judges, two other lawyers and one physician; seven were Quakers.[^48] + +In the summer of 1874 the trustees invited Presidents Eliot of Harvard, White of Cornell and Angell of Michigan to Baltimore, and afterward asked each whom they would recommend. [[James B. Angell]] later recalled that "without the least conference between us three, we all wrote letters, telling them that the one man was Daniel C. Gilman, of California."[^49] Sutton wrote that only White of the three was in the Order.[^43] + +Gilman toured the universities of Europe in 1875 and 1877, began as president in May 1875 and gave his inaugural address on February 22, 1876.[^50] In his own account of the founding he wrote: "So we did not undertake to establish a German university, nor an English university, but an American university, based upon and applied to the existing institutions of this country."[^51] [[Francis T. King]], president of the hospital board, chose as one of his counsellors Dr. [[John S. Billings]] of the United States Army, who was for a long time associated with the university professors studying medical education.[^52] In 1884 the trustees chose [[William H. Welch]], a Yale graduate, as professor of pathology, the first appointment in the medical school; [[William Osler]], [[William Halsted]] and [[Howard Kelly]] followed.[^53] The medical school opened in the fall of 1893, after Miss [[Mary Elizabeth Garrett]] and other women formed a committee asking for contributions "provided that women should be admitted to its privileges"; the subscription came to somewhat less than $100,000, and she added a sum sufficient to make up $500,000 "with certain funds which the Trustees controlled."[^54] + +The Baltimore and Ohio suspended dividends on its common stock for several years. In 1889 an emergency fund of somewhat more than one hundred thousand dollars was subscribed by twenty persons at five thousand dollars each, with Gilman the first subscriber; the university's holdings of the stock were ultimately sold "for an amount far below their value at the time of its foundation."[^55] In 1896 his name was proposed for the superintendency of the public schools of New York City, and a relief fund of $250,000 was subscribed in Baltimore.[^56] Gilman retired in 1901 (the Yale finding aid says 1902) and became president emeritus.[^57] Sutton wrote that Welch, "a fellow member of The Order, was brought in by Gilman to head up the Hopkins medical school," and that Gilman's offer of a chair to [[G. Stanley Hall]] after a course of lectures in 1881 carried the experimental psychology of [[Wilhelm Wundt]] into American education.[^58] Millegan wrote that Gilman was "founding president of Johns Hopkins University as a great center for the racialist [[Eugenics|eugenics]] movement."[^59] + +In Baltimore he also founded the Charity Organization Society, the Baltimore Reform League, the Municipal Art Society and the New Mercantile Library, and was a member of the commission that drafted the 1897 charter of the city; the Yale record credits him with organizing the [[Walter Reed Memorial Association]].[^60] + +### American Social Science Association + +In 1879 Gilman was made president of the [[American Social Science Association]]; its presidents were W. B. Rogers, Samuel Eliot, George William Curtis, President Woolsey, David A. Wells, "President Gilman, of Baltimore," and Francis Wayland.[^61][^62] His annual address, "American Education, 1869-1879," was printed in the Journal of Social Science in December 1879.[^63] [[Franklin B. Sanborn]] and [[Henry Villard]] appear among its secretaries.[^62] At its Albany meeting in 1881 Gilman heard an account of the London Charity Organization Society; on his return to Baltimore he called a few gentlemen to his office, which led to the Charity Organization Society of Baltimore, of which he was president from 1891 to 1901.[^64] + +### Venezuela Boundary Commission + +On December 21, 1895 Congress passed an act for a commission to investigate the boundary between Venezuela and British Guiana. The commissioners were appointed on January 1, 1896, and on January 4 they organized at the office of the Secretary of State with [[David J. Brewer]] as president and [[Severo Mallet-Prevost]] as secretary. Their report of February 27, 1897 bears the names of Brewer, [[R. H. Alvey]], [[Frederic R. Coudert]], Gilman and White.[^65] White listed the commissioners "in the order named by the President" as Brewer, Alvey, White, Coudert and Gilman, and wrote that Gilman "was given charge of the whole matter of map-seeking and -making."[^66] Their charge was "to investigate and report upon the true divisional line between the Republic of Venezuela and British Guiana."[^65] Justice Brewer wrote that he had been "associated with Dr. Gilman on the Venezuelan Commission appointed by President Cleveland," and that the range and accuracy of Gilman's knowledge were soon manifest.[^67] + +### Carnegie Institution of Washington + +A letter from Andrew D. White at the American Embassy in Berlin, dated May 20, 1901, asked Gilman's views on the endowment of "a great American university" at Washington and in a postscript named the prospective donor. Gilman's first interview with [[Andrew Carnegie]] took place in November 1901 at Carnegie's house in New York, with John S. Billings the only other person present; Carnegie asked the two to prepare a paper on what should be done and said to Gilman, "You must be President."[^68] Gilman told the first meeting of the trustees that he had heard Carnegie say "he was prepared to give $10,000,000."[^69] White wrote of the same period: "Going thence to America, I found time to co-operate with my old friend, President Gilman, in securing data for Mr. Carnegie, especially at Washington, in view of his plan of a national institution for the higher scientific research."[^70] + +The articles of incorporation of the Carnegie Institution were signed on January 4, 1902 by John Hay, [[Edward D. White]], Billings, Gilman, [[Charles D. Walcott]] and [[Carroll D. Wright]] before a notary in the District of Columbia.[^71] At the first meeting of the trustees on January 29, 1902, Gilman was elected President of the Institution; he also served as chairman of the Executive Committee, with Walcott as secretary.[^69][^72] The act of Congress named Gilman, Billings, Walcott, [[S. Weir Mitchell]], Hay, [[Elihu Root]] and Wright as the trustees who would call the first meeting.[^73] The trustees listed in the second Year Book included [[Cleveland H. Dodge]], [[Lyman J. Gage]], [[Henry L. Higginson]], [[D. O. Mills]], [[Seth Low]], [[Wayne MacVeagh]], [[John C. Spooner]] and White.[^74] + +### Station for Experimental Evolution + +On May 5, 1902 [[Charles Davenport]], then of the Zoological Laboratory of the University of Chicago, submitted to the trustees a proposal for "a Biological Experiment Station for the study of evolution," whose aims would be "the analytic and experimental study of the causes of specific differentiation." It called for cross-breeding of animals and plants "to find the laws of commingling of qualities," for a staff of "a director and two assistants; also two or more laborers," and for a station at Cold Spring Harbor. It stated: "The Carnegie fund offers the opportunity for which the world has so long been waiting."[^75] The first Year Book printed it with a second scheme, by Roswell P. Johnson, favoring a protected marine shore.[^76] + +The Executive Committee, of which Gilman was chairman, took nearly two years to consider the subject. Its report to the Board of Trustees for 1903 stated that "the best mode of dealing with this important field of research was to organize a Biological Experimental Department, to which could be referred all questions and problems of evolution, specific differentiation, heredity, etc.," including "the establishment of an investigating station at Cold Spring Harbor, where ground and some buildings were offered." The Board of Trustees approved the recommendations.[^76] At the annual meeting of December 8, 1903 the Board appropriated $70,000 for the Department of Experimental Biology, with $30,000 for a Department of Economics and Sociology and $8,500 for a Bureau of Historical Research among the same group of appropriations.[^77] "A grant of $34,250 was made to the station at Cold Spring Harbor, and of $20,000 to the Marine Biological Laboratory at the Dry Tortugas," and Davenport was appointed Director of the Station for Experimental Evolution at [[Cold Spring Harbor]], Long Island.[^76] + +At the opening on June 11, 1904, Davenport thanked "Gentlemen of the Wawepex Society" for the land "intrusted to you by the late John D. Jones." John S. Billings, as chairman of the Board of Trustees, said for the Institution: "We also found that there was a man who was willing and anxious to take charge of the work."[^78] + +Gilman's letter resigning the presidency, dated December 1904, recalled his notice of December 8, 1903 that "having passed the age of seventy years, I was looking forward to a release from serious official responsibilities," and stated that he was "not a candidate for reappointment under any other designation." The Board accepted it with a resolution on "the prestige that the retiring officer has brought to the Carnegie Institution of Washington by his presidency," and elected [[Robert S. Woodward]] of Columbia University as his successor.[^79] + +### John F. Slater Fund and Peabody Education Fund + +In 1882 Gilman became one of the original trustees of the John F. Slater Fund for the Education of Freedmen, and in 1893 he succeeded [[Rutherford B. Hayes]] as its president, an office he held until his death.[^61] The 1901 roster lists him as president; the trustees were Chief Justice [[Melville W. Fuller]] (vice president), [[J. L. M. Curry]] (secretary), [[Morris K. Jesup]] (treasurer), John A. Stewart, William A. Slater, [[William E. Dodge]], Bishop [[Henry C. Potter]], Bishop C. B. Galloway, Alexander E. Orr and [[William H. Baldwin Jr.]]; the clerk was Benjamin Strong, the name of the later governor of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, who worked in New York trust banking in 1901; the Slater proceedings give no other details of the clerk. Gilman chaired the Executive Committee and sat on the Educational Committee. The annual meeting of April 3, 1901 was held at the office of the United States Trust Company on Wall Street.[^80] + +At the Peabody Education Fund, the trustees at their meeting of October 1893 filled four vacancies by electing [[Joseph H. Choate]], Charles E. Fenner, "President Daniel C. Gilman of Maryland" and George W. Childs. At the meeting of October 4, 1894 the members present included [[William M. Evarts]], [[J. P. Morgan]], Chief Justice Fuller, Choate and Gilman.[^81] The standing committees named on September 25, 1895 put Gilman on the Executive Committee with Fuller, Courtenay, Endicott and Fenner, Evarts as chairman ex officio, and named a Finance Committee of Evarts, President [[Grover Cleveland]], William Wirt Henry, Choate and George Peabody Wetmore, with the treasurer, Mr. Morgan, ex officio.[^82] Sutton and Millegan place Evarts in the Order in 1837.[^83] + +### General Education Board + +The General Education Board began informally on the evening of January 15, 1902 when some of its later members met to discuss "the probable scope and methods of an educational organization, the creation of which Mr. Rockefeller was then contemplating"; at a second meeting the following month, attended by [[John D. Rockefeller Jr.]], [[Frederick T. Gates]], Baldwin, Curry, [[Robert C. Ogden]], Gilman, [[Walter Hines Page]], [[Albert Shaw]] and [[Wallace Buttrick]], the counsel, [[Edward M. Shepard]], submitted articles of association.[^84] On March 8, 1902 the trustees wrote to Rockefeller Jr. to acknowledge a pledge of one million dollars on behalf of [[John D. Rockefeller]] to be spent over ten years, and confirmed that Baldwin, Curry, Gates, Gilman, Jesup, Ogden, Page, [[George Foster Peabody]] and Shaw "have formed themselves into an Association to be called the 'General Education Board.'" The letter added that "immediate attention is to be given to the promotion of the educational needs of the people in the Southern States" and that the charter was "in the hands of United States Senator Aldrich, to be presented to Congress."[^85] + +The act of incorporation, of January 12, 1903, constituted the nine named persons, Gilman among them, "a body corporate of the District of Columbia" with the object of "the promotion of education within the United States of America, without distinction of race, sex, or creed."[^86] The [[Southern Education Board]], "organized by the late Robert C. Ogden, was an outgrowth of the Annual Conference for Education in the South," and that the support of rural school supervisors was undertaken by the Southern Education Board "in cooperation with the Peabody Fund."[^87] His biographer, [[Fabian Franklin]], wrote that Gilman's share in shaping the work of the Slater and Peabody boards "was of great importance, but cannot be explicitly traced."[^88] + +### Russell Sage Foundation and civil service reform + +On October 29, 1906 Gilman answered a request from [[Robert W. de Forest]] for advice on the use of a prospective ten-million-dollar endowment. His enclosure proposed "an institution for encouraging inquiry and publication in respect to the best methods of promoting Philanthropy, Popular Education, and Social Improvements; the study of the causes of Ignorance, Poverty, Vice and Crime," to be "an independent establishment like those founded by Peabody, Smithson, Lowell, Peter Cooper, Rockefeller, Carnegie and others," with a paid secretary or executive officer, "A central office and library for the accumulation of printed and manuscript information, akin to the well equipped index-bureau of the General Education Board," annual or occasional grants to societies and institutions "on certain prescribed conditions," and publications and lectures.[^89] In 1904 White wrote that he had more than once talked over with Gilman "the idea of our working together in the production of a pamphlet or volume with some such title as, 'What Rich Americans have Done and can Do with their Money.'"[^90] He was named a trustee of the Russell Sage Foundation on its establishment in 1907, in his seventy-sixth year.[^91] + +Gilman was president of the [[National Civil Service Reform League]] from 1901 to 1907, succeeding [[Carl Schurz]], and delivered the League's address "Successful Progress" at Philadelphia on December 11, 1902.[^92][^93] He was a vice president of the American Bible Society from 1896 and its president from 1903, and president of the [[American Oriental Society]] from 1893 to 1905 or 1906.[^61][^92] + +### Death and papers + +Gilman returned from Europe on October 7, 1908 and died suddenly of heart disease on October 13 at the home of his sister in Norwich, Connecticut, and was buried in Yantic Cemetery. He married Mary Ketcham of New York on December 4, 1861; she died on October 25, 1869. On June 13, 1877 he married at Newport Elizabeth Dwight Woolsey, a niece of the Yale president [[Theodore Dwight Woolsey]], who survived him. A service in his memory was held at Johns Hopkins University on November 8, 1908.[^94] + +In the memorial volume of the class of 1852, Andrew D. White described how he and Gilman were cabin mates on their first voyage and roommates for some weeks in London and Paris, and that they were "especially thrown together" on the Venezuela Commission; Charles W. Eliot and William Osler contributed letters, and John C. Thomas, treasurer of Johns Hopkins University, wrote that in the early days of the Baltimore and Ohio, when its credit was exhausted, "Johns Hopkins bought largely, loaned it money, and helped to reform the management."[^95][^96] + +His papers at Yale University Library are catalogued as MS 582 in a finding aid compiled in 1971; its biographical note says that the university's "mode of graduate studies became the model for American universities."[^97] + +### Footnotes + +[^1]: Obituary Record of the Graduates of Yale University, deceased 1900 to 1910 (New Haven, 1910), entry for the class of 1852, pp. 1012-1017. https://archive.org/details/1900t10obituary00yaleuoft +[^2]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, certified copy (March 28, 2001) of "An Act incorporating Russell Trust Association," passed 1856, as reprinted in Kris Millegan (ed.), Fleshing Out Skull & Bones (Trine Day, 2003), "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," pp. 693-694; the act is also cited on the William Huntington Russell page. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones +[^3]: Antony C. Sutton, America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones (1983), chart "Hypothesis Number One: A Secret Society Dominated By Old Line American Families And New Wealth Has Existed From 1833 To The Present Day," listing "Gilman (1638, Hingham)." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^4]: Fabian Franklin, The Life of Daniel Coit Gilman (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1910), p. 1. https://archive.org/details/lifeofdanielcoit00fran +[^5]: Franklin, The Life of Daniel Coit Gilman, p. 5 (born at Norwich, Connecticut, July 6, 1831); Obituary Record of the Graduates of Yale University, deceased 1900 to 1910, p. 1012 (son of William Charles and Eliza Coit Gilman, born July 6, 1831, in Norwich). +[^6]: Millegan, Fleshing Out Skull & Bones, chapter on Daniel C. Gilman ("Gilman was born in Norwich, Connecticut July 8,1831"); Sutton, America's Secret Establishment, chapter on Daniel C. Gilman, the same date. +[^7]: Obituary Record of the Graduates of Yale University, deceased 1900 to 1910, p. 1012 (removal to New York City in his fourteenth year; preparation under John J. Owen at the Cornelius Institute; residence with Professor James L. Kingsley; president of the Linonian Society; editor of the Yale Literary Magazine). +[^8]: Obituary Record of the Graduates of Yale University, deceased 1900 to 1910, p. 1015 (brother Rev. Edward W. Gilman, Yale 1843, secretary of the American Bible Society for thirty years) and p. 1016 (edited the works of Francis Lieber and of his brother-in-law, Dr. Joseph P. Thompson, Yale 1838). +[^9]: Millegan, Fleshing Out Skull & Bones, chapter on Daniel C. Gilman ("Uncle Henry Coit Kingsley (The Order '34) was Treasurer of Yale from 1862 to 1886"; "Gilman's brother-in-law, the Reverend Joseph Parrish Thompson ('38) was in The Order"). +[^10]: Memorial Symposium of the Class of Yale 1852, Academic, held on their Classmate Daniel Coit Gilman (New Bedford, Mass.: published by the class, 1909), Fasciculus IX, "Contribution of the Secretary" by Ephraim Cutter, pp. 28-29 ("Daniel Coit Gilman entered Yale in 1848 and graduated in 1852"; "Out of fifty-five prizes awarded to twenty-eight of his class, he took four"; society memberships by year, ending "Skull and Bones and ... as senior"). https://archive.org/details/fasciculiofmemor00yaleuoft +[^11]: The Fall of Skull and Bones, compiled from the minutes of the 7th regular meeting of the Order of the File and Claw (New Haven, 1876), as reproduced in Sutton, America's Secret Establishment, appendix, passage on the interior of the hall ("The picture is accompanied by a card, on which is written, 'From the German Chapter. Presented by Patriarch D. C. Gilman of D. 50.'"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^12]: Millegan, Fleshing Out Skull & Bones, chapter on the Tomb, reproducing "The Fall of Skull and Bones" with the card "From the German Chapter. Presented by D. C. Gilman of D. 50" and the gloss "D.C. Gilman refers to Daniel Coit Gilman, initiated into the Order of Skull and Bones 1850." https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones +[^13]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment, chapter on Daniel C. Gilman ("Daniel Coit Gilman ('52)"); Millegan, Fleshing Out Skull & Bones, chapter on Daniel C. Gilman ("Daniel Coit Gilman (S&B 1852)"). +[^14]: Millegan, Fleshing Out Skull & Bones, chapter on Daniel C. Gilman: "Daniel Coit Gilman (1852), along with two other 'Bonesmen,' formed a troika which still influences American life today. Soon after their initiation in Skull and Bones, Daniel Gilman, Timothy Dwight (1849) and Andrew Dickinson White (1853) went to study philosophy in Europe at the University of Berlin." +[^15]: Lyman Bagg, Four Years at Yale (New Haven: Henry Holt, 1871), pp. 145-146 (the May 1856 incorporation as the Russell Trust Association; the names in the act with class years; the society "originated in 1832 by fifteen members of the class which graduated the following year"; "General Russell, the valedictorian of that class, is its reputed founder, and the best known of his associates is Judge Alphonso Taft of Cincinnati"). https://archive.org/details/fouryearsatyale00baggrich +[^16]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment, chapter on Daniel C. Gilman ("Gilman became Treasurer and William H. Russell, the cofounder, was President"); Millegan, Fleshing Out Skull & Bones ("with himself as Treasurer and William H. Russell as President"). +[^17]: Millegan, Fleshing Out Skull & Bones, chapter on Daniel C. Gilman: "It is notable that there is no mention of The Order, Skull & Bones, The Russell Trust, or any secret society activity in Gilman's biography, nor in open records." +[^18]: Millegan, Fleshing Out Skull & Bones, chapter on Russell and Company ("In 1856, Daniel C. Gilman (S&B 1852), a Russell & Co. partner relation, incorporated the Order of Skull & Bones as the Russell Trust Association, with General W.H. Russell as its president"). +[^19]: Franklin, The Life of Daniel Coit Gilman, pp. 94-95 (incorporation of the Sheffield Scientific School in February 1871 by Professors Brush, Gilman and Trowbridge and Messrs. John S. Beach, William Walter Phelps and Charles J. Sheffield); Sutton, America's Secret Establishment, list of the Sheffield trustees marking Gilman, Beach and Phelps ('60) as members of the Order. Also *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1893-1894*, pp. 238 to 239 (entry for William Walter Phelps: "liberal gifts" to the Sheffield Scientific School; alumni trustee of Yale College from 1872 to 1892). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1859_1924/1893-94.pdf +[^20]: Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, Guide to the Daniel Coit Gilman Papers, MS 582, compiled by Ann Ronberg (February 1971), Series I, box 2, folder 123 ("Russell, William H., 1855"). https://ead-pdfs.library.yale.edu/4054.pdf +[^21]: Franklin, The Life of Daniel Coit Gilman, p. 15 (December 1853 sailing as attaches of the United States legation at St. Petersburg under ex-Governor Thomas H. Seymour, minister plenipotentiary). +[^22]: Andrew D. White, Autobiography of Andrew Dickson White (New York: Century, 1905), vol. 1, p. 447. https://archive.org/details/autobiographyofa01whit +[^23]: White, Autobiography, vol. 1, p. 448 ("On the 10th of December, 1853, I sailed for England, with Gilman, and in London awaited Governor Seymour"). +[^24]: Memorial Symposium of the Class of Yale 1852, Fasciculus I, remarks of William W. Crapo to the Massachusetts Historical Society, November 12, 1908, pp. 7-8. +[^25]: Franklin, The Life of Daniel Coit Gilman, p. 16. +[^26]: Franklin, The Life of Daniel Coit Gilman, pp. 20-21 (letter of February 23, 1854). +[^27]: Franklin, The Life of Daniel Coit Gilman, pp. 21-22. +[^28]: Franklin, The Life of Daniel Coit Gilman, pp. 22-24 (letter of June 19, 1854). +[^29]: Franklin, The Life of Daniel Coit Gilman, p. 22. +[^30]: Franklin, The Life of Daniel Coit Gilman, p. 28 (letter to his sister, April 1854). +[^31]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment, chapter on Daniel C. Gilman ("Gilman wrote his sister from St. Petersburg in April, 1854"). +[^32]: Franklin, The Life of Daniel Coit Gilman, pp. 31-32. +[^33]: White, Autobiography, vol. 1, pp. 38 and 449 (arrival "on the last day of October, 1854"; interpreter in the minister's interviews with Nesselrode, Gortschakoff "and others then in power"). +[^34]: Franklin, The Life of Daniel Coit Gilman, p. 325 (letter of Andrew D. White: "when I succeeded him as Attache at St. Petersburg, where a number of the best people with whom I made acquaintance spoke to me in the highest terms regarding him"). +[^35]: Franklin, The Life of Daniel Coit Gilman, p. 32. +[^36]: Obituary Record of the Graduates of Yale University, deceased 1900 to 1910, p. 1013. +[^37]: Obituary Record of the Graduates of Yale University, deceased 1900 to 1910, p. 1013 ("in the summer of 1856 was made Assistant Librarian and, two years later, Librarian of Yale College. The latter office he resigned in 1865"; acting visitor of schools in New Haven; secretary of the State Board of Education; Webster's Unabridged Dictionary; the Obituary Record for 1863, 1864 and 1865). +[^38]: White, Autobiography, vol. 1, p. 42. +[^39]: Obituary Record of the Graduates of Yale University, deceased 1900 to 1910, pp. 1013-1014 (professorship appointed by the Yale Corporation in 1863; secretary of the Sheffield Scientific School; one of its six incorporators in 1871); Franklin, The Life of Daniel Coit Gilman, p. 82 (elected secretary of the governing board in September 1866). +[^40]: Millegan, Fleshing Out Skull & Bones, chapter on Daniel C. Gilman, section "The Sheffield Scientific School." +[^41]: Franklin, The Life of Daniel Coit Gilman, pp. 94 and 117-118 (call to the presidency in 1870 declined; the Regents elected Professor Durant; Durant's retirement in the summer of 1872 and the renewed call). +[^42]: Franklin, The Life of Daniel Coit Gilman, pp. 155-157 (letter to President White, April 5, 1874). https://archive.org/details/lifeofdanielcoit00fran +[^43]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment, chapter on Daniel C. Gilman, section "Daniel Gilman Becomes President Of Johns Hopkins." +[^44]: Obituary Record of the Graduates of Yale University, deceased 1900 to 1910, p. 1014 (accepted in 1872; resigned after three years). +[^45]: Daniel Coit Gilman, The Launching of a University, and Other Papers (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1906), pp. 27-29. https://archive.org/details/launchingofunive00gilm +[^46]: Gilman, The Launching of a University, p. 29 ("his injunction to the trustees to watch over and protect the interests of the road"). +[^47]: Gilman, The Launching of a University, pp. 29-30. +[^48]: Gilman, The Launching of a University, p. 36. +[^49]: Franklin, The Life of Daniel Coit Gilman, pp. 193-195 (James B. Angell's recollection at the twenty-fifth anniversary of the university). +[^50]: Obituary Record of the Graduates of Yale University, deceased 1900 to 1910, p. 1014 (visits to the universities of Europe in 1875 and 1877; began as president in May 1875; inaugural address February 22, 1876). +[^51]: Gilman, The Launching of a University, pp. 48-49. +[^52]: Gilman, The Launching of a University, pp. 32-33 (Dr. John S. Billings as counsellor to Francis T. King, president of the hospital board); Franklin, The Life of Daniel Coit Gilman, p. 253 (Professors Remsen, Martin and Welch, "with whom for a long time Dr. Billings was associated"). +[^53]: Franklin, The Life of Daniel Coit Gilman, pp. 253-254 (appointment of Welch to the chair of pathology in 1884; Osler, Halsted and Kelly). +[^54]: Franklin, The Life of Daniel Coit Gilman, p. 252. +[^55]: Franklin, The Life of Daniel Coit Gilman, pp. 307-308. +[^56]: Franklin, The Life of Daniel Coit Gilman, pp. 308-309. +[^57]: Obituary Record of the Graduates of Yale University, deceased 1900 to 1910, p. 1015 (retired in 1901 and became President Emeritus); Yale University Library, Guide to the Daniel Coit Gilman Papers, MS 582, p. 4 (president of Johns Hopkins until 1902). https://ead-pdfs.library.yale.edu/4054.pdf +[^58]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment, chapter on Daniel C. Gilman, sections "Gilman Starts The Revolution in American Education" and "Daniel Gilman Becomes President Of Johns Hopkins" (Hall's 1881 lecture invitation and appointment; Welch "brought in by Gilman"). +[^59]: Millegan, Fleshing Out Skull & Bones, section listing Bonesmen of the modern world ("Daniel Coit Gilman (S&B 1852): co-incorporator of the Russell Trust; founding president of Johns Hopkins University as a great center for the racialist eugenics movement"). +[^60]: Obituary Record of the Graduates of Yale University, deceased 1900 to 1910, pp. 1014-1015. +[^61]: Franklin, The Life of Daniel Coit Gilman, pp. 267-268 (American Social Science Association president in 1879; original trustee of the Slater Fund in 1882 and president from 1893 succeeding Hayes; Peabody Education Fund trustee in 1893 and later vice president; American Oriental Society president from 1893 until 1906; National Civil Service League president 1901 to 1907; American Bible Society vice president in 1896 and president in 1903; Russell Sage Foundation trustee in 1907). +[^62]: Journal of Social Science, Number XIII (Boston, 1881), notice "The American Social Science Association," listing its presidents and secretaries. https://archive.org/details/journalsocialsc00russgoog +[^63]: Journal of Social Science, contents of Number Ten, "Transactions of the Association, 1879. I. American Education, 1869-1879. Annual Address by President Gilman," as listed in Number XIII (1881). https://archive.org/details/journalsocialsc00russgoog +[^64]: Franklin, The Life of Daniel Coit Gilman, p. 268. +[^65]: Report and Accompanying Papers of the Commission Appointed by the President of the United States to Investigate and Report upon the True Divisional Line between the Republic of Venezuela and British Guiana (Washington, 1897), Report of the Commission (act of December 21, 1895, 29 Stat. L., 1; appointment on January 1, 1896; organization on January 4; signatures of February 27, 1897). https://archive.org/details/reportandaccomp07guiagoog +[^66]: White, Autobiography, vol. 2, pp. 119 and 122. https://archive.org/details/autobiographyofa00whit +[^67]: Franklin, The Life of Daniel Coit Gilman, p. 269 (letter of Justice David J. Brewer). +[^68]: Franklin, The Life of Daniel Coit Gilman, pp. 390-392. +[^69]: Franklin, The Life of Daniel Coit Gilman, p. 393 (first meeting of the trustees, January 29, 1902; "My first knowledge of Mr. Carnegie's intention to make this gift was at the end of November ... he was prepared to give $10,000,000"). +[^70]: White, Autobiography, vol. 2, p. 201. +[^71]: Carnegie Institution of Washington, Year Book No. 2 (1903), Articles of Incorporation, signed January 4, 1902. https://archive.org/details/yearbookcarnegie02carn +[^72]: Carnegie Institution of Washington, Year Book No. 2 (1903), list of officers and Report of the Executive Committee ("Mr. Gilman, Chairman, and Mr. Walcott, Secretary"). +[^73]: Carnegie Institution of Washington, Year Book No. 3 (1904), act of incorporation, section 6. https://archive.org/details/yearbookcarnegie03carn +[^74]: Carnegie Institution of Washington, Year Book No. 2 (1903), list of trustees. +[^75]: Carnegie Institution of Washington, Year Book No. 1 (1902), "Biological Experiment Station for Studying Evolution," by Charles B. Davenport, Zoological Laboratory, University of Chicago, May 5, 1902, pp. 280-282. https://archive.org/details/yearbookcarnegie01carn +[^76]: Carnegie Institution of Washington, Year Book No. 3 (1904), Report of the Executive Committee, "Department of Experimental Biology," pp. 22-23. +[^77]: Carnegie Institution of Washington, Year Book No. 3 (1904), Report of the Executive Committee, "Appropriations," p. 21. +[^78]: Carnegie Institution of Washington, Year Book No. 3 (1904), "Addresses at Opening of the Station for Experimental Evolution, June 11, 1904," pp. 33-38. +[^79]: Carnegie Institution of Washington, Year Book No. 3 (1904), pp. 17-18 (Gilman's resignation and the resolution accepting it) and the election of Robert S. Woodward. +[^80]: Proceedings of the Trustees of the John F. Slater Fund for the Education of Freedmen (Baltimore, 1901), list of trustees and standing committees; Twenty-sixth Meeting, April 3, 1901. https://archive.org/details/proceedingsoftru00john +[^81]: Proceedings of the Trustees of the Peabody Education Fund, vol. 5 (Boston, 1900), Thirty-third Meeting, New York, October 4, 1894, pp. 65-68. https://archive.org/details/proceedingstrus00fundgoog +[^82]: Proceedings of the Trustees of the Peabody Education Fund, vol. 5 (Boston, 1900), meeting of September 25, 1895, standing committees, pp. 189-190, and the list of trustees at the front of the volume. +[^83]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment, and Millegan, Fleshing Out Skull & Bones, lists of members (William M. Evarts, class of 1837). +[^84]: General Education Board, The General Education Board: An Account of Its Activities, 1902-1914 (New York, 1915), p. 3. https://archive.org/details/generaleducation029311mbp +[^85]: General Education Board, An Account of Its Activities, 1902-1914, Appendix II, pp. 216-217 (letter of March 8, 1902). +[^86]: General Education Board, An Account of Its Activities, 1902-1914, Appendix I, pp. 212-215 (the act of incorporation); p. 3 (incorporation by Act of Congress, January 12, 1903). +[^87]: General Education Board, An Account of Its Activities, 1902-1914, pp. 11 and 179. +[^88]: Franklin, The Life of Daniel Coit Gilman, p. 267. +[^89]: Franklin, The Life of Daniel Coit Gilman, pp. 278-279 (letter to Robert W. de Forest, October 29, 1906, and enclosure). +[^90]: White, Autobiography, vol. 2, p. 502. +[^91]: Franklin, The Life of Daniel Coit Gilman, p. 425. +[^92]: Obituary Record of the Graduates of Yale University, deceased 1900 to 1910, p. 1015 (American Oriental Society 1893 to 1905; American Bible Society; National Civil Service Reform League 1901 to 1907, succeeding Carl Schurz; trustee of the Russell Sage Foundation; incorporator of the General Education Board). +[^93]: Daniel Coit Gilman, "Successful Progress," address at the annual meeting of the National Civil Service Reform League, Philadelphia, December 11, 1902. https://archive.org/details/successfulprogre00gilm +[^94]: Obituary Record of the Graduates of Yale University, deceased 1900 to 1910, p. 1017. +[^95]: Memorial Symposium of the Class of Yale 1852, Fasciculus VI, letter of Andrew D. White, May 8, 1909, pp. 23-24. +[^96]: Memorial Symposium of the Class of Yale 1852, Fasciculus VII, John C. Thomas, treasurer of Johns Hopkins University, pp. 25-26. +[^97]: Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, Guide to the Daniel Coit Gilman Papers, MS 582, compiled by Ann Ronberg (February 1971), p. 4. https://ead-pdfs.library.yale.edu/4054.pdf diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Dean Acheson.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Dean Acheson.md index 23761cd0..835a9622 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Dean Acheson.md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Dean Acheson.md @@ -65,16 +65,24 @@ The war eventually led to Truman's firing of General [[Douglas MacArthur]] in Ap ### Legacy -Acheson was a target of Senator Joseph McCarthy's attacks, primarily over the "loss" of [[China]] to communism - which McCarthy attributed to State Department subversion - and over Acheson's refusal to condemn former State Department official Alger Hiss following Hiss's conviction for perjury in connection with Soviet espionage. McCarthy called Acheson's State Department a "Dean Acheson College of Cowardly Communist Containment." +Acheson was a target of Senator Joseph McCarthy's attacks, primarily over the "loss" of [[China]] to communism, which McCarthy attributed to State Department subversion, and over Acheson's refusal to condemn former State Department official Alger Hiss following Hiss's conviction for perjury in connection with Soviet espionage. On January 25, 1950, the day Hiss was sentenced, Acheson told reporters at his news conference, as the New York Times reported, "I do not intend to turn my back on Alger Hiss."[^8] McCarthy called Acheson's State Department a "Dean Acheson College of Cowardly Communist Containment." After leaving government, Acheson returned to law practice and remained influential in Democratic foreign policy circles, advising subsequent administrations informally. He won the [[Pulitzer Prize]] for History in 1970 for *Present at the Creation*. He died at Sandy Spring, Maryland, on October 12, 1971. ### Footnotes [^1]: Acheson, Dean. *Present at the Creation: My Years in the State Department.* Norton, 1969. Beisner, Robert L. *Dean Acheson: A Life in the Cold War.* Oxford University Press, 2006. + [^2]: *Department of State Bulletin*, vol. VI, no. 154 (June 6, 1942), "Address by Assistant Secretary Acheson to Americans of Italian Descent," released to the press June 3. https://archive.org/details/sim_department-of-state-bulletin_1942-06-06_6_154 + [^3]: FRUS 1950, volume IV, Document 127 (Truman to Acheson, March 1, 1950) and Document 131 (Barrett to Acheson, March 6, 1950) with the editorial note on Acheson's discussion with Truman. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950v04/d131 + [^4]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 238 (the report's final date and Acheson's receipt on February 15, 1951). + [^5]: Brands, H.W. *The General vs. the President: MacArthur and Truman at the Brink of Nuclear War.* Doubleday, 2016. Hogan, Michael J. *A Cross of Iron: Harry S. Truman and the Origins of the National Security State, 1945-1954.* Cambridge University Press, 1998. + [^6]: William P. Bundy Papers (MC189), Biography/History, Princeton University Library, https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/PRIN_MUDD_MC189 + [^7]: Allen Drury, "McCarthy Warns CIA Head Fight on Bundy Isn't Over," newspaper article, August 4, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP74-00297R000401370024-4, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp74-00297r000401370024-4 + +[^8]: Harry S. Truman Library, "The President's News Conference," January 27, 1950, footnote 1 (quoting the New York Times report of Acheson's January 25, 1950 remark). https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/public-papers/23/presidents-news-conference diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Delano family.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Delano family.md new file mode 100644 index 00000000..33eeca09 --- /dev/null +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Delano family.md @@ -0,0 +1,377 @@ +--- +created: 2026-10-26 +updated: 2026-10-26 +aliases: + - Delano family + - The Delanos + - Delano family of Fairhaven +category: "Business & Finance" +tags: + - Person + - Family + - Delano + - RussellAndCompany + - ChinaTrade + - OpiumTrade + - Canton + - HongKong + - Fairhaven + - FederalReserve + - Roosevelt + - Railroads + - NewDeal + - RegionalPlan + - LeagueOfNations +summary: "Fairhaven shipping family whose Warren Delano Jr. headed Russell and Company at Canton, whose daughter Sara bore Franklin D. Roosevelt, and whose Frederic A. Delano chaired the National Resources Planning Board." +location: "Fairhaven, Massachusetts; Canton, China; Newburgh, New York" +relations: + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Russell and Company]]" + start: 1840-01-01 + end: 1846-12-31 + role: "Warren Delano Jr. (Warren Delano II), partner, chief of the house after Robert Bennet Forbes" + fn: 17 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Russell and Company]]" + start: 1861-01-01 + end: 1866-12-31 + role: "Warren Delano Jr., readmitted as partner" + fn: 17 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Russell and Company]]" + start: 1841-01-01 + end: 1846-12-31 + role: "Edward Delano, partner until his return home in 1846" + fn: 29 + - type: participant_in + with: "[[Opium War]]" + start: 1839-03-22 + end: 1842-08-29 + role: "Warren Delano Jr. remained at Canton and Macao and acted as vice-consul of the United States" + fn: 25 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]" + role: "grandson of Warren Delano Jr. through Sara Delano Roosevelt" + fn: 2 + - type: spouse_of + with: "[[William Howell Forbes]]" + start: 1867-04-25 + role: "Deborah Perry (Dora) Delano married William Howell Forbes of Hong Kong at Paris" + fn: 30 + - type: head_of + with: "[[Wabash Railroad]]" + start: 1905-10-05 + end: 1911-12-01 + role: "president (Frederic Adrian Delano), succeeding Joseph Ramsey Jr." + fn: 44 + - type: appointed + with: "[[Wabash Railroad]]" + start: 1911-12-01 + end: 1913-12-01 + role: "receiver (Frederic Adrian Delano), with Edward B. Pryor and William K. Bixby" + fn: 50 + - type: head_of + with: "[[Chicago, Indianapolis and Louisville Railway]]" + start: 1913-12-27 + end: 1914-08-09 + role: "president (Frederic Adrian Delano) until his appointment to the Federal Reserve Board" + fn: 50 + - type: appointed + with: "[[Federal Reserve Board]]" + start: 1914-08-10 + end: 1916-08-09 + role: "vice governor (Frederic Adrian Delano)" + fn: 52 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Federal Reserve Board]]" + start: 1916-08-10 + end: 1918-07-21 + role: "member (Frederic Adrian Delano), resigned for service with the Army Engineer Corps in France" + fn: 54 + - type: appointed + with: "[[Supreme Court of the United States]]" + start: 1920-04-01 + end: 1925-06-01 + role: "receiver of the disputed Red River lands in Oklahoma v. Texas (Frederic Adrian Delano)" + fn: 56 + - type: head_of + with: "[[League of Nations]]" + start: 1925-12-01 + end: 1927-07-06 + role: "chairman of the Commission of Enquiry into the Production of Opium in Persia (Frederic Adrian Delano)" + fn: 57 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Russell Sage Foundation]]" + start: 1922-05-10 + role: "trustee and member of the committee on the Regional Plan of New York (Frederic Adrian Delano)" + fn: 65 + - type: head_of + with: "[[Regional Plan of New York and Its Environs]]" + start: 1923-01-01 + end: 1929-12-31 + role: "chairman of the committee after Charles D. Norton (Frederic Adrian Delano)" + fn: 67 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Smithsonian Institution]]" + start: 1935-08-07 + role: "citizen regent, reappointed 1935 and 1941 (Frederic Adrian Delano)" + fn: 75 + - type: head_of + with: "[[National Resources Planning Board]]" + start: 1939-07-01 + end: 1943-08-31 + role: "chairman (Frederic Adrian Delano)" + fn: 3 + - type: head_of + with: "[[Atlantic Coast Line Railroad]]" + start: 1932-01-01 + role: "chairman (Lyman Delano), succeeding Henry Walters" + fn: 4 + - type: head_of + with: "[[Louisville and Nashville Railroad]]" + start: 1932-01-01 + role: "chairman (Lyman Delano), succeeding Henry Walters" + fn: 4 +--- + - type: head_of + with: "[[National Planning Board]]" + start: 1933-07-20 + end: 1934-06-30 + role: "chairman (Frederic Adrian Delano), within the Federal Emergency Administration of Public Works; superseded by the National Resources Board under EO 6777" + fn: 3 + - type: member_of + with: "[[National Resources Committee]]" + start: 1935-06-07 + end: 1939-06-30 + role: "vice chairman (Frederic Adrian Delano), as listed in 1937" + fn: 70 +The Delano family was a shipping family from [[Fairhaven, Massachusetts]] that traced its American descent to [[Philippe de Lannoy]], who reached [[Plymouth, Massachusetts]] on the Fortune in 1621.[^1] Its best-known branch ran through [[Warren Delano Jr.]], who became a partner of [[Russell and Company]] at [[Canton]] in 1840, and through his daughter [[Sara Delano Roosevelt]], mother of [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]].[^2] Warren's son [[Frederic Adrian Delano]] presided over the [[Wabash Railroad]], served on the [[Federal Reserve Board]], chaired the League of Nations commission on opium in Persia, and chaired the [[National Resources Planning Board]] under his nephew.[^3] Warren's grandson [[Lyman Delano]] became chairman of the [[Atlantic Coast Line Railroad]].[^4] + +### Plymouth and the Fairhaven line + +The 1899 genealogy compiled by [[Joel Andrews Delano]] ties the American family to Philippe de Lannoy, also written Philippe de la Noye, who left [[Leiden]] to join the Fortune, the second vessel to follow the Mayflower, and landed at Plymouth on November 11, 1621. He died at [[Bridgewater, Massachusetts]] in 1681, and the genealogy lists five sons: Philip Jr., Dr. Thomas, John, Lieutenant Jonathan and Samuel.[^1] The [[Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library]] sketch for the family papers describes the family as "descended from Philippe de la Noye who arrived in Plymouth, Massachusetts in 1621," whose members "were involved in the New England sea trade."[^5] The genealogy also records a desk, "said to have been by Philippe brought on the 'Fortune' 1621," that passed to a branch at Cooper, Michigan.[^6] + +[[William Bradford]]'s history of the colony lists "Philip Delanoy" among the purchasers of 1640 and records that in 1628 Philip Delanoy sold to [[Stephen Deane]] one acre of land, which he had received in the division of 1623, for four pounds sterling.[^7] + +The family's maritime base was Fairhaven. [[Captain Warren Delano]] (1779 to 1866), the great-grandfather of Franklin D. Roosevelt, was a sea captain and ship owner, and he married [[Deborah Perry Church]] (1783 to 1827) on November 6, 1808. After her death he married Eliza Adams on April 2, 1828.[^8] His descent ran from Philippe through the son Lieutenant Jonathan, who served with Benjamin Church in the war of 1675 and 1676 and was commissioned lieutenant at Dartmouth in 1689, then through Thomas Delano, Captain Ephraim Delano and the captain himself, who was the tenth child of Ephraim and was born on October 28, 1779.[^8] + +A whaling ship registered at Fairhaven carried the name [[Phillipe De La Noye]]. Her log, kept by [[William Childs]], covers a voyage from September 6, 1852 to November 13, 1854 under her master, [[David G. Pierce]], in the North Pacific, the Sea of Okhotsk and the Western Arctic.[^9] The papers of Frederic A. Delano include logs of a whaler of the same name owned by the Delano family from 1848 to 1855.[^10] + +### Amasa Delano and the Tryal + +Captain [[Amasa Delano]] of [[Duxbury, Massachusetts]], born there on February 21, 1763, was a distant cousin of the Fairhaven Delanos. The genealogy traces his line from Philippe through the second son, Dr. Thomas Delano (born 1642, married Mary Alden, a daughter of John and Priscilla Mullins Alden), then Jonathan Delano Sr. (died 1765, married Hannah Doten in 1699), Jonathan Delano 2d of Rochester, and Captain Samuel Delano Sr. (died 1814, married Abigail Drew in 1762), whose eldest son Amasa became a ship master and "wrote his book of voyages." The genealogy records that he married Hannah Appleton, a widow of Boston, left no children, and died about 1823.[^11] Warren Delano Jr.'s line descended from Philippe through a different son, Lieutenant Jonathan, so that the two men shared Philippe as their common ancestor and no nearer one.[^8] Amasa's own "Biographical Sketch" gives his birth at Duxbury on February 21, 1763, to Samuel Delano and a mother of the Drew family, and mentions a brother Amasa who served in Rogers' Rangers.[^12] + +He published his *Narrative of Voyages and Travels, in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres* in [[Boston]] in 1817. Its eighteenth chapter, "Particulars of the Capture of the Spanish Ship Tryal, at the island of St. Maria," begins on page 319. His ship [[Perseverance]] arrived at St. Maria on February 13, 1805, and on Wednesday, February 20, the journal records a sail opening round the south head, "a Spaniard from Buenos Ayres, four months and twenty six days out of port, with slaves on board."[^13] The notary's certificate in the same chapter describes the slaves as "the Senegal Negroes, that the ship Tryal was carrying from the port of Valparaiso, to that of Callao of Lima." In his declaration Delano states that the Spanish captain "told him that the negroes of the Tryal had taken her, and had murdered twenty-five men," and that five or six of the Africans were killed in the boarding.[^14] The King of Spain sent Delano a gold medal through the consul at Boston, and in his reply of August 8, 1807 Delano wrote that the services rendered to Spanish subjects off the island were "from pure motives of humanity."[^15] + +[[Herman Melville]]'s story "Benito Cereno," collected in *The Piazza Tales*, opens: "In the year 1799, Captain Amasa Delano, of Duxbury, in Massachusetts, commanding a large sealer and general trader, lay at anchor ... in the harbour of St. Maria." The story's Spanish captain, [[Benito Cereno]], bears the name of the real commander of the Tryal.[^16] + +### Warren Delano Jr. at Canton + +Warren Delano II, whom the Roosevelt Library numbers as the second Warren and whom this vault records as Warren Delano Jr., was born at Fairhaven on July 13, 1809, the eldest child of Captain Warren Delano and Deborah Church.[^8] In 1833 he sailed for Canton as supercargo on the [[Commerce]] and became associated with [[Russell Sturgis and Company]].[^2] Forbes's appendix gives him as a partner of Russell, Sturgis and Company from December 31, 1835, and as admitted to Russell and Company on January 1, 1840, a partnership that continued until December 31, 1846.[^17] + +During the confinement of the foreign merchants in the Canton factories in March to May 1839, [[Robert Bennet Forbes]] records that lots were drawn for the household duties and Delano replaced him as chief cook; Forbes's journal for April 1, 1839 lists "Warren Delano, head cook."[^18] Forbes had arranged for the junior partner of Russell, Sturgis and Company to join Russell and Company, and he names Delano, [[Abiel Abbot Low]], [[Edward King]] and [[W. C. Hunter]] as his "most able and efficient co-operators."[^19] Hunter, a partner of the house from 1837 to 1842, gives Delano's entry as January 1840, describes him as formerly of Russell, Sturgis and Company, and records that he succeeded Forbes as chief of the firm after Forbes left for New York on the Niantic on July 7, 1840.[^20] + +In 1840 the Chinese authorities wanted a large foreign ship to anchor above a raft across the river. Hunter records that "Application being made to Mr. Delano, the then chief of Russell & Co., who had never left Canton," a bargain was concluded for the [[Chesapeake (ship)]], the British ship *Cambridge* that the firm had bought and renamed under the American flag, and that the ship was made over to the mandarins.[^21] Hunter also records that Delano told Forbes that [[Houqua]] was disposed to send orders to India for cotton, and that three ships were despatched with 100,000 pounds remitted.[^22] + +The Chinese record names a Delano in the same months. Commissioner [[Lin Zexu]]'s edict of late 1839, as translated in *The Chinese Repository*, refers to "the American foreign merchant who has purchased his vessel, Delano," who also bought cotton from the country ship Charles Grant, and the vessel is the Indian store-ship Mermaid; the translation does not say which Delano is meant.[^23] A shipwrecked captain's letter of January 1840 thanked "Mr. Snow, the consul, W. Delano, esq., and the houses of Russell & Co., and Wetmore and Co."[^24] By September 1840, when the consul Snow embarked for New York, the Repository stated that "W. Delano, jun. esq. acts as vice-consul."[^25] The *Repository*'s journal for May 1840 prints a petition of the American merchants at Canton to the governor of the province on the blockade notice, dated April 25, 1840 and signed by "The American vice-consul, Delano."[^26] + +### The memorial of May 25, 1839 + +A memorial dated at Canton on May 25, 1839 was printed by the [[United States House of Representatives]] as House Document 40 of the 26th Congress, first session, and referred to the [[House Committee on Foreign Affairs]]. The signature block includes "W. DELANO, Jr.," between the names of A. A. Low and Edward King.[^27] + +The memorial states, "We have no wish to see a revival of the opium trade," and says that "most of us" had signed a voluntary pledge to abstain from dealing in the drug. It recites that "upon the twenty-second day of March last," the signers were "made prisoners in our factories," and it asks the government to act with Great Britain, France and Holland on a set of demands and, failing that, to send an agent or commissioner with a naval force to protect American commerce.[^27] + +Forbes's memoir states that "Russell & Co. considered it important to keep the pledge made by Mr. Green, and for a long time had nothing to do with opium; certainly not within my time, between 1840 and 1844, when my interest ceased for a time." Forbes also describes the firm's operations for Houqua between January and July 1840, in which shipments made in the firm's name were bought by the house so that they could not be seized in England.[^28] + +### The 1846 reorganization and the return home + +Forbes records a reorganization of the house under which "W. Delano was to retire after a time," while [[Edward Delano]] remained a partner. The firm of 1844 comprised W. Delano Jr., Edward Delano, W. H. King, D. N. Spooner, P. S. Forbes and Joseph T. Gilman. Forbes writes that "In 1846 Mr. Edward Delano returned home," and in 1842 Russell Sturgis had relieved Warren Delano at the head of the house for a visit home.[^29] Forbes records an embarkation in the Paul Jones on December 9, 1844 that follows Delano's departure from Canton, while the genealogy places the birth of his daughter Susan Maria at Macao on October 13, 1844.[^29][^30] + +Warren married [[Catherine Robbins Lyman]] at [[Northampton, Massachusetts]] on November 1, 1843. She was a daughter of [[Joseph Lyman]], a Massachusetts judge, and a granddaughter of [[Edward Hutchinson Robbins]] (1758 to 1829).[^30] After the Macao years the couple lived in New York until 1851, when they moved to [[Algonac]], near [[Newburgh, New York]].[^31] + +At Algonac, Warren's financial interests were settled in real estate and mining. He had a financial interest in the iron works at [[Mount Savage, Maryland]], later called the [[Union Mining Company]], and his brother [[Franklin Hughes Delano]] apparently looked after those interests during Warren's third trip to China in the 1860s.[^31] The panic of 1857 brought him "severe financial losses," and in 1859 he returned to China "to refresh his fortune."[^31] + +### Hong Kong and the Civil War years + +Forbes's appendix records that Delano was again admitted to Russell and Company on January 1, 1861, and that he retired finally on December 31, 1866; it speaks of "the stay in China, from 1861 to 1864, of Warren Delano, Jr."[^17] His family, which included the President's mother, Sara, joined him at [[Hong Kong]] in 1862, the daughters traveling on the clipper Surprise, and they returned to the United States after the Civil War.[^32] Warren's son [[Warren Delano III]] kept a scrapbook at Hong Kong in 1861, which includes a list of imports of rice into Canton waters in 1862 that his father had entered.[^33] + +The papers of Warren II hold general correspondence from 1830 to 1891, material on China financial interests from 1835 to 1871, the "Houqua Accounts and Memoranda, 1865-1867," a series of typescript copies of letters to members of Russell and Company in 1840 and 1841, and correspondence with [[Vogel, Hagedorn and Company]] of Canton and Hong Kong for 1868 to 1871.[^34] + +Frederic Adrian Delano was born at Hong Kong on September 10, 1863.[^30] + +Warren Delano died at Algonac on January 17, 1898, nearly two years after his wife's death on February 10, 1896. The genealogy puts his estate at $1,338,000.[^30] The house burned in 1916, was rebuilt in 1917, and was sold by the family in 1955.[^31] + +### Children and the marriage network + +The 1899 genealogy lists eleven children of Warren and Catherine Delano, two of whom died in infancy. The marriages extend the family into other China and New York houses.[^30] + +- Susan Maria (1844 to 1846), born at Macao. +- Louise Church (born 1846). +- Deborah Perry, called Dora (born 1847), who married [[William Howell Forbes]] of Hong Kong at Paris on April 25, 1867. +- Annie Lyman (born 1849), who married [[Frederick Delano Hitch]] of Shanghai at Newburgh on October 16, 1877. Hitch was a son of Captain George Hitch of Fairhaven. +- Warren (born September 20, 1850, died October 10, 1851). +- Warren Delano III (1852 to 1920). +- Sara (1854 to 1941), who married [[James Roosevelt]] on October 7, 1880. +- Philippe de Lannoy Delano (1857 to 1881). +- Catherine Robbins (born 1860), who married [[Charles Albert Robbins]] in 1882. Robbins belonged to the New York drug firm of Olcott and McKesson, later [[McKesson & Robbins]]. +- Frederic Adrian (1863 to 1953). +- Laura Franklin (1864 to 1884). + +The genealogy identifies Dora's husband as "William Howell Forbes of Hong Kong China" and records that he died on July 9, 1896.[^30] Forbes's appendix lists a W. Howell Forbes who entered Russell and Company in 1860 and remained a partner.[^35] A Hong Kong bankruptcy petition of July 1891 names a "W. H. Forbes" and a "J. M. Forbes" among the partners of Russell and Company trading under that style.[^36] The Hong Kong Daily Press of December 10, 1891 names William Howell Forbes as the senior partner of the firm in the bankruptcy proceedings, and the Massachusetts Historical Society's genealogy of the [[Forbes family]] gives William Howell Forbes (1837 to 1896) as a son of Paul Siemen Forbes, who lived in China.[^37] The Roosevelt Library's finding aid lists "Forbes, William H. (Dora's first husband)" and "Forbes, Paul R. (Dora's second husband)."[^38] + +### Sara Delano Roosevelt + +Sara Delano was born on September 21, 1854 and married James Roosevelt on October 7, 1880. Their son Franklin Delano was born in 1882.[^30] Additional Delano family material given to the Roosevelt Library by the President and other donors is filed with the Roosevelt family papers.[^39] + +### Franklin Hughes Delano + +Franklin Hughes Delano, Warren's younger brother, was born on July 27, 1813. He became a partner of [[Grinnell, Minturn and Company]], a New York shipping house, in January 1839, and he served as consul for Chile at New York from 1840 until 1851.[^40] On September 17, 1844 he married [[Laura Astor]], a daughter of [[William Backhouse Astor]]. The couple received a portion of the Astor estate at [[Rokeby]] near [[Barrytown, New York]], where they built the house called [[Steen Valetje]] around 1850.[^41] + +Franklin Delano died at [[Monte Carlo]] on December 23, 1893, and his wife died there in 1902.[^41] The finding aid lists his correspondence with [[John Murray Forbes]] and Robert Bennet Forbes of Boston about shipping ventures in the 1840s, and with [[Francis S. Hathaway]] of New Bedford.[^40] + +### Frederic Adrian Delano + +Frederic Adrian Delano, the son of Warren II, was born at Hong Kong on September 10, 1863, and married Matilda Annis Peasley at Chicago on November 22, 1888.[^30] He graduated from [[Harvard University]] in 1885 and joined the [[Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad]], where he became superintendent of freight terminals, superintendent of motive power in 1899, and in 1901 vice president and general manager of the lines east of the Missouri River, a post he resigned in the latter part of 1904.[^42] + +### The Wabash and the Gould roads + +In April 1905 Delano was elected president of the Wabash-Pittsburg Terminal Railway and vice president in charge of all Wabash properties, with Henry Miller as general manager.[^42] The wire reports of the election described the appointment as part of the reorganization of the roads of [[George J. Gould]].[^43] On October 5, 1905 the directors of the Wabash, among them Gould, [[Edgar T. Welles]], Thomas H. Hubbard, John T. Terry, Winslow S. Pierce and E. T. Jeffery, removed the president, [[Joseph Ramsey Jr.]], "on the ground that he had made an attack upon the railroad," and elected the first vice president, F. A. Delano, to succeed him. Delano had already succeeded Ramsey as president of the Wabash-Pittsburg Terminal and of the [[Wheeling and Lake Erie Railway]].[^44] *Engineering News* reported the election on November 2, 1905, and the directors re-elected him in October 1908.[^45][^46] A court record of 1907 states that "The defendant Frederic A. Delano is president of the said defendant The Wabash Railroad Company."[^47] + +The annual reports for the fiscal years 1909, 1911, 1912 and 1913 list him as president. The reports of 1912 and 1913 list Delano, [[William K. Bixby]] and Edward B. Pryor as receivers; the directors include George J. Gould, Robert Goelet, H. Rogers Winthrop, Winslow S. Pierce and Edward T. Jeffery.[^48] He was made receiver in December 1911 and served with Pryor and Bixby under Judge Elmer B. Adams for the last two years.[^49] When he left, he wrote to Judge Adams that "the program of necessary improvement and betterment undertaken at an early stage of the Wabash receivership has been substantially completed," and the judge called him an "honest, faithful and efficient public servant." The *Traffic World* of December 27, 1913 reported his election as president of the Chicago, Indianapolis and Louisville Railway, the Monon, in succession to Fairfax Harrison, who had become president of the Southern Railway.[^50] The papers of Frederic A. Delano date his resignation of the presidency to August 10, 1914, on his appointment to the Board.[^51] + +### The Federal Reserve Board + +Delano took office as vice governor of the Federal Reserve Board on August 10, 1914, for a six-year term, and held the vice governorship until August 9, 1916.[^51] The Board's January 1916 bulletin lists him as "FREDERIC A. DELANO, Vice Governor," with [[Charles S. Hamlin]] as governor, and the Board's order of March 6, 1916 names "Mr. Hamlin, Governor; Mr. Delano, Vice Governor." The report for 1916 is signed by [[William P. G. Harding]] as governor, [[Paul M. Warburg]] as vice governor, and Delano as a member.[^52][^53] His resignation was the first change in the membership of the Board. The July 1918 bulletin states that "Mr. Delano has served two years as vice governor of the Board and for nearly two years additional as member," and that he resigned to serve with the [[United States Army Corps of Engineers]] on military railways in France.[^54] He was later a Class C director of the Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond from 1921 and its chairman from March to December 1936.[^55] + +### The Red River receivership + +From April 1920 to June 1, 1925 Delano served as the receiver appointed by the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] in *Oklahoma v. Texas*, the Red River Boundary Case, over the oil lands in the disputed river bed; his papers include photographs of the lands and records for 1920 to 1928.[^56] + +### The League of Nations commission on opium in Persia + +In December 1925 Delano became president of the [[League of Nations]] Commission of Enquiry into the Production of Opium in Persia. The League's own listing, reproduced in a study published by the Rockefeller-founded [[Bureau of Social Hygiene]], names the commission as "composed of Mr. Frederic A. Delano (United States of America), a former member of the Federal Reserve Board, Chairman; Dr. Fridiano Cavara (Italy) ... and M. Victor Cayla (France)."[^57] The historian Arnold H. Taylor writes that Elizabeth Washburn Wright, after approaching seven or eight others including Owen D. Young and Norman Davis, secured Delano; that the Bureau of Social Hygiene underwrote the project; that his staff were J. B. Knight and [[Archibald MacLeish]]; and that the commission traveled in Persia from March 24 to June 6, 1926 and recommended a three-year preparation followed by annual reductions of ten percent, with no loan.[^58] Delano's papers include his diary and MacLeish's, letters to his wife from Geneva, and two drafts of the report to the Council, one by each.[^59] In 1927 Delano wrote to the League about the commission's findings.[^60] The commission's report to the Council, C.580.M.219.1926.XI, is dated December 1926 and states that it is "possible and practically feasible, and to the economic interest of Persia, to adopt a programme for the gradual diminution of the cultivation of the opium poppy."[^61] According to Taylor, the Bureau of Social Hygiene pledged to underwrite the project and supplied an additional 100,000 francs after the Assembly halved the appropriation, and a State Department memorandum by [[Allen Dulles]] records a conversation with Delano on December 22, 1925.[^62] + +The columnist [[Westbrook Pegler]] wrote in December 1945 that Warren Delano was "the old Canton opium smuggler, who founded the Delano fortune in this trade," and that Frederic Delano and other Delanos still held financial interests in a coal property and company town at Vintondale in Cambria County, Pennsylvania.[^63] Frederic's papers carry subject files for the Samuel Russell Company, the Vinton Colliery Company and the Brookings and Carnegie institutions.[^64] + +### The Regional Plan, the Capital Park Commission and the National Resources Planning Board + +On May 10, 1922 the trustees of the [[Russell Sage Foundation]] named a committee on a plan of New York and its environs, composed of [[Charles Dyer Norton]] as chairman, [[Robert W. de Forest]], Delano, John M. Glenn, [[Dwight W. Morrow]] and Frank L. Polk; Delano was a trustee of the Foundation.[^65] After Norton's death in 1923 Delano became chairman, and the committee of 1925 consisted of Delano, de Forest, Polk, Glenn, Frederic B. Pratt, Morrow and Lawson Purdy, with [[Thomas Adams]] as general director of plans and surveys.[^66] The first volume, *The Graphic Regional Plan* (1929), lists the committee under "Frederic A. Delano, Chairman," adds John H. Finley, Henry James and George McAneny, and is signed by Delano. It is dedicated to Norton.[^67] *Engineering News-Record* reported that the work cost about $1,000,000, all paid by the Russell Sage Foundation, and covered 436 cities and towns in 22 counties, and that the plan was presented on May 27, 1929.[^68] A British architectural journal described him in August 1929 as "a former railway president and member of the Federal Reserve Board."[^69] + +In 1927 President Coolidge appointed Delano president of the National Capital Park and Planning Commission, while the 1953 obituary in Planning magazine gives his chairmanship of the commission as 1924 to 1942,[^70] and in 1933 Franklin D. Roosevelt named him chairman of the National Resources Planning Board for ten years.[^51] The National Archives guide describes the sequence: the National Planning Board was established within the [[Federal Emergency Administration of Public Works]] on July 20, 1933; it was superseded by the National Resources Board under Executive Order 6777 on June 30, 1934; and that board was replaced by the National Resources Committee under Executive Order 7065 on June 7, 1935. The National Resources Planning Board was established by Reorganization Plan No. I of 1939, effective July 1, 1939, and abolished on August 31, 1943 by 57 Stat. 169. Delano served from July 1933 to August 1943, chairing the National Planning Board in 1933 and 1934 and the National Resources Planning Board from 1939.[^3] In 1937 the proceedings of the National Planning Conference list him as Vice-Chairman of the National Resources Committee.[^71] In the Senate on May 27, 1943 Senator [[Robert A. Taft]] opposed an increase in the Board's appropriation, and Senator [[Charles L. McNary]] had read into the Record Delano's letter of May 26, 1943 calling a book by the Brookings economist [[Harold G. Moulton]] "false in detail and deliberately misleading in purpose."[^72] The appropriation act of June 26, 1943 abolished the Board effective August 31, 1943 and provided that its functions "shall not be transferred to any other agency."[^73] A profile of April 2, 1943 describes him at 79 as an uncle of the President, and credits the board with the "cradle-to-grave" social security plan then recently announced.[^74] + +He was a citizen regent of the [[Smithsonian Institution]]. His term expired on January 21, 1935, and he was reappointed by joint resolution approved August 7, 1935.[^75] A joint resolution approved August 21, 1941 reappointed him for six years, and the Executive Committee of the Regents that year consisted of Delano, [[Vannevar Bush]] and Clarence Cannon.[^76] + +[[China Defense Supplies]], Inc. was the Chinese purchasing and supply agency in the United States through which lend-lease aid to China was requisitioned. The Army's history of the [[American Volunteer Group]] states that the board of directors of China Defense Supplies "included both Franklin Delano, the President's uncle, and Washington lawyer Thomas Corcoran."[^77] [[Sterling Seagrave]] wrote that "One of the directors of China Defense Supplies was Frederic Delano, the President's uncle," [[Daniel Ford]] wrote that Delano "signed on as honorary counselor," and [[John Pomfret]] wrote that he was made honorary chairman.[^78] An Air University history lists the roster as including "FDR's cousin Frederick T. Delano, head" without saying whether that is Frederic Adrian Delano.[^79] + +### Lyman Delano and the Atlantic Coast Line + +Lyman Delano, the son of Warren III and Jennie Walters, was born at Newburgh in 1883, in July according to the genealogy and on January 16 according to the biographical notice of 1932.[^4][^80] He graduated from Harvard in 1906, worked for Stone and Webster until 1910, and entered the Atlantic Coast Line in 1910 as a clerk and assistant to the chief engineer. He became assistant to the president in January 1912, third vice president in November 1914, and first vice president about two years later. From June 1918 to March 1, 1920 he was federal manager of the road, and on March 1, 1920 he became executive vice president.[^4] In August 1916 he was "third vice-president and head of the Operating Department."[^81] + +On January 9, 1932 *Railway Age* reported his election as chairman of the Atlantic Coast Line, succeeding the late [[Henry Walters]], who died on November 30, 1931, and also in the chairmanship of the [[Louisville and Nashville Railroad]].[^4] + +In the Supreme Court case over the Atlanta, Birmingham and Coast Railroad, the receiver B. L. Bugg testified that he had suggested the purchase of the old Atlanta, Birmingham and Atlantic to the Atlantic Coast Line's executive vice president, Lyman Delano, in December 1924. The bondholders' agreement is dated February 23, 1926. Of the new company's 150,000 shares of common stock, 149,995 stood in the name of the Atlantic Coast Line and one share each in the names of Delano, George B. Elliott, Bugg, J. L. Edwards and R. C. Alston, who formed its board.[^82] + +### Warren Delano III and the Union Mining Company + +Warren Delano III was born at Algonac in 1852 and graduated from Harvard University in 1874. He joined the management of the Union Mining Company at Mount Savage, Maryland, and married Jennie Walters, a daughter of William Thompson Walters, at Baltimore on July 11, 1876.[^80] He had mining, banking and railroad interests and bred horses at Steen Valetje. He was killed on September 9, 1920, when his horse ran into the path of a train at Barrytown. At his death he was a director of the Union Mining Company, president of the [[Delano Coal Company]] and chairman of the board of the [[Vinton Colliery Company]].[^33] + +In August and September 1899 Warren III and [[H. A. deWindt]] kept diaries of a trip to Wyoming and Yellowstone, and Warren III's brother Frederic A. and his son Lyman accompanied them.[^33] + +### Eugene and Moreau Delano of Brown Brothers + +The genealogy also prints a Delano line descended from [[Obadiah Delano]] through [[Moreau Delano]] (died New York, 1870), under the heading "Delano Line Unknown," and does not connect it to Philippe de la Noye. Moreau's son [[Eugene Delano]] is described as a member of the firm of "[[Brown Brothers Harriman|Brown Bros.]]," bankers at 59 Wall Street in New York. He married Susan Magoun Adams at Philadelphia on February 8, 1872. Their children included William Adams (born January 21, 1874, Yale 1895), Moreau (born June 14, 1877, Yale 1897) and Eugene (born February 26, 1887).[^83] + +Eugene Delano died on April 2, 1920. The Board of Tax Appeals docket of 1928 names Moreau Delano and William A. Delano as executors of his estate, with [[James Crosby Brown]] as a party, concerning income of $209,788.09 from the partnership of Brown Brothers & Company due to Eugene in 1920.[^84] A bankers' directory of June 1918 lists "Moreau Delano, Brown Brothers & Co.," which places Eugene's son Moreau in the firm that became Brown Brothers Harriman.[^85] A Moreau Delano Brown, born March 30, 1905 to Thatcher Magoun Brown and Caro Lord Noyes, bears the same given names.[^86] The architect William Adams Delano of the firm Delano and Aldrich shares the name of Eugene's son born in 1874, and the sources give no connection between the two.[^83] + +### Family papers + +The Roosevelt Library's Delano family papers cover 1568 to 1919, occupy 22.1 linear feet (about 55,000 pages), and are arranged in four sections: the papers of Franklin Hughes Delano, of Warren Delano II, of Warren Delano III, and other family papers.[^39] The papers of Warren II came to Warren III from Annie Delano Hitch in 1899.[^39] The Papers of Frederic A. Delano, 1812 to 1959, occupy 12 linear feet and were given by his daughters Catherine Delano Grant and Laura Delano Houghteling. They include material on the Red River receivership, the Persia commission, the Regional Plan, the Smithsonian, and subject files on the Samuel Russell Company, China Defense Supplies and the Tennessee Valley Authority.[^64] + +### Footnotes + +[^1]: Joel Andrews Delano, *The Genealogy, History and Alliances of the American House of Delano, 1621 to 1899* (1899), pt. 1-3, the Philippe de la Noye entry, pp. 49-51 (the Fortune, 1621; his five sons Philip Jr., Dr. Thomas, John, Lt. Jonathan and Samuel). https://archive.org/details/genealogyhistory46dela +[^2]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Delano Family Papers, 1568 to 1919, biographical sketch of Warren Delano II, pp. 1-2 of the PDF. https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_delanofamily.pdf +[^3]: National Archives, *Guide to the Records of Federal Agencies*, Record Group 187, §187.3 and §187.3.2. https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/187.html +[^4]: *Railway Age*, January 9, 1932, vol. 92, no. 2, p. 89, the election of Lyman Delano as chairman of the Atlantic Coast Line and the Louisville and Nashville. +[^5]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Delano Family Papers, 1568 to 1919, biographical sketch, p. 1 of the PDF. https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_delanofamily.pdf +[^6]: Joel Andrews Delano, *The Genealogy, History and Alliances of the American House of Delano, 1621 to 1899* (1899), pt. 4-6, the George De Lano entry, Cooper, Michigan, p. 453, the desk "said to have been by Philippe brought on the 'Fortune' 1621." https://archive.org/details/genealogyhistory46dela +[^7]: William Bradford, *History of Plymouth Plantation*, 1912 edition (Massachusetts Historical Society), vol. II, p. 285 (the list of purchasers of December 1, 1640) and p. 11 n. (the 1628 sale, citing Plymouth Colony Records xii. 7). https://archive.org/details/historyofplymout02brad +[^8]: Joel Andrews Delano, *The Genealogy, History and Alliances of the American House of Delano, 1621 to 1899* (1899), pt. 4-6, the Lt. Jonathan Delano entry, pp. 293-294; the Thomas Delano 1st and Capt. Ephraim Delano 1st entries, pp. 483-500; and the Capt. Warren Delano entry with his children, pp. 503-505. https://archive.org/details/genealogyhistory46dela +[^9]: *Logbook of the Phillipe De La Noye (Ship) of Fairhaven and Cicero (Ship) of New Bedford*, kept by William Childs, catalog description of the voyage of September 6, 1852 to November 13, 1854 under David G. Pierce. https://archive.org/details/logbookofphillip00unse +[^10]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Papers of Frederic A. Delano, 1812 to 1959, series VI, logs of the Philippe de la Noye, a whaler owned by the Delano family, 1848 to 1855. https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_freddelano.pdf +[^11]: Joel Andrews Delano, *The Genealogy, History and Alliances of the American House of Delano, 1621 to 1899* (1899), pt. 1-3, the Dr. Thomas Delano entry, p. 155; the Jonathan Delano Sr. entry, p. 188; the Jonathan Delano 2d entry, pp. 209-210; and the Samuel Delano Sr. entry with Capt. Amasa Delano, born February 21, 1763, pp. 210-212. https://archive.org/details/genealogyhistory46dela +[^12]: Amasa Delano, *A Narrative of Voyages and Travels, in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres* (Boston, 1817), "Biographical Sketch," pp. 577-580 (born at Duxbury on February 21, 1763, the son of Samuel Delano and a Drew mother, with a brother Amasa in Rogers' Rangers). https://archive.org/details/anarrativevoyag00delagoog +[^13]: Amasa Delano, *A Narrative of Voyages and Travels, in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres* (Boston, 1817), chapter XVIII, "Particulars of the Capture of the Spanish Ship Tryal, at the island of St. Maria," pp. 319-320, the Perseverance journal for February 13 and 20, 1805. https://archive.org/details/anarrativevoyag00delagoog +[^14]: Amasa Delano, *A Narrative of Voyages and Travels, in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres* (Boston, 1817), pp. 335 and 343-344, the notary's certificate and Delano's declaration. https://archive.org/details/anarrativevoyag00delagoog +[^15]: Amasa Delano, *A Narrative of Voyages and Travels, in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres* (Boston, 1817), pp. 352-353, the letter of the King of Spain through the consul at Boston and Delano's reply of August 8, 1807. https://archive.org/details/anarrativevoyag00delagoog +[^16]: Herman Melville, "Benito Cereno," in *The Piazza Tales* (1856), opening paragraph. https://archive.org/details/piazzatales00melvuoft +[^17]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), appendix, pp. 355-357 (partnership dates of Warren Delano Jr. and the 1844 firm). https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog +[^18]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), p. 147 and the appendix journal of April 1, 1839, p. 351 ("Warren Delano, head cook"). https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog +[^19]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 150, 153 and 157 (Delano's joining Russell and Company; the co-operators Delano, A. A. Low, Edward King and W. C. Hunter; the departure of the Niantic). https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog +[^20]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 157, the partnership terms and Delano's entry; Forbes's departure on the Niantic on July 7, 1840. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog +[^21]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 147, the Chesapeake. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog +[^22]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 150, the cotton orders sent to India on Houqua's behalf. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog +[^23]: *The Chinese Repository*, vol. VIII (December 1839), p. 432, Commissioner Lin's edict as translated. +[^24]: *The Chinese Repository*, vol. VIII (January 1840), p. 482, the letter of thanks of a shipwrecked captain. +[^25]: *The Chinese Repository*, vol. IX (September 1840), p. 628, the departure of the consul Snow and the acting vice-consulship. +[^26]: *The Chinese Repository*, vol. IX (May 1840), Journal of Occurrences, petition of the American merchants at Canton, April 25, 1840. +[^27]: U.S. House of Representatives, 26th Congress, 1st session, H. Doc. 40, "Merchants of the United States at Canton, China. Memorial of R. B. Forbes and others," January 9, 1840, signature block dated Canton, May 25, 1839. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/SERIALSET-00364_00_00-030-0040-0000 +[^28]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 157-158 (Russell and Company's operations for Houqua between January and July 1840) and p. 161 (the pledge made by Mr. Green). https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog +[^29]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 166-168 and p. 356 (the 1846 return of Edward Delano). https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog +[^30]: Joel Andrews Delano, *The Genealogy, History and Alliances of the American House of Delano, 1621 to 1899* (1899), pt. 4-6, the Warren Delano 2d entry, pp. 504-506. https://archive.org/details/genealogyhistory46dela +[^31]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Delano Family Papers, 1568 to 1919, series descriptions and biographical sketch (Algonac, the losses of 1857, the 1859 return to China). https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_delanofamily.pdf +[^32]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Delano Family Papers, 1568 to 1919, series 10 (story by Elizabeth Babcock, 1862, for travelers on the Surprise bound for China), and Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Papers of Frederic A. Delano, 1812 to 1959, series VI (Catherine R. Delano's journal on the clipper Surprise, New York to Hong Kong, 1862). https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_delanofamily.pdf +[^33]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Delano Family Papers, 1568 to 1919, series 9 and the biographical sketch of Warren Delano III. https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_delanofamily.pdf +[^34]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Delano Family Papers, 1568 to 1919, series 5, the papers of Warren Delano II (general correspondence 1830 to 1891; "Houqua Accounts and Memoranda, 1865-1867"; "Russell and Company, Typescript copies of letters to Members of, 1840-1841"). https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_delanofamily.pdf +[^35]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), appendix, pp. 356-357 (W. Howell Forbes entered the house in 1860 and was a partner). https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog +[^36]: *Hong Kong Daily Press*, July 22, 1891, p. 2, "In Bankruptcy," petition concerning Russell and Company. https://archive.org/details/NPDP18910722 +[^37]: *Hong Kong Daily Press*, December 10, 1891, "In Bankruptcy," report of the Official Assignee on Charles Alexander Tomes (William Howell Forbes "the senior partner at the firm"); Massachusetts Historical Society, *Forbes Family Papers, 1732-1931* (Ms. N-49), collection guide, condensed genealogy of the Forbes family. https://www.masshist.org/collection-guides/view/fa0269 +[^38]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Delano Family Papers, 1568 to 1919, series 9, correspondents ("Forbes, William H. (Dora's first husband)"; "Forbes, Paul R. (Dora's second husband)"). https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_delanofamily.pdf +[^39]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Delano Family Papers, 1568 to 1919, summary description and series list. https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_delanofamily.pdf +[^40]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Delano Family Papers, 1568 to 1919, biographical sketch of Franklin Hughes Delano and series 1. https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_delanofamily.pdf +[^41]: Joel Andrews Delano, *The Genealogy, History and Alliances of the American House of Delano, 1621 to 1899* (1899), pt. 4-6, the Capt. Warren Delano entry, pp. 504-505 (Franklin Hughes, born July 27, 1813, died at Monte Carlo December 23, 1893; married September 17, 1844 Laura Astor). https://archive.org/details/genealogyhistory46dela +[^42]: *Railroad Gazette*, April 28, 1905, the election of F. A. Delano and the account of his career. +[^43]: *Oakland Tribune*, April 24, 1905, wire report on the Wabash-Pittsburg Terminal election. +[^44]: *Chicago Daily Tribune*, October 6, 1905, p. 1, the removal of Joseph Ramsey Jr. and the election of F. A. Delano as president of the Wabash. +[^45]: *Engineering News*, November 2, 1905, the election of Delano as president of the Wabash. +[^46]: *Fort Wayne Sentinel*, October 13, 1908, the re-election of Delano as president of the Wabash. +[^47]: *In re Pollitz* (1907), record: "The defendant Frederic A. Delano is president of the said defendant The Wabash Railroad Company." +[^48]: Wabash Railroad Company, *Annual Reports* for the fiscal years 1909, 1911, 1912 and 1913 (St. Louis: Woodward and Tiernan), lists of directors, officers and receivers. https://archive.org/details/annualreportdir04railgoog +[^49]: *Engineering Record*, August 8, 1914, vol. 70, no. 6, "Frederic A. Delano Nominated for Federal Reserve Board" (receivership "In December, 1911"). https://archive.org/details/engineering-record_1914-08-08_70_6_0 +[^50]: *Traffic World*, December 27, 1913, pp. 1213-1214, the election of Delano as president of the Chicago, Indianapolis and Louisville Railway and Judge Adams's letter. +[^51]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Papers of Frederic A. Delano, 1812 to 1959, biographical note. https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_freddelano.pdf +[^52]: Federal Reserve Board, *Federal Reserve Bulletin*, January 1916, Board roster. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/files/docs/publications/FRB/1910s/frb_011916.pdf +[^53]: Federal Reserve Board, *Third Annual Report* (for 1916), p. 31 (signature block) and p. 124 (order of March 6, 1916). https://archive.org/details/annualreportfed00boargoog +[^54]: Federal Reserve Board, *Federal Reserve Bulletin*, vol. 4, no. 7 (July 1, 1918), p. 587, "Resignation of the Federal Reserve Board." https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/files/docs/publications/FRB/1910s/frb_071918.pdf +[^55]: Federal Reserve History, "Frederic A. Delano," biographical profile (Richmond Class C director, 1921; chairman of the Richmond bank, March to December 1936). https://www.federalreservehistory.org/people/frederic_a_delano +[^56]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Papers of Frederic A. Delano, 1812 to 1959, series II, 1920 to 1928 (receiver in Oklahoma v. Texas, the Red River Boundary Case, April 1920 to June 1, 1925). https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_freddelano.pdf +[^57]: Edward Terry and Mabel Pellens, *The Opium Problem* (Bureau of Social Hygiene, 1928), pp. 720-721. https://archive.org/details/opiumproblem00terr +[^58]: Arnold H. Taylor, *American Diplomacy and the Narcotics Traffic, 1900-1939* (Durham: Duke University Press, 1969), pp. 223 and 312-314. https://archive.org/details/americandiplomac02tayl +[^59]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Papers of Frederic A. Delano, 1812 to 1959, Persia opium commission files, 1925 to 1927 (diaries of Delano and Archibald MacLeish; the "Delano Draft" and "MacLeish Draft" of the report to the Council). https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_freddelano.pdf +[^60]: *The United States Daily*, July 6, 1927, Delano's letter to the League of Nations. +[^61]: Elizabeth P. MacCallum, *Twenty Years of Persian Opium (1908-1928)* (Foreign Policy Association, 1928), Annex III, p. 44, extract from the Report of the League Commission of Enquiry into the Production of Opium in Persia, December 1926. https://archive.org/details/20yearsofpersian00macc +[^62]: Arnold H. Taylor, *American Diplomacy and the Narcotics Traffic, 1900-1939* (Duke University Press, 1969), pp. 312-313 and note 39. https://archive.org/details/americandiplomac02tayl +[^63]: Westbrook Pegler, column distributed by King Features Syndicate, *Hope Star* (Hope, Arkansas), December 5, 1945. +[^64]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Papers of Frederic A. Delano, 1812 to 1959, subject files (Samuel Russell Company, Vinton Colliery Company, China Defense Supplies, Brookings Institution, Carnegie Institution, Tennessee Valley Authority). https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_freddelano.pdf +[^65]: Russell Sage Foundation, *Plan of New York and Its Environs; the meeting of May 10, 1922*. https://archive.org/details/planofnewyorkits00russ +[^66]: Edward M. Bassett, *Zoning Practice in the New York Region* (Regional Plan of New York and Its Environs, 1925), committee roster. https://archive.org/details/zoningpracticein00bass_0 +[^67]: Committee on the Regional Plan of New York and Its Environs, *The Graphic Regional Plan* (1929), roster and letter of presentation, pp. [9]-[11]. https://archive.org/details/graphicregionalp0000unse +[^68]: *Engineering News-Record*, June 6, 1929, vol. 102, no. 23, account of the presentation of the Regional Plan on May 27, 1929. https://archive.org/details/sim_enr_1929-06-06_102_23 +[^69]: *Journal of the Royal Institute of British Architects*, August 18, 1929, vol. 36, no. 18. https://archive.org/details/sim_riba-journal_1929-08-18_36_18 +[^70]: *Planning*, May 1953, vol. 19, no. 5, obituary of Frederic A. Delano (chairman of the National Capital Park and Planning Commission 1924 to 1942; appointed chairman of the National Planning Board in 1934). https://archive.org/details/sim_planning_1953-05_19_5 +[^71]: National Conference on Planning, *New Horizons in Planning* (1937), listing "Frederic A. Delano, Vice-Chairman, National Resources Committee." https://archive.org/details/newhorizonsinpla00natirich +[^72]: *Congressional Record*, vol. 89, Senate, May 27, 1943, pp. 4923-4926 and 4954. https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_may-14-june-14-1943_89 +[^73]: Act of June 26, 1943, ch. 145, 57 Stat. 169, 170. https://archive.org/details/us-stat +[^74]: *United States News*, April 2, 1943, pp. 59-60. +[^75]: Smithsonian Institution, *Annual Report of the Board of Regents* for the fiscal year 1936. https://archive.org/details/annual-report-board-of-regents-smithsonian_1936 +[^76]: Smithsonian Institution, *Annual Report of the Board of Regents* for the fiscal year 1942, p. xi (the Executive Committee). https://archive.org/details/annual-report-board-of-regents-smithsonian_1942 +[^77]: U.S. Army Center of Military History, *The Flying Tigers: Chennault's American Volunteer Group in China*, the account of CAMCO and China Defense Supplies. https://archive.org/details/TheFlyingTigers +[^78]: Sterling Seagrave, *The Soong Dynasty* (1985); Daniel Ford, *Flying Tigers: Claire Chennault and His American Volunteers, 1941-1942* (2007); John Pomfret, *The Beautiful Country and the Middle Kingdom* (2016); Robert Schultz, *The Maverick War: Chennault and the Flying Tigers*, each on China Defense Supplies. https://archive.org/details/soongdynasty0000seag_t0v1 ; https://archive.org/details/flyingtigersclai0000ford ; https://archive.org/details/beautifulcountry0000pomf ; https://archive.org/details/maverickwarchenn00schu +[^79]: *American Angels: Forming the Lafayette Escadrille, RAF Eagles, and Flying Tigers* (Air University, 2000), the account of China Defense Supplies, note 49. https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA384931 +[^80]: Joel Andrews Delano, *The Genealogy, History and Alliances of the American House of Delano, 1621 to 1899* (1899), pt. 4-6, the Warren Delano 3d entry, pp. 505-506. https://archive.org/details/genealogyhistory46dela +[^81]: *The Morning Star* (Wilmington, North Carolina), August 31, 1916, p. 1. +[^82]: *Atlanta, Birmingham and Coast Railroad Co. v. United States*, 296 U.S. 33 (1935), Transcript of Record, No. 9, testimony of B. L. Bugg and the corporate record of the A.B.&C. board. https://archive.org/details/micro_IA40386009_0266 +[^83]: Joel Andrews Delano, *The Genealogy, History and Alliances of the American House of Delano, 1621 to 1899* (1899), pt. 4-6, "Delano Line Unknown," the Moreau Delano and Eugene Delano entries, pp. 522-523. https://archive.org/details/genealogyhistory46dela +[^84]: *The United States Daily*, March 7, 1928, Board of Tax Appeals docket: Moreau Delano and William A. Delano, executors of the estate of Eugene Delano, deceased. +[^85]: *Trust Companies*, June 1918, vol. 26, no. 6, directory entry "Moreau Delano, Brown Brothers & Co." +[^86]: *Alexander Brown and His Descendants* (1917), the entry for Moreau Delano Brown and the index. https://archive.org/details/alexanderbrownhi1917brow diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Dick Cheney.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Dick Cheney.md index a1260e62..25d7e83f 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Dick Cheney.md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Dick Cheney.md @@ -62,17 +62,17 @@ relations: reverse: true role: "2008 report on prewar public statements by Bush and Cheney" start: 2008-06-05 - fn: 32 + fn: 34 - type: participant_in with: "[[Cheney v. United States District Court]]" role: "petitioner, Vice President" start: 2004-06-24 - fn: 27 + fn: 29 - type: spouse_of with: "[[Lynne Cheney]]" - fn: 36 + fn: 38 created: 2026-09-22 -updated: 2026-10-15 +updated: 2026-10-26 --- Richard Bruce Cheney was born in [[Lincoln, Nebraska]] on January 30, 1941, and grew up in [[Casper, Wyoming]]. He was a congressional fellow in 1968, worked at the [[Office of Economic Opportunity]] and the [[Cost of Living Council]], and was a vice president of the investment firm [[Bradley, Woods & Co.]] from 1973 to 1974. He was deputy assistant to President [[Gerald R. Ford]] in 1974 and 1975 and his chief of staff from 1975 to 1977. He represented Wyoming in the [[United States House of Representatives]] from January 3, 1979, until March 17, 1989, was [[Secretary of Defense]] from 1989 to 1993, was chief executive of [[Halliburton]] from 1995 to 2000, and was Vice President under [[George W. Bush]] from January 20, 2001, to January 20, 2009.[^1] @@ -109,45 +109,47 @@ In February 1992 the Pentagon produced a draft [[Defense Planning Guidance]] for Cheney was chief executive of Halliburton from October 1995 to 2000. The company's FY1998 annual report, filed as an amendment, lists him as chief executive officer "since October 1995."[^15] The House biographical directory gives "chairman and chief executive office of the Halliburton Company 1993-2000" and, in the same entry, "senior fellow, American Enterprise Institute 1993-1995."[^1] [[Ray Hunt]] of [[Hunt Oil Company|Hunt Oil]] joined its board in 1998 (the 10-K/A lists a power of attorney he signed in October 1998 as a director) and went at once onto its compensation committee, which that year gave Cheney a bonus of 1.1 million dollars and restricted stock worth 1.5 million on a salary of 1.18 million.[^16] Halliburton, which acquired [[Dresser Industries]] in 1998, reported in the same filing that since 1976 approximately 190,000 claims had been filed against current and former Dresser divisions and subsidiaries alleging injury from inhaled asbestos fibers.[^15] -On August 3, 2004, the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] announced enforcement actions against Halliburton, its former chief financial officer, Gary V. Morris, and its former controller, Robert C. Muchmore Jr., over the company's failure to disclose a 1998 change to its accounting practice. The commission said Halliburton's public statements about its 1998 and 1999 income were materially misleading. Halliburton agreed to a cease-and-desist order and to a $7.5 million penalty. The release stated that "the company's former Chief Executive Officer, Vice President Richard B. Cheney, provided sworn testimony and cooperated willingly and fully in the investigation."[^17] +Cheney and [[William E. Bradford]], chairman and chief executive of Dresser Industries, met briefly on August 25, 1997, when the meeting concerned Halliburton's then pending acquisition of [[NUMAR Corporation]], and met again in Dallas on October 2, 1997. On January 17, 1998, during a customer's quail hunt in South Texas, they agreed to discuss the matter further in Dallas. At a Dallas meeting on January 27, 1998, Bradford said that Dresser was not for sale. Cheney then proposed a merger at an exchange ratio of 0.95 Halliburton share for each Dresser share, with Bradford as chairman of the combined company and Cheney and [[David J. Lesar]] keeping their Halliburton posts. Bradford said he would expect an improved exchange ratio.[^17] The merger agreement was dated as of February 25, 1998, and the final ratio was one Halliburton share for each Dresser share. The merger was completed on September 29, 1998.[^18] -Halliburton's former subsidiary [[Kellogg, Brown & Root]] (KBR) pleaded guilty in February 2009 in federal court in [[Houston, Texas|Houston]] to a five-count criminal information and agreed to pay $402 million in criminal fines. Halliburton and KBR jointly agreed to pay $177 million in forfeited profits to the SEC in a concurrent civil action, for a combined $579 million. The bribes were paid to officials of the [[Nigeria|Nigerian]] government from 1995 until 2004 to win contracts to build liquefied natural gas facilities on [[Bonny Island]], valued at more than $6 billion.[^18] The payments began in 1995, the year Cheney became chief executive, and continued until 2004. +On August 3, 2004, the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] announced enforcement actions against Halliburton, its former chief financial officer, Gary V. Morris, and its former controller, Robert C. Muchmore Jr., over the company's failure to disclose a 1998 change to its accounting practice. The commission said Halliburton's public statements about its 1998 and 1999 income were materially misleading. Halliburton agreed to a cease-and-desist order and to a $7.5 million penalty. The release stated that "the company's former Chief Executive Officer, Vice President Richard B. Cheney, provided sworn testimony and cooperated willingly and fully in the investigation."[^19] -The Army's [[Logistics Civil Augmentation Program]] (LOGCAP) had been created in 1985; in 1992 its concept was changed to a single, centrally managed worldwide planning and services contract, and on August 3, 1992, during Cheney's tenure as Secretary of Defense, Brown and Root Services Corporation of Houston was awarded the contract competitively, a cost-plus-award-fee contract for one year with four option years. The [[United States Army Corps of Engineers]] has administered it since 1992. Four companies competed, and a Commerce Business Daily notice drew 37 requests for the solicitation.[^19] +Halliburton's former subsidiary [[Kellogg, Brown & Root]] (KBR) pleaded guilty in February 2009 in federal court in [[Houston, Texas|Houston]] to a five-count criminal information and agreed to pay $402 million in criminal fines. Halliburton and KBR jointly agreed to pay $177 million in forfeited profits to the SEC in a concurrent civil action, for a combined $579 million. The bribes were paid to officials of the [[Nigeria|Nigerian]] government from 1995 until 2004 to win contracts to build liquefied natural gas facilities on [[Bonny Island]], valued at more than $6 billion.[^20] The payments began in 1995, the year Cheney became chief executive, and continued until 2004. -On December 11, 2003, the [[Defense Contract Audit Agency]] issued a draft audit concluding that KBR had overcharged by up to $61 million for fuel imported into Iraq from Kuwait between May and September 2003 under the Restore Iraqi Oil contract; on January 15, 2004, the agency asked the Pentagon's inspector general to consider a formal investigation after finding "suspected irregularities."[^20] [[Bunnatine Greenhouse]], the Army Corps of Engineers' senior procurement executive, told the Senate Democratic Policy Committee on June 27, 2005 that "the abuse related to contracts awarded to KBR represents the most blatant and improper contract abuse I have witnessed during the course of my professional career." She testified that the Office of the Secretary of Defense controlled the award of the Restore Iraqi Oil contract, that she had written on the justification and approval document a caution against extending the noncompetitive effort beyond one year, that the commander of the Corps waived KBR's requirement to provide cost and pricing data about a week after the December 2003 audit without her approval, and that on October 6, 2004 she was notified that she would be removed from the Senior Executive Service and from her contracting post.[^21] +The Army's [[Logistics Civil Augmentation Program]] (LOGCAP) had been created in 1985; in 1992 its concept was changed to a single, centrally managed worldwide planning and services contract, and on August 3, 1992, during Cheney's tenure as Secretary of Defense, Brown and Root Services Corporation of Houston was awarded the contract competitively, a cost-plus-award-fee contract for one year with four option years. The [[United States Army Corps of Engineers]] has administered it since 1992. Four companies competed, and a Commerce Business Daily notice drew 37 requests for the solicitation.[^21] + +On December 11, 2003, the [[Defense Contract Audit Agency]] issued a draft audit concluding that KBR had overcharged by up to $61 million for fuel imported into Iraq from Kuwait between May and September 2003 under the Restore Iraqi Oil contract; on January 15, 2004, the agency asked the Pentagon's inspector general to consider a formal investigation after finding "suspected irregularities."[^22] [[Bunnatine Greenhouse]], the Army Corps of Engineers' senior procurement executive, told the Senate Democratic Policy Committee on June 27, 2005 that "the abuse related to contracts awarded to KBR represents the most blatant and improper contract abuse I have witnessed during the course of my professional career." She testified that the Office of the Secretary of Defense controlled the award of the Restore Iraqi Oil contract, that she had written on the justification and approval document a caution against extending the noncompetitive effort beyond one year, that the commander of the Corps waived KBR's requirement to provide cost and pricing data about a week after the December 2003 audit without her approval, and that on October 6, 2004 she was notified that she would be removed from the Senior Executive Service and from her contracting post.[^23] ### Continuity of Government -In 2008 [[Jane Mayer]] wrote in [[The Dark Side (Mayer book)|The Dark Side]] that during the 1980s Cheney, then a Republican congressman from Wyoming, took part in one of the classified continuity-of-government programs of the [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] administration. "Every year, usually during congressional recesses, Cheney would disappear in the dead of the night." Along with "some four or five dozen federal officials," Cheney "would pretend for several weeks to be chief of staff to a designated substitute 'president,' bivouacked in some remote location in the United States."[^22] +In 2008 [[Jane Mayer]] wrote in [[The Dark Side (Mayer book)|The Dark Side]] that during the 1980s Cheney, then a Republican congressman from Wyoming, took part in one of the classified continuity-of-government programs of the [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] administration. "Every year, usually during congressional recesses, Cheney would disappear in the dead of the night." Along with "some four or five dozen federal officials," Cheney "would pretend for several weeks to be chief of staff to a designated substitute 'president,' bivouacked in some remote location in the United States."[^24] -Mayer wrote that a secret executive order signed by Reagan established "a means of re-creating the executive branch without informing Congress," and that Cheney "was evidently unperturbed by this oversight." She wrote that "Mann and others have suggested that these doomsday drills were a dress rehearsal for Cheney's calm, commanding performance on 9/11," citing [[James Mann]]'s account of the neoconservatives in [[The Vulcans]]. Her excerpt describes an eyewitness diary that recorded Cheney's conduct in the [[Presidential Emergency Operations Center]] on September 11, 2001.[^22] [[Andrew Cockburn]] wrote in his 2007 book on Donald Rumsfeld that Rumsfeld "loved these games" and that "[t]here were others who were frequent players in the exercises, notably Dick Cheney," quoting a former Pentagon official: "Cheney and the others often had other priorities. Rumsfeld always came."[^23] +Mayer wrote that a secret executive order signed by Reagan established "a means of re-creating the executive branch without informing Congress," and that Cheney "was evidently unperturbed by this oversight." She wrote that "Mann and others have suggested that these doomsday drills were a dress rehearsal for Cheney's calm, commanding performance on 9/11," citing [[James Mann]]'s account of the neoconservatives in [[The Vulcans]]. Her excerpt describes an eyewitness diary that recorded Cheney's conduct in the [[Presidential Emergency Operations Center]] on September 11, 2001.[^24] [[Andrew Cockburn]] wrote in his 2007 book on Donald Rumsfeld that Rumsfeld "loved these games" and that "[t]here were others who were frequent players in the exercises, notably Dick Cheney," quoting a former Pentagon official: "Cheney and the others often had other priorities. Rumsfeld always came."[^25] ### Vice President, 2001 to 2009 -On September 16, 2001, Cheney appeared on [[Meet the Press]] with [[Tim Russert]], broadcast from [[Camp David]]. The official White House transcript records: "We also have to work, though, sort of the dark side, if you will. We've got to spend time in the shadows in the intelligence world. A lot of what needs to be done here will have to be done quietly, without any discussion, using sources and methods that are available to our intelligence agencies, if we're going to be successful."[^24] +On September 16, 2001, Cheney appeared on [[Meet the Press]] with [[Tim Russert]], broadcast from [[Camp David]]. The official White House transcript records: "We also have to work, though, sort of the dark side, if you will. We've got to spend time in the shadows in the intelligence world. A lot of what needs to be done here will have to be done quietly, without any discussion, using sources and methods that are available to our intelligence agencies, if we're going to be successful."[^26] -The [[9/11 Commission]] records that the Secret Service ordered Cheney to the shelter beneath the White House after American Airlines Flight 77 turned south at 9:34 a.m., and that he entered the tunnel to the shelter at 9:37.[^25] The commission concluded that Cheney "arrived in the room shortly before 10:00, perhaps at 9:58." Cheney told the commission that he called the President to discuss the rules of engagement for a combat air patrol over Washington, and that the President "signed off" on the concept that pilots could shoot down a plane that would not divert. The report states that the President "emphasized to us that he had authorized the shootdown of hijacked aircraft."[^25] When a military aide reported an aircraft 80 miles out, between 10:10 and 10:15, the commission reports that the Vice President "authorized fighter aircraft to engage the inbound plane." Scooter Libby described the reaction as quick and decisive, "in about the time it takes a batter to decide to swing." White House deputy chief of staff [[Joshua Bolten]] suggested that Cheney confirm the order with the President, and the report logs the call at 10:18.[^25] +The [[9/11 Commission]] records that the Secret Service ordered Cheney to the shelter beneath the White House after American Airlines Flight 77 turned south at 9:34 a.m., and that he entered the tunnel to the shelter at 9:37.[^27] The commission concluded that Cheney "arrived in the room shortly before 10:00, perhaps at 9:58." Cheney told the commission that he called the President to discuss the rules of engagement for a combat air patrol over Washington, and that the President "signed off" on the concept that pilots could shoot down a plane that would not divert. The report states that the President "emphasized to us that he had authorized the shootdown of hijacked aircraft."[^27] When a military aide reported an aircraft 80 miles out, between 10:10 and 10:15, the commission reports that the Vice President "authorized fighter aircraft to engage the inbound plane." Scooter Libby described the reaction as quick and decisive, "in about the time it takes a batter to decide to swing." White House deputy chief of staff [[Joshua Bolten]] suggested that Cheney confirm the order with the President, and the report logs the call at 10:18.[^27] -On January 29, 2001, President Bush established the National Energy Policy Development Group with Cheney as chairman. The [[Government Accountability Office]] (then the General Accounting Office) demanded its records on July 18, 2001, reported to Congress on August 17, 2001 that the Vice President had persisted in refusing, and on February 22, 2002 sued for them, the first time it had used its statutory authority to sue an executive branch entity.[^26] [[Judicial Watch]] and the [[Sierra Club]] also sued under the Federal Advisory Committee Act, and the case reached the Supreme Court as [[Cheney v. United States District Court]]. The group had issued its final report five months after its creation. On June 24, 2004, Justice [[Anthony Kennedy]] delivered the opinion of the Court, which vacated the decision of the [[United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit]] and remanded the case, reported at 334 F.3d 1096.[^27] +On January 29, 2001, President Bush established the National Energy Policy Development Group with Cheney as chairman. The [[Government Accountability Office]] (then the General Accounting Office) demanded its records on July 18, 2001, reported to Congress on August 17, 2001 that the Vice President had persisted in refusing, and on February 22, 2002 sued for them, the first time it had used its statutory authority to sue an executive branch entity.[^28] [[Judicial Watch]] and the [[Sierra Club]] also sued under the Federal Advisory Committee Act, and the case reached the Supreme Court as [[Cheney v. United States District Court]]. The group had issued its final report five months after its creation. On June 24, 2004, Justice [[Anthony Kennedy]] delivered the opinion of the Court, which vacated the decision of the [[United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit]] and remanded the case, reported at 334 F.3d 1096.[^29] -On August 26, 2002, in a speech to the [[Veterans of Foreign Wars]] convention in [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]], Cheney said that during the spring of 1995 inspectors were on the verge of declaring Iraq's chemical weapons and missile programs accounted for, "[t]hen Saddam's son-in-law suddenly defected and began sharing information," and that "[t]hat should serve as a reminder to all that we often learned more as the result of defections than we learned from the inspection regime itself."[^28] The son-in-law was [[Hussein Kamel]]. The record of his debriefing by [[Rolf Ekeus]] of [[UNSCOM]] and the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] on August 22, 1995 has Kamel saying: "All weapons - biological, chemical, missile, nuclear were destroyed."[^29] +On August 26, 2002, in a speech to the [[Veterans of Foreign Wars]] convention in [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]], Cheney said that during the spring of 1995 inspectors were on the verge of declaring Iraq's chemical weapons and missile programs accounted for, "[t]hen Saddam's son-in-law suddenly defected and began sharing information," and that "[t]hat should serve as a reminder to all that we often learned more as the result of defections than we learned from the inspection regime itself."[^30] The son-in-law was [[Hussein Kamel]]. The record of his debriefing by [[Rolf Ekeus]] of [[UNSCOM]] and the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] on August 22, 1995 has Kamel saying: "All weapons - biological, chemical, missile, nuclear were destroyed."[^31] -I. Lewis Libby, Cheney's chief of staff, was indicted on October 28, 2005, in the CIA leak investigation of the disclosure of the identity of [[Valerie Plame]], a CIA officer. At the press conference announcing the indictment, special counsel [[Patrick Fitzgerald]] said: "We make no allegation that the Vice President committed any criminal act."[^30] Libby was sentenced on June 22, 2007 to 30 months' imprisonment, two years of supervised release and a $250,000 fine. On July 2, 2007, President Bush commuted the prison term to expire immediately and left the supervised release and the rest of the sentence in effect.[^31] +I. Lewis Libby, Cheney's chief of staff, was indicted on October 28, 2005, in the CIA leak investigation of the disclosure of the identity of [[Valerie Plame]], a CIA officer. At the press conference announcing the indictment, special counsel [[Patrick Fitzgerald]] said: "We make no allegation that the Vice President committed any criminal act."[^32] Libby was sentenced on June 22, 2007 to 30 months' imprisonment, two years of supervised release and a $250,000 fine. On July 2, 2007, President Bush commuted the prison term to expire immediately and left the supervised release and the rest of the sentence in effect.[^33] -The Senate Select Committee on Intelligence's report of June 5, 2008, on prewar public statements, found that "statements by the President and the Vice President indicating that [[Saddam Hussein]] was prepared to give weapons of mass destruction to terrorist groups for attacks against the United States were contradicted by available intelligence information." It also found that statements "by President Bush and Vice President Cheney regarding the postwar situation in Iraq . . . did not reflect the concerns and uncertainties expressed in the intelligence products."[^32] +The Senate Select Committee on Intelligence's report of June 5, 2008, on prewar public statements, found that "statements by the President and the Vice President indicating that [[Saddam Hussein]] was prepared to give weapons of mass destruction to terrorist groups for attacks against the United States were contradicted by available intelligence information." It also found that statements "by President Bush and Vice President Cheney regarding the postwar situation in Iraq . . . did not reflect the concerns and uncertainties expressed in the intelligence products."[^34] -The [[Senate Armed Services Committee]]'s inquiry into the treatment of detainees, dated November 20, 2008, records that the [[Office of Legal Counsel]]'s opinions of August 1, 2002 were issued "after consultation with senior Administration attorneys, including then White House Counsel Alberto Gonzales and then-Counsel to the Vice President David Addington."[^33] +The [[Senate Armed Services Committee]]'s inquiry into the treatment of detainees, dated November 20, 2008, records that the [[Office of Legal Counsel]]'s opinions of August 1, 2002 were issued "after consultation with senior Administration attorneys, including then White House Counsel Alberto Gonzales and then-Counsel to the Vice President David Addington."[^35] -The Inspectors General of the Justice, Defense, Central Intelligence Agency, [[NSA|National Security Agency]] and Office of the Director of National Intelligence reviewed the President's Surveillance Program under Title III of the FISA Amendments Act of 2008. Their unclassified report of July 10, 2009 states that "[c]ertain senior officials either declined or did not respond to our requests to be interviewed for this review, including Counsel to the Vice President David Addington."[^34] +The Inspectors General of the Justice, Defense, Central Intelligence Agency, [[NSA|National Security Agency]] and Office of the Director of National Intelligence reviewed the President's Surveillance Program under Title III of the FISA Amendments Act of 2008. Their unclassified report of July 10, 2009 states that "[c]ertain senior officials either declined or did not respond to our requests to be interviewed for this review, including Counsel to the Vice President David Addington."[^36] ### Allegations -[[Cathy O'Brien]], who describes herself as a survivor of [[Project Monarch]] mind control, named Cheney among officials she said abused her, in *Trance Formation of America* (1995, with Mark Phillips). Her claims about named officials are uncorroborated.[^35] +[[Cathy O'Brien]], who describes herself as a survivor of [[Project Monarch]] mind control, named Cheney among officials she said abused her, in *Trance Formation of America* (1995, with Mark Phillips). Her claims about named officials are uncorroborated.[^37] ### Death -Cheney died on Monday, November 3, 2025, at the age of 84, according to a statement from his family.[^36] The family wrote that "his beloved wife of 61 years, Lynne, his daughters, Liz and Mary, and other family members were with him as he passed," and that "the former vice president died due to complications of pneumonia and cardiac and vascular disease."[^37] George W. Bush called his death "a loss to the nation and a sorrow to his friends."[^36] +Cheney died on Monday, November 3, 2025, at the age of 84, according to a statement from his family.[^38] The family wrote that "his beloved wife of 61 years, Lynne, his daughters, Liz and Mary, and other family members were with him as he passed," and that "the former vice president died due to complications of pneumonia and cardiac and vascular disease."[^39] George W. Bush called his death "a loss to the nation and a sorrow to his friends."[^38] ### Footnotes @@ -167,24 +169,26 @@ Cheney died on Monday, November 3, 2025, at the age of 84, according to a statem [^14]: PBS, FRONTLINE, "Iraq," 1992 theme page (excerpts of the 1992 Defense Planning Guidance and its leak). https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/iraq/themes/1992.html [^15]: Halliburton Company, Form 10-K/A for fiscal 1998, executive officer table (Richard B. Cheney, "Chief Executive Officer, since October 1995") and Dresser asbestos litigation discussion ("Since 1976, approximately 190,000 claims have been filed"). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/0000045012/000093066100000032/0000930661-00-000032.txt [^16]: Halliburton Company, Schedule 14A proxy statement, 2004, Securities and Exchange Commission. -[^17]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, Press Release 2004-104, "SEC Charges Halliburton and Two Former Officers for Failure to Disclose a 1998 Change in Accounting Practice," August 3, 2004. https://www.sec.gov/news/press/2004-104.htm -[^18]: PBS, FRONTLINE/World, "KBR Hit With Record Bribery Fine," February 2009, reporting the Justice Department announcement of February 11, 2009 and the plea, fine and forfeiture figures. https://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/bribe/2009/02/kbr-hit-with-record-bribery-fine.html -[^19]: U.S. General Accounting Office, *Contingency Operations: Opportunities to Improve the Logistics Civil Augmentation Program,* GAO/NSIAD-97-63, February 11, 1997. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GAOREPORTS-NSIAD-97-63/html/GAOREPORTS-NSIAD-97-63.htm -[^20]: Strohm, Chris. "Pentagon auditors request Halliburton probe." *Government Executive,* January 15, 2004. https://govexec.com/defense/2004/01/pentagon-auditors-request-halliburton-probe/15746; Associated Press, "Halliburton: $61M Overcharge?" CBS News, December 12, 2003. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/halliburton-61m-overcharge/ -[^21]: Greenhouse, Bunnatine H. Statement, Senate Democratic Policy Committee hearing, "An Oversight Hearing on Waste, Fraud, and Abuse in U.S. Government Contracting in Iraq," June 27, 2005. http://dpc.senate.gov/hearings/hearing22/greenhouse.pdf (Wayback capture of July 8, 2008). -[^22]: Mayer, Jane. *The Dark Side: The Inside Story of How the War on Terror Turned into a War on American Ideals* (New York: Doubleday, 2008), excerpt published by NPR and WFAE, July 15, 2008, passages on the continuity-of-government exercise and the Presidential Emergency Operations Center. https://www.wfae.org/2008-07-15/excerpt-the-dark-side. -[^23]: Cockburn, Andrew. *Rumsfeld: His Rise, Fall, and Catastrophic Legacy* (New York: Scribner, 2007), excerpt published as "When Rummy Tried to Nuke Russia," Salon, February 26, 2007. https://www.historynewsnetwork.org/article/35849 -[^24]: Office of the Vice President, transcript, "The Vice President appears on Meet the Press with Tim Russert," September 16, 2001, George W. Bush White House archive. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/vicepresident/news-speeches/speeches/vp20010916.html -[^25]: National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, *The 9/11 Commission Report* (2004), ch. 1, "We Have Some Planes," pp. 39-42, notes 209-221. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-911REPORT/pdf/GPO-911REPORT.pdf -[^26]: Congressional Research Service, *Walker v. Cheney: Statutory and Constitutional Issues Arising From the General Accounting Office's Suit Against the Vice President,* RL31397, May 1, 2002. https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/RL31397.html -[^27]: *Cheney v. United States District Court for the District of Columbia,* 542 U.S. 367 (2004), No. 03-475, opinion of Justice Kennedy, decided June 24, 2004, on writ of certiorari to the Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit, 334 F.3d 1096, vacated and remanded. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/03-475.ZC.html -[^28]: Office of the Press Secretary, "Vice President Speaks at VFW 103rd National Convention," remarks of the Vice President, August 26, 2002, White House archive (Wayback capture of August 27, 2002). http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/08/20020826.html -[^29]: UNSCOM/IAEA, "Interview with Hussein Kamal on 22 August 1995," p. 13, marked "UNSCOM/IAEA Sensitive." https://www.casi.org.uk/info/unscom950822.pdf; Rangwala, Glen. "The interview with Hussein Kamel," February 2003; Barry, John. *Newsweek,* March 3, 2003. -[^30]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Special Counsel, remarks of Patrick J. Fitzgerald, press conference on the indictment of I. Lewis Libby, October 28, 2005 (Exhibit E to the Government's filing of March 17, 2006). https://www.justice.gov/archive/osc/documents/2006_03_17_exhibits_e_g.pdf -[^31]: The White House, "Grant of Executive Clemency for Lewis Libby," Proclamation, July 2, 2007, reciting the judgment in *United States v. Libby,* Crim. No. 05-394 (RBW), imposed June 22, 2007. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2007/07/20070702-4.html -[^32]: U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, press release, "Senate Intelligence Committee Unveils Final Phase II Reports on Prewar Iraq Intelligence," June 5, 2008, summarizing the committee's report on whether public statements regarding Iraq were substantiated by intelligence. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/2008/06/05/press-senate-intelligence-committee-unveils-final-phase-ii-reports-prewar-iraq-intelligence/ -[^33]: U.S. Senate Committee on Armed Services, *Inquiry into the Treatment of Detainees in U.S. Custody,* Committee Print, November 20, 2008, PDF pp. 17 and 29. https://www.armed-services.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/Detainee-Report-Final_April-22-2009.pdf -[^34]: Offices of the Inspectors General of the Department of Justice, Department of Defense, Central Intelligence Agency, National Security Agency and Office of the Director of National Intelligence, *Unclassified Report on the President's Surveillance Program,* July 10, 2009, preface (review required under Title III of the FISA Amendments Act of 2008). Also at: https://www.globalsecurity.org/intell/library/reports/2009/psp-oigs_090710-01.htm -[^35]: O'Brien, Cathy, and Mark Phillips. *Trance Formation of America.* 1995. -[^36]: WLOS, "Former Vice President Dick Cheney dies at 84," Tennessee Newspaper Network (TNND) report of the family statement and the statement by President George W. Bush, November 4, 2025. https://wlos.com/news/nation-world/former-vice-president-dick-cheney-dies-at-84-leaves-behind-a-legacy-of-public-service-george-w-bush-wyoming-chief-of-staff-republican-conservative -[^37]: Green River Star, "Former VP Dick Cheney dies at 84," November 6, 2025 (family statement; death "on Monday, November 3"). https://www.greenriverstar.com/story/2025/11/06/news/former-vp-dick-cheney-dies-at-84/13300.html +[^17]: Halliburton Company, Registration Statement on Form S-4, filed May 18, 1998 (accession 0000930661-98-001212), "Background of the Merger." https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/45012/0000930661-98-001212.txt +[^18]: Halliburton Company, Form 10-Q for the quarter ended June 30, 1998 (accession 0000045012-98-000034), Note 10 (merger agreement executed February 25, 1998; approximately 175 million shares issued to Dresser holders), and Form 10-K for fiscal 1998, filed March 23, 1999 (accession 0000045012-99-000005), note on the Dresser merger (completed September 29, 1998). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/45012/0000045012-98-000034.txt +[^19]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, Press Release 2004-104, "SEC Charges Halliburton and Two Former Officers for Failure to Disclose a 1998 Change in Accounting Practice," August 3, 2004. https://www.sec.gov/news/press/2004-104.htm +[^20]: PBS, FRONTLINE/World, "KBR Hit With Record Bribery Fine," February 2009, reporting the Justice Department announcement of February 11, 2009 and the plea, fine and forfeiture figures. https://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/bribe/2009/02/kbr-hit-with-record-bribery-fine.html +[^21]: U.S. General Accounting Office, *Contingency Operations: Opportunities to Improve the Logistics Civil Augmentation Program,* GAO/NSIAD-97-63, February 11, 1997. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GAOREPORTS-NSIAD-97-63/html/GAOREPORTS-NSIAD-97-63.htm +[^22]: Strohm, Chris. "Pentagon auditors request Halliburton probe." *Government Executive,* January 15, 2004. https://govexec.com/defense/2004/01/pentagon-auditors-request-halliburton-probe/15746; Associated Press, "Halliburton: $61M Overcharge?" CBS News, December 12, 2003. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/halliburton-61m-overcharge/ +[^23]: Greenhouse, Bunnatine H. Statement, Senate Democratic Policy Committee hearing, "An Oversight Hearing on Waste, Fraud, and Abuse in U.S. Government Contracting in Iraq," June 27, 2005. http://dpc.senate.gov/hearings/hearing22/greenhouse.pdf (Wayback capture of July 8, 2008). +[^24]: Mayer, Jane. *The Dark Side: The Inside Story of How the War on Terror Turned into a War on American Ideals* (New York: Doubleday, 2008), excerpt published by NPR and WFAE, July 15, 2008, passages on the continuity-of-government exercise and the Presidential Emergency Operations Center. https://www.wfae.org/2008-07-15/excerpt-the-dark-side. +[^25]: Cockburn, Andrew. *Rumsfeld: His Rise, Fall, and Catastrophic Legacy* (New York: Scribner, 2007), excerpt published as "When Rummy Tried to Nuke Russia," Salon, February 26, 2007. https://www.historynewsnetwork.org/article/35849 +[^26]: Office of the Vice President, transcript, "The Vice President appears on Meet the Press with Tim Russert," September 16, 2001, George W. Bush White House archive. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/vicepresident/news-speeches/speeches/vp20010916.html +[^27]: National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, *The 9/11 Commission Report* (2004), ch. 1, "We Have Some Planes," pp. 39-42, notes 209-221. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-911REPORT/pdf/GPO-911REPORT.pdf +[^28]: Congressional Research Service, *Walker v. Cheney: Statutory and Constitutional Issues Arising From the General Accounting Office's Suit Against the Vice President,* RL31397, May 1, 2002. https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/RL31397.html +[^29]: *Cheney v. United States District Court for the District of Columbia,* 542 U.S. 367 (2004), No. 03-475, opinion of Justice Kennedy, decided June 24, 2004, on writ of certiorari to the Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit, 334 F.3d 1096, vacated and remanded. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/03-475.ZC.html +[^30]: Office of the Press Secretary, "Vice President Speaks at VFW 103rd National Convention," remarks of the Vice President, August 26, 2002, White House archive (Wayback capture of August 27, 2002). http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/08/20020826.html +[^31]: UNSCOM/IAEA, "Interview with Hussein Kamal on 22 August 1995," p. 13, marked "UNSCOM/IAEA Sensitive." https://www.casi.org.uk/info/unscom950822.pdf; Rangwala, Glen. "The interview with Hussein Kamel," February 2003; Barry, John. *Newsweek,* March 3, 2003. +[^32]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Special Counsel, remarks of Patrick J. Fitzgerald, press conference on the indictment of I. Lewis Libby, October 28, 2005 (Exhibit E to the Government's filing of March 17, 2006). https://www.justice.gov/archive/osc/documents/2006_03_17_exhibits_e_g.pdf +[^33]: The White House, "Grant of Executive Clemency for Lewis Libby," Proclamation, July 2, 2007, reciting the judgment in *United States v. Libby,* Crim. No. 05-394 (RBW), imposed June 22, 2007. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2007/07/20070702-4.html +[^34]: U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, press release, "Senate Intelligence Committee Unveils Final Phase II Reports on Prewar Iraq Intelligence," June 5, 2008, summarizing the committee's report on whether public statements regarding Iraq were substantiated by intelligence. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/2008/06/05/press-senate-intelligence-committee-unveils-final-phase-ii-reports-prewar-iraq-intelligence/ +[^35]: U.S. Senate Committee on Armed Services, *Inquiry into the Treatment of Detainees in U.S. Custody,* Committee Print, November 20, 2008, PDF pp. 17 and 29. https://www.armed-services.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/Detainee-Report-Final_April-22-2009.pdf +[^36]: Offices of the Inspectors General of the Department of Justice, Department of Defense, Central Intelligence Agency, National Security Agency and Office of the Director of National Intelligence, *Unclassified Report on the President's Surveillance Program,* July 10, 2009, preface (review required under Title III of the FISA Amendments Act of 2008). Also at: https://www.globalsecurity.org/intell/library/reports/2009/psp-oigs_090710-01.htm +[^37]: O'Brien, Cathy, and Mark Phillips. *Trance Formation of America.* 1995. +[^38]: WLOS, "Former Vice President Dick Cheney dies at 84," Tennessee Newspaper Network (TNND) report of the family statement and the statement by President George W. Bush, November 4, 2025. https://wlos.com/news/nation-world/former-vice-president-dick-cheney-dies-at-84-leaves-behind-a-legacy-of-public-service-george-w-bush-wyoming-chief-of-staff-republican-conservative +[^39]: Green River Star, "Former VP Dick Cheney dies at 84," November 6, 2025 (family statement; death "on Monday, November 3"). https://www.greenriverstar.com/story/2025/11/06/news/former-vp-dick-cheney-dies-at-84/13300.html diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/F. Trubee Davison.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/F. Trubee Davison.md index 0407bd0e..8f5d0805 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/F. Trubee Davison.md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/F. Trubee Davison.md @@ -33,13 +33,13 @@ relations: with: "[[Skull and Bones]]" start: 1917 role: "member of the Yale class of 1918" - fn: 17 + fn: 22 - type: founded with: "[[First Yale Unit]]" start: 1916 end: 1917 role: "organized the Yale volunteer aviation group that became the first unit of the Navy air reserve" - fn: 16 + fn: 21 - type: appointed with: "[[Calvin Coolidge]]" start: 1926 @@ -51,30 +51,30 @@ relations: start: 1922 end: 1926 role: "member for the Nassau County 2nd District" - fn: 39 + fn: 45 - type: head_of with: "[[American Museum of Natural History]]" start: 1933 end: 1951 role: "president, elected January 1933 to succeed Henry Fairfield Osborn" - fn: 54 + fn: 60 - type: employed_by with: "[[Central Intelligence Agency]]" start: 1951 end: 1952 role: "Assistant Director for Personnel, assistant to Walter Bedell Smith" - fn: 61 + fn: 67 - type: reported_to with: "[[Walter Bedell Smith]]" start: 1951 end: 1952 role: "assistant to the Director of Central Intelligence" - fn: 61 + fn: 67 - type: member_of with: "[[American Museum of Natural History]]" start: 1923 role: "trustee, later honorary trustee" - fn: 52 + fn: 58 - type: head_of with: "[[National Crime Commission]]" start: 1925 @@ -90,134 +90,134 @@ relations: - type: relative_of with: "[[Henry P. Davison]]" role: "son" - fn: 7 + fn: 10 - type: relative_of with: "[[Henry P. Davison Jr.]]" role: "younger brother" - fn: 7 + fn: 10 - type: relative_of with: "[[Artemus L. Gates]]" role: "brother-in-law, husband of his sister Alice Davison" - fn: 7 + fn: 10 - type: spouse_of with: "[[Dorothy Peabody Davison]]" role: "wife" - fn: 69 + fn: 75 - type: relative_of with: "[[Endicott Peabody Davison]]" role: "son" - fn: 20 + fn: 25 - type: relative_of with: "[[Daniel Pomeroy Davison]]" role: "son" - fn: 19 + fn: 24 --- -Frederick Trubee Davison (February 7, 1896 to November 14, 1974) was born in [[New York City]], graduated from the [[Groton School]] in 1914, and was a member of [[Skull and Bones]] in the class of 1918 at [[Yale University]] and a graduate of [[Columbia Law School]] (1922). He organized the [[First Yale Unit]] of naval aviators, was a member of the [[New York State Assembly]] from 1922 to 1926 and [[Assistant Secretary of War]] for Air from 1926 to 1933, chaired the [[National Crime Commission]], and was president of the [[American Museum of Natural History]] from 1933 to 1951. He was promoted to brigadier general in the [[Army Air Forces]] on June 3, 1945, and from July 1951 to April 1952 served the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] as Assistant Director for Personnel.[^1][^2][^3][^4] He was the son of [[Henry P. Davison]], a senior partner of [[J. P. Morgan & Company]] and a chairman of the [[American Red Cross]] War Council.[^5] +Frederick Trubee Davison (February 7, 1896 to November 14, 1974) was born in [[New York City]], graduated from the [[Groton School]] in 1914, and was a member of [[Skull and Bones]] in the class of 1918 at [[Yale University]] and a graduate of [[Columbia Law School]] (1922). He organized the [[First Yale Unit]] of naval aviators, was a member of the [[New York State Assembly]] from 1922 to 1926 and [[Assistant Secretary of War]] for Air from 1926 to 1933, chaired the [[National Crime Commission]], and was president of the [[American Museum of Natural History]] from 1933 to 1951. He was promoted to brigadier general in the [[Army Air Forces]] on June 3, 1945, and from July 1951 to April 1952 served the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] as Assistant Director for Personnel.[^1][^2][^3][^4] He was the son of [[Henry P. Davison]], a senior partner of [[J. P. Morgan & Co.|J. P. Morgan & Company]] and a chairman of the [[American Red Cross]] War Council.[^5] ### Family and the Morgan partnership -The family collection at the [[Pritzker Military Museum & Library]] records that Henry Pomeroy Davison was born in [[Troy, Pennsylvania]] in 1867 and began as a bookkeeper in a bank managed by a family member.[^5] He met his future wife, [[Mary Kate Trubee]], at a bank in [[Bridgeport, Connecticut]], and they married on April 13, 1893.[^5] Three years later the couple moved to New York City, where Davison held a position at the [[Astor Place Bank]], later became president of the [[Liberty National Bank]] and took part in founding the [[Bankers Trust Company]].[^5] The finding aid states that he became a senior partner of J. P. Morgan & Company in 1909.[^5] +The family collection at the [[Pritzker Military Museum & Library]] records that Henry Pomeroy Davison was born in [[Troy, Pennsylvania]] in 1867 and began as a bookkeeper in a bank managed by a family member.[^5] He met his future wife, [[Mary Kate Trubee]], at a bank in [[Bridgeport, Connecticut]], and they married on April 13, 1893.[^5] Three years later the couple moved to New York City, where Davison held a position at the [[Astor Place Bank]], later became president of the [[Liberty National Bank]] and took part in founding the [[Bankers Trust Company]].[^5] [[Walter E. Frew]] testified before the [[Pujo Committee|Pujo subcommittee]] on December 10, 1912 that Davison, "of the First National Bank at that time," had invited him about 1905 to become a director of the Bankers Trust Company, and that Davison was a member of J. P. Morgan & Co. "now" but "was not at the time."[^6] The finding aid states that he became a senior partner of J. P. Morgan & Company in 1909.[^5] Davison told the Pujo subcommittee on January 23, 1913 that he had been president of the Liberty National Bank and then took the post of vice president of the [[First National Bank of New York|First National Bank]], which he gave as "On the 1st of January, 1902."[^7] A New York Times article of October 6, 1915 dates his entry into the Liberty bank to December 1894, when he became assistant cashier after serving as paying teller at the Astor Place Bank.[^8] -Kate Trubee Davison organized the Nassau County chapter of the American Red Cross in 1917 and chaired it for twenty-seven years, according to the same finding aid.[^6] The finding aid lists the children as Alice, born in 1899 and married to [[Artemus L. Gates]] in 1922; [[Henry P. Davison Jr.]], born April 3, 1898; Frances, born in 1903 and married to [[Ward Cheney]] in 1926; and Frederick Trubee, born February 7, 1896.[^7] +Kate Trubee Davison organized the Nassau County chapter of the American Red Cross in 1917 and chaired it for twenty-seven years, according to the same finding aid.[^9] The finding aid lists the children as Alice, born in 1899 and married to [[Artemus L. Gates]] in 1922; [[Henry P. Davison Jr.]], born April 3, 1898; Frances, born in 1903 and married to [[Ward Cheney]] in 1926; and Frederick Trubee, born February 7, 1896.[^10] -The finding aid traces the career of Henry Davison Jr. in some detail. He served in the [[American Ambulance Corps]] in France during the First World War and spent a year at [[Cambridge University]]. In 1929 he became a partner at J. P. Morgan & Company, in 1940 a vice president and director when the firm became an incorporated bank and trust company, in 1953 senior vice president, and in 1955 president. After the firm merged with [[Guaranty Trust Company]] he was elected vice chairman of [[Morgan Guaranty Trust]], and he died on July 2, 1961.[^8] +The finding aid traces the career of Henry Davison Jr. in some detail. He served in the [[American Ambulance Corps]] in France during the First World War and spent a year at [[Cambridge University]]. In 1929 he became a partner at J. P. Morgan & Company, in 1940 a vice president and director when the firm became an incorporated bank and trust company, in 1953 senior vice president, and in 1955 president. After the firm merged with [[Guaranty Trust Company]] he was elected vice chairman of [[Morgan Guaranty Trust]], and he died on July 2, 1961.[^11] -The finding aid says that Henry Davison attended a secret meeting at [[Jekyll Island]], Georgia, in 1910, and states: "Many believe this meeting led to the creation of the [[Federal Reserve]]."[^9] +The finding aid says that Henry Davison attended a secret meeting at [[Jekyll Island]], Georgia, in 1910, and states: "Many believe this meeting led to the creation of the [[Federal Reserve]]."[^12] [[Frank A. Vanderlip]], who attended the meeting, wrote in 1935 that "Those who had been asked to go were Henry Davison, Paul Warburg, Ben Strong, and myself," and described Henry Davison as "a splendid person to prevent wrangles in any company."[^13] Vanderlip wrote that on the trip by private car "he became Wilbur and I became Orville, after those two aviation pioneers, the Wright brothers," Davison being Wilbur.[^14] -[[Antony C. Sutton]]'s 1983 chart of families places the Davison family under J. P. Morgan, beside the [[Rockefeller family]] and the Payne family under [[Standard Oil]], the [[Harriman family]] under railroads and the [[Weyerhaeuser family]] under lumber.[^10] In his text Sutton wrote that "some of his partners were" members of the society, and that the senior Davison's "son H.P. Davison, Jr. was initiated in 1920."[^11] +[[Antony C. Sutton]]'s 1983 chart of families places the Davison family under J. P. Morgan, beside the [[Rockefeller family]] and the Payne family under [[Standard Oil]], the [[Harriman family]] under railroads and the [[Weyerhaeuser family]] under lumber.[^15] In his text Sutton wrote that "some of his partners were" members of the society, and that the senior Davison's "son H.P. Davison, Jr. was initiated in 1920."[^16] -On May 10, 1917, President [[Woodrow Wilson]] appointed a War Council for the American National Red Cross. In his 1919 history of the organization, Henry Davison wrote that "I was asked to take the chairmanship."[^12] He wrote that the council "went out of existence on February 28th, 1919."[^13] The first War Fund drive, held in the week of June 18 to June 25, 1917, reported subscriptions of approximately $114,000,000 according to the same appendix.[^13] Davison wrote that the council met at Red Cross headquarters during the day, and that in the evenings "we continued them at my house in Washington."[^14] +On May 10, 1917, President [[Woodrow Wilson]] appointed a War Council for the American National Red Cross. In his 1919 history of the organization, Henry Davison wrote that "I was asked to take the chairmanship."[^17] He wrote that the council "went out of existence on February 28th, 1919."[^18] The first War Fund drive, held in the week of June 18 to June 25, 1917, reported subscriptions of approximately $114,000,000 according to the same appendix.[^18] Davison wrote that the council met at Red Cross headquarters during the day, and that in the evenings "we continued them at my house in Washington."[^19] -The family estate was at [[Peacock Point]], [[Locust Valley, New York]], on [[Long Island]]; a [[Yale News]] article reproduces a photograph captioned "Henry P. Davison in helmet, and Albert Ditman in glasses by F-boat at Peacock Point, Long Island, ca. 1916."[^15] The Navy history describes the Davison home at Locust Valley and the family memorabilia kept there.[^16] +The family estate was at [[Peacock Point]], [[Locust Valley, New York]], on [[Long Island]]; a [[Yale News]] article reproduces a photograph captioned "Henry P. Davison in helmet, and Albert Ditman in glasses by F-boat at Peacock Point, Long Island, ca. 1916."[^20] The Navy history describes the Davison home at Locust Valley and the family memorabilia kept there.[^21] ### Yale and Skull and Bones -Davison entered Yale in the class of 1918, and the crew he joined in June 1916 became the core of the aviation group he went on to lead.[^1] Sutton's index of members by class year lists "Davison, Fredrick Trubee" under the class of 1918 and "Davison, Harry Pomeroy" under the class of 1920.[^17] The younger brother appears as "H.P. Davison, Jr." in Sutton's text.[^11] +Davison entered Yale in the class of 1918, and the crew he joined in June 1916 became the core of the aviation group he went on to lead.[^1] Sutton's index of members by class year lists "Davison, Fredrick Trubee" under the class of 1918 and "Davison, Harry Pomeroy" under the class of 1920.[^22] The younger brother appears as "H.P. Davison, Jr." in Sutton's text.[^16] -The [[Yale Alumni Magazine]] reported in May 2006 that [[Marc Wortman]], researching Davison's war years in the F. Trubee Davison Papers at [[Sterling Memorial Library]], had found a letter dated June 7, 1918, from [[Winter Mead]], class of 1919, to Davison. The magazine quoted the letter's account of a skull "exhumed from its tomb at [[Fort Sill]] by your club," with the magazine's bracketed expansions of its abbreviations.[^18] The magazine reported that the yearbook entries for [[Charles C. Haffner Jr.]], Mead and Davison confirmed that all three were members of the society, and that Haffner's entry placed him at the artillery school at Fort Sill between August 1917 and July 1918.[^18] The magazine also stated that Mead was not at Fort Sill.[^18] The letter is one of the documents cited in the rumor that members took [[Geronimo]]'s skull from Fort Sill. +The [[Yale Alumni Magazine]] reported in May 2006 that [[Marc Wortman]], researching Davison's war years in the F. Trubee Davison Papers at [[Sterling Memorial Library]], had found a letter dated June 7, 1918, from [[Winter Mead]], class of 1919, to Davison. The magazine quoted the letter's account of a skull "exhumed from its tomb at [[Fort Sill]] by your club," with the magazine's bracketed expansions of its abbreviations.[^23] The magazine reported that the yearbook entries for [[Charles C. Haffner Jr.]], Mead and Davison confirmed that all three were members of the society, and that Haffner's entry placed him at the artillery school at Fort Sill between August 1917 and July 1918.[^23] The magazine also stated that Mead was not at Fort Sill.[^23] The letter is one of the documents cited in the rumor that members took [[Geronimo]]'s skull from Fort Sill. -Davison's sons are also recorded as members. The [[Covert Action Information Bulletin]], in its 1990 article on the society, stated that two of Davison's sons, [[Endicott Peabody Davison]] and [[Daniel Pomeroy Davison]], were also Bonesmen.[^19] The Yale Alumni Magazine identified Endicott Peabody Davison, class of 1945, as a son of Trubee Davison, and reported that he took part in a meeting with the San Carlos Apache chairman [[Ned Anderson]] at which the Bonesmen produced a display case with a skull "like the one in the photo."[^20] Sutton's post-war list of Morgan partners includes Henry P. Davison, Jr. (The Order '20) and Daniel P. Davison (The Order '49).[^21] +Davison's sons are also recorded as members. The [[Covert Action Information Bulletin]], in its 1990 article on the society, stated that two of Davison's sons, [[Endicott Peabody Davison]] and [[Daniel Pomeroy Davison]], were also Bonesmen.[^24] The Yale Alumni Magazine identified Endicott Peabody Davison, class of 1945, as a son of Trubee Davison, and reported that he took part in a meeting with the San Carlos Apache chairman [[Ned Anderson]] at which the Bonesmen produced a display case with a skull "like the one in the photo."[^25] Sutton's post-war list of Morgan partners includes Henry P. Davison, Jr. (The Order '20) and Daniel P. Davison (The Order '49).[^26] -Sutton's chart lists [[Henry L. Stimson]] among the old-line families, and the Yale obituary record for 1950 to 1951 lists Stimson, class of 1888, with Skull and Bones among his activities.[^10][^22] +Sutton's chart lists [[Henry L. Stimson]] among the old-line families, and the Yale obituary record for 1950 to 1951 lists Stimson, class of 1888, with Skull and Bones among his activities.[^15][^27] ### The First Yale Unit -The Navy's account of naval aviation in the First World War calls Davison "the young man most responsible for the formation of the unit."[^16] The Yale crew was in training on June 13, 1916, when President Woodrow Wilson ordered additional troops to the Mexican border. Davison recalled that "It could never be said that the race with Harvard was forgotten," adding that "it did lose magnitude as the prospect of war with Mexico loomed larger."[^16] Several crew members had agreed beforehand that they would enter aviation if war came.[^16] +The Navy's account of naval aviation in the First World War calls Davison "the young man most responsible for the formation of the unit."[^21] The Yale crew was in training on June 13, 1916, when President Woodrow Wilson ordered additional troops to the Mexican border. Davison recalled that "It could never be said that the race with Harvard was forgotten," adding that "it did lose magnitude as the prospect of war with Mexico loomed larger."[^21] Several crew members had agreed beforehand that they would enter aviation if war came.[^21] -The original group included [[Allan Ames]], Henry P. Davison Jr., [[John Farwell]], Artemus L. Gates, [[Erl Gould]], [[Robert A. Lovett]], [[Albert Sturtevant]], [[John Vorys]] and [[C. D. Wiman]]. The Navy history adds [[Wellesley Laud-Brown]] and Albert Ditman as the two non-Yale men.[^16] Among the men consulted about how the group could learn to fly was [[John Hays Hammond Jr.]], then governor of the [[Aero Club of America]], who referred the youths to [[Henry Woodhouse]]. Woodhouse and [[Robert Peary]] had proposed a line of air stations along the East Coast, and the Yale men were to be trained as pilots of the first Aerial Coastal Patrol Unit.[^16] +The original group included [[Allan Ames]], Henry P. Davison Jr., [[John Farwell]], Artemus L. Gates, [[Erl Gould]], [[Robert A. Lovett]], [[Albert Sturtevant]], [[John Vorys]] and [[C. D. Wiman]]. The Navy history adds [[Wellesley Laud-Brown]] and Albert Ditman as the two non-Yale men.[^21] Among the men consulted about how the group could learn to fly was [[John Hays Hammond Jr.]], then governor of the [[Aero Club of America]], who referred the youths to [[Henry Woodhouse]]. Woodhouse and [[Robert Peary]] had proposed a line of air stations along the East Coast, and the Yale men were to be trained as pilots of the first Aerial Coastal Patrol Unit.[^21] -[[Rodman Wanamaker]], who ran a flying school at [[Port Washington, New York]], supplied one Curtiss flying boat and the instructor [[David McCulloch]].[^23] The Navy history describes the summer at Locust Valley and the unit's maneuvers off [[Sandy Hook]] with a fleet of battleships, destroyers and coastal patrol boats.[^23] That fall the unit received two seaplanes from friends and neighbors, one of them from Davison's father, then a partner in the J. P. Morgan firm.[^23] +[[Rodman Wanamaker]], who ran a flying school at [[Port Washington, New York]], supplied one Curtiss flying boat and the instructor [[David McCulloch]].[^28] The Navy history describes the summer at Locust Valley and the unit's maneuvers off [[Sandy Hook]] with a fleet of battleships, destroyers and coastal patrol boats.[^28] That fall the unit received two seaplanes from friends and neighbors, one of them from Davison's father, then a partner in the J. P. Morgan firm.[^28] -The Navy history lists further members who joined as 1917 arrived, among them Charles Beach, Graham Brush, Reginald Coombe, [[David Ingalls]], Robert Ireland, Francis Lynch, [[Kenneth MacLeish]], Archibald McIlwaine, Curtis Read, Russell Read, [[William A. Rockefeller]], Kenneth Smith, W. P. Thompson, C. M. Stewart and Samuel Walker.[^23] Davison conceded that the coastal defense idea was remote from the trouble with Mexico, and said that "But the plan was essentially sound and during the World War I period was adopted by the Navy Department."[^16] +The Navy history lists further members who joined as 1917 arrived, among them Charles Beach, Graham Brush, Reginald Coombe, [[David Ingalls]], Robert Ireland, Francis Lynch, [[Kenneth MacLeish]], Archibald McIlwaine, Curtis Read, Russell Read, [[William A. Rockefeller]], Kenneth Smith, W. P. Thompson, C. M. Stewart and Samuel Walker.[^28] Davison conceded that the coastal defense idea was remote from the trouble with Mexico, and said that "But the plan was essentially sound and during the World War I period was adopted by the Navy Department."[^21] -Davison had seen war-ravaged Paris on trips to Europe with his father, and in 1915 he joined the [[American Ambulance Field Service]], transporting soldiers to hospitals outside [[Paris]].[^24] The Yale News account states that on March 24, 1917, at the [[Naval Submarine Base New London]] in [[New London, Connecticut]], the pilots formally enlisted as the Navy's first air reserve squadron, and that Davison was given the rank of lieutenant, junior grade.[^24] Seven others were given the rank of ensign and the rest were made petty officers.[^24] In March 1917 the unit moved to [[West Palm Beach, Florida]], under a Navy lieutenant, [[E. O. McDonnell]], and its members were enrolled in the Navy.[^25] At Palm Beach the pilots flew solo, practiced shooting at kites with machine guns mounted in airplanes, dropped dummy bombs on targets and learned to land in tight spaces.[^26] +Davison had seen war-ravaged Paris on trips to Europe with his father, and in 1915 he joined the [[American Ambulance Field Service]], transporting soldiers to hospitals outside [[Paris]].[^29] The New York Times of September 7, 1915 reported that "Frederick T. Davison, son of Henry P. Davison, a partner in the firm of J. P. Morgan & Co., returned yesterday on the French liner Rochambeau after spending two months in France driving an ambulance for the American Ambulance Corps," and that his father met him at the pier on the yacht Shipaki.[^30] The Yale News account states that on March 24, 1917, at the [[Naval Submarine Base New London]] in [[New London, Connecticut]], the pilots formally enlisted as the Navy's first air reserve squadron, and that Davison was given the rank of lieutenant, junior grade.[^29] Seven others were given the rank of ensign and the rest were made petty officers.[^29] In March 1917 the unit moved to [[West Palm Beach, Florida]], under a Navy lieutenant, [[E. O. McDonnell]], and its members were enrolled in the Navy.[^31] At Palm Beach the pilots flew solo, practiced shooting at kites with machine guns mounted in airplanes, dropped dummy bombs on targets and learned to land in tight spaces.[^32] -The Yale News account adds that the unit was also the subject of the society's tapping. On April 19, 1917, Tap Day in New Haven, two representatives from Yale arrived in Florida to tap students at noon. Davison was the first tapped for Skull and Bones, and eleven other members of the First Yale Unit were tapped with him.[^27] +The Yale News account adds that the unit was also the subject of the society's tapping. On April 19, 1917, Tap Day in New Haven, two representatives from Yale arrived in Florida to tap students at noon. Davison was the first tapped for Skull and Bones, and eleven other members of the First Yale Unit were tapped with him.[^33] -The Yale News photograph captions record that Kenneth MacLeish was shot down over [[Belgium]] and was never found.[^28] The Navy history states that Sturtevant was the first naval aviator brought down in combat and that David Ingalls became the Navy's first ace.[^29] +The Yale News photograph captions record that Kenneth MacLeish was shot down over [[Belgium]] and was never found.[^34] The Navy history states that Sturtevant was the first naval aviator brought down in combat and that David Ingalls became the Navy's first ace.[^35] ### The crash of July 28, 1917 -Paine records that the flying tests for naval aviators were to begin on July 28, 1917, before a board of [[Commander Read]], Lieutenant Commander Johnson and Lieutenant McDonnell.[^30] Davison was injured in a seaplane accident at [[Huntington, New York]] on that date, on his final examination flight.[^31] The Navy history states: "It was ironic that Davison was one of the few of the Yale unit who never earned his wings. He was injured in a crash on his final examination flight."[^31] +Paine records that the flying tests for naval aviators were to begin on July 28, 1917, before a board of [[Commander Read]], Lieutenant Commander Johnson and Lieutenant McDonnell.[^36] Davison was injured in a seaplane accident at [[Huntington, New York]] on that date, on his final examination flight.[^37] The Navy history states: "It was ironic that Davison was one of the few of the Yale unit who never earned his wings. He was injured in a crash on his final examination flight."[^37] -[[Ralph D. Paine]]'s 1925 history of the unit, *The First Yale Unit*, describes the flight. Davison climbed steadily, came down in a spiral toward a yacht near which he meant to alight, and appeared to stretch his glide too far on a turn. The machine side-slipped and pitched into the harbor, and Lieutenant McDonnell plunged in to free Davison's legs from the wires.[^30] +[[Ralph D. Paine]]'s 1925 history of the unit, *The First Yale Unit*, describes the flight. Davison climbed steadily, came down in a spiral toward a yacht near which he meant to alight, and appeared to stretch his glide too far on a turn. The machine side-slipped and pitched into the harbor, and Lieutenant McDonnell plunged in to free Davison's legs from the wires.[^36] -Paine quotes Davison's own report to the Commandant of the [[Third Naval District]], which reads: "I was injured in a seaplane accident on July 28th, 1917, while on duty with the detachment of the Naval Reserve Flying Corps at Huntington, Long Island, and was removed to [[St. Luke's Hospital]], New York."[^32] A Navy memorandum quoted by Paine states that a Board of Medical Survey recommended two months' sick leave, extended by periods of two months because the injury "would keep him unfit for duty for a considerable length of time."[^33] Paine describes him as "a man with a broken back," the fracture of a vertebra having injured the tissues of the spinal cord, and records six weeks in the hospital before he could be moved to his own home.[^34] The Air Force biography states that he was "badly injured, suffering a broken back, in the crash of a seaplane he was piloting on a training flight over Huntington Bay, New York," and that he was awarded the [[Navy Cross]] in 1919. The citation credits him with "exceptionally meritorious service in a duty of great responsibility in the organization of the first Yale Aviation Unit which formed the nucleus of the first Naval Reserve Flying Corps, from which the U.S. Naval Aviation Force, Foreign Service, afterwards grew."[^3][^35] +Paine quotes Davison's own report to the Commandant of the [[Third Naval District]], which reads: "I was injured in a seaplane accident on July 28th, 1917, while on duty with the detachment of the Naval Reserve Flying Corps at Huntington, Long Island, and was removed to [[St. Luke's Hospital]], New York."[^38] A Navy memorandum quoted by Paine states that a Board of Medical Survey recommended two months' sick leave, extended by periods of two months because the injury "would keep him unfit for duty for a considerable length of time."[^39] Paine describes him as "a man with a broken back," the fracture of a vertebra having injured the tissues of the spinal cord, and records six weeks in the hospital before he could be moved to his own home.[^40] The Air Force biography states that he was "badly injured, suffering a broken back, in the crash of a seaplane he was piloting on a training flight over Huntington Bay, New York," and that he was awarded the [[Navy Cross]] in 1919. The citation credits him with "exceptionally meritorious service in a duty of great responsibility in the organization of the first Yale Aviation Unit which formed the nucleus of the first Naval Reserve Flying Corps, from which the U.S. Naval Aviation Force, Foreign Service, afterwards grew."[^3][^41] -Paine wrote that during the period of training "their able leader, Lieutenant Trubee Davison, crashed and broke his back," and that in spite of the handicap "he continued to direct and inspire his comrades."[^36] Paine also recalled Davison limping into his office in [[London]] after the Armistice, still badly crippled, to locate the grave of a member of the unit killed in France.[^37] +Paine wrote that during the period of training "their able leader, Lieutenant Trubee Davison, crashed and broke his back," and that in spite of the handicap "he continued to direct and inspire his comrades."[^42] Paine also recalled Davison limping into his office in [[London]] after the Armistice, still badly crippled, to locate the grave of a member of the unit killed in France.[^43] -Davison never received his wings. In 1966, at the fiftieth anniversary celebration of the naval air reserve, Vice Admiral [[Paul Ramsey]], then Deputy Chief of Naval Operations (Air), presented him with a set of Navy wings and designated him an honorary Naval Aviator. The Navy history lists the wings among his memorabilia at Locust Valley, along with five college diplomas, his Army and Navy commissioning papers, a citation for the Navy Cross and his Yale letter for crew.[^38] +Davison never received his wings. In 1966, at the fiftieth anniversary celebration of the naval air reserve, Vice Admiral [[Paul Ramsey]], then Deputy Chief of Naval Operations (Air), presented him with a set of Navy wings and designated him an honorary Naval Aviator. The Navy history lists the wings among his memorabilia at Locust Valley, along with five college diplomas, his Army and Navy commissioning papers, a citation for the Navy Cross and his Yale letter for crew.[^44] ### New York State Assembly -The Nassau County 2nd District seat in the New York State Assembly is listed for "F. Trubee Davison" from 1922 to 1926, after [[Theodore Roosevelt]] held it for 1920 and 1921.[^39] The family finding aid gives the same span.[^2] +The Nassau County 2nd District seat in the New York State Assembly is listed for "F. Trubee Davison" from 1922 to 1926, after [[Theodore Roosevelt]] held it for 1920 and 1921.[^45] The family finding aid gives the same span.[^2] -In August 1925 [[Time (magazine)|Time]] reported that the organizers of the National Crime Commission had chosen Davison as chairman, a man of twenty-nine who was then a member of the New York Assembly.[^40] +In August 1925 [[Time (magazine)|Time]] reported that the organizers of the National Crime Commission had chosen Davison as chairman, a man of twenty-nine who was then a member of the New York Assembly.[^46] ### Assistant Secretary of War for Air -The Air Force biography records that Davison "on July 16, 1926, was appointed Assistant Secretary of War, having previously spent five years in the New York Legislature," and lists "Assistant Secretary of War (Air) from 1926 to 1933."[^3] The Congressional Directory corrected to January 13, 1933 lists F. Trubee Davison as Assistant Secretary of War in the War Department, and the edition corrected to June 3, 1933 lists the office of Assistant Secretary of War as "[Vacant.]" beside a separate entry for The Assistant Secretary of War, Harry H. Woodring.[^41] A 1951 [[Associated Press]] item and the 1974 [[New York Times]] obituary both gave the span as 1926 to 1932. The Springfield Sun of July 1951 placed him in the "[[Calvin Coolidge|Coolidge]] and [[Herbert Hoover|Hoover]] Administrations," and the Navy history gives the service as "late in the '20's and early '30's," for six years.[^42][^43][^44][^45] +The Air Force biography records that Davison "on July 16, 1926, was appointed Assistant Secretary of War, having previously spent five years in the New York Legislature," and lists "Assistant Secretary of War (Air) from 1926 to 1933."[^3] The Congressional Directory corrected to January 13, 1933 lists F. Trubee Davison as Assistant Secretary of War in the War Department, and the edition corrected to June 3, 1933 lists the office of Assistant Secretary of War as "[Vacant.]" beside a separate entry for The Assistant Secretary of War, Harry H. Woodring.[^47] A 1951 [[Associated Press]] item and the 1974 [[New York Times]] obituary both gave the span as 1926 to 1932. The Springfield Sun of July 1951 placed him in the "[[Calvin Coolidge|Coolidge]] and [[Herbert Hoover|Hoover]] Administrations," and the Navy history gives the service as "late in the '20's and early '30's," for six years.[^48][^49][^50][^51] -In August 1932 Time reported that David Ingalls had resigned as Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Aeronautics and taken the Republican nomination for Governor of Ohio, while Davison, "remaining in the Cabinet," had declared himself a candidate for the Republican nomination for Governor of New York, in a telegram to [[James L. Downey]], the Nassau County committeeman who had offered to withdraw as candidate for Attorney General to give Davison the head of the ticket.[^46] +In August 1932 Time reported that David Ingalls had resigned as Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Aeronautics and taken the Republican nomination for Governor of Ohio, while Davison, "remaining in the Cabinet," had declared himself a candidate for the Republican nomination for Governor of New York, in a telegram to [[James L. Downey]], the Nassau County committeeman who had offered to withdraw as candidate for Attorney General to give Davison the head of the ticket.[^52] -A telegram of March 26, 1927, from the [[Secretary of State]] to the chargé in [[Haiti]], printed in the [[Foreign Relations of the United States]] for 1927, opens with the words "For Secretary of War Davis." It relays a message to [[Admiral Williams]] that "Henderson with 1,500 marines will be sent, arriving [[Shanghai]] in about 30 days," and states that a regiment of infantry from [[Manila]] could reach Shanghai in seven days if the situation demanded. The message is signed "Davison," and the volume's editorial note identifies the signatory as "F. Trubee Davison, Assistant Secretary of War."[^47] +A telegram of March 26, 1927, from the [[Secretary of State]] to the chargé in [[Haiti]], printed in the [[Foreign Relations of the United States]] for 1927, opens with the words "For Secretary of War Davis." It relays a message to [[Admiral Williams]] that "Henderson with 1,500 marines will be sent, arriving [[Shanghai]] in about 30 days," and states that a regiment of infantry from [[Manila]] could reach Shanghai in seven days if the situation demanded. The message is signed "Davison," and the volume's editorial note identifies the signatory as "F. Trubee Davison, Assistant Secretary of War."[^53] -Other Yale Unit members held the parallel posts. David Ingalls was Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Air from 1929 to 1932. Robert A. Lovett served as Assistant Secretary of War for Air in the Second World War and was Secretary of Defense from 1951 to 1953. Artemus L. Gates was Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Air from September 1941 to July 1945.[^44] John Vorys, another member of the unit, served four terms as a Congressman from Ohio.[^44] Lovett's post was held in the War Department under Henry L. Stimson, who served as Secretary of War from July 10, 1940, to September 21, 1945.[^48] +Other Yale Unit members held the parallel posts. David Ingalls was Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Air from 1929 to 1932. Robert A. Lovett served as Assistant Secretary of War for Air in the Second World War and was Secretary of Defense from 1951 to 1953. Artemus L. Gates was Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Air from September 1941 to July 1945.[^50] John Vorys, another member of the unit, served four terms as a Congressman from Ohio.[^50] Lovett's post was held in the War Department under Henry L. Stimson, who served as Secretary of War from July 10, 1940, to September 21, 1945.[^54] -Yale News reproduces a photograph taken December 12, 1928, of "Assistant Secretary of War for Aviation F. Trubee Davison, [[Charles Lindbergh]], [[Harry Guggenheim]], and [[Edward T. Warner]], assistant secretary of the Navy for aviation" in Washington.[^49] The Air Force biography adds that Davison was commissioned a colonel in the Specialist Reserve Corps of the Army on September 12, 1927, and that he was chairman of the National Crime Commission from 1925 to 1936; Time reported in August 1925 that the organizers of the commission had chosen him as chairman, at the age of twenty-nine.[^3][^40] +Yale News reproduces a photograph taken December 12, 1928, of "Assistant Secretary of War for Aviation F. Trubee Davison, [[Charles Lindbergh]], [[Harry Guggenheim]], and [[Edward T. Warner]], assistant secretary of the Navy for aviation" in Washington.[^55] The Air Force biography adds that Davison was commissioned a colonel in the Specialist Reserve Corps of the Army on September 12, 1927, and that he was chairman of the National Crime Commission from 1925 to 1936; Time reported in August 1925 that the organizers of the commission had chosen him as chairman, at the age of twenty-nine.[^3][^46] ### Second World War -In June 1941 Davison was assigned to Headquarters, Air Force Combat Command, [[Bolling Field]], as Acting Deputy Chief of Staff and aide-de-camp to Lieutenant General [[Delos C. Emmons]]. In January 1943 he went to Headquarters, Army Air Forces, as A-1 of the Air Staff, later Special Projects Officer, and in March 1943 became Chief of the Special Projects Division, responsible for having ready "an adequate plan for demobilization of the Army." He represented the Army Air Forces on the Interdepartmental Group on Material Demobilization Planning and on the subcommittee on the disposal of transport aircraft under the "Baruch plan," and dealt with the Office of the Under Secretary of War on contract termination and the disposal of surpluses.[^3] The American Museum of Natural History recorded that on June 5, 1941 its president "was granted indefinite leave of absence in order to take up his duties as Colonel in the Air Corps, U. S. Army," and that an Administrative Committee of trustees (A. Perry Osborn, Malcolm P. Aldrich, Cleveland E. Dodge, [[E. Roland Harriman]] and H. B. Clark) was created to consult with the First Vice-President.[^50] He was promoted to brigadier general on June 3, 1945 and received the Army Distinguished Service Medal in October 1945.[^3] The Springfield Sun editorial of July 1951 describes the same service as Assistant Chief of the Air Staff in charge of personnel under [[Henry H. Arnold]].[^51] +In June 1941 Davison was assigned to Headquarters, Air Force Combat Command, [[Bolling Field]], as Acting Deputy Chief of Staff and aide-de-camp to Lieutenant General [[Delos C. Emmons]]. In January 1943 he went to Headquarters, Army Air Forces, as A-1 of the Air Staff, later Special Projects Officer, and in March 1943 became Chief of the Special Projects Division, responsible for having ready "an adequate plan for demobilization of the Army." He represented the Army Air Forces on the Interdepartmental Group on Material Demobilization Planning and on the subcommittee on the disposal of transport aircraft under the "Baruch plan," and dealt with the Office of the Under Secretary of War on contract termination and the disposal of surpluses.[^3] The American Museum of Natural History recorded that on June 5, 1941 its president "was granted indefinite leave of absence in order to take up his duties as Colonel in the Air Corps, U. S. Army," and that an Administrative Committee of trustees (A. Perry Osborn, Malcolm P. Aldrich, Cleveland E. Dodge, [[E. Roland Harriman]] and H. B. Clark) was created to consult with the First Vice-President.[^56] He was promoted to brigadier general on June 3, 1945 and received the Army Distinguished Service Medal in October 1945.[^3] The Springfield Sun editorial of July 1951 describes the same service as Assistant Chief of the Air Staff in charge of personnel under [[Henry H. Arnold]].[^57] ### American Museum of Natural History -The museum's roster of trustees lists "Davison, Frederick Trubee" from 1923, and "Davison, Henry P." from 1916 to 1922.[^52] The museum's annual report for 1922 records that his father, elected to the board on February 7, 1916, served as Treasurer and Chairman of the Finance Committee until his death on May 6, 1922, and that at his suggestion the board appointed an Advisory Committee on Investments of financial experts.[^53] +The museum's roster of trustees lists "Davison, Frederick Trubee" from 1923, and "Davison, Henry P." from 1916 to 1922.[^58] The museum's annual report for 1922 records that his father, elected to the board on February 7, 1916, served as Treasurer and Chairman of the Finance Committee until his death on May 6, 1922, and that at his suggestion the board appointed an Advisory Committee on Investments of financial experts.[^59] -The annual report for 1933 states: "Upon the retirement of President [[Henry Fairfield Osborn]] from the Presidency of the Museum, on January 9, 1933, in order that he might devote himself to his scientific researches, Professor Osborn was elected Honorary President for life. His resignation, after twenty-five years as President of the Board of Trustees, was accepted with great regret. Mr. Frederick Trubee Davison was elected to the Presidency."[^54] The 1932 report, in Osborn's final acknowledgments, welcomed "his warm personal friend, F. Trubee Davison, fifth President of the American Museum," and named the "Jesup-Morgan-Osborn principles" that the new administration was expected to continue.[^55] The 1933 volume opens with Davison's first report as president, written "entering upon its duties as a layman," which thanks "my distinguished predecessor, Professor Henry Fairfield Osborn, who for twenty-five years exerted outstanding qualities of leadership." It states that the museum had 1,102,096 visitors in 1933; that the late Harry Payne Whitney's offer of $750,000 for the South Oceanic Bird Wing, conditioned on matching city funds, left the city a quarter of a million dollars short of its pledge, and that the trustees offered to buy $250,000 of city bonds to cover it; and that [[Charles Hayden]] and the [[Reconstruction Finance Corporation]] had made possible the Hayden Planetarium, the federal government agreeing to purchase bonds for its building.[^54] The report also records the donation by Colonel and Mrs. Lindbergh of the airplane they used on their Arctic and Pacific flights.[^54] +The annual report for 1933 states: "Upon the retirement of President [[Henry Fairfield Osborn]] from the Presidency of the Museum, on January 9, 1933, in order that he might devote himself to his scientific researches, Professor Osborn was elected Honorary President for life. His resignation, after twenty-five years as President of the Board of Trustees, was accepted with great regret. Mr. Frederick Trubee Davison was elected to the Presidency."[^60] The 1932 report, in Osborn's final acknowledgments, welcomed "his warm personal friend, F. Trubee Davison, fifth President of the American Museum," and named the "Jesup-Morgan-Osborn principles" that the new administration was expected to continue.[^61] The 1933 volume opens with Davison's first report as president, written "entering upon its duties as a layman," which thanks "my distinguished predecessor, Professor Henry Fairfield Osborn, who for twenty-five years exerted outstanding qualities of leadership." It states that the museum had 1,102,096 visitors in 1933; that the late Harry Payne Whitney's offer of $750,000 for the South Oceanic Bird Wing, conditioned on matching city funds, left the city a quarter of a million dollars short of its pledge, and that the trustees offered to buy $250,000 of city bonds to cover it; and that [[Charles Hayden]] and the [[Reconstruction Finance Corporation]] had made possible the Hayden Planetarium, the federal government agreeing to purchase bonds for its building.[^60] The report also records the donation by Colonel and Mrs. Lindbergh of the airplane they used on their Arctic and Pacific flights.[^60] -The museum held the Third International Congress of Eugenics in its halls from August 21 to 23, 1932, during Osborn's presidency, and partially opened its Hall of the Natural History of Man on that occasion; the same report lists Davison among the trustees re-elected to the Class of 1937.[^55] The 1933 report records the annual meeting of January 8, 1934, at which the officers re-elected were President F. Trubee Davison, First Vice-President [[J. P. Morgan Jr.]], Second Vice-President Cleveland E. Dodge, Treasurer James H. Perkins and Secretary Clarence L. Hay. It also records that [[John D. Rockefeller III]] was elected in 1933 to fill the vacancy created by the resignation of [[Frederick F. Brewster]], and that [[Frederick M. Warburg]] was elected to the vacancy left by his father, [[Felix Warburg]].[^54] +The museum held the Third International Congress of Eugenics in its halls from August 21 to 23, 1932, during Osborn's presidency, and partially opened its Hall of the Natural History of Man on that occasion; the same report lists Davison among the trustees re-elected to the Class of 1937.[^61] The 1933 report records the annual meeting of January 8, 1934, at which the officers re-elected were President F. Trubee Davison, First Vice-President [[J. P. Morgan Jr.]], Second Vice-President Cleveland E. Dodge, Treasurer James H. Perkins and Secretary Clarence L. Hay. It also records that [[John D. Rockefeller III]] was elected in 1933 to fill the vacancy created by the resignation of [[Frederick F. Brewster]], and that [[Frederick M. Warburg]] was elected to the vacancy left by his father, [[Felix Warburg]].[^60] -The 1933 report lists the "Davison African Expedition Fund" among the museum's special funds, with a balance of $50,561.04 under the name F. Trubee Davison, and states that "President F. Trubee Davison returned from Africa the middle of October with five elephants to complete the group in the new African Hall," "Financed by President Davison."[^54] The 1974 Times obituary adds that he and his wife, with [[Martin Johnson]] and [[Osa Johnson]], made the 1933 field trip to Africa.[^45] The annual report for 1952 describes the "Davison-Willis Expedition to Madagascar, organized by F. Trubee Davison," which brought back ethnographic objects, photographs and color-film records of native crafts and ceremonies to the Department of Anthropology.[^56] +The 1933 report lists the "Davison African Expedition Fund" among the museum's special funds, with a balance of $50,561.04 under the name F. Trubee Davison, and states that "President F. Trubee Davison returned from Africa the middle of October with five elephants to complete the group in the new African Hall," "Financed by President Davison."[^60] The 1974 Times obituary adds that he and his wife, with [[Martin Johnson]] and [[Osa Johnson]], made the 1933 field trip to Africa.[^51] The annual report for 1952 describes the "Davison-Willis Expedition to Madagascar, organized by F. Trubee Davison," which brought back ethnographic objects, photographs and color-film records of native crafts and ceremonies to the Department of Anthropology.[^62] -The annual report for 1950 opens with the statement of his successor, [[Alexander M. White]]: "In June, 1951, a change of command took place at the Museum, Trubee Davison turning over the helm to me after eighteen years of leadership. They had not been easy years for any institution, covering as they did the depression period of the thirties and World War II." The report thanks Davison and the late A. Perry Osborn "for successfully piloting the ship through this stormy period." The officers for 1951 to 1952 list "President Emeritus, F. Trubee Davison," with White as president, Malcolm P. Aldrich as First Vice-President and E. Roland Harriman as Treasurer.[^57] The Navy history states that Davison retired in 1951 "after 18 years as president of the Museum of Natural History in New York," and the Springfield Sun editorial describes him as "president of the American Museum of Natural History for almost 18 years, and had planned to retire in October."[^38][^58] The Times obituary states that he remained an honorary trustee until his death and was "instrumental in the drive to obtain funds that helped the museum overcome many financial crises and eventually to build the Hayden Planetarium."[^45] +The annual report for 1950 opens with the statement of his successor, [[Alexander M. White]]: "In June, 1951, a change of command took place at the Museum, Trubee Davison turning over the helm to me after eighteen years of leadership. They had not been easy years for any institution, covering as they did the depression period of the thirties and World War II." The report thanks Davison and the late A. Perry Osborn "for successfully piloting the ship through this stormy period." The officers for 1951 to 1952 list "President Emeritus, F. Trubee Davison," with White as president, Malcolm P. Aldrich as First Vice-President and E. Roland Harriman as Treasurer.[^63] The Navy history states that Davison retired in 1951 "after 18 years as president of the Museum of Natural History in New York," and the Springfield Sun editorial describes him as "president of the American Museum of Natural History for almost 18 years, and had planned to retire in October."[^44][^64] The Times obituary states that he remained an honorary trustee until his death and was "instrumental in the drive to obtain funds that helped the museum overcome many financial crises and eventually to build the Hayden Planetarium."[^51] ### Central Intelligence Agency -The Associated Press reported in July 1951 that "Brig. Gen. Trubee Davison, former Assistant Secretary of War for Air, will join the Central Intelligence Agency on July 16."[^59] The item states that a CIA spokesman confirmed he would become "a principal assistant" to "Lt. Gen. [[Walter Bedell Smith]], head of the agency," and that "He will not replace any other assistant." The spokesman added that Davison "probably would do personnel work."[^60] The 1974 Times obituary states that in July 1951 he became director of personnel of the Agency and assistant to Smith, and that "He left his post the following April, when it was announced that he had completed his mission of organizing the C.I.A.'s personnel."[^45] +The Associated Press reported in July 1951 that "Brig. Gen. Trubee Davison, former Assistant Secretary of War for Air, will join the Central Intelligence Agency on July 16."[^65] The item states that a CIA spokesman confirmed he would become "a principal assistant" to "Lt. Gen. [[Walter Bedell Smith]], head of the agency," and that "He will not replace any other assistant." The spokesman added that Davison "probably would do personnel work."[^66] The 1974 Times obituary states that in July 1951 he became director of personnel of the Agency and assistant to Smith, and that "He left his post the following April, when it was announced that he had completed his mission of organizing the C.I.A.'s personnel."[^51] -The Springfield Sun editorial, headed "General Smith Names A Deputy," reports that Davison had "been appointed director of personnel and assistant to Lieut. General Walter Bedell Smith, chief of the Central Intelligence Agency."[^61] It says he had been "serving as a leader of civil defense in Nassau County, New York," and that in June 1941 he "became an Air Force colonel, retiring as a one-star general after serving as Assistant Chief of the Air Staff in charge of personnel" under Arnold, whom it calls "the late General of the Air Force."[^51] The editorial describes him as "a flier, a lawyer, an administrator, a politician, a combat veteran of two wars."[^51] The same editorial says that the CIA "has been rather unfortunate in its chiefs."[^51] +The Springfield Sun editorial, headed "General Smith Names A Deputy," reports that Davison had "been appointed director of personnel and assistant to Lieut. General Walter Bedell Smith, chief of the Central Intelligence Agency."[^67] It says he had been "serving as a leader of civil defense in Nassau County, New York," and that in June 1941 he "became an Air Force colonel, retiring as a one-star general after serving as Assistant Chief of the Air Staff in charge of personnel" under Arnold, whom it calls "the late General of the Air Force."[^57] The editorial describes him as "a flier, a lawyer, an administrator, a politician, a combat veteran of two wars."[^57] The same editorial says that the CIA "has been rather unfortunate in its chiefs."[^57] -In the Agency's own papers he appears as Assistant Director for Personnel. A memorandum of September 10, 1951 from [[Allen Dulles]], then Deputy Director of Central Intelligence, is addressed to "Trubee Davison, Esq. (Asst. Director, Personnel)" and asks whether he or a member of his staff could arrange to see an individual named in attached correspondence.[^62] A CIA official routing slip carries a memorandum dated September 11, 1951, from Davison to the Deputy Director of Central Intelligence, whose text includes the line "I will see this fellow myself," followed by the initials "F.T.D."[^63] +In the Agency's own papers he appears as Assistant Director for Personnel. A memorandum of September 10, 1951 from [[Allen Dulles]], then Deputy Director of Central Intelligence, is addressed to "Trubee Davison, Esq. (Asst. Director, Personnel)" and asks whether he or a member of his staff could arrange to see an individual named in attached correspondence.[^68] A CIA official routing slip carries a memorandum dated September 11, 1951, from Davison to the Deputy Director of Central Intelligence, whose text includes the line "I will see this fellow myself," followed by the initials "F.T.D."[^69] -Davison chaired the Agency's Career Service Committee. The minutes of its second meeting, on October 1, 1951, list "F. Trubee Davison - AD/Personnel, Chairman" with Matthew Baird, Director of Training. They record that the committee separated a "Trainee Program" from a "Career Service Program," that "the establishment of a Career Corps, as such, had been disapproved by the DCI," that of the first class of nineteen trainees sixteen had recently graduated and fourteen had been placed, and that a working group would take up a proposed two-year service requirement for selection.[^64] On October 3, 1951 the committee's executive secretary asked the Director of Personnel and the General Counsel to nominate representatives to five working groups (trainees, employee rating, rotation, career benefits and extension training), citing a memorandum "from General Davison entitled 'Career Service Committee'" of September 28, 1951.[^65] The minutes of the committee's fourteenth meeting, in January 1952, list Davison as AD/Personnel with Matthew Baird and [[Sherman Kent]], Assistant Director for National Estimates, and record the committee's review of a Personnel Evaluation Report and of "Selection Criteria for Participation in CIA Career Service Program."[^66] +Davison chaired the Agency's Career Service Committee. The minutes of its second meeting, on October 1, 1951, list "F. Trubee Davison - AD/Personnel, Chairman" with Matthew Baird, Director of Training. They record that the committee separated a "Trainee Program" from a "Career Service Program," that "the establishment of a Career Corps, as such, had been disapproved by the DCI," that of the first class of nineteen trainees sixteen had recently graduated and fourteen had been placed, and that a working group would take up a proposed two-year service requirement for selection.[^70] On October 3, 1951 the committee's executive secretary asked the Director of Personnel and the General Counsel to nominate representatives to five working groups (trainees, employee rating, rotation, career benefits and extension training), citing a memorandum "from General Davison entitled 'Career Service Committee'" of September 28, 1951.[^71] The minutes of the committee's fourteenth meeting, in January 1952, list Davison as AD/Personnel with Matthew Baird and [[Sherman Kent]], Assistant Director for National Estimates, and record the committee's review of a Personnel Evaluation Report and of "Selection Criteria for Participation in CIA Career Service Program."[^72] -The Covert Action Information Bulletin reported, citing the New York Times of July 5, 1951, that Davison was the agency's director of personnel in 1951.[^67] State Department papers of May 1951 in the same CIA files, concerning the working group on plans for the new Psychological Strategy Board, name W. P. Davison, executive secretary of the Psychological Operations Coordinating Board; he is a different person.[^68] +The Covert Action Information Bulletin reported, citing the New York Times of July 5, 1951, that Davison was the agency's director of personnel in 1951.[^73] State Department papers of May 1951 in the same CIA files, concerning the working group on plans for the new Psychological Strategy Board, name W. P. Davison, executive secretary of the Psychological Operations Coordinating Board; he is a different person.[^74] ### Family after 1951 and death -The Yale News photograph of a 1966 reunion of the First Yale Unit identifies his wife as [[Dorothy Peabody Davison]].[^69] The Times obituary states that he died on the night of Thursday, November 14, 1974 at his home on Peacock Point, Locust Valley, aged 78; that he was survived by his widow and three sons, Endicott, Daniel and Gates; and that the funeral service was held at St. John's of Lattingtown Episcopal Church, Locust Valley. It states that he was "lamed for life by a plane crash during his service in World War I" and had taught himself to walk without crutches and ultimately without a cane.[^45] The Library of Congress name authority and the museum's archives catalog both give his dates as 1896 to 1974.[^70] The family finding aid at the Pritzker Military Museum & Library gives his death as 1976.[^71] +The Yale News photograph of a 1966 reunion of the First Yale Unit identifies his wife as [[Dorothy Peabody Davison]].[^75] The Times obituary states that he died on the night of Thursday, November 14, 1974 at his home on Peacock Point, Locust Valley, aged 78; that he was survived by his widow and three sons, Endicott, Daniel and Gates; and that the funeral service was held at St. John's of Lattingtown Episcopal Church, Locust Valley. It states that he was "lamed for life by a plane crash during his service in World War I" and had taught himself to walk without crutches and ultimately without a cane.[^51] The Library of Congress name authority and the museum's archives catalog both give his dates as 1896 to 1974.[^76] The family finding aid at the Pritzker Military Museum & Library gives his death as 1976.[^77] ### Footnotes @@ -226,69 +226,75 @@ The Yale News photograph of a 1966 reunion of the First Yale Unit identifies his [^3]: United States Air Force, "Brigadier General Frederick Trubee Davison," official biography (current as of October 2024): born New York, February 7, 1896; Groton 1914; Yale 1918; Columbia Law 1922; appointed Assistant Secretary of War July 16, 1926; Assistant Secretary of War (Air) 1926 to 1933; Chairman, National Crime Commission, 1925 to 1936; wartime assignments; brigadier general June 3, 1945; Navy Cross (1919) and Army Distinguished Service Medal (October 1945); July 28, 1917 crash. https://web.archive.org/web/20250401000815/https://www.af.mil/About-Us/Biographies/Display/Article/3928479/frederick-trubee-davison/ [^4]: United States Air Force biography and *New York Times*, November 16, 1974 (see the Air Force biography and Times obituary cited above). https://web.archive.org/web/20240107180328/https://www.nytimes.com/1974/11/16/archives/f-trubee-davison-dies-at-78-led-natural-history-museum-aviation.html [^5]: Pritzker Military Museum & Library, Davison Family Collection (PMML ID 320755, Call No. PAPERS 00013), biographical note on Henry Pomeroy Davison, finding aid written by Kathryn Hofherr (June 2008) and updated by Andrea Martinez (2018). https://www.pritzkermilitary.org/sites/default/files/files/Davison_Finding_Aid_Feb_2018.pdf -[^6]: Pritzker Military Museum & Library, Davison Family Collection, biographical note on Kate Trubee Davison (Nassau County chapter, 1917, chairman for twenty-seven years). https://www.pritzkermilitary.org/sites/default/files/files/Davison_Finding_Aid_Feb_2018.pdf -[^7]: Pritzker Military Museum & Library, Davison Family Collection, biographical note on the children (Alice, Henry Jr., Frances, Frederick Trubee). https://www.pritzkermilitary.org/sites/default/files/files/Davison_Finding_Aid_Feb_2018.pdf -[^8]: Pritzker Military Museum & Library, Davison Family Collection, biographical note on Henry Pomeroy Davison Jr. (American Ambulance Corps in France; a year at Cambridge; partner at J. P. Morgan & Company 1929; vice president and director 1940; senior vice president 1953; president 1955; vice chairman after the merger with Guaranty Trust; died July 2, 1961). https://www.pritzkermilitary.org/sites/default/files/files/Davison_Finding_Aid_Feb_2018.pdf -[^9]: Pritzker Military Museum & Library, Davison Family Collection, biographical note on Henry Pomeroy Davison (senior partner 1909; secret meeting at Jekyll Island, Georgia, the following year; "Many believe this meeting led to the creation of the Federal Reserve."). https://www.pritzkermilitary.org/sites/default/files/files/Davison_Finding_Aid_Feb_2018.pdf -[^10]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chart "Hypothesis Number One," family list including "Davison (J. P. Morgan)," "Rockefeller and Payne (Standard Oil)," "Harriman (railroads)," "Weyerhaeuser (lumber)," and the old-line families including Stimson. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^11]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), text on the Morgan partnership ("some of his partners were"; "whose son H.P. Davison, Jr. was initiated in 1920"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^12]: Henry P. Davison, *The American Red Cross in the Great War* (1919), pp. 7 to 8: "On the 10th of May, 1917, President Wilson appointed a War Council for the American National Red Cross, and I was asked to take the chairmanship." https://archive.org/details/americanredcross0000davi -[^13]: Henry P. Davison, *The American Red Cross in the Great War* (1919), appendix, "The Story in Figures": the War Council "went out of existence on February 28th, 1919." https://archive.org/details/americanredcross0000davi -[^14]: Henry P. Davison, *The American Red Cross in the Great War* (1919), chapter II, "Massing the Forces of Mercy," on the War Council's meetings at Headquarters and at the chairman's house in Washington. https://archive.org/details/americanredcross0000davi -[^15]: Yale News, "Defending Allied skies" (August 17, 2014), photograph caption: "Henry P. Davison in helmet, and Albert Ditman in glasses by F-boat at Peacock Point, Long Island, ca. 1916," F. Trubee Davison papers, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library. https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit -[^16]: Capt. Paul Jayson, USNR, "F. Trubee Davison, Founder of the First Yale Unit," in Adrian O. Van Wyen and the editors of Naval Aviation News, *Naval Aviation in World War I* (1969), p. 21 ("the young man most responsible for the formation of the unit"; June 13, 1916 training and Mexican border; Davison's Mexico quotation; Locust Valley memorabilia). https://archive.org/details/navalaviationinw00wash -[^17]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year: "Davison, Fredrick Trubee" under the class of 1918 and "Davison, Harry Pomeroy" under the class of 1920. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^18]: Kathrin Day Lassila and Mark Alden Branch, "Whose Skull and Bones?," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2006 (Wayback Machine capture of June 14, 2006), including the letter of June 7, 1918 from Winter Mead '19 to Davison '18 quoted with the magazine's expansions, Mead's location, and the yearbook entries for Haffner, Mead and Davison. https://web.archive.org/web/20060614215733/http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/2006_05/notebook.html -[^19]: "Bush's Boy's Club: Skull and Bones," *Covert Action Information Bulletin*, no. 33 (Winter 1990), pp. 20 to 22, listing Endicott Peabody Davison and Daniel Pomeroy Davison among the members. https://archive.org/details/CAIB33 -[^20]: Lassila and Branch, "Whose Skull and Bones?," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2006 (Wayback Machine capture of June 14, 2006), on Endicott Peabody Davison '45, "a son of Trubee Davison," and the display case produced at the meeting with Ned Anderson. https://web.archive.org/web/20060614215733/http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/2006_05/notebook.html -[^21]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), list of post-World War II partners of J. P. Morgan: "Henry P. Davison, Jr. (The Order '20)" and "Daniel P. Davison (The Order '49)." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^22]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1950-1951*, entry "Henry Lewis Stimson, B.A. 1888," p. 11 (Skull and Bones among his activities). -[^23]: Jayson, *Naval Aviation in World War I* (1969), p. 22 (crew list including Henry P. Davison Jr., Lovett, Gates and Vorys; non-Yale men; John Hayes Hammond Jr. and Henry Woodhouse; Woodhouse and Admiral Peary's coastal plan). https://archive.org/details/navalaviationinw00wash -[^24]: Yale News, "Defending Allied skies" (August 17, 2014), text on Davison's service with the American Ambulance Field Service in 1915, the enlistment of the pilots at the Naval Submarine Base in New London on March 24, and his rank of lieutenant, junior grade. https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit -[^25]: Jayson, *Naval Aviation in World War I* (1969), p. 22 (March 1917 transfer to West Palm Beach under Lieutenant E. O. McDonnell, enrolled in the Navy). https://archive.org/details/navalaviationinw00wash -[^26]: Yale News, "Defending Allied skies" (August 17, 2014), text on the unit's training at Palm Beach, Florida, in 1917. https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit -[^27]: Yale News, "Defending Allied skies" (August 17, 2014), text on Tap Day, April 19 (1917): two representatives from Yale arrived in Florida "to 'tap' their fellow students at noon"; Davison "was the first to be tapped (Skull & Bones) as were 11 other members of the First Yale Unit." https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit -[^28]: Yale News, "Defending Allied skies" (August 17, 2014), photograph caption: "Kenneth MacLeish, who was shot down over Belgium, was never found, a casualty of war." https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit -[^29]: Jayson, *Naval Aviation in World War I* (1969), p. 22 (Sturtevant the first naval aviator brought down in combat; Ingalls the Navy's first ace). https://archive.org/details/navalaviationinw00wash -[^30]: Ralph D. Paine, *The First Yale Unit* (1925), account of the flying tests set to begin July 28, the examining board, and the seaplane's descent and loss of control near the yacht at Huntington. https://archive.org/details/firstyaleunit0000ralp -[^31]: Jayson, *Naval Aviation in World War I* (1969), p. 23 ("It was ironic that Davison was one of the few of the Yale unit who never earned his wings. He was injured in a crash on his final examination flight."). https://archive.org/details/navalaviationinw00wash -[^32]: Paine, *The First Yale Unit* (1925), quotation of Davison's report to the Commandant of the Third Naval District. https://archive.org/details/firstyaleunit0000ralp -[^33]: Paine, *The First Yale Unit* (1925), Davison's report and the Board of Medical Survey recommendation of two months' sick leave, extended in two-month periods, "a broken back." https://archive.org/details/firstyaleunit0000ralp -[^34]: Paine, *The First Yale Unit* (1925), chapter "Trubee, the Crippled Leader" (the fracture of a vertebra; six weeks in St. Luke's Hospital before removal to his home). https://archive.org/details/firstyaleunit0000ralp -[^35]: United States Air Force, "Brigadier General Frederick Trubee Davison," official biography (Navy Cross citation, 1919). https://web.archive.org/web/20250401000815/https://www.af.mil/About-Us/Biographies/Display/Article/3928479/frederick-trubee-davison/ -[^36]: Paine, *The First Yale Unit* (1925), text on the period of training ("their able leader, Lieutenant Trubee Davison, crashed and broke his back"; "he continued to direct and inspire his comrades"). https://archive.org/details/firstyaleunit0000ralp -[^37]: Paine, *The First Yale Unit* (1925), author's recollection of Davison in London after the Armistice. https://archive.org/details/firstyaleunit0000ralp -[^38]: Jayson, *Naval Aviation in World War I* (1969), p. 21 (1966 presentation of Navy wings by Vice Admiral Paul Ramsey; retirement in 1951 "after 18 years as president of the Museum of Natural History in New York"; memorabilia list). https://archive.org/details/navalaviationinw00wash -[^39]: Political Graveyard, "Members of the New York State Assembly, 1920-29," Nassau County 2nd District: "Theodore Roosevelt 1920-21" and "F. Trubee Davison 1922-26." https://politicalgraveyard.com/geo/NY/ofc/asmbly1920s.html -[^40]: "Political Notes: Crime Chairman," *Time*, August 24, 1925 (National Crime Commission chairmanship; Davison identified as twenty-nine and a member of the New York Assembly). https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,720818,00.html -[^41]: *Official Congressional Directory*, 72nd Congress, 2nd session, edition corrected to January 13, 1933 (War Department listing for the Assistant Secretary of War, F. Trubee Davison), and 73rd Congress, 1st session, edition corrected to June 3, 1933 (Assistant Secretary of War, "[Vacant.]"; The Assistant Secretary of War, Harry H. Woodring). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CDIR-1933-01-13/text/CDIR-1933-01-13.txt ; https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CDIR-1933-06-03/text/CDIR-1933-06-03.txt -[^42]: Associated Press item, "F. Trubee Davison to Join CIA in Personnel Post," CIA reading room, document CIA-RDP78-04718A000500180115-2 (released May 10, 2000): "Gen. Davison was Assistant Secretary of War for Air from 1926 to 1932. He has been president of the American Museum of Natural History in New York since 1933." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp78-04718a000500180115-2 -[^43]: "General Smith Names A Deputy," editorial, *Springfield (Ohio) Sun*, July 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00001R000300090028-6: "He was Assistant Secretary of War in the Coolidge and Hoover Administrations." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000300090028-6 -[^44]: Jayson, *Naval Aviation in World War I* (1969), p. 23 (Davison as Assistant Secretary of War for Air, "late in the '20's and early '30's"; Ingalls as Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Air 1929 to 1932; Lovett as Assistant Secretary of War for Air and later Secretary of Defense 1951 to 1953; Gates as Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Air September 1941 to July 1945). https://archive.org/details/navalaviationinw00wash -[^45]: "F. Trubee Davison Dies at 78. Led Natural History Museum. Aviation Pioneer Served as Assistant War Secretary, C.I.A. Personnel Director," *New York Times*, November 16, 1974 (death on Thursday night at Peacock Point, Locust Valley; Assembly 1922 to 1926; "From 1926 to 1932 he was Assistant Secretary of War for Air"; museum trustee and president; CIA July 1951 to April 1952; 1933 Africa trip with Martin and Osa Johnson; survivors; funeral). https://web.archive.org/web/20240107180328/https://www.nytimes.com/1974/11/16/archives/f-trubee-davison-dies-at-78-led-natural-history-museum-aviation.html -[^46]: "National Affairs: Friends & Candidates," *Time*, August 15, 1932. https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,744164,00.html -[^47]: *Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, 1927*, vol. II, document 73, telegram from the Secretary of State to the Chargé in Haiti (Gross), Washington, March 26, 1927, with the editorial note identifying "F. Trubee Davison, Assistant Secretary of War." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1927v02/d73 -[^48]: Henry L. Stimson and McGeorge Bundy, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), title page (Secretary of War 1940 to 1945). -[^49]: Yale News, "Defending Allied skies" (August 17, 2014), photograph caption: "Assistant Secretary of War for Aviation F. Trubee Davison, Colonel Charles Lindbergh, Harry Guggenheim, and Edward T. Warner, assistant secretary of the Navy for aviation in Washington, D.C.," Harris & Ewing, December 12, 1928, Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division. https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit -[^50]: American Museum of Natural History, *Annual Report for the Year 1941*, report of the Secretary, p. 38 (leave of absence, June 5, 1941; Administrative Committee), and the First Vice-President's statement "on behalf of President F. Trubee Davison, who is on active war service." https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/items/8899eea9-1f49-4312-b3dd-8a4f579400f4 -[^51]: "General Smith Names A Deputy," *Springfield (Ohio) Sun*, July 1951, CIA-RDP75-00001R000300090028-6: "serving as a leader of civil defense in Nassau County, New York"; "in June of 1941 he became an Air Force colonel, retiring as a one-star general after serving as Assistant Chief of the Air Staff in charge of personnel under the late General of the Air Force 'Hap' Arnold"; "a flier, a lawyer, an administrator, a politician, a combat veteran of two wars." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000300090028-6 -[^52]: American Museum of Natural History, *Annual Report for the Year 1922*, roster of trustees since 1869 ("Davison, Frederick Trubee 1923-"; "Davison, Henry P. 1916-1922"). https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/items/c9a7e200-0163-48f4-9d8c-9689e0992af6 -[^53]: American Museum of Natural History, *Annual Report for the Year 1922*, "Memorials to Trustees Davison and Cuyler and Curator Allen," pp. 20 to 21. https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/items/c9a7e200-0163-48f4-9d8c-9689e0992af6 -[^54]: American Museum of Natural History, *Annual Report for the Year 1933* (Sixty-fifth Annual Report), "Report of the President" (pp. 1 to 4), "Changes in the Board of Trustees" (pp. 53 to 54), expedition notes and Report of the Treasurer (Davison African Expedition Fund). https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/items/03786359-9347-4dbf-a201-0a9319dccccd -[^55]: American Museum of Natural History, *Annual Report for the Year 1932*, president's final acknowledgments (pp. 36 to 37), "Changes in the Board of Trustees" (p. 112), and the reports on the Third International Congress of Eugenics held in the Museum, August 21 to 23, 1932. https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/items/4c320241-c3ab-4722-b36b-e0e13566adab -[^56]: American Museum of Natural History, *Annual Report for the Year 1952*, Department of Anthropology (the Davison-Willis Expedition to Madagascar). https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/items/c72e95f0-6528-44fc-96a4-e940d102b1dd -[^57]: American Museum of Natural History, *Annual Report for the Year 1950* (published 1951), statement of the President (Alexander M. White) and list of officers and trustees, 1951 to 1952. https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/items/9c2b388c-1708-473d-b885-2ca62dcc2890 -[^58]: "General Smith Names A Deputy," *Springfield (Ohio) Sun*, July 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00001R000300090028-6: "president of the American Museum of Natural History for almost 18 years, and had planned to retire in October." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000300090028-6 -[^59]: Associated Press item, CIA-RDP78-04718A000500180115-2: "Brig. Gen. Trubee Davison, former Assistant Secretary of War for Air, will join the Central Intelligence Agency on July 16." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp78-04718a000500180115-2 -[^60]: Associated Press item, CIA-RDP78-04718A000500180115-2: "a principal assistant" to "Lt. Gen. Walter Bedell Smith, head of the agency"; "He will not replace any other assistant"; "probably would do personnel work." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp78-04718a000500180115-2 -[^61]: "General Smith Names A Deputy," *Springfield (Ohio) Sun*, July 1951, CIA-RDP75-00001R000300090028-6: "has been appointed director of personnel and assistant to Lieut. General Walter Bedell Smith, chief of the Central Intelligence Agency." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000300090028-6 -[^62]: Memorandum from Allen W. Dulles to "Trubee Davison, Esq. (Asst. Director, Personnel)," September 10, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003100020077-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003100020077-6 -[^63]: Memorandum from F. Trubee Davison dated September 11, 1951, "MEMORANDUM FOR: Deputy Director of Central Intelligence," with the note "I will see this fellow myself," initialed "F.T.D.," on a Central Intelligence Agency Official Routing Slip, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003100090067-0. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003100090067-0 -[^64]: "Minutes of 2nd Career Service Committee Meeting," October 1, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80-01826R000400090089-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-01826r000400090089-6 -[^65]: Memoranda of the Executive Secretary, Career Service Committee, "Career Service Working Groups," October 3, 1951, CIA reading room documents CIA-RDP80-01826R000400030018-0 and CIA-RDP80-01826R000400030022-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-01826r000400030018-0 ; https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-01826r000400030022-5 -[^66]: "Minutes of 14th Career Service Committee Meeting," dated January 21, 1952, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80-01826R000400090006-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-01826r000400090006-7 -[^67]: "Bush's Boy's Club: Skull and Bones," *Covert Action Information Bulletin*, no. 33 (Winter 1990), pp. 20 to 22, citing the *New York Times*, July 5, 1951, for Davison as the CIA's director of personnel in 1951. https://archive.org/details/CAIB33 -[^68]: Memorandum from the Assistant Secretary of State (Edward W. Barrett) to Lt. Gen. Walter Bedell Smith, May 1951, "State Department Members for Working Group on Plans for Psychological Strategy Board," CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003400010031-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003400010031-4 -[^69]: Yale News, "Defending Allied skies" (August 17, 2014), photograph caption of Trubee Davison recalling the muster at the fiftieth anniversary reunion of the First Yale Unit in 1966, "His wife, Dorothy Peabody Davison, stands behind him." https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit -[^70]: Library of Congress Name Authority File, "Davison, Frederick Trubee, 1896-1974" (n2001120423), and American Museum of Natural History Archives Catalog, "Davison, Frederick Trubee, 1896-1974." https://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n2001120423.html ; https://data.library.amnh.org/archives/agents/people/241 -[^71]: Pritzker Military Museum & Library, Davison Family Collection, biographical note on Frederick Trubee Davison ("Trubee died in 1976."). https://www.pritzkermilitary.org/sites/default/files/files/Davison_Finding_Aid_Feb_2018.pdf +[^6]: *Money Trust Investigation: Investigation of Financial and Monetary Conditions in the United States under House Resolutions Nos. 429 and 504*, Subcommittee of the Committee on Banking and Currency, 62d Cong., 3d sess., Part 8 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1913), testimony of Walter E. Frew, December 10, 1912, p. 596. https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0008.001.umich.edu +[^7]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 25, testimony of Henry P. Davison, January 23, 1913, pp. 1808 to 1809. https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0025.001.umich.edu +[^8]: *New York Times*, October 6, 1915, article on the Liberty National Bank and its move to the Equitable Building. https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1915-10-06_64_21074 +[^9]: Pritzker Military Museum & Library, Davison Family Collection, biographical note on Kate Trubee Davison (Nassau County chapter, 1917, chairman for twenty-seven years). https://www.pritzkermilitary.org/sites/default/files/files/Davison_Finding_Aid_Feb_2018.pdf +[^10]: Pritzker Military Museum & Library, Davison Family Collection, biographical note on the children (Alice, Henry Jr., Frances, Frederick Trubee). https://www.pritzkermilitary.org/sites/default/files/files/Davison_Finding_Aid_Feb_2018.pdf +[^11]: Pritzker Military Museum & Library, Davison Family Collection, biographical note on Henry Pomeroy Davison Jr. (American Ambulance Corps in France; a year at Cambridge; partner at J. P. Morgan & Company 1929; vice president and director 1940; senior vice president 1953; president 1955; vice chairman after the merger with Guaranty Trust; died July 2, 1961). https://www.pritzkermilitary.org/sites/default/files/files/Davison_Finding_Aid_Feb_2018.pdf +[^12]: Pritzker Military Museum & Library, Davison Family Collection, biographical note on Henry Pomeroy Davison (senior partner 1909; secret meeting at Jekyll Island, Georgia, the following year; "Many believe this meeting led to the creation of the Federal Reserve."). https://www.pritzkermilitary.org/sites/default/files/files/Davison_Finding_Aid_Feb_2018.pdf +[^13]: Frank A. Vanderlip, *From Farm Boy to Financier* (New York: D. Appleton-Century, 1935), chapter XXI, "A Conclave on Jekyl Island," pp. 209 to 217. https://archive.org/details/from-farm-boy-to-financier-by-frank-vanderlip +[^14]: Frank A. Vanderlip, *From Farm Boy to Financier* (New York: D. Appleton-Century, 1935), pp. 213 to 214. https://archive.org/details/from-farm-boy-to-financier-by-frank-vanderlip +[^15]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chart "Hypothesis Number One," family list including "Davison (J. P. Morgan)," "Rockefeller and Payne (Standard Oil)," "Harriman (railroads)," "Weyerhaeuser (lumber)," and the old-line families including Stimson. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^16]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), text on the Morgan partnership ("some of his partners were"; "whose son H.P. Davison, Jr. was initiated in 1920"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^17]: Henry P. Davison, *The American Red Cross in the Great War* (1919), pp. 7 to 8: "On the 10th of May, 1917, President Wilson appointed a War Council for the American National Red Cross, and I was asked to take the chairmanship." https://archive.org/details/americanredcross0000davi +[^18]: Henry P. Davison, *The American Red Cross in the Great War* (1919), appendix, "The Story in Figures": the War Council "went out of existence on February 28th, 1919." https://archive.org/details/americanredcross0000davi +[^19]: Henry P. Davison, *The American Red Cross in the Great War* (1919), chapter II, "Massing the Forces of Mercy," on the War Council's meetings at Headquarters and at the chairman's house in Washington. https://archive.org/details/americanredcross0000davi +[^20]: Yale News, "Defending Allied skies" (August 17, 2014), photograph caption: "Henry P. Davison in helmet, and Albert Ditman in glasses by F-boat at Peacock Point, Long Island, ca. 1916," F. Trubee Davison papers, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library. https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit +[^21]: Capt. Paul Jayson, USNR, "F. Trubee Davison, Founder of the First Yale Unit," in Adrian O. Van Wyen and the editors of Naval Aviation News, *Naval Aviation in World War I* (1969), p. 21 ("the young man most responsible for the formation of the unit"; June 13, 1916 training and Mexican border; Davison's Mexico quotation; Locust Valley memorabilia). https://archive.org/details/navalaviationinw00wash +[^22]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year: "Davison, Fredrick Trubee" under the class of 1918 and "Davison, Harry Pomeroy" under the class of 1920. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^23]: Kathrin Day Lassila and Mark Alden Branch, "Whose Skull and Bones?," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2006 (Wayback Machine capture of June 14, 2006), including the letter of June 7, 1918 from Winter Mead '19 to Davison '18 quoted with the magazine's expansions, Mead's location, and the yearbook entries for Haffner, Mead and Davison. https://web.archive.org/web/20060614215733/http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/2006_05/notebook.html +[^24]: "Bush's Boy's Club: Skull and Bones," *Covert Action Information Bulletin*, no. 33 (Winter 1990), pp. 20 to 22, listing Endicott Peabody Davison and Daniel Pomeroy Davison among the members. https://archive.org/details/CAIB33 +[^25]: Lassila and Branch, "Whose Skull and Bones?," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2006 (Wayback Machine capture of June 14, 2006), on Endicott Peabody Davison '45, "a son of Trubee Davison," and the display case produced at the meeting with Ned Anderson. https://web.archive.org/web/20060614215733/http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/2006_05/notebook.html +[^26]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), list of post-World War II partners of J. P. Morgan: "Henry P. Davison, Jr. (The Order '20)" and "Daniel P. Davison (The Order '49)." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^27]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1950-1951*, entry "Henry Lewis Stimson, B.A. 1888," p. 11 (Skull and Bones among his activities). +[^28]: Jayson, *Naval Aviation in World War I* (1969), p. 22 (crew list including Henry P. Davison Jr., Lovett, Gates and Vorys; non-Yale men; John Hayes Hammond Jr. and Henry Woodhouse; Woodhouse and Admiral Peary's coastal plan). https://archive.org/details/navalaviationinw00wash +[^29]: Yale News, "Defending Allied skies" (August 17, 2014), text on Davison's service with the American Ambulance Field Service in 1915, the enlistment of the pilots at the Naval Submarine Base in New London on March 24, and his rank of lieutenant, junior grade. https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit +[^30]: *New York Times*, September 7, 1915. https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1915-09-07_64_21045 +[^31]: Jayson, *Naval Aviation in World War I* (1969), p. 22 (March 1917 transfer to West Palm Beach under Lieutenant E. O. McDonnell, enrolled in the Navy). https://archive.org/details/navalaviationinw00wash +[^32]: Yale News, "Defending Allied skies" (August 17, 2014), text on the unit's training at Palm Beach, Florida, in 1917. https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit +[^33]: Yale News, "Defending Allied skies" (August 17, 2014), text on Tap Day, April 19 (1917): two representatives from Yale arrived in Florida "to 'tap' their fellow students at noon"; Davison "was the first to be tapped (Skull & Bones) as were 11 other members of the First Yale Unit." https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit +[^34]: Yale News, "Defending Allied skies" (August 17, 2014), photograph caption: "Kenneth MacLeish, who was shot down over Belgium, was never found, a casualty of war." https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit +[^35]: Jayson, *Naval Aviation in World War I* (1969), p. 22 (Sturtevant the first naval aviator brought down in combat; Ingalls the Navy's first ace). https://archive.org/details/navalaviationinw00wash +[^36]: Ralph D. Paine, *The First Yale Unit* (1925), account of the flying tests set to begin July 28, the examining board, and the seaplane's descent and loss of control near the yacht at Huntington. https://archive.org/details/firstyaleunit0000ralp +[^37]: Jayson, *Naval Aviation in World War I* (1969), p. 23 ("It was ironic that Davison was one of the few of the Yale unit who never earned his wings. He was injured in a crash on his final examination flight."). https://archive.org/details/navalaviationinw00wash +[^38]: Paine, *The First Yale Unit* (1925), quotation of Davison's report to the Commandant of the Third Naval District. https://archive.org/details/firstyaleunit0000ralp +[^39]: Paine, *The First Yale Unit* (1925), Davison's report and the Board of Medical Survey recommendation of two months' sick leave, extended in two-month periods, "a broken back." https://archive.org/details/firstyaleunit0000ralp +[^40]: Paine, *The First Yale Unit* (1925), chapter "Trubee, the Crippled Leader" (the fracture of a vertebra; six weeks in St. Luke's Hospital before removal to his home). https://archive.org/details/firstyaleunit0000ralp +[^41]: United States Air Force, "Brigadier General Frederick Trubee Davison," official biography (Navy Cross citation, 1919). https://web.archive.org/web/20250401000815/https://www.af.mil/About-Us/Biographies/Display/Article/3928479/frederick-trubee-davison/ +[^42]: Paine, *The First Yale Unit* (1925), text on the period of training ("their able leader, Lieutenant Trubee Davison, crashed and broke his back"; "he continued to direct and inspire his comrades"). https://archive.org/details/firstyaleunit0000ralp +[^43]: Paine, *The First Yale Unit* (1925), author's recollection of Davison in London after the Armistice. https://archive.org/details/firstyaleunit0000ralp +[^44]: Jayson, *Naval Aviation in World War I* (1969), p. 21 (1966 presentation of Navy wings by Vice Admiral Paul Ramsey; retirement in 1951 "after 18 years as president of the Museum of Natural History in New York"; memorabilia list). https://archive.org/details/navalaviationinw00wash +[^45]: Political Graveyard, "Members of the New York State Assembly, 1920-29," Nassau County 2nd District: "Theodore Roosevelt 1920-21" and "F. Trubee Davison 1922-26." https://politicalgraveyard.com/geo/NY/ofc/asmbly1920s.html +[^46]: "Political Notes: Crime Chairman," *Time*, August 24, 1925 (National Crime Commission chairmanship; Davison identified as twenty-nine and a member of the New York Assembly). https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,720818,00.html +[^47]: *Official Congressional Directory*, 72nd Congress, 2nd session, edition corrected to January 13, 1933 (War Department listing for the Assistant Secretary of War, F. Trubee Davison), and 73rd Congress, 1st session, edition corrected to June 3, 1933 (Assistant Secretary of War, "[Vacant.]"; The Assistant Secretary of War, Harry H. Woodring). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CDIR-1933-01-13/text/CDIR-1933-01-13.txt ; https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CDIR-1933-06-03/text/CDIR-1933-06-03.txt +[^48]: Associated Press item, "F. Trubee Davison to Join CIA in Personnel Post," CIA reading room, document CIA-RDP78-04718A000500180115-2 (released May 10, 2000): "Gen. Davison was Assistant Secretary of War for Air from 1926 to 1932. He has been president of the American Museum of Natural History in New York since 1933." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp78-04718a000500180115-2 +[^49]: "General Smith Names A Deputy," editorial, *Springfield (Ohio) Sun*, July 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00001R000300090028-6: "He was Assistant Secretary of War in the Coolidge and Hoover Administrations." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000300090028-6 +[^50]: Jayson, *Naval Aviation in World War I* (1969), p. 23 (Davison as Assistant Secretary of War for Air, "late in the '20's and early '30's"; Ingalls as Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Air 1929 to 1932; Lovett as Assistant Secretary of War for Air and later Secretary of Defense 1951 to 1953; Gates as Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Air September 1941 to July 1945). https://archive.org/details/navalaviationinw00wash +[^51]: "F. Trubee Davison Dies at 78. Led Natural History Museum. Aviation Pioneer Served as Assistant War Secretary, C.I.A. Personnel Director," *New York Times*, November 16, 1974 (death on Thursday night at Peacock Point, Locust Valley; Assembly 1922 to 1926; "From 1926 to 1932 he was Assistant Secretary of War for Air"; museum trustee and president; CIA July 1951 to April 1952; 1933 Africa trip with Martin and Osa Johnson; survivors; funeral). https://web.archive.org/web/20240107180328/https://www.nytimes.com/1974/11/16/archives/f-trubee-davison-dies-at-78-led-natural-history-museum-aviation.html +[^52]: "National Affairs: Friends & Candidates," *Time*, August 15, 1932. https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,744164,00.html +[^53]: *Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, 1927*, vol. II, document 73, telegram from the Secretary of State to the Chargé in Haiti (Gross), Washington, March 26, 1927, with the editorial note identifying "F. Trubee Davison, Assistant Secretary of War." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1927v02/d73 +[^54]: Henry L. Stimson and McGeorge Bundy, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), title page (Secretary of War 1940 to 1945). +[^55]: Yale News, "Defending Allied skies" (August 17, 2014), photograph caption: "Assistant Secretary of War for Aviation F. Trubee Davison, Colonel Charles Lindbergh, Harry Guggenheim, and Edward T. Warner, assistant secretary of the Navy for aviation in Washington, D.C.," Harris & Ewing, December 12, 1928, Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division. https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit +[^56]: American Museum of Natural History, *Annual Report for the Year 1941*, report of the Secretary, p. 38 (leave of absence, June 5, 1941; Administrative Committee), and the First Vice-President's statement "on behalf of President F. Trubee Davison, who is on active war service." https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/items/8899eea9-1f49-4312-b3dd-8a4f579400f4 +[^57]: "General Smith Names A Deputy," *Springfield (Ohio) Sun*, July 1951, CIA-RDP75-00001R000300090028-6: "serving as a leader of civil defense in Nassau County, New York"; "in June of 1941 he became an Air Force colonel, retiring as a one-star general after serving as Assistant Chief of the Air Staff in charge of personnel under the late General of the Air Force 'Hap' Arnold"; "a flier, a lawyer, an administrator, a politician, a combat veteran of two wars." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000300090028-6 +[^58]: American Museum of Natural History, *Annual Report for the Year 1922*, roster of trustees since 1869 ("Davison, Frederick Trubee 1923-"; "Davison, Henry P. 1916-1922"). https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/items/c9a7e200-0163-48f4-9d8c-9689e0992af6 +[^59]: American Museum of Natural History, *Annual Report for the Year 1922*, "Memorials to Trustees Davison and Cuyler and Curator Allen," pp. 20 to 21. https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/items/c9a7e200-0163-48f4-9d8c-9689e0992af6 +[^60]: American Museum of Natural History, *Annual Report for the Year 1933* (Sixty-fifth Annual Report), "Report of the President" (pp. 1 to 4), "Changes in the Board of Trustees" (pp. 53 to 54), expedition notes and Report of the Treasurer (Davison African Expedition Fund). https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/items/03786359-9347-4dbf-a201-0a9319dccccd +[^61]: American Museum of Natural History, *Annual Report for the Year 1932*, president's final acknowledgments (pp. 36 to 37), "Changes in the Board of Trustees" (p. 112), and the reports on the Third International Congress of Eugenics held in the Museum, August 21 to 23, 1932. https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/items/4c320241-c3ab-4722-b36b-e0e13566adab +[^62]: American Museum of Natural History, *Annual Report for the Year 1952*, Department of Anthropology (the Davison-Willis Expedition to Madagascar). https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/items/c72e95f0-6528-44fc-96a4-e940d102b1dd +[^63]: American Museum of Natural History, *Annual Report for the Year 1950* (published 1951), statement of the President (Alexander M. White) and list of officers and trustees, 1951 to 1952. https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/items/9c2b388c-1708-473d-b885-2ca62dcc2890 +[^64]: "General Smith Names A Deputy," *Springfield (Ohio) Sun*, July 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00001R000300090028-6: "president of the American Museum of Natural History for almost 18 years, and had planned to retire in October." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000300090028-6 +[^65]: Associated Press item, CIA-RDP78-04718A000500180115-2: "Brig. Gen. Trubee Davison, former Assistant Secretary of War for Air, will join the Central Intelligence Agency on July 16." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp78-04718a000500180115-2 +[^66]: Associated Press item, CIA-RDP78-04718A000500180115-2: "a principal assistant" to "Lt. Gen. Walter Bedell Smith, head of the agency"; "He will not replace any other assistant"; "probably would do personnel work." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp78-04718a000500180115-2 +[^67]: "General Smith Names A Deputy," *Springfield (Ohio) Sun*, July 1951, CIA-RDP75-00001R000300090028-6: "has been appointed director of personnel and assistant to Lieut. General Walter Bedell Smith, chief of the Central Intelligence Agency." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000300090028-6 +[^68]: Memorandum from Allen W. Dulles to "Trubee Davison, Esq. (Asst. Director, Personnel)," September 10, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003100020077-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003100020077-6 +[^69]: Memorandum from F. Trubee Davison dated September 11, 1951, "MEMORANDUM FOR: Deputy Director of Central Intelligence," with the note "I will see this fellow myself," initialed "F.T.D.," on a Central Intelligence Agency Official Routing Slip, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003100090067-0. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003100090067-0 +[^70]: "Minutes of 2nd Career Service Committee Meeting," October 1, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80-01826R000400090089-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-01826r000400090089-6 +[^71]: Memoranda of the Executive Secretary, Career Service Committee, "Career Service Working Groups," October 3, 1951, CIA reading room documents CIA-RDP80-01826R000400030018-0 and CIA-RDP80-01826R000400030022-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-01826r000400030018-0 ; https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-01826r000400030022-5 +[^72]: "Minutes of 14th Career Service Committee Meeting," dated January 21, 1952, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80-01826R000400090006-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-01826r000400090006-7 +[^73]: "Bush's Boy's Club: Skull and Bones," *Covert Action Information Bulletin*, no. 33 (Winter 1990), pp. 20 to 22, citing the *New York Times*, July 5, 1951, for Davison as the CIA's director of personnel in 1951. https://archive.org/details/CAIB33 +[^74]: Memorandum from the Assistant Secretary of State (Edward W. Barrett) to Lt. Gen. Walter Bedell Smith, May 1951, "State Department Members for Working Group on Plans for Psychological Strategy Board," CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003400010031-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003400010031-4 +[^75]: Yale News, "Defending Allied skies" (August 17, 2014), photograph caption of Trubee Davison recalling the muster at the fiftieth anniversary reunion of the First Yale Unit in 1966, "His wife, Dorothy Peabody Davison, stands behind him." https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit +[^76]: Library of Congress Name Authority File, "Davison, Frederick Trubee, 1896-1974" (n2001120423), and American Museum of Natural History Archives Catalog, "Davison, Frederick Trubee, 1896-1974." https://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n2001120423.html ; https://data.library.amnh.org/archives/agents/people/241 +[^77]: Pritzker Military Museum & Library, Davison Family Collection, biographical note on Frederick Trubee Davison ("Trubee died in 1976."). https://www.pritzkermilitary.org/sites/default/files/files/Davison_Finding_Aid_Feb_2018.pdf diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Forbes family.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Forbes family.md new file mode 100644 index 00000000..8f52a706 --- /dev/null +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Forbes family.md @@ -0,0 +1,291 @@ +--- +created: 2026-10-26 +updated: 2026-10-26 +aliases: + - Forbes family + - Forbes family of Boston + - John Murray Forbes + - Robert Bennet Forbes +category: "Business & Finance" +tags: + - Family + - BostonBrahmins + - ChinaTrade + - OpiumTrade + - RussellAndCompany + - PerkinsFamily + - Naushon + - Railroads + - MichiganCentral + - BurlingtonRailroad + - BellTelephone + - JohnBrown + - KansasAid + - Abolition + - MassachusettsFiftyFourth + - Philippines + - Haiti + - Manchuria + - JohnKerry +summary: "Boston family of China traders, railroad builders and Bell Telephone executives, whose members included a Governor-General of the Philippines and the mother of John Kerry." +location: "Boston, Massachusetts" +relations: + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Russell and Company]]" + start: 1834-01-01 + end: 1837-12-31 + role: "John Murray Forbes (1813 to 1898), partner at Canton from January 1, 1834" + fn: 15 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Russell and Company]]" + start: 1839-01-01 + end: 1840-07-07 + role: "Robert Bennet Forbes, partner and chief of the house at Canton (Hunter's dates)" + fn: 10 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Russell and Company]]" + start: 1849-01-01 + end: 1857-01-01 + role: "Robert Bennet Forbes, partner at Canton (second term, his own dates)" + fn: 11 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Russell and Company]]" + start: 1857-01-01 + end: 1881-12-31 + role: "Francis Blackwell Forbes, went to China in 1857 and became a partner; moved to Europe in the early 1880s" + fn: 3 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Russell and Company]]" + start: 1863-01-01 + end: 1871-12-31 + role: "James Murray Forbes (1845 to 1937), son of Robert Bennet Forbes, clerk and then advancing in the firm" + fn: 3 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Russell and Company]]" + start: 1889-01-01 + end: 1891-06-30 + role: "William Howell Forbes, senior partner at Hong Kong (adjudicated bankrupt July 22, 1891)" + fn: 59 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Perkins and Company]]" + start: 1828-01-01 + end: 1829-08-09 + role: "Thomas Tunno Forbes, agent of the Canton house until his drowning" + fn: 6 + - type: represented + with: "[[Houqua]]" + start: 1834-01-01 + role: "John Murray Forbes, correspondent and from 1837 Boston agent for Houqua's American business and investments" + fn: 16 + - type: funded + with: "[[John Brown]]" + start: 1859-05-01 + end: 1859-12-31 + role: "John Murray Forbes contributed about $100 to the Harper's Ferry enterprise, which he understood to be for Kansas" + fn: 26 + - type: head_of + with: "[[Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad]]" + start: 1878-01-01 + end: 1881-12-31 + role: "John Murray Forbes, president 1878 to 1881 and thereafter chairman of the board until his death on October 12, 1898" + fn: 23 + - type: head_of + with: "[[American Bell Telephone Company]]" + start: 1885-01-01 + role: "William Hathaway Forbes, president (he signed the company's stipulation with the Solicitor General as president)" + fn: 42 + - type: head_of + with: "[[Robert Gould Shaw Memorial]]" + role: "John Murray Forbes, president of the committee that raised the monument fund" + fn: 36 + - type: appointed + with: "[[Herbert Hoover]]" + start: 1930-02-07 + role: "W. Cameron Forbes, named chairman of the President's Commission for the Study and Review of Conditions in Haiti" + fn: 47 + - type: head_of + with: "[[Philippines]]" + start: 1909-11-11 + end: 1913-09-01 + role: "W. Cameron Forbes, Governor-General" + fn: 44 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[John Kerry]]" + role: "Rosemary Isabel Forbes (1913 to 2002), his mother, was the daughter of James Grant Forbes (1879 to 1955), a son of Francis Blackwell Forbes" + fn: 53 + - type: participant_in + with: "[[Opium War]]" + start: 1839-03-22 + end: 1842-08-29 + role: "Russell and Company partners, including Robert Bennet Forbes, signed the May 25, 1839 memorial to Congress" + fn: 12 +--- + +The Forbes family was a [[Boston]] family whose members traded at [[Canton]] from the 1820s, held a share of [[Russell and Company]], built and financed railroads in the Midwest, headed a telephone company, and kept [[Naushon Island]] as a family estate. Its best-known members in the record are [[Robert Bennet Forbes]] and [[John Murray Forbes]], the sons of Ralph Bennet Forbes and Margaret Perkins, and later W. Cameron Forbes, who served as Governor-General of the Philippines, as chairman of the 1930 presidential commission on Haiti and as ambassador to Japan.[^1] + +### The Forbes line + +The Massachusetts Historical Society's guide to the Forbes family papers begins with the Reverend John Forbes (1740 to 1783), a Scottish clergyman appointed minister at St. Augustine, East Florida, in 1763, who held seats on the Governor's Council and various judgeships there and who married Dorothy Murray, the daughter of a loyalist, in Boston in 1769. The family remained loyal to the crown until East Florida was ceded to Spain in 1783. They had three sons: James Grant Forbes (1769 to 1825), John Murray Forbes (1771 to 1831) and Ralph Bennet Forbes (1773 to 1824).[^1] The second son, brought up at [[Milton, Massachusetts|Milton]] and a classmate of [[John Quincy Adams]] at [[Harvard University]], was the American consul at [[Copenhagen]] and then [[Hamburg]] from 1801 to 1819, and then Adams's representative in [[Argentina]], where he died in 1831.[^1] The third son, Ralph Bennet Forbes, married Margaret Perkins in 1799. Her brothers [[James Perkins]] and [[Thomas Handasyd Perkins]] headed the Boston house of J. and T. H. Perkins, one of the largest East India merchants in the United States, which kept a branch at Canton (see [[Perkins family]]).[^1][^2] + +Ralph Bennet Forbes and Margaret Perkins had three sons, Thomas Tunno Forbes (1802 to 1829), Robert Bennet Forbes (1804 to 1889) and John Murray Forbes (1813 to 1898).[^3] John Murray Forbes wrote that the family's living in the years after his father's collapse came from "three Perkins uncles," who contributed $1,200 a year. His father was prostrated by overwork in his mid-forties and died in October 1824, about fifty-one years old, leaving five children at home.[^4] John Murray Forbes was born at [[Bordeaux]] on February 23, 1813, while his parents were travelling in France after a voyage out from Boston that had ended in a British capture.[^4] + +The eldest brother, James Grant Forbes, was the father of the Reverend John Murray Forbes (1807 to 1885) and of Paul Siemen Forbes (1808 to 1886), who lived in China. The Reverend John Murray Forbes was therefore a first cousin of Robert Bennet and John Murray Forbes of Milton. His sons were Francis Blackwell Forbes (1839 to 1908) and John Murray Forbes Jr. (1844 to 1921). Paul Siemen Forbes had three sons, William Howell Forbes (1837 to 1896), Henry De Courcy Forbes (1849 to 1920) and Paul Revere Forbes (1860 to 1936).[^3] Robert Bennet Forbes had three children, Robert Bennet Forbes Jr. (1837 to 1891), Edith Forbes, who married [[Charles Elliott Perkins]] of the [[Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad]] in 1864, and James Murray Forbes (1845 to 1937). John Murray Forbes had a daughter, Mary Hathaway Forbes, and a son, William Hathaway Forbes (1840 to 1897).[^3] + +### Thomas Tunno Forbes + +Thomas Tunno Forbes, the brother who went out to China after Robert Bennet Forbes, was head clerk, and possibly junior partner, of the Canton house of Perkins and Company under [[John Perkins Cushing]], a cousin of the family.[^5] In 1828 he succeeded Cushing as the agent of the house at Canton. On August 9, 1829 he drowned in a typhoon together with [[S. H. Monson]], the bookkeeper of Russell and Company. Among his papers was a sealed letter asking Russell and Company, in case of accident, to take charge of the local business of Perkins and Company and of J. and T. H. Perkins. The Canton house did so, and the Houqua business came with it.[^6] The Massachusetts Historical Society guide dates the junction of the Perkins interests with Russell and Company, which "went on to dominate American commerce in the Far East throughout the 19th century," to the aftermath of his death.[^1] + +### Robert Bennet Forbes + +Robert Bennet Forbes was the elder of the two brothers and the more active seaman. He left school for work, sailed to China at thirteen, received his first command at twenty and returned to Boston at twenty-eight.[^1] His memoir, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), describes an 1828 voyage in the Danube, fitted out at New York by [[Sturgis and Perkins]], to buy Turkish opium at [[Smyrna]] for the Chinese market, with a credit on [[Baring Brothers]] of about £60,000.[^7] He describes the store-ships at the [[Lintin]] anchorage, where opium was held outside the Canton river mouth and run up river in small boats, and gives the annual value of the trade as ten or twelve million dollars.[^8] He sought the command of the Lintin station ship in 1829 and 1830, with plans arranged through the Perkins family and [[Bryant and Sturgis]].[^9] In 1830 [[Augustine Heard]] arrived at Canton in the bark Lintin under Captain Forbes.[^10] + +Hunter lists Robert Bennet Forbes as admitted to the Russell and Company partnership in 1839 and as leaving for New York in July 1840. Forbes gives his own partnership as running from January 1, 1840 to January 1, 1844, and again from January 1, 1849 to January 1, 1857.[^10][^11] When he left in 1840 the chief's place passed to [[Warren Delano Jr.]] of the [[Delano family]].[^10] The Massachusetts Historical Society guide states that during his years in the Far East he became head of Russell and Company, "played a prominent role in the outbreak of the Opium War," and served as United States vice-consul.[^1] + +Forbes was one of the signers of the May 25, 1839 memorial of the American merchants at Canton, printed as House Document 40 of the 26th Congress. The memorial asked for a commercial agent and a naval force to protect American trade after the surrender of opium at Canton. Its signers include [[Russell Sturgis]], Warren Delano Jr., [[Gideon Nye Jr.]] and [[Abiel Abbot Low]].[^12] + +The Reminiscences give the fullest account of the 1847 famine voyage. During the Irish famine of 1846 and 1847 New England sent aid. At the suggestion of his brother John Murray Forbes, Robert Bennet Forbes headed a petition to Congress for the loan of a naval vessel. A joint resolution approved by President [[James K. Polk]] granted him the [[USS Jamestown]] and granted the [[USS Macedonian]] to a New Jersey captain.[^13] The Jamestown sailed from the Charlestown Navy Yard on March 28, 1847 with about eight hundred tons of supplies, anchored off [[Cork]] on April 12, and was back in Boston on May 16, forty-nine days after sailing. The Boston relief committee included [[Josiah Quincy Jr.]], then mayor, and the cargo was delivered at Cork to a committee of citizens.[^13] + +In 1861 Robert Bennet Forbes organized a Boston Coast Guard, an armed volunteer corps with boats and howitzers. On March 26, 1861 he went to Washington and urged [[Gideon Welles]], the Secretary of the Navy, to build a number of gunboats at once; Welles said he had no power to do so without Congressional action.[^14] The Coast Guard was later disbanded, its boats and guns were transferred to the navy, and many of its officers and men were taken into the navy.[^14] The Historical Society guide adds that he later consulted on the construction of gunboats and built warships for the Union Navy, and that his son James Murray Forbes went to China in 1863 at the age of eighteen, started as a clerk with Russell and Company, advanced rapidly in the firm and returned to the United States a wealthy man in 1871.[^1] + +### John Murray Forbes at Canton and Houqua + +John Murray Forbes went out to Canton in 1830 and was among the young men admitted to the Russell and Company partnership in the 1834 to 1836 intake that Hunter records.[^10] In his own notes, printed by his daughter [[Sarah Forbes Hughes]], he says that he was put into the Russell and Company office as their youngest clerk by an arrangement of Cushing's, with a private understanding that if he proved competent he would be admitted to the firm on January 1, 1834. Before Cushing left, he introduced Forbes to "his old friend Houqua," the chief of the Hong, "and recommended me to his confidence."[^15] Forbes wrote that Houqua took him as Cushing's successor and that of his brother Tom, "who had been his intimate friend," handed him the foreign letters to read and answer, and before Forbes was eighteen years old ordered him to charter whole ships and load them, with the invoices made out in Forbes's name "just as if the shipments were my own property." At one time, Forbes wrote, "I had as much as half a million dollars thus afloat."[^15] + +Houqua wrote to him from Canton on May 4, 1837: "I have given you authority to manage my business," and on August 10, 1838 told him to consult Cushing about the sale of a consignment of tea and silk piece goods.[^16] Hughes, who edited his letters and recollections in 1899, says that he served as the Boston agent of [[Houqua]] after his return, and that the agency "did not stop at Chinese and other merchandise, but embraced general investments in this country." Forbes recalled that he had the management of about half a million of Houqua's money, held at Houqua's request in his own name, with the ownership indicated in his books by the initials A. S. I., "American Stock Investment."[^17] In 1839 he gave the captain of his ship Acbar written instructions for the China coast, naming "Mr. R. B. F." as the person to be told what cargo and funds were aboard, and directing the captain to take "very quietly a pilot at once, or waiting among the islands, if anything secret is to be done, until you can see him and concert measures."[^18] + +In 1841 the notes drawn by Russell and Company for Houqua's share of the Canton ransom were deposited for collection with [[Jardine, Matheson and Company]] and [[Dent and Company]].[^19] + +### Railroads, Naushon and the Burlington + +Hughes writes that her father's business in ships and merchandise was "gradually decreasing" by 1856 and that his work was "mainly devoted to the Michigan Central," with the small roads that became the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad (CB&Q).[^20] In October 1857, when the [[Michigan Central Railroad]] was in trouble, Forbes was asked to go to [[London]] to raise a loan of two million dollars.[^21] The editor records that he had to mortgage both his Milton and his Naushon Island places to advance money to the railroads in which he was interested.[^22] + +Forbes and [[William Swain]] of New Bedford, a relative of his mother, bought Naushon Island, an island between [[Buzzards Bay]] and [[Vineyard Sound]]. From 1857 his long vacations were spent there.[^22] The directors of the CB&Q recorded in a resolution of October 18, 1898 that he was elected a director in 1857, served continuously until his death on October 12, 1898, was president of the company from 1878 to 1881, and was chairman of the board from then on.[^23] The Historical Society guide, by contrast, says that he served as president of the Burlington in the 1880s.[^1] + +### The Brown meeting and the Kansas network + +Hughes describes her father's railroad interests of 1859 as a complication. They "had led him into building" the Hannibal and St. Joseph line, the stock of which stood in the name of three trustees, he being chairman and manager. The road "ran through the heart of Missouri, a bitterly pro-slavery country," and he could not proclaim his distaste for pro-slavery methods while he represented other people's property. "On the other hand," she writes, "the railroad was the direct connecting link of Kansas with the East, and over it, supplied with money and Sharps' rifles, which he had helped to provide, came the free men from Massachusetts." With the Free-Soil party, she writes, he "worked quietly all through that time."[^24] + +In February 1859 [[Samuel Gridley Howe]] wrote to Forbes from New York introducing "Captain John Brown of Kansas," of whom he wrote: "He is of the stuff of which martyrs are made." In a second letter from Boston dated May 9, 1859 Howe wrote that Brown was in the city and would call on Forbes "at your house, or your office, as you may appoint."[^25] Forbes invited Brown and [[Franklin Benjamin Sanborn]] to Milton for tea. In the notes printed by Hughes, he wrote that "the storm continuing, we kept them over and sat up talking until after midnight." He described Brown as "a grim, farmer-like looking man, with a long gray beard and glittering, gray-blue eyes which seemed to me to have a little touch of insanity about them." Brown, he wrote, "repelled, almost with scorn, my suggestion that firmness at the ballot-box by the North and West might avert the storm," and said that it had passed the stage of ballots and "nothing but bayonets and bullets could settle it now." Forbes recorded Brown speaking of the battles of Ossawatomie and Black Jack in Kansas, and of having seen the European armies on a visit to Europe.[^26] + +Forbes then wrote: "I saw no more of him after that night; indeed did not hear much of him until his outbreak at Harper's Ferry, to which I had contributed $100 or so, supposing it to be merely for use in Kansas."[^26] The next day the Governor of Missouri, who had set a price of $3,250 on Brown's head, "appeared on railroad business" and also passed the night at Milton. Hughes adds that her father made the acquaintance at this time of [[John Albion Andrew]], then a lawyer employed to defend one of Brown's adherents.[^26][^27] + +Sanborn gives a different account of the introduction. He wrote that Howe gave him, at New York on February 5, 1859, a letter addressed to "John M. Forbes, Esq." that he never used, and that he personally introduced Brown to Forbes in May 1859 at Forbes's house in Milton.[^28] In a letter of March 4, 1859 to a correspondent, Sanborn wrote that "Dr. Howe thinks John Forbes and some others not of our party would help the project if they knew of it," and he then recorded that he sounded several anti-slavery men of wealth and influence in the spring of 1859 and obtained subscriptions from persons "willing to give to a brave man forcibly interfering with slavery, without inquiring very closely what he would do next."[^28] Sanborn also records Brown remarking, as they drove away from Forbes's house at Milton in 1859, that he had seen few houses of rich men in England so full of beauty and comfort as this one, in which he had passed the night.[^29] + +The Kansas committees of 1856 and 1857 form a separate and documented network. Sanborn describes two bodies under which Brown chiefly acted: the National Kansas Committee, formed at Buffalo in the summer of 1856 with headquarters at Chicago, and the Massachusetts State Kansas Committee, formed about the same time and lasting longer. He served as secretary of the Massachusetts committee from December 1856, and [[George L. Stearns]] was its chairman. The State committee, he wrote, bought the rifles that Brown carried to Harper's Ferry, voted them to Brown as its agent in 1857, and raised nearly $100,000 in money and supplies in Massachusetts during 1856.[^30] The membership list of the National Kansas Committee that Sanborn printed includes "W. H. Russell, New Haven, Conn."[^31] Brown's will, signed at Boston on April 13, 1857, left "all trust funds and personal property for the aid of the Free-State cause in Kansas" to Stearns, [[Samuel Cabot Jr.]] and "William H. Russell, of New Haven, Conn.," as trustees.[^32] The third trustee, from New Haven, is [[William Huntington Russell]], the Yale graduate of 1833 who co-founded [[Skull and Bones]]. Forbes is not named in the will. In the same passage as the March 1859 letter, Sanborn counts the gifts of [[Theodore Parker]], [[Thomas Wentworth Higginson]] and Stearns, and places Forbes among those "not of our party."[^28][^32] + +Sanborn's 1885 biography also contains extended passages on a different man named [[Hugh Forbes]], an English-born military adventurer whom Brown engaged as a drill-master in 1858 at a hundred dollars a month, whose manual was printed in New York, and whom Sanborn called "the false member of the little band," who "betrayed the confidence of his employer through vanity and emptiness of head, rather than through malice of heart."[^33] Hugh Forbes wrote letters of complaint and threats to Howe, [[Charles Sumner]] and others in 1858 and 1859.[^33] He is a different man from the Milton host. + +After the raid, Hughes records, Forbes wrote in his notes that the execution of Brown on December 2, 1859, "was really almost the turning-point of our own rebellion." In 1860 he was one of the electors at large chosen on the Republican ticket in Massachusetts, a position he attributed to the wish of the Free-Soil party "to ally themselves here with the business men."[^27] + +### The Massachusetts colored regiments + +In the summer of 1862 Forbes organized a Committee of a Hundred to promote the use of black men as soldiers and acted as its chairman. His notes state: "We raised, I think, about $100,000 by subscription among the most conservative Republicans." In that capacity he helped choose officers for the first two Massachusetts colored regiments, the [[54th Massachusetts Infantry Regiment]] and the [[55th Massachusetts Infantry Regiment]], "Colonel Shaw having the 54th and N. P. Hallowell the 55th." The appeal for funds to raise the regiments was not made until February 1863.[^34] He wrote to [[William Pitt Fessenden]] urging an amendment to carry out the government's promise of equal pay to those two regiments.[^35] + +Robert Gould Shaw, colonel of the 54th, was a cousin of Forbes. Shaw was killed while leading the regiment against [[Fort Wagner]] in July 1863, and the death grieved Forbes. After the war Forbes was president of the committee that raised the fund for the [[Robert Gould Shaw Memorial]], which stands on the edge of the [[Boston Common]] facing the State House, at the spot where Governor John Albion Andrew had bidden the regiment farewell.[^36] + +### The 1863 mission and the Republican party + +In 1863 Forbes and [[William Henry Aspinwall]] were entrusted with ten million dollars in 5-20 government bonds and went to England on a mission for the Treasury and Navy. They arranged a loan of five hundred thousand pounds from Baring Brothers for the account of the United States government.[^37] The letters from the mission include correspondence with [[John Bright]] and [[Joshua Bates]] and a discussion of the Laird rams.[^37] The Historical Society guide describes the journey as one made "to prevent the Laird 'rams' from falling into Confederate hands."[^1] + +Forbes was an active Republican through the war. The editor records that he retired from the Republican party on the nomination of [[James G. Blaine]] in 1884, and wrote to the chairman of the Independents.[^38] + +### William Hathaway Forbes + +William Hathaway Forbes, the elder son of John Murray Forbes and Sarah Hathaway, served in the First Massachusetts Cavalry and was taken prisoner in 1864, then held on parole and exchanged.[^39] He married [[Edith Emerson]] in 1865.[^40] The editor describes the success of "my elder brother, as president of the American Bell Telephone Company," and writes that the father's pride in it came because "it showed that he had real ability, and was not spoiled by his too easy surroundings."[^41] + +In the 1887 argument over the Government's suit to annul the Bell patent, counsel for the company reproduced the stipulation under which the United States took testimony in Europe on the telephone of Philipp Reis. It is signed "American Bell Telephone Company, by W. H. Forbes, Prest.," and by G. A. Jenks, Solicitor General, acting Attorney General in the matter.[^42] The Historical Society guide calls him "the first president of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company."[^1] + +### W. Cameron Forbes + +William Cameron Forbes, the son of William Hathaway Forbes and Edith Emerson, is named in the family letters as a grandchild of John Murray Forbes.[^41] + +In the Philippines, where he was secretary of commerce and police, he was appointed Vice-Governor on July 1, 1908. When [[James F. Smith]] left the islands on May 7, 1909, Forbes became acting president of the Commission and Governor-General.[^43] Smith's resignation took effect on November 11, 1909, and Forbes "became Governor-General by appointment of President Taft"; the formal inauguration was held on November 24.[^44] He left for the United States on six months' leave on March 15, 1912, returned on January 18, 1913, and submitted his resignation, effective September 1, 1913; his successor, Francis Burton Harrison, assumed office at Washington on September 2.[^45][^46] + +On February 4, 1930 President [[Herbert Hoover]] described the purpose of a special commission to Haiti: "The primary question which is to be investigated is when and how we are to withdraw from Haiti." On February 7 he named W. Cameron Forbes of Massachusetts chairman, with Henry P. Fletcher, Elie Vezina, James Kerney and William Allen White.[^47] The commission sailed from Key West on the U.S.S. Rochester on February 25, reached [[Port-au-Prince]] on February 28 and sat in public sessions at the Excelsior Hotel. On March 7 the chairman telegraphed Hoover: "The Commission finds the situation in Haiti critical and the people greatly inflamed." The telegram reported that the leagues of the opposition would not accept an election of a President by the Council of State, an appointive body that had elected and reelected President Louis Borno. It described a plan under which delegates of the leagues would endorse a compromise candidate, neutral and out of politics, whom the Council of State would elect, and who would call elections for the legislature and then resign.[^48] The commission's report to Hoover is dated March 26, 1930.[^47] Telegrams of December 1930 from the American High Commissioner refer to the "Forbes plan" and to Haiti's plan for the "immediate Haitianization of the Public Services."[^49] + +As ambassador in Japan during the Manchurian crisis, Forbes sent telegrams from Tokyo to the Secretary of State. On September 19, 1931, the day after the Mukden incident, he reported that the Japanese Foreign Office described a minor clash between Japanese railway guards and Chinese soldiers just north of Mukden, which the Japanese Army had since occupied, and that, judging it unwise to cancel his voyage home as such action might be misconstrued, he would sail that afternoon on the Empress of Japan.[^50] On October 1, 1931 he was in Washington, and Secretary [[Henry L. Stimson]] arranged for him to call on [[William Rhinelander Castle]], the under secretary of state.[^51] On November 12 he reported that [[Kijuro Shidehara]] had said Japan would withdraw troops in Manchuria to the railway zone on the satisfaction of either of two conditions, satisfactory police conditions or acceptance of five points, and recommended that the League of Nations and the United States express approval of the police plan; the Department sent the text to the charge in France with instructions that a noncommittal attitude be taken.[^51] On November 18 he reported the General Staff's statement that an additional division was being considered for Manchuria and three more air squadrons had gone there.[^51] He resigned as ambassador on March 22, 1932.[^52] + +### The Forbes line and John Kerry + +Francis Blackwell Forbes (1839 to 1908), a son of the Reverend John Murray Forbes (1807 to 1885), went to China in 1857 after schooling at Columbia College Grammar School in New York and became a partner in Russell and Company. He was active in the Shanghai Steam Navigation Company, served as consul at [[Shanghai]] for Norway and Sweden, became a specialist in Chinese botany and wrote papers on the Burlingame Mission. He married Isabel Clarke in 1867, left China for Europe in the early 1880s, became managing director of the Serrell Automatic Silk Reeling Company, and was hit hard by its failure in 1894 and by the earlier failure of Russell and Company in 1891.[^3] His children included James Grant Forbes (1879 to 1955), born at Shanghai on October 22, 1879, who died at Paris.[^53] + +James Grant Forbes married Margaret Tyndal Winthrop, a daughter of Robert Charles Winthrop Jr., at Boston on November 28, 1906. Their daughter Rosemary Isabel Forbes was born at Paris on October 27, 1913, married Richard John Kerry at Montgomery, Alabama on February 8, 1941, and died at Manchester-by-the-Sea, Massachusetts on November 14, 2002. Their son [[John Kerry]], born December 11, 1943, was a grandson of James Grant Forbes.[^53] John Kerry is listed under the class of 1966 in the index of Skull and Bones members that [[Antony C. Sutton]] reproduces.[^54] + +The descent runs through the Reverend John Murray Forbes, the son of James Grant Forbes (1769 to 1825), the eldest brother of Ralph Bennet Forbes. It does not run through Ralph Bennet Forbes, Robert Bennet Forbes or John Murray Forbes of Milton, who were first cousins of the Reverend John Murray Forbes.[^3] + +### The 1891 failure of Russell and Company + +The 1889 Chronicle and Directory for China lists the firm at Hong Kong, "Russell & Co., merchants, Praya," with the partners "William H. Forbes; John M. Forbes (New York); S. W. Pomeroy (London); Charles Vincent Smith (Shanghai); F. D. Bush (New York); G. H. Wheeler (Shanghai); E. H. M. Huntington; C. A. Tomes." The Shanghai entry gives the same list, with "Wm. H. Forbes (Hongkong)" and "John M. Forbes (New York)." Its residents' list has "Forbes, W. H., (Russell & Co.) merchant, Praya" and "Forbes, John M. (Russell & Co.) merchant, Praya (absent)." A separate "W. H. Forbes" of Hatch, Forbes and Company, merchants at Tientsin, appears elsewhere in the same volume. The directory lists the Russell and Company William H. Forbes among the directors of the China Fire Insurance Company and on committees at Hong Kong.[^55] The 1892 volume's chronology of Hong Kong carries the entry "Russell & Co., suspend payment, 1891."[^56] + +On July 22, 1891 the [[Hong Kong Daily Press]] reported a petition in bankruptcy before the Acting Chief Justice, E. J. Ackroyd, by Mook Hang Shan, a Canton merchant, against "W. H. Forbes, J. M. Forbes, A. W. Pomeroy, Chas. V. Smith, and C. A. Tomes, trading under the style of Russell & Co. at Hongkong and elsewhere."[^57] On September 2, 1891 the same paper reported a suit over Hong Kong land that had been registered in the Land Office as the property of "John Murray Forbes, junior," and in which counsel read an affidavit stating that Russell and Company had become insolvent in June. The same report records that John Murray Forbes, trustee for How Qua, held an equitable charge for 253,000 taels with interest at seven per cent.[^58] + +On December 10, 1891 the paper printed the report of the official assignee in the bankruptcy of Charles Alexander Tomes, a junior partner. The report states that Tomes "was adjudicated bankrupt, with William Howell Forbes, the senior partner at the firm," on July 22, 1891. It names "John Murray Forbes" as "another partner of the firm who conducted the business in New York" and whose sanction the junior partner's admission had never received. It states that the partners entered into a trust deed on June 9, 1891, under the laws of New York, with Henry Hannah of New York as trustee for the benefit of their creditors.[^59] The [[Hong Kong Telegraph]] of August 31, 1891 printed a letter from the [[National Bank of China]], Limited, which referred to "the failure of Russell & Co. in June" as cancelling the firm's agreement to act as secretaries of the bank.[^60] + +Sarah Forbes Hughes wrote that her father, who had left the house years before, was grieved by "the failure of his old house in China, Russell & Co., occasioned by some speculations in steamers and the close competition by German commission merchants," and that the suspension of Baring Brothers gave him "an actual physical shock."[^61] + +The Historical Society's genealogy for the family papers has one William Howell Forbes, born in 1837 and died in 1896, a son of Paul Siemen Forbes, who lived in China, and it lists William Hathaway Forbes (1840 to 1897) separately. It has one John Murray Forbes Jr. (1844 to 1921), a brother of Francis Blackwell Forbes, whose business letters from Boston, New York and China run from 1879 to 1906. The collection also holds letters from Francis Blackwell Forbes in China, London and Paris to William Howell Forbes, John Murray Forbes Jr., the Russell and Company partners S. W. Pomeroy and G. H. Wheeler, and the firm itself.[^62] On these records the Hong Kong senior partner of 1889 to 1891 is William Howell Forbes, a first cousin of Francis Blackwell Forbes, and the New York partner "John M. Forbes" and the "John Murray Forbes, junior" of the land record are John Murray Forbes Jr. The Boston railroad builder John Murray Forbes (1813 to 1898) had left the firm decades earlier, and William Hathaway Forbes of the Bell company is a separate man from William Howell Forbes.[^61][^62] + +### Footnotes + +[^1]: Massachusetts Historical Society, *Forbes Family Papers, 1732-1931* (Ms. N-49), collection guide, biographical sketch (Rev. John Forbes and Dorothy Murray; their three sons; Ralph Bennet Forbes and Margaret Perkins; Thomas Tunno, Robert Bennet and John Murray Forbes; the Russell and Company merger; the Opium War, vice-consulship, Union navy and Laird rams passages; William Hathaway Forbes; James Murray Forbes). https://www.masshist.org/collection-guides/view/fa0269 +[^2]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, 1899), vol. 1, introduction, pp. 2-3. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb +[^3]: Massachusetts Historical Society, *Forbes Family Papers* (Ms. N-49), collection guide, biographical sketch of Francis Blackwell Forbes, Paul Siemen Forbes and James Murray Forbes, and Appendix, "Condensed Genealogy of the Forbes Family." https://www.masshist.org/collection-guides/view/fa0269 +[^4]: John Murray Forbes, notes in Hughes, vol. 1, pp. 38-40 (birth at Bordeaux, the three Perkins uncles and their $1,200 a year, and his father's death in October 1824). https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb +[^5]: Hughes, vol. 1, pp. 50-62 (Thomas Tunno Forbes at Canton under J. P. Cushing, and his death in China). https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb +[^6]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 118-119 (the death of Thomas T. Forbes and S. H. Monson on August 9, 1829, the sealed letter to Russell and Company and the Houqua business). https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog +[^7]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (Boston: Little, Brown, 1882), pp. 123-125 (the 1828 Danube voyage to Smyrna, the Baring credit). https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog +[^8]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences*, pp. 142-144 (the store-ships at Lintin, the smuggling boats, the annual value of the trade). https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog +[^9]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences*, pp. 131-132 (plans for the Lintin station command in 1829 and 1830, arranged with the Perkins family and Bryant and Sturgis). https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog +[^10]: Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton*, pp. 156-157 (partner admissions and departures, including Robert Bennet Forbes in 1839, the 1834 to 1836 admissions with John Murray Forbes, Warren Delano Jr. from 1840, and Augustine Heard's arrival in 1830 in the Lintin under Captain Forbes). https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog +[^11]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences*, p. 223 (partnership in Russell and Company from January 1, 1840 to January 1, 1844, and from January 1, 1849 to January 1, 1857). https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog +[^12]: U.S. House of Representatives, 26th Congress, 1st session, H. Doc. 40, "Merchants of the United States at Canton, China. Memorial of R. B. Forbes and others," January 9, 1840 (signatures dated Canton, May 25, 1839). https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/SERIALSET-00364_00_00-030-0040-0000 +[^13]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences*, pp. 188-190 (the Jamestown expedition: the petition at his brother's suggestion, the joint resolution, the sailing from Charlestown on March 28, 1847, the arrival at Cork on April 12, the return on May 16, the relief committee). https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog +[^14]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences*, pp. 261-263 (the interview with Gideon Welles on March 26, 1861, the Boston Coast Guard, its disbandment and the men taken into the navy). https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog +[^15]: John Murray Forbes, notes in Hughes, vol. 1, pp. 62-64 (arrival at Canton, the office of Russell and Company as youngest clerk, the understanding of admission on January 1, 1834, introduction to Houqua, the chartered ships, "half a million dollars thus afloat"). https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb +[^16]: Hughes, vol. 1, pp. 98-99 (Houqua to John Murray Forbes, Canton, May 4, 1837 and August 10, 1838). https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb +[^17]: Hughes, vol. 1, pp. 100-101 (the agency for Houqua in Boston, which "embraced general investments in this country," and Forbes's recollection of the A. S. I. account). https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb +[^18]: Hughes, vol. 1, pp. 101-102 (instructions to Captain Philip Dumaresq of the Acbar on leaving Boston for Canton in 1839). https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb +[^19]: Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton*, pp. 45-47 (the three promissory notes of 400,000, 400,000 and 300,000 dollars drawn by Russell and Company in Houqua's favour, deposited with Jardine, Matheson and Company and Dent and Company). https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog +[^20]: Hughes, vol. 1, pp. 138 and 160 (the Michigan Central, the small roads forming the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, the ocean telegraph and the decline of the China business). https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb +[^21]: Hughes, vol. 1, pp. 168-169 (the October 1857 request that Forbes go to London to raise a loan of two million dollars for the Michigan Central). https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb +[^22]: Hughes, vol. 1, introduction, pp. 16-17 (the purchase of Naushon with Governor Swain, the family's summers there from 1857, and the mortgage of the Milton and Naushon places to advance money to railroads). https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb +[^23]: Hughes, vol. 2, p. 237 (death on Wednesday, October 12, 1898) and Appendix A, pp. 239-240 (resolution of the board of directors of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, October 18, 1898). https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect02forb +[^24]: Hughes, vol. 1, pp. 176-177 (the Hannibal and St. Joseph, the railroad as "the direct connecting link of Kansas with the East," the Sharps' rifles and the Free-Soil party). https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb +[^25]: Hughes, vol. 1, pp. 178-179 (S. G. Howe to J. M. Forbes, New York, February 5, 1859, and Boston, May 9, 1859). https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb +[^26]: Hughes, vol. 1, pp. 179-182 (John Murray Forbes's notes on the visit of Captain Brown and Franklin B. Sanborn to Milton, Brown's account of Ossawatomie and Black Jack, the "$100 or so" contributed to the Harper's Ferry enterprise "supposing it to be merely for use in Kansas," and the visit of the Governor of Missouri). https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb +[^27]: Hughes, vol. 1, pp. 182-183 (the footnote on Brown's execution on December 2, 1859, the meeting with John A. Andrew, and Forbes's election as an elector at large in 1860). https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb +[^28]: Sanborn, *Life and Letters of John Brown* (1885), p. 493 (Sanborn's letter of March 4, 1859, the spring 1859 subscriptions, and the note on the Howe letter of February 5, 1859 addressed to "John M. Forbes, Esq." that he "never used," with the personal introduction in May 1859 at Milton). https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofjoh00sanb +[^29]: Franklin Benjamin Sanborn, *The Life and Letters of John Brown: Liberator of Kansas, and Martyr of Virginia* (Boston: Roberts Brothers, 1885), p. 71 (Brown's remark on leaving "the country seat of Mr. John M. Forbes at Milton, near Boston" in 1859). https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofjoh00sanb +[^30]: Sanborn, *Life and Letters of John Brown* (1885), pp. 346-349 (the National Kansas Committee and the Massachusetts State Kansas Committee, Sanborn's secretaryship from December 1856, the rifles bought and voted to Brown, the $100,000 raised in Massachusetts in 1856, and the transfer of the committee's records to its chairman George L. Stearns). https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofjoh00sanb +[^31]: Sanborn, *Life and Letters of John Brown* (1885), p. 352 (the members of the National Kansas Committee, including "W. H. Russell, New Haven, Conn."). https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofjoh00sanb +[^32]: Sanborn, *Life and Letters of John Brown* (1885), pp. 385-386 (text of John Brown's will, Boston, April 13, 1857). https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofjoh00sanb +[^33]: Sanborn, *Life and Letters of John Brown* (1885), pp. 388-390 and 425-431 (Hugh Forbes as drill-master, his manual printed in New York, the "false member of the little band," and his letters of 1858 and 1859). https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofjoh00sanb +[^34]: Hughes, vol. 1, pp. 323-324 (the Committee of a Hundred for the use of blacks as soldiers, of which Forbes was chairman, the $100,000, and his part in choosing officers and raising men for the 54th and 55th). https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb +[^35]: Hughes, vol. 2, chapter XVI (letter to W. P. Fessenden on the pay of the 54th and 55th regiments). https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect02forb +[^36]: Hughes, vol. 2, pp. 67-68 (the death of Robert Shaw, "his young cousin," at Fort Wagner; Forbes as president of the committee for the Shaw Memorial). https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect02forb +[^37]: Hughes, vol. 2, contents, chapters XIV and XV ("Mission to England," "The Mission and Its Results": ten million dollars in 5-20's, five hundred thousand pounds borrowed from Barings, Friends' leaders, the Laird rams, letters from John Bright and Joshua Bates). https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect02forb +[^38]: Hughes, vol. 2, contents, chapter XX ("Retirement from Republican party on Blaine's nomination in 1884"; "Letter to chairman of the Independents"). https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect02forb +[^39]: Hughes, vol. 2, contents and index (the son William taken prisoner in 1864; William Hathaway Forbes, pp. 97-99). https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect02forb +[^40]: Massachusetts Historical Society, *Forbes Family Papers* (Ms. N-49), Appendix, "Condensed Genealogy": William Hathaway Forbes (1840-1897) m. Edith Emerson, 1865. https://www.masshist.org/collection-guides/view/fa0269 +[^41]: Hughes, vol. 1, introduction (the editor on "my elder brother, as president of the American Bell Telephone Company," and on the grandchildren Edith and Cameron Forbes). https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb +[^42]: *The Telephone Appeals* (January 24-February 8, 1887), argument of counsel for the American Bell Telephone Company, note reproducing the stipulation signed "American Bell Telephone Company, by W. H. Forbes, Prest." and "G. A. Jenks, Solicitor General, acting Attorney General in this matter." https://archive.org/details/telephoneappeals00dickrich +[^43]: Report of the Philippine Commission to the Secretary of War, 1909 (Annual Reports, War Department, fiscal year ended June 30, 1909), "Changes in the Commission," pp. 39-40 (Forbes appointed Vice-Governor July 1, 1908; Smith leaves May 7, 1909 and Forbes becomes acting president and Governor-General). https://archive.org/details/reportofphi00unit +[^44]: Report of the Philippine Commission to the Secretary of War, 1910, Report of the Governor-General, p. 23 ("On November 11, 1909, the resignation of Governor-General Smith took effect, and the undersigned became Governor-General by appointment of President Taft. The formal inauguration was held on November 24"). https://archive.org/details/reportofphilip00unit +[^45]: Report of the Philippine Commission to the Secretary of War, 1912, Report of the Governor-General (leave of six months from March 15, 1912, with an Acting Governor-General). https://archive.org/details/reportofphili00unit +[^46]: Report of the Philippine Commission to the Secretary of War, 1913, Report of the Governor-General (return from leave on January 18, 1913; resignation effective September 1, 1913; Francis Burton Harrison assumed office at Washington on September 2). https://archive.org/details/reportofphil00unit +[^47]: *Foreign Relations of the United States*, 1930, vol. III, Report of the President's Commission for the Study and Review of Conditions in the Republic of Haiti, Washington, March 26, 1930 (appointment on February 7, 1930; members; the President's statement of February 4). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1930v03 +[^48]: *Foreign Relations of the United States*, 1930, vol. III, telegram from the Chairman of the President's Commission (Forbes) to President Hoover, Port-au-Prince, March 7, 1930 (file 838.00 Commission of Investigation/132); report narrative of the voyage on the U.S.S. Rochester and the sessions at Port-au-Prince. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1930v03 +[^49]: *Foreign Relations of the United States*, 1930, vol. III, despatches from Port-au-Prince of December 1930 on the Haitianization plan "based upon the recommendations of the Forbes Commission." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1930v03 +[^50]: *Foreign Relations of the United States*, 1931, vol. III, telegram from the Ambassador in Japan (Forbes) to the Secretary of State, Tokyo, September 19, 1931, noon, no. 150 (793.94/1797). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1931v03 +[^51]: *Foreign Relations of the United States*, 1931, vol. III, memorandum by the Secretary of State, October 1, 1931 (793.94/2143) and memorandum by the Under Secretary (Castle) of the same date; telegram from Forbes, November 12, 1931, no. 215 (793.94/2624 and 793.94/2625) and the Secretary's telegram to the Charge in France, November 13; telegram no. 222, November 18, 1931 (793.94/2744). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1931v03 +[^52]: *Foreign Relations of the United States*, 1932, vol. III, list of persons, "Forbes, W. Cameron, Ambassador to Japan (resigned March 22)." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1932v03 +[^53]: Holcombe genealogy, person page 547 (Francis Blackwell Forbes and Isabel Clark as parents of James Grant Forbes, born Shanghai, October 22, 1879, died Paris, April 24, 1955; his marriage on November 28, 1906 to Margaret Tyndal Winthrop, daughter of Robert Charles Winthrop Jr.; Rosemary Isabel Forbes, born Paris, October 27, 1913, married February 8, 1941 at Montgomery, Alabama, died November 14, 2002 at Manchester-by-the-Sea; John Forbes Kerry, born December 11, 1943). https://www.holcombegenealogy.com/g0/p547.htm +[^54]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1966 (Kerry, John Forbes). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^55]: *The Chronicle and Directory for China, Corea, Japan, the Philippines, etc., for the Year 1889*, Hongkong firms ("Russell & Co., merchants, Praya"), Shanghai firms ("Russell & Co., merchants, The Bund"), the Hongkong residents' list, the China Fire Insurance Company directors and the Tientsin firm Hatch, Forbes and Company. https://archive.org/details/Directorychronicle1889 +[^56]: *The Chronicle and Directory of China, etc., for 1892*, Hongkong chronological table, "Russell & Co., suspend payment, 1891." https://archive.org/details/Directorychronicle1892 +[^57]: *Hong Kong Daily Press*, July 22, 1891, p. 2, "In Bankruptcy," before Mr. E. J. Ackroyd, Acting Chief Justice (petition against the partners of Russell & Co.). https://archive.org/details/NPDP18910722 +[^58]: *Hong Kong Daily Press*, September 2, 1891, p. 2, Supreme Court, September 1, 1891, No Chi Kiu and four others v. Ng Woon Soon and others (Hong Kong lots registered as the property of John Murray Forbes, junior; the equitable charge in favour of John Murray Forbes, trustee for How Qua; the insolvency of Russell and Co. in June). https://archive.org/details/NPDP18910902 +[^59]: *Hong Kong Daily Press*, December 10, 1891, "In Bankruptcy," last examination of Charles Alexander Tomes and report of the Official Assignee (William Howell Forbes as senior partner; John Murray Forbes conducting the New York business; trust deed of June 9, 1891). https://archive.org/details/NPDP18911210 +[^60]: *Hong Kong Telegraph*, August 31, 1891, p. 3, letter to the editor from the head office of the National Bank of China, Limited, signed A. B. McKean. https://archive.org/details/NPTG18910831 +[^61]: Hughes, vol. 2, pp. 224-225 (the failure of Russell & Co., the suspension of Baring Brothers and the editor's account of her father's last years, with John Murray Forbes having "left it years before"). https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect02forb +[^62]: Massachusetts Historical Society, *Forbes Family Papers* (Ms. N-49), genealogy and folder lists: William Howell Forbes (1837-1896); John Murray Forbes Jr. (1844-1921), "Business letters ... in Boston, New York, and China, 1879-1906" (reel 27); letters from Francis Blackwell Forbes to William Howell Forbes, John Murray Forbes Jr., S. W. Pomeroy, G. H. Wheeler and Russell & Co. (reels 21-22). https://www.masshist.org/collection-guides/view/fa0269 diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Frederic Adrian Delano.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Frederic Adrian Delano.md new file mode 100644 index 00000000..6278386f --- /dev/null +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Frederic Adrian Delano.md @@ -0,0 +1,344 @@ +--- +created: 2026-10-26 +updated: 2026-10-26 +aliases: + - Frederic Adrian Delano + - Frederick Adrian Delano + - Frederic A. Delano + - Frederick A. Delano + - F. A. Delano + - Frederic Delano +category: "Intelligence & Government" +tags: + - Person + - Delano + - DelanoFamily + - Roosevelt + - Railroads + - Wabash + - Monon + - FederalReserve + - RegionalPlan + - NationalResourcesPlanningBoard + - LeagueOfNations + - OpiumTrade + - Persia + - Smithsonian + - RussellSageFoundation + - WorldWarOne + - ChinaDefenseSupplies + - FlyingTigers +summary: "Railroad executive and vice governor of the Federal Reserve Board who chaired the League of Nations opium commission in Persia and the National Planning Board, and was the uncle of Franklin D. Roosevelt." +location: "Hong Kong; Chicago; Newburgh, New York; Washington, D.C." +relations: + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]" + role: "maternal uncle of the President" + fn: 1 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Warren Delano Jr.]]" + role: "son of Warren Delano Jr. and Catherine Robbins Lyman" + fn: 1 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Sara Delano Roosevelt]]" + role: "brother of Sara Delano Roosevelt" + fn: 4 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Lyman Delano]]" + role: "uncle of Lyman Delano, son of Warren Delano III" + fn: 3 + - type: spouse_of + with: "[[Matilda Annis Peasley]]" + start: 1888-11-22 + role: "married at Chicago" + fn: 3 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad]]" + start: 1885-01-01 + end: 1905-12-31 + role: "machinist's apprentice (1885), then superintendent of freight terminals, superintendent of motive power (1899), vice president (1901) and general manager at Chicago" + fn: 6 + - type: head_of + with: "[[Wabash Railroad]]" + start: 1905-10-05 + end: 1911-12-31 + role: "president, succeeding Joseph Ramsey Jr." + fn: 9 + - type: appointed + with: "[[Wabash Railroad]]" + start: 1911-12-01 + end: 1913-12-31 + role: "receiver with Edward B. Pryor and William K. Bixby under Judge Elmer B. Adams" + fn: 14 + - type: head_of + with: "[[Chicago, Indianapolis and Louisville Railway]]" + start: 1913-12-27 + end: 1914-08-10 + role: "president (the Monon)" + fn: 14 + - type: appointed + with: "[[Federal Reserve Board]]" + start: 1914-08-10 + end: 1916-08-09 + role: "vice governor" + fn: 16 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Federal Reserve Board]]" + start: 1916-08-10 + end: 1918-07-21 + role: "member, resigned for service with the Army Engineer Corps in France" + fn: 19 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond]]" + start: 1921-01-01 + end: 1936-12-31 + role: "Class C director; chairman from March to December 1936" + fn: 16 + - type: participant_in + with: "[[American Expeditionary Forces]]" + start: 1918-07-21 + end: 1919-10-25 + role: "Army Engineer Corps officer, then lieutenant colonel and colonel of the Transportation Corps, deputy director general of transportation" + fn: 15 + - type: appointed + with: "[[Supreme Court of the United States]]" + start: 1920-04-01 + end: 1925-06-01 + role: "receiver of the disputed Red River lands in Oklahoma v. Texas" + fn: 22 + - type: head_of + with: "[[League of Nations]]" + start: 1925-12-01 + end: 1927-09-30 + role: "chairman of the Commission of Enquiry into the Production of Opium in Persia" + fn: 24 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Russell Sage Foundation]]" + start: 1922-05-10 + end: 1939-12-31 + role: "trustee; declined re-election when his term expired in November 1939" + fn: 36 + - type: head_of + with: "[[Regional Plan of New York and Its Environs]]" + start: 1923-04-01 + end: 1929-12-31 + role: "chairman of the committee after Charles Dyer Norton died in March 1923" + fn: 36 + - type: head_of + with: "[[National Capital Park and Planning Commission]]" + start: 1924-01-01 + end: 1942-12-31 + role: "chairman" + fn: 37 + - type: head_of + with: "[[National Planning Board]]" + start: 1933-07-20 + end: 1934-06-30 + role: "chairman, within the Federal Emergency Administration of Public Works" + fn: 44 + - type: member_of + with: "[[National Resources Committee]]" + start: 1935-06-07 + end: 1939-06-30 + role: "vice chairman, as listed in 1937" + fn: 45 + - type: head_of + with: "[[National Resources Planning Board]]" + start: 1939-07-01 + end: 1943-08-31 + role: "chairman until the Board was abolished by the appropriation act of June 26, 1943" + fn: 51 + - type: participant_in + with: "[[China Defense Supplies]]" + start: 1941-01-01 + role: "director or honorary counselor, according to accounts by Seagrave and Ford; subject file in the Roosevelt Library papers" + fn: 57 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Smithsonian Institution]]" + start: 1935-08-07 + end: 1947-08-21 + role: "citizen regent, reappointed by joint resolutions of August 7, 1935 and August 21, 1941" + fn: 52 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Carnegie Institution of Washington]]" + start: 1944-07-01 + role: "secretary of the board of trustees" + fn: 54 +--- + +Frederic Adrian Delano (September 10, 1863 to March 28, 1953) was a railroad executive, a member of the [[Federal Reserve Board]] from 1914 to 1918, an Army transportation officer in France, the chairman of the League of Nations commission of enquiry into opium production in Persia, and the chairman of the [[National Planning Board]] and later of the [[National Resources Planning Board]]. He was the son of [[Warren Delano Jr.]], a partner in [[Russell and Company]], and the uncle of [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]].[^1] + +### Birth, family and Harvard + +The [[Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library]] finding aid for his papers states that "Frederic Adrian Delano, Franklin D. Roosevelt's uncle, was born in Hong Kong, China on September 10, 1863." His father was then a partner in Russell and Company at [[Hong Kong]]. A few years later the family returned to [[Algonac]], the family home near [[Newburgh, New York]], where he spent much of his childhood.[^1] He graduated from [[Harvard University]] in 1885, and the class secretary's report lists him under natural history.[^2] + +On November 22, 1888 at [[Chicago]] he married [[Matilda Annis Peasley]], a daughter of James C. Peasley and Louisa (Green) Peasley of Burlington, Iowa. The 1899 family genealogy lists three daughters: Catherine, born November 25, 1889; Louise, born August 1, 1891; and Laura, born February 23, 1893.[^3] Two of them, Catherine Delano Grant and Laura Delano Houghteling, gave his papers to the Roosevelt Library, and Laura Delano Houghteling was co-executrix of his estate.[^1] + +His sister [[Sara Delano Roosevelt]] married [[James Roosevelt]] in 1880. The family papers hold her letters to the family from 1863 to 1877 and the condolences received on the death of his other sister, Laura Franklin Delano, in 1884. His nephew was [[Lyman Delano]], a son of Warren Delano III.[^4][^3] + +### The Chicago, Burlington and Quincy + +He entered the [[Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad]] in 1885 as a machinist's apprentice. The biography printed when he was nominated to the Federal Reserve Board gives the sequence: railway inspection tests from 1887 to 1889, a year as assistant to the second vice president, nine years as superintendent of freight terminals at Chicago, two years as superintendent of motive power, and four years as general manager, ending in 1905. The same biography says that he then served for a short period as consulting engineer for the [[United States War Department]] and the [[Philippine Commission]].[^5] The railroad trade press of April 1905 records that he became superintendent of motive power in 1899 and in 1901 vice president and general manager of the lines east of the Missouri River, a position he resigned in the latter part of 1904, and the Roosevelt Library finding aid gives his service as general manager as 1901 through 1904.[^6][^1] + +In its 1912 report on the foundation named for [[Charles Elliott Perkins]], a member of the [[Perkins family]], the [[Harvard Commission on Western History]] wrote: "Both Elliott and Delano were trained under Mr. Perkins, in whose memory the Foundation is named." The same report describes Delano, class of 1885, as president of the [[Wabash Railroad]].[^7] + +### The Wabash and the Monon + +In April 1905 Delano was elected president of the [[Wabash-Pittsburg Terminal Railway]] and vice president in charge of all Wabash properties, with [[Henry Miller]] as general manager. The wire reports of the election described the appointment as part of the reorganization of the roads of [[George J. Gould]].[^6][^8] On October 5, 1905 the directors of the Wabash removed the president, [[Joseph Ramsey Jr.]], "on the ground that he had made an attack upon the railroad," and elected Delano in his place. The directors present besides Ramsey were Gould, [[Edgar T. Welles]], Thomas H. Hubbard, John T. Terry, Winslow S. Pierce and E. T. Jeffery, and Delano was also present. Ramsey sought an injunction on the ground that the [[Missouri Pacific Railroad]] was a competing parallel line with the Wabash, and the account of the meeting calls [[Russell Sage]] "for years a friend and ally of Jay Gould." Delano had succeeded Ramsey several months earlier as president of the [[Wheeling and Lake Erie Railway]] and of the Wabash-Pittsburg Terminal.[^9] + +The Wabash directors re-elected him in October 1908, and the minutes of a court record of 1907 identify him as "president of the said defendant The Wabash Railroad Company."[^10][^11][^12] + +In December 1911 the Wabash was forced into receivership, and Delano was appointed one of its receivers.[^5] The receivers were Delano, [[Edward B. Pryor]] and [[William K. Bixby]], under Judge [[Elmer B. Adams]] of the United States Circuit Court of Appeals. The annual reports for 1912 and 1913 list the receivers and the directors, who included Gould, Robert Goelet, H. Rogers Winthrop, Pierce and Jeffery.[^13] When Delano left the receivership, the judge's letter, as published in December 1913, called him an "honest, faithful and efficient public servant," and the published notice added: "No successor will be appointed, Bixby and Pryor continuing to administer the receivership."[^14] + +On December 27, 1913 the trade press reported his election as president of the [[Chicago, Indianapolis and Louisville Railway]], "known as the Monon," in succession to [[Fairfax Harrison]], who had become president of the [[Southern Railway]].[^14] The Roosevelt Library finding aid dates his Monon presidency to January 1911 and his resignation to August 10, 1914, on his appointment to the Federal Reserve Board.[^1] The 1914 biography calls him "now president" of the Chicago, Indianapolis and Louisville road when he was nominated to the Board.[^5] A January 1919 article described him as "formerly president of the Wabash and later of the Monon."[^15] + +### The Federal Reserve Board + +President [[Woodrow Wilson]] nominated Delano in August 1914 "to take the place of [[Thomas D. Jones]], the Chicago banker whose name was withdrawn as a candidate for the Federal Reserve Board."[^5] He took office as vice governor on August 10, 1914, one of the five members appointed by Wilson to the first Board, and served as vice governor until August 9, 1916. He remained a member until July 21, 1918.[^16] + +The Board's January 1916 bulletin lists "FREDERIC A. DELANO, Vice Governor," with [[Charles S. Hamlin]] as governor.[^17] The minutes of March 6, 1916 record "Present: Mr. Hamlin, Governor; Mr. Delano, Vice Governor; Mr. Miller; Mr. Harding; Mr. Warburg; Mr. Williams," and the Board's report for 1916 carries the signatures of [[William P. G. Harding]] as governor, [[Paul M. Warburg]] as vice governor and Delano as a member.[^18] + +In late June 1918 Delano asked the President to release him from the Board so that he could serve with the American forces in France as an officer of the [[United States Army Engineer Corps]] engaged in the construction and operation of military railways. The Board's minutes, reproduced in the July 1, 1918 bulletin, read: "The Board has heard with extreme regret of the proposed resignation of Mr. F. A. Delano." The entry continues: "Mr. Delano has served two years as vice governor of the Board and for nearly two years additional as member." The bulletin notes that his retirement "constitutes the first change" in the membership since the Board was organized.[^19] + +After the war Delano returned to Federal Reserve service as a Class C director of the [[Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond]] from 1921, and he chaired the Richmond bank's board from March to December 1936.[^16] + +### The Army Transportation Corps in France + +The [[Federal Reserve History]] profile states that Delano served as a major in the Army Engineer Corps at Tours. It records that in October 1918 he was promoted to lieutenant colonel of the [[Transportation Corps]] and appointed deputy director general of transportation for the [[American Expeditionary Forces]], that he became a colonel of the Transportation Corps in May 1919, and that he was discharged on October 25, 1919. In January 1920, the profile states, he was "appointed command colonel engineer for the Reserve Corps."[^16] + +The class notes of the Harvard Alumni Bulletin list "Frederic A. Delano, '85, Chicago, Ill. Major, Eng." among the Harvard men in service in 1918, and record in 1919 that he "is a lieutenant colonel and deputy director general of transportation, stationed at Paris."[^20] The [[Railway Age]] of January 3, 1919 identifies "Lieut.-Col. Frederic A. Delano, Deputy Director General of Transportation" as the author of a special report on the French chef-de-gare system, and it places him in Paris: "is located in Paris, and handles relations with the higher officers of the French railways." The same issue's list of principal officers names [[William Wallace Atterbury]] as Director General of Transportation and [[William J. Wilgus]] as deputy director general, with Delano among the other officers listed.[^15] In a paper he wrote for the Coast Artillery Journal in 1923 under the byline "Colonel Frederic A. Delano, late Transportation Corps, A.E.F.," the editor described him as having served "as Deputy Director General of Transportation, being the American representative in the French Ministry of Public Works."[^21] + +The Federal Reserve History profile records that he received the [[Legion of Honor]] from France in 1919, the [[Distinguished Service Medal]] of the United States in 1921, and the [[Order of Sheng Li]] from the Chinese government in 1948.[^16] + +### Oklahoma v. Texas and the Red River lands + +The [[Supreme Court of the United States]] named Delano receiver of the disputed Red River lands in [[Oklahoma v. Texas]] in April 1920. He served until the Court's final decree on June 1, 1925.[^1] The Court's decree of 1924 provides for property to be released "from the existing receivership."[^22] His papers include the receivership's Supreme Court documents, a three-volume "History of the Receivership," two albums of photographs of the oil lands, and the receiver's reports of January and April 1925.[^1] + +### The League of Nations commission on opium in Persia + +The historian [[Arnold H. Taylor]] writes that [[Elizabeth Washburn Wright]], after approaching some seven or eight persons, including [[Owen D. Young]] and [[Norman Davis]], secured Delano to head the commission. Taylor also writes that before the League decided to send the commission, Wright had obtained a pledge from the [[Bureau of Social Hygiene]] that it would underwrite the project financially, and that when the Sixth Assembly reduced the proposed appropriation from 200,000 to 100,000 francs, Wright and Helen H. Moorhead persuaded the foundation to supply the additional 100,000 francs.[^23] Taylor writes that the [[State Department]], although it approved the project, "refrained from associating in any manner with the commission," refused formal assurances, and limited its support to informal assistance to the American finally chosen to head it, so that the work of influencing the composition of the commission fell to private citizens. The Department's files on the matter include a memorandum by [[Allen Dulles]] of a conversation with Delano on December 22, 1925.[^23] + +The commission is listed in a 1928 study published by the Bureau of Social Hygiene as "composed of Mr. Frederic A. Delano (United States of America), a former member of the Federal Reserve Board, Chairman," with [[Fridiano Cavara]] of Italy and [[Victor Cayla]] of France.[^24] Taylor names Delano's staff as [[J. B. Knight]], an agricultural expert, and [[Archibald MacLeish]] as private secretary. The Roosevelt Library's finding aid describes MacLeish as "his personal private secretary," and it holds the diaries that Delano and MacLeish kept on the [[Persia|Persian]] journey, letters from Delano to his wife written from [[Geneva]], and two drafts of the report to the Council, the "Delano Draft" and the "MacLeish Draft."[^23][^1] + +The [[Foreign Policy Association]]'s Opium Research Committee published a 1928 study by [[Elizabeth P. MacCallum]], which gives the commission's departure from Geneva as March 11, 1926 and its return to [[Marseilles]] on June 16, after seventy-five days in Persia, and describes the party as the three commissioners "accompanied by an American agricultural expert, a general secretary, private secretary and stenographer."[^25] Taylor gives the commission's travel through Persia as March 24 to June 6, 1926.[^23] + +The report to the Council, document C.580.M.219.1926.XI, is dated December 1926.[^26][^27] It states that the Commission "has arrived at the conclusion that, while difficult of accomplishment, it is possible and practically feasible, and to the economic interest of Persia, to adopt a programme for the gradual diminution of the cultivation of the opium poppy." The report cites a letter from the Persian Prime Minister to the President of the Commission dated June 1, 1926, which states: "Nevertheless, the Persian Government will take immediate measures to reduce the production of opium to medicinal requirements and will prosecute these measures as rapidly as circumstances permit." On the cash yield, the report states that "the cash yield per unit from the production of poppy to the cultivator is about four times the yield from the growing of wheat."[^27] + +The Commission's conclusions place the remedy in transport, water, fuel and tariffs. They state that Persia "is suffering seriously from wretchedly inadequate means of internal communication," that roads for wheeled vehicles were needed, and that there was "an argument, supported not solely on economic grounds, but also by strong political and military reasons, for building a railroad from the capital to a port on the Persian Gulf." They also state that a revival of the dying industries "can only be brought about by a protective tariff." On the use of opium, which the Persian Government considered "a serious menace," the Commission "came to the conclusion that it was even a more serious menace than was usually appreciated; that it was slowly but surely destroying the man-power of the country; that it was impossible to produce opium for export and not have it also consumed in considerable quantities at home."[^28] + +Delano's own summary of the findings, in an extract from a letter to the Secretary-General of the League signed by him, runs to fourteen numbered findings. They include that "the Persian people as a whole are poor," that "Land titles in the same way are indefinite and insecure," and that opium poppy "is an ideal crop from several points of view," with a money yield per acre "say, four times that of wheat and barley."[^28][^29] The letter, as printed in the [[United States Daily]] of July 6, 1927, sets out the commission's recommendation: Persia was to be given three years to improve its internal economic condition and build up its revenues, and production was then to be reduced by 10 per cent annually.[^30] The report's numbered suggestions on taxation, licensing and marking of opium pieces are reproduced in MacCallum's study.[^29] + +Taylor records that the commission did not recommend a loan to Persia, and that Delano and [[Arthur C. Millspaugh]] both agreed the proposal for a loan had been unwise.[^31] The Persian Government expressed willingness to enter upon a plan of reduction after a three-year preparatory period, but stipulated that the annual ten per cent reductions should be a three-year experiment only, at the end of which it would reconsider its economic position and observe the degree to which other producing countries had curtailed production. Because the Commission had not stated the time or the cost of substitution, it maintained that it could not ask the Mejliss to endorse an unqualified program of reduction.[^32] Colonel D. W. MacCormack presented the Persian observations to the Council in March 1927 and to the Fifth Committee of the Assembly in September 1927, after Delano had addressed the Committee for the Commission. The Assembly's resolution took note of "the letter from the Chairman of the Commission of Enquiry to the Secretary-General dated April 23rd, 1927," and expressed "its sincere thanks to the members of the Commission for their valuable work."[^33][^31] + +The columnist [[Westbrook Pegler]] wrote in December 1945 that Warren Delano was "the old Canton opium smuggler, who founded the Delano fortune in this trade," and described Frederic as "a brother of the late Sara Delano Roosevelt." Pegler added: "Ironically, Uncle Frederic's biography reveals that he served for a time as chairman 'of the international commission of the League of Nations on inquiry into the production of opium in Persia.'"[^34] + +### The Regional Plan of New York and Its Environs + +On May 10, 1922 the trustees of the [[Russell Sage Foundation]] named a committee on a plan of New York and its environs, with [[Charles Dyer Norton]] as chairman and [[Robert W. de Forest]], Delano, [[John M. Glenn]], [[Dwight W. Morrow]] and [[Frank L. Polk]] as members.[^35] The foundation's history records that after Norton died in March 1923, Delano succeeded him as chairman. The history describes Norton and Delano as "one of the initiators of the Chicago City Plan."[^36] Before the First World War, the 1953 obituary in [[Planning magazine]] says, he had been a member of the citizens' group in Chicago that sponsored the pioneer plan for that city.[^37] The committee of 1925 consisted of Delano, de Forest, Polk, Glenn, [[Frederic B. Pratt]], Morrow and [[Lawson Purdy]], with [[Thomas Adams]] as general director of plans and surveys.[^38] + +The first volume, *The Graphic Regional Plan* (1929), lists the committee under "Frederic A. Delano, Chairman," adds [[John H. Finley]], [[Henry James]] and [[George McAneny]], and is signed by Delano. It is dedicated to Norton.[^39] The plan was presented to the public on May 27, 1929. Delano said in presenting it that the quantity and variety of detail the survey required were "almost terrifying."[^36] The population of the 436 cities, villages and towns of the region was then some 10,000,000.[^40] A British architectural journal described him in August 1929 as "a former railway president and member of the Federal Reserve Board."[^41] The [[President's Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership]] printed Delano's name as chairman of its committee on city planning and zoning.[^42] + +### The National Capital Park and Planning Commission + +The Roosevelt Library's finding aid states that President [[Calvin Coolidge]] appointed Delano president of the [[National Capital Park and Planning Commission]] in 1927.[^1] The 1953 Planning magazine obituary dates his chairmanship of the commission from 1924 to 1942.[^37] The Federal Reserve History profile lists him as chairman emeritus of the [[American Planning and Civic Association]].[^16] + +### The National Planning Board and the National Resources Planning Board + +In July 1933 [[Harold L. Ickes]], as Public Works Administrator, announced a planning board to study the social and economic effects of public works. The board consisted of Delano, [[Wesley C. Mitchell]] of [[Columbia University]], [[Charles E. Merriam]] of the [[University of Chicago]], and [[Charles Eliot]] 3rd as executive secretary.[^43] The [[National Archives]] describes the sequence that followed. The National Planning Board was established within the [[Federal Emergency Administration of Public Works]] on July 20, 1933. It was superseded by the [[National Resources Board]] under Executive Order 6777 on June 30, 1934, and that board was replaced by the [[National Resources Committee]] under Executive Order 7065 on June 7, 1935. The National Resources Planning Board was established by Reorganization Plan No. I of 1939, effective July 1, 1939. The record group includes a series titled "Records of Chairman Frederic A. Delano," and the National Archives states that he served on the Board and its predecessors from July 1933 to August 1943, as chairman of the National Planning Board in 1933 and 1934 and of the National Resources Planning Board from 1939.[^44] In 1937 the proceedings of the National Planning Conference list him as "Vice-Chairman, National Resources Committee."[^45] + +The finding aid says that Roosevelt named him in 1933 as chairman for ten years.[^1] The obituary says that Delano "was appointed Chairman of the National Planning Board in 1934 by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, his nephew."[^37] When his term on the Russell Sage Foundation board expired in November 1939 he declined re-election, because his duties on the planning board in [[Washington, D.C.]] had grown heavy.[^36] The April 2, 1943 issue of [[United States News]] profiled him at the age of 79 and referred to the recently announced "cradle-to-grave" plan.[^46] + +That plan, the Board's 1943 report on social security and work, was taken up in Congress within weeks. In the House, Representative [[Noah M. Mason]] of Illinois, who had credited the plan to [[Eveline M. Burns]] of the Board's staff, said that behind her was "a whole group that is working for the same cause," and when Representative [[August H. Andresen]] asked whether Delano subscribed to it, Mason answered that "Mr. Delano's whole life history proves that he does not believe in any socialistic philosophy. He has had a remarkable career as a practical man at the head of a railroad."[^47] In the Senate on May 27, 1943, Senator [[Robert A. Taft]] rose "to oppose the proposed increase in the appropriation for the National Resources Planning Board offered by the Senator from Tennessee, and also to oppose the committee amendment which would appropriate $200,000 for the National Resources Planning Board, after all appropriations for that board have been eliminated by the House of Representatives." Taft placed in the Record Delano's letter to him of May 20, 1943, in which the chairman wrote that "the Board neither advocates nor believes in" continuous deficit financing.[^48] Senator [[Kenneth McKellar]], who had offered the increase, read to the Senate a letter of February 22, 1943 from the Office of the Chief of Transportation of the War Department, addressed to Delano, which expressed "the appreciation I feel for the help which the National Resources Planning Board has been able to give the Highway Division during the past year."[^49] Senator [[Charles L. McNary]] then had the clerk read Delano's letter to him of May 26, 1943, which called a book by the [[Brookings Institution]] economist [[Harold G. Moulton]] "false in detail and deliberately misleading in purpose," and Taft replied: "Mr. Delano is an estimable gentleman. I can only conclude that he simply has not read the reports written by subordinates."[^50] + +Congress abolished the Board in the appropriation act of June 26, 1943. The act appropriated $50,000 "for all expenses incident to the discontinuance of the work of the Board," and provided: "Provided, That the National Resources Planning Board is abolished effective August 31, 1943, and the functions exercised by such Board shall not be transferred to any other agency." It directed that the Board's records and files be transferred to the National Archives.[^51] The obituary records that he and Charles E. Merriam served with the agency through its various changes of name until its final dissolution in 1943.[^37] + +His papers include subject files on the [[Harvard University Committee on Regional Planning]], the Washington Monument and the trees of the District of Columbia.[^1] + +### The Smithsonian Institution and the Carnegie Institution + +He served as a citizen regent of the [[Smithsonian Institution]]. His term expired on January 21, 1935, and he was reappointed "for another 6 years by Joint Resolution of Congress approved August 7, 1935."[^52] A joint resolution approved August 21, 1941 reappointed him "to succeed himself for the statutory term of 6 years." In the fiscal year 1942 the Regents' Executive Committee consisted of Delano, [[Vannevar Bush]] and [[Clarence Cannon]].[^53] The 1936 annual report records that Delano presented the Executive Committee's report on the Institution's financial statistics.[^52] + +The [[Carnegie Institution of Washington]]'s year book for 1944 to 1945 lists him as secretary of the board of trustees, with [[Walter S. Gifford]] as chairman and [[Elihu Root Jr.]] as vice chairman; Bush was president of the Institution and the trustees included [[Herbert Hoover]].[^54] His papers include subject files on the Carnegie Institution, the Brookings Institution and the [[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]].[^1] The Federal Reserve History profile describes him as a trustee and as chairman of the Brookings Institution's board.[^16] + +The 1953 obituary describes him as an overseer of Harvard University and as a trustee of the University of Chicago.[^37] + +### China Defense Supplies + +China Defense Supplies, Inc. was the Chinese purchasing and supply agency in the United States through which lend-lease aid for China was requisitioned. According to the Army's official history, it began presenting detailed requisitions against the approved thirty division program in May 1941.[^55] The Army's history of Chennault's [[American Volunteer Group]] states that the equipment and personnel for the group were bought and hired through a commercial company, the Chinese Aircraft Manufacturing Company (CAMCO), run by [[William D. Pawley]], and that "the board of directors of China Defense Supplies, Inc., a subsidiary of CAMCO based in the United States, included both Franklin Delano, the President's uncle, and Washington lawyer Thomas Corcoran, a close friend and special advisor to President Roosevelt."[^56] The official history of the China theater adds that in the dispute over equipping the group's P-40 fighters, China Defense Supplies argued "that if the British could not equip the aircraft the War Department had to."[^55] + +Accounts differ on the capacity in which Delano appeared. The journalist [[Sterling Seagrave]] wrote that "One of the directors of China Defense Supplies was Frederic Delano, the President's uncle." The historian [[Daniel Ford]] wrote that [[T. V. Soong]] was chairman of the company and that Roosevelt's "elderly uncle, Frederic Delano, signed on as 'honorary counselor.'" [[John Pomfret]] wrote that Roosevelt's uncle, "the Hong Kong-born Frederic Delano," was made honorary chairman.[^57][^58][^59] Delano's papers at the Roosevelt Library include a subject file on China Defense Supplies, alongside files on the Samuel Russell Company and the Vinton Colliery Company.[^1] + +A history of the Lafayette Escadrille, the RAF Eagle squadrons and the Flying Tigers published by Air University lists the roster of China Defense Supplies as including "FDR's cousin Frederick T. Delano, head," together with the congressional liaison [[William Brennan]], the lawyer and marine officer Quinn Shaughnessy, the general counsel [[William Youngman]] and [[Whiting Willauer]]. The Frederick T. Delano of that roster is not otherwise identified, and the account does not say whether he is the same man as Frederic Adrian Delano.[^60] + +### Business interests + +After the war he was chairman of the board of the [[Metropolitan West Side Elevated Railroad]] in Chicago and a director of the [[Union Mining Company]] of [[Maryland]].[^16] The Federal Reserve History profile says that he patented a one-way window glass in 1933.[^16] His papers include subject files on the Samuel Russell Company, the [[Vinton Colliery Company]], the [[Investors' Equity Company]], the [[Mineral Exploration Company]], the [[New Boston Land Company]], the [[Stable Money Association]] and the [[National Council for Prevention of War]].[^1] + +Pegler's column of December 5, 1945 named a coal mine and company town called Vintondale in Cambria County, Pennsylvania, among the properties and sources of income of the Delano family, and wrote that "Frederic Delano, of Washington, an uncle of the late president, and numerous other Delanos, still have financial interests in the properties." The column quotes a statement defending commissions paid to a sales company, which said: "It is only by reason of advances made by the Delano coal company that the Vinton colliery has been able to operate at all." It also quotes a Pittsburgh newspaper story of March 19, 1940 reporting that miners "woke up this morning to find Vinton Collieries Corp., had shut down the mines."[^34] + +### Papers and death + +Delano died in Washington on March 28, 1953, at the age of 89.[^37] His papers at the Roosevelt Library occupy 12 linear feet and cover 1812 to 1959. They include speeches and writings from 1887 onward, arranged chronologically, and a scrapbook relating to Franklin D. Roosevelt. Correspondence between Delano and the Roosevelts is held in the papers of [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] and Franklin D. Roosevelt.[^1] The papers he kept while in the Army are at the [[Library of Congress]].[^16] + +### Footnotes + +[^1]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Papers of Frederic A. Delano, 1812 to 1959, biographical note, series I to VI and subject file list. https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_freddelano.pdf +[^2]: Harvard College, Class of 1885, Secretary's Report, class list (Natural History). https://archive.org/details/n1secretarysre1885harvuoft +[^3]: Joel Andrews Delano, *The Genealogy, History and Alliances of the American House of Delano, 1621 to 1899* (1899), the entry for Frederick Adrian Delano (marriage at Chicago, November 22, 1888; children Catherine, Louise and Laura) and the Warren Delano 3d entry (son Lyman). https://archive.org/details/genealogyhistory46dela +[^4]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Papers of Frederic A. Delano, 1812 to 1959, series VI, family papers (correspondence of Sara Delano, 1863 to 1877; condolences on the death of Laura F. Delano, 1884). https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_freddelano.pdf +[^5]: *Engineering Record*, August 8, 1914, vol. 70, no. 6, "Frederic A. Delano Nominated for Federal Reserve Board" (career; presidency of the Wabash from October 5, 1905; December 1911 receivership; nomination to succeed Thomas D. Jones). https://archive.org/details/engineering-record_1914-08-08_70_6_0 +[^6]: *Railroad Gazette*, April 28, 1905, the appointment of F. A. Delano to the vice presidency of the Wabash and the account of his career (born at Hong Kong September 10, 1863; Harvard 1885; apprentice machinist; superintendent of motive power 1899; vice president 1901). https://archive.org/details/sim_railway-age_1905-04-28_38_17 +[^7]: Harvard Commission on Western History, *Charles Elliott Perkins Foundation* (1912), passage on Elliott and Delano. https://archive.org/details/harvardcommissi00histgoog +[^8]: *Oakland Tribune*, April 24, 1905, wire report of the Wabash-Pittsburg Terminal election as part of the reorganization of the roads of George J. Gould. +[^9]: *Chicago Daily Tribune*, October 6, 1905, p. 1, the removal of Joseph Ramsey Jr. "on the ground that he had made an attack upon the railroad," the directors present, the injunction proceedings, the succession at the Wheeling and Lake Erie, and the reference to Russell Sage as "for years a friend and ally of Jay Gould." https://archive.org/details/per_chicago-daily-tribune_1905-10-06_64_239 +[^10]: *Engineering News*, November 2, 1905, the election of Delano as president of the Wabash. https://archive.org/details/sim_enr_1905-11-02_54_18_0 +[^11]: *Fort Wayne Sentinel*, October 13, 1908, the re-election of Delano as president of the Wabash. https://archive.org/details/fort-wayne-sentinel-1908-10-13 +[^12]: *In re Pollitz* (1907), record: "The defendant Frederic A. Delano is president of the said defendant The Wabash Railroad Company." +[^13]: Wabash Railroad Company, *Annual Reports* for the fiscal years 1909, 1911, 1912 and 1913, lists of directors, officers and receivers. https://archive.org/details/annualreportdir04railgoog +[^14]: *Traffic World*, December 27, 1913, vol. 12, no. 26, the receivership, the election as president of the Chicago, Indianapolis and Louisville Railway to succeed Fairfax Harrison, and Judge Adams's letter. https://archive.org/details/sim_traffic-world_1913-12-27_12_26 +[^15]: *Railway Age*, January 3, 1919, vol. 66, no. 1, special report on the French chef-de-gare system by Lieut.-Col. Frederic A. Delano, the principal officers of the Transportation Corps in France, and the description of Delano's post in Paris. https://archive.org/details/sim_railway-age_1919-01-03_66_1 +[^16]: Federal Reserve History (Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System), "Frederic A. Delano," biographical profile (vice governor 1914 to 1916, member to 1918, Army service and discharge, Reserve Corps appointment of January 1920, Richmond directorship and chairmanship, Brookings, American Planning and Civic Association, Metropolitan West Side Elevated, Union Mining Company, decorations, window glass patent, Library of Congress papers). https://www.federalreservehistory.org/people/frederic_a_delano +[^17]: Federal Reserve Board, *Federal Reserve Bulletin*, January 1916, Board roster. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/files/docs/publications/FRB/1910s/frb_011916.pdf +[^18]: Federal Reserve Board, *Third Annual Report* (for 1916), signature block, and the minutes of March 6, 1916. https://archive.org/details/annualreportfed00boargoog +[^19]: Federal Reserve Board, *Federal Reserve Bulletin*, vol. 4, no. 7 (July 1, 1918), p. 587, "Resignation of the Federal Reserve Board." https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/files/docs/publications/FRB/1910s/frb_071918.pdf +[^20]: *Harvard Alumni Bulletin*, 1918 to 1919 volume, class notes, Class of 1885 ("Frederic A. Delano, '85, Chicago, Ill. Major, Eng."; "Frederic A. Delano is a lieutenant colonel and deputy director general of transportation, stationed at Paris"). https://archive.org/details/harvardalumnibu00clubgoog +[^21]: *The Coast Artillery Journal*, vol. 58, no. 2 (February 1923), "Railways and Their Relations to National Defense," by Colonel Frederic A. Delano, late Transportation Corps, A.E.F., and the editor's note. https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA499579 +[^22]: *Oklahoma v. Texas*, 265 U.S. 493 (1924), decree on the Red River boundary, providing that property be "released from the existing receivership." https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/265/493/ +[^23]: Arnold H. Taylor, *American Diplomacy and the Narcotics Traffic, 1900-1939* (Durham: Duke University Press, 1969), pp. 312-313 and notes 38 to 43 (Wright's approaches to seven or eight persons, the Bureau of Social Hygiene pledge and the additional 100,000 francs, the staff, the travel dates, the State Department memoranda of December 1925). https://archive.org/details/americandiplomac02tayl +[^24]: Edward Terry and Mabel Pellens, *The Opium Problem* (Bureau of Social Hygiene, 1928), pp. 720-721, the League's listing of the commission. https://archive.org/details/opiumproblem00terr +[^25]: Elizabeth P. MacCallum, *Twenty Years of Persian Opium (1908-1928)* (Foreign Policy Association, Opium Research Committee, March 1928), p. 29 (membership, departure from Geneva on March 11, 1926, return to Marseilles on June 16, seventy-five days in Persia). https://archive.org/details/20yearsofpersian00macc +[^26]: League of Nations, Commission of Enquiry into the Production of Opium in Persia, *Report to the Council*, C.580.M.219.1926.XI (Geneva, 1926), as cited in Taylor, *American Diplomacy and the Narcotics Traffic*, p. 313, note 43, and in MacCallum, *Twenty Years of Persian Opium*, pp. 29-30. +[^27]: MacCallum, *Twenty Years of Persian Opium*, Annex III, pp. 44-45, extract from the Report of the League Commission of Enquiry into the Production of Opium in Persia, December 1926, "Conclusions and Recommendations," and the letter of the Persian Prime Minister to the President of the Commission dated June 1, 1926. https://archive.org/details/20yearsofpersian00macc +[^28]: MacCallum, *Twenty Years of Persian Opium*, Annex II, pp. 40-43, "Chairman's Personal Summary of Findings of League Commission of Enquiry," extract from a letter to the Secretary-General signed by Frederic A. Delano. https://archive.org/details/20yearsofpersian00macc +[^29]: MacCallum, *Twenty Years of Persian Opium*, pp. 29-31, quoting the Commission's *Report*, p. 41 (the three-year preparatory period, annual reductions of ten per cent, and the numbered suggestions on taxation, licensing and marking of opium). https://archive.org/details/20yearsofpersian00macc +[^30]: *The United States Daily*, July 6, 1927, vol. 2, no. 105, the letter of Frederic A. Delano to the League of Nations on the Persian commission's findings (three years of preparation; annual reduction of 10 per cent). https://archive.org/details/sim_united-states-daily_1927-07-06_2_105 +[^31]: Arnold H. Taylor, *American Diplomacy and the Narcotics Traffic, 1900-1939* (Durham: Duke University Press, 1969), pp. 313-314 and notes 44 to 47 (substance of the report; no loan recommendation; Persian reservations; Colonel MacCormack before the Council in March 1927 and the Fifth Committee in September). https://archive.org/details/americandiplomac02tayl +[^32]: MacCallum, *Twenty Years of Persian Opium*, pp. 31-32 (the Persian Government's reservations, the three-year experiment, the import certificate proposal and the monopoly bill). https://archive.org/details/20yearsofpersian00macc +[^33]: MacCallum, *Twenty Years of Persian Opium*, pp. 33-34 (Delano's address to the Fifth Committee of the Assembly in September 1927; the Assembly resolution thanking the members of the Commission). https://archive.org/details/20yearsofpersian00macc +[^34]: Westbrook Pegler, column distributed by King Features Syndicate, *Hope Star* (Hope, Arkansas), December 5, 1945. https://archive.org/details/hope-star-1945-12-05 +[^35]: Russell Sage Foundation, *Plan of New York and Its Environs*, the meeting of May 10, 1922, committee roster. https://archive.org/details/planofnewyorkits00russ +[^36]: John M. Glenn, Lilian Brandt and F. Emerson Andrews, *Russell Sage Foundation, 1907-1946*, vol. 2 (1947), the 1922 regional plan committee, Norton's death in March 1923 and Delano's succession, the 1929 presentation, and the November 1939 decision not to serve longer. https://archive.org/details/russellsagefound02john +[^37]: *Planning*, May 1953 (American Society of Planning Officials), vol. 19, no. 5, obituary of Frederic A. Delano (died March 28, aged 89; chairman of the National Capital Park and Planning Commission 1924 to 1942; "was appointed Chairman of the National Planning Board in 1934 by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, his nephew"; "various changes of names until its final dissolution in 1943"; overseer of Harvard University; trustee of the University of Chicago). https://archive.org/details/sim_planning_1953-05_19_5 +[^38]: Edward M. Bassett, *Zoning Practice in the New York Region* (Regional Plan of New York and Its Environs, 1925), committee roster. https://archive.org/details/zoningpracticein00bass_0 +[^39]: Committee on the Regional Plan of New York and Its Environs, *The Graphic Regional Plan* (1929), roster and letter of presentation, pp. [9]-[11]. https://archive.org/details/graphicregionalp0000unse +[^40]: *Engineering News-Record*, June 6, 1929, vol. 102, no. 23, account of the presentation of the Regional Plan on the evening of May 27, 1929 (436 cities, villages and towns). https://archive.org/details/sim_enr_1929-06-06_102_23 +[^41]: *Journal of the Royal Institute of British Architects*, August 18, 1929, vol. 36, no. 18. https://archive.org/details/sim_riba-journal_1929-08-18_36_18 +[^42]: President's Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership, *Planning for Residential Districts* (1932), committee roster for city planning and zoning. https://archive.org/details/planningforresid00presrich +[^43]: *Railway Age*, July 29, 1933, vol. 95, no. 5, the planning board announced by Harold L. Ickes and its membership. https://archive.org/details/sim_railway-age_1933-07-29_95_5 +[^44]: National Archives, *Guide to the Records of Federal Agencies*, Record Group 187, Records of the National Resources Planning Board, administrative history (187.1) and 187.3.2, "Records of Chairman Frederic A. Delano." https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/187.html +[^45]: National Conference on Planning, *New Horizons in Planning* (proceedings of the National Planning Conference, 1937), listing "Frederic A. Delano, Vice-Chairman, National Resources Committee." https://archive.org/details/newhorizonsinpla00natirich +[^46]: *United States News*, April 2, 1943, special issue, profile of Delano ("At 79, Mr. Delano") and reference to the "cradle-to-grave" plan. https://archive.org/details/sim_u-s-news-weekly-special-issues_1943-04-02_14_14 +[^47]: *Congressional Record*, vol. 89 (78th Congress, 1st session), House, May 1943, p. 4469, remarks of Representative Noah M. Mason of Illinois and the exchange with Representative August H. Andresen of Minnesota on the "cradle-to-grave" report. https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_may-14-june-14-1943_89 +[^48]: *Congressional Record*, vol. 89, Senate, May 27, 1943, pp. 4923-4926, remarks of Senator Robert A. Taft on the appropriation for the National Resources Planning Board, including Delano's letter to Taft of May 20, 1943 (p. 4924). https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_may-14-june-14-1943_89 +[^49]: *Congressional Record*, vol. 89, Senate, May 27, 1943, p. 4946, remarks of Senator Kenneth McKellar and the letter of February 22, 1943 from the Office of the Chief of Transportation, Services of Supply, War Department, to Frederic A. Delano. https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_may-14-june-14-1943_89 +[^50]: *Congressional Record*, vol. 89, Senate, May 27, 1943, p. 4954, Senator Charles L. McNary reading Delano's letter of May 26, 1943, and Senator Taft's reply. https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_may-14-june-14-1943_89 +[^51]: Act of June 26, 1943, ch. 145, 57 Stat. 169, 170, "Making appropriations for the Executive Office and sundry independent executive bureaus, boards, commissions, and offices, for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1944" (National Resources Planning Board paragraph). https://archive.org/details/us-stat +[^52]: Smithsonian Institution, *Annual Report of the Board of Regents* for the fiscal year 1936 (reappointment by joint resolution approved August 7, 1935; report of the Executive Committee presented by Delano). https://archive.org/details/annual-report-board-of-regents-smithsonian_1936 +[^53]: Smithsonian Institution, *Annual Report of the Board of Regents* for the fiscal year 1942 (reappointment by joint resolution approved August 21, 1941; Executive Committee: Delano, Bush, Cannon). https://archive.org/details/annual-report-board-of-regents-smithsonian_1942 +[^54]: Carnegie Institution of Washington, *Year Book No. 44* (1944-1945), board of trustees officers (Root as vice chairman; Delano as secretary). https://archive.org/details/yearbookcarne44194445carn +[^55]: Charles F. Romanus and Riley Sunderland, *Stilwell's Mission to China* (Washington: Office of the Chief of Military History, 1953), pp. 19 and 26 (China Defense Supplies as the principal Chinese purchasing and supply agency; detailed requisitions against the thirty division program from May 1941). https://archive.org/details/CMHPub9-1 +[^56]: U.S. Army Center of Military History, *The Flying Tigers: Chennault's American Volunteer Group in China* (Washington: Government Printing Office), the account of CAMCO and China Defense Supplies. https://archive.org/details/TheFlyingTigers +[^57]: Sterling Seagrave, *The Soong Dynasty* (New York: Harper and Row, 1985), the account of China Defense Supplies. https://archive.org/details/soongdynasty0000seag_t0v1 +[^58]: Daniel Ford, *Flying Tigers: Claire Chennault and His American Volunteers, 1941-1942* (Washington: Smithsonian Books, 2007), the account of the founding of China Defense Supplies. https://archive.org/details/flyingtigersclai0000ford +[^59]: John Pomfret, *The Beautiful Country and the Middle Kingdom: America and China, 1776 to the Present* (New York: Henry Holt, 2016), the account of the founding of China Defense Supplies. https://archive.org/details/beautifulcountry0000pomf +[^60]: *American Angels: Forming the Lafayette Escadrille, RAF Eagles, and Flying Tigers* (Air University, 2000), the account of China Defense Supplies, note 49. https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA384931 diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/George H.W. Bush.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/George H.W. Bush.md index 2de38619..bc6b9310 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/George H.W. Bush.md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/George H.W. Bush.md @@ -27,40 +27,40 @@ relations: with: "[[Gerald R. Ford]]" role: "Director of Central Intelligence" start: 1976-01-30 - fn: 37 + fn: 38 - type: director_of with: "[[Central Intelligence Agency]]" role: "Director of Central Intelligence" start: 1976-01-30 end: 1977-01-20 - fn: 37 + fn: 38 - type: reported_to with: "[[Ronald Reagan]]" role: "Vice President" start: 1981-01-20 end: 1989-01-20 - fn: 119 + fn: 120 - type: head_of with: "[[United States]]" role: "President of the United States" start: 1989-01-20 end: 1993-01-20 - fn: 119 + fn: 120 - type: subject_of with: "[[October Surprise]]" start: 1993-01-03 - fn: 104 + fn: 105 - type: member_of with: "[[Skull and Bones]]" - fn: 4 + fn: 5 - type: employed_by with: "[[The Carlyle Group]]" role: "Senior adviser on Asia" - fn: 158 + fn: 159 - type: participant_in with: "[[South Florida Drug Task Force]]" start: 1982-01-28 - fn: 28 + fn: 29 --- George H.W. Bush served as the Vice President under President [[Ronald Reagan]] and later as the 41st President of the United States. He was present at a meeting of Reagan's high command following the Israeli bombing of the Iraqi nuclear reactor at [[Osirak bombing]] in June 1981, where he agreed that some sanctions against [[Israel]] were essential.[^1] The same history of Israel's nuclear program includes the Vela incident of September 1979, the double flash recorded by an American Vela satellite over the South Atlantic.[^1] @@ -71,430 +71,433 @@ Bush directed the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] from January 1976 to January 1 Bush was the son of [[Prescott Bush]], an investment banker who represented Connecticut in the [[United States Senate]] from 1952 until 1963.[^2] He graduated from [[Phillips Academy]] on his eighteenth birthday in 1942 and enlisted in the [[United States Navy]] the same day. He became a naval pilot in July 1943, flew torpedo bombers in the Pacific, and was shot down on September 2, 1944 on a mission against a radio site; a submarine rescued him and he received the Distinguished Flying Cross. He married [[Barbara Bush|Barbara Pierce]] on January 6, 1945, and after his discharge in September 1945 enrolled at [[Yale University]], where he completed an economics degree on an accelerated program by 1948, captained the baseball team, and joined the Skull and Bones society.[^2] The couple's children were [[George W. Bush|George Walker]] (born July 6, 1946, the eldest son and later the 43rd President), Robin (1949 to 1953), John Ellis ([[Jeb Bush]]), [[Neil Bush]], Marvin and Dorothy.[^2][^3] -The George H. W. Bush Presidential Library's response to a 2009 request for records on the [[Skull and Bones]] Society, filed as FOIA 2009-0116-F, describes the society as one "of which George H. W. Bush and his father Prescott Bush were both members."[^4] The same response describes a rumor about the skull of the Apache leader [[Geronimo]] and the society, and does not endorse it.[^4] The file contains correspondence from President Bush to [[William F. Buckley Jr.]] and [[Thomas W. Ludlow Ashley]] about a Buckley article in [[National Review]] answering [[Pat Buchanan]]'s characterization of Bush's foreign policy as "Skull and Bones foreign policy" during the 1992 campaign, and administrative forms for a Skull and Bones tea held at the White House on October 20, 1989.[^4] +A 1988 profile of Bush, "The Ultimate Loyalist," describes [[William Sloane Coffin]] as an Andover classmate of Bush's and a fellow member of Skull and Bones at Yale, and says the two "took separate paths afterward." The profile adds that Coffin was then the head of [[SANE/FREEZE]], an antinuclear organization, and recounts a squash game the two played when Bush visited Yale during Coffin's chaplaincy.[^4] -The membership index that [[Antony C. Sutton]] reproduces lists Bush under the class of 1948, and the 1971 membership catalogue entry for him gives his service as a United States congressman from 1966 to 1970.[^5] The Yale class history of 1917 states of Prescott Sheldon Bush: "He belongs to the Whiffenpoofs, Psi Upsilon, and Skull and Bones."[^6] In 2017 a pro se complaint filed in the United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas (*Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*) named Bush, with the Russell Trust Association, Willard Mitt Romney and Yale University, as defendants; it alleged that the society holds the skull of [[Pancho Villa]]. The court dismissed it for lack of subject matter jurisdiction because the plaintiff and Bush were both Texas residents and no federal question was presented, entered final judgment on December 18, 2017, and the Fifth Circuit dismissed the appeal on February 28, 2018.[^7] +The George H. W. Bush Presidential Library's response to a 2009 request for records on the [[Skull and Bones]] Society, filed as FOIA 2009-0116-F, describes the society as one "of which George H. W. Bush and his father Prescott Bush were both members."[^5] The same response describes a rumor about the skull of the Apache leader [[Geronimo]] and the society, and does not endorse it.[^5] The file contains correspondence from President Bush to [[William F. Buckley Jr.]] and [[Thomas W. Ludlow Ashley]] about a Buckley article in [[National Review]] answering [[Pat Buchanan]]'s characterization of Bush's foreign policy as "Skull and Bones foreign policy" during the 1992 campaign, and administrative forms for a Skull and Bones tea held at the White House on October 20, 1989.[^5] -The Yale Alumni Magazine reported in 2006 that the centennial history of the society by F. O. Matthiessen names Prescott Bush, [[Ellery Sedgwick James|Ellery James]] and [[Neil Mallon]], all of the class of 1917 and at [[Fort Sill]] in early 1918, among the members who unearthed a skull there, and that Jonathan Bush met Ned Anderson of the San Carlos Apache Tribe about it.[^8] On May 9, 2006 the Associated Press reported a 1918 letter, found by the researcher [[Marc Wortman]], that one society member wrote to another. The letter describes the skull and remains as taken from the grave at Fort Sill to a stone tomb in New Haven. The report names the writer as [[Winter Mead]] and states that Mead was not at Fort Sill. According to the report, Skull and Bones legend places Prescott Bush among the members who dug up the grave while Army volunteers from Yale were stationed at the fort during World War I. Wortman said that he was skeptical that the remains were Geronimo's.[^9] +The membership index that [[Antony C. Sutton]] reproduces lists Bush under the class of 1948, and the 1971 membership catalogue entry for him gives his service as a United States congressman from 1966 to 1970.[^6] The Yale class history of 1917 states of Prescott Sheldon Bush: "He belongs to the Whiffenpoofs, Psi Upsilon, and Skull and Bones."[^7] In 2017 a pro se complaint filed in the United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas (*Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*) named Bush, with the Russell Trust Association, Willard Mitt Romney and Yale University, as defendants; it alleged that the society holds the skull of [[Pancho Villa]]. The court dismissed it for lack of subject matter jurisdiction because the plaintiff and Bush were both Texas residents and no federal question was presented, entered final judgment on December 18, 2017, and the Fifth Circuit dismissed the appeal on February 28, 2018.[^8] -On October 20, 1942 at Washington, the [[Alien Property Custodian]], Leo T. Crowley, signed Vesting Order No. 248, which vested the capital stock of the [[Union Banking Corporation]], a New York corporation, in the Custodian. The order was published in the [[Federal Register]] on November 7, 1942. It lists 4,000 shares. [[E. Roland Harriman]] held 3,991 of them and Prescott S. Bush held one. The order states that all of the shares were held for the benefit of [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]], N.V., of Rotterdam, "which bank is owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family, nationals of Germany and/or Hungary."[^10] +The Yale Alumni Magazine reported in 2006 that the centennial history of the society by F. O. Matthiessen names Prescott Bush, [[Ellery Sedgwick James|Ellery James]] and [[Neil Mallon]], all of the class of 1917 and at [[Fort Sill]] in early 1918, among the members who unearthed a skull there, and that Jonathan Bush met Ned Anderson of the San Carlos Apache Tribe about it.[^9] On May 9, 2006 the Associated Press reported a 1918 letter, found by the researcher [[Marc Wortman]], that one society member wrote to another. The letter describes the skull and remains as taken from the grave at Fort Sill to a stone tomb in New Haven. The report names the writer as [[Winter Mead]] and states that Mead was not at Fort Sill. According to the report, Skull and Bones legend places Prescott Bush among the members who dug up the grave while Army volunteers from Yale were stationed at the fort during World War I. Wortman said that he was skeptical that the remains were Geronimo's.[^10] + +On October 20, 1942 at Washington, the [[Alien Property Custodian]], Leo T. Crowley, signed Vesting Order No. 248, which vested the capital stock of the [[Union Banking Corporation]], a New York corporation, in the Custodian. The order was published in the [[Federal Register]] on November 7, 1942. It lists 4,000 shares. [[E. Roland Harriman]] held 3,991 of them and Prescott S. Bush held one. The order states that all of the shares were held for the benefit of [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]], N.V., of Rotterdam, "which bank is owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family, nationals of Germany and/or Hungary."[^11] ### Zapata Petroleum and Zapata Off-Shore -Bush moved to Odessa, Texas in 1948, worked for Dresser Industries from 1950, and that year formed an oil development company in Midland that merged with another company three years later to create [[Zapata Petroleum]]. In 1954 he became president of the subsidiary Zapata Off-Shore Company and moved the company and his family to Houston.[^2] WhoWhatWhy reports that Zapata Petroleum began in 1953 "through joint efforts with Thomas J. Devine, a CIA staffer who had resigned his agency position that same year." The article quotes a CIA memorandum of November 29, 1975 that describes Devine as an "oil wild-catting associate of Mr. Bush."[^11] The same article quotes a 1968 memorandum that places Devine back in agency work under commercial cover from 1963.[^12] WhoWhatWhy also reports that the CIA documents were released in 1998 from a batch of records provided to the [[House Select Committee on Assassinations]].[^12] +Bush moved to Odessa, Texas in 1948, worked for Dresser Industries from 1950, and that year formed an oil development company in Midland that merged with another company three years later to create [[Zapata Petroleum]]. In 1954 he became president of the subsidiary Zapata Off-Shore Company and moved the company and his family to Houston.[^2] WhoWhatWhy reports that Zapata Petroleum began in 1953 "through joint efforts with Thomas J. Devine, a CIA staffer who had resigned his agency position that same year." The article quotes a CIA memorandum of November 29, 1975 that describes Devine as an "oil wild-catting associate of Mr. Bush."[^12] The same article quotes a 1968 memorandum that places Devine back in agency work under commercial cover from 1963.[^13] WhoWhatWhy also reports that the CIA documents were released in 1998 from a batch of records provided to the [[House Select Committee on Assassinations]].[^13] -The CIA biographical sheet lists Bush as an oil field supply salesman for Dresser Industries in Midland, Texas, from 1948 to 1951, and records the formation of Bush-Overbey Oil Development, Inc., in 1951.[^13] The Miller Center biography dates his arrival in Midland to 1950, after an equipment-clerk job for an oil company in Odessa in 1948, and places the formation of the oil development company in 1950.[^2] +The CIA biographical sheet lists Bush as an oil field supply salesman for Dresser Industries in Midland, Texas, from 1948 to 1951, and records the formation of Bush-Overbey Oil Development, Inc., in 1951.[^14] The Miller Center biography dates his arrival in Midland to 1950, after an equipment-clerk job for an oil company in Odessa in 1948, and places the formation of the oil development company in 1950.[^2] -Two 1988 accounts tie the Dresser job to Neil Mallon, head of Dresser Industries. [[Bob Woodward]] and [[Walter Pincus]] reported that Mallon gave Bush his first job out of Yale.[^14] [[Randall Rothenberg]] reported that Bucky Bush described Mallon as a family friend who "could charm the fangs off a snake," and who offered George a bottom-of-the-ladder job at Dresser Industries in Midland, Texas.[^15] [[Anthony L. Kimery]] wrote that Bush began his career as a salesman for IDECO, a Dresser subsidiary.[^16] +Two 1988 accounts tie the Dresser job to Neil Mallon, head of Dresser Industries. [[Bob Woodward]] and [[Walter Pincus]] reported that Mallon gave Bush his first job out of Yale.[^15] [[Randall Rothenberg]] reported that Bucky Bush described Mallon as a family friend who "could charm the fangs off a snake," and who offered George a bottom-of-the-ladder job at Dresser Industries in Midland, Texas.[^16] [[Anthony L. Kimery]] wrote that Bush began his career as a salesman for IDECO, a Dresser subsidiary.[^17] -In *All the Best*, Bush wrote that "I accepted the job from Neil Mallon and drove our 1947 Studebaker (a graduation gift from my parents) to Odessa, Texas," described Mallon as "Yale classmate of my Dad's" and "an intimate family friend," and wrote that the couple changed the name of their third son "from Henry to Neil" because "We wanted to name him for Neil Mallon, whose name was really Henry."[^17] In *Looking Forward* he called Mallon "a friend and a mentor second only to my father," and wrote that he became "a full-fledged Ideco salesman, selling drilling bits."[^18] On April 12, 1951 he wrote to "Mr. H.N. Mallon, Dresser Industries, Dallas, Texas": "Dear Neil, This will let you know that we are in business."[^17] +In *All the Best*, Bush wrote that "I accepted the job from Neil Mallon and drove our 1947 Studebaker (a graduation gift from my parents) to Odessa, Texas," described Mallon as "Yale classmate of my Dad's" and "an intimate family friend," and wrote that the couple changed the name of their third son "from Henry to Neil" because "We wanted to name him for Neil Mallon, whose name was really Henry."[^18] In *Looking Forward* he called Mallon "a friend and a mentor second only to my father," and wrote that he became "a full-fledged Ideco salesman, selling drilling bits."[^19] On April 12, 1951 he wrote to "Mr. H.N. Mallon, Dresser Industries, Dallas, Texas": "Dear Neil, This will let you know that we are in business."[^18] -The corporation that later carried the Zapata name filed with the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] under the former conformed names Zapata Off Shore Co, dated from January 15, 1969, and Zapata Norness Inc, dated from March 14, 1972. Its fiscal 1994 annual report states that "Zapata Corporation is a Delaware corporation organized in 1954."[^19] Electronic filings on EDGAR begin on February 8, 1994, and the company's record under Central Index Key 109177 starts from that period.[^20] +The corporation that later carried the Zapata name filed with the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] under the former conformed names Zapata Off Shore Co, dated from January 15, 1969, and Zapata Norness Inc, dated from March 14, 1972. Its fiscal 1994 annual report states that "Zapata Corporation is a Delaware corporation organized in 1954."[^20] Electronic filings on EDGAR begin on February 8, 1994, and the company's record under Central Index Key 109177 starts from that period.[^21] ### The 1963 Hoover Memorandum -In 1997 the [[Assassination Records Review Board]] asked the CIA about a memorandum dated November 29, 1963 that carries the name of [[J. Edgar Hoover]]. The Review Board's letter of December 18, 1997 quotes the memorandum's statement that "the substance of the foregoing information [on the assassination of President Kennedy] was orally furnished to Mr. George Bush of the Central Intelligence Agency."[^21] The letter describes the document as "dated November 29,1963, prepared under the name of John Edgar Hoover."[^21] +In 1997 the [[Assassination Records Review Board]] asked the CIA about a memorandum dated November 29, 1963 that carries the name of [[J. Edgar Hoover]]. The Review Board's letter of December 18, 1997 quotes the memorandum's statement that "the substance of the foregoing information [on the assassination of President Kennedy] was orally furnished to Mr. George Bush of the Central Intelligence Agency."[^22] The letter describes the document as "dated November 29,1963, prepared under the name of John Edgar Hoover."[^22] -The routing of the memorandum is recorded in two conflicting ways. A Review Board staff memorandum of January 8, 1998 describes it as concerning Hoover's conversation with President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] about the assassination, and says the memorandum is located in Johnson O&C File 92.[^22] A CIA memorandum by Michelle Combs to T. Jeremy Gunn, dated July 15, 1998, describes it as a memorandum from Hoover to the director of the Bureau of Intelligence and Research at the State Department.[^23] +The routing of the memorandum is recorded in two conflicting ways. A Review Board staff memorandum of January 8, 1998 describes it as concerning Hoover's conversation with President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] about the assassination, and says the memorandum is located in Johnson O&C File 92.[^23] A CIA memorandum by Michelle Combs to T. Jeremy Gunn, dated July 15, 1998, describes it as a memorandum from Hoover to the director of the Bureau of Intelligence and Research at the State Department.[^24] -The Review Board's letter quotes the CIA as having confirmed that "the search query included George Herbert Walker Bush prior to 1970." The letter asks the agency to determine whether George Herbert Walker Bush is the person to whom the memorandum refers.[^21] A CIA memorandum from J. Barry Harrelson to Gunn, dated February 25, 1998, states that the search "determined the Agency has no record of any association with George Herbert Walker Bush during the 1963 time period."[^24] +The Review Board's letter quotes the CIA as having confirmed that "the search query included George Herbert Walker Bush prior to 1970." The letter asks the agency to determine whether George Herbert Walker Bush is the person to whom the memorandum refers.[^22] A CIA memorandum from J. Barry Harrelson to Gunn, dated February 25, 1998, states that the search "determined the Agency has no record of any association with George Herbert Walker Bush during the 1963 time period."[^25] -The Combs memorandum records that the only other "George Bush" serving in the CIA in 1963 was a junior analyst who has repeatedly denied being the "George Bush" referenced in the memorandum. It also cites an entry in the calendar of Director [[Allen Dulles]] for October 4, 1961 that names an Army major general George Bush, with "no indication if this General Bush could be the referenced George Bush."[^23] +The Combs memorandum records that the only other "George Bush" serving in the CIA in 1963 was a junior analyst who has repeatedly denied being the "George Bush" referenced in the memorandum. It also cites an entry in the calendar of Director [[Allen Dulles]] for October 4, 1961 that names an Army major general George Bush, with "no indication if this General Bush could be the referenced George Bush."[^24] -An undated Review Board draft request bearing Gunn's name refers to an affidavit of George William Bush dated September 21, 1988.[^25] +An undated Review Board draft request bearing Gunn's name refers to an affidavit of George William Bush dated September 21, 1988.[^26] -In 1988 Stephen Hart issued a statement answering a report by [[Joseph McBride]] that appeared in The Nation on July 16, 1988. WhoWhatWhy quotes the statement as concluding: "Must be another George Bush."[^26] McBride described the response as "rather detailed for a ritual non-denial."[^26] +In 1988 Stephen Hart issued a statement answering a report by [[Joseph McBride]] that appeared in The Nation on July 16, 1988. WhoWhatWhy quotes the statement as concluding: "Must be another George Bush."[^27] McBride described the response as "rather detailed for a ritual non-denial."[^27] The CIA's 1998 answer, the Review Board staff's account of it, the 1988 statement and the 1988 affidavit all concern the same name. The records do not establish which George Bush the memorandum means. ### The South Florida Drug Task Force and the Medellín Cartel -As Vice President, Bush oversaw anti-drug efforts as head of the South Florida Drug Task Force while the administration simultaneously protected Contra-connected drug traffickers. The contradiction between Bush's public anti-drug posture and the covert reality of the Contra supply chain became a recurring theme in the [[Dark Alliance]] narrative.[^27] +As Vice President, Bush oversaw anti-drug efforts as head of the South Florida Drug Task Force while the administration simultaneously protected Contra-connected drug traffickers. The contradiction between Bush's public anti-drug posture and the covert reality of the Contra supply chain became a recurring theme in the [[Dark Alliance]] narrative.[^28] -Reagan's statement of January 28, 1982 announced the federal anticrime task force for southern Florida: "To coordinate this effort, I am today announcing the establishment of a special task force, headed by Vice President George Bush, to analyze the problems and determine what steps we must take during the period of aggravated crime incidence."[^28] In a statement to a 1988 Senate subcommittee, Admiral [[Daniel Murphy]] said: "The President appointed Vice President Bush to direct the task force comprised of the Secretaries of State, Defense, Transportation, Treasury, Health and Human Service, and the Attorney General."[^29] +Reagan's statement of January 28, 1982 announced the federal anticrime task force for southern Florida: "To coordinate this effort, I am today announcing the establishment of a special task force, headed by Vice President George Bush, to analyze the problems and determine what steps we must take during the period of aggravated crime incidence."[^29] In a statement to a 1988 Senate subcommittee, Admiral [[Daniel Murphy]] said: "The President appointed Vice President Bush to direct the task force comprised of the Secretaries of State, Defense, Transportation, Treasury, Health and Human Service, and the Attorney General."[^30] -The [[Kerry Committee]] report, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy* (1988), states: "These cables led to a 1982 meeting between Vice President Bush, Admiral Daniel Murphy and Bahamian Prime Minister [[Lynden Pindling]], at which the Norman's Cay problem was raised. The Vice President chastised the Prime Minister for what was taking place."[^30] +The [[Kerry Committee]] report, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy* (1988), states: "These cables led to a 1982 meeting between Vice President Bush, Admiral Daniel Murphy and Bahamian Prime Minister [[Lynden Pindling]], at which the Norman's Cay problem was raised. The Vice President chastised the Prime Minister for what was taking place."[^31] -The [[Medellin Cartel|Medellín Cartel]] reportedly made a deal with Vice President Bush. Informant Allen Raul Rudd told federal officials that [[Pablo Escobar]] described "an agreement or relationship between Bush and the American government and members of the Medellín cartel which resulted in planes flying guns to the cartel in [[Colombia]]." Escobar claimed to have a picture of Bush posing with Medellín cartel leader [[Jorge Ochoa]] in front of suitcases full of money, held as blackmail to be released at "the appropriate time."[^27] +The [[Medellin Cartel|Medellín Cartel]] reportedly made a deal with Vice President Bush. Informant Allen Raul Rudd told federal officials that [[Pablo Escobar]] described "an agreement or relationship between Bush and the American government and members of the Medellín cartel which resulted in planes flying guns to the cartel in [[Colombia]]." Escobar claimed to have a picture of Bush posing with Medellín cartel leader [[Jorge Ochoa]] in front of suitcases full of money, held as blackmail to be released at "the appropriate time."[^28] ### Contra Connections and the War on Drugs -At the same time Reagan and Bush were publicly whipping the American public into a frenzy over street-corner crack dealers, [[Oliver North]] and other top administration officials were livid that Contra-connected drug trafficker General [[Jose Bueso Rosa]] had even been charged with a crime. North's computer messages about Bueso Rosa illustrated how skewed the Reagan administration's sense of justice had become regarding its "War on Drugs." [[Scott Weekly]], a figure connected to the CIA and the Hasenfus shootdown, claimed on tape that he reported to people who reported to Bush.[^31] +At the same time Reagan and Bush were publicly whipping the American public into a frenzy over street-corner crack dealers, [[Oliver North]] and other top administration officials were livid that Contra-connected drug trafficker General [[Jose Bueso Rosa]] had even been charged with a crime. North's computer messages about Bueso Rosa illustrated how skewed the Reagan administration's sense of justice had become regarding its "War on Drugs." [[Scott Weekly]], a figure connected to the CIA and the Hasenfus shootdown, claimed on tape that he reported to people who reported to Bush.[^32] ### Political Career Before the CIA -Bush became Republican Party chairman in Harris County, Texas, lost the 1964 Senate race to Ralph Yarborough, won the House seat for Houston's Seventh District in 1966 and was reelected in 1968. He lost the 1970 Senate race to [[Lloyd Bentsen]]. In December 1970 President [[Richard Nixon]] nominated him as ambassador to the [[United Nations]]; in 1973 Nixon moved him to the chairmanship of the [[Republican National Committee]], which he held through the Watergate period until Nixon's resignation in August 1974. President [[Gerald R. Ford]] then made him chief of the U.S. Liaison Office in the People's Republic of China, and in 1975 asked him to direct the CIA. After Ford lost in 1976, Bush offered to stay as director and [[Jimmy Carter]] declined.[^2] [[James C. Oberwetter]], the spokesman for [[Hunt Oil Company]] in a 1977 episode involving the FBI, had been press secretary to Congressman Bush.[^32] +Bush became Republican Party chairman in Harris County, Texas, lost the 1964 Senate race to Ralph Yarborough, won the House seat for Houston's Seventh District in 1966 and was reelected in 1968. He lost the 1970 Senate race to [[Lloyd Bentsen]]. In December 1970 President [[Richard Nixon]] nominated him as ambassador to the [[United Nations]]; in 1973 Nixon moved him to the chairmanship of the [[Republican National Committee]], which he held through the Watergate period until Nixon's resignation in August 1974. President [[Gerald R. Ford]] then made him chief of the U.S. Liaison Office in the People's Republic of China, and in 1975 asked him to direct the CIA. After Ford lost in 1976, Bush offered to stay as director and [[Jimmy Carter]] declined.[^2] [[James C. Oberwetter]], the spokesman for [[Hunt Oil Company]] in a 1977 episode involving the FBI, had been press secretary to Congressman Bush.[^33] ### Out of Office, 1977 to 1981 -In January 1977, as chairman of the [[National Foreign Intelligence Board]], Bush wrote to Vice Admiral [[Bobby Ray Inman]], then vice director of the [[Defense Intelligence Agency]], thanking him for a year of advice to the board.[^33] [[U.S. News & World Report]] stated on April 7, 1980 that Bush was a present or former member of the [[Trilateral Commission]]; the magazine reported that he "resigned from the organization in 1978" and quoted him as saying that "to suggest that those that belong to the commission . . . are involved in a conspiracy is absurd."[^34] Bush announced his candidacy for the Republican nomination on May 1, 1979.[^2] [[William H. Draper III]] was national cochairman of the finance committee for Bush's 1980 presidential campaign, according to the White House announcement of March 18, 1981 nominating Draper to head the [[Export-Import Bank of the United States]].[^35] Bush ran on the Reagan ticket and won the vice presidency in the November 1980 election.[^2] +In January 1977, as chairman of the [[National Foreign Intelligence Board]], Bush wrote to Vice Admiral [[Bobby Ray Inman]], then vice director of the [[Defense Intelligence Agency]], thanking him for a year of advice to the board.[^34] [[U.S. News & World Report]] stated on April 7, 1980 that Bush was a present or former member of the [[Trilateral Commission]]; the magazine reported that he "resigned from the organization in 1978" and quoted him as saying that "to suggest that those that belong to the commission . . . are involved in a conspiracy is absurd."[^35] Bush announced his candidacy for the Republican nomination on May 1, 1979.[^2] [[William H. Draper III]] was national cochairman of the finance committee for Bush's 1980 presidential campaign, according to the White House announcement of March 18, 1981 nominating Draper to head the [[Export-Import Bank of the United States]].[^36] Bush ran on the Reagan ticket and won the vice presidency in the November 1980 election.[^2] ### Director of Central Intelligence, 1976 to 1977 -On November 3, 1975 President Gerald R. Ford announced at a news conference that he intended to nominate Ambassador Bush, then the [[United States]] representative to the People's Republic of China, as [[Director of Central Intelligence]], succeeding [[William Colby]].[^36] Bush was sworn in as Director of Central Intelligence on January 30, 1976.[^37] As director of central intelligence in 1976 Bush was briefed on the CIA's remote-viewing research at [[Stanford Research Institute]] after the agency learned that Soviet visitors were "questioning Puthoff and Targ at SRI," and left office before reacting.[^38] +On November 3, 1975 President Gerald R. Ford announced at a news conference that he intended to nominate Ambassador Bush, then the [[United States]] representative to the People's Republic of China, as [[Director of Central Intelligence]], succeeding [[William Colby]].[^37] Bush was sworn in as Director of Central Intelligence on January 30, 1976.[^38] As director of central intelligence in 1976 Bush was briefed on the CIA's remote-viewing research at [[Stanford Research Institute]] after the agency learned that Soviet visitors were "questioning Puthoff and Targ at SRI," and left office before reacting.[^39] -The Senate Armed Services Committee reported the nomination through Senator [[John Tower]]. Hearings were held on December 15 and 16, 1975. Bush told the committee that "I do feel we need a covert capability," and pledged to "faithfully try to testify before the appropriate oversight committees of the U.S. Congress."[^39] The committee's report of December 18, 1975 recommends confirmation "subject to the nominee's commitment to respond to requests to appear and testify before any duly constituted committee."[^39] The committee approved him 12 to four. The full United States Senate followed in January with a 64 to 27 vote, after a two-hour debate, according to [[Studies in Intelligence]].[^40] +The Senate Armed Services Committee reported the nomination through Senator [[John Tower]]. Hearings were held on December 15 and 16, 1975. Bush told the committee that "I do feel we need a covert capability," and pledged to "faithfully try to testify before the appropriate oversight committees of the U.S. Congress."[^40] The committee's report of December 18, 1975 recommends confirmation "subject to the nominee's commitment to respond to requests to appear and testify before any duly constituted committee."[^40] The committee approved him 12 to four. The full United States Senate followed in January with a 64 to 27 vote, after a two-hour debate, according to [[Studies in Intelligence]].[^41] -In a memorandum to the recipients of National Intelligence Estimate 11-3/8-76, Bush called the estimate "the official appraisal of the Director of Central Intelligence." He wrote that "there is a negative aspect that is already clear and which concerns me deeply; namely, the selective leaks regarding the details of the process and, worse, the substantive conclusions developed by the 'Team B' panel that was concerned with Soviet strategic objectives." He added: "There is no truth to such allegations."[^41] +In a memorandum to the recipients of National Intelligence Estimate 11-3/8-76, Bush called the estimate "the official appraisal of the Director of Central Intelligence." He wrote that "there is a negative aspect that is already clear and which concerns me deeply; namely, the selective leaks regarding the details of the process and, worse, the substantive conclusions developed by the 'Team B' panel that was concerned with Soviet strategic objectives." He added: "There is no truth to such allegations."[^42] -The Team B report, "Soviet Strategic Objectives: An Alternative View," describes the experiment as "undertaken by the DCI on behalf of the [[President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board]]." It names [[Richard Pipes]] as team leader and lists William Van Cleave, [[Daniel O. Graham]], Thomas Wolfe and John Vogt as members. An advisory panel included Foy Kohler, Paul Nitze, Seymour Weiss, Jasper Welch and Paul Wolfowitz. The report states that its views "do not represent either coordinated National Intelligence or the views of the Director of Central Intelligence."[^42] +The Team B report, "Soviet Strategic Objectives: An Alternative View," describes the experiment as "undertaken by the DCI on behalf of the [[President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board]]." It names [[Richard Pipes]] as team leader and lists William Van Cleave, [[Daniel O. Graham]], Thomas Wolfe and John Vogt as members. An advisory panel included Foy Kohler, Paul Nitze, Seymour Weiss, Jasper Welch and Paul Wolfowitz. The report states that its views "do not represent either coordinated National Intelligence or the views of the Director of Central Intelligence."[^43] -William Beecher broke the Team B story in the [[Boston Globe]] on October 20, 1976, according to the editors' note in the Foreign Relations volume. A story by [[David Binder]] in the [[New York Times]] of December 26, 1976 reported the estimate's findings and drew in part on an interview with Bush.[^41] On January 19, 1977 Bush wrote to Cherne, chairman of the President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board, about Team B's recommendations.[^43] +William Beecher broke the Team B story in the [[Boston Globe]] on October 20, 1976, according to the editors' note in the Foreign Relations volume. A story by [[David Binder]] in the [[New York Times]] of December 26, 1976 reported the estimate's findings and drew in part on an interview with Bush.[^42] On January 19, 1977 Bush wrote to Cherne, chairman of the President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board, about Team B's recommendations.[^44] -On February 11, 1976 Bush announced new guidelines governing the agency's relations with the American press. The guideline states: "Effective immediately, CIA will not enter into any paid or contractual relationship with any full-time or part-time news correspondent accredited by any U.S. news service, newspaper, periodical, radio or television network or station."[^44] The report of the [[Church Committee]], chaired by [[Frank Church]], also states that the CIA had maintained covert relationships with about 50 journalists, and that Bush "undertook as one of his first actions to recognize the 'special status afforded the American media under our Constitution.'"[^45] +On February 11, 1976 Bush announced new guidelines governing the agency's relations with the American press. The guideline states: "Effective immediately, CIA will not enter into any paid or contractual relationship with any full-time or part-time news correspondent accredited by any U.S. news service, newspaper, periodical, radio or television network or station."[^45] The report of the [[Church Committee]], chaired by [[Frank Church]], also states that the CIA had maintained covert relationships with about 50 journalists, and that Bush "undertook as one of his first actions to recognize the 'special status afforded the American media under our Constitution.'"[^46] -On February 10, 1976 the [[Washington Star]] reported that Bush, according to a CIA spokesman, "has urged executives of The New York Times and CBS news to support the agency's efforts to keep secret the names of journalists who have aided intelligence operations."[^46] +On February 10, 1976 the [[Washington Star]] reported that Bush, according to a CIA spokesman, "has urged executives of The New York Times and CBS news to support the agency's efforts to keep secret the names of journalists who have aided intelligence operations."[^47] -In June 1976 the Washington Star reported that U.S. District Judge [[June Green]] ordered CIA Director Bush "not to destroy the files gathered by the CIA." Green also granted an appeal that the files be "protected" pending a civil action by the [[American Civil Liberties Union]]. The files were part of [[Operation CHAOS]] and had been gathered by the CIA at the request of Presidents Lyndon B. Johnson and Richard Nixon, who feared extensive foreign influence on domestic unrest.[^47] +In June 1976 the Washington Star reported that U.S. District Judge [[June Green]] ordered CIA Director Bush "not to destroy the files gathered by the CIA." Green also granted an appeal that the files be "protected" pending a civil action by the [[American Civil Liberties Union]]. The files were part of [[Operation CHAOS]] and had been gathered by the CIA at the request of Presidents Lyndon B. Johnson and Richard Nixon, who feared extensive foreign influence on domestic unrest.[^48] -The [[Letelier assassination]] in Washington in September 1976 brought Chile into the Director's correspondence. On September 29, 1976 Senator [[Daniel Inouye]] wrote to Bush thanking him for a briefing, and noted that [[Orlando Letelier]] "was recently discussed at a high-level policy meeting within the Chilean government."[^48] On October 9, 1976 [[U.S. Attorney General|Attorney General]] [[Edward Levi]] wrote to Bush that "the Central Intelligence Agency may be in a position to obtain information bearing on these violent activities."[^49] [[Brent Scowcroft]] endorsed the request on October 21, 1976.[^49] +The [[Letelier assassination]] in Washington in September 1976 brought Chile into the Director's correspondence. On September 29, 1976 Senator [[Daniel Inouye]] wrote to Bush thanking him for a briefing, and noted that [[Orlando Letelier]] "was recently discussed at a high-level policy meeting within the Chilean government."[^49] On October 9, 1976 [[U.S. Attorney General|Attorney General]] [[Edward Levi]] wrote to Bush that "the Central Intelligence Agency may be in a position to obtain information bearing on these violent activities."[^50] [[Brent Scowcroft]] endorsed the request on October 21, 1976.[^50] -A 1980 radio interview transcript in the CIA reading room quotes a speaker, identified only as "MAN," who refers to "our book" and says: "we've been able to establish that George Bush personally handled the information from Paraguay in this intervening week, and discussed it with [[Vernon Walters]], and together made the decision, first of all, to say, 'No, we have nothing to do with this mission.'"[^50] The transcript does not identify the speaker further. +A 1980 radio interview transcript in the CIA reading room quotes a speaker, identified only as "MAN," who refers to "our book" and says: "we've been able to establish that George Bush personally handled the information from Paraguay in this intervening week, and discussed it with [[Vernon Walters]], and together made the decision, first of all, to say, 'No, we have nothing to do with this mission.'"[^51] The transcript does not identify the speaker further. -The Paraguayan material concerned two Chileans traveling on Paraguayan passports under false names. A later Foreign Relations volume records that in July 1976 presidential adviser Conrado Pappalardo approached Ambassador [[George Landau|George W. Landau]] in Asunción about the two. Pappalardo said they would contact "then-U.S. Deputy Director of Central Intelligence General Vernon Walters."[^51] A memorandum by [[Eugene Propper|Propper]], quoted in the same volume, states that the CIA advised that Walters had retired from the agency on July 2, 1976.[^52] +The Paraguayan material concerned two Chileans traveling on Paraguayan passports under false names. A later Foreign Relations volume records that in July 1976 presidential adviser Conrado Pappalardo approached Ambassador [[George Landau|George W. Landau]] in Asunción about the two. Pappalardo said they would contact "then-U.S. Deputy Director of Central Intelligence General Vernon Walters."[^52] A memorandum by [[Eugene Propper|Propper]], quoted in the same volume, states that the CIA advised that Walters had retired from the agency on July 2, 1976.[^53] -On August 11, 1976 Bush wrote a memorandum headed "The Death of Roselli," concerning the murder of [[Johnny Roselli]]. In it he wrote, "I told him that I would like to see the FBI get into the Roselli case." He wrote that he was "most anxious to see the matter fully investigated so that the CIA would be officially exonerated."[^53] +On August 11, 1976 Bush wrote a memorandum headed "The Death of Roselli," concerning the murder of [[Johnny Roselli]]. In it he wrote, "I told him that I would like to see the FBI get into the Roselli case." He wrote that he was "most anxious to see the matter fully investigated so that the CIA would be officially exonerated."[^54] -The memorandum records that calls to Senators had suggested that the CIA was involved in the murder, and that he had asked Attorney General Levi to bring the FBI into the case.[^53] +The memorandum records that calls to Senators had suggested that the CIA was involved in the murder, and that he had asked Attorney General Levi to bring the FBI into the case.[^54] -On the Letelier investigation, Propper, Assistant Attorney General [[J. Stanley Pottinger]] and Bush met to decide how far the CIA could help with the Cuban exile side of the inquiry.[^54] Newspaper clippings that the defendants in *United States v. Sampol* filed to show prejudicial publicity described "a carefully worded agreement placing the Letelier case in a 'national security' status." Defense counsel for [[Guillermo Novo]] and others told the jury that "the CIA and not the Chilean government masterminded the Letelier assassination," and the appeal brief rested the theory on Michael Townley's CIA contacts and on a Fort Lauderdale firm, [[Audio Intelligence Devices]], where Townley spent the morning of September 21, 1976.[^55] The Washington Post reported on November 1, 1976 a belief at the CIA that Chilean operatives had not carried out the bombing, which Bush was said to have expressed to Secretary of State [[Henry A. Kissinger]] the week before.[^56] On November 5, 1976 Assistant Attorney General [[Richard Thornburgh]] asked the State Department to arrange interviews in Caracas of [[Orlando Bosch]], [[Luis Posada Carriles]] and two others held in connection with the [[Cubana Flight 455 bombing]], naming Propper and FBI special agents [[Carter Cornick]] and Raul Salinas as the investigators to be sent.[^57] +On the Letelier investigation, Propper, Assistant Attorney General [[J. Stanley Pottinger]] and Bush met to decide how far the CIA could help with the Cuban exile side of the inquiry.[^55] Newspaper clippings that the defendants in *United States v. Sampol* filed to show prejudicial publicity described "a carefully worded agreement placing the Letelier case in a 'national security' status." Defense counsel for [[Guillermo Novo]] and others told the jury that "the CIA and not the Chilean government masterminded the Letelier assassination," and the appeal brief rested the theory on Michael Townley's CIA contacts and on a Fort Lauderdale firm, [[Audio Intelligence Devices]], where Townley spent the morning of September 21, 1976.[^56] The Washington Post reported on November 1, 1976 a belief at the CIA that Chilean operatives had not carried out the bombing, which Bush was said to have expressed to Secretary of State [[Henry A. Kissinger]] the week before.[^57] On November 5, 1976 Assistant Attorney General [[Richard Thornburgh]] asked the State Department to arrange interviews in Caracas of [[Orlando Bosch]], [[Luis Posada Carriles]] and two others held in connection with the [[Cubana Flight 455 bombing]], naming Propper and FBI special agents [[Carter Cornick]] and Raul Salinas as the investigators to be sent.[^58] -When Bosch entered the United States on February 18, 1988, Acting Associate Attorney General [[Joe D. Whitley]] ordered him excluded on January 23, 1989, writing that "For 30 years Bosch has been resolute and unwavering in his advocacy of terrorist violence." In 1990, over the Justice Department's objection, the Bush White House released him.[^58] The Bush administration also agreed in 1990 to lift sanctions on Chile if the new civilian government prosecuted [[Manuel Contreras]] and [[Pedro Espinoza]] for the Letelier murder, in which [[Ronni Moffitt]] also died; the two served their terms at [[Punta Peuco]].[^59] +When Bosch entered the United States on February 18, 1988, Acting Associate Attorney General [[Joe D. Whitley]] ordered him excluded on January 23, 1989, writing that "For 30 years Bosch has been resolute and unwavering in his advocacy of terrorist violence." In 1990, over the Justice Department's objection, the Bush White House released him.[^59] The Bush administration also agreed in 1990 to lift sanctions on Chile if the new civilian government prosecuted [[Manuel Contreras]] and [[Pedro Espinoza]] for the Letelier murder, in which [[Ronni Moffitt]] also died; the two served their terms at [[Punta Peuco]].[^60] -The Foreign Relations volume on Panama prints a memorandum of conversation dated October 6, 1976 that is catalogued among the "DCI (Bush) Files on Noreiga." Its source note records "Three pages not declassified."[^60] The document concerns [[Manuel Noriega]], whose relations with the agency the volume documents. +The Foreign Relations volume on Panama prints a memorandum of conversation dated October 6, 1976 that is catalogued among the "DCI (Bush) Files on Noreiga." Its source note records "Three pages not declassified."[^61] The document concerns [[Manuel Noriega]], whose relations with the agency the volume documents. -On October 18, 1976 Bush wrote to Defense Secretary [[Donald Rumsfeld]] on the subject of leaks, in a letter that refers to "where these vicious leaks came from."[^61] +On October 18, 1976 Bush wrote to Defense Secretary [[Donald Rumsfeld]] on the subject of leaks, in a letter that refers to "where these vicious leaks came from."[^62] -[[Joseph Trento]] wrote in *Prelude to Terror* that in 1976, after the Church Committee hearings, [[Alexandre de Marenches]] of the French [[SDECE]] organized an informal consortium, the [[Safari Club]], in coordination with Bush. Trento lists its members as the SDECE, Saudi Arabia's General Intelligence Directorate under [[Kamal Adham]], Egypt's [[Mukhabarat]], Morocco's DST under Ahmed Dlimi, and the CIA, with the purpose of continuing anti-Soviet covert operations in Africa and the [[Middle East]] that congressional restrictions had made difficult for the agency; he places Egypt's service in the group as the supplier of Soviet-compatible weapons for operations in the Horn of Africa.[^62] De Marenches maintained personal relationships with American directors including Bush and [[William J. Casey]].[^63] +[[Joseph Trento]] wrote in *Prelude to Terror* that in 1976, after the Church Committee hearings, [[Alexandre de Marenches]] of the French [[SDECE]] organized an informal consortium, the [[Safari Club]], in coordination with Bush. Trento lists its members as the SDECE, Saudi Arabia's General Intelligence Directorate under [[Kamal Adham]], Egypt's [[Mukhabarat]], Morocco's DST under Ahmed Dlimi, and the CIA, with the purpose of continuing anti-Soviet covert operations in Africa and the [[Middle East]] that congressional restrictions had made difficult for the agency; he places Egypt's service in the group as the supplier of Soviet-compatible weapons for operations in the Horn of Africa.[^63] De Marenches maintained personal relationships with American directors including Bush and [[William J. Casey]].[^64] -In Angola the CIA's Operation IAFEATURE (1975 to 1976) supported [[UNITA]] and the [[FNLA]] against the [[MPLA]], with [[Congo|Zaire]] as the logistics base; the Church Committee and later writers record William Colby and then Bush as the directors who managed it. The program was ended by the [[Clark Amendment]], section 404 of Public Law 94-329, enacted June 30, 1976.[^64] +In Angola the CIA's Operation IAFEATURE (1975 to 1976) supported [[UNITA]] and the [[FNLA]] against the [[MPLA]], with [[Congo|Zaire]] as the logistics base; the Church Committee and later writers record William Colby and then Bush as the directors who managed it. The program was ended by the [[Clark Amendment]], section 404 of Public Law 94-329, enacted June 30, 1976.[^65] -[[William Barr|William P. Barr]] worked at the agency from 1973 to 1977 while attending law school, and as assistant legislative counsel under Director Bush in 1976 worked against legislation of Representatives [[Michael Harrington]] and [[Bella Abzug]] that would have required notice to people whose mail the agency had opened under [[HTLINGUAL]]. Barr later joined the White House domestic policy staff, where he worked with [[C. Boyden Gray]], counsel to Vice President Bush, and in 1988 helped screen vice-presidential candidates through [[Robert Kimmitt]].[^65] +[[William Barr|William P. Barr]] worked at the agency from 1973 to 1977 while attending law school, and as assistant legislative counsel under Director Bush in 1976 worked against legislation of Representatives [[Michael Harrington]] and [[Bella Abzug]] that would have required notice to people whose mail the agency had opened under [[HTLINGUAL]]. Barr later joined the White House domestic policy staff, where he worked with [[C. Boyden Gray]], counsel to Vice President Bush, and in 1988 helped screen vice-presidential candidates through [[Robert Kimmitt]].[^66] ### Israel's Nuclear Program and Israeli Channels -In March 1976 [[Carl E. Duckett]] openly discussed Israel's nuclear weapons at an informal seminar, stating that Israel was estimated to have ten to twenty nuclear weapons "available for use." Hersh wrote that the disclosure forced Bush, the newly installed director, to issue a public statement assuming "full responsibility," and that it led to Duckett's retirement. Duckett later acknowledged that rumors of his drinking were the stated reason for his departure but insisted that the real issue was Bush's unwillingness to promote him. Hersh adds that Duckett's 1974 estimate remained the official American estimate until the early 1980s.[^66] +In March 1976 [[Carl E. Duckett]] openly discussed Israel's nuclear weapons at an informal seminar, stating that Israel was estimated to have ten to twenty nuclear weapons "available for use." Hersh wrote that the disclosure forced Bush, the newly installed director, to issue a public statement assuming "full responsibility," and that it led to Duckett's retirement. Duckett later acknowledged that rumors of his drinking were the stated reason for his departure but insisted that the real issue was Bush's unwillingness to promote him. Hersh adds that Duckett's 1974 estimate remained the official American estimate until the early 1980s.[^67] -[[Ari Ben-Menashe]] wrote that he briefed [[Nachum Admoni]] in July 1986 on the Israeli intelligence network's arms sales to Iran for Vice President Bush.[^67] The Israeli arms dealer [[Al Schwimmer]], a special adviser to Prime Minister [[Shimon Peres]] from September 1984 at a salary of one shekel a year, met President Reagan and Vice President Bush in that capacity.[^68] Ben-Menashe also wrote that Israeli intelligence believed [[Amiram Nir]]'s death in 1988 to have been a CIA operation intended to keep his testimony from embarrassing Peres, Reagan or Bush.[^67] +[[Ari Ben-Menashe]] wrote that he briefed [[Nachum Admoni]] in July 1986 on the Israeli intelligence network's arms sales to Iran for Vice President Bush.[^68] The Israeli arms dealer [[Al Schwimmer]], a special adviser to Prime Minister [[Shimon Peres]] from September 1984 at a salary of one shekel a year, met President Reagan and Vice President Bush in that capacity.[^69] Ben-Menashe also wrote that Israeli intelligence believed [[Amiram Nir]]'s death in 1988 to have been a CIA operation intended to keep his testimony from embarrassing Peres, Reagan or Bush.[^68] -On January 20, 1991 President Bush telephoned Prime Minister [[Yitzhak Shamir]] twice from Camp David, at 3 a.m. and 11:30 a.m. Washington time, to thank Israel for its "restraint" in not retaliating for the Iraqi Scud attacks. The spokesman [[Marlin Fitzwater]] quoted the president as telling Shamir: "I understand the anguish of your people and your Government." [[Lawrence Eagleburger]] and [[Paul Wolfowitz]] were sent to Israel, and American crews arrived to operate [[Patriot]] missile batteries.[^69] According to the counterintelligence history "Decade of the Spy," Bush denied clemency to [[Jonathan Pollard]] in January 1993.[^70] +On January 20, 1991 President Bush telephoned Prime Minister [[Yitzhak Shamir]] twice from Camp David, at 3 a.m. and 11:30 a.m. Washington time, to thank Israel for its "restraint" in not retaliating for the Iraqi Scud attacks. The spokesman [[Marlin Fitzwater]] quoted the president as telling Shamir: "I understand the anguish of your people and your Government." [[Lawrence Eagleburger]] and [[Paul Wolfowitz]] were sent to Israel, and American crews arrived to operate [[Patriot]] missile batteries.[^70] According to the counterintelligence history "Decade of the Spy," Bush denied clemency to [[Jonathan Pollard]] in January 1993.[^71] ### Stargate, Center Lane, and the Army -The [[Stargate Project]] appears in the record through the agency's own accounts. [[Kenneth A. Kress]], writing in Studies in Intelligence for the winter of 1977, states that "During November of 1976, Director George Bush became aware that official Soviets were visiting and questioning Puthoff and Targ at SRI about their work in parapsychology. Mr. Bush requested and received a briefing on CIA's investigations into parapsychology. Before there was any official reaction, he left the Agency."[^38] +The [[Stargate Project]] appears in the record through the agency's own accounts. [[Kenneth A. Kress]], writing in Studies in Intelligence for the winter of 1977, states that "During November of 1976, Director George Bush became aware that official Soviets were visiting and questioning Puthoff and Targ at SRI about their work in parapsychology. Mr. Bush requested and received a briefing on CIA's investigations into parapsychology. Before there was any official reaction, he left the Agency."[^39] -Kress also writes that Director [[Stansfield Turner]] stated publicly that the CIA "has had operational interest in parapsychology."[^71] +Kress also writes that Director [[Stansfield Turner]] stated publicly that the CIA "has had operational interest in parapsychology."[^72] -As vice president, in 1983 (the chronology's date reads as March 31 or August 3), Bush "was briefed for thirty minutes concerning [[Center Lane|CENTER LANE]] related activities by Dr. [[Jack Vorona]], DIA," the Army's remote-viewing unit, with "Adm. Murphy, C/S," and "Mr. Gregg" present ([[Donald Gregg]]). The [[United States Army Intelligence and Security Command]] (INSCOM) chronology records that "the briefing was well received and the Vice President was interested and impressed."[^72] A memorandum for the record by Major Gerald Fox dated April 1, 1983 lists the three projects used on March 31, 1983 to brief the Vice President, among them Project 8034, described as a "[[KGB]] agent."[^73] Vorona of the DIA is the first-named member of the November 1978 oversight group of the [[Grill Flame]] committee and the first-listed attendee in February 1979.[^74] +As vice president, in 1983 (the chronology's date reads as March 31 or August 3), Bush "was briefed for thirty minutes concerning [[Center Lane|CENTER LANE]] related activities by Dr. [[Jack Vorona]], DIA," the Army's remote-viewing unit, with "Adm. Murphy, C/S," and "Mr. Gregg" present ([[Donald Gregg]]). The [[United States Army Intelligence and Security Command]] (INSCOM) chronology records that "the briefing was well received and the Vice President was interested and impressed."[^73] A memorandum for the record by Major Gerald Fox dated April 1, 1983 lists the three projects used on March 31, 1983 to brief the Vice President, among them Project 8034, described as a "[[KGB]] agent."[^74] Vorona of the DIA is the first-named member of the November 1978 oversight group of the [[Grill Flame]] committee and the first-listed attendee in February 1979.[^75] -According to an Air War College research report by Dolan M. McKelvy citing Ronald McRae's *Mind Wars* (1984), CIA director Bush in 1976 enthusiastically gave [[Edgar Mitchell]] "permission to organize high-level seminars at the CIA to discuss possible intelligence applications" of parapsychology; the report says that interest waned in 1977 when Stansfield Turner replaced Bush.[^75] +According to an Air War College research report by Dolan M. McKelvy citing Ronald McRae's *Mind Wars* (1984), CIA director Bush in 1976 enthusiastically gave [[Edgar Mitchell]] "permission to organize high-level seminars at the CIA to discuss possible intelligence applications" of parapsychology; the report says that interest waned in 1977 when Stansfield Turner replaced Bush.[^76] ### The Vice President's Briefings and Travel -On April 2, 1982 Casey sent Secretary of State [[Alexander M. Haig, Jr.]] a "Quick Intelligence Assessment on Falkland Affairs" referring to "the Argentine invasion Friday," with a copy to Vice President Bush.[^76] In a letter to *Time* in January 1982, Assistant Secretary of State [[John H. Holdridge]] wrote that Bush had confirmed during a visit to Australia that there had been no CIA involvement in the [[Nugan Hand Bank]], and that Frank Church had said the Senate committee found no evidence implicating the agency. A CBS broadcast of September 22, 1982 quoted former bank executive [[Neil Evans]], who had immunity, as saying: "We were to become the paymasters for the CIA around the world."[^77] [[Michael Hand]] was the bank's co-founder. +On April 2, 1982 Casey sent Secretary of State [[Alexander M. Haig, Jr.]] a "Quick Intelligence Assessment on Falkland Affairs" referring to "the Argentine invasion Friday," with a copy to Vice President Bush.[^77] In a letter to *Time* in January 1982, Assistant Secretary of State [[John H. Holdridge]] wrote that Bush had confirmed during a visit to Australia that there had been no CIA involvement in the [[Nugan Hand Bank]], and that Frank Church had said the Senate committee found no evidence implicating the agency. A CBS broadcast of September 22, 1982 quoted former bank executive [[Neil Evans]], who had immunity, as saying: "We were to become the paymasters for the CIA around the world."[^78] [[Michael Hand]] was the bank's co-founder. -On April 12, 1986 Vice President Bush flew to Marib in North Yemen and dedicated the refinery of the Alif field that Hunt Oil had found in 1984, the first oil discovered in the country. [[Ray Hunt]], head of the company, sat on the President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board from 2001.[^78] +On April 12, 1986 Vice President Bush flew to Marib in North Yemen and dedicated the refinery of the Alif field that Hunt Oil had found in 1984, the first oil discovered in the country. [[Ray Hunt]], head of the company, sat on the President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board from 2001.[^79] -On January 20, 1987 Bush said that an American "in terrorist hands is tortured and, in the case of William Buckley, killed," referring to the CIA's Beirut station chief [[William Buckley]].[^79] On August 17, 1988 he called the death of Pakistan's President [[Zia ul-Haq]] in a [[C-130]] explosion "a great tragedy."[^80] [[Celerino Castillo]] said that on or about January 14, 1986 he tried to alert Vice President Bush at a U.S. embassy party in Guatemala that "something funny" was going on at [[Ilopango Airbase]], and described what followed: "But he just shook my hand, smiled and walked away from me."[^81] +On January 20, 1987 Bush said that an American "in terrorist hands is tortured and, in the case of William Buckley, killed," referring to the CIA's Beirut station chief [[William Buckley]].[^80] On August 17, 1988 he called the death of Pakistan's President [[Zia ul-Haq]] in a [[C-130]] explosion "a great tragedy."[^81] [[Celerino Castillo]] said that on or about January 14, 1986 he tried to alert Vice President Bush at a U.S. embassy party in Guatemala that "something funny" was going on at [[Ilopango Airbase]], and described what followed: "But he just shook my hand, smiled and walked away from me."[^82] ### Gregg, Rodriguez, and the Vice President's Office -At a February 1988 hearing on the testimony of [[Danilo Blandon]], Senator [[John Kerry]] addressed a call to Castro: "while Vice President Bush denied that he made the call, and I do accept his word, it also was learned last night on McNeil-Lehrer that a former NSC staffer admitted that, indeed, there was prior notice given to Castro."[^82] +At a February 1988 hearing on the testimony of [[Danilo Blandon]], Senator [[John Kerry]] addressed a call to Castro: "while Vice President Bush denied that he made the call, and I do accept his word, it also was learned last night on McNeil-Lehrer that a former NSC staffer admitted that, indeed, there was prior notice given to Castro."[^83] -Blandon also described [[Felix Rodriguez]] as "the liaison for providing weapons to the Contras in El Salvador."[^83] Walsh's chapter 29 states that Gregg "arranged for Rodriguez to meet Vice President Bush on January 22, 1985. According to Gregg, the purpose of the meeting was to inform Bush that Rodriguez wanted to work in El Salvador against the guerrillas."[^84] The meeting took place in the Old Executive Office Building, where Rodriguez was "watching a television report on the Bush family."[^84] +Blandon also described [[Felix Rodriguez]] as "the liaison for providing weapons to the Contras in El Salvador."[^84] Walsh's chapter 29 states that Gregg "arranged for Rodriguez to meet Vice President Bush on January 22, 1985. According to Gregg, the purpose of the meeting was to inform Bush that Rodriguez wanted to work in El Salvador against the guerrillas."[^85] The meeting took place in the Old Executive Office Building, where Rodriguez was "watching a television report on the Bush family."[^85] -The 1988 hearing record gives the date of that meeting as February 22, a month later than Walsh's date. In the July 1988 hearings Rodriguez said that he had passed to the FBI and CIA, early in 1985, information from [[Ramon Milian Rodriguez]], whom he called a liar, and in later questioning by Kerry said he met Vice President Bush on February 22.[^85] Rodriguez also answered a question from Kerry: "No, sir. I didn't go there that often as people have publicized."[^85] +The 1988 hearing record gives the date of that meeting as February 22, a month later than Walsh's date. In the July 1988 hearings Rodriguez said that he had passed to the FBI and CIA, early in 1985, information from [[Ramon Milian Rodriguez]], whom he called a liar, and in later questioning by Kerry said he met Vice President Bush on February 22.[^86] Rodriguez also answered a question from Kerry: "No, sir. I didn't go there that often as people have publicized."[^86] -Part IX of Walsh's report states that Gregg "claimed that, notwithstanding the Administration's interest in the success of the contras, he never mentioned any information regarding contra resupply to Vice President Bush."[^86] The Kerry report says that before Murphy's 1987 trips to Panama he met with officials including "the Vice President's National Security Advisor, Donald Gregg."[^87] +Part IX of Walsh's report states that Gregg "claimed that, notwithstanding the Administration's interest in the success of the contras, he never mentioned any information regarding contra resupply to Vice President Bush."[^87] The Kerry report says that before Murphy's 1987 trips to Panama he met with officials including "the Vice President's National Security Advisor, Donald Gregg."[^88] ### Iran-Contra and the Pardons -The executive summary of the final report of the [[Lawrence Walsh|Independent Counsel]] states that the investigation "did not develop evidence that proved that Vice President Bush violated any criminal statute. Contrary to his public pronouncements, however, he was fully aware of the Iran arms sales."[^88] The summary adds that "Bush was regularly briefed, along with the President, on the Iran arms sales, and he participated in discussions to obtain third-country support for the contras." It states that the Independent Counsel "obtained no evidence that Bush was aware of the diversion."[^88] The same summary says that the pardon of [[Caspar Weinberger]] on December 24, 1992 "pre-empted a trial in which defense counsel indicated that they intended to call Bush as a witness."[^88] +The executive summary of the final report of the [[Lawrence Walsh|Independent Counsel]] states that the investigation "did not develop evidence that proved that Vice President Bush violated any criminal statute. Contrary to his public pronouncements, however, he was fully aware of the Iran arms sales."[^89] The summary adds that "Bush was regularly briefed, along with the President, on the Iran arms sales, and he participated in discussions to obtain third-country support for the contras." It states that the Independent Counsel "obtained no evidence that Bush was aware of the diversion."[^89] The same summary says that the pardon of [[Caspar Weinberger]] on December 24, 1992 "pre-empted a trial in which defense counsel indicated that they intended to call Bush as a witness."[^89] -Chapter 28 of the report, headed "George Bush," records that Bush told the FBI in December 1986, and was deposed by the Independent Counsel on January 11, 1988, that he had been regularly informed of events connected with the arms sales, including the 1985 Israeli missile shipments. Walsh writes that these statements "conflicted with his more extreme public assertions that he was 'out of the loop' regarding the operational details of the Iran initiative."[^89] Walsh also writes that "The criminal investigation of Bush was regrettably incomplete."[^89] +Chapter 28 of the report, headed "George Bush," records that Bush told the FBI in December 1986, and was deposed by the Independent Counsel on January 11, 1988, that he had been regularly informed of events connected with the arms sales, including the 1985 Israeli missile shipments. Walsh writes that these statements "conflicted with his more extreme public assertions that he was 'out of the loop' regarding the operational details of the Iran initiative."[^90] Walsh also writes that "The criminal investigation of Bush was regrettably incomplete."[^90] -In 1988 Bush told the [[Washington Post]], "The President and I cooperated fully with the various investigations, turned over thousands of documents and directed our staffs to do the same."[^90] In September 1992 he said, "I have nothing to explain."[^90] +In 1988 Bush told the [[Washington Post]], "The President and I cooperated fully with the various investigations, turned over thousands of documents and directed our staffs to do the same."[^91] In September 1992 he said, "I have nothing to explain."[^91] -Part IX of the report, on the White House investigations, states that the Independent Counsel "concluded that no criminal charges should be brought against President Reagan, Vice President Bush, Meese or Regan because the belated production of notes and other documents delayed the investigation beyond the point where it could be effective."[^91] The same part states that senior advisers including Vice President Bush "were informed in 1985 of presidential approval of the transactions." It also says that the Independent Counsel "found considerable evidence that the President and the Vice President knew about and, in some instances, directly participated in contra-funding efforts during this period."[^91] +Part IX of the report, on the White House investigations, states that the Independent Counsel "concluded that no criminal charges should be brought against President Reagan, Vice President Bush, Meese or Regan because the belated production of notes and other documents delayed the investigation beyond the point where it could be effective."[^92] The same part states that senior advisers including Vice President Bush "were informed in 1985 of presidential approval of the transactions." It also says that the Independent Counsel "found considerable evidence that the President and the Vice President knew about and, in some instances, directly participated in contra-funding efforts during this period."[^92] -The diary is the subject of a separate passage. Walsh writes that "[t]he personal diary of Vice President Bush was disclosed to Independent Counsel only in December 1992, despite early and repeated requests for such documents."[^92] On December 11, 1992 [[Chester Paul Beach]], associate counsel to President Bush, informed the Independent Counsel that a diary kept by Bush from his vice presidency had not been produced. The report describes it as consisting of "Bush's nightly dictation concerning the events of the day."[^92] The first entry, dated November 4, 1986, describes "the beginning of what I hope will be an accurate diary." An entry for November 5, 1986 reads: "I'm one of the few people that know fully the details."[^93] +The diary is the subject of a separate passage. Walsh writes that "[t]he personal diary of Vice President Bush was disclosed to Independent Counsel only in December 1992, despite early and repeated requests for such documents."[^93] On December 11, 1992 [[Chester Paul Beach]], associate counsel to President Bush, informed the Independent Counsel that a diary kept by Bush from his vice presidency had not been produced. The report describes it as consisting of "Bush's nightly dictation concerning the events of the day."[^93] The first entry, dated November 4, 1986, describes "the beginning of what I hope will be an accurate diary." An entry for November 5, 1986 reads: "I'm one of the few people that know fully the details."[^94] -The report records a document request that reached the vice president's office. C. Boyden Gray and John Schmitz told office heads that the request "covers all personal and official records of OVP staff members."[^94] +The report records a document request that reached the vice president's office. C. Boyden Gray and John Schmitz told office heads that the request "covers all personal and official records of OVP staff members."[^95] -After the pardons, Bush refused to be interviewed unless the interview was limited to his non-production of the diary and personal notes. The Independent Counsel declined those conditions. In late February 1993 Bush's counsel set out six professed obstacles to a deposition.[^90] The report states that a grand jury subpoena was not issued because the office did not believe there was an appropriate likelihood of a criminal prosecution.[^92] +After the pardons, Bush refused to be interviewed unless the interview was limited to his non-production of the diary and personal notes. The Independent Counsel declined those conditions. In late February 1993 Bush's counsel set out six professed obstacles to a deposition.[^91] The report states that a grand jury subpoena was not issued because the office did not believe there was an appropriate likelihood of a criminal prosecution.[^93] -On December 24, 1992 Bush issued Proclamation 6518, granting pardons to Caspar Weinberger, [[Robert McFarlane]], [[Elliott Abrams]], [[Dewey Clarridge]], [[Clair George]] and [[Alan Fiers]]. In the proclamation Bush wrote that "the common denominator of their motivation ... was patriotism." He described the prosecutions as "a profoundly troubling development in the political and legal climate of our country: the criminalization of policy differences. ... The proper target is the President, not his subordinates; the proper forum is the voting booth, not the courtroom."[^95] +On December 24, 1992 Bush issued Proclamation 6518, granting pardons to Caspar Weinberger, [[Robert McFarlane]], [[Elliott Abrams]], [[Dewey Clarridge]], [[Clair George]] and [[Alan Fiers]]. In the proclamation Bush wrote that "the common denominator of their motivation ... was patriotism." He described the prosecutions as "a profoundly troubling development in the political and legal climate of our country: the criminalization of policy differences. ... The proper target is the President, not his subordinates; the proper forum is the voting booth, not the courtroom."[^96] -Walsh responded that the pardon of Weinberger "undermines the principle that no man is above the law."[^96] The Fourth Interim Report of February 8, 1993 includes the phrase "prevent full disclosure of some new key fact to the American people," and states that the pardon "thwarted the public airing of new and disturbing facts about the actions of Weinberger and other senior Executive Branch officials."[^97] +Walsh responded that the pardon of Weinberger "undermines the principle that no man is above the law."[^97] The Fourth Interim Report of February 8, 1993 includes the phrase "prevent full disclosure of some new key fact to the American people," and states that the pardon "thwarted the public airing of new and disturbing facts about the actions of Weinberger and other senior Executive Branch officials."[^98] -The [[Tower Commission]] also examined the Vice President's contacts with Israeli channels. Its report records that "The Vice President was in Israel on July 29. While there, he met with Nir." The Vice President told the board that, before the meeting, he had been uneasy and tried to call [[John Poindexter]].[^98] Bush related that his discussion with Amiram Nir "was generally about counterterrorism. There was no discussion of specifics relating to arms going to the Iranians, e.g., the price of TOW missiles was never raised."[^98] The report also contains the phrase that the interests of the United States were "in the grip of the Israelis."[^98] +The [[Tower Commission]] also examined the Vice President's contacts with Israeli channels. Its report records that "The Vice President was in Israel on July 29. While there, he met with Nir." The Vice President told the board that, before the meeting, he had been uneasy and tried to call [[John Poindexter]].[^99] Bush related that his discussion with Amiram Nir "was generally about counterterrorism. There was no discussion of specifics relating to arms going to the Iranians, e.g., the price of TOW missiles was never raised."[^99] The report also contains the phrase that the interests of the United States were "in the grip of the Israelis."[^99] -At the National Security Planning Group meeting of June 25, 1984, the minutes record Casey saying: "We need the legal opinion which makes clear that the US has the authority to facilitate third country funding for the anti-Sandinistas." Vice President Bush asked: "How can anyone object to the US encouraging third parties to provide help to the anti-Sandinistas under the finding? The only problem that might come up is if the United States were to promise to give these third parties something in return so that some people could interpret this as some kind of an exchange." Robert McFarlane proposed "that there be no authority for anyone to seek third party support for the anti-Sandinistas until we have the information we need," and Reagan said: "If such a story gets out, we'll all be hanging by our thumbs in front of the White House until we find out who did it." The meeting took place under the [[Boland Amendment]].[^99] +At the National Security Planning Group meeting of June 25, 1984, the minutes record Casey saying: "We need the legal opinion which makes clear that the US has the authority to facilitate third country funding for the anti-Sandinistas." Vice President Bush asked: "How can anyone object to the US encouraging third parties to provide help to the anti-Sandinistas under the finding? The only problem that might come up is if the United States were to promise to give these third parties something in return so that some people could interpret this as some kind of an exchange." Robert McFarlane proposed "that there be no authority for anyone to seek third party support for the anti-Sandinistas until we have the information we need," and Reagan said: "If such a story gets out, we'll all be hanging by our thumbs in front of the White House until we find out who did it." The meeting took place under the [[Boland Amendment]].[^100] -The [[The Enterprise (Iran-Contra)|Enterprise]] ran the Contra supply operation through the Ilopango Airbase in [[El Salvador]], where CIA Hangar No. 4 was turned over to its operations in 1985; Felix Rodriguez, who had connections to Gregg, then National Security Adviser to the Vice President, coordinated aircraft and logistics there.[^100] +The [[The Enterprise (Iran-Contra)|Enterprise]] ran the Contra supply operation through the Ilopango Airbase in [[El Salvador]], where CIA Hangar No. 4 was turned over to its operations in 1985; Felix Rodriguez, who had connections to Gregg, then National Security Adviser to the Vice President, coordinated aircraft and logistics there.[^101] -In 1992 Bush asked former Attorney General [[Griffin Bell]] to assist in seeking the release of Bush's Iran-Contra deposition, and on December 30, 1992 the White House press secretary issued a statement on the investigation.[^101] Barr later said that at the end of the administration he advised Bush to pardon Weinberger "and about five others," and of the Iran-Contra pardons: "I certainly did not oppose any of them."[^102] [[Christopher Drogoul]], the Atlanta BNL manager, was indicted on February 28, 1991, the day after Bush ordered the ceasefire in the [[Gulf War]].[^103] +In 1992 Bush asked former Attorney General [[Griffin Bell]] to assist in seeking the release of Bush's Iran-Contra deposition, and on December 30, 1992 the White House press secretary issued a statement on the investigation.[^102] Barr later said that at the end of the administration he advised Bush to pardon Weinberger "and about five others," and of the Iran-Contra pardons: "I certainly did not oppose any of them."[^103] [[Christopher Drogoul]], the Atlanta BNL manager, was indicted on February 28, 1991, the day after Bush ordered the ceasefire in the [[Gulf War]].[^104] ### The October Surprise -The October Surprise allegation concerns whether the 1980 Reagan campaign delayed the release of the American hostages held in Iran until after the election. The [[House October Surprise Task Force]] issued its joint report on January 3, 1993 as Calendar No. 634 of the 102d Congress.[^104] +The October Surprise allegation concerns whether the 1980 Reagan campaign delayed the release of the American hostages held in Iran until after the election. The [[House October Surprise Task Force]] issued its joint report on January 3, 1993 as Calendar No. 634 of the 102d Congress.[^105] -In the task force's account of Ari Ben-Menashe's claims about the Paris meetings of October 1980, he remained in the foyer, and "[j]ust prior to the meeting Mehdi Karrubi arrived, followed shortly by George Bush and William Casey by way of an elevator reserved for this purpose."[^105] The report records that Ben-Menashe "had told reporters for [[Newsweek]] magazine that he was positive he had seen George Bush at the Paris meetings on both October 19 and October 20, 1980." The report also notes that Sukkot fell on September 25 in 1980.[^105] +In the task force's account of Ari Ben-Menashe's claims about the Paris meetings of October 1980, he remained in the foyer, and "[j]ust prior to the meeting Mehdi Karrubi arrived, followed shortly by George Bush and William Casey by way of an elevator reserved for this purpose."[^106] The report records that Ben-Menashe "had told reporters for [[Newsweek]] magazine that he was positive he had seen George Bush at the Paris meetings on both October 19 and October 20, 1980." The report also notes that Sukkot fell on September 25 in 1980.[^106] -The task force concludes that Ben-Menashe's account of the October meetings, "like his other October Surprise allegations, is a total fabrication."[^105] On Ben-Menashe's account of a meeting at the L'Enfant Plaza hotel in Washington, which he tied to the [[Iran-Israel Joint Committee]], the task force wrote that "Ben-Menashe's account is demonstrably false from beginning to end."[^106] It states that the personnel records supplied by the Government of Israel, with Ben-Menashe's contemporaneous handwritten answers to the questions he had to answer for the External Relations Department when traveling abroad, showed that he did not travel outside Israel in October 1980, and that exit stamps on his civilian passport indicated the same.[^105] +The task force concludes that Ben-Menashe's account of the October meetings, "like his other October Surprise allegations, is a total fabrication."[^106] On Ben-Menashe's account of a meeting at the L'Enfant Plaza hotel in Washington, which he tied to the [[Iran-Israel Joint Committee]], the task force wrote that "Ben-Menashe's account is demonstrably false from beginning to end."[^107] It states that the personnel records supplied by the Government of Israel, with Ben-Menashe's contemporaneous handwritten answers to the questions he had to answer for the External Relations Department when traveling abroad, showed that he did not travel outside Israel in October 1980, and that exit stamps on his civilian passport indicated the same.[^106] -On Bush's whereabouts the task force reports that Secret Service records place him in Washington on October 19 and campaigning on October 20, 1980. It states that "these records and testimony conclusively prove candidate George Bush's whereabouts in October, 1980," and that "The Task Force has determined that Bush did not travel to Paris during the period of time in question as has been alleged by many October Surprise witnesses."[^107] The report generalizes the point: "In almost all instances, the evidence clearly establishes the presence of major alleged participants in Paris meetings to be someplace else, doing something else."[^108] +On Bush's whereabouts the task force reports that Secret Service records place him in Washington on October 19 and campaigning on October 20, 1980. It states that "these records and testimony conclusively prove candidate George Bush's whereabouts in October, 1980," and that "The Task Force has determined that Bush did not travel to Paris during the period of time in question as has been alleged by many October Surprise witnesses."[^108] The report generalizes the point: "In almost all instances, the evidence clearly establishes the presence of major alleged participants in Paris meetings to be someplace else, doing something else."[^109] -[[Richard Brenneke]] testified that a pilot, Rupp, flew Bush, Casey and others to Paris. The task force records that at Brenneke's trial in Oregon in 1990 he retracted his earlier testimony that he had seen Bush and Allen at the meeting.[^109] The task force states that "Brenneke's testimony that he was in Paris is false." Brenneke's 1980 daily calendar "indicates that he was in the Pacific Northwest when he claimed to have been in Paris."[^110] The report also says that Brenneke "played a central role in falsely propagating the October Surprise allegations for financial and personal reasons."[^110] +[[Richard Brenneke]] testified that a pilot, Rupp, flew Bush, Casey and others to Paris. The task force records that at Brenneke's trial in Oregon in 1990 he retracted his earlier testimony that he had seen Bush and Allen at the meeting.[^110] The task force states that "Brenneke's testimony that he was in Paris is false." Brenneke's 1980 daily calendar "indicates that he was in the Pacific Northwest when he claimed to have been in Paris."[^111] The report also says that Brenneke "played a central role in falsely propagating the October Surprise allegations for financial and personal reasons."[^111] -A 1988 Senate subcommittee report summarizes Brenneke's claims that he had "personally discussed the operation with members of the Vice President's staff." The subcommittee concluded that although Brenneke produced thousands of pages of documents relating to proposed arms deals, "there is no evidence that any of them ever came to fruition." It also found that Brenneke "received completely fabricated information about arms deals from undercover agents of the Customs Service."[^111] +A 1988 Senate subcommittee report summarizes Brenneke's claims that he had "personally discussed the operation with members of the Vice President's staff." The subcommittee concluded that although Brenneke produced thousands of pages of documents relating to proposed arms deals, "there is no evidence that any of them ever came to fruition." It also found that Brenneke "received completely fabricated information about arms deals from undercover agents of the Customs Service."[^112] -The task force examined the calendar of William J. Casey. It records a July 30, 1980 entry for a 6:45 p.m. dinner with George Bush at the Alibi Club.[^112] The report's analysis of Casey's movements states that "The evidence strongly indicates that Casey departed the United States on July 27, arrived in London on July 28, and departed London for the United States on July 29."[^113] Loose calendar pages for July 26 and 27, October 21, October 29, November 3 through 11, and November 13 are listed as missing. The task force states that "[t]he dates July 26th and October 21st are of particular interest to the Task Force."[^114] +The task force examined the calendar of William J. Casey. It records a July 30, 1980 entry for a 6:45 p.m. dinner with George Bush at the Alibi Club.[^113] The report's analysis of Casey's movements states that "The evidence strongly indicates that Casey departed the United States on July 27, arrived in London on July 28, and departed London for the United States on July 29."[^114] Loose calendar pages for July 26 and 27, October 21, October 29, November 3 through 11, and November 13 are listed as missing. The task force states that "[t]he dates July 26th and October 21st are of particular interest to the Task Force."[^115] -[[Robert Parry]] reported in 2011 on a memorandum for the record that Beach wrote on November 4, 1991. The memorandum records that State Department legal adviser Edwin D. Williamson told Beach that the department held material that included "a cable from the Madrid embassy indicating that Bill Casey was in town, for purposes unknown."[^115] Parry writes that "there's no indication that the White House told investigators about Williamson's information," and that the Bush library withholds nearly a quarter of its roughly 4,800 pages.[^115] +[[Robert Parry]] reported in 2011 on a memorandum for the record that Beach wrote on November 4, 1991. The memorandum records that State Department legal adviser Edwin D. Williamson told Beach that the department held material that included "a cable from the Madrid embassy indicating that Bill Casey was in town, for purposes unknown."[^116] Parry writes that "there's no indication that the White House told investigators about Williamson's information," and that the Bush library withholds nearly a quarter of its roughly 4,800 pages.[^116] -The task force also records Reagan's statements. In a June 15, 1991 interview Reagan said, "I did some things actually the other way, to try and be of help in getting those hostages." In a sworn written answer dated October 23, 1992 he wrote that "I and Reagan/Bush campaign officials made it clear by our conduct and statements during the campaign that we were supportive of the Carter administration efforts to secure the release of American hostages held in Iran."[^116] +The task force also records Reagan's statements. In a June 15, 1991 interview Reagan said, "I did some things actually the other way, to try and be of help in getting those hostages." In a sworn written answer dated October 23, 1992 he wrote that "I and Reagan/Bush campaign officials made it clear by our conduct and statements during the campaign that we were supportive of the Carter administration efforts to secure the release of American hostages held in Iran."[^117] -Ben-Menashe's account of the Paris meeting names others besides Bush and Casey. He wrote that [[George Cave]], Robert McFarlane and Donald Gregg attended; that [[Simon Gabbay]] coordinated the October 1980 meeting between Israeli and Iranian delegations that included Bush, Casey and [[Mehdi Karrubi]], with the aim of eliminating direct contact between Israeli and Iranian embassy personnel; and that [[Uri Simchoni]] was part of the Israeli delegation.[^67] Cave also attended a meeting in [[Santiago]] in late 1986, according to Ben-Menashe, where American officials reaffirmed their intention to maintain arms channels to Iraq.[^67] [[Barbara Honegger]] published *October Surprise* (Tudor Publishing, 1989), one of the first extended accounts of the allegations; she alleged meetings in Madrid in July 1980 and in Paris in October 1980 involving Casey, Bush and European intermediaries including de Marenches.[^117] +Ben-Menashe's account of the Paris meeting names others besides Bush and Casey. He wrote that [[George Cave]], Robert McFarlane and Donald Gregg attended; that [[Simon Gabbay]] coordinated the October 1980 meeting between Israeli and Iranian delegations that included Bush, Casey and [[Mehdi Karrubi]], with the aim of eliminating direct contact between Israeli and Iranian embassy personnel; and that [[Uri Simchoni]] was part of the Israeli delegation.[^68] Cave also attended a meeting in [[Santiago]] in late 1986, according to Ben-Menashe, where American officials reaffirmed their intention to maintain arms channels to Iraq.[^68] [[Barbara Honegger]] published *October Surprise* (Tudor Publishing, 1989), one of the first extended accounts of the allegations; she alleged meetings in Madrid in July 1980 and in Paris in October 1980 involving Casey, Bush and European intermediaries including de Marenches.[^118] -[[Cheri Seymour]] wrote in *The Last Circle* that the attorney [[Paul Wilcher]] believed his client [[Gunther Karl Russbacher]] to be a political prisoner persecuted because he allegedly flew former President Bush to Paris to meet leading Iranians to make a deal to supply Iran with weapons in exchange for keeping the 52 American hostages until after the November election. On or about May 21, 1993 Wilcher hand-delivered a 100-page letter to Attorney General [[Janet Reno]] claiming that holdover Justice Department employees from the Reagan-Bush era were responsible for government cover-ups; he was interviewed by [[Carl Stern]], Reno's public relations officer, on or about June 11, and his body was found in his apartment on June 23, 1993. [[Sarah McClendon]], a White House correspondent and friend of Wilcher, wrote that Wilcher held the Russbacher belief.[^118] Seymour also wrote that [[Michael Riconosciuto]], a source of [[Danny Casolaro]]'s investigation of [[The Octopus]], claimed that he and an associate named Brian personally carried $40 million to Iranian officials for that purpose.[^118] +[[Cheri Seymour]] wrote in *The Last Circle* that the attorney [[Paul Wilcher]] believed his client [[Gunther Karl Russbacher]] to be a political prisoner persecuted because he allegedly flew former President Bush to Paris to meet leading Iranians to make a deal to supply Iran with weapons in exchange for keeping the 52 American hostages until after the November election. On or about May 21, 1993 Wilcher hand-delivered a 100-page letter to Attorney General [[Janet Reno]] claiming that holdover Justice Department employees from the Reagan-Bush era were responsible for government cover-ups; he was interviewed by [[Carl Stern]], Reno's public relations officer, on or about June 11, and his body was found in his apartment on June 23, 1993. [[Sarah McClendon]], a White House correspondent and friend of Wilcher, wrote that Wilcher held the Russbacher belief.[^119] Seymour also wrote that [[Michael Riconosciuto]], a source of [[Danny Casolaro]]'s investigation of [[The Octopus]], claimed that he and an associate named Brian personally carried $40 million to Iranian officials for that purpose.[^119] ### The Presidency: Panama, Appointees and Executive Actions -Bush was inaugurated as the 41st President on January 20, 1989.[^119] [[Dick Cheney]] recalled in the Miller Center oral history of the Bush presidency that "Panama was a great training experience for us as an administration. We had the opportunity to have an objective, have to use force, coordinate with the Congress, deal with the public, all of those things that come with using the force." The invasion of [[Panama]] in December 1989 removed Manuel Noriega; [[Colin Powell]], then Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, said in the same project: "Nobody even remembers the Panama war. You don't ever hear of it. But I viewed it as the template of how we should do things."[^120] Seymour wrote that the [[Cali Drug Cartel]] was contrasted with the Medellin Cartel, which Noriega chose to support, ultimately leading to his ousting by Bush; she wrote that the DEA's Centac 21 task force, which had targeted [[Gilberto Rodriguez Orejuela]] and [[Jose Santacruz Londono]] in the 1978 indictments, was dismantled under the Reagan and Bush administrations, leaving disgruntled agents to suspect a CIA connection.[^118] Seymour added that Bush reportedly made secret visits to Damascus for hostage negotiations, and that after Desert Storm Bush and Secretary of State [[James A. Baker III]] encouraged [[Syria]] and Israel to recognize each other's Lebanese occupation zones under a 1990 accord that left Syria in control of the Bekaa Valley.[^118] +Bush was inaugurated as the 41st President on January 20, 1989.[^120] [[Dick Cheney]] recalled in the Miller Center oral history of the Bush presidency that "Panama was a great training experience for us as an administration. We had the opportunity to have an objective, have to use force, coordinate with the Congress, deal with the public, all of those things that come with using the force." The invasion of [[Panama]] in December 1989 removed Manuel Noriega; [[Colin Powell]], then Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, said in the same project: "Nobody even remembers the Panama war. You don't ever hear of it. But I viewed it as the template of how we should do things."[^121] Seymour wrote that the [[Cali Drug Cartel]] was contrasted with the Medellin Cartel, which Noriega chose to support, ultimately leading to his ousting by Bush; she wrote that the DEA's Centac 21 task force, which had targeted [[Gilberto Rodriguez Orejuela]] and [[Jose Santacruz Londono]] in the 1978 indictments, was dismantled under the Reagan and Bush administrations, leaving disgruntled agents to suspect a CIA connection.[^119] Seymour added that Bush reportedly made secret visits to Damascus for hostage negotiations, and that after Desert Storm Bush and Secretary of State [[James A. Baker III]] encouraged [[Syria]] and Israel to recognize each other's Lebanese occupation zones under a 1990 accord that left Syria in control of the Bekaa Valley.[^119] -The Cox Committee counted twelve national-interest determinations for launches of commercial satellites on Chinese rockets between 1989 and early 1998, three by President Bush and nine by [[Bill Clinton]]; the last, of February 18, 1998, applied to the Loral-built [[Chinasat-8]] satellite, a company then headed by [[Bernard L. Schwartz]].[^121] [[National Security Directive 67]], signed by Bush on March 30, 1992, replaced the lettered programs of the [[National Reconnaissance Office]] with three functional directorates, and the existence of the office was declassified on September 18, 1992.[^122] Bush's report to Congress of September 1991 under the [[Iraq Sanctions Act of 1990]] stated that "United States suppliers did not contribute directly to Iraq's conventional or nonconventional weapons capability." Gonzalez said that after Iraq invaded Kuwait in August 1990, [[SerVaas Inc.]] renegotiated a brass-plant contract with its Iraqi counterparts and sold it through a foreign holding company to escape the president's order freezing Iraqi assets.[^123] The prime minister of [[Jamaica]], [[Michael Manley]], sworn in again on February 13, 1989, said that he planned to travel to Washington to meet Bush, congressional leaders and officials of the [[Drug Enforcement Administration]].[^124] +The Cox Committee counted twelve national-interest determinations for launches of commercial satellites on Chinese rockets between 1989 and early 1998, three by President Bush and nine by [[Bill Clinton]]; the last, of February 18, 1998, applied to the Loral-built [[Chinasat-8]] satellite, a company then headed by [[Bernard L. Schwartz]].[^122] [[National Security Directive 67]], signed by Bush on March 30, 1992, replaced the lettered programs of the [[National Reconnaissance Office]] with three functional directorates, and the existence of the office was declassified on September 18, 1992.[^123] Bush's report to Congress of September 1991 under the [[Iraq Sanctions Act of 1990]] stated that "United States suppliers did not contribute directly to Iraq's conventional or nonconventional weapons capability." Gonzalez said that after Iraq invaded Kuwait in August 1990, [[SerVaas Inc.]] renegotiated a brass-plant contract with its Iraqi counterparts and sold it through a foreign holding company to escape the president's order freezing Iraqi assets.[^124] The prime minister of [[Jamaica]], [[Michael Manley]], sworn in again on February 13, 1989, said that he planned to travel to Washington to meet Bush, congressional leaders and officials of the [[Drug Enforcement Administration]].[^125] -Richard Thornburgh continued as Attorney General under Bush through 1991, resigning in August 1991 to run for the Senate.[^125] [[Kenneth Starr]] was the 39th Solicitor General from 1989 to 1993 under Bush.[^126] [[Steve Forbes|Malcolm S. Forbes Jr.]], president of [[Forbes]] magazine, was renominated to the Board for International Broadcasting, which oversees [[Radio Free Europe]], by the Bush White House on January 4, 1990 and again on June 19, 1992, each time with designation as chairman.[^127] [[Jay Lefkowitz]] served under Bush as deputy executive secretary of the [[Domestic Policy Council]] and director of cabinet affairs.[^128] [[Loretta Preska]] was appointed a judge of the [[U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York]] by Bush in 1992.[^129] Lawrence Eagleburger, president of [[Kissinger Associates]] from 1984 to 1989, was deputy secretary of state under Baker and secretary of state in the last weeks of the administration; Brent Scowcroft, vice chairman of the firm's Washington office, became national security adviser in January 1989.[^130] +Richard Thornburgh continued as Attorney General under Bush through 1991, resigning in August 1991 to run for the Senate.[^126] [[Kenneth Starr]] was the 39th Solicitor General from 1989 to 1993 under Bush.[^127] [[Steve Forbes|Malcolm S. Forbes Jr.]], president of [[Forbes]] magazine, was renominated to the Board for International Broadcasting, which oversees [[Radio Free Europe]], by the Bush White House on January 4, 1990 and again on June 19, 1992, each time with designation as chairman.[^128] [[Jay Lefkowitz]] served under Bush as deputy executive secretary of the [[Domestic Policy Council]] and director of cabinet affairs.[^129] [[Loretta Preska]] was appointed a judge of the [[U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York]] by Bush in 1992.[^130] Lawrence Eagleburger, president of [[Kissinger Associates]] from 1984 to 1989, was deputy secretary of state under Baker and secretary of state in the last weeks of the administration; Brent Scowcroft, vice chairman of the firm's Washington office, became national security adviser in January 1989.[^131] ### Iraq, Osirak, and the Teicher Declaration -The Teicher declaration of January 31, 1995, on the [[Iran-Iraq War]], filed in the Florida prosecution of [[Carlos Cardoen]] and others, states in paragraph 7 that a secret 1986 message from Reagan to [[Saddam Hussein]], urging a stepped-up air war against Iran, was delivered by Vice President Bush to [[Hosni Mubarak]], who passed it to Saddam Hussein. The declaration also states that Teicher wrote Bush's talking points for the 1986 meeting with Mubarak.[^131] A corrective declaration filed in October 1996 addresses paragraphs 15 through 18.[^132] +The Teicher declaration of January 31, 1995, on the [[Iran-Iraq War]], filed in the Florida prosecution of [[Carlos Cardoen]] and others, states in paragraph 7 that a secret 1986 message from Reagan to [[Saddam Hussein]], urging a stepped-up air war against Iran, was delivered by Vice President Bush to [[Hosni Mubarak]], who passed it to Saddam Hussein. The declaration also states that Teicher wrote Bush's talking points for the 1986 meeting with Mubarak.[^132] A corrective declaration filed in October 1996 addresses paragraphs 15 through 18.[^133] ### The BNL and Iraqgate Record -The Atlanta branch of Banca Nazionale del Lavoro extended credits to [[Iraq]] that the [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]] examined in February 1993. The committee reports that a National Security Council Deputies Committee meeting on May 29, 1990 was held "to resolve the issue of the second $500 million tranche," and that [[Robert M. Gates]] chaired it.[^133] Barr and Richard opposed going forward with the second tranche, citing the prosecutor's intent to indict Iraqi officials who were involved in "significant criminal violations." The meeting's conclusion was "that the Iraqi government simply be advised that the U.S. would not go forward with the second tranche until the investigation in Atlanta was completed."[^133] The indictment in Atlanta was returned on February 28, 1991.[^133] +The Atlanta branch of Banca Nazionale del Lavoro extended credits to [[Iraq]] that the [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]] examined in February 1993. The committee reports that a National Security Council Deputies Committee meeting on May 29, 1990 was held "to resolve the issue of the second $500 million tranche," and that [[Robert M. Gates]] chaired it.[^134] Barr and Richard opposed going forward with the second tranche, citing the prosecutor's intent to indict Iraqi officials who were involved in "significant criminal violations." The meeting's conclusion was "that the Iraqi government simply be advised that the U.S. would not go forward with the second tranche until the investigation in Atlanta was completed."[^134] The indictment in Atlanta was returned on February 28, 1991.[^134] -On October 2, 1989 Bush signed [[National Security Directive 26]], classified SECRET. It states that the government "should propose economic and political incentives for Iraq to moderate its behavior and to increase our influence with Iraq," and that "any illegal use of chemical and/or biological weapons will lead to economic and political sanctions."[^134] +On October 2, 1989 Bush signed [[National Security Directive 26]], classified SECRET. It states that the government "should propose economic and political incentives for Iraq to moderate its behavior and to increase our influence with Iraq," and that "any illegal use of chemical and/or biological weapons will lead to economic and political sanctions."[^135] -The [[Commodity Credit Corporation Iraq Program]] ran alongside the BNL loans. On October 6, 1989 Secretary of State Baker assured [[Tariq Aziz]] that American concern over proliferation was worldwide and not directed at Iraq; the department then offered Iraq 500 million dollars in guarantees, with a second 500 million to follow "after successful conclusion of the BNL investigation," a condition Iraq rejected.[^135] Friedman wrote in *Spider's Web* on the [[BNL Scandal]] that the House Banking Committee under Gonzalez documented the Reagan administration's and the early Bush administration's consistent support for Iraq's weapons procurement networks, including knowledge of chemical weapons use.[^136] +The [[Commodity Credit Corporation Iraq Program]] ran alongside the BNL loans. On October 6, 1989 Secretary of State Baker assured [[Tariq Aziz]] that American concern over proliferation was worldwide and not directed at Iraq; the department then offered Iraq 500 million dollars in guarantees, with a second 500 million to follow "after successful conclusion of the BNL investigation," a condition Iraq rejected.[^136] Friedman wrote in *Spider's Web* on the [[BNL Scandal]] that the House Banking Committee under Gonzalez documented the Reagan administration's and the early Bush administration's consistent support for Iraq's weapons procurement networks, including knowledge of chemical weapons use.[^137] -In a 1992 statement in the House, Representative [[Henry B. Gonzalez]] quoted the sentence "United States suppliers did not contribute directly to Iraq's conventional or nonconventional weapons capability." He added that "[s]everal Bush administration officials in a position to know the truth have testified before Congress about the United States role in enhancing Iraq's military capability."[^137] The White House's unclassified summary of September 1991 uses different language on the same question.[^138] +In a 1992 statement in the House, Representative [[Henry B. Gonzalez]] quoted the sentence "United States suppliers did not contribute directly to Iraq's conventional or nonconventional weapons capability." He added that "[s]everal Bush administration officials in a position to know the truth have testified before Congress about the United States role in enhancing Iraq's military capability."[^138] The White House's unclassified summary of September 1991 uses different language on the same question.[^139] ### BCCI and the Gulf Finance Network -The Senate report on the Bank of Credit and Commerce International, prepared by Senators John Kerry and [[Hank Brown]] and published in December 1992, describes a figure named Lake who "received $200,000 in payments from Abu Dhabi last fall in connection with this work." The report says he was performing, "as a volunteer, in an unpaid position," the job of "deputy manager to President Bush's re-election campaign."[^139] Kerry, then subcommittee chairman, said at a hearing on March 18, 1992: "I do not believe that Mr. Lake should be sitting in on White House campaign strategy meetings while he is also providing strategy to Sheikh Zayed on how to deal with problems arising out of his ownership of BCCI."[^139] +The Senate report on the Bank of Credit and Commerce International, prepared by Senators John Kerry and [[Hank Brown]] and published in December 1992, describes a figure named Lake who "received $200,000 in payments from Abu Dhabi last fall in connection with this work." The report says he was performing, "as a volunteer, in an unpaid position," the job of "deputy manager to President Bush's re-election campaign."[^140] Kerry, then subcommittee chairman, said at a hearing on March 18, 1992: "I do not believe that Mr. Lake should be sitting in on White House campaign strategy meetings while he is also providing strategy to Sheikh Zayed on how to deal with problems arising out of his ownership of BCCI."[^140] -The report's chapter on [[Ed Rogers]] quotes Rogers's resignation letter, which states that "The ethics atmosphere at the Bush White House was to go the extra mile...."[^140] The report places [[Sam Bamieh]] in Bush's Team 100 fundraising program in 1988.[^141] It also records that [[Richard Helms]] wrote to Vice President Bush on behalf of [[Mohammed Rahim Motaghi Irvani|Irvani]] on October 29, 1987.[^142] +The report's chapter on [[Ed Rogers]] quotes Rogers's resignation letter, which states that "The ethics atmosphere at the Bush White House was to go the extra mile...."[^141] The report places [[Sam Bamieh]] in Bush's Team 100 fundraising program in 1988.[^142] It also records that [[Richard Helms]] wrote to Vice President Bush on behalf of [[Mohammed Rahim Motaghi Irvani|Irvani]] on October 29, 1987.[^143] -The Justice Department's response to Kerry's inquiry about its February 1990 letters states that "The first letter by Mr. Saphos is obviously worded poorly."[^143] A July 24, 1990 letter from Deputy Assistant Attorney General [[Bruce Navarro]] to Kerry also appears in the record.[^144] The report asks whether the Customs undercover investigation of BCCI "is the kind of investigation that President Bush and the Congress desire."[^145] +The Justice Department's response to Kerry's inquiry about its February 1990 letters states that "The first letter by Mr. Saphos is obviously worded poorly."[^144] A July 24, 1990 letter from Deputy Assistant Attorney General [[Bruce Navarro]] to Kerry also appears in the record.[^145] The report asks whether the Customs undercover investigation of BCCI "is the kind of investigation that President Bush and the Congress desire."[^146] ### Stephens, Bath and the Gulf Financiers -[[Jackson Stephens]] of [[Stephens Inc.]] gave to Reagan, Bush and Clinton, and in 1977 introduced the Bank of Credit and Commerce International to the American bank it would secretly acquire.[^146] [[Peter Truell]] and [[Larry Gurwin]] wrote in 1992 that Stephens backed Bush that year while employees of Stephens Inc. gave more money to the Clinton campaign than the employees of all but two other firms; they also wrote that [[Hillary Clinton]], then Hillary Rodham, did legal work in 1978 for Systematics Inc. when it was sued over the stock accumulation for [[Agha Hasan Abedi]].[^147] The firm gave 100,000 dollars to a dinner for President Bush in May 1991, and family members and employees gave more than 83,000 dollars to Clinton by the summer of 1992; [[Worthen Bank]], whose chairman [[Curt Bradbury]] had been a Stephens officer, extended the Clinton campaign a 3.5 million dollar line of credit.[^148] +[[Jackson Stephens]] of [[Stephens Inc.]] gave to Reagan, Bush and Clinton, and in 1977 introduced the Bank of Credit and Commerce International to the American bank it would secretly acquire.[^147] [[Peter Truell]] and [[Larry Gurwin]] wrote in 1992 that Stephens backed Bush that year while employees of Stephens Inc. gave more money to the Clinton campaign than the employees of all but two other firms; they also wrote that [[Hillary Clinton]], then Hillary Rodham, did legal work in 1978 for Systematics Inc. when it was sued over the stock accumulation for [[Agha Hasan Abedi]].[^148] The firm gave 100,000 dollars to a dinner for President Bush in May 1991, and family members and employees gave more than 83,000 dollars to Clinton by the summer of 1992; [[Worthen Bank]], whose chairman [[Curt Bradbury]] had been a Stephens officer, extended the Clinton campaign a 3.5 million dollar line of credit.[^149] -[[James R. Bath]] told *Time* in 1991 that his friendship with Bush dated from their service in the Guard and that he was only "slightly" acquainted with the then-President.[^149] [[Craig Unger]] wrote in *Salon* in 2004 that the second name on a Guard order, released earlier under the Freedom of Information Act to the researcher Marty Heldt, was Bath's, and that the White House redacted it when it released George W. Bush's military records in March 2004; Bath confirmed that he was the man named and said: "Geo did not use drugs."[^150] [[Lucy Komisar]] wrote in 2007 that in 1976, when Bush headed the CIA, the agency sold some planes of its proprietary airline [[Air America]] to Skyway, "a company owned by Bath and Bin Mahfouz"; she wrote that [[Khalid bin Mahfouz]]'s family bought 20 to 30 percent of BCCI for nearly one billion dollars, and that when [[Harken Energy]] got into financial trouble in 1987 Stephens helped it obtain 25 million dollars from [[Union Bank of Switzerland]] and a board seat went to the Harken shareholder [[Abdullah Taha Bakhsh]], "whose chief banker was BCCI shareholder Bin Mahfouz." Harken's proxy statement of April 25, 1994 listed Bakhsh with 6,935,364 shares, 11.66 percent of its common stock.[^151] *Time* described Bakhsh as the reclusive Saudi who bought an 11 percent stake in Harken, of which George W. Bush was a director.[^152] +[[James R. Bath]] told *Time* in 1991 that his friendship with Bush dated from their service in the Guard and that he was only "slightly" acquainted with the then-President.[^150] [[Craig Unger]] wrote in *Salon* in 2004 that the second name on a Guard order, released earlier under the Freedom of Information Act to the researcher Marty Heldt, was Bath's, and that the White House redacted it when it released George W. Bush's military records in March 2004; Bath confirmed that he was the man named and said: "Geo did not use drugs."[^151] [[Lucy Komisar]] wrote in 2007 that in 1976, when Bush headed the CIA, the agency sold some planes of its proprietary airline [[Air America]] to Skyway, "a company owned by Bath and Bin Mahfouz"; she wrote that [[Khalid bin Mahfouz]]'s family bought 20 to 30 percent of BCCI for nearly one billion dollars, and that when [[Harken Energy]] got into financial trouble in 1987 Stephens helped it obtain 25 million dollars from [[Union Bank of Switzerland]] and a board seat went to the Harken shareholder [[Abdullah Taha Bakhsh]], "whose chief banker was BCCI shareholder Bin Mahfouz." Harken's proxy statement of April 25, 1994 listed Bakhsh with 6,935,364 shares, 11.66 percent of its common stock.[^152] *Time* described Bakhsh as the reclusive Saudi who bought an 11 percent stake in Harken, of which George W. Bush was a director.[^153] ### Hinckley -John W. Hinckley Jr. shot President Reagan on March 30, 1981. The [[Houston Post]] reported that Neil Bush, a son of Vice President Bush, had been scheduled to have dinner the day after the shooting with [[Scott Hinckley]], the brother of the gunman. WhoWhatWhy reports that the story was picked up by the Associated Press and UPI.[^153] +John W. Hinckley Jr. shot President Reagan on March 30, 1981. The [[Houston Post]] reported that Neil Bush, a son of Vice President Bush, had been scheduled to have dinner the day after the shooting with [[Scott Hinckley]], the brother of the gunman. WhoWhatWhy reports that the story was picked up by the Associated Press and UPI.[^154] -At a press conference the day after the shooting, Neil Bush acknowledged that Scott Hinckley had also been at his house "a couple of months earlier, at his surprise birthday party." Neil Bush said, "I have no idea."[^153] +At a press conference the day after the shooting, Neil Bush acknowledged that Scott Hinckley had also been at his house "a couple of months earlier, at his surprise birthday party." Neil Bush said, "I have no idea."[^154] -The vice president's press secretary, [[Peter Teeley]], told a UPI reporter, as WhoWhatWhy quotes him: "I don't know a damn thing about it. All I know is what you're telling me." Teeley said that the vice president "made no mention of it whatsoever."[^153] +The vice president's press secretary, [[Peter Teeley]], told a UPI reporter, as WhoWhatWhy quotes him: "I don't know a damn thing about it. All I know is what you're telling me." Teeley said that the vice president "made no mention of it whatsoever."[^154] -The diary of [[Chase Untermyer]], a Bush aide, records that "Neil and Sharon do know Hinckley's brother (in Denver) and were planning to have dinner with them tomorrow night."[^153] +The diary of [[Chase Untermyer]], a Bush aide, records that "Neil and Sharon do know Hinckley's brother (in Denver) and were planning to have dinner with them tomorrow night."[^154] -WhoWhatWhy also reports, citing an Associated Press item of April 1, 1981, that the Department of Energy told the Hinckley family's oil business that it might be penalized about $2 million.[^154] +WhoWhatWhy also reports, citing an Associated Press item of April 1, 1981, that the Department of Energy told the Hinckley family's oil business that it might be penalized about $2 million.[^155] ### Franklin Cover-Up Allegations -[[John DeCamp]] wrote on the Franklin matter in Nebraska. An advertisement for his book, reproduced in a compilation of material gathered by [[Ted Gunderson]], states that the book "contains numerous references to President George Bush."[^155] +[[John DeCamp]] wrote on the Franklin matter in Nebraska. An advertisement for his book, reproduced in a compilation of material gathered by [[Ted Gunderson]], states that the book "contains numerous references to President George Bush."[^156] -The same compilation relays a 1989 report in the [[Washington Times]] by [[George Archibald]] that key Reagan and Bush administration officials were ensnared in a federal probe tied to an escort service and [[Craig Spence]].[^156] +The same compilation relays a 1989 report in the [[Washington Times]] by [[George Archibald]] that key Reagan and Bush administration officials were ensnared in a federal probe tied to an escort service and [[Craig Spence]].[^157] ### Allegations in the Casolaro and Mind-Control Literature -Seymour wrote that the Royal Canadian Mounted Police inquirer [[Sean McDade]] told her that Canadian officials might have bought the PROMIS software unlawfully from officials of the Reagan and Bush administrations, that the RCMP had traced banking transactions supporting this, and that a successful inquiry "could cause the entire U.S. Republican Party to be dismantled."[^118] In September 2001 Admiral Daniel Murphy, who had served as chief of staff to Vice President Bush during the first Reagan term when the PROMIS misappropriations began, told [[Bill Hamilton]] of [[INSLAW]] that he had a "hunch" that there was still another use of PROMIS that INSLAW had not yet discovered; Murphy died on September 21, 2001.[^118] +Seymour wrote that the Royal Canadian Mounted Police inquirer [[Sean McDade]] told her that Canadian officials might have bought the PROMIS software unlawfully from officials of the Reagan and Bush administrations, that the RCMP had traced banking transactions supporting this, and that a successful inquiry "could cause the entire U.S. Republican Party to be dismantled."[^119] In September 2001 Admiral Daniel Murphy, who had served as chief of staff to Vice President Bush during the first Reagan term when the PROMIS misappropriations began, told [[Bill Hamilton]] of [[INSLAW]] that he had a "hunch" that there was still another use of PROMIS that INSLAW had not yet discovered; Murphy died on September 21, 2001.[^119] -[[Project Monarch]] is described in a 1996 PROBE article by A.B.H. Alexander, which reports the claim of Cathy O'Brien that she delivered messages to foreign leaders including Mexican President [[Carlos Salinas]] on behalf of Vice President Bush, using keyword-triggered personality compartments.[^157] +[[Project Monarch]] is described in a 1996 PROBE article by A.B.H. Alexander, which reports the claim of Cathy O'Brien that she delivered messages to foreign leaders including Mexican President [[Carlos Salinas]] on behalf of Vice President Bush, using keyword-triggered personality compartments.[^158] ### The Carlyle Group -In March 2002 Tim Shorrock wrote in [[The Nation]] that "Bush is Carlyle's senior adviser on Asia and makes his money by giving speeches at Carlyle's investment conferences."[^158] The article quotes [[William Conway]] of [[The Carlyle Group]] describing "the cast of ex-Presidents and former officials, including George H.W. Bush, James Baker III and Frank Carlucci, on its payroll."[^158] +In March 2002 Tim Shorrock wrote in [[The Nation]] that "Bush is Carlyle's senior adviser on Asia and makes his money by giving speeches at Carlyle's investment conferences."[^159] The article quotes [[William Conway]] of [[The Carlyle Group]] describing "the cast of ex-Presidents and former officials, including George H.W. Bush, James Baker III and Frank Carlucci, on its payroll."[^159] ### Appointees in the Epstein Record -Lefkowitz, who served under Bush at the Domestic Policy Council, was later the principal defense negotiator of the September 2007 [[Epstein non-prosecution agreement]] between [[Jeffrey Epstein]] and the U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of Florida; he retired from [[Kirkland & Ellis]] in March 2026, saying he would not have taken the Epstein matter "knowing what we all know now."[^159] Starr was a partner at Kirkland before and after his service as Solicitor General.[^159] Preska, whom Bush appointed in 1992, took over [[Giuffre v. Maxwell]] after the death of Judge Robert W. Sweet in 2019 and ruled until 2026 on the release of its sealed discovery.[^160] Federal Election Commission records show a 1988 contribution to Bush by [[Philip Scaturro]], whose contributions otherwise went mostly to Democratic candidates.[^161] +Lefkowitz, who served under Bush at the Domestic Policy Council, was later the principal defense negotiator of the September 2007 [[Epstein non-prosecution agreement]] between [[Jeffrey Epstein]] and the U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of Florida; he retired from [[Kirkland & Ellis]] in March 2026, saying he would not have taken the Epstein matter "knowing what we all know now."[^160] Starr was a partner at Kirkland before and after his service as Solicitor General.[^160] Preska, whom Bush appointed in 1992, took over [[Giuffre v. Maxwell]] after the death of Judge Robert W. Sweet in 2019 and ruled until 2026 on the release of its sealed discovery.[^161] Federal Election Commission records show a 1988 contribution to Bush by [[Philip Scaturro]], whose contributions otherwise went mostly to Democratic candidates.[^162] ### Unidentified Aerial Phenomena and the FBI Vault -A letter to FBI Director [[William S. Sessions]], held in the Bureau's vault, is quoted by [[Larry Holzwarth]] in a HistoryCollection article. The letter states that "President Bush (George H. W. Bush), when asked about UFOs, told the person asking 'You don't know the half of it.'" The letter writer reminds the director that Bush "was formerly with the CIA." Because the letter calls Bush "President," it can date only from January 1989 onward.[^162] +A letter to FBI Director [[William S. Sessions]], held in the Bureau's vault, is quoted by [[Larry Holzwarth]] in a HistoryCollection article. The letter states that "President Bush (George H. W. Bush), when asked about UFOs, told the person asking 'You don't know the half of it.'" The letter writer reminds the director that Bush "was formerly with the CIA." Because the letter calls Bush "President," it can date only from January 1989 onward.[^163] -The astrophysicist [[Eric Davis]] recalled Bush telling him that humans made contact with aliens at a secretive New Mexico air base in 1964. The account was published by OK! Magazine on November 24, 2025 and carried by AOL, and is tied to the documentary *The Age of Disclosure*. When Bush asked for more details, he was told that he did not have a need-to-know.[^163] +The astrophysicist [[Eric Davis]] recalled Bush telling him that humans made contact with aliens at a secretive New Mexico air base in 1964. The account was published by OK! Magazine on November 24, 2025 and carried by AOL, and is tied to the documentary *The Age of Disclosure*. When Bush asked for more details, he was told that he did not have a need-to-know.[^164] ### Footnotes [^1]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991). [^2]: Miller Center, University of Virginia, "George H. W. Bush: Life Before the Presidency." Phillips Academy, Navy service 1942 to 1945, marriage of January 6, 1945, Yale economics degree by 1948, baseball captain, Skull and Bones, Prescott Bush's Senate service 1952 to 1963, the Texas oil years, the 1964 to 1974 political offices, the CIA appointment, the May 1, 1979 announcement, and the children's names and birth years. https://millercenter.org/president/bush/life-before-the-presidency [^3]: White House, "Biography of President George W. Bush" (archived, georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov). Born July 6, 1946, in New Haven; sworn in January 20, 2001 and January 20, 2005. -[^4]: George H. W. Bush Presidential Library, FOIA response 2009-0116-F, records relating to the Skull and Bones Society. https://bush41library.gov/download/file/4777 -[^5]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entry "BUSH, 1948, George Herbert Walker," and index of members by class year, class of 1948. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^6]: *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. 1 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1917), entry for Prescott Sheldon Bush, pp. 105 to 106. https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr -[^7]: *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340 (S.D. Tex.), docket entries 1, 6, 8 and 17. https://archive.org/details/gov.uscourts.txsd.1463674 -[^8]: Kathrin Day Lassila and Mark Alden Branch, "Whose Skull and Bones?," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20060614215733/http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/2006_05/notebook.html -[^9]: Associated Press, reprinted by CBS News, "Letter May Back Yale Claim On Geronimo," May 9, 2006: "according to the letter, written by Winter Mead"; "But Mead was not at Fort Sill"; "According to Skull and Bones legend, members, including President George W. Bush's grandfather, Prescott Bush, dug up Geronimo's grave when a group of Army volunteers from Yale were stationed at the fort during World War I." https://www.cbsnews.com/news/letter-may-back-yale-claim-on-geronimo/ -[^10]: Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 248, Washington, October 20, 1942, *Federal Register*, November 7, 1942, pp. 9097-9098. -[^11]: Russ Baker, "CIA Helped Bush Senior In Oil Venture," WhoWhatWhy, January 7, 2007, quoting a CIA memorandum of November 29, 1975. https://whowhatwhy.org/2007/01/07/cia-bush-senior-oil-venture/ -[^12]: Russ Baker, "CIA Helped Bush Senior In Oil Venture," WhoWhatWhy, January 7, 2007, citing a 1968 memorandum and the 1998 release of CIA documents. https://whowhatwhy.org/2007/01/07/cia-bush-senior-oil-venture/ -[^13]: Central Intelligence Agency, "Biographical Information on George H. W. Bush," undated sheet, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP99-01448R000401590001-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401590001-9 -[^14]: Bob Woodward and Walter Pincus, "Bush Opened Up To Secret Yale Society," Washington Post, dated August 7, 1988 in the CIA reading room record, CIA-RDP99-01448R000401580058-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401580058-8 -[^15]: Randall Rothenberg, "In Search of George Bush," March 6, 1988, CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP99-01448R000401580078-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401580078-6 -[^16]: Anthony L. Kimery, "George Bush and the CIA: In the Company of Friends," CovertAction Information Bulletin no. 41 (Summer 1992), CIA-RDP99-01448R000401570011-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401570011-0 -[^17]: George Bush, *All the Best, George Bush: My Life in Letters and Other Writings* (New York: Scribner, 1999), biographical note on Neil Mallon, the account of the move to Odessa, the letter of April 12, 1951, and the passage on naming the third son. https://archive.org/details/allbestgeorgebus0000bush -[^18]: George Bush with Victor Gold, *Looking Forward* (New York: Doubleday, 1987). https://archive.org/details/lookingforward00bush -[^19]: Zapata Corporation, annual report on Form 10-K for fiscal 1994, filed December 29, 1994, accession 0000899243-94-000388, Item 1 and filer header (former conformed names), CIK 109177. -[^20]: SEC EDGAR filing history for CIK 109177 (Zapata Corporation and successor names); start of electronic filings February 8, 1994. -[^21]: Assassination Records Review Board, letter to John Pereira, December 18, 1997, CIA release 104-10336-10008. -[^22]: Assassination Records Review Board staff memorandum by Haron, January 8, 1998 (FBIMEM.002). -[^23]: CIA memorandum from Michelle Combs to T. Jeremy Gunn, July 15, 1998 (CIA-IR09). -[^24]: CIA memorandum from J. Barry Harrelson to T. Jeremy Gunn, February 25, 1998, within release 104-10336-10008. -[^25]: Assassination Records Review Board draft request, "George Bush," undated, bearing Gunn's name. -[^26]: WhoWhatWhy, "Classic Who: GHW Bush and the JFK Assassination," October 24, 2017, reporting Stephen Hart's 1988 statement and Joseph McBride's report in *The Nation*, July 16, 1988. https://whowhatwhy.org/2017/10/24/classic-ghw-bush-jfk-assassination/ -[^27]: Gary Webb, *Dark Alliance* (Seven Stories Press, 1998), ch. 13, "The wrong kind of friends." -[^28]: Ronald Reagan, "Statement Announcing the Establishment of a Federal Anticrime Task Force for Southern Florida," January 28, 1982. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/statement-announcing-the-establishment-federal-anticrime-task-force-for-southern-florida -[^29]: *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Hrg. 100-773, pt. 4 (July 1988), statement of Adm. Daniel J. Murphy, pp. 224-225. https://archive.org/details/micro_IA41152832_0009 -[^30]: Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Prt. 100-165 (1988), p. 19. https://archive.org/details/Kerry-Report-Drugs-Contras -[^31]: Gary Webb, *Dark Alliance* (Seven Stories Press, 1998), ch. 20, "It is a sensitive matter." -[^32]: FBI Headquarters file on H.L. Hunt, part 2 (FOIA release), Hunt Oil Company and Estate of H.L. Hunt press releases, March 4 and April 1, 1977, https://archive.org/details/foia_Hunt_H.L.-HQ-2 ; Marie Fagnant (Assassination Records Review Board staff), "Summary of Dallas Figures," memorandum, July 31, 1997; Bill Porterfield, "H.L. Hunt's Long Goodbye," *Texas Monthly*, March 1975. https://www.texasmonthly.com/news-politics/h-l-hunts-long-goodbye/ -[^33]: George Bush, Chairman, National Foreign Intelligence Board, letter to Vice Admiral Bobby R. Inman, January 1977 (DCI/IC 77-0402), CIA CREST copy CIA-RDP80M00165A002600030024-8. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80M00165A002600030024-8 -[^34]: "We've Been Asked: What Is the Trilateral Commission?" *U.S. News & World Report*, April 7, 1980, p. 37, reprinted in Congressional Research Service, *The Trilateral Commission*, Issue Packet IP0092 (Library of Congress, 1981). -[^35]: Ronald Reagan, "Nomination of William H. Draper III To Be President and Chairman of the Export-Import Bank of the United States," March 18, 1981, The American Presidency Project. https://presidency.ucsb.edu/node/247393 -[^36]: "The President's News Conference," November 3, 1975. The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/the-presidents-news-conference-60 -[^37]: "Remarks at the Swearing In of George Bush as Director of Central Intelligence," January 30, 1976. The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-the-swearing-george-bush-director-central-intelligence -[^38]: Kenneth A. Kress, "Parapsychology in Intelligence: A Personal Review and Conclusions," *Studies in Intelligence* 21, no. 4 (winter 1977), p. 15. CIA reading room CIA-RDP96-00791R000200030040-0. Reprinted with the author's January 1999 postscript in *Journal of Scientific Exploration* 13, no. 1 (1999). -[^39]: Senate nomination record for George H. W. Bush as Director of Central Intelligence, hearings of December 15-16, 1975, and committee report of December 18, 1975. CIA reading room CIA-RDP91-00901R000100050001-3. -[^40]: Center for the Study of Intelligence, "Intelligence and Congress: The Nomination of George H. W. Bush as DCI," *Studies in Intelligence* 65, no. 4 (December 2021). https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Article_Intel_Congress_Nomination_ofGHWBush_as_DCI_Studies_65_4_December2021.pdf -[^41]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXV, doc. 170, memorandum from Director of Central Intelligence Bush to recipients of National Intelligence Estimate 11-3/8-76, with editorial note citing William Beecher, *Boston Globe*, October 20, 1976, and David Binder, *New York Times*, December 26, 1976. -[^42]: "Soviet Strategic Objectives: An Alternative View, Report of Team B." CIA reading room CIA-RDP91M00696R001000110006-8. -[^43]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXV, doc. 174, Bush to Cherne, January 19, 1977. -[^44]: Church Committee, *Final Report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities*, Book I, p. 455 (1976). https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel01unit -[^45]: Church Committee, *Final Report*, Book I, p. 193. https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel01unit -[^46]: Norman Kempster, *Washington Star*, February 10, 1976. CIA reading room CIA-RDP99-00498R000100040124-3. -[^47]: "'Operation Chaos' Files Ordered Held," *Washington Star*, June 16, 1976. CIA reading room CIA-RDP90-01208R000100170029-4. -[^48]: Letter from Daniel K. Inouye to George Bush, September 29, 1976. CIA reading room 03303946. -[^49]: Letter from Edward H. Levi to George Bush, October 9, 1976, with Scowcroft's endorsement of October 21, 1976. *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. E-11, pt. 2, doc. 250. -[^50]: CIA reading room document 05535911, 1980 radio interview transcript (speaker identified as "MAN"). -[^51]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980*, vol. XXIV, doc. 209. -[^52]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980*, vol. XXIV, doc. 217, memorandum quoted in the volume. -[^53]: Memorandum by George Bush, "The Death of Roselli," August 11, 1976. CIA reading room 00508811. -[^54]: Timothy S. Robinson, "The Letelier Case," *The Washington Post*, May 21, 1978, p. A4, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP99-00498R000100050048-7, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-00498r000100050048-7. -[^55]: Brief for Appellants, *United States v. Sampol*, Nos. 79-1541 and 79-1542 (D.C. Cir. 1979), https://www.latinamericanstudies.org/MNC/Letelier-appeal.pdf ; Petition of the United States for Rehearing and Suggestion for Rehearing En Banc, *United States v. Sampol* (D.C. Cir., October 29, 1980), https://www.latinamericanstudies.org/MNC/Letelier-rehearing.pdf. -[^56]: "No New Leads Uncovered by Letelier Probe," *The Washington Post*, November 1, 1976, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP99-00498R000100020097-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-00498r000100020097-6 -[^57]: Secretary of State to American Embassy Caracas, "Interrogation of Bosch," telegram 1976STATE277225, November 11, 1976, quoting Richard L. Thornburgh's letter of November 5, 1976, Department of State, released 2006; Zach Dorfman, "Codename: Chilbom," *The Atavist Magazine*, no. 59, June 21, 2016. https://magazine.atavist.com/2016/codename-chilbom -[^58]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Associate Attorney General, *In the Matter of Orlando Bosch-Avila*, decision of Acting Associate Attorney General Joe D. Whitley in exclusion proceedings, January 23, 1989; National Security Archive, "Bombing of Cuban Jetliner 30 Years Later," Electronic Briefing Book 202, October 5, 2006. -[^59]: Peter Kornbluh, "A Modicum of Justice for Ronni Karpen Moffitt," *The Nation*, September 2026. -[^60]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXII, Panama, doc. 133, memorandum of conversation, October 6, 1976, source note. -[^61]: Letter from George Bush to Donald H. Rumsfeld, October 18, 1976. CIA reading room CIA-RDP79-00498A000600090009-7. -[^62]: Joseph Trento, *Prelude to Terror: The Rogue CIA and the Legacy of America's Private Intelligence Network* (Carroll & Graf, 2005), pp. 52-108; Alexandre de Marenches and David Andelman, *The Fourth World War* (Random House, 1992); Church Committee, S. Rept. 94-755, 1976. -[^63]: Roger Faligot and Pascal Krop, *La Piscine: Les Services Secrets Français, 1944-1984* (Seuil, 1985); Alexandre de Marenches and Christine Ockrent, *Dans le Secret des Princes* (Stock, 1986). -[^64]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, S. Rept. 94-465, 1975; Ludo De Witte, *The Assassination of Lumumba* (Verso, 2001); International Security Assistance and Arms Export Control Act of 1976, Public Law 94-329, 90 Stat. 729 (June 30, 1976), sec. 404. -[^65]: Miller Center, University of Virginia, "William P. Barr Oral History," interview of April 5, 2001, George H. W. Bush Oral History Project. https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-oral-histories/william-p-barr-oral-history -[^66]: Seymour M. 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I, Executive Summary, p. xviii. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/execsum.htm -[^89]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, "George Bush," pp. 473-474. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/chap_28.htm -[^90]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, p. 479 and note 67 (*Los Angeles Times*, September 11, 1992; *Washington Post*, 1988). -[^91]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, Part IX, "Investigations of the White House," pp. 443-444. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/part_ix.htm -[^92]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, pp. 474-475, on the diary, the pardons and the grand jury. -[^93]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, p. 480 and note 74 (diary entries of November 4 and 5, 1986). -[^94]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, p. 478. -[^95]: Proclamation 6518, Granting Pardons, December 24, 1992, 107 *Stat.* 2606-2607. -[^96]: Brown University, Thomas J. 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Prt. 100-165 (1989), p. 96. -[^101]: George Bush, "Statement by Press Secretary Fitzwater on the Iran-Contra Investigation," December 30, 1992, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/statement-press-secretary-fitzwater-the-iran-contra-investigation ; U.S. Department of Justice, "Griffin Boyette Bell," Attorneys General biographies. -[^102]: Miller Center, University of Virginia, "William P. Barr Oral History," interview of April 5, 2001, George H. W. Bush Oral History Project (remarks on Bua, Lacey, Civiletti, inherent authority, and the pardons). https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-oral-histories/william-p-barr-oral-history -[^103]: Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *The Intelligence Community's Involvement in the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro (BNL) Affair*, S. Prt. 103-12 (February 1993), pp. 4-5, 10; Lacey, Report of the Independent Counsel, Serial No. 103-95, pp. 344-345; "Drogoul gets 37 months in BNL bank scandal," United Press International, December 9, 1993; *United States v. Drogoul*, 1 F.3d 1546 (11th Cir. 1993). -[^104]: *Joint Report of the Task Force to Investigate Certain Allegations Concerning the Holding of American Hostages by Iran in 1980*, 102d Cong., 2d sess., January 3, 1993, Calendar No. 634. https://archive.org/details/6199732-Joint-Report-of-the-October-Surprise-Task-Force -[^105]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 148. -[^106]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 110. -[^107]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, pp. 172-173. -[^108]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 175. -[^109]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 149, citing the Rupp sentencing (D. Colo., September 23, 1988) and the Brenneke trial (D. Or., May 3, 1990). -[^110]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, pp. 150-151. -[^111]: Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Prt. 100-165 (1988), pp. 131-132. https://archive.org/details/Kerry-Report-Drugs-Contras -[^112]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 90, Casey calendar. -[^113]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 102. -[^114]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, pp. 20-21, missing calendar pages. -[^115]: Robert Parry, "October Surprise Evidence Surfaces," *Consortium News*, July 14, 2011. https://consortiumnews.com/2011/07/14/october-surprise-evidence-surfaces/ -[^116]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, pp. 173-174, Reagan statements. -[^117]: Barbara Honegger, *October Surprise* (New York: Tudor Publishing, 1989). -[^118]: Cheri Seymour, *The Last Circle: Danny Casolaro's Investigation into the Octopus and the PROMIS Software Scandal* (TrineDay, 2010). -[^119]: Miller Center, University of Virginia, "George H. W. Bush: Key Events." https://millercenter.org/president/bush/key-events -[^120]: Miller Center, "Statecraft: The Bush 41 Team," "Proving ground: How the December 1989 invasion of Panama shaped the Bush 41 foreign policy team," quoting Richard Cheney and Colin Powell in the George H. W. Bush Oral History Project. https://millercenter.org/statecraftmovie/proving-ground -[^121]: U.S. House of Representatives, Select Committee on U.S. National Security and Military/Commercial Concerns with the People's Republic of China, Report (H. Rept. 105-851), vol. III, ch. 9, p. 50. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRPT-105hrpt851/pdf/GPO-CRPT-105hrpt851.pdf -[^122]: Bruce Berkowitz, *The National Reconnaissance Office at 50 Years: A Brief History* (Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance, September 2011), pp. 20-21, 23-26. -[^123]: Henry B. Gonzalez, "Brass Factory in Iraq," *Congressional Record*, House, September 25, 1992, p. H9502; Gonzalez floor statement of August 10, 1992. -[^124]: Gayle Young, "Socialists Take the Helm in Jamaica. Manley hopes to strengthen US ties by aiding war on drugs," *The Christian Science Monitor*, February 14, 1989. https://www.csmonitor.com/1989/0214/ojam.html -[^125]: "Richard Lewis Thornburgh," Office of the Attorney General, U.S. Department of Justice, *Attorneys General of the United States*; Miller Center, "Richard Thornburgh." -[^126]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Solicitor General, "Solicitor General: Kenneth W. Starr," historical biography (updated September 18, 2023). https://www.justice.gov/osg/bio/kenneth-w-starr -[^127]: George Bush, "Nomination of Malcolm S. Forbes, Jr., To Be a Member of the Board for International Broadcasting, and Designation as Chairman," January 4, 1990, The American Presidency Project, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/264564 ; George Bush, "Digest of Other White House Announcements," June 19, 1992, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/391789 -[^128]: U.S. Department of State, "Jay Lefkowitz, Special Envoy, Human Rights in North Korea," biography, released May 25, 2006. https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ei/biog/66929.htm ; The White House (George W. Bush archives), "Personnel Announcement," January 31, 2002. -[^129]: Federal Judicial Center, "Preska, Loretta A.," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/preska-loretta -[^130]: Henry B. Gonzalez, "Kissinger Associates, Scowcroft, Eagleburger, Stoga, Iraq, and BNL," *Congressional Record*, House, April 28, 1992, pp. H2694-H2701. https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/congress/1992_cr/h920428g.htm -[^131]: Declaration of Howard R. Teicher, *United States v. Carlos Cardoen et al.*, No. 93-241-CR-Highsmith (S.D. Fla., January 31, 1995), para. 7. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB82/iraq61.pdf -[^132]: Corrective declaration of Howard R. Teicher, docket 679, *United States v. Cardoen* (October 31, 1996). Archive.org item utf-893cr-241-de-679. -[^133]: Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *The Intelligence Community's Involvement in the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro (BNL) Affair*, S. Prt. 103-12 (February 1993). https://intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/publications/10312.pdf -[^134]: National Security Directive 26, "U.S. Policy Toward the Persian Gulf," October 2, 1989, classified SECRET. George H. W. Bush Presidential Library copy. -[^135]: General Accounting Office, report on Iraq's participation in the Commodity Credit Corporation's GSM-102 and GSM-103 export credit guarantee programs, GAO/NSIAD-91-76, November 1990, appendix I; Henry B. Gonzalez, "Continuing Saga of Attempts to Thwart BNL Investigation," *Congressional Record*, House, May 18, 1992, pp. H3370-H3373; "Bush's embarrassing Lavoro scandal," *The Baltimore Sun*, April 28, 1992. -[^136]: Alan Friedman, *Spider's Web: The Secret History of How the White House Illegally Armed Iraq* (Bantam Books, 1993). -[^137]: Representative Henry B. Gonzalez, *Congressional Record*, 1992. https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/congress/1992_cr/h920925g.htm -[^138]: White House, unclassified summary of Iraq sanctions and weapons exports, September 1991. -[^139]: Senate Foreign Relations Committee, *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140 (December 1992), p. 461. https://archive.org/details/thebcciaffair_202003 -[^140]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, p. 542, chapter on Ed Rogers. -[^141]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, p. 538. -[^142]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, Helms letters to Vice President Bush, October 29, 1987. -[^143]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, Justice Department response on the February 1990 letters by Mr. Saphos. -[^144]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, letter of Deputy Assistant Attorney General Bruce Navarro to Senator Kerry, July 24, 1990. -[^145]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, p. 508. -[^146]: "Jackson Thomas Stephens (1923-2005)," *Encyclopedia of Arkansas*; *Financial General Bankshares, Inc. v. Metzger*, 523 F. Supp. 744 (D.D.C. 1981); 680 F.2d 768 (D.C. Cir. 1982). -[^147]: Peter Truell and Larry Gurwin, *False Profits: The Inside Story of BCCI, the World's Most Corrupt Financial Empire* (Houghton Mifflin, 1992), ch. 18 and p. 428. https://archive.org/details/bypetertruellauthorlarrygurwinauthorfalseprofitsth -[^148]: "Meet The Family That Bankrolled Clinton," *The Seattle Times*, January 31, 1993, https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/?date=19930131&slug=1682819 ; House Committee on Government Reform and Oversight, *Investigation of Political Fundraising Improprieties and Possible Violations of Law*, H. Rept. 105-829 (1998), vol. 2; Roger Morris, *Partners in Power* (Henry Holt, 1996); Truell and Gurwin, *False Profits*, pp. 41 and 428. -[^149]: Jonathan Beaty, "A Mysterious Mover of Money and Planes," *Time*, October 28, 1991. https://time.com/archive/6718843/a-mysterious-mover-of-money-and-planes/ -[^150]: Craig Unger, "Mystery man," *Salon*, April 28, 2004. https://www.salon.com/2004/04/28/james_bath/ -[^151]: Lucy Komisar, "Questions Linger About Bushes and BCCI," Inter Press Service, April 4, 2007, https://www.ipsnews.net/2007/04/finance-questions-linger-about-bushes-and-bcci/ ; Harken Energy Corporation, proxy statement (Schedule 14A), filed April 25, 1994, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/313478/0000950134-94-000454.txt -[^152]: Richard Behar, "Global Intrigue: The Wackiest Rig in Texas," *Time*, October 28, 1991. https://time.com/archive/6718865/global-intrigue-the-wackiest-rig-in-texas/ -[^153]: WhoWhatWhy, "Bush Angle to Reagan Shooting Still Unresolved as Hinckley Walks," August 16, 2016, reporting the *Houston Post* story, Neil Bush's press conference, Peter Teeley's statement to UPI, and the Untermyer diary. https://whowhatwhy.org/2016/08/16/bush-angle-reagan-shooting-still-unresolved-hinckley-walks/ -[^154]: WhoWhatWhy (2016), citing an Associated Press item of April 1, 1981, on the Department of Energy notice to the Hinckley family business. -[^155]: Ted L. Gunderson compilation, *FBI The Finders*, advertisement for John DeCamp's book. https://archive.org/details/ted-gunderson-fbi-the-finders -[^156]: Ted L. Gunderson compilation, *FBI The Finders*, relaying a *Washington Times* report by George Archibald (1989). -[^157]: A.B.H. Alexander, "Sex, Drugs, the CIA, MIND CONTROL and Your Children," *PROBE*, c. 1996. -[^158]: Tim Shorrock, "Crony Capitalism Goes Global," *The Nation*, March 14, 2002. https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/crony-capitalism-goes-global/ -[^159]: "Jeffrey Epstein's Disgraced Lawyer Jay Lefkowitz Who Secured Sweetheart Deal Leaves Firm," *The Daily Beast*, March 2026; U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Solicitor General, "Solicitor General: Kenneth W. Starr"; U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA02847284. -[^160]: *Brown v. Maxwell; Dershowitz v. Giuffre*, 929 F.3d 41 (2d Cir. 2019), Nos. 18-2868, 16-3945-cv(L) (July 3, 2019). https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/4636340/brown-v-maxwell-dershowitz-v-giuffre/ -[^161]: Federal Election Commission, Schedule A individual contributions, API query contributor_name "SCATURRO, PHILIP" (41 results). https://api.open.fec.gov/v1/schedules/schedule_a/?contributor_name=SCATURRO%2C%20PHILIP -[^162]: Larry Holzwarth, "FBI Files: Unexplained Phenomenon Files from the FBI's Vault," HistoryCollection, quoting an anonymous letter to FBI Director William S. Sessions. https://historycollection.com/unexplained-phenomenon-files-from-the-fbis-vault/6/ -[^163]: Allie Fasanella, "George H. W. Bush 'Knew' Humans Made Contact With Aliens in 1964," *OK! Magazine*, November 24, 2025, carried by AOL. https://www.aol.com/articles/george-h-w-bush-knew-161144400.html +[^4]: "The Ultimate Loyalist," profile of George Bush, 1988, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP99-01448R000401580046-1. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp99-01448r000401580046-1 +[^5]: George H. W. Bush Presidential Library, FOIA response 2009-0116-F, records relating to the Skull and Bones Society. https://bush41library.gov/download/file/4777 +[^6]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entry "BUSH, 1948, George Herbert Walker," and index of members by class year, class of 1948. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^7]: *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. 1 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1917), entry for Prescott Sheldon Bush, pp. 105 to 106. https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr +[^8]: *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340 (S.D. Tex.), docket entries 1, 6, 8 and 17. https://archive.org/details/gov.uscourts.txsd.1463674 +[^9]: Kathrin Day Lassila and Mark Alden Branch, "Whose Skull and Bones?," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20060614215733/http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/2006_05/notebook.html +[^10]: Associated Press, reprinted by CBS News, "Letter May Back Yale Claim On Geronimo," May 9, 2006: "according to the letter, written by Winter Mead"; "But Mead was not at Fort Sill"; "According to Skull and Bones legend, members, including President George W. Bush's grandfather, Prescott Bush, dug up Geronimo's grave when a group of Army volunteers from Yale were stationed at the fort during World War I." https://www.cbsnews.com/news/letter-may-back-yale-claim-on-geronimo/ +[^11]: Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 248, Washington, October 20, 1942, *Federal Register*, November 7, 1942, pp. 9097-9098. +[^12]: Russ Baker, "CIA Helped Bush Senior In Oil Venture," WhoWhatWhy, January 7, 2007, quoting a CIA memorandum of November 29, 1975. https://whowhatwhy.org/2007/01/07/cia-bush-senior-oil-venture/ +[^13]: Russ Baker, "CIA Helped Bush Senior In Oil Venture," WhoWhatWhy, January 7, 2007, citing a 1968 memorandum and the 1998 release of CIA documents. https://whowhatwhy.org/2007/01/07/cia-bush-senior-oil-venture/ +[^14]: Central Intelligence Agency, "Biographical Information on George H. W. Bush," undated sheet, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP99-01448R000401590001-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401590001-9 +[^15]: Bob Woodward and Walter Pincus, "Bush Opened Up To Secret Yale Society," Washington Post, dated August 7, 1988 in the CIA reading room record, CIA-RDP99-01448R000401580058-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401580058-8 +[^16]: Randall Rothenberg, "In Search of George Bush," March 6, 1988, CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP99-01448R000401580078-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401580078-6 +[^17]: Anthony L. Kimery, "George Bush and the CIA: In the Company of Friends," CovertAction Information Bulletin no. 41 (Summer 1992), CIA-RDP99-01448R000401570011-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401570011-0 +[^18]: George Bush, *All the Best, George Bush: My Life in Letters and Other Writings* (New York: Scribner, 1999), biographical note on Neil Mallon, the account of the move to Odessa, the letter of April 12, 1951, and the passage on naming the third son. https://archive.org/details/allbestgeorgebus0000bush +[^19]: George Bush with Victor Gold, *Looking Forward* (New York: Doubleday, 1987). https://archive.org/details/lookingforward00bush +[^20]: Zapata Corporation, annual report on Form 10-K for fiscal 1994, filed December 29, 1994, accession 0000899243-94-000388, Item 1 and filer header (former conformed names), CIK 109177. +[^21]: SEC EDGAR filing history for CIK 109177 (Zapata Corporation and successor names); start of electronic filings February 8, 1994. +[^22]: Assassination Records Review Board, letter to John Pereira, December 18, 1997, CIA release 104-10336-10008. +[^23]: Assassination Records Review Board staff memorandum by Haron, January 8, 1998 (FBIMEM.002). +[^24]: CIA memorandum from Michelle Combs to T. Jeremy Gunn, July 15, 1998 (CIA-IR09). +[^25]: CIA memorandum from J. Barry Harrelson to T. Jeremy Gunn, February 25, 1998, within release 104-10336-10008. +[^26]: Assassination Records Review Board draft request, "George Bush," undated, bearing Gunn's name. +[^27]: WhoWhatWhy, "Classic Who: GHW Bush and the JFK Assassination," October 24, 2017, reporting Stephen Hart's 1988 statement and Joseph McBride's report in *The Nation*, July 16, 1988. https://whowhatwhy.org/2017/10/24/classic-ghw-bush-jfk-assassination/ +[^28]: Gary Webb, *Dark Alliance* (Seven Stories Press, 1998), ch. 13, "The wrong kind of friends." +[^29]: Ronald Reagan, "Statement Announcing the Establishment of a Federal Anticrime Task Force for Southern Florida," January 28, 1982. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/statement-announcing-the-establishment-federal-anticrime-task-force-for-southern-florida +[^30]: *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Hrg. 100-773, pt. 4 (July 1988), statement of Adm. Daniel J. Murphy, pp. 224-225. https://archive.org/details/micro_IA41152832_0009 +[^31]: Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Prt. 100-165 (1988), p. 19. https://archive.org/details/Kerry-Report-Drugs-Contras +[^32]: Gary Webb, *Dark Alliance* (Seven Stories Press, 1998), ch. 20, "It is a sensitive matter." +[^33]: FBI Headquarters file on H.L. Hunt, part 2 (FOIA release), Hunt Oil Company and Estate of H.L. Hunt press releases, March 4 and April 1, 1977, https://archive.org/details/foia_Hunt_H.L.-HQ-2 ; Marie Fagnant (Assassination Records Review Board staff), "Summary of Dallas Figures," memorandum, July 31, 1997; Bill Porterfield, "H.L. Hunt's Long Goodbye," *Texas Monthly*, March 1975. https://www.texasmonthly.com/news-politics/h-l-hunts-long-goodbye/ +[^34]: George Bush, Chairman, National Foreign Intelligence Board, letter to Vice Admiral Bobby R. Inman, January 1977 (DCI/IC 77-0402), CIA CREST copy CIA-RDP80M00165A002600030024-8. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80M00165A002600030024-8 +[^35]: "We've Been Asked: What Is the Trilateral Commission?" *U.S. News & World Report*, April 7, 1980, p. 37, reprinted in Congressional Research Service, *The Trilateral Commission*, Issue Packet IP0092 (Library of Congress, 1981). +[^36]: Ronald Reagan, "Nomination of William H. Draper III To Be President and Chairman of the Export-Import Bank of the United States," March 18, 1981, The American Presidency Project. https://presidency.ucsb.edu/node/247393 +[^37]: "The President's News Conference," November 3, 1975. The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/the-presidents-news-conference-60 +[^38]: "Remarks at the Swearing In of George Bush as Director of Central Intelligence," January 30, 1976. The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-the-swearing-george-bush-director-central-intelligence +[^39]: Kenneth A. Kress, "Parapsychology in Intelligence: A Personal Review and Conclusions," *Studies in Intelligence* 21, no. 4 (winter 1977), p. 15. CIA reading room CIA-RDP96-00791R000200030040-0. Reprinted with the author's January 1999 postscript in *Journal of Scientific Exploration* 13, no. 1 (1999). +[^40]: Senate nomination record for George H. W. Bush as Director of Central Intelligence, hearings of December 15-16, 1975, and committee report of December 18, 1975. CIA reading room CIA-RDP91-00901R000100050001-3. +[^41]: Center for the Study of Intelligence, "Intelligence and Congress: The Nomination of George H. W. Bush as DCI," *Studies in Intelligence* 65, no. 4 (December 2021). https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Article_Intel_Congress_Nomination_ofGHWBush_as_DCI_Studies_65_4_December2021.pdf +[^42]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXV, doc. 170, memorandum from Director of Central Intelligence Bush to recipients of National Intelligence Estimate 11-3/8-76, with editorial note citing William Beecher, *Boston Globe*, October 20, 1976, and David Binder, *New York Times*, December 26, 1976. +[^43]: "Soviet Strategic Objectives: An Alternative View, Report of Team B." CIA reading room CIA-RDP91M00696R001000110006-8. +[^44]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXV, doc. 174, Bush to Cherne, January 19, 1977. +[^45]: Church Committee, *Final Report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities*, Book I, p. 455 (1976). https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel01unit +[^46]: Church Committee, *Final Report*, Book I, p. 193. https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel01unit +[^47]: Norman Kempster, *Washington Star*, February 10, 1976. CIA reading room CIA-RDP99-00498R000100040124-3. +[^48]: "'Operation Chaos' Files Ordered Held," *Washington Star*, June 16, 1976. CIA reading room CIA-RDP90-01208R000100170029-4. +[^49]: Letter from Daniel K. Inouye to George Bush, September 29, 1976. CIA reading room 03303946. +[^50]: Letter from Edward H. Levi to George Bush, October 9, 1976, with Scowcroft's endorsement of October 21, 1976. *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. E-11, pt. 2, doc. 250. +[^51]: CIA reading room document 05535911, 1980 radio interview transcript (speaker identified as "MAN"). +[^52]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980*, vol. XXIV, doc. 209. +[^53]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980*, vol. XXIV, doc. 217, memorandum quoted in the volume. +[^54]: Memorandum by George Bush, "The Death of Roselli," August 11, 1976. CIA reading room 00508811. +[^55]: Timothy S. Robinson, "The Letelier Case," *The Washington Post*, May 21, 1978, p. A4, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP99-00498R000100050048-7, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-00498r000100050048-7. +[^56]: Brief for Appellants, *United States v. Sampol*, Nos. 79-1541 and 79-1542 (D.C. Cir. 1979), https://www.latinamericanstudies.org/MNC/Letelier-appeal.pdf ; Petition of the United States for Rehearing and Suggestion for Rehearing En Banc, *United States v. Sampol* (D.C. Cir., October 29, 1980), https://www.latinamericanstudies.org/MNC/Letelier-rehearing.pdf. +[^57]: "No New Leads Uncovered by Letelier Probe," *The Washington Post*, November 1, 1976, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP99-00498R000100020097-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-00498r000100020097-6 +[^58]: Secretary of State to American Embassy Caracas, "Interrogation of Bosch," telegram 1976STATE277225, November 11, 1976, quoting Richard L. Thornburgh's letter of November 5, 1976, Department of State, released 2006; Zach Dorfman, "Codename: Chilbom," *The Atavist Magazine*, no. 59, June 21, 2016. https://magazine.atavist.com/2016/codename-chilbom +[^59]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Associate Attorney General, *In the Matter of Orlando Bosch-Avila*, decision of Acting Associate Attorney General Joe D. Whitley in exclusion proceedings, January 23, 1989; National Security Archive, "Bombing of Cuban Jetliner 30 Years Later," Electronic Briefing Book 202, October 5, 2006. +[^60]: Peter Kornbluh, "A Modicum of Justice for Ronni Karpen Moffitt," *The Nation*, September 2026. +[^61]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXII, Panama, doc. 133, memorandum of conversation, October 6, 1976, source note. +[^62]: Letter from George Bush to Donald H. Rumsfeld, October 18, 1976. CIA reading room CIA-RDP79-00498A000600090009-7. +[^63]: Joseph Trento, *Prelude to Terror: The Rogue CIA and the Legacy of America's Private Intelligence Network* (Carroll & Graf, 2005), pp. 52-108; Alexandre de Marenches and David Andelman, *The Fourth World War* (Random House, 1992); Church Committee, S. Rept. 94-755, 1976. +[^64]: Roger Faligot and Pascal Krop, *La Piscine: Les Services Secrets Français, 1944-1984* (Seuil, 1985); Alexandre de Marenches and Christine Ockrent, *Dans le Secret des Princes* (Stock, 1986). +[^65]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, S. Rept. 94-465, 1975; Ludo De Witte, *The Assassination of Lumumba* (Verso, 2001); International Security Assistance and Arms Export Control Act of 1976, Public Law 94-329, 90 Stat. 729 (June 30, 1976), sec. 404. +[^66]: Miller Center, University of Virginia, "William P. Barr Oral History," interview of April 5, 2001, George H. W. Bush Oral History Project. https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-oral-histories/william-p-barr-oral-history +[^67]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), ch. 18. +[^68]: Ari Ben-Menashe, *Profits of War: Inside the Secret U.S.-Israeli Arms Network* (Sheridan Square Press, 1992; TrineDay reprint, 2015). +[^69]: *The Tower Commission Report: The Full Text of the President's Special Review Board* (New York: Bantam Books and Times Books, 1987), pp. 24-25, 30-31; Tom Tugend, "Al Schwimmer, Israel Air Force pioneer, dies at 94," *Jewish Journal* (Los Angeles), June 12, 2011; JTA Staff, "Pardoned American served Israel in 1948," Jewish Telegraphic Agency, February 28, 2001. +[^70]: Maureen Dowd, "War in the Gulf: The President; Bush Urges Israeli Restraint in Phone Appeals to Shamir," *The New York Times*, January 20, 1991, p. 16. https://www.nytimes.com/1991/01/20/world/war-gulf-president-bush-urges-israeli-restraint-phone-appeals-shamir.html +[^71]: "Decade of the Spy," undated counterintelligence history extract, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book 407, Doc. 14. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB407/docs/EBB-PollardDoc14.pdf +[^72]: Kress, "Parapsychology in Intelligence," *Studies in Intelligence* 21, no. 4 (winter 1977), p. 16. CIA reading room CIA-RDP96-00791R000200030040-0. +[^73]: US Army Intelligence and Security Command, "List of Events from September 1977 to January 1986," entry for 1983. CIA reading room CIA-RDP96-00788R001100020001-8. +[^74]: Memorandum for the record, "Briefing," Major Gerald Fox, April 1, 1983, CIA-RDP96-00788R001700270002-4. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001700270002-4 +[^75]: Defense Intelligence Agency, S-1004/DT-1, "Minutes of the Meeting, DoD Grill Flame Committee," November 28, 1978, CIA-RDP96-00788R002000130006-1; "Minutes of the Grill Flame Committee Meeting, 14 Feb 79," CIA-RDP96-00788R002000130002-5. +[^76]: Dolan M. McKelvy, *Psychic Warfare: Exploring the Mind Frontier*, Air War College research report, Air University, CIA-RDP96-00789R001001420001-3, citing Ronald M. McRae, *Mind Wars* (1984), p. 103. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00789r001001420001-3 +[^77]: William J. Casey to Alexander M. Haig, Jr., April 2, 1982, with "Quick Intelligence Assessment on Falkland Affairs (April 2, 1982)," CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP84B00049R000701780017-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84b00049r000701780017-6 +[^78]: John H. Holdridge, letter, "Australian Intrigue," *Time*, January 3, 1982, CIA-RDP90-00806R000200820017-1, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000200820017-1 ; CBS, "The Nugan Hand Bank," Evening News transcript, September 22, 1982, CIA-RDP90-00552R000201840002-6, https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201840002-6 +[^79]: "Vice President George Bush, completing a 10-day trip aimed...," United Press International, April 12, 1986, https://www.upi.com/Archives/1986/04/12/Vice-President-George-Bush-completing-a-10-day-trip-aimed/5692513666000/ ; "Top-secret cronies," *Salon*, November 17, 2005, https://www.salon.com/2005/11/17/pfiab/ +[^80]: Bill Gertz, "Vice President confirms Buckley was tortured and killed," *Washington Times*, January 21, 1987, CIA-RDP90-00965R000302310058-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000302310058-3 +[^81]: Denholm Barnetson, "President Mohammad Zia ul-Haq, U.S. Ambassador Arnold Raphel and...," United Press International, August 17, 1988. https://www.upi.com/Archives/1988/08/17/President-Mohammad-Zia-ul-Haq-US-Ambassador-Arnold-Raphel-and/3467587793600/ +[^82]: Dennis Bernstein and Robert Knight (Pacific News Service), report published by *Salon*, October 8, 1996. https://www.salon.com/1996/10/08/news_555/ +[^83]: *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Hrg. 100-773, pt. 2 (February 1988), Senator Kerry, pp. 265-266. +[^84]: *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Hrg. 100-773, pt. 2 (February 1988), testimony of Danilo Blandon, pp. 136-137. +[^85]: Lawrence E. Walsh, *Final Report of the Independent Counsel for Iran/Contra Matters*, vol. I, ch. 29, citing Gregg grand jury testimony of October 9, 1987 and Rodriguez grand jury testimony of December 4, 1987. https://irp.fas.org/offdocs/walsh/chap_29.htm +[^86]: *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Hrg. 100-773, pt. 4 (July 1988), Rodriguez testimony, p. 344. +[^87]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, Part IX, p. 443. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/part_ix.htm +[^88]: Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Prt. 100-165 (1988), p. 96. https://archive.org/details/Kerry-Report-Drugs-Contras +[^89]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, Executive Summary, p. xviii. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/execsum.htm +[^90]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, "George Bush," pp. 473-474. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/chap_28.htm +[^91]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, p. 479 and note 67 (*Los Angeles Times*, September 11, 1992; *Washington Post*, 1988). +[^92]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, Part IX, "Investigations of the White House," pp. 443-444. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/part_ix.htm +[^93]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, pp. 474-475, on the diary, the pardons and the grand jury. +[^94]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, p. 480 and note 74 (diary entries of November 4 and 5, 1986). +[^95]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, p. 478. +[^96]: Proclamation 6518, Granting Pardons, December 24, 1992, 107 *Stat.* 2606-2607. +[^97]: Brown University, Thomas J. Dodd Research Center, Iran-Contra materials, "The Pardons," quoting Walsh's response to the pardon of Caspar Weinberger. https://webhelper.brown.edu/cheit/ +[^98]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. II, Fourth Interim Report to Congress, February 8, 1993, pp. 585-587. +[^99]: *The Tower Commission Report*, February 26, 1987, pp. 383-384. https://archive.org/details/towercommission00unit +[^100]: National Security Planning Group minutes, June 25, 1984, "Central America," National Security Archive, *The Iran-Contra Affair 20 Years On*, EBB 210, document 2 (IC 00463), pp. 12, 14. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB210/2-NSPG%20minutes%206-25-84%20(IC%2000463).pdf ; Iran-Contra report, ch. 26, pp. 403-404. +[^101]: Walsh, *Final Report of the Independent Counsel for Iran/Contra Matters*, vol. I, ch. 29 (Gregg and Rodriguez); Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Narcotics, Terrorism and International Operations, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Prt. 100-165 (1989), p. 96. +[^102]: George Bush, "Statement by Press Secretary Fitzwater on the Iran-Contra Investigation," December 30, 1992, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/statement-press-secretary-fitzwater-the-iran-contra-investigation ; U.S. Department of Justice, "Griffin Boyette Bell," Attorneys General biographies. +[^103]: Miller Center, University of Virginia, "William P. Barr Oral History," interview of April 5, 2001, George H. W. Bush Oral History Project (remarks on Bua, Lacey, Civiletti, inherent authority, and the pardons). https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-oral-histories/william-p-barr-oral-history +[^104]: Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *The Intelligence Community's Involvement in the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro (BNL) Affair*, S. Prt. 103-12 (February 1993), pp. 4-5, 10; Lacey, Report of the Independent Counsel, Serial No. 103-95, pp. 344-345; "Drogoul gets 37 months in BNL bank scandal," United Press International, December 9, 1993; *United States v. Drogoul*, 1 F.3d 1546 (11th Cir. 1993). +[^105]: *Joint Report of the Task Force to Investigate Certain Allegations Concerning the Holding of American Hostages by Iran in 1980*, 102d Cong., 2d sess., January 3, 1993, Calendar No. 634. https://archive.org/details/6199732-Joint-Report-of-the-October-Surprise-Task-Force +[^106]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 148. +[^107]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 110. +[^108]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, pp. 172-173. +[^109]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 175. +[^110]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 149, citing the Rupp sentencing (D. Colo., September 23, 1988) and the Brenneke trial (D. Or., May 3, 1990). +[^111]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, pp. 150-151. +[^112]: Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Prt. 100-165 (1988), pp. 131-132. https://archive.org/details/Kerry-Report-Drugs-Contras +[^113]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 90, Casey calendar. +[^114]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 102. +[^115]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, pp. 20-21, missing calendar pages. +[^116]: Robert Parry, "October Surprise Evidence Surfaces," *Consortium News*, July 14, 2011. https://consortiumnews.com/2011/07/14/october-surprise-evidence-surfaces/ +[^117]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, pp. 173-174, Reagan statements. +[^118]: Barbara Honegger, *October Surprise* (New York: Tudor Publishing, 1989). +[^119]: Cheri Seymour, *The Last Circle: Danny Casolaro's Investigation into the Octopus and the PROMIS Software Scandal* (TrineDay, 2010). +[^120]: Miller Center, University of Virginia, "George H. W. Bush: Key Events." https://millercenter.org/president/bush/key-events +[^121]: Miller Center, "Statecraft: The Bush 41 Team," "Proving ground: How the December 1989 invasion of Panama shaped the Bush 41 foreign policy team," quoting Richard Cheney and Colin Powell in the George H. W. Bush Oral History Project. https://millercenter.org/statecraftmovie/proving-ground +[^122]: U.S. House of Representatives, Select Committee on U.S. National Security and Military/Commercial Concerns with the People's Republic of China, Report (H. Rept. 105-851), vol. III, ch. 9, p. 50. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRPT-105hrpt851/pdf/GPO-CRPT-105hrpt851.pdf +[^123]: Bruce Berkowitz, *The National Reconnaissance Office at 50 Years: A Brief History* (Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance, September 2011), pp. 20-21, 23-26. +[^124]: Henry B. Gonzalez, "Brass Factory in Iraq," *Congressional Record*, House, September 25, 1992, p. H9502; Gonzalez floor statement of August 10, 1992. +[^125]: Gayle Young, "Socialists Take the Helm in Jamaica. Manley hopes to strengthen US ties by aiding war on drugs," *The Christian Science Monitor*, February 14, 1989. https://www.csmonitor.com/1989/0214/ojam.html +[^126]: "Richard Lewis Thornburgh," Office of the Attorney General, U.S. Department of Justice, *Attorneys General of the United States*; Miller Center, "Richard Thornburgh." +[^127]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Solicitor General, "Solicitor General: Kenneth W. Starr," historical biography (updated September 18, 2023). https://www.justice.gov/osg/bio/kenneth-w-starr +[^128]: George Bush, "Nomination of Malcolm S. Forbes, Jr., To Be a Member of the Board for International Broadcasting, and Designation as Chairman," January 4, 1990, The American Presidency Project, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/264564 ; George Bush, "Digest of Other White House Announcements," June 19, 1992, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/391789 +[^129]: U.S. Department of State, "Jay Lefkowitz, Special Envoy, Human Rights in North Korea," biography, released May 25, 2006. https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ei/biog/66929.htm ; The White House (George W. Bush archives), "Personnel Announcement," January 31, 2002. +[^130]: Federal Judicial Center, "Preska, Loretta A.," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/preska-loretta +[^131]: Henry B. Gonzalez, "Kissinger Associates, Scowcroft, Eagleburger, Stoga, Iraq, and BNL," *Congressional Record*, House, April 28, 1992, pp. H2694-H2701. https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/congress/1992_cr/h920428g.htm +[^132]: Declaration of Howard R. Teicher, *United States v. Carlos Cardoen et al.*, No. 93-241-CR-Highsmith (S.D. Fla., January 31, 1995), para. 7. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB82/iraq61.pdf +[^133]: Corrective declaration of Howard R. Teicher, docket 679, *United States v. Cardoen* (October 31, 1996). Archive.org item utf-893cr-241-de-679. +[^134]: Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *The Intelligence Community's Involvement in the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro (BNL) Affair*, S. Prt. 103-12 (February 1993). https://intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/publications/10312.pdf +[^135]: National Security Directive 26, "U.S. Policy Toward the Persian Gulf," October 2, 1989, classified SECRET. George H. W. Bush Presidential Library copy. +[^136]: General Accounting Office, report on Iraq's participation in the Commodity Credit Corporation's GSM-102 and GSM-103 export credit guarantee programs, GAO/NSIAD-91-76, November 1990, appendix I; Henry B. Gonzalez, "Continuing Saga of Attempts to Thwart BNL Investigation," *Congressional Record*, House, May 18, 1992, pp. H3370-H3373; "Bush's embarrassing Lavoro scandal," *The Baltimore Sun*, April 28, 1992. +[^137]: Alan Friedman, *Spider's Web: The Secret History of How the White House Illegally Armed Iraq* (Bantam Books, 1993). +[^138]: Representative Henry B. Gonzalez, *Congressional Record*, 1992. https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/congress/1992_cr/h920925g.htm +[^139]: White House, unclassified summary of Iraq sanctions and weapons exports, September 1991. +[^140]: Senate Foreign Relations Committee, *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140 (December 1992), p. 461. https://archive.org/details/thebcciaffair_202003 +[^141]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, p. 542, chapter on Ed Rogers. +[^142]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, p. 538. +[^143]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, Helms letters to Vice President Bush, October 29, 1987. +[^144]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, Justice Department response on the February 1990 letters by Mr. Saphos. +[^145]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, letter of Deputy Assistant Attorney General Bruce Navarro to Senator Kerry, July 24, 1990. +[^146]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, p. 508. +[^147]: "Jackson Thomas Stephens (1923-2005)," *Encyclopedia of Arkansas*; *Financial General Bankshares, Inc. v. Metzger*, 523 F. Supp. 744 (D.D.C. 1981); 680 F.2d 768 (D.C. Cir. 1982). +[^148]: Peter Truell and Larry Gurwin, *False Profits: The Inside Story of BCCI, the World's Most Corrupt Financial Empire* (Houghton Mifflin, 1992), ch. 18 and p. 428. https://archive.org/details/bypetertruellauthorlarrygurwinauthorfalseprofitsth +[^149]: "Meet The Family That Bankrolled Clinton," *The Seattle Times*, January 31, 1993, https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/?date=19930131&slug=1682819 ; House Committee on Government Reform and Oversight, *Investigation of Political Fundraising Improprieties and Possible Violations of Law*, H. Rept. 105-829 (1998), vol. 2; Roger Morris, *Partners in Power* (Henry Holt, 1996); Truell and Gurwin, *False Profits*, pp. 41 and 428. +[^150]: Jonathan Beaty, "A Mysterious Mover of Money and Planes," *Time*, October 28, 1991. https://time.com/archive/6718843/a-mysterious-mover-of-money-and-planes/ +[^151]: Craig Unger, "Mystery man," *Salon*, April 28, 2004. https://www.salon.com/2004/04/28/james_bath/ +[^152]: Lucy Komisar, "Questions Linger About Bushes and BCCI," Inter Press Service, April 4, 2007, https://www.ipsnews.net/2007/04/finance-questions-linger-about-bushes-and-bcci/ ; Harken Energy Corporation, proxy statement (Schedule 14A), filed April 25, 1994, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/313478/0000950134-94-000454.txt +[^153]: Richard Behar, "Global Intrigue: The Wackiest Rig in Texas," *Time*, October 28, 1991. https://time.com/archive/6718865/global-intrigue-the-wackiest-rig-in-texas/ +[^154]: WhoWhatWhy, "Bush Angle to Reagan Shooting Still Unresolved as Hinckley Walks," August 16, 2016, reporting the *Houston Post* story, Neil Bush's press conference, Peter Teeley's statement to UPI, and the Untermyer diary. https://whowhatwhy.org/2016/08/16/bush-angle-reagan-shooting-still-unresolved-hinckley-walks/ +[^155]: WhoWhatWhy (2016), citing an Associated Press item of April 1, 1981, on the Department of Energy notice to the Hinckley family business. +[^156]: Ted L. Gunderson compilation, *FBI The Finders*, advertisement for John DeCamp's book. https://archive.org/details/ted-gunderson-fbi-the-finders +[^157]: Ted L. Gunderson compilation, *FBI The Finders*, relaying a *Washington Times* report by George Archibald (1989). +[^158]: A.B.H. Alexander, "Sex, Drugs, the CIA, MIND CONTROL and Your Children," *PROBE*, c. 1996. +[^159]: Tim Shorrock, "Crony Capitalism Goes Global," *The Nation*, March 14, 2002. https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/crony-capitalism-goes-global/ +[^160]: "Jeffrey Epstein's Disgraced Lawyer Jay Lefkowitz Who Secured Sweetheart Deal Leaves Firm," *The Daily Beast*, March 2026; U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Solicitor General, "Solicitor General: Kenneth W. Starr"; U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA02847284. +[^161]: *Brown v. Maxwell; Dershowitz v. Giuffre*, 929 F.3d 41 (2d Cir. 2019), Nos. 18-2868, 16-3945-cv(L) (July 3, 2019). https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/4636340/brown-v-maxwell-dershowitz-v-giuffre/ +[^162]: Federal Election Commission, Schedule A individual contributions, API query contributor_name "SCATURRO, PHILIP" (41 results). https://api.open.fec.gov/v1/schedules/schedule_a/?contributor_name=SCATURRO%2C%20PHILIP +[^163]: Larry Holzwarth, "FBI Files: Unexplained Phenomenon Files from the FBI's Vault," HistoryCollection, quoting an anonymous letter to FBI Director William S. Sessions. https://historycollection.com/unexplained-phenomenon-files-from-the-fbis-vault/6/ +[^164]: Allie Fasanella, "George H. W. Bush 'Knew' Humans Made Contact With Aliens in 1964," *OK! Magazine*, November 24, 2025, carried by AOL. https://www.aol.com/articles/george-h-w-bush-knew-161144400.html diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Harvey H. Bundy.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Harvey H. Bundy.md new file mode 100644 index 00000000..3af7cd60 --- /dev/null +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Harvey H. Bundy.md @@ -0,0 +1,369 @@ +--- +aliases: + - Harvey H. Bundy + - Harvey Hollister Bundy + - Harvey Bundy + - H. H. Bundy +category: "Intelligence & Government" +tags: + - Person + - SkullAndBones + - StateDepartment + - WarDepartment + - ManhattanProject + - CombinedPolicyCommittee + - InterimCommittee + - TubeAlloys + - Potsdam + - CarnegieEndowment + - AlgerHiss + - WorldPeaceFoundation + - HooverCommission + - DominicanRepublic + - InternationalFriendshipLeague + - YalePoliticalUnion + - ChoateHallStewart +summary: "Harvey Hollister Bundy, Boston lawyer, Assistant Secretary of State and then Stimson's special assistant for the atomic project, and chairman of the Carnegie Endowment after John Foster Dulles." +born: 1888-03-30 +died: 1963 +location: "Boston, Massachusetts" +relations: + - type: member_of + with: "[[Skull and Bones]]" + start: 1909 + role: "class of 1909, per Sutton's index" + fn: 4 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Yale University]]" + end: 1909 + role: "B.A. 1909" + fn: 1 + - type: spouse_of + with: "[[Katharine Lawrence Putnam]]" + start: 1915-04-17 + role: "married April 17, 1915" + fn: 6 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[United States Department of State]]" + start: 1931-07-13 + end: 1933-03-04 + role: "Assistant Secretary of State" + fn: 10 + - type: reported_to + with: "[[Henry L. Stimson]]" + start: 1931-07-13 + end: 1933-03-04 + role: "Assistant Secretary of State" + fn: 11 + - type: partner_of + with: "[[Choate, Hall & Stewart]]" + start: 1933 + role: "member of the firm 1933 to 1941 and from 1945" + fn: 2 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[War Department]]" + start: 1941-04 + end: 1945-09 + role: "special assistant to the Secretary of War" + fn: 15 + - type: reported_to + with: "[[Henry L. Stimson]]" + start: 1941-04 + end: 1945-09 + role: "special assistant; 'my closest personal assistant'" + fn: 15 + - type: participant_in + with: "[[Combined Policy Committee]]" + start: 1945-01-22 + end: 1945-07-04 + role: "joint secretary at the January 22, March 8 and July 4, 1945 meetings" + fn: 22 + - type: participant_in + with: "[[Interim Committee]]" + start: 1945-05-31 + role: "present by invitation at the May 31, 1945 meeting" + fn: 29 + - type: participant_in + with: "[[Hoover Commission]]" + start: 1949-02-18 + role: "headed the task force on foreign affairs with James Grafton Rogers; the commission's report is dated February 18, 1949" + fn: 42 + - type: director_of + with: "[[World Peace Foundation]]" + start: 1947 + role: "president and trustee; trustees in 1947 included Alger Hiss" + fn: 43 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]]" + start: 1950 + role: "trustee; member of the 1950 nominating committee; vice chairman of the board by 1951; chairman of the board elected December 8, 1952" + fn: 47 + - type: head_of + with: "[[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]]" + start: 1952-12-08 + role: "chairman of the board of trustees, elected to fill John Foster Dulles's unexpired term; still chairman in November 1957" + fn: 51 + - type: director_of + with: "[[International Friendship League]]" + start: 1955-04-20 + role: "board of directors, Boston" + fn: 63 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[McGeorge Bundy]]" + role: "son" + fn: 2 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[William P. Bundy]]" + role: "son" + fn: 2 +created: 2026-10-26 +updated: 2026-10-26 +--- + +Harvey Hollister Bundy (born March 30, 1888) was a Boston lawyer born in [[Grand Rapids, Michigan]], who served as Assistant Secretary of State under [[Henry L. Stimson]] from 1931 to 1933, as Stimson's special assistant at the [[War Department]] from April 1941 to September 1945, and as chairman of the board of the [[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]] from December 1952. He was the father of [[William P. Bundy]] and [[McGeorge Bundy]].[^1][^2] + +### Grand Rapids, Yale and Holmes + +Bundy was the son of McGeorge Bundy, a Grand Rapids attorney, and Mary Goodhue (Hollister) Bundy.[^2][^3] He attended the [[Hackley School]] and entered [[Yale University]], where he took the B.A. in 1909.[^1] A Grand Rapids profile of his son William, written after August 1953, recalls Harvey and his elder brother Nathan as state doubles tennis champions in Michigan in the early 1900s, and says that Harvey won the west Michigan singles title in 1910 from Earle S. Irwin in the finals at the Kent Country Club.[^3] + +Antony C. Sutton's index of [[Skull and Bones]] lists "Harvey Hollister Bundy (1909)" among the society's members, and his text states that Bundy was initiated in 1909.[^4] + +After Yale, Bundy taught at [[St. Mark's School]] in Southborough, Massachusetts, in 1909 and 1910, and then, according to his Who's Who entry, was a "traveling companion" from 1910 to 1914.[^2] He took the LL.B. at [[Harvard Law School]] in 1914. The [[Register of the Department of State]] records him as secretary to a justice of the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] from 1914 to 1915, and Who's Who names the justice as [[Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.]]; Sutton names Holmes as well and notes, as a coincidence, that [[Alger Hiss]] held the same post with Holmes in 1929 and 1930.[^1][^2][^4] Hiss himself testified in 1948 that, immediately after graduating from Harvard Law School, he served as secretary to one of the Associate Justices of the Supreme Court, and he named the justice as Oliver Wendell Holmes.[^5] He was admitted to the Massachusetts bar in 1915 and, from 1915 to 1917, was an assistant in a law office.[^1][^2] + +### Marriage and family + +Bundy married [[Katharine Lawrence Putnam]] on April 17, 1915. Who's Who gives the date in his own entry; the Danvers Historical Society's genealogy of the descendants of Judge Samuel Putnam gives the same date, records that she was born December 5, 1890, and places her as the daughter of William Lowell Putnam, son of the Rev. George Putnam, and Elizabeth Lowell, who married on June 9, 1888.[^2][^6] The genealogy lists Elizabeth Lowell among the children of Augustus Lowell and Katherine Bigelow Lawrence, whose other children it names as the astronomer Percival Lowell, [[Abbott Lawrence Lowell]], president of [[Harvard University]], and the author [[Amy Lowell]].[^6] A newspaper clipping forwarded to Senator [[Joseph McCarthy]] in 1953 described Bundy's son as having "married Dean Acheson's daughter," a reference to the marriage of William P. Bundy to the daughter of [[Dean Acheson]].[^7] + +Sutton lists five children of Harvey Hollister Bundy: Harvey Hollister Bundy Jr., who graduated from Yale in 1938; William Putnam Bundy, born in Washington in 1917 and initiated into Skull and Bones in 1939; McGeorge Bundy, initiated in 1940; Harriet Lowell Bundy, who married Gaspar d'Andelot Belin of [[Covington & Burling]]; and Katherine Lawrence Bundy, who married Hugh Auchincloss Jr.[^4] Sutton's family table also lists a Frederick McGeorge Bundy, initiated in 1921.[^4] The Who's Who entry gives McGeorge Bundy's birth in Boston on March 30, 1919.[^2] + +### Food Administration and Boston practice + +From 1917 to 1919 Bundy was assistant counsel to the [[United States Food Administration]]; the Grand Rapids profile states that William Bundy was born in Washington in 1917 while Harvey was with the Food Administration. From 1919 to 1931 he practiced law in Boston.[^1][^3] The Who's Who entry gives his firm as [[Choate, Hall & Stewart]], of which he was a member from 1933 to 1941 and again from 1945.[^2] A [[Congressional Record]] insert describes him as a partner in that firm, which had its offices at 30 State Street, Boston.[^8][^9] + +### Assistant Secretary of State, 1931 to 1933 + +The Register of the Department of State records that Bundy was commissioned Assistant Secretary of State on June 10, 1931, entered on duty on July 13, 1931, and retired on March 4, 1933.[^10] Stimson was Secretary of State throughout that period. [[James Grafton Rogers]] held the other assistant secretaryship in the same years, commissioned February 27, 1931 and retired March 6, 1933.[^10] Stimson's memoir records that the death of the Under Secretary in March 1931 had left the department "without a senior officer experienced in economic matters," and that Stimson appointed "Harvey H Bundy, a Boston lawyer with experience in finance, as Assistant Secretary." Bundy was assigned first to "defaulted foreign loans of American private investors" and later to the problems of war debts.[^11] The memoir adds that Bundy and [[Herbert Feis]] "were appointed only after other men more familiar to Stimson had regretfully refused to serve," and that on leaving office Stimson counted "in Rogers and Bundy, two new and dear friends."[^12][^13] + +The [[Foreign Relations of the United States|Foreign Relations]] volume for 1931 prints correspondence over the [[Dominican Republic]] bonds that carries Bundy's signature. The correspondents were [[Lee, Higginson & Company]], the Boston banking house that acted as fiscal agent for the bonds and that tried in 1931 to arrange a loan for the Dominican government, and the department.[^14] The firm wrote to the department on the loan in June 1931, and the department's letter of June 30 expressed its disinclination to take on increased responsibility for Dominican finances. On November 9, 1931 Lee, Higginson asked the Secretary of State for a statement of United States policy that the firm could send to the bondholders.[^14] + +The department's reply of November 10, 1931 is signed "For the Secretary of State: Harvey H. Bundy, Assistant Secretary." It states that the Dominican government had adopted emergency legislation giving priority to interest on the foreign loans and temporarily diverting customs revenue from amortization, and that the United States was not disposed at that time to take any action beyond the position described in the letter.[^14] On November 12 Lee, Higginson sent Bundy the draft introductory comments for its letter to bondholders and asked for suggestions before mailing. The comments state that all interest and sinking fund payments had been made in full until September 20, 1931.[^14] + +### Special Assistant to the Secretary of War, 1941 to 1945 + +In April 1941 Stimson, by then Secretary of War, "acquired a fourth assistant in Harvey H. Bundy," and with the title of Special Assistant to the Secretary Bundy became "my closest personal assistant." The memoir describes him as "a man of unusual tact and discretion" who "handled many of Stimson's troubling problems of administration and correspondence and served as his filter for all sorts of men and problems," and who "also became the Secretary's personal agent in dealings with scientists and educators."[^15] The memoir says that in 1947 Stimson looked back with nostalgia on the days when he had "fumed at Bundy's constant advice not to act on impulse." It also quotes Stimson's diary for December 17, 1941, on a discussion with McCloy, Lovett and Bundy of whether to make "every effort possible in the Far East" or treat it, "like the Navy," as doomed.[^16] + +The memoir's chapter on science describes Bundy as Stimson's "principal assistant" in organizing contact between the Army and scientists, "not a scientist but possessed the lawyer's talent for appreciation of the other man's problem." With Bundy and [[Vannevar Bush]], Stimson "worked out in the spring of 1942 an organization, in which the Navy joined, whereby Bush and an officer from each service department became a committee of three for the education of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in scientific problems." In September 1943, the memoir states, Stimson "responded quickly to the suggestion of Bush and Bundy" that new weapons become an independent section of the General Staff.[^17] On the atomic project the memoir says that "Stimson's direct agent was Bundy, who maintained constant contact with the work of General Groves and served as American secretary of the Combined Policy Committee."[^18] Sutton wrote that Bundy was "the key Pentagon man on the [[Manhattan Project]]" and that he accompanied Stimson to conferences in North Africa, Italy and Germany.[^4] + +### London, July 1943 + +On July 22, 1943, at 10 Downing Street, [[Winston Churchill]] opened the question of Anglo-American exchange of information on S-1 to Stimson, Bush and Bundy, with Sir John Anderson and [[Lord Cherwell]] present. Bundy wrote the record, which the Foreign Relations volume for the Washington and Quebec conferences prints from the Stimson files. It records Churchill saying that "it would never do to have Germany or Russia win the race for something which might be used for international blackmail," that Russia "might be in a position to accomplish this result unless we worked together," and that at the peace conference "the United States could never take the position that it alone should have control of this matter." Churchill proposed an agreement with five points, including that neither government use the invention against the other or give information to third parties without the consent of both. The record closes: "After the adjournment of the meeting, Dr. Bush and I waited with Lord Cherwell ... and I pointed out to Lord Cherwell the great difficulty of the President making any promises which were not strictly within the war powers," signed "H[arvey] H. B[undy]."[^19] Bush's own account of the same meeting states that on returning from the earlier conference with the Prime Minister he "reported to Mr. Bundy the general nature of the conference in order that he might inform the Secretary," and that he cabled Bundy the President's instruction on the interchange of information.[^20] + +After the conference Bundy wrote a memorandum for Stimson dated August 6, 1943: "I know your views about the S-1 project and the advisability of its ultimately being the joint possession of the U.K. and the U.S.A." He told Stimson that if the matter went to the President, it was "vital that he should understand that what Dr. Bush and Dr. Conant are really trying to do is to work out the agreement for interchange of information so that nobody, including the political opponents of the President, will be in a position to say that he acted otherwise than under the war powers." The source text carries a covering note from Bundy to the Chief of Staff, General [[George Marshall]], reading "I hope the attached is what you had in mind for me to say to the Secretary," and Marshall's penciled reply: "Mr. Bundy: I think it is o.k."[^21] + +### Combined Policy Committee + +The Combined Policy Committee was the body through which the United States, the United Kingdom and Canada coordinated the atomic project. The minutes of its meetings of January 22, 1945 and March 8, 1945 list Bundy as a joint secretary with Dr. [[William L. Webster]]. The minutes of July 4, 1945 list him as joint secretary with [[Roger Makins]].[^22] At the July 4 meeting the British Field Marshal [[Henry Maitland Wilson]] stated that the British government concurred in the use of the weapon against Japan, and the committee "Took note that the Governments of the United Kingdom and the United States had agreed that T. A. weapons should be used by the United States against Japan."[^23] + +Item 6 of the July 4 minutes, headed "Allocation of Material," records Bundy speaking: he "said that the supplies of material from the Belgian Congo received by the Trust, as well as some captured material which had been turned over to the Trust, were on their way to the United States, but it was appropriate that the position in regard to the allocation of material should be on record." [[Lord Halifax]] observed that the decision to allocate to the United States all the material usable in the American plants "would leave Great Britain without any reserve of supplies," and the committee agreed that material in excess of the quantity needed for weapons against Japan would be held by the [[Combined Development Trust]].[^24] + +On July 27, 1945, at Prestwick in Scotland, Colonel John Lansdale of Groves's staff met Stimson and Bundy and told them of the impending negotiations with the Netherlands and Swedish governments over uranium supplies.[^25] + +### San Francisco and the trusteeship dispute, April 1945 + +Bundy represented the War Department on the trusteeship question before the [[United Nations Conference on International Organization]]. A memorandum of April 7, 1945 by Benjamin Gerig of the State Department records a meeting with Bundy and Major Correa of the Navy Department at which the two officers read the State Department's draft memorandum for the President. The Gerig memorandum states that the position of the Secretaries of War and Navy was that trusteeship machinery could not be discussed without reference to specific territories, and that they proposed a policy statement "so that the public would clearly understand that strategic rights, especially with respect to the Pacific areas, are fully safeguarded and that the trusteeship principle in these areas is applied in form but not in substance." Gerig added that "within an hour after this conversation, Mr. Bundy telephoned a supplementary statement to our draft."[^26] + +At the twelfth meeting of the United States delegation on April 18, 1945, Bundy told the delegates that he had shown the revised trusteeship statement to Stimson the night before and that Stimson found it "generally satisfactory." He suggested adding the word "namely" and, when Admiral Willson questioned the use of "shall," said "that the Secretary of War prefers the word 'shall' in a policy statement." [[John Foster Dulles]], also present, said the statement was a directive for the delegation and, if published, "might need some changes" because of "somewhat too much emphasis on United States interests and on the Pacific."[^27] + +### The Interim Committee + +R. Gordon Arneson, who became the recording secretary of the [[Interim Committee]], stated in a Truman Library oral history interview of June 21, 1989 that he was introduced to the project through Bundy. Colonel [[Dillon Anderson]] told him to "go see Harvey Bundy. He's a very special friend and associate of the Secretary of War." Arneson said that Bundy hired him to replace a captain, that for two weeks he drafted replies to correspondents, and that Bundy then pointed to a safe: "See the safe over here in the corner? I want you to familiarize yourself thoroughly with its contents. It has to do with a weapon that's going to win the war." When Stimson formed the Interim Committee, Arneson said, "Bundy said, 'I guess Gordon maybe you had better be the committee's Recording Secretary.'" Arneson worked for [[George L. Harrison]], whom he called the committee's deputy chairman.[^28] + +On May 31, 1945 Bundy attended the Interim Committee meeting as one of the people present by invitation. The notes of that meeting, signed by Arneson as secretary, list the members (Stimson, Chairman; [[Ralph A. Bard]]; Vannevar Bush; [[James F. Byrnes]]; [[William L. Clayton]]; [[Karl T. Compton]]; [[James B. Conant]]; George L. Harrison), the "Invited Scientists" ([[J. Robert Oppenheimer]], [[Enrico Fermi]], [[Arthur H. Compton]] and [[E. O. Lawrence]]) and, under "By Invitation," "General George C. Marshall," "Major Gen. Leslie R. Groves," "Mr. Harvey H. Bundy" and "Mr. Arthur Page."[^29] The meeting ran from 10:00 a.m. to 4:15 p.m. The notes record Stimson's opening statement that the committee would make recommendations on "temporary war-time controls, public announcement, legislation and post-war organization"; Oppenheimer's estimate that one first-stage bomb would have "the explosive force of 2,000 - 20,000 tons of TNT"; the discussion of informing the Russians, in which Byrnes expressed the fear that Stalin would ask to be taken into partnership; and, in the afternoon, the discussion of targets, at which "the Secretary expressed the conclusion, on which there was general agreement, that we could not give the Japanese any warning" and "At the suggestion of Dr. Conant the Secretary agreed that the most desirable target would be a vital war plant employing a large number of workers and closely surrounded by workers' houses."[^30] The next meeting was scheduled for June 1, 1945, at 11:00 a.m. in the office of the Secretary of War, "to secure the views of four representatives from industry."[^31] + +Arneson's memorandum to Harrison of June 6, 1945 summarized the Thursday and Friday meetings as recommending that the bomb be used against Japan "as soon as possible," on a dual target, and "without prior warning."[^32] The documents of the committee are filed in the Manhattan Engineer District records as the Harrison-Bundy Files, Record Group 77; the National Security Archive's index places the May 31 notes and the June 6 and June 25 Arneson memoranda in folder 100, the Bush-Conant memorandum of September 30, 1944 in folder 69, and the Franck report and scientific panel papers in folders 76 and 77, and identifies Harrison as Stimson's special assistant on Manhattan Project matters.[^33] + +After the atomic attacks, Stimson retreated to the Adirondacks, where, the memoir says, "at the other end of the secret telephone were Harrison and Bundy," as the War Department civilian staff "was thinking long and painful thoughts about the atomic triumph."[^34] + +### Potsdam, July 1945 + +The Foreign Relations volume for the [[Potsdam Conference]] lists Bundy as "Special Assistant to the Secretary of War; Joint Secretary, Combined Policy Committee (on atomic energy)." A War Department memorandum of July 8, 1945 lists Stimson's party for the flight to Gibraltar on July 14 as Stimson, Assistant Secretary of War [[John J. McCloy]], and "Special Assistant to Secretary of War Harvey H. Bundy, Sr.," with the Surgeon General and six other officers.[^35] + +Bundy went to the conference with Stimson. The Foreign Relations volume prints Stimson's diary summaries for three conversations at which Bundy was present. On July 19 Stimson's diary records that Cherwell "and Bundy and I sat out under the trees" and discussed the notification of the Russians about the project.[^36] On July 21 Stimson's diary says that he "picked up Bundy, and went to the Prime Minister's house," where he turned over a paper to Churchill.[^37] On July 22 the diary records: "At ten-forty Bundy and I again went to the British headquarters and talked to the Prime Minister and Lord Cherwell for over an hour. Churchill read Groves' report in full." The diary adds that Churchill said Truman had been "evidently much fortified by something that had happened," and that "the sentiment of the four of us was unanimous in thinking that it was advisable to tell the Russians at least that we were working on that subject." The volume's editors state that no official record of the substance of these conversations has been found.[^36][^37][^38] + +The same volume records Bundy's own account of Churchill's reaction. In "Remembered Words," an article in the March 1957 issue of [[The Atlantic]], Bundy wrote that Churchill, after learning the contents of the report of the first atomic test, exclaimed: "Stimson, what was gunpowder? Trivial. What was electricity? Meaningless. This atomic bomb is the Second Coming in Wrath."[^39] + +Stimson wrote the citations for the Distinguished Service Medals awarded to Patterson, McCloy, Lovett and Bundy.[^40] + +### On Active Service in Peace and War + +Stimson's memoir, *On Active Service in Peace and War*, was published in 1948 under the names of Stimson and McGeorge Bundy. Its introduction credits the writing to McGeorge Bundy and says that the style and composition are his.[^41] Sutton wrote that the joint authorship gave McGeorge Bundy "a quick start in his career," and that Stimson brought McGeorge into the Pentagon to work on the manuscript while Stimson was still Secretary of War.[^4] + +### Hoover Commission task force, 1949 + +The Commission on the Organization of the Executive Branch of the Government, known as the [[Hoover Commission]], issued a report to Congress on foreign affairs dated February 18, 1949. Its recommendation No. 20 proposed that the permanent State Department establishment and the Foreign Service above certain levels be amalgamated over a short period into a single foreign affairs service.[^42] + +A Congressional Record insert, reproduced in a [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] memorandum dated February 28, 1951, states that the task force that prepared the foreign affairs study was headed "not by Secretary Acheson as [[Bussey|Congressman Bussey]] suggests, but by two former Republican Assistant Secretaries of State" who were James Grafton Rogers and Harvey Bundy, "with Henry R. Stimson as principal adviser." The same insert describes Bundy as "a partner in the conservative Boston firm of Choate, Hall & Stewart, who was also an assistant to the Secretary of War in World War II," and describes Rogers as "President of the [[Foreign Bondholders Council]], and a former deputy director of [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]]."[^42] + +### World Peace Foundation + +The 1948 edition of *American Foundations and Their Fields* lists the Board of Trustees of the [[World Peace Foundation]], 40 Mount Vernon Street, Boston, for the fiscal year ended December 31, 1947, as "Harvey H. Bundy, President," with Frank Aydelotte, James Phinney Baxter III, Percy W. Bidwell, George H. Blakeslee, Leonard W. Cronkhite, John S. Dickey, [[Christian A. Herter|Christian Herter]], "Alger Hiss," Bruce C. Hopper, [[Manley O. Hudson]], Jacob J. Kaplan, J. Grafton Rogers, Kenneth C. M. Sills, Payson S. Wild and [[Henry M. Wriston]]. The foundation's donor is given as Edwin Ginn and its director as Raymond Dennett.[^43] + +The 1953 Grand Rapids profile describes Bundy as president of the World Peace Foundation Memorial Association, alongside his trusteeship at [[Wellesley College]] and his membership in the Boston Bar Association.[^3] The Who's Who entry for 1956-57 lists him as president of the [[Foreign Bondholders Protective Council]], Inc., and chairman of the trustees of the Boston Personal Property Trust.[^2] + +### Carnegie Endowment for International Peace + +The Carnegie Endowment's president Alger Hiss testified before the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]] in 1948 that the board elected him in December 1946 and that he assumed office on February 1, 1947. Asked by Representative F. Edward Hebert whether John Foster Dulles was the person who first approached him, Hiss answered: "He first approached me." Hiss said Dulles was "the chairman of my board of trustees" and that he was in the position through Dulles's urging "and other members of the board of trustees." Hiss checked with Byrnes before accepting, to learn whether a charge first raised in March 1946 had been laid to rest; [[Karl Mundt|Representative Mundt]] put to Hiss that he had not raised the matter with the endowment's directors when they employed him, and Hiss answered by describing his conversations with Byrnes.[^44][^45] The 1948 foundation directory shows Hiss and Bundy as fellow trustees of the World Peace Foundation in the same period.[^43] + +The 1953 Grand Rapids profile states that Bundy became a member of the endowment in 1948, vice president in 1951, and chairman of the board and trustee in 1952.[^3] The endowment's own minutes fix the later dates. The executive committee minutes of August 8, 1951 list Bundy among the five members present.[^46] At the board meeting of December 10, 1951, "Mr. Harvey H. Bundy, Vice Chairman of the Board of Trustees, presided in the absence of the Chairman, Mr. John Foster Dulles." The annual meeting of May 8, 1952 at Princeton, New Jersey, was chaired by Bundy as Vice-Chairman and reelected Dulles as chairman and Bundy as vice chairman, with [[David Rockefeller]] as vice president and treasurer and [[Joseph E. Johnson]] as president.[^47] + +The nominating committee for Johnson's presidency, as described in the endowment's 1952 reply to the House tax-exempt foundations committee, consisted of "John Foster Dulles, Chairman, Harvey Bundy, David Rockefeller, Earl Harrison, and Dr. James T. Shotwell." Johnson was elected on May 11, 1950.[^48] In 1951, as part of a Federal Bureau of Investigation loyalty inquiry on Johnson's application for a consultancy, Bundy told agents that he and John Foster Dulles "were members of a committee chosen to nominate a president for the Carnegie Endowment" and that "he, Bundy, nominated and supported Johnson." [[James T. Shotwell]], the president emeritus, told agents that Johnson "was not known to the Board of Trustees and that he was backed by Harvey H. Bundy of Boston," that it was his understanding that Dulles "selected Bundy to head the Nomination Committee," that Johnson and Bundy "had been active in the World Peace Foundation," and that "apparently Bundy was able to influence Dulles in this matter and that between them they were able to carry Johnson's election." The same memorandum records Shotwell's remark that "the Foundation, and particularly Dulles, is quite sensitive regarding the Alger Hiss" matter.[^49] + +The August 1951 executive committee minutes record Johnson's report of an invitation to a peace conference at Zagreb, and Bundy's suggestion that the president telephone the executive committee members before answering. Johnson's letter to [[Allen Dulles]] of mid-August 1951, which asks for his advice on attending, states that Johnson had raised the question at the executive committee and that "Harvey Bundy" made the suggestion that Johnson ascertain Allen Dulles's reaction; he had previously discussed it with John Foster Dulles, who "was not at the Executive Committee meeting."[^46][^50] + +Following Dulles's designation as Secretary of State, the board of trustees on December 8, 1952 adopted a resolution on his resignation as chairman. The minutes record that Mr. Wriston presided while Dulles left the room, and that the committee on nominations "recommended that Mr. Harvey H. Bundy be elected to fill Mr. Dulles' unexpired term as Chairman of the Board." The acting secretary cast a single vote for Bundy, who "resumed the chairmanship of the meeting and made a brief statement concerning his interpretation of the role of the office." The vice chairmanship was left vacant until the May 1953 annual meeting.[^51] At the annual meeting of May 7, 1953, at which "The Chairman of the Board, Harvey H. Bundy, presided," the members elected Bundy chairman of the board and Rockefeller vice chairman and treasurer. He was elected chairman again at the annual meeting of May 6, 1954.[^52][^53] + +As chairman Bundy presided over the board meetings of December 7, 1953, May 6, 1954, December 12, 1955 and (per the agenda) December 10, 1956. He chaired the executive committee on November 23, 1954 and on January 24, April 5 and April 27, 1955, and the nominating committee proposed his reelection as chairman in May 1955.[^53][^54] A letter from Johnson to Edward R. Murrow, a trustee, reports that Bundy as chairman had asked [[David L. Cole]] to chair the nominations committee on an acting basis after Murrow lapsed from the board for non-attendance.[^55] The roster printed in *International Conciliation* lists Bundy as a trustee and "Chairman of the Board" in November 1953, September 1954 and November 1957; by March 1961 the listing carries Bundy among the honorary trustees and gives the chairmanship to Whitney North Seymour.[^56][^57] + +The Cox Committee, the House select committee that investigated tax-exempt foundations in 1952, sent the endowment a questionnaire in October 1952. Johnson wrote to Murrow on October 7, 1952 that the executive committee had established a special committee of trustees to work with him on the replies, consisting of Dulles, Bundy, Harrison, Murrow and Rockefeller. In July 1954, when the later Reece committee prepared its hearings, Johnson wrote that his statement for the record had been prepared "in full consultation with Mr. Bundy" and with the endowment's general counsel.[^58][^59] The Cox Committee's report states: "there remains the ugly unalterable fact that Alger Hiss became the president of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. And this despite the fact that his nomination and election came about through the efforts of men of proven loyalty and broad experience in public affairs. So far as the committee can learn, during his term as president of the Carnegie Endowment, Hiss took no official action to further the Communist cause."[^60] + +In April 1953 the Federal Bureau of Investigation sent the Department of Justice material on Bundy that had come from Senator McCarthy's office: a December 1952 letter from a reader in Clanton, Alabama, enclosing a clipping from the *Union Banner* that stated that Bundy "has a post in Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, and with Alger Hiss' background" and that Bundy's son had married Dean Acheson's daughter, so that "it may be possible that it was this influence that was brought to bear on Acheson to stand back of Hiss." The bureau replied with Bundy's Who's Who record, and added "According to unverified information received in February 1953, Harvey H. Bundy is now Chairman of the Board of Trustees of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace," and that no further action would be taken regarding Bundy.[^7] In July 1953 McCarthy wrote to Allen Dulles about a $400 contribution by William P. Bundy to the defense of Hiss. According to the Grand Rapids profile, Dulles conceded the contribution but denied the reasons Bundy had described for it in his 1951 application to the CIA.[^3] + +### International Friendship League + +Bundy was a director of the [[International Friendship League]], a Boston organization that its letterhead describes as incorporated in 1936 as "An educational organization to promote better understanding among the youth of the world through personal pen friendships and travel exchanges." The Carnegie Endowment's 1952 questionnaire reply lists him as "Director, International Friendship League, Inc." among his affiliations, with his trusteeship at Wellesley College, directorship of the Foreign Bondholders Protective Council, presidency and trusteeship of the World Peace Foundation, and directorship of the Boston Metropolitan Chapter of the American Red Cross. A letter of April 28, 1955 to Allen Dulles from the league's Mount Vernon Street office encloses the minutes of the annual meeting of April 20, 1955, and reports that two men had accepted invitations to the board.[^61][^62] + +The minutes of April 20, 1955 list Bundy among the directors present and among the directors elected. They record a suggestion that Bundy invite his son McGeorge Bundy to the board, and list McGeorge Bundy among the directors elected at that meeting. The same minutes record the league's approaches to foundations. They report a $3,000 grant from the [[Carnegie Corporation]], a suggestion that Bundy or [[William Phillips]] approach [[Whitney Shepardson]], formerly a director of the Carnegie Corporation, for advice on another grant, and a second application to the [[Ford Foundation]], which the minutes say had made a first grant to the league.[^63] + +### Yale Political Union + +A July 1987 CIA public affairs memorandum about an invitation to speak to the [[Yale Political Union]] describes the union as follows: "Since its founding in 1934, by Dean Acheson and Harvey Bundy among others, it has evolved into a national forum for nonpartisan political discussion." The description gives no middle initial for Bundy.[^64] + +### Footnotes + +[^1]: *Register of the Department of State for the year 1932*, Biographies, entry "Bundy, Harvey Hollister," which gives birth at Grand Rapids, Michigan, March 30, 1888; Hackley School graduate; Yale, B.A. 1909; Harvard, LL.B. 1914; member of the Massachusetts bar; secretary to a United States Supreme Court justice 1914-15; assistant in a law office 1915-17; assistant counsel, United States Food Administration, 1917-19; law practice 1919-31; appointed assistant secretary of state June 10, 1931; married, https://archive.org/details/registerofdepart1932unit + +[^2]: *Who's Who in America*, vol. 29, 1956-1957, entries "BUNDY, Harvey Hollister" (born Grand Rapids March 30, 1888, son of McGeorge and Mary Goodhue (Hollister) Bundy; B.A. Yale 1909; LL.B. Harvard 1914; married Katharine L. Putnam April 17, 1915; five children; teacher, St. Marks School, Southboro, 1909-10; traveling companion 1910-14; secretary to Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes 1914-15; admitted to the Massachusetts bar 1915; assistant counsel, Food Administration 1917-19; assistant secretary of state July 1931 to March 1933; member of Choate, Hall & Stewart 1933-41 and from 1945; special assistant to the Secretary of War 1941-45; chairman of the board, Carnegie Endowment; trustee, Wellesley College; president, Foreign Bondholders Protective Council; chairman of trustees, Boston Personal Property Trust) and "BUNDY, McGeorge" (born Boston March 30, 1919, son of Harvey Hollister and Katharine Lawrence (Putnam) Bundy), https://archive.org/details/whos-who-in-america_1956-1957_29_3954 + +[^3]: William F. Pyper, profile of William P. Bundy, Grand Rapids newspaper, undated (internal references to the 1953 McCarthy inquiry place it after August 1953), which covers Harvey Bundy's birth, tennis, Holmes clerkship, Food Administration service, Carnegie Endowment membership, the World Peace Foundation Memorial Association, and the $400 contribution to the Hiss defense, CIA reading room copy, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000100280087-2 + +[^4]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2002 edition), index of members by class year (entries for 1909, 1921, 1939 and 1940) and the section on the Bundy family, including "Harvey Hollister Bundy," https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^5]: *Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage in the United States Government*, House Committee on Un-American Activities, 80th Congress, 2d session, 1948, testimony of Alger Hiss, p. 644. https://archive.org/details/hearingsregardin1948unit + +[^6]: *The Historical Collections of the Danvers Historical Society*, vol. 10 (1922), "Descendants of Judge Samuel Putnam," entries for Augustus Lowell (m. June 1, 1854, Katherine Bigelow Lawrence) and for Elizabeth Lowell (b. February 2, 1862, m. June 9, 1888, William Lowell Putnam, son of Rev. George Putnam), whose child "Katharine Lawrence Putnam, b. Dec. 5, 1890, m. Apr. 17, 1915, Harvey Hollister Bundy," https://archive.org/details/historicalcollec10danv + +[^7]: Federal Bureau of Investigation, memorandum to the Assistant Attorney General, Criminal Division, April 1953, "Harvey Hollister Bundy, Miscellaneous Information Concerning," with the December 27, 1952 letter from A. R. Knight of Clanton, Alabama, to Senator Joseph R. McCarthy and the *Union Banner* clipping, in the bureau's Alger Hiss file, FOIA release, https://archive.org/details/foia_Hiss_Alger-Whittaker_Chambers-Misc_Field-3 + +[^8]: Congressional Record insert on the Hoover Commission foreign affairs task force, page 2788, reproduced in a CIA memorandum from the Comptroller's office dated February 28, 1951, CIA reading room, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-01377r000200010026-7 + +[^9]: Federal Bureau of Investigation, memorandum on Joseph Esrey Johnson, October 23, 1951 (Bundy "attorney and associate of the law firm of Choate, Hall and Stewart, 30 State Street, Boston"), https://archive.org/details/JosephEsreyJohnson + +[^10]: *Register of the Department of State for the year 1933*, list of former officers, "Harvey H. Bundy, of Massachusetts. Commissioned June 10, 1931; entered upon duties July 13, 1931; retired March 4, 1933," and "James Grafton Rogers, of Colorado. Commissioned February 27, 1931; entered upon duties March 10, 1931; retired March 6, 1933." The same entries appear in the 1934 edition, https://archive.org/details/registerofdepart1933unit and https://archive.org/details/registerofdepart1934unit + +[^11]: Henry L. Stimson and McGeorge Bundy, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1948), p. 193 (Cotton's death in March 1931; Stimson's appointment of Harvey H. Bundy as Assistant Secretary in April and May 1931; Bundy's assignment to defaulted foreign loans), read in the Digital Library of India copy, https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.506235 + +[^12]: Stimson and Bundy, *On Active Service*, p. 193 (Bundy and Feis "appointed only after other men more familiar to Stimson had regretfully refused to serve"), same copy, https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.506235 + +[^13]: Stimson and Bundy, *On Active Service*, p. 295, chapter "Out Again" (Stimson leaving the State Department with "in Rogers and Bundy, two new and dear friends"), same copy, https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.506235 + +[^14]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1931*, vol. II, correspondence on Dominican Republic finances: Lee, Higginson & Company to the Assistant Secretary of State (White), June 9, 1931; the Secretary of State (acting) to Lee, Higginson & Company, June 16 and June 30, 1931; Lee, Higginson & Company to the Secretary of State, November 9, 1931; the Secretary of State to Lee, Higginson & Company, November 10, 1931, signed "For the Secretary of State: Harvey H. Bundy, Assistant Secretary"; Lee, Higginson & Company to the Assistant Secretary of State (Bundy), November 12, 1931, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1931v02 + +[^15]: Stimson and Bundy, *On Active Service*, pp. 343-344 (April 1941 appointment as fourth assistant; "my closest personal assistant"), https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.506235 + +[^16]: Stimson and Bundy, *On Active Service*, p. 344 (Stimson's 1947 recollection of "Bundy's constant advice not to act on impulse") and pp. 396-397 (diary entry of December 17, 1941), https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.506235 + +[^17]: Stimson and Bundy, *On Active Service*, pp. 465-466 (Bundy as principal assistant on contact with scientists; the spring 1942 committee of three; the September 1943 suggestion on new weapons), https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.506235 + +[^18]: Stimson and Bundy, *On Active Service*, p. 614 (Bundy as Stimson's "direct agent" on the atomic project and American secretary of the Combined Policy Committee), https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.506235 + +[^19]: *Foreign Relations of the United States: Diplomatic Papers, The Conferences at Washington and Quebec, 1943*, "Memorandum by the Secretary of War's Special Assistant (Bundy), London, July 22, 1943," Memorandum of Meeting at 10 Downing Street, from the Stimson files (Lot 57 D 688), https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1943 + +[^20]: Foreign Relations, Washington and Quebec, 1943, account by Dr. Vannevar Bush of the exchange of information with the British, July 15 to August 1943, same volume, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1943 + +[^21]: Foreign Relations, Washington and Quebec, 1943, document 334, "The Secretary of War's Special Assistant (Bundy) to the Secretary of War (Stimson)," August 6, 1943, with the footnote on the covering memorandum to Marshall, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1943/d334 + +[^22]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, vol. II, minutes of meetings of the Combined Policy Committee, Washington: January 22, 1945 (Bundy and Dr. William L. Webster as joint secretaries) and March 8, 1945 (Bundy and Dr. W. L. Webster as joint secretaries), https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v02 + +[^23]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, vol. II, minutes of the Combined Policy Committee, July 4, 1945 (Bundy and Roger Makins as joint secretaries; item 3, "Use of Weapon Against Third Parties"), https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v02 + +[^24]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, vol. II, minutes of the Combined Policy Committee, July 4, 1945, item 6, "Allocation of Material," https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v02 + +[^25]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, vol. II, memorandum by S. Maurice McAshan, Jr., and Colonel John Lansdale, Manhattan Engineer District, Rio de Janeiro, July 10, 1945, report on negotiations, section 14 ("Colonel Lansdale's Meeting with Secretary of War and Mr. Harvey Bundy at Prestwick, Scotland on 27 July 1945"), https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v02 + +[^26]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, vol. I, "Memorandum of Conversation, by the Chief of the Division of Dependent Areas (Gerig)," Washington, April 7, 1945, subject "Conversations on Territorial Trusteeships," participants Mr. Raynor, Mr. Gerig, Major Correa and Mr. Harvey Bundy, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v01 + +[^27]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, vol. I, "Minutes of the Twelfth Meeting of the United States Delegation, Held at Washington, Wednesday, April 18, 1945, 9:10 a.m.," item "Trusteeship Arrangements," https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v01 + +[^28]: R. Gordon Arneson, oral history interview by Niel M. Johnson, Washington, D.C., June 21, 1989, Harry S. Truman Library, transcript pp. 9-11, https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/oralhist/arneson.htm + +[^29]: "Notes of the Interim Committee Meeting, Thursday, 31 May 1945, 10:00 A.M. to 1:15 P.M. 2:15 P.M. to 4:15 P.M.," signed R. Gordon Arneson, 2nd Lieutenant, A.U.S., Secretary, Record Group 77, Manhattan Engineer District records, Harrison-Bundy files, folder 100, National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 162, Document 12, p. 1, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/12.pdf + +[^30]: Same notes, pp. 1-5 (opening statement and Oppenheimer's estimate), pp. 10-12 (Russia; Byrnes), pp. 13-14 (target discussion), https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/12.pdf + +[^31]: Same notes, p. 17 (section XII, next meeting), https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/12.pdf + +[^32]: Memorandum for Mr. Harrison from R. Gordon Arneson, June 6, 1945, Harrison-Bundy files, folder 100, National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 162, Document 14, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/14.pdf + +[^33]: National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 162, document index and source notes (Record Group 77, Manhattan Engineer District records, "Harrison-Bundy Files," folders 69, 76, 77 and 100; Documents 1, 12, 14, 16, 19, 21, 22 and 23), https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/index.htm + +[^34]: Stimson and Bundy, *On Active Service*, p. 641, chapter "The Bomb and Peace with Russia," https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.506235 + +[^35]: *Foreign Relations of the United States: The Conference of Berlin (Potsdam), 1945*, vol. I, list of persons, entry "Bundy, Harvey H., Special Assistant to the Secretary of War; Joint Secretary, Combined Policy Committee (on atomic energy)," and the memorandum from the Secretary of the General Staff (McFarland) to the British Secretary of the Combined Chiefs of Staff, July 8, 1945, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv01 + +[^36]: *Foreign Relations of the United States: The Conference of Berlin (Potsdam), 1945*, vol. II, Stimson-Cherwell conversation, noon, July 19, 1945 (Mr. Bundy present), with the editorial note quoting Stimson's diary entry for July 19, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02 + +[^37]: *Foreign Relations of the United States: The Conference of Berlin (Potsdam), 1945*, vol. II, Stimson-Churchill conversation, about 4:30 p.m., July 21, 1945 (Mr. Bundy and Lord Cherwell present), with the editorial note quoting Stimson's diary entry for July 21, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02 + +[^38]: *Foreign Relations of the United States: The Conference of Berlin (Potsdam), 1945*, vol. II, Stimson-Churchill conversation, 10:40 a.m., July 22, 1945 (Mr. Bundy and Lord Cherwell present), with the editorial note quoting Stimson's diary entry for July 22, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02 + +[^39]: *Foreign Relations of the United States: The Conference of Berlin (Potsdam), 1945*, vol. II, editorial note following the July 22 conversation, citing Harvey H. Bundy, "Remembered Words," *The Atlantic*, March 1957, pp. 56-57, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02 + +[^40]: Stimson and Bundy, *On Active Service*, pp. 660-661, chapter "The Last Month," https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.506235 + +[^41]: Stimson and Bundy, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), Introduction by Henry L. Stimson, read in the Digital Library of India copy, https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.506235 + +[^42]: Congressional Record insert on the Hoover Commission foreign affairs task force, page 2788, reproduced in a CIA memorandum from the Comptroller's office dated February 28, 1951, quoting the Commission's report on foreign affairs of February 18, 1949, page 61, recommendation No. 20, CIA reading room, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-01377r000200010026-7 + +[^43]: *American Foundations and Their Fields*, vol. 6 (1948), entry "World Peace Foundation, 40 Mt. Vernon Street, Boston," fiscal year ended December 31, 1947, https://archive.org/details/americanfoundati0000wilm + +[^44]: *Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage in the United States Government*, House Committee on Un-American Activities, 80th Congress, 2d session, 1948, testimony of Alger Hiss, pp. 645-646 (election as president; the question of who first approached him; the Dulles exchange with Representative Hebert), https://archive.org/details/hearingsregardin1948unit + +[^45]: *Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage in the United States Government* (1948), testimony of Alger Hiss, pp. 1134-1135 (exchange with Representative Mundt on the Byrnes conversation, the FBI and the Carnegie appointment), https://archive.org/details/hearingsregardin1948unit + +[^46]: Executive Committee, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, minutes of August 8, 1951 (present: Harvey H. Bundy, Joseph E. Johnson ex officio, Otto L. Nelson Jr., David Rockefeller, Edward L. Ryerson; building loan; Zagreb invitation), in the Edward R. Murrow Papers, 1927-1973, vol. 46, https://archive.org/details/per_edward-r-murrow-papers_edward-r-murrow-papers_1927-1973_46 + +[^47]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Board of Trustees, minutes of December 10, 1951, and annual meetings of the members and of the Board of Trustees, May 8, 1952, Princeton Inn, Princeton, New Jersey, with the report of the committee on nominations, Edward R. Murrow Papers, vol. 46, https://archive.org/details/per_edward-r-murrow-papers_edward-r-murrow-papers_1927-1973_46 + +[^48]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, answers to the questionnaire of the Select Committee to Investigate Tax-Exempt Foundations (Cox Committee), 1952, answer on the nominating committee for the president, and covering letter of October 7, 1952, Edward R. Murrow Papers, vol. 42, https://archive.org/details/per_edward-r-murrow-papers_edward-r-murrow-papers_1927-1973_42 + +[^49]: Federal Bureau of Investigation, Joseph Esrey Johnson file (consultant applicant, loyalty inquiry), New York teletype of October 11, 1951; Boston memorandum of October 23, 1951 (interview of Harvey H. Bundy); New York memorandum of October 30, 1951 (interviews of Emma B. Sayre and James T. Shotwell), FOIA release 1368175-0, https://archive.org/details/JosephEsreyJohnson + +[^50]: Letter from Joseph E. Johnson, president, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, to Allen W. Dulles, August 1951, CIA reading room, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003100030016-2 + +[^51]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Board of Trustees, minutes of December 8, 1952 (resolution on Dulles's resignation; election of Bundy as Chairman of the Board), Edward R. Murrow Papers, vol. 42, https://archive.org/details/per_edward-r-murrow-papers_edward-r-murrow-papers_1927-1973_42 + +[^52]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, annual meeting of the Board of Trustees, May 7, 1953, Board Room of the Carnegie Corporation, 522 Fifth Avenue, New York, Edward R. Murrow Papers, vol. 46, https://archive.org/details/per_edward-r-murrow-papers_edward-r-murrow-papers_1927-1973_46 + +[^53]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Board of Trustees minutes of December 7, 1953, annual meeting of May 6, 1954 (officers elected: "Chairman of the Board: Harvey H. Bundy"), and trustees' calendar 1953-54, Edward R. Murrow Papers, vol. 46, https://archive.org/details/per_edward-r-murrow-papers_edward-r-murrow-papers_1927-1973_46 + +[^54]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Board of Trustees minutes of December 12, 1955, annual meeting committee on nominations report of May 5, 1955, Executive Committee minutes of January 24, April 5, April 27, 1955, and agenda for the December 10, 1956 meeting ("Presiding: Harvey H. Bundy, Chairman"), Edward R. Murrow Papers, vol. 47, https://archive.org/details/per_edward-r-murrow-papers_edward-r-murrow-papers_1927-1973_47 + +[^55]: Letter from Joseph E. Johnson to Edward R. Murrow regarding the lapse of Murrow's trusteeship under the by-laws, in which Johnson writes that "Harvey Bundy as Chairman of the Board asked David Cole to take on the chairmanship of the Committee on Nominations on an acting basis," Edward R. Murrow Papers, vol. 47, https://archive.org/details/per_edward-r-murrow-papers_edward-r-murrow-papers_1927-1973_47 + +[^56]: *International Conciliation*, no. 495 (November 1953) and no. 499 (September 1954), inside-cover rosters of the Carnegie Endowment ("Chairman of the Board: Harvey H. Bundy"; "Vice Chairman and Treasurer: David Rockefeller"), https://archive.org/details/sim_international-conciliation_1953-11_495 and https://archive.org/details/sim_international-conciliation_1954-09_499 + +[^57]: *International Conciliation*, no. 515 (November 1957) and no. 532 (March 1961), rosters of the Carnegie Endowment (1957: "Chairman of the Board: Harvey H. Bundy"; 1961: Bundy among the honorary trustees, "Chairman of the Board: Whitney North Seymour"), https://archive.org/details/sim_international-conciliation_1957-11_515 and https://archive.org/details/sim_international-conciliation_1961-03_532 + +[^58]: Letters from Joseph E. Johnson to Edward R. Murrow, October 7 and October 16, 1952, on the special committee for the Cox Committee questionnaire, Edward R. Murrow Papers, vol. 42, https://archive.org/details/per_edward-r-murrow-papers_edward-r-murrow-papers_1927-1973_42 + +[^59]: Letter from Joseph E. Johnson to the trustees on his statement for the Special Committee to Investigate Tax Exempt Foundations (H. Res. 217), 1954, paragraph 8 (the Executive Committee decision of June 18 and the statement sworn July 27), Edward R. Murrow Papers, vol. 46, https://archive.org/details/per_edward-r-murrow-papers_edward-r-murrow-papers_1927-1973_46 + +[^60]: Report of the Select Committee to Investigate Foundations and Other Comparable Organizations, question 2 and 3 discussion (infiltration), as filed in the Edward R. Murrow Papers, vol. 46, https://archive.org/details/per_edward-r-murrow-papers_edward-r-murrow-papers_1927-1973_46 + +[^61]: Letterhead and directors' list of the International Friendship League, Incorporated 1936, and letter of April 28, 1955 to Allen W. Dulles from the league's Mount Vernon Street office, Boston, CIA reading room, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001200070019-6 + +[^62]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, questionnaire answers A-10 and A-11 to the Select Committee to Investigate Tax-Exempt Foundations, 1952 (Bundy's affiliations), Edward R. Murrow Papers, vol. 42, https://archive.org/details/per_edward-r-murrow-papers_edward-r-murrow-papers_1927-1973_42 + +[^63]: Record of the annual meeting of the International Friendship League, April 20, 1955 (directors present, election of directors and officers, fund-raising and foundation report), CIA reading room, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001200070020-4 + +[^64]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Public Affairs, routing sheet and attachment, "Speaking Invitation, Yale Political Union, New Haven, Connecticut," July 29, 1987, CIA reading room, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90g00152r001102380022-1 (a letter in the same reading room files by George V. Lauder repeats the founding sentence with the wording "it has become a national forum," https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp87m00539r002904750017-4) diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Henry P. Davison.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Henry P. Davison.md new file mode 100644 index 00000000..4140e5bd --- /dev/null +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Henry P. Davison.md @@ -0,0 +1,282 @@ +--- +created: 2026-10-26 +updated: 2026-10-26 +aliases: + - Henry Pomeroy Davison + - Henry P. Davison + - H. P. Davison + - Harry Davison +category: "Business & Finance" +tags: + - Person + - JPMorganAndCompany + - BankersTrustCompany + - LibertyNationalBank + - FirstNationalBank + - GuarantyTrustCompany + - PujoCommittee + - MoneyTrust + - JekyllIsland + - NationalMonetaryCommission + - FederalReserve + - HukuangLoan + - AngloFrenchLoan + - BritishCommercialAgency + - AmericanRedCross + - LeagueOfRedCrossSocieties + - PanicOf1907 + - FTrubeeDavison + - HenryPDavisonJr + - SkullAndBones + - PeacockPoint +summary: "Morgan partner from 1909, Bankers Trust organizer, Jekyll Island participant, negotiator of the British commercial agency and chairman of the Red Cross War Council from 1917 to 1919." +born: 1867-06-12 +died: 1922-05-06 +location: "New York, New York" +relations: + - type: employed_by + with: "[[J. P. Morgan & Co.]]" + start: 1909-01-01 + role: "member of the firm from January 1, 1909, by his Pujo testimony; senior partner by the family finding aid; the 1922 obituary dates Morgan's invitation to late 1908" + fn: 4 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[First National Bank of New York]]" + start: 1902-01-01 + end: 1909 + role: "vice president from January 1, 1902, and a trustee of the First Security Company" + fn: 4 + - type: head_of + with: "[[Liberty National Bank]]" + end: 1902 + role: "president before leaving for the First National Bank; later director and chairman of the executive committee" + fn: 4 + - type: founded + with: "[[Bankers Trust Company]]" + start: 1903-03-30 + role: "one of the organizers and a voting trustee; the company opened for business on March 30, 1903, by his testimony" + fn: 10 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Guaranty Trust Company]]" + start: 1910-01-03 + role: "voting trustee with George F. Baker and William H. Porter after the purchase of the Mutual Life holding" + fn: 16 + - type: head_of + with: "[[American Red Cross]]" + start: 1917-05-10 + end: 1919-02-28 + role: "chairman of the War Council appointed by President Wilson" + fn: 44 + - type: head_of + with: "[[League of Red Cross Societies]]" + start: 1919-05-05 + role: "chairman of the board of governors, by his own account" + fn: 53 + - type: member_of + with: "[[American Museum of Natural History]]" + start: 1916-02-07 + end: 1922-05-06 + role: "trustee; treasurer and chairman of the Finance Committee until his death" + fn: 55 + - type: participant_in + with: "[[Jekyll Island]]" + start: 1910 + role: "attended the late 1910 meeting with Nelson W. Aldrich, according to Frank A. Vanderlip" + fn: 26 + - type: participant_in + with: "[[Pujo Committee]]" + start: 1913-01-23 + role: "witness before the House subcommittee of the Committee on Banking and Currency" + fn: 4 + - type: participant_in + with: "[[Hukuang Railway loan]]" + start: 1910-05-23 + role: "signed the Paris memorandum of the four banking groups for the American group" + fn: 29 + - type: participant_in + with: "[[British commercial agency of J. P. Morgan & Co.]]" + start: 1914-11-25 + end: 1915-01-23 + role: "sailed with Sir George Paish to London and announced on return that his firm was sole commercial agent for Great Britain" + fn: 34 + - type: participant_in + with: "[[Anglo-French loan of 1915]]" + start: 1915-09 + end: 1915-10 + role: "read the statement of J. P. Morgan & Co. at the announcement of the loan" + fn: 42 + - type: spouse_of + with: "[[Mary Kate Trubee]]" + start: 1893-04-13 + role: "wife" + fn: 1 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[F. Trubee Davison]]" + role: "father" + fn: 1 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Henry P. Davison Jr.]]" + role: "father" + fn: 1 +--- + +Henry Pomeroy Davison (1867 to 1922) was an American banker who organized the [[Bankers Trust Company]] in 1903 with other New York bankers and served as one of its voting trustees, became a partner of [[J. P. Morgan & Co.]] on January 1, 1909, and chaired the War Council of the [[American Red Cross]] from 1917 to 1919. He was the father of [[F. Trubee Davison]], who organized the [[First Yale Unit]], and of [[Henry P. Davison Jr.]], who became a Morgan partner in 1929.[^1] + +### Troy, Bridgeport and the first banks + +Davison was born in 1867 in [[Troy, Pennsylvania]]. The family finding aid gives June 12 as his birth date, and the [[New York Times]] obituary gives June 13.[^1][^2] The finding aid says that he began as a bookkeeper in a bank managed by a family member. The obituary says that he taught school as a teenager, gave his sisters what remained of the family fortune for their education, and entered the [[Astor Place National Bank]]. At twenty-one, according to the finding aid, he took a post at a bank in [[Bridgeport, Connecticut]], where he met [[Mary Kate Trubee]], who was born in Bridgeport on February 2, 1871. They married on April 13, 1893.[^1] + +The finding aid places the move to New York City in 1896, when Davison took a post at the Astor Place Bank.[^1] The 1915 account in the New York Times gives a different sequence. It says that Davison was paying teller at the Astor Place Bank and that in December 1894 he became assistant cashier of the [[Liberty National Bank]], which he served as cashier, vice president and then president within five years; the 1922 obituary says that he became its head at thirty-two.[^3][^2] Davison later told the [[Pujo Committee]] that he had been president of the Liberty National Bank and that "I resigned that position to take the position with the First National Bank."[^4] + +### First National Bank and the Pujo testimony + +Asked when he became vice president of the [[First National Bank of New York]], Davison answered "On the 1st of January, 1902."[^4] Under questioning from [[Samuel Untermyer]], [[George F. Baker]] confirmed that Davison "was our vice president" and that Davison had been vice president of the First National Bank before [[Thomas W. Lamont]] succeeded him in that post.[^5] An exhibit in the same hearings lists Davison among the six trustees of the [[First Security Company]], the affiliate of the First National Bank whose voting rights were held by its trustees, with George F. Baker, H. C. Fahnestock, F. L. Hine, George F. Baker Jr. and Charles D. Backus.[^6] + +In his own testimony of January 23, 1913, Davison said that he had been eight years at the Liberty bank and seven at the First National.[^7] He listed his boards. He was a director of the Liberty National Bank and chairman of its executive committee, which had twelve members including [[Edward C. Converse]], [[Seward Prosser]], [[Daniel G. Reid]], [[A. H. Wiggin]] and himself. He was a director and chairman of the executive committee of the Astor Trust Company, whose committee included Lamont, [[Gates W. McGarrah]], [[William H. Porter]] and [[Benjamin Strong]]. He was a director of the First National Bank, the Chemical National Bank, the [[Bank of Commerce (New York)]] and the First Security Company, and a director and voting trustee of the [[Guaranty Trust Company]] and the Bankers Trust Company. He said that his personal counsel, [[George B. Case]] of White & Case, sat on the Liberty executive committee and that the firm was counsel to the Liberty bank, the Astor Trust and the Bankers Trust.[^8] + +[[Walter E. Frew]], a director of the Bankers Trust Company since about 1905, was asked in the same hearings whether "Mr. H. P. Davison, of J. P. Morgan & Co.?" was a Morgan partner. Frew answered, "Of the First National Bank at that time." Asked whether Davison was a member of the firm, Frew said, "He is now; yes, sir. He was not at the time."[^9] + +### Bankers Trust Company + +Davison testified that "Several of the younger bankers in New York organized the Bankers Trust Co. in 1903."[^10] He said that the company "opened for business on the 30th of March, 1903."[^11] Advertisements in the New York Times on April 1, 5, 7 and 23, 1903 give the company's address as 143 Liberty Street, its capital as $1,000,000 and its president as Edward C. Converse. The April 23 notice names as directors [[Edgar L. Marston]], [[Stephen Baker]] of the Bank of the Manhattan Company, [[Samuel G. Bayne]] of the Seaboard National Bank, [[James G. Cannon]], Converse, "Henry P. Davison, Vice-Pres, First National Bank," [[James H. Eckels]] of the Commercial National Bank of Chicago, [[Granville W. Garth]], [[A. Barton Hepburn]], [[William Logan]], McGarrah and [[Edward F. C. Young]], and the April 5 notice also names [[George W. Perkins]] of J. P. Morgan & Co., William H. Porter, Wiggin and [[Robert Winsor]]. Its officers were Converse as president, John F. Thompson as vice president, Lamont as secretary and treasurer and D. E. Pomeroy as assistant treasurer.[^12][^13] + +The company's stock went into a voting trust. Davison described the purpose: "The particular purpose of that was to preclude the purchase overnight of the control of that company by individuals who were at that time active in New York, whose credit and responsibility were somewhat under question." He added that these men were "regarded as promoters."[^10] Untermyer then read from the voting trust agreement, dated March 18, 1903, a recital that the agreement "formed a part of the consideration for the said subscriptions to said stock." Davison answered that it did not refresh his memory and that he was "perfectly willing to concede it."[^11] Untermyer put into evidence three agreements: the first, of March 18, 1903, naming Davison, Perkins and Daniel G. Reid as voting trustees for five years; a second, of March 18, 1908, for a further five years; and a third, of March 9, 1912, naming Davison, George B. Case and Reid.[^14] + +Pressed on the role of J. P. Morgan & Co., Davison said that "they were individuals," that the founders were "young men" with reputations still to make in New York, and that "Morgan & Co. were not in any way important in the organization of the company." He acknowledged that Perkins was then a member of the firm and said that "it was Mr. Perkins and not Morgan that was in that."[^15] Frew testified that the voting trustees were "Henry P. Davison, George W. Perkins, and Daniel G. Reid."[^9] + +Davison also testified that the Guaranty Trust stock was "purchased in the interest of the Bankers Trust Co." and that the purchasers had in mind "merging the Guaranty Trust Co. and the Bankers Trust Co."[^16] He had negotiated the purchase of about 6,000 shares of the Guaranty Trust Company from the [[Mutual Life Insurance Company]] with its president, Mr. Peabody, in the early part of 1910, and a voting trust agreement for the Guaranty stock was dated January 3, 1910. Baker confirmed that Davison and Porter were his co-trustees there.[^16][^17] + +The 1922 obituary says that Davison conceived "the idea of a trust depository for national bank money," a company that could act as a depositary for national bank and insurance funds, and that a marble tablet in the company's building at Wall and Nassau Streets records the directors' appreciation of "the services of Henry Pomeroy Davison in the organization and upbuilding of the company and the erection of its permanent home."[^2] A New York Times article of October 6, 1915 calls him "the chief organizer of the trust company." It says that one of the company's purposes was to supply a tenant to relieve the Liberty bank of its lease in the [[New Jersey Central Building]], and it places the organization of the company in 1908. The voting trust of the company was renewed on March 18, 1908.[^3][^14] + +### The panic of 1907 + +During the October 1907 panic the [[New York Clearing House]] issued clearing house certificates, and a special committee was "appointed to pass on the collateral." [[Frank A. Vanderlip]], who was then with the [[National City Bank]], named its members as A. H. Wiggin, Gates W. McGarrah, Davison, Walter E. Frew and James G. Cannon, and identified Davison as "a vice-president of the First National Bank."[^18] Vanderlip later wrote that "Henry Davison and [[Paul Warburg]] were others who had my deep respect after the panic."[^19] The obituary says that Davison's counsel was sought at the start of the panic, that he was made a member of a special Clearing House committee, and that his work "was highly praised by George F. Baker" and caught the eye of J. P. Morgan.[^2] + +Vanderlip also records a February 1910 conference at the Morgan offices with [[J. P. Morgan Jr.]] and Davison about the Bank of Commerce, which he said was then a cloud on the horizon of the National City Bank. Vanderlip wrote that the Morgan partners "were fearful, they told me, that the Bank of Commerce would become a derelict in the financial sea unless the house of Morgan took command of it." At the end of 1910 Jack Morgan and Davison proposed a pool to buy the stock of the Bank of Commerce held by the [[Equitable Life Assurance Society]]. "Davison and Jack Morgan told me plainly that delay was impossible," Vanderlip wrote, and the plan brought in [[Kuhn, Loeb and Company]], which the Morgan partners said George F. Baker regarded as necessary. He recorded that "It was left to Davison, J. P. Morgan, Jr., and myself to work out the details."[^20] + +### Partner in J. P. Morgan & Co. + +The obituary says that late in 1908 [[J. P. Morgan]] invited Davison "to become a partner" in the firm.[^2] Davison testified before the Pujo subcommittee that he was "a member of the firm of J. P. Morgan & Co." and gave the start date as "Since the 1st of January, 1909."[^4] The family finding aid calls him a senior partner from 1909.[^1] + +In the Pujo testimony of December 1912 Morgan read the names of the partners of the New York house into the record, and the list included "Henry P. Davison" beside [[Charles Steele]], Lamont and [[Arthur E. Newbold]].[^21] Davison told the subcommittee that Steele was the member of the firm best informed about the Southern Railway, and, asked whether Morgan & Co. were the railway's fiscal agents, answered "I do not think we are, officially. We are in fact."[^22] + +### Jekyll Island and the National Monetary Commission + +Vanderlip opened the chapter of his memoir on the Jekyll Island meeting with a statement of motive: "there was an occasion, near the close of 1910, when I was as secretive, indeed, as furtive as any conspirator. None of us who participated felt that we were conspirators; on the contrary we felt we were engaged in a patriotic work." He added: "I do not feel it is any exaggeration to speak of our secret expedition to Jekyl Island as the occasion of the actual conception of what eventually became the Federal Reserve System."[^23] + +The letter that began the episode came from [[James Stillman]] in [[Paris]]. It reported that [[Nelson W. Aldrich]] "regretted that Henry Davison of J. P. Morgan and Company and I had been unable to join him in Europe during the summer," and that Stillman had told Aldrich the freedom from interruptions could be had "by getting Davison and me down to his estate in Rhode Island without any one's knowing of it."[^24] Vanderlip described the Commission's European summer as a pleasant one, after which its members "returned to the United States without any definite idea of what they ought to do."[^23] The roster printed in the Commission's 1910 volume of interviews names Aldrich as chairman, [[Edward B. Vreeland]] as vice chairman, fifteen other senators and representatives (among them [[Arsene P. Pujo]] of Louisiana, who chaired the House subcommittee that heard Davison in 1913), [[Arthur B. Shelton]] as secretary and [[A. Piatt Andrew]] as special assistant. Davison is not on it.[^25][^4] The obituary says nonetheless that Davison was appointed "expert on banking" to the [[National Monetary Commission]], which visited [[France]], [[Germany]] and [[England]], and that while abroad he met European financiers.[^2] + +Vanderlip wrote that the men asked to attend the late 1910 meeting were "Henry Davison, Paul Warburg, Ben Strong, and myself," with Andrew coming from [[Washington, D.C.]], where he was Assistant Secretary of the Treasury. "We were told to leave our last names behind us," and they were instructed to arrive one at a time at the railroad terminal on the New Jersey side of the Hudson where Aldrich's private car stood. Aboard they used the first names "Ben," "Paul," "Nelson" and "Abe," and Davison and Vanderlip "adopted even deeper disguises, abandoning our own first names. On the theory that we were always right, he became Wilbur and I became Orville, after those two aviation pioneers, the Wright brothers."[^26] + +The party was taken by boat to [[Jekyll Island]], Georgia, where for "a week or ten days" they were "completely secluded, without any contact by telephone or telegraph with the outside." Vanderlip wrote that "Sometimes Davison and Strong would be up at day-break to get a horseback ride, or a swim before breakfast," that "Harry Davison was a splendid person to prevent wrangles in any company," and that Warburg, who "apparently felt a little antagonism toward Aldrich," was eased by Davison: "Always he could be counted on to crack a joke just at the right moment to ease a strain." The six, with Vanderlip as the stenographer, came away with "a bill that we felt, pridefully, should be presented to Congress," which "became known to the country as the Aldrich Plan." On return Warburg, Davison, Strong and Vanderlip went back to New York, and Strong and Vanderlip went on to Washington to prepare the accompanying report when Aldrich fell ill.[^27] + +Vanderlip wrote that, had the meeting been known, the headlines would have run over "a story that Aldrich was conferring about new money legislation with a Morgan partner and the president of the biggest bank," and that "the bill we drafted did not get through Congress."[^28] The family finding aid says that Davison attended a secret meeting at Jekyll Island in 1910, and states: "Many believe this meeting led to the creation of the [[Federal Reserve]]."[^1] + +### The Hukuang loan and the Six-Power negotiations + +The 1922 obituary says that in 1910 the American group of bankers chose Davison as its official representative in the Six-Power Chinese loan negotiations in Paris, and that he was made chairman of the conference.[^2] The United States government printed the memorandum of terms agreed at the [[Banque de l'Indo-Chine]] in Paris on May 23, 1910, among the British, German, French and American banking groups for a loan of 6,000,000 pounds for the Hankow-Canton and Hankow-Chengtu railways. The loan was "to be divided equally between the four groups." The memorandum names the London firm of [[Morgan, Grenfell & Co.]] as representing the American group, and is signed for the American group by [[E. C. Grenfell]], H. P. Davison, [[Max Warburg]], [[H. H. Harjes]] and [[Willard Straight]]. The document was forwarded by Ambassador [[Robert Bacon]] to the Secretary of State from Paris on May 27, 1910.[^29] + +On March 18, 1913 President [[Woodrow Wilson]] issued a statement on the proposed reorganization loan to China. It said that "a certain group of American bankers undertook to participate in the loan now desired by the Government of China (approximately $125,000,000)" at the request of the previous administration, that the group had asked whether the new administration would request them to participate, and that "The administration has declined to make such request, because it did not approve the conditions of the loan." The text continued that the conditions "touch very nearly the administrative independence of China itself" and closed with the open door: "This is the only door we care to enter." The American group, in a letter of March 19, 1913 signed by Willard Straight, recorded that it held a one-fourth share in a 400,000 pound advance of May 23, 1911 under the currency-loan agreement and a one-sixth share, with the other five groups, in the advances made to the Chinese government in 1912.[^30] + +### The British commercial agency + +On November 25, 1914 Davison sailed for [[Liverpool]] on the White Star liner Adriatic with Sir [[George Paish]], the financial adviser to the British Treasury who had spent six weeks in New York. The New York Times reported that Davison was "going on a business trip to London and Paris," and quoted him as saying that the country "was never in a better condition for an extended trade." J. P. Morgan Jr. was at the pier and told Paish that "if there was anything the New York bank house could do to improve the situation action would not be denied."[^31] Two days earlier the Times had reported that the New York bankers who drafted the report of their conferences with Paish and [[Basil Blackett]] had asked Davison and [[James Brown]] to continue the discussion in London.[^32] + +On December 4, 1914 the Times reported that Davison, accompanied by Straight, had arrived in England, and a London dispatch of December 5 stated that neither Davison nor Paish would add to their previous statements while conferences on the adjustment of foreign exchange continued.[^33] On January 23, 1915 Davison and Straight returned on the Cunarder [[RMS Lusitania|Lusitania]]. The Times reported that he "explained that his firm had been appointed the sole commercial agents for Great Britain in the United States," meaning "all purchases in this country for Great Britain would be made through J. P. Morgan & Co.," and that he "did not mean fiscal or financial agents" and would not discuss whether the firm was connected with the financial concerns of the British government.[^34] An editorial in the same issue noted that "Mr. Davison returns with the appointment of his firm as the agents for the payment of British obligations in this country, incurred by purchases on war account," and that the American gold pool formed to guarantee foreign gold debts was dissolved on the day of his return.[^35] + +Asked on February 16, 1915 about a credit of $100,000,000 for Britain, Davison, who had attended the London conference on the exchange situation, said that nothing of that kind was being done at the moment.[^36] In February 1915 he was named treasurer of the Mayor's Committee for Relief Work in New York, which asked that contributions be sent to him at 23 Wall Street.[^37] + +### The French credit and the Anglo-French loan + +Vanderlip wrote that "within a week after France and Germany went to war" the French government had sounded [[Morgan, Harjes & Co.]] in Paris about a credit of $100,000,000 in New York, and that "Henry P. Davison, quite soon after the war began, had gone to Washington and discussed this proposal with [[William Jennings Bryan]]." What came of it was a telegram from Bryan to J. P. Morgan & Co.: "In the judgment of this Government loans by American bankers to any foreign nation which is at war are inconsistent with the true spirit of neutrality."[^38] Vanderlip reports that the Morgan partners had not been displeased by the ruling, and that after the National City Bank negotiated with the French ambassador, "Harry Davison explained that they felt the City Bank had usurped their position with the French Government."[^39] + +In September 1915 the Times reported that the French commission was met at Quarantine by Morgan and Davison, and that Morgan and Davison were among the first visitors received at the [[Hotel Biltmore]] by the mission of [[Lord Reading]].[^40][^41] On September 28, 1915 the Anglo-French financial commission announced at the Biltmore the completion of a credit for the British and French governments. Davison sat beside [[Henry Babington Smith]], who was described as "one of the four representatives of the British Government," and then read a statement for J. P. Morgan & Co. The loan was $500,000,000 in five-year 5 per cent bonds, offered to the public at 98 and sold through a syndicate. Davison's statement said that the firm "would receive no compensation for its part in the negotiations."[^42] On September 7, 1915 the Times had reported that his son F. Trubee Davison had returned from two months of driving an ambulance in France and been met at the pier by his father on the yacht Shipaki.[^43] + +### American Red Cross War Council + +On May 10, 1917, President Wilson appointed a War Council for the American National Red Cross. Davison wrote in his 1919 history of the organization that "I was asked to take the chairmanship."[^44] The War Council's own report of November 1, 1917 lists its original members: Davison, chairman, of J. P. Morgan & Co.; [[Charles D. Norton]], vice president of the First National Bank; Major [[Grayson M.-P. Murphy]], vice president of the Guaranty Trust Company; [[Cornelius N. Bliss Jr.]]; and [[Edward N. Hurley]], formerly chairman of the Federal Trade Commission, with [[William Howard Taft]] and [[Eliot Wadsworth]] as ex-officio members. Hurley later became chairman of the Shipping Board and was replaced by [[John D. Ryan]] of the Anaconda Copper Mining Company.[^45] + +The first task was a fund. A National War Finance Committee headed by [[Cleveland H. Dodge]] was appointed by Wilson, with Davison as vice chairman, Seward Prosser as executive committee chairman and [[William G. McAdoo]] as treasurer; its members included [[Henry Morgenthau]], [[Julius Rosenwald]], [[Frank S. Peabody]], [[Francis L. Higginson]] Jr., [[Vance C. McCormick]] and [[Joseph P. Tumulty]]. Wilson proclaimed the week of June 18 to 25, 1917 as Red Cross Week, and the first conference of the War Council was held in Washington on May 24 and 25 with General [[John J. Pershing]], Secretary of War [[Newton D. Baker]] and [[Herbert Hoover]] among the speakers.[^46] Davison described the campaign: "It was finally and definitely decided that we should fix June 18-25 ... as Red Cross week. From that time on it was like a military campaign." Of the 450 leading men called to Washington he wrote that the conference resulted in "enlisting the services of a group of men with large experience in financial matters and in the raising of funds," and that a New York friend of the Red Cross set the keynote with a gift of a million dollars.[^47] + +The totals differ inside the book. Davison's narrative gives $115,000,000 for the first drive and "a total subscription of more than $182,000,000" for the second; the appendix gives reported subscriptions of approximately $114,000,000 for the week of June 18 to 25, 1917 and approximately $170,000,000 for the second drive, held May 18 to 25, 1918.[^48][^49] The appendix states that the War Council "went out of existence on February 28th, 1919," that total revenues of National Headquarters and chapters for the twenty months ending that date were $400,178,000 and expenditures $272,676,000.[^49] The foreword to the book says: "I have therefore omitted the mention of names."[^50] + +General Pershing, asked what the Red Cross could do for him, cabled: "If you want to do something for me for God's sake 'buck up the French.'" Davison wrote that the War Council reached that realization "at its very first meeting."[^51] He was in Paris when the armistice was signed and summoned a conference there of the heads of the Red Cross commissions in Europe, according to the War Council's retirement statement of March 1, 1919, which records that Dr. [[Livingston Farrand]] became chairman of the Central Committee.[^52] The finding aid states that his wife organized the [[Nassau County, New York|Nassau County]] chapter of the Red Cross in 1917 and chaired it for twenty-seven years.[^1] + +### League of Red Cross Societies + +Davison's 1919 history says that the [[League of Red Cross Societies]] "came formally into being in Paris, May 5, 1919," with delegates from the Red Cross organizations of the United States, Great Britain, France, Italy and Japan, "whose representatives constitute the board of governors, of which board I was chosen chairman," and that Sir [[David Henderson]] was appointed director-general.[^53] He tied the League to Article XXV of the Covenant of the [[League of Nations]]: "The members of the League agree to encourage and promote the establishment and cooperation of duly authorized, voluntary, national Red Cross organizations having as their purpose the improvement of health, prevention of disease, and mitigation of suffering throughout the world." He added that the relations between the two Leagues would be "of an intimate character" with "no statutory connection," and that the plan had the endorsement of a gathering of medical experts that met at Cannes in April 1919.[^53][^54] + +The finding aid gives May 15, 1919 as the League's formation date.[^1] The obituary places the step at a conference in [[Geneva]] after the declaration of peace, where Davison "was made Chairman of the committee of Red Cross Societies" representing the organizations of the United States, Great Britain, France and Japan. The obituary adds that after the conference Davison urged an immediate loan by the United States government of $600,000,000 to the stricken countries of Central and Eastern Europe, and lists the Foreign Finance Corporation, formed in November 1919, among the postwar agencies in which he took a leading part.[^2] + +### Honors, directorships and death + +The obituary lists directorships at the Bankers Trust Company, the First Security Company, the New York Railway Company and the Guaranty Safe Deposit Company, and a post as treasurer of the National Institute for Social Service. It states that he was made a Commander of the Legion of Honor, "the first American to receive that honor from France," and received a high Belgian decoration from [[Albert I of Belgium]] and the rank of Grand Officer of the Crown of Italy from the king of Italy.[^2] + +Davison died in May 1922. The obituary reports that he "died today upon the conclusion of an operation upon an infiltrating tumor which could only be partially removed." The annual report of the [[American Museum of Natural History]] for 1922 records the date as May 6, 1922, and states that he had been elected to the museum's board on February 7, 1916, and served as its treasurer and chairman of the Finance Committee until his death.[^2][^55] + +### Peacock Point and the sons + +The family estate was at [[Peacock Point]], [[Locust Valley, New York]], on [[Long Island]].[^56] The obituary gives the New York home as Park Avenue and Sixty-ninth Street.[^2] Davison and Mary Kate Trubee had four children: F. Trubee Davison, born February 7, 1896; Henry P. Davison Jr., born April 3, 1898; Alice, born in 1899 and married to [[Artemus L. Gates]] in 1922; and Frances, born in 1903 and married to [[Ward Cheney]] in 1926.[^1] The obituary says that F. Trubee Davison organized a flying corps of young men as the First New York Unit of the Aerial Coast Patrol and was injured in a training accident in June 1917.[^2] + +Henry Davison Jr. served in the [[American Ambulance Corps]] in France, spent a year at [[Cambridge University]], became a Morgan partner in 1929, was made vice president and director in 1940, senior vice president in 1953 and president in 1955, and died on July 2, 1961.[^1] [[Antony C. Sutton]] wrote in his 1983 study of [[Skull and Bones]] that "whose son H.P. Davison, Jr. was initiated in 1920," and that "some of his partners were" members of the society.[^57] Sutton's index of members by class year lists "Davison, Harry Pomeroy" in the class of 1920.[^58] His chart places the Davison family under J. P. Morgan among the new-wealth families, beside the [[Rockefeller family]] and the Payne family under [[Standard Oil]].[^59] In his text Sutton lists "Harriman, Rockefeller, Payne, Davison" among the families that "acquired wealth in the last 100 years, sent their sons to Yale."[^57] + +### Footnotes + +[^1]: Pritzker Military Museum & Library, Davison Family Collection (PMML ID 320755, Call No. PAPERS 00013), biographical note on Henry Pomeroy Davison, finding aid written by Kathryn Hofherr (June 2008) and updated by Andrea Martinez (2018): birth in Troy, Pennsylvania, June 12, 1867; bookkeeper; Bridgeport; marriage April 13, 1893; Astor Place Bank; Liberty National Bank; Bankers Trust Company; senior partner in 1909; the 1910 Jekyll Island meeting ("Many believe this meeting led to the creation of the Federal Reserve"); Red Cross War Council; League formed May 15, 1919; children; and the note on Henry Pomeroy Davison Jr. (Morgan partner 1929; died July 2, 1961). https://www.pritzkermilitary.org/sites/default/files/files/Davison_Finding_Aid_Feb_2018.pdf +[^2]: *New York Times*, May 7, 1922, obituary and life sketch of Henry Pomeroy Davison (birth on June 13, 1867; the Astor Place National Bank; the Liberty National Bank presidency at thirty-two; "the idea of a trust depository for national bank money"; the tablet at the Bankers Trust building; the 1907 Clearing House committee; "expert on banking" to the Monetary Commission; Morgan's invitation in late 1908; the 1910 Six-Power Chinese loan negotiations in Paris; the Geneva conference; the $600,000,000 proposal; the Foreign Finance Corporation; honors; directorships; "died today upon the conclusion of an operation upon an infiltrating tumor which could only be partially removed"). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1922-05-07_71_23479 +[^3]: *New York Times*, October 6, 1915, article on the history of the Liberty National Bank and its move to the Equitable Building ("H. P. Davison, who was the chief organizer of the trust company"; "In December, 1894, Mr. Davison, who was paying teller in the Astor Place Bank, became assistant cashier of the Liberty"; the trust company's organization dated to 1908; the lease of the New Jersey Central Building). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1915-10-06_64_21074 +[^4]: *Money Trust Investigation: Investigation of Financial and Monetary Conditions in the United States under House Resolutions Nos. 429 and 504, Before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Banking and Currency*, Part 25, hearing of Thursday, January 23, 1913 (title page: "Arsene P. Pujo, Louisiana, Chairman"), testimony of Henry P. Davison, pp. 1808 to 1809 ("I am a member of the firm of J. P. Morgan & Co."; "Since the 1st of January, 1909"; "I was vice president of the First National Bank"; "On the 1st of January, 1902"; "I was president of the Liberty National Bank"; "I resigned that position to take the position with the First National Bank"). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0025.001.umich.edu +[^5]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 19, testimony of George F. Baker, p. 1435 ("Mr. Davison was formerly vice president of the First National Bank, was he not?" "Yes; and Mr. Lamont also."; "he was our vice president"). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0019.001.umich.edu +[^6]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 19, Exhibit 195 (agreement among George F. Baker, Harris C. Fahnestock, Francis L. Hine, Henry P. Davison, George F. Baker Jr. and Charles D. Backus, parties of the first part, and J. Pierpont Morgan and others as stockholders; "The trustees at this time were George F. Baker, H. C. Fahnestock, F. L. Hine, Henry P. Davison, George F. Baker, jr., and Charles D. Backus"), pp. 1422 to 1424. https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0019.001.umich.edu +[^7]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 25, testimony of Henry P. Davison, p. 1837 ("I was in the Liberty Bank eight years"; "And in the First National, how long?" "Seven years."). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0025.001.umich.edu +[^8]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 25, testimony of Henry P. Davison, pp. 1810 to 1812 (executive committee of the Liberty National Bank, "E. C. Converse, Otis H. Cutler, George B. Case, Arthur F. Luke, D. E. Pomeroy, Seward Prosser, D. G. Reid, C. H. Sabin, F. B. Schenck, C. H. Stout, A. H. Wiggin, and myself"; chairman of that committee and of the Astor Trust committee; directorships; George B. Case "is my personal counsel"; the firm "are counsel for the Bankers' Trust"). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0025.001.umich.edu +[^9]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 8, testimony of Walter E. Frew, December 10, 1912, p. 596 ("Mr. H. P. Davison, of J. P. Morgan & Co.?" "Of the First National Bank at that time."; "He is now; yes, sir. He was not at the time."; the voting trustees "Henry P. Davison, George W. Perkins, and Daniel G. Reid"). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0008.001.umich.edu +[^10]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 25, testimony of Henry P. Davison, p. 1816 ("Several of the younger bankers in New York organized the Bankers Trust Co. in 1903"; "The particular purpose of that was to preclude the purchase overnight of the control of that company"; "regarded as promoters"). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0025.001.umich.edu +[^11]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 25, testimony of Henry P. Davison, p. 1817 ("the company opened for business on the 30th of March, 1903"; the recital of the voting trust agreement of March 18, 1903, "formed a part of the consideration for the said subscriptions to said stock"; "I am perfectly willing to concede it"). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0025.001.umich.edu +[^12]: *New York Times*, April 23, 1903, advertisement of the Bankers Trust Company, 143 Liberty Street (capital $1,000,000; directors including "Henry P. Davison, Vice-Pres, First National Bank"). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1903-04-23_52_16629 +[^13]: *New York Times*, April 5, 1903, advertisement of the Bankers Trust Company (directors and officers: E. C. Converse, president; J. F. Thompson, vice president; D. E. Pomeroy, assistant treasurer; T. W. Lamont, secretary and treasurer; directors including Henry P. Davison, William H. Porter and George W. Perkins); the same notice appears on April 1 and April 7, 1903. https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1903-04-05_52_16613 +[^14]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 8, Untermyer's offer of the voting trust agreements of the Bankers Trust Co. ("the first dated the 18th of March, 1903, between all the stockholders of the Bankers Trust Co. and Henry P. Davison, George W. Perkins, and Daniel G. Reid ... for a term of five years; the next one between the same parties, dated March 18, 1908, for the further term of five years ... and the third being the agreement of March 9, 1912, between the stockholders of the Bankers Trust Co. and Henry P. Davison, George B. Case, and Daniel G. Reid, trustees"). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0008.001.umich.edu +[^15]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 25, testimony of Henry P. Davison, p. 1825 ("They were individuals"; "young men"; "Morgan & Co. were not in any way important in the organization of the company"; "it was Mr. Perkins and not Morgan that was in that"). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0025.001.umich.edu +[^16]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 25, testimony of Henry P. Davison, pp. 1812 to 1816 (the Guaranty Trust stock "was purchased in the interest of the Bankers Trust Co."; "merging the Guaranty Trust Co. and the Bankers Trust Co."; "Who negotiated that purchase for the Mutual Life on behalf of the purchaser?" "I did."; about 6,000 shares; the voting trust agreement dated January 3, 1910; voting trustees Baker and Porter). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0025.001.umich.edu +[^17]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 19, testimony of George F. Baker, p. 1448 (voting trust of the Guaranty Trust Company; "Your cotrustees there were Mr. Davison, of J. P. Morgan & Co., and Mr. Porter, were they not?" "Yes, sir."). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0019.001.umich.edu +[^18]: Frank A. Vanderlip, *From Farm Boy to Financier* (New York: D. Appleton-Century, 1935), p. 171 (the Clearing House certificates; "appointed to pass on the collateral"; the list of members including "Henry P. Davison, a vice-president of the First National Bank"). https://archive.org/details/from-farm-boy-to-financier-by-frank-vanderlip +[^19]: Vanderlip, *From Farm Boy to Financier* (1935), p. 180 ("Henry Davison and Paul Warburg were others who had my deep respect after the panic"). https://archive.org/details/from-farm-boy-to-financier-by-frank-vanderlip +[^20]: Vanderlip, *From Farm Boy to Financier* (1935), pp. 188 to 195 (the February 1910 conference at the Morgan offices, "They were fearful, they told me"; the year-end pool proposal by Jack Morgan and Henry Davison; "Davison and Jack Morgan told me plainly that delay was impossible" at p. 192; the Kuhn, Loeb point and the one-third share for the City Bank; "It was left to Davison, J. P. Morgan, Jr., and myself to work out the details"). https://archive.org/details/from-farm-boy-to-financier-by-frank-vanderlip +[^21]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 14, testimony of J. P. Morgan, pp. 1003 to 1004 (partners of the New York house read into the record: "J. P. Morgan, E. T. Stotesbury, Charles Steele, J. P. Morgan, jr., Henry P. Davison, Arthur E. Newbold, William Pierce Hamilton, William H. Porter, Thomas W. Lamont, Horatio G. Lloyd, and Temple Bowdoin"). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0014.001.umich.edu +[^22]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 25, testimony of Henry P. Davison, pp. 1826 to 1827 (the Southern Railway voting trust; "Are not Morgan & Co. the fiscal agents of the Southern Railway?" "I do not think we are, officially. We are in fact."; "I should say that Mr. Steele is the best informed as to that"). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0025.001.umich.edu +[^23]: Vanderlip, *From Farm Boy to Financier* (1935), chapter XXI, "A Conclave on Jekyl Island," p. 210 ("as secretive, indeed, as furtive as any conspirator"; "the occasion of the actual conception of what eventually became the Federal Reserve System"). https://archive.org/details/from-farm-boy-to-financier-by-frank-vanderlip +[^24]: Vanderlip, *From Farm Boy to Financier* (1935), pp. 210 to 211 (the Stillman letter from Paris; "regretted that Henry Davison of J. P. Morgan and Company and I had been unable to join him in Europe during the summer"; "getting Davison and me down to his estate in Rhode Island without any one's knowing of it"; "any definite idea of what they ought to do"). https://archive.org/details/from-farm-boy-to-financier-by-frank-vanderlip +[^25]: *Interviews on the Banking and Currency Systems of England, Scotland, France, Germany, Switzerland and Italy*, 61st Congress, 2d Session, Senate Document No. 405 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1910), front matter (roster of the National Monetary Commission: "Nelson W. Aldrich, Rhode Island, Chairman. Edward B. Vreeland, New York, Vice-Chairman," with Burrows, Overstreet, Hale, Weeks, Knox, Bonynge, Burton, Smith, Daniel, Padgett, Teller, Burgess, Money, Pujo and Bailey; "Arthur B. Shelton, Secretary"; "A. Piatt Andrew, Special Assistant to Commission"). https://archive.org/details/interviewsonbank0000nels +[^26]: Vanderlip, *From Farm Boy to Financier* (1935), pp. 213 to 214 ("Those who had been asked to go were Henry Davison, Paul Warburg, Ben Strong, and myself"; "From Washington came A. Piatt Andrew, who was then an Assistant Secretary of the Treasury"; "We were told to leave our last names behind us"; "he became Wilbur and I became Orville, after those two aviation pioneers, the Wright brothers"). https://archive.org/details/from-farm-boy-to-financier-by-frank-vanderlip +[^27]: Vanderlip, *From Farm Boy to Financier* (1935), pp. 215 to 218 ("a week or ten days were completely secluded, without any contact by telephone or telegraph with the outside"; "Sometimes Davison and Strong would be up at day-break to get a horseback ride"; at p. 216, "Harry Davison was a splendid person to prevent wrangles in any company," Warburg's "antagonism toward Aldrich," and "Always he could be counted on to crack a joke just at the right moment"; at p. 217, "a bill that we felt, pridefully, should be presented to Congress," "It became known to the country as the Aldrich Plan"; at p. 218, the report prepared by Strong and Vanderlip). https://archive.org/details/from-farm-boy-to-financier-by-frank-vanderlip +[^28]: Vanderlip, *From Farm Boy to Financier* (1935), pp. 212 and 218 ("Now then, fancy what sort of head-lines might have appeared over a story that Aldrich was conferring about new money legislation with a Morgan partner and the president of the biggest bank" at p. 212; "the bill we drafted did not get through Congress" at p. 218). https://archive.org/details/from-farm-boy-to-financier-by-frank-vanderlip +[^29]: *Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States*, 1910, document 257 (Ambassador Bacon to the Secretary of State, Paris, May 27, 1910, No. 161, Inclosure 1, "Hankow-Canton and Hankow-Chengtu railway loan negotiations. Memorandum of terms of agreement come to at a meeting at the Banque de l'Indo-Chine, Paris, on the 23d day of May, 1910"; the parties; article 2, "This loan to be divided equally between the four groups"; signatures "For the American group: E. C. Grenfell. H. P. Davison. Max Warburg. H. H. Harjes. Willard Straight."). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1910/d257 +[^30]: *Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States*, 1913, document 187 (the Acting Secretary of State to certain American diplomatic officers, March 19, 1913, quoting the statement issued to the press by the President on March 18, 1913; and the American Group to the Secretary of State, New York, March 19, 1913, signed by Willard Straight). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1913/d187 +[^31]: *New York Times*, November 26, 1914, "Bond Deals Here Regardless of London Exchange Suggested by Expert, Who Sails" (Paish "sailed for Liverpool yesterday on the White Star liner Adriatic accompanied by Henry P. Davison of the firm of J. P. Morgan & Co., who is going on a business trip to London and Paris"; Davison's statement that the country "was never in a better condition for an extended trade"; J. P. Morgan at the pier). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1914-11-26_64_20760 +[^32]: *New York Times*, November 24, 1914, "Act for Banks in London" (H. P. Davison and James Brown asked to continue the discussion of the Paish report in [[London]]). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1914-11-24_64_20758 +[^33]: *New York Times*, December 4 and 6, 1914 (Davison, "accompanied by Willard D. Straight," arrived with Sir George Paish; Davison and Paish and the conferences on foreign exchange adjustment). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1914-12-04_64_20768 +[^34]: *New York Times*, January 24, 1915, "Commercial Agent Only" ("Henry P. Davison, partner in the firm of J. P. Morgan & Co., who sailed for London six weeks ago with Sir George Paish and Willard Straight, returned with Mr. Straight yesterday on the Cunarder Lusitania. He explained that his firm had been appointed the sole commercial agents for Great Britain in the United States. He said that meant all purchases in this country for Great Britain would be made through J. P. Morgan & Co."; "did not mean fiscal or financial agents"). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1915-01-24_64_20819 +[^35]: *New York Times*, January 24, 1915, editorial column on the dissolution of the gold pool ("the return of Mr. Davison from London"; "Mr. Davison returns with the appointment of his firm as the agents for the payment of British obligations in this country, incurred by purchases on war account"). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1915-01-24_64_20819 +[^36]: *New York Times*, February 17, 1915 ("H. P. Davison of J. P. Morgan & Co., who attended the London conference on the exchange situation, when asked yesterday about the establishment of such a credit, said that nothing of that kind was being done at the moment"). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1915-02-17_64_20843 +[^37]: *New York Times*, February 16, 1915 ("Henry P. Davison of J. P. Morgan & Co. was elected as Treasurer" of the Mayor's Committee for Relief Work; checks to him at 23 Wall Street); February 28, 1915 (receipts of $16,584 in small checks). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1915-02-16_64_20842 +[^38]: Vanderlip, *From Farm Boy to Financier* (1935), pp. 245 to 246 (the French credit of $100,000,000 sounded at Morgan, Harjes and Company; "I knew that Henry P. Davison, quite soon after the war began, had gone to Washington and discussed this proposal with William Jennings Bryan"; Bryan's telegram, "In the judgment of this Government loans by American bankers to any foreign nation which is at war are inconsistent with the true spirit of neutrality"). https://archive.org/details/from-farm-boy-to-financier-by-frank-vanderlip +[^39]: Vanderlip, *From Farm Boy to Financier* (1935), p. 247 ("Harry Davison explained that they felt the City Bank had usurped their position with the French Government"; "the Morgan partners ... had not been displeased with the Bryan ruling"). https://archive.org/details/from-farm-boy-to-financier-by-frank-vanderlip +[^40]: *New York Times*, September 11, 1915, report on the arrival of the French commission (met at Quarantine by Mr. Morgan, Mr. Davison and Captain Gaunt). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1915-09-11_64_21049 +[^41]: *New York Times*, September 14, 1915 ("J. P. Morgan and Henry P. Davison, his partner, were among the first of the visitors" at the hotel suite of Lord Reading's mission). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1915-09-14_64_21052 +[^42]: *New York Times*, September 29, 1915, "Success of Credit Assured" (Anglo-French credit announced at the Hotel Biltmore; "Sir Henry Babington Smith, former President of the Bank of Turkey and one of the four representatives of the British Government"; $500,000,000 five-year 5 per cent bonds "to be issued to the public at 98"; "Henry P. Davison of J. P. Morgan & Co. read a statement on behalf of that firm"; "would receive no compensation for its part in the negotiations"). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1915-09-29_64_21067 +[^43]: *New York Times*, September 7, 1915 ("Frederick T. Davison, son of Henry P. Davison, a partner in the firm of J. P. Morgan & Co., returned yesterday on the French liner Rochambeau after spending two months in France driving an ambulance"; met by his father on his yacht Shipaki). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1915-09-07_64_21045 +[^44]: Henry P. Davison, *The American Red Cross in the Great War* (New York: Macmillan, 1919), pp. 7 to 8 ("On the 10th of May, 1917, President Wilson appointed a War Council for the American National Red Cross, and I was asked to take the chairmanship"). https://archive.org/details/americanredcross0000davi +[^45]: *The Work of the American Red Cross: Report by the War Council of Appropriations and Activities from Outbreak of War to November 1, 1917* (Washington: American Red Cross, 1917), section on the appointment of the War Council ("The original members of the War Council were: Henry P. Davison, Chairman, of J. P. Morgan & Co., New York"; Norton, Murphy, Bliss, Hurley; ex-officio Taft and Wadsworth; Hurley "replaced by John D. Ryan"). https://archive.org/details/workofamericanre00redc +[^46]: *The Work of the American Red Cross* (1917), the section "The War Fund" (National War Finance Committee headed by Cleveland H. Dodge, "Henry P. Davison was Vice-Chairman"; the committee roster; the proclamation of "Red Cross Week" of June 18 to 25, 1917; the first conference of the War Council in Washington, May 24 to 25; the decision "to ask the American people for $100,000,000"). https://archive.org/details/workofamericanre00redc +[^47]: Davison, *The American Red Cross in the Great War* (1919), pp. 9 to 10 ("It was finally and definitely decided that we should fix June 18-25 ... as Red Cross week. From that time on it was like a military campaign"; the conference of "some 450 leading men"; "enlisting the services of a group of men with large experience in financial matters and in the raising of funds"; the initial gift of a million dollars). https://archive.org/details/americanredcross0000davi +[^48]: Davison, *The American Red Cross in the Great War* (1919), p. 10 ("it was known that the country had given $115,000,000") and p. 35 (the second appeal "for another $100,000,000, which resulted in a total subscription of more than $182,000,000"). https://archive.org/details/americanredcross0000davi +[^49]: Davison, *The American Red Cross in the Great War* (1919), appendix, "The Story in Figures" ("The Red Cross War Council was appointed May 10, 1917. It went out of existence on February 28th, 1919"; first drive of June 18 to 25, 1917, "approximately $114,000,000"; second drive of May 18 to 25, 1918, "approximately $170,000,000"; revenues of $400,178,000 and expenditures of $272,676,000 for the twenty months ending February 28, 1919). https://archive.org/details/americanredcross0000davi +[^50]: Davison, *The American Red Cross in the Great War* (1919), foreword, signed "H. P. Davison. New York, September 20, 1919" ("I have therefore omitted the mention of names"). https://archive.org/details/americanredcross0000davi +[^51]: Davison, *The American Red Cross in the Great War* (1919), chapter II, pp. 12 to 13 (the War Council "at its very first meeting" and General Pershing's cable, "If you want to do something for me for God's sake 'buck up the French'"). https://archive.org/details/americanredcross0000davi +[^52]: *Statement of Henry P. Davison, Chairman, on Behalf of the American Red Cross War Council on Its Retirement, March 1, 1919* (Washington: American Red Cross, 1919) ("Henry P. Davison, being in Paris when the armistice was signed, summoned a conference there of the heads of all the Red Cross Commissions in Europe"; Dr. Livingston Farrand as the new chairman of the Central Committee). https://archive.org/details/statementofhenry00amer +[^53]: Davison, *The American Red Cross in the Great War* (1919), chapter XXI, "The League of Red Cross Societies," pp. 282 to 283 (the League "came formally into being in Paris, May 5, 1919"; delegates from the United States, Great Britain, France, Italy and Japan; "whose representatives constitute the board of governors, of which board I was chosen chairman, and by which Sir David Henderson was appointed director-general"; the text of Article XXV of the Covenant of the League of Nations). https://archive.org/details/americanredcross0000davi +[^54]: Davison, *The American Red Cross in the Great War* (1919), chapter XXI, pp. 283 to 284 ("of an intimate character"; "no statutory connection"; the medical conference at Cannes in April 1919). https://archive.org/details/americanredcross0000davi +[^55]: American Museum of Natural History, *Annual Report for the Year 1922*, memorials to trustees (Davison elected to the board February 7, 1916; treasurer and chairman of the Finance Committee until his death on May 6, 1922). https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/items/c9a7e200-0163-48f4-9d8c-9689e0992af6 +[^56]: Yale News, "Defending Allied skies: Yale's pioneering pilots form first naval aviation unit" (August 17, 2014), photograph caption "Henry P. Davison in helmet, and Albert Ditman in glasses by F-boat at Peacock Point, Long Island, ca. 1916." https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit +[^57]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), text on the Morgan partnership ("Although Morgan himself was not a member of The Order, some of his partners were"; "whose son H.P. Davison, Jr. was initiated in 1920"); text on the families of new wealth ("families who acquired wealth in the last 100 years, sent their sons to Yale and in time became almost old line families, e.g., Harriman, Rockefeller, Payne, Davison"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^58]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1920 ("Davison, Harry Pomeroy"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^59]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), chart "Hypothesis Number One," new-wealth families including "Davison (J. P. Morgan)" and "Rockefeller and Payne (Standard Oil)." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Jimmy Carter.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Jimmy Carter.md index 0a407078..b720dd35 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Jimmy Carter.md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Jimmy Carter.md @@ -48,13 +48,21 @@ The [[Iran Hostage Crisis]] (1979-1981) was a major challenge during his preside During his presidency, Carter's human rights foreign policy in [[Latin America]] reportedly distanced the CIA under [[Stansfield Turner]] from any death-squad interdiction. His administration was also reportedly reluctant to pursue certain figures involved in the drug trade, such as General Torrijos of [[Panama]], due to ongoing negotiations for the [[Panama Canal]] treaty.[^8] +### Dresser drill bit licence, 1978" placed before the page's last section. The live page does not mention Dresser. Footnotes D1 and D2. + +Insert-ready section: + +### Dresser drill bit licence, 1978 + +In June 1978 Soviet trade organizations awarded [[Dresser Industries]] two contracts totaling $180 million, one of them for equipment and technology to make drill bits for oil and gas wells.[^9] In August the Carter administration approved the export license, and [[Juanita Kreps]], the Secretary of Commerce, approved a $140 million drill bit deal.[^10] Carter initialed a memorandum from [[Zbigniew Brzezinski]] of August 29, 1978, and wrote "Jody [Powell] is preparing statement." Beside the report's first conclusion, that deep-well drilling technology was wholly concentrated in the United States, he wrote "We knew this."[^10] + ### Connections to BCCI -Jimmy Carter accepted millions from [[Agha Hasan Abedi]] and [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International|BCCI]] for charitable organizations.[^9] In August 1982, [[Bert Lance]] introduced Abedi to Carter.[^10] Abedi's [[National Bank of Georgia]] was the largest single lender to the Carter family's peanut farm in Plains, Georgia.[^11] +Jimmy Carter accepted millions from [[Agha Hasan Abedi]] and [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International|BCCI]] for charitable organizations.[^11] In August 1982, [[Bert Lance]] introduced Abedi to Carter.[^12] Abedi's [[National Bank of Georgia]] was the largest single lender to the Carter family's peanut farm in Plains, Georgia.[^13] -In the early 1980s, Abedi donated $500,000 to help establish the [[Carter Center]] at Emory University in [[Atlanta]] and contributed millions to Carter's Global 2000 Foundation, founded in 1985 for Third World healthcare.[^11] BCCI provided $8.1 million to Carter during the 1980s, and Abedi arranged an additional $2.5 million from [[Zayed bin Sultan AL-Nahayan|Sheikh Zayed]] through the [[Abu Dhabi Investment Authority]].[^11] Carter also utilized BCCI's jet for his travels and Global 2000 Foundation used office space at BCCI's London headquarters.[^11] +In the early 1980s, Abedi donated $500,000 to help establish the [[Carter Center]] at Emory University in [[Atlanta]] and contributed millions to Carter's Global 2000 Foundation, founded in 1985 for Third World healthcare.[^13] BCCI provided $8.1 million to Carter during the 1980s, and Abedi arranged an additional $2.5 million from [[Zayed bin Sultan AL-Nahayan|Sheikh Zayed]] through the [[Abu Dhabi Investment Authority]].[^13] Carter also utilized BCCI's jet for his travels and Global 2000 Foundation used office space at BCCI's London headquarters.[^13] -Carter and his second wife, Rosalynn, became friends with Abedi and his wife, Rabia, and spent holidays together in Switzerland. Carter introduced Abedi to acquaintances like [[James Callaghan]].[^11] Abedi's joint appearances with Carter in various countries, including [[Kenya]], [[Ghana]], [[Pakistan]], [[Bangladesh]], [[China]], [[Thailand]], and the [[Soviet Union]], served as key targets for BCCI's business development.[^11] Carter continued to accept at least $1.5 million from BCCI even after the bank was indicted and convicted in Florida.[^11] +Carter and his second wife, Rosalynn, became friends with Abedi and his wife, Rabia, and spent holidays together in Switzerland. Carter introduced Abedi to acquaintances like [[James Callaghan]].[^13] Abedi's joint appearances with Carter in various countries, including [[Kenya]], [[Ghana]], [[Pakistan]], [[Bangladesh]], [[China]], [[Thailand]], and the [[Soviet Union]], served as key targets for BCCI's business development.[^13] Carter continued to accept at least $1.5 million from BCCI even after the bank was indicted and convicted in Florida.[^13] ### Footnotes @@ -66,6 +74,8 @@ Carter and his second wife, Rosalynn, became friends with Abedi and his wife, Ra [^6]: Carter, White House Diary, p. 405, as cited in Burr and Cohen, note 3. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/nuclear-vault/2016-12-06/vela-incident-south-atlantic-mystery-flash-september-1979-raised-questions-about-nuclear-test [^7]: Schnabel, Jim. *Remote Viewers*. Dell, 1997. [^8]: Seymour, Cheri. *The Last Circle: Danny Casolaro's Investigation into the Octopus and the PROMIS Software Scandal*. First Edition. TrineDay, 2010. -[^9]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 9. -[^10]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 12. -[^11]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, pp. 228-229. +[^9]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980*, vol. VI, Soviet Union, editors' notes to documents 140 and 141 (contracts of June 1978 and total of $180 million). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v06/d141 +[^10]: Brzezinski to Carter, August 29, 1978, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980*, vol. VI, document 141, with the editors' notes on Kreps's August approval and on Carter's initials and marginal note. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v06/d141 +[^11]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 9. +[^12]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 12. +[^13]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, pp. 228-229. diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/John Foster Dulles.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/John Foster Dulles.md index bb999133..1dbbd7b5 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/John Foster Dulles.md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/John Foster Dulles.md @@ -23,6 +23,12 @@ relations: start: 1950 end: 1952-12-02 fn: 18 + - type: head_of + with: "[[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]]" + start: 1946-12 + end: 1952-12-08 + role: "chairman of the board of trustees; resigned on being designated Secretary of State" + fn: 29 --- John Foster Dulles served as the Secretary of State under President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]. He, along with his brother [[Allen Dulles]], the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] director, were infuriated by [[Israel]]'s attempt to mask the extent of its military buildup prior to the 1956 [[Suez Crisis]]. He was regularly present at [[White House]] briefings where intelligence from [[U-2 Spy Plane|U-2]] flights, including early information on [[Dimona]], was presented.[^1] @@ -85,45 +91,96 @@ Dulles was a leader in the U.S. delegation at the San Francisco founding confere As Secretary of State, Dulles repeatedly clashed with Nelson Rockefeller over Cold War strategy. Nelson's [[Open Skies]] proposal originated from a working group Rockefeller convened at [[Quantico Marine Corps Base]] between June 5 and 10, 1955. Dulles rejected the plan and, together with Under Secretary [[Herbert Hoover Jr.]], blocked most Rockefeller foreign policy initiatives on the grounds that Rockefeller represented outside interference in State Department prerogatives. When Eisenhower nonetheless incorporated Open Skies into his presentation at the [[1955 Geneva Summit]] on July 21, 1955, Dulles told colleagues he might have to resign if the Soviets accepted the offer; he dreaded having to be "the Devil at Geneva." Eisenhower overruled him and delivered the proposal.[^21] +### Carnegie Endowment board, 1946 to 1952 + +John Foster Dulles was chairman of the board of trustees of the [[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]] when the board elected [[Alger Hiss]] president in December 1946; Hiss took office on February 1, 1947. In his 1948 testimony before the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]], asked by Representative F. Edward Hebert whether Dulles first approached him about the post, Hiss answered "He first approached me," and said Dulles was "the chairman of my board of trustees" who urged him to take the position together with "other members of the board of trustees."[^22] + +Hiss testified before the House committee on August 25, 1948 that "shortly after I had been elected but before I had assumed office I had a conversation with Mr. John Foster Dulles in which he said that he had heard reports that people had called me a Communist," and said he assumed Dulles was satisfied there was nothing to them.[^23] At the second Hiss trial in 1949 Hiss testified that Dulles telephoned in December 1946 to ask how to answer a letter from a man who called Hiss a Communist, and that he replied the subject had been "laid to rest." Dulles, testifying in rebuttal for the government, said he did not mention the Carnegie Endowment to Hiss on the 1946 voyage to London, that Hiss's reputation "was very high, as far as I knew it," that the letter was Alfred Kohlberg's, dated December 31 and received January 2, and that he first discussed it with Hiss some days later. He also testified that he had been abroad from late August to December 24, 1948, and that at the Hotel Roosevelt in August 1948 he told Hiss the trustees "would not take any initiative in asking for his resignation."[^24] + +In 1950 Dulles chaired the endowment's nominating committee for a new president, with [[Harvey H. Bundy]], [[David Rockefeller]], Earl Harrison and [[James T. Shotwell]]; [[Joseph E. Johnson]] was elected on May 11, 1950.[^25] Shotwell told Federal Bureau of Investigation agents in 1951 that it was his understanding that Dulles selected Bundy to head the nomination committee and that Bundy and Dulles together carried Johnson's election.[^26] In August 1951 Johnson wrote to Allen Dulles about a conference at Zagreb; Johnson noted that he had discussed it with John Foster Dulles, who was not at the executive committee meeting.[^27] + +Bundy presided as vice chairman in Dulles's absence at the board meeting of December 10, 1951, and chaired the annual meeting of May 8, 1952 while Dulles was reelected chairman.[^28] On December 8, 1952, after Dulles's designation as Secretary of State, the board adopted a resolution on his resignation as chairman; Dulles left the room, [[Henry M. Wriston]] presided, and the nominating committee recommended that Bundy "be elected to fill Mr. Dulles' unexpired term as Chairman of the Board."[^29] + ### Key Policy Instruments -Dulles was the primary architect of the [[Southeast Asia Treaty Organization]] (SEATO), signed in Manila on September 8, 1954, establishing collective defense obligations among the United States, United Kingdom, France, Australia, [[New Zealand]], the Philippines, Thailand, and Pakistan, with a separate protocol designating Laos, Cambodia, and South Vietnam as protected territories. He contributed to the conclusion of the [[Austrian State Treaty]] (1955), the [[Formosa Resolution]] (signed January 29, 1955, Public Law 4), and the [[Eisenhower Doctrine]] of 1957.[^22] +Dulles was the primary architect of the [[Southeast Asia Treaty Organization]] (SEATO), signed in Manila on September 8, 1954, establishing collective defense obligations among the United States, United Kingdom, France, Australia, [[New Zealand]], the Philippines, Thailand, and Pakistan, with a separate protocol designating Laos, Cambodia, and South Vietnam as protected territories. He contributed to the conclusion of the [[Austrian State Treaty]] (1955), the [[Formosa Resolution]] (signed January 29, 1955, Public Law 4), and the [[Eisenhower Doctrine]] of 1957.[^30] -On January 12, 1954, Dulles delivered an address before the [[Council on Foreign Relations]] in New York articulating the doctrine of "massive retaliation": the United States would "depend primarily upon a great capacity to retaliate, instantly, by means and at places of our choosing" rather than maintain large conventional forces at every potential flashpoint. The speech was published in the *Department of State Bulletin*, January 25, 1954, pages 107-110.[^23] +On January 12, 1954, Dulles delivered an address before the [[Council on Foreign Relations]] in New York articulating the doctrine of "massive retaliation": the United States would "depend primarily upon a great capacity to retaliate, instantly, by means and at places of our choosing" rather than maintain large conventional forces at every potential flashpoint. The speech was published in the *Department of State Bulletin*, January 25, 1954, pages 107-110.[^31] -On December 14, 1953, Dulles warned the North Atlantic Council that a French failure to ratify the [[European Defense Community]] (EDC) would require "an agonizing reappraisal" of U.S. relations with France. The EDC failed in 1954 when the French National Assembly rejected it, and Dulles's threat was not executed.[^24] +On December 14, 1953, Dulles warned the North Atlantic Council that a French failure to ratify the [[European Defense Community]] (EDC) would require "an agonizing reappraisal" of U.S. relations with France. The EDC failed in 1954 when the French National Assembly rejected it, and Dulles's threat was not executed.[^32] ### Archival Holdings -The John Foster Dulles Papers at the [[Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library]] (Abilene, Kansas) total over 88,000 pages across eleven series, spanning 1950 to 1961 with the bulk in the period 1953-1959. Key series include: the JFD Chronological Series (approximately 13,600 pages of correspondence, memoranda, and memoranda of conversations); the Telephone Conversations Series (13,000 pages of telephone memoranda covering Guatemala, Iran, Korea, Berlin, and other crises); the White House Memoranda Series (including memoranda of Dulles's conversations with Eisenhower and a file of conversations between John Foster and Allen Dulles on intelligence matters); and the Subject Series and General Correspondence and Memoranda Series. A separate collection of Dulles papers (1860-1988) is held at the [[Mudd Manuscript Library]], Princeton University.[^25] +The John Foster Dulles Papers at the [[Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library]] (Abilene, Kansas) total over 88,000 pages across eleven series, spanning 1950 to 1961 with the bulk in the period 1953-1959. Key series include: the JFD Chronological Series (approximately 13,600 pages of correspondence, memoranda, and memoranda of conversations); the Telephone Conversations Series (13,000 pages of telephone memoranda covering Guatemala, Iran, Korea, Berlin, and other crises); the White House Memoranda Series (including memoranda of Dulles's conversations with Eisenhower and a file of conversations between John Foster and Allen Dulles on intelligence matters); and the Subject Series and General Correspondence and Memoranda Series. A separate collection of Dulles papers (1860-1988) is held at the [[Mudd Manuscript Library]], Princeton University.[^33] -The FRUS volume *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954, Guatemala* (edited by Susan Holly, published 2003, 287 documents) is the primary State Department documentary record of PBSUCCESS. The FRUS volume *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1951-1954, Iran* is the primary record of TPAJAX. Both are available at history.state.gov.[^26] +The FRUS volume *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954, Guatemala* (edited by Susan Holly, published 2003, 287 documents) is the primary State Department documentary record of PBSUCCESS. The FRUS volume *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1951-1954, Iran* is the primary record of TPAJAX. Both are available at history.state.gov.[^34] ### Footnotes [^1]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991. Chapter 4. + [^2]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, "John Foster Dulles," *People - Department History*, https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/dulles-john-foster. Arlington National Cemetery, "John Foster Dulles," https://www.arlingtoncemetery.net/jfdulles.htm. + [^3]: Princeton University Library, John Foster Dulles papers, Mudd Manuscript Library, finding aid MC016, biographical note (LL.B., George Washington University Law School, 1911; Sullivan and Cromwell 1911 to 1949; secretary to his grandfather John Watson Foster at the Second Hague Conference, 1907). https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/PRIN_MUDD_MC016 + [^4]: Miller Center, University of Virginia, "John Foster Dulles (1953-1959)," https://millercenter.org/president/eisenhower/essays/dulles-1953-secretary-of-state. Dulles admitted to the New York bar 1911; managing partner of Sullivan and Cromwell from 1927. + [^5]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1919*, Paris Peace Conference, Vol. XI, Document 79, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1919Parisv11/d79. On the ghostwriting arrangement: Stephen Kinzer, *The Brothers: John Foster Dulles, Allen Dulles, and Their Secret World War* (Times Books, 2013), drawing on the Sullivan and Cromwell career record. + [^6]: Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, "DULLES, John Foster," https://bioguideretro.congress.gov/Home/MemberDetails?memIndex=d000522. Senate appointment July 7, 1949; special election defeat November 8, 1949, to Herbert H. Lehman. + [^7]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, "John Foster Dulles," *People - Department History*, https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/dulles-john-foster. Secretary of State January 21, 1953 to April 22, 1959. Cancer surgery February 1959, Walter Reed Army Medical Center. + [^8]: Stephen Kinzer, *The Brothers: John Foster Dulles, Allen Dulles, and Their Secret World War* (Times Books, 2013). Sullivan and Cromwell represented United Fruit, American and Foreign Power Company, and International Railways of Central America as clients. + [^9]: Thomas McCann, *An American Company: The Tragedy of United Fruit* (Crown, 1976), quoted in multiple secondary accounts of the Sullivan and Cromwell-United Fruit relationship. The 1936 Ubico concession: Sullivan and Cromwell represented United Fruit in the negotiations. + [^10]: Ben Aris and Duncan Campbell, "How Bush's grandfather helped Hitler's rise to power," *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004, quoting a letter of January 1933 from Knight Woolley to W. Averell Harriman from the National Archives files the newspaper cites. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar + [^11]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954, Guatemala*, Document 169, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54Guat/d169. CIA dispatch from PBSUCCESS headquarters (Tracy Barnes, alias William D. Playdon), June 2, 1954. Published 2003, ed. Susan Holly. + [^12]: *FRUS 1952-54, Guatemala*, Document 252, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54Guat/d252. Memorandum of telephone conversation, John Foster Dulles and Allen Dulles, June 28, 1954, 9:39 a.m. + [^13]: *FRUS 1952-54, Guatemala*, Document 189, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54Guat/d189. Memorandum of telephone conversation, John Foster Dulles and Allen Dulles, June 16, 1954, 11:20 a.m. + [^14]: John Foster Dulles, radio address, June 1954. Full text published in *Department of State Bulletin*, 1954. Transcribed and discussed in "Document 9: John F. Dulles, Secretary of State John F. Dulles, Radio Address, 1954," College of Wooster, https://ufcguatemala.voices.wooster.edu/documents/document-9/. + [^15]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1951-1954, Iran*, Document 169 (March 1, 1953, memorandum Dulles to Eisenhower); Document 184 (April 4, 1953, Kermit Roosevelt to Dulles, with notation "Wisner recommended approval and Dulles approved"); Document 194 (April 21, 1953, briefing notes for Dulles, NSC briefing April 22). All at https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1951-54Iran. + [^16]: *FRUS 1951-54, Iran*, Document 306, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1951-54Iran/d306. CIA Station Tehran memorandum, August 28, 1953. The $45 million emergency grant to the post-coup government is documented in secondary accounts drawing on the same FRUS series. + [^17]: Gerard Colby and Charlotte Dennett, *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon* (HarperCollins, 1995), Ch. 12. + [^18]: The Rockefeller Foundation. *Annual Report 1951,* "President's Review," pp. 95-96, https://archive.org/details/the-rockefeller-foundation-annual-report-1951; *Annual Report 1952,* "President's Review," https://archive.org/details/the-rockefeller-foundation-annual-report-1952; *Annual Report 1960,* on Rusk's resignation, https://archive.org/details/the-rockefeller-foundation-annual-report-1960; *Annual Report 1935,* list of trustees, https://archive.org/details/the-rockefeller-foundation-annual-report-1935. The 1947 report lists Walter W. Stewart as chairman of the board, with Dulles a trustee, https://archive.org/details/the-rockefeller-foundation-annual-report-1947. + [^19]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 18. Its dating of Dulles's chairmanship to 1935-1952 is contradicted by the foundation's own reports, which date his trusteeship from 1935 and his chairmanship from 1950. + [^20]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 12. + [^21]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 19. Eisenhower Library, "The Cold War in the Early Fifties: Open Skies and the 1955 Geneva Summit," subject guide, https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/subject-guides/pdf/cold-war-open-skies-1955-geneva-conference.pdf. Quantico meeting June 5-10, 1955; Geneva Summit proposal July 21, 1955. -[^22]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty, signed Manila, September 8, 1954. FRUS 1955-57, Vol. II, Document 56, Formosa Resolution, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1955-57v02/d56. On the Austrian State Treaty and Eisenhower Doctrine: Miller Center, "John Foster Dulles (1953-1959)." -[^23]: John Foster Dulles, address before the Council on Foreign Relations, New York, January 12, 1954. Published in *Department of State Bulletin*, January 25, 1954, pp. 107-110. Key passage: "The basic decision was to depend primarily upon a great capacity to retaliate, instantly, by means and at places of our choosing." -[^24]: Dulles address, North Atlantic Council, December 14, 1953, on the European Defense Community. Discussed in: "Agonizing Reappraisals: Anthony Eden, John Foster Dulles and the Crisis of European Defence, 1953-54," *Diplomacy and Statecraft*, Vol. 13, No. 4 (2002), https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/714000354. -[^25]: Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, "John Foster Dulles Papers: Scope and Content Note," finding aid, Abilene, Kansas, https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/finding-aids/pdf/dulles-john-foster-papers/scope-and-content.pdf. Telephone Conversations Series finding aid, https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/finding-aids/pdf/dulles-john-foster-papers/telephone-conversations-series.pdf. -[^26]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954, Guatemala*, ed. Susan Holly (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2003), 287 documents, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54Guat. *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1951-1954, Iran*, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1951-54Iran. + +[^22]: *Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage in the United States Government*, House Committee on Un-American Activities, 80th Congress, 2d session, 1948, testimony of Alger Hiss, pp. 645-646, https://archive.org/details/hearingsregardin1948unit + +[^23]: *Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage in the United States Government*, House Committee on Un-American Activities, 1948, testimony of Alger Hiss, p. 1133. https://archive.org/details/hearingsregardin1948unit + +[^24]: *United States of America against Alger Hiss: Transcript of Record*, second trial, vol. V, testimony of John Foster Dulles, trial transcript pp. 4474-4493 (Hiss's account at vol. IV, pp. 2919-2925). https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesofam05hiss + +[^25]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, answers to the questionnaire of the Select Committee to Investigate Tax-Exempt Foundations, 1952, Edward R. Murrow Papers, vol. 42, https://archive.org/details/per_edward-r-murrow-papers_edward-r-murrow-papers_1927-1973_42 + +[^26]: Federal Bureau of Investigation, Joseph Esrey Johnson file, New York memorandum of October 30, 1951, FOIA release 1368175-0, https://archive.org/details/JosephEsreyJohnson + +[^27]: Letter from Joseph E. Johnson to Allen W. Dulles, August 1951, CIA reading room, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003100030016-2 + +[^28]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Board of Trustees minutes of December 10, 1951 and annual meeting of May 8, 1952, Edward R. Murrow Papers, vol. 46, https://archive.org/details/per_edward-r-murrow-papers_edward-r-murrow-papers_1927-1973_46 + +[^29]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Board of Trustees minutes of December 8, 1952, Edward R. Murrow Papers, vol. 42, https://archive.org/details/per_edward-r-murrow-papers_edward-r-murrow-papers_1927-1973_42 + +[^30]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty, signed Manila, September 8, 1954. FRUS 1955-57, Vol. II, Document 56, Formosa Resolution, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1955-57v02/d56. On the Austrian State Treaty and Eisenhower Doctrine: Miller Center, "John Foster Dulles (1953-1959)." + +[^31]: John Foster Dulles, address before the Council on Foreign Relations, New York, January 12, 1954. Published in *Department of State Bulletin*, January 25, 1954, pp. 107-110. Key passage: "The basic decision was to depend primarily upon a great capacity to retaliate, instantly, by means and at places of our choosing." + +[^32]: Dulles address, North Atlantic Council, December 14, 1953, on the European Defense Community. Discussed in: "Agonizing Reappraisals: Anthony Eden, John Foster Dulles and the Crisis of European Defence, 1953-54," *Diplomacy and Statecraft*, Vol. 13, No. 4 (2002), https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/714000354. + +[^33]: Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, "John Foster Dulles Papers: Scope and Content Note," finding aid, Abilene, Kansas, https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/finding-aids/pdf/dulles-john-foster-papers/scope-and-content.pdf. Telephone Conversations Series finding aid, https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/finding-aids/pdf/dulles-john-foster-papers/telephone-conversations-series.pdf. + +[^34]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954, Guatemala*, ed. Susan Holly (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2003), 287 documents, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54Guat. *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1951-1954, Iran*, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1951-54Iran. diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/McGeorge Bundy.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/McGeorge Bundy.md index affbc235..62986bea 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/McGeorge Bundy.md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/McGeorge Bundy.md @@ -66,6 +66,15 @@ relations: start: 1947 role: "co-author of On Active Service in Peace and War (1948); Bundy's note describes a joint method" fn: 8 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Harvey H. Bundy]]" + role: "father" + fn: 53 + - type: director_of + with: "[[International Friendship League]]" + start: 1955-04-20 + role: "board of directors, Boston" + fn: 52 created: 2026-10-07 updated: 2026-10-26 --- @@ -156,6 +165,14 @@ On September 23, 1966 Bundy wrote to Julius A. Stratton, then chairman of the bo William P. Bundy, McGeorge Bundy's brother, was Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs in November 1965.[^46] He joined the Central Intelligence Agency's Office of National Estimates in 1951 as chief of staff and liaison to the National Security Council staff, and served on the board of directors of the Council on Foreign Relations from 1964 to 1972.[^47] The Washington Post obituary of October 7, 2000 calls William the older brother of McGeorge Bundy and records that he was sometimes known as "the other Bundy."[^48] On June 3, 1964, after the Honolulu conference, McGeorge Bundy wrote on William Bundy's notes of the conference, "Hitting the North is required."[^49] On August 5, 1964, Rusk told William Bundy that McGeorge Bundy and George Ball were "going over the final touches" of the Tonkin Gulf resolution.[^50] +### Family + +*Who's Who in America* (1956-57) gives McGeorge Bundy's birth in Boston on March 30, 1919, as the son of [[Harvey H. Bundy]] and Katharine Lawrence (Putnam) Bundy; the Danvers Historical Society genealogy of the Putnam family records that his parents married on April 17, 1915 and that his mother's mother, Elizabeth Lowell, was a daughter of Augustus Lowell and a sister of [[Abbott Lawrence Lowell]].[^51] + +### International Friendship League + +McGeorge Bundy was among the directors elected at the annual meeting of the [[International Friendship League]] in Boston on April 20, 1955. The minutes record a suggestion that his father, Harvey H. Bundy, invite him to the board. The league's letterhead gives its incorporation as 1936, and its minutes of that meeting record approaches to the Ford Foundation and the [[Carnegie Corporation]] for grants.[^52] + ### Footnotes [^1]: Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders: An Interim Report*, S. Rept. 94-465 (1975), p. 156 (Bundy testimony of July 11, 1975), https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94465.pdf @@ -208,3 +225,6 @@ William P. Bundy, McGeorge Bundy's brother, was Assistant Secretary of State for [^48]: Bart Barnes, "William Bundy, Dies," The Washington Post, October 7, 2000, https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/2000/10/07/william-bundy-dies/1348f410-94d0-40cb-9ee9-d8fad6603457/ [^49]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, vol. I, doc. 193, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d193 [^50]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, vol. I, doc. 293, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d293 +[^51]: *Who's Who in America*, vol. 29, 1956-1957, entry "BUNDY, McGeorge," https://archive.org/details/whos-who-in-america_1956-1957_29_3954; *The Historical Collections of the Danvers Historical Society*, vol. 10 (1922), https://archive.org/details/historicalcollec10danv +[^52]: Record of the annual meeting of the International Friendship League, April 20, 1955, CIA reading room, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001200070020-4 +[^53]: Grand Rapids press item naming his father, 1960, CIA reading room, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000100280064-7 diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Prescott Bush.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Prescott Bush.md index 3adb49e7..c86b75b0 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Prescott Bush.md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Prescott Bush.md @@ -213,7 +213,7 @@ On May 29, 1956 the Senate agreed, 41 to 39, to an amendment offered by Senator [^8]: George H. W. Bush Presidential Library, FOIA 2009-0116-F, "Records on Skull and Bones Society," scope and content note, processed August 2009. https://bush41library.gov/download/file/4777 [^9]: National Archives and Records Administration, Records of the White House Social Office (George H. W. Bush Administration), Cathy Fenton Subject Files, Container 07104, "10/20/89 Skull and Bones Tea," NAID 492080005, as listed in the container list of FOIA 2009-0116-F. https://bush41library.gov/download/file/4777 [^10]: Associated Press, reprinted by CBS News, "Letter May Back Yale Claim On Geronimo," May 9, 2006: letter dated 1918 "written by one member of Skull and Bones to another," found by Marc Wortman "last fall"; "according to the letter, written by Winter Mead"; "But Mead was not at Fort Sill"; "According to Skull and Bones legend, members, including President George W. Bush's grandfather, Prescott Bush, dug up Geronimo's grave when a group of Army volunteers from Yale were stationed at the fort during World War I"; the Wortman quotations. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/letter-may-back-yale-claim-on-geronimo/ -[^11]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chart "Hypothesis Number One: A Secret Society Dominated By Old Line American Families And New Wealth Has Existed From 1833 To The Present Day," with spokes labeled Whitney, Perkins, Stimson, Taft, Phelps, Bundy, Wadsworth, Lord, Gilman, Rockefeller and Payne (Standard Oil), Harriman (railroads), Davison (J. P. Morgan), Weyerhaeuser (lumber), Pillsbury (flour milling) and Sloane (retail). +[^11]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chart "Hypothesis Number One: A Secret Society Dominated By Old Line American Families And New Wealth Has Existed From 1833 To The Present Day," with spokes labeled Whitney, Perkins, Stimson, Taft, [[Phelps family|Phelps]], Bundy, Wadsworth, Lord, Gilman, Rockefeller and Payne (Standard Oil), Harriman (railroads), Davison (J. P. Morgan), Weyerhaeuser (lumber), Pillsbury (flour milling) and Sloane (retail). [^12]: John A. Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking: An Historical Portrait of a Great Private Bank, Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., 1818-1968* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1968), pp. 12 to 13, caption of the photograph of Prescott S. Bush. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb [^13]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), partner table, pp. 231 to 235. [^14]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 203. United States Senate, Connecticut timeline. https://www.senate.gov/states/CT/timeline.htm diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Thomas A. Flannery.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Thomas A. Flannery.md index e5637ac3..6f817876 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Thomas A. Flannery.md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Thomas A. Flannery.md @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ --- category: "Law Enforcement & Legal" created: 2026-05-01 -updated: 2026-10-15 +updated: 2026-10-26 tags: - Person - PROMIS @@ -23,8 +23,20 @@ In 1969, Flannery commissioned a team from [[Peat, Marwick, Mitchell & Co]] to d President Nixon nominated Flannery to the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia on November 18, 1971. The Senate confirmed him on December 1, 1971, and his commission issued on December 6, 1971. He assumed senior status on May 10, 1985 and died on September 20, 2007.[^1] He served as Chief Judge of the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia from 1977 until approximately 1987, and continued as a senior judge thereafter. +### Dresser Industries cases, 1978 and 1982" at the end of the page's body, before the footnotes. The live page does not mention Dresser. The reported opinions identify the judge as "Flannery, J." (1978) and "The Honorable Thomas A. Flannery of this Court" (1982). Footnotes D1 and D2. + +Insert-ready section: + +### Dresser Industries cases, 1978 and 1982 + +In the SEC's investigation of questionable foreign payments by [[Dresser Industries]], Flannery denied Dresser's motion to compel discovery from the Commission on June 16, 1978, explaining in court that discovery is rarely necessary in subpoena enforcement cases, and on June 30, 1978 issued an opinion, reported at 453 F. Supp. 573, requiring Dresser to comply with the SEC subpoena. The Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit affirmed en banc in 1980.[^4] + +On August 24, 1982 Flannery denied the request for a temporary restraining order sought by Dresser and its French subsidiary, [[Dresser France]], against Commerce Department sanctions over the Siberian gas pipeline, with a written order the following day finding no substantial likelihood of success on the merits. Two days later a Commerce Hearing Commissioner issued an ex parte temporary denial order that denied Dresser (France) all export privileges. The reported decision of September 9, 1982, by [[Joyce Hens Green]], set an expedited administrative schedule and denied the restraining order without prejudice.[^5] + ### Footnotes [^1]: Federal Judicial Center, Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, entry for Flannery, Thomas Aquinas (assistant U.S. attorney, D.C., 1950 to 1962; U.S. attorney, D.C., 1969 to 1971; nominated November 18, 1971; senior status May 10, 1985; died September 20, 2007). https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/flannery-thomas-aquinas [^2]: U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on the Judiciary. *The INSLAW Affair: Investigative Report.* House Report 102-857, 102nd Congress, 2nd Session, September 10, 1992. [^3]: Peat, Marwick, Mitchell & Co., *System Overview and Report Formats for PROMIS* (May 1971), prepared for the District of Columbia Government Office of Crime Analysis under LEAA Grant No. 70-DF-047, note 1 to the passage on the design team, NCJ 32469. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/32469NCJRS.pdf +[^4]: *Securities and Exchange Commission v. Dresser Industries, Inc.*, 628 F.2d 1368 (D.C. Cir. 1980) (en banc), Part I.B (orders of June 16 and June 30, 1978; 453 F. Supp. 573 (D.D.C. 1978)). https://static.case.law/f2d/628/cases/1368-01.json +[^5]: *Dresser Industries, Inc. and Dresser (France) S.A. v. Baldridge*, 549 F. Supp. 108 (D.D.C. 1982), order of September 9, 1982, reporting the August 24 order of Thomas A. Flannery, the August 26 temporary denial order and the schedule. https://static.case.law/f-supp/549/cases/0108-01.json diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Warren Delano Jr..md b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Warren Delano Jr..md new file mode 100644 index 00000000..d3d972d6 --- /dev/null +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Warren Delano Jr..md @@ -0,0 +1,296 @@ +--- +created: 2026-10-26 +updated: 2026-10-26 +title: Warren Delano Jr. +aliases: + - Warren Delano Jr. + - Warren Delano II + - Warren Delano 2d + - Warren Delano, Jr. + - W. Delano Jr. + - W. Delano, Jr. +category: "Business & Finance" +tags: + - Person + - Delano + - RussellAndCompany + - ChinaTrade + - OpiumTrade + - OpiumWar + - Canton + - HongKong + - Algonac + - Newburgh + - Roosevelt + - Forbes + - Coal + - MountSavage + - CivilWar +summary: "Warren Delano Jr. was a Canton partner of Russell and Company in 1840 to 1846 and 1861 to 1866, acted as vice-consul there in 1839 to 1842, and died at Algonac in 1898." +born: 1809-07-13 +died: 1898-01-17 +location: "Canton, China; Hong Kong; Algonac, Newburgh, New York" +relations: + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Russell and Company]]" + reverse: true + start: 1840-01-01 + end: 1846-12-31 + role: "partner, admitted January 1, 1840 (Forbes appendix)" + fn: 31 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Russell and Company]]" + reverse: true + start: 1861-01-01 + end: 1866-12-31 + role: "partner, readmitted January 1, 1861 and retired December 31, 1866" + fn: 44 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Russell, Sturgis and Company]]" + reverse: true + start: 1835-12-31 + role: "partner at Canton before the admission to Russell and Company" + fn: 4 + - type: head_of + with: "[[Russell and Company]]" + reverse: true + start: 1840-07-07 + end: 1842-01-01 + role: "chief of the house after Robert Bennet Forbes left for New York" + fn: 19 + - type: member_of + with: "[[General Chamber of Commerce at Canton]]" + reverse: true + start: 1839-03-01 + role: "committee member; moved the March 1839 resolution on the cohong bond" + fn: 10 + - type: participant_in + with: "[[Opium War]]" + start: 1839-03-22 + end: 1842-08-29 + role: "confined in the Canton factories from March 22, 1839; remained at Canton and Macao" + fn: 13 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Consolidation Coal Company]]" + reverse: true + start: 1864-01-01 + end: 1875-12-31 + role: "director, per Maryland local history and a history of eastern Kentucky coal" + fn: 61 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Mount Savage Iron Company]]" + reverse: true + start: 1848-01-01 + end: 1867-12-31 + role: "director, per Maryland local history (dates are the company's span)" + fn: 59 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Cumberland and Pennsylvania Railroad]]" + reverse: true + start: 1872-10-14 + role: "director elected October 14, 1872 (Poor's Manual)" + fn: 63 + - type: spouse_of + with: "[[Catherine Robbins Lyman]]" + start: 1843-11-01 + role: "married at Northampton, Massachusetts" + fn: 38 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]" + role: "maternal grandfather; Sara Delano Roosevelt was his daughter and the mother of Franklin Delano Roosevelt" + fn: 70 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Frederic Adrian Delano]]" + role: "son (born at Hong Kong, September 10, 1863)" + fn: 47 +--- + +Warren Delano Jr. (July 13, 1809 to January 17, 1898) was a merchant of [[Fairhaven, Massachusetts]] who worked at [[Canton]] for long periods as a partner of [[Russell and Company]]. He was the maternal grandfather of [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and the father of [[Frederic Adrian Delano]]. + +The [[Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library]] catalogues him as Warren Delano II, and its finding aid for the [[Delano family]] papers gives the same dates.[^1] + +### Fairhaven and the China voyage + +He was the eldest child of Captain Warren Delano (1779 to 1866), a sea captain and ship owner, and of Deborah Perry Church (1783 to 1827).[^2] At fifteen he graduated from Fairhaven Academy, and he then clerked for Hathaway and Company, a Boston importer, and for Goodhue and Company, an import house of New York.[^3] In 1833 he sailed for Canton as supercargo in the Commerce and became associated there with [[Russell, Sturgis and Company]].[^2] The appendix of [[Robert Bennet Forbes]]'s memoir dates his partnership in that house from December 31, 1835.[^4] Forbes's own plans for the Lintin station in 1829 and 1830 ran through arrangements with the [[Perkins family]] of Boston, and members of the [[Forbes family]] worked for the Canton houses during the 1830s.[^4] + +### The opium business at Canton + +[[Geoffrey C. Ward]] wrote that every American firm at Canton took part in the opium trade except D. W. C. Olyphant and Company, and that under Forbes and then under Delano Russell and Company became the third most important single firm in the trade, British or American. Ward adds that the American houses depended on Turkish opium and on Indian opium sold on consignment for British or Indian firms.[^5] Delano put his own view in a letter to his brothers: "I do not pretend to justify . . . the opium trade in a moral and philanthropic point of view," he wrote, "but as a merchant I insist that it has been . . . fair, honorable and legitimate . . . liable to no further or weightier objections than is the importation of Wines, Brandies & Spirits into the U. States."[^6] + +[[Curtis T. Henson Jr.]] records that Russell and Company kept [[Edward Delano]] at [[Macao]], where he acted as the firm's opium agent.[^7] Ward quotes the diary Edward kept in the autumn of 1844, on the way to India to arrange the season's supply of the drug, with his description of the licensed dens he visited at Singapore.[^8] + +In 1879 Robert Bennet Forbes wrote to about a hundred former Russell partners asking for their recollections of the China years. Ward writes that Delano answered with a brief outline of his Canton career that left out the opium trade, and that in a footnote he absolved [[Houqua]] of ever having owned a chest of the drug. Forbes's projected history of the firm was never published.[^9] + +### The factories and the 1839 surrender + +In March 1839, at the start of the [[Opium War]], the foreign residents of Canton were held in their factories while the commissioner [[Lin Zexu]] demanded the opium stored there. The General Chamber of Commerce at Canton, whose chairman was [[William S. Wetmore]], was meeting on a bond proposed by the cohong. Its committee minutes, printed in [[The Chinese Repository]], record that Delano moved a resolution, seconded by H. Rustomjee and carried unanimously, that the committee should not enter further correspondence of a political or personal nature with the Chinese authorities. The resolution gave the reason: "inasmuch as we are prisoners in our factories, surrounded by an armed force, our trade stopped, and all communication with Whampoa, Macao, and the fleet outside, denied to us."[^10] + +Forbes's journal for April 1, 1839 lists the household duties of the confinement, and gives "Warren Delano, head cook" among them.[^11] Forbes writes that he had arranged for the junior partner, Delano, to join Russell and Company, and he names Delano, [[Abiel Abbot Low]], [[Edward King]] and [[W. C. Hunter]] as "most able and efficient co-operators" during the trade of May to December 1839.[^12] + +The memorial of the American merchants at Canton, dated May 25, 1839, was printed by the [[United States House of Representatives]] as House Document 40 of the 26th Congress. Its signature block reads "A. A. LOW, W. DELANO, Jr., EDWARD KING."[^13] The memorial states that the signers had been "made prisoners in our factories" on "the twenty-second day of March last," and it says: "We have no wish to see a revival of the opium trade." It adds that "most of us" had signed a voluntary pledge to abstain from dealing in the drug.[^13] + +Letters Delano wrote to his brothers [[Franklin Hughes Delano]] and Edward Delano in 1839 are quoted in Henson's 1982 study of the East India Squadron. In them he describes the trade as stopped entirely, and two months later he was projecting alternatives: "The opium trade is done up for the present."[^14] + +### The Chesapeake and the cotton orders, 1840 + +In 1840 the Chinese authorities wanted a large foreign ship to anchor above a raft across the river. Hunter records that "Application being made to Mr. Delano, the then chief of Russell & Co., who had never left Canton," a bargain was concluded for the [[Chesapeake (ship)]], the British ship Cambridge that the firm had bought and renamed under the American flag. The ship was made over to the mandarins.[^15] Ward's account has the 900-ton Cambridge slip into Whampoa just before the blockades, sold cheap to Delano by her captain, renamed the Chesapeake, and then sold to Lin himself; Ward adds that during the war Delano also acted as agent for the absent British.[^16] + +Hunter also records that Delano passed word to the firm that Houqua was disposed to send orders to India for cotton. Three ships were despatched, and 100,000 pounds were remitted to Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.[^17] + +Forbes's account of the Canton opium trade in 1840 has Russell and Company holding shipments for Houqua in the firm's own name so that they could not be seized in England. Forbes then wrote: "Russell & Co. considered it important to keep the pledge made by Mr. Green, and for a long time had nothing to do with opium; certainly not within my time, between 1840 and 1844, when my interest ceased for a time."[^18] Delano was chief of the house from July 1840 until [[Russell Sturgis]] relieved him in 1842, and he remained a partner until the end of 1846.[^19] + +An edict of the commissioner, translated in the Chinese Repository for December 1839, concerns the Indian store-ship Mermaid, which had come to Kwangtung for the warehousing of opium. It refers to "the American foreign merchant who has purchased his vessel, Delano," who had also bought cotton and other cargo from the country ship Charles Grant. The translation gives no first name for him.[^20] The same passage appears in the British parliamentary correspondence of 1840.[^21] + +### Vice-consul at Canton + +In January 1840 the Chinese Repository printed a letter from a shipwrecked captain who thanked "the consul, W. Delano, esq." and the houses of Russell and Co. for their kindness at Canton.[^22] The consul at the time was [[Peter W. Snow]]. A petition from the American houses to the governor of Canton, dated April 25, 1840, opens with the words "The American vice-consul, Delano, in behalf of the merchants of his country, whose names are hereto attached, respectfully presents their petition."[^23] In the September 1840 journal of occurrences, the Repository records that Snow had embarked for New York on the 21st of the preceding month and that "In the meantime" Delano "acts as vice-consul."[^24] The index of volume IX lists "Delano, W., U.S.A. vice-consul."[^25] + +In December 1841, as American vice-consul, Delano arranged with the hong merchants for the release of about forty survivors of the wrecked East India Company steamer Madagascar, held at Weichau, and he wrote to the missionary [[Elijah Coleman Bridgman]] at Macao to receive them. His letter of December 18, 1841, as the Repository printed it, says that he had reason to believe the hong merchants had told the authorities the vessel belonged to another country, and that if the officers learned the men were English the merchants "might find a difficulty." He asked that the captain and his companions refrain from publishing any account, and that [[James Matheson]] be asked to keep any notice out of the two Canton newspapers for "a month or two to come." Commander J. M. Dicey, the steamer's captain, wrote that Matheson's influence "with the American consul and merchants" had secured the result, and thanked "Mr. Delano, the American vice-consul and Mr. R., American merchant."[^26] + +Henson records that in 1842 Delano, as vice-consul, apprised Commodore [[Lawrence Kearny]] of an outrage against American subjects and urged him to pursue the matter.[^27] The Kearny biography by Carroll Storrs Alden quotes the commodore's report that American interests, so far as he could understand from "Mr. Delano" the vice-consul, had not suffered.[^28] + +The official register of the United States for 1841 lists Peter W. Snow alone under China.[^29] The register for 1845 lists [[Paul S. Forbes]] as consul at Canton.[^30] + +### Russell and Company, 1840 to 1846 + +Forbes's appendix gives the partnership in Russell and Company as beginning January 1, 1840, and running to December 31, 1846.[^31] Hunter records that the term beginning in 1840 opened with Delano's admission, that he was formerly of Russell, Sturgis and Company at Canton and Manila, and that he succeeded Forbes as chief of the house when Forbes left for New York in the Niantic on July 7, 1840.[^32] + +In 1842 Delano, wanting to go home on a visit, invited Russell Sturgis to relieve him, and Sturgis was admitted on January 1, 1842 and retired in May 1844.[^33] The firm's membership in 1844, as Forbes lists it, was W. Delano Jr., Edward Delano, W. H. King, D. N. Spooner, P. S. Forbes and Joseph T. Gilman.[^34] + +Forbes records that Delano and his family embarked on December 9, 1844 in the Paul Jones, Captain James T. Watkins, and that the terms of the 1846 reorganization were that "W. Delano was to retire after a time," while Edward Delano remained a partner.[^35] The genealogy places the birth of his daughter Susan Maria at Macao on October 13, 1844, and she died there in 1846.[^36] Forbes writes that Edward Delano returned home in 1846.[^37] + +### Marriage, Algonac and the 1857 losses + +Delano married [[Catherine Robbins Lyman]] at Northampton, Massachusetts on November 1, 1843. She was a daughter of [[Joseph Lyman]] of Massachusetts.[^38] The finding aid says that the couple went to Macao and remained there until 1846, and that they lived in New York until 1851, when they moved to [[Algonac]] near [[Newburgh, New York]].[^39] + +[[Calvert Vaux]], the landscape architect, altered the house and grounds that Delano called Algonac, and a sketch of Algonac by Vaux is dated 1851.[^40] Ward lists the investments of his return in 1846 as New York waterfront property, railroads, copper mines in Tennessee and Maryland, and land and anthracite coal in Pennsylvania, where a mining town was named Delano for him; he also built and owned several clippers, and the California gold rush gave him a new market for cargoes.[^41] The finding aid says that at Algonac Delano's financial interests were settled in real estate and mining, and that his brother Franklin Hughes Delano looked after his interests in the [[Mount Savage, Maryland]] iron works during Warren's third trip to China in the 1860s.[^42] + +During the panic of 1857 Delano suffered severe financial losses. In 1859 he returned to China to restore his fortune.[^39] Ward writes that in January 1860, at fifty, Delano faced bankruptcy and resolved to go to [[Hong Kong]] and re-enter "tea and opium."[^43] + +### Hong Kong and the Civil War years, 1861 to 1866 + +Forbes's appendix records that Delano was admitted to Russell and Company again on January 1, 1861, and that he retired on December 31, 1866. Forbes's memoir refers to "the stay in China, from 1861 to 1864, of Warren Delano, Jr."[^44] + +The family joined him at Hong Kong in 1862. Catherine Delano kept a journal of the voyage from New York to Hong Kong on the clipper Surprise, owned by Abiel Abbot Low, and the family papers hold a story written in 1862 for travellers on the Surprise bound for China. Ward dates the departure from New York to June 25 and the first sight of Hong Kong to October 31, 1862, and says that Algonac was leased to Low until 1867. He places the family at Rose Hill and quotes Delano's wish that [[Robert E. Lee]] be hanged and his bones hung with those of [[Jefferson Davis]].[^45][^46] Frederic Adrian Delano was born at Hong Kong on September 10, 1863.[^47] + +The Hong Kong directory for 1865 lists Russell and Company at Queen's Road with Paul S. Forbes (absent), Warren Delano Jr., William H. Forbes, George Tyson, David O. Clark, Frank B. Forbes, Henry S. Grew, Richard S. Dana, W. H. Foster Jr., E. D. Barbour and Emil Vogel. The same directory gives Delano's residence as Caine Road and names him a trustee of the Morrison Education Society and of the Sailors' Home.[^48] It gives the United States consul at Hong Kong as H. N. Congar, as do the Official Register of the United States for 1861, 1863 and 1867.[^49] + +The finding aid lists, among the papers of Warren II, China accounts for 1862 to 1866, the "Houqua Accounts and Memoranda, 1865-1867," and correspondence with [[Vogel, Hagedorn and Company]] of Canton and Hong Kong for 1868 to 1871.[^50] + +### The War Department opium claim + +Three accounts say that Delano supplied opium to the Union during the Civil War. [[Daniel W. Delano Jr.]], a relative, answered [[Westbrook Pegler]]'s columns of the 1940s in his 1946 book by writing that Delano's opium dealings were legitimate and that in the Civil War he worked through "legitimate trade channels" to obtain "huge cargoes of the much-needed drug" for the care of the Union wounded. The same book states that [[Abraham Lincoln]] knew Delano and appointed him special agent in China.[^51] [[Jean Edward Smith]] wrote in 2007 that Delano "supplied medicinal opium to the War Department to alleviate the suffering of Union wounded, but that was scarcely his only market."[^52] A Maryland local history by Patrick H. Stakem states that in 1860 Delano "returned to China and made a fortune in the opium trade, supplying opium-based medication to the U. S. War Department during the Civil War."[^53] + +Ward's 1985 biography weighs the first of these. Ward writes that Delano "may have helped obtain the drug for the War Department during the Civil War" and did so "presumably at a profit," that the major market remained the Chinese addicts, and that no document shows Lincoln knew Delano or made him a special agent. Ward adds that the Delano papers at the Roosevelt Library hold no trace of a link between the two men, and that Delano served for a time as United States consul at Hong Kong.[^51] + +The Army's own history of its supply bureau gives the purchasing side. By far the greater part of the Medical Department's purchases during the war was made by the purveyors at New York and Philadelphia, and smaller purchases at Washington, St. Louis, Cincinnati, Chicago, Louisville and other places "when suitable articles could be procured upon favorable terms." The Act of April 16, 1862 charged medical purveyors, under the Surgeon General, with the selection and purchase of all medical supplies. A board sitting at New York in June 1862 under Surgeon [[Richard S. Satterlee]], the purveyor there, revised the supply table, and from the spring of 1863 the department prepared its own preparations at laboratories at Astoria, Long Island and at Philadelphia.[^54] The tabular statement closing that report gives the quantities of supplies purchased and manufactured during the war, among them 652,196 ounces of powdered opium, 828,258 ounces of tincture of opium, 993,311 ounces of camphorated tincture, 447,151 ounces of Dover's powder, 27,200 ounces of sulphate of morphia, and 813,156 dozen opium pills.[^55] The United States Pharmacopoeia of 1860 required opium to yield at least seven per cent of morphia.[^56] + +### Coal, iron and the Maryland and Pennsylvania lands + +The family papers record that Warren Delano II had a financial interest in the iron works at Mount Savage, Maryland, later called the [[Union Mining Company]]. The finding aid also lists a folder headed "Mt. Savage Iron Company (Takeover by Consolidation Coal Company, 1864)."[^57] Stakem lists [[John A. Graham]], with fellow directors [[John F. Winslow]], Warren Delano, [[John Murray Forbes]] and [[Joseph B. Varnum]], as the men who ran the [[Mount Savage Iron Company]] between 1848 and 1867, and says the Cumberland and Pennsylvania Railroad, formed from the company's railroad operations, shared its directors; a locomotive on the road's roster was named W. Delano.[^58][^59] + +The Maryland General Assembly incorporated the Consolidation Coal Company of Maryland by an act passed March 9, 1860, naming James D. Armstrong, William Combs and John J. Morrison as incorporators.[^60] Harry Caudill's history of eastern Kentucky coal dates the New York organization of the [[Consolidation Coal Company]] to April 19, 1864, with first directors including Corning, Forbes and [[William H. Aspinwall]], and names Warren Delano, grandfather of Franklin Roosevelt, among its directors.[^61] Stakem gives Delano as a director from 1864 to 1875 and says a Delano Mining Company operated coal at Mount Savage.[^53] Ward writes that [[James Roosevelt]], the father of Franklin Roosevelt, was a director of the Maryland company, that Aspinwall was his uncle and had helped found it, and that Delano wrote to his son of a squabble within the company in which he feared Roosevelt would "vibrate" between two factions.[^62] + +Poor's Manual of Railroads for 1873-74 lists the Cumberland and Pennsylvania Railroad as owned and operated by the Consolidation Coal Company. Its directors elected October 14, 1872 were Henry A. Mott, Adam Norrie, William Whitewright Jr., Warren Delano and William H. Aspinwall, all of New York City.[^63] The Manual for 1880 lists a Warren Delano of New York among the directors elected April 15, 1880 of the St. Louis, Iron Mountain and Southern Railway, alongside H. G. Marquand; the entry does not say which Warren Delano he was.[^64] + +The finding aid records Warren II's investments in Pennsylvania coal lands and cites correspondence from C. L. White, superintendent of the [[New Boston Coal Mining Company]].[^57] A report on the New Boston and Morea coal lands in Schuylkill County, written by [[Benjamin Smith Lyman]] and published in the Pennsylvania Geological Survey's annual report for 1887, carries the line "Presented to the Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, by Warren Delano, Esq., for publication."[^65] The line gives no first name. The family papers place the New Boston lands among Warren II's own investments, and his son [[Warren Delano III]], born in 1852, later was president of the [[Delano Coal Company]] and managed the Union Mining Company at Mount Savage.[^66] + +The family papers hold a file on the [[American and Cuba Copper Company]], but the file sits among the subject papers of Franklin Hughes Delano and not among Warren's own correspondence.[^67] + +### Newburgh and the Hudson Valley + +An 1891 history of Newburgh describes the [[Church of Our Father, Newburgh]] (Unitarian), at the corner of Johnston and South Streets. A committee chosen in 1869 to consider a church building of the congregation's own was joined by Warren Delano, who subsequently became its president. The building cost $16,000 and was consecrated on July 17, 1870.[^68] The [[American Unitarian Association]]'s report for 1937 lists an [[Annie Delano Hitch]] Memorial Fund for Newburgh, New York, established in 1899 with $10,000.[^69] + +### Children + +[[Sara Delano Roosevelt]], born in 1854, married James Roosevelt on October 7, 1880, and their son Franklin Delano was born in 1882.[^70] Deborah Perry, called Dora, married [[William Howell Forbes]] at Paris on April 25, 1867. Annie Lyman married [[Frederick Delano Hitch]] at Newburgh on October 16, 1877.[^70] Frederic Adrian was born at Hong Kong in 1863.[^47] + +### The Pegler column + +In a King Features column of December 1945, Westbrook Pegler described Frederic Delano as born in China "the son of Warren Delano, the old Canton opium smuggler, who founded the Delano fortune in this trade," and wrote that Frederic and numerous other Delanos "still have financial interests in the properties."[^71] Ward records that Pegler wrote at least three columns in the war years calling the President a hypocrite for the source of his grandfather's wealth, and that the White House did not respond. Ward adds that [[Eleanor Roosevelt]], visiting Hong Kong in 1953, talked the charges over with a British merchant and concluded that "the Delanos and Forbeses, like everybody else, had to include a limited amount of opium in their cargoes to do any trading at all."[^51] + +### Death and estate + +Delano died at Algonac on January 17, 1898, nearly two years after his wife's death on February 10, 1896.[^72] The 1899 genealogy records that he "Left personal estate of 1338000."[^73] The house burned in 1916, was rebuilt in 1917, and was sold by the family in 1955.[^72] + +### Family papers + +The Roosevelt Library holds his papers within the Delano family collection. They include general correspondence from 1830 to 1891, material on his China financial interests from 1835 to 1871, and typescript copies of letters that he wrote to members of Russell and Company during the Opium War, 1840 to 1841.[^74] The Frederic A. Delano papers hold "Transcripts of Letters from Warren Delano II to members of Russell and Co. during the Opium War, 1840-1841," a set of his notes on United States sea trade made about 1877, and a portrait of Warren Delano by Charles L. Elliott dated 1852.[^75] + +### Footnotes + +[^1]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Delano Family Papers, 1568 to 1919, biographical sketch, pp. 1-2 of the PDF. https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_delanofamily.pdf +[^2]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Delano Family Papers, biographical sketch of Warren Delano II (born July 13, 1809 at Fairhaven; parents; sailed for Canton in 1833 as supercargo on the Commerce). https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_delanofamily.pdf +[^3]: Geoffrey C. Ward, *Before the Trumpet: Young Franklin Roosevelt, 1882-1905* (New York: Harper and Row, 1985), chapter "Algonac," pp. 61-62 (Fairhaven Academy in 1824; apprenticed to Hathaway and Company of Boston, then Goodhue and Company of New York; 1833 voyage in the Commerce; junior partnership in Russell, Sturgis and Company). https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.151116 +[^4]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (Boston, 1882), pp. 131-132 (the Lintin station arrangements with the Perkins family and Bryant and Sturgis) and appendix, pp. 355-357 (partner of Russell, Sturgis and Company from December 31, 1835). https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog +[^5]: Ward, *Before the Trumpet* (1985), pp. 70-71 (Canton firms in the opium trade; Olyphant and Company; Russell and Company third in the trade; American supply from Turkey and Indian opium on consignment). https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.151116 +[^6]: Ward, *Before the Trumpet* (1985), p. 71 (Delano's letter to his brothers, quoted with ellipses as Ward prints it; the original is in the Delano Family Papers, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library). https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.151116 +[^7]: Curtis T. Henson Jr., *Commissioners and Commodores: The East India Squadron and American Diplomacy in China* (University of Alabama Press, 1982), chapter on the opium trade ("Russell & Co. kept Edward Delano at Macao, where he acted as their opium agent"; pages not pinned). https://archive.org/details/commissionerscom00hens +[^8]: Ward, *Before the Trumpet* (1985), p. 71 (Edward Delano's diary, autumn 1844, Singapore dens). https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.151116 +[^9]: Ward, *Before the Trumpet* (1985), pp. 77-78 and note 4 (Forbes's 1879 request to the Russell partners; Delano's outline without the opium trade; the footnote absolving Houqua; the unpublished history; Delano's responses and Forbes's questionnaire files at the Massachusetts Historical Society). https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.151116 +[^10]: *The Chinese Repository*, vol. VII, no. 12 (April 1839), "Crisis in the Opium Traffic," minutes of the General Chamber of Commerce committee, No. 21 (resolution moved by Mr. Delano, seconded by Mr. H. Rustomjee, carried unanimously). https://archive.org/details/chineserepositor7121unse +[^11]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), appendix, journal entry of April 1, 1839, p. 351 ("Warren Delano, head cook"); the household duties of the confinement are described at p. 147. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog +[^12]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 150, 153 and 157 (the arrangement for the junior partner to join Russell and Company; "most able and efficient co-operators"; the trade of May to December 1839). https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog +[^13]: U.S. House of Representatives, 26th Congress, 1st session, H. Doc. 40, "Merchants of the United States at Canton, China. Memorial of R. B. Forbes and others," signature block dated Canton, May 25, 1839. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/SERIALSET-00364_00_00-030-0040-0000 +[^14]: Henson, *Commissioners and Commodores* (1982), 1839 chapters, quoting letters from Warren Delano to Franklin H. Delano of January 30 and September 3, 1839, and to Edward Delano of March 21, 1839, Delano Family Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society microfilm reel 13 (pages not pinned). https://archive.org/details/commissionerscom00hens +[^15]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 147 (the application to Mr. Delano, the Chesapeake, and the mandarins). https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog +[^16]: Ward, *Before the Trumpet* (1985), pp. 75-76 (Delano as vice consul, overseer of the Russell accounts and agent for the absent British; the Cambridge renamed Chesapeake and sold to Lin; the 1841 Congreve rocket). https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.151116 +[^17]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 150 ("information from Mr. Delano that Houqua was disposed to send orders to India for cotton"; three ships despatched and 100,000 pounds remitted). https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog +[^18]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 160-161 (the price of the surrendered opium; the holders of scrip; the pledge made by Mr. Green; the sentence quoted, with "certainly not within my time"). This is Forbes's own account. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog +[^19]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), appendix, p. 356 (partnership until December 31, 1846; Sturgis relieving Delano in 1842). https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog +[^20]: *The Chinese Repository*, vol. VIII (December 1839), p. 432, "Edicts from the Local Authorities" (the commissioner's reply on the Mermaid and "the American foreign merchant who has purchased his vessel, Delano"). https://archive.org/details/chineserepositor8818unse +[^21]: *Correspondence relating to China* (London, 1840), presented to both Houses of Parliament, the commissioner's edict as printed, same passage. https://archive.org/details/CorrespondenceRelatingToChina1840 +[^22]: *The Chinese Repository*, vol. VIII (January 1840), p. 482, letter of thanks from a shipwrecked captain to "the consul, W. Delano, esq." and the houses of Russell and Co. and Wetmore and Co. https://archive.org/details/chineserepositor8918unse +[^23]: *The Chinese Repository*, vol. IX (May 1840), Journal of Occurrences, petition of the American merchants at Canton dated April 25, 1840, signed by "The American vice-consul, Delano." https://archive.org/details/chineserepositor9118unse +[^24]: *The Chinese Repository*, vol. IX, no. V (September 1840), p. 628, Journal of Occurrences (Snow's departure on the 21st ultimo; "In the meantime, W. Delano, esq. acts as vice-consul"). https://archive.org/details/chineserepositor9518unse +[^25]: *The Chinese Repository*, vol. IX (May to December 1840), general index, "Delano, W., U.S.A. vice-consul," p. 328. https://archive.org/details/chineserepositor9118unse +[^26]: *The Chinese Repository*, vol. XI, no. XII (December 1842), "Loss of the Madagascar," Commander J. M. Dicey's report dated Hongkong, January 19, 1842, with the copy of Delano's letter to the Rev. E. C. Bridgman, Canton, December 18, 1841, pp. 641-643. https://archive.org/details/chinesereposito111unse_11 +[^27]: Henson, *Commissioners and Commodores* (1982), chapter "Commodore Kearny and the Opium War" ("Vice-Consul Warren Delano apprised Kearny of this outrage and urged him to pursue the matter"; the note cites Kearny's letters to the Secretary of the Navy; pages not pinned). https://archive.org/details/commissionerscom00hens +[^28]: Carroll Storrs Alden, *Lawrence Kearny, Sailor Diplomat* (Princeton, 1936), chapter on Kearny's service in China, 1842 to 1843 (the report that American interests, "so far as I have been able to understand from Mr. Delano [vice-consul for the United States]," had not suffered; page not pinned). https://archive.org/details/owb_T4-AQL-853 +[^29]: United States, *Official Register of the United States*, September 30, 1841, China entry (Peter W. Snow). https://archive.org/details/sim_united-states-official-register-of-the-united-states_1841-09-30 +[^30]: United States, *Official Register of the United States*, September 30, 1845, China entry ("Paul S. Forbes ... Consul," Canton). https://archive.org/details/sim_united-states-official-register-of-the-united-states_1845-09-30 +[^31]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), appendix, pp. 355-356 (admitted January 1, 1840; partner until December 31, 1846). https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog +[^32]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 157 (the term of 1840 to 1842 beginning with Mr. Warren Delano, "formerly of the house of Russell, Sturgis, & Co., of Canton and Manila"; succession to Forbes on July 7, 1840). https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog +[^33]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), appendix, p. 356 (1842 leave; Russell Sturgis admitted January 1, 1842, retiring May 1844). https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog +[^34]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), appendix, p. 356 ("The firm then consisted of: W. Delano, Jr., Edward Delano, W. H. King, D. N. Spooner, P. S. Forbes, Jos. T. Gilman"). https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog +[^35]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 167-168 (Delano and his family embarked December 9, 1844 in the Paul Jones; the 1846 terms under which W. Delano was to retire and Edward Delano remain a partner). https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog +[^36]: Joel Andrews Delano, *The Genealogy, History and Alliances of the American House of Delano, 1621 to 1899* (1899), p. 505 (Susan Maria, born at Macao, October 13, 1844, died there June 29, 1846). https://archive.org/details/genealogyhistory46dela +[^37]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), p. 356 ("In 1846 Mr. Edward Delano returned home"). https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog +[^38]: Joel Andrews Delano, *The Genealogy, History and Alliances of the American House of Delano, 1621 to 1899* (1899), p. 505, Warren Delano 2d entry (married at Northampton, Massachusetts, November 1, 1843, Catherine Robbins, daughter of Judge Joseph Lyman). https://archive.org/details/genealogyhistory46dela +[^39]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Delano Family Papers, 1568 to 1919, biographical sketch and series descriptions (Macao until 1846; New York until 1851; Algonac; the losses of 1857; the 1859 return; the family at Hong Kong in 1862; death at Algonac on January 17, 1898). https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_delanofamily.pdf +[^40]: Francis R. Kowsky, *Country, Park and City: The Architecture and Life of Calvert Vaux* (1998), text on the alterations to the house and grounds that Delano called Algonac, and fig. 2.5, "Algonac, Balmville, N.Y., 1851" (courtesy of Katherine Delano Ryan Aldrich). https://archive.org/details/countryparkcitya0004kows +[^41]: Ward, *Before the Trumpet* (1985), chapter "Algonac" (the return of 1846; the New York waterfront property, railroads, Tennessee and Maryland copper, Pennsylvania anthracite land and the town named Delano; the clippers; the steamer Mint built with Forbes and John Ericsson). https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.151116 +[^42]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Delano Family Papers, 1568 to 1919, biographical sketch (Warren II's interest in the Mt. Savage iron works; Franklin H. Delano looking after the interests during the 1860s trip). https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_delanofamily.pdf +[^43]: Ward, *Before the Trumpet* (1985), p. 87 ("In January 1860, Warren Delano was fifty and faced with bankruptcy ... He resolved at last to return to China, to Hong Kong this time, and re-enter the trade which had made him so rich so fast when he was young - tea and opium"). https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.151116 +[^44]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), appendix, pp. 356-357 (readmitted January 1, 1861; retired December 31, 1866; "the stay in China, from 1861 to 1864, of Warren Delano, Jr."). https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog +[^45]: Ward, *Before the Trumpet* (1985), pp. 89-94 (the Surprise sailing June 25, 1862; Hong Kong sighted October 31; Algonac leased to Abbot Low until 1867; Rose Hill; Delano's letter to his brother Ned on Lee and Davis). https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.151116 +[^46]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Delano Family Papers, series 10 (the 1862 story for travelers on the Surprise bound for China), and finding aid for the Papers of Frederic A. Delano, 1812 to 1959, series VI (Catherine R. Delano's journal of the voyage on the clipper Surprise, New York to Hong Kong, 1862). https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_delanofamily.pdf +[^47]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Papers of Frederic A. Delano, 1812 to 1959, biographical sketch (born at Hong Kong, September 10, 1863). https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_freddelano.pdf +[^48]: *The Chronicle and Directory for China, Japan and the Philippines for 1865* (Hong Kong: Daily Press Office, 1865), directory listing "Russell & Co., Queen's Road," the name list "Delano, W., Jr., partner Russell & Co. merchants, residence Caine Road," and the lists of trustees of the Morrison Education Society and the Sailors' Home. https://archive.org/details/1865-chronicle-and-directory-for-china-etc +[^49]: *The Chronicle and Directory for China, Japan and the Philippines for 1865* ("Congar, H. N., U. S. Consul, Wyndham Street"); United States, *Official Register of the United States*, 1861 and 1863 (Horace N. Congar, Consul, Hong Kong, salary $3,500) and 1867 (Hong Kong consulate, same salary). https://archive.org/details/sim_united-states-official-register-of-the-united-states_1863-09-30 +[^50]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Delano Family Papers, series 5 (China accounts, 1862 to 1866; "Houqua Accounts and Memoranda, 1865-1867"; Vogel, Hagedorn and Company, Canton and Hong Kong, 1868 to 1871). https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_delanofamily.pdf +[^51]: Ward, *Before the Trumpet* (1985), pp. 87-88, note 7 (Pegler's columns; Daniel W. Delano, *Franklin Roosevelt and the Delano Influence*, Pittsburgh, 1946, quoted for "This charge has no foundation in fact," the "legitimate trade channels" and the "huge cargoes of the much-needed drug," the claim that Lincoln appointed Delano special agent; Ward's five replies; Eleanor Roosevelt, *On My Own*, p. 131). https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.151116 +[^52]: Jean Edward Smith, *FDR* (New York: Random House, 2007), chapter 1, text and note 30. https://archive.org/details/fdr00smit +[^53]: Patrick H. Stakem, *Industrial Revolution in Western Maryland* (2010), entry "Warren Delano" (the 1860 return to China; opium-based medication for the War Department; director of Consolidation Coal 1864 to 1875; "The Delano Mining Company operated in Mount Savage, producing coal"; same text in *Mt. S Iron Empire*, 2015 and 2019). https://archive.org/details/IndustrialRevolutionInWesternMaryland +[^54]: *The Medical and Surgical History of the War of the Rebellion*, Part III, vol. 1, Medical History (Washington, 1888), "The General Hospitals," report of Surgeon W. C. Spencer on the Medical Purveying Bureau, pp. 964-966 (purchases at New York and Philadelphia; the Act of April 16, 1862; the board of June 17, 1862; the laboratories at Astoria and Philadelphia). https://archive.org/details/medicalsurgicalh0001char +[^55]: *The Medical and Surgical History of the War of the Rebellion*, Part III, vol. 1 (1888), tabular statement "Quantity of certain medical and hospital supplies, etc., issued by the Medical Purveying Bureau during the war," following p. 966. https://archive.org/details/medicalsurgicalh0001char +[^56]: *The Pharmacopoeia of the United States of America*, fourth decennial revision (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1860 revision), "Opium." https://archive.org/details/pharmacopoeiaun00phargoog +[^57]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Delano Family Papers, 1568 to 1919, biographical sketch (Warren II's interest in the Mt. Savage iron works, later the Union Mining Company) and series 5 (correspondence from C. L. White, superintendent of the New Boston Coal Mining Company, on Pennsylvania coal lands; folder "Mt. Savage Iron Company (Takeover by Consolidation Coal Company, 1864)"). https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_delanofamily.pdf +[^58]: Patrick H. Stakem, *Cumberland and Pennsylvania Railroad Revisited* (Laurel, Maryland, 2002), text on the first board (John A. Graham, John F. Winslow, Warren Delano, John M. Forbes, Joseph B. Varnum) and the roster entry "W. Delano," Winans, 1859. https://archive.org/details/revisited1101 +[^59]: Patrick H. Stakem, *Mt. S Iron Empire* (2015 and 2019), chapter on the Mount Savage Iron Company (1848 to 1867). https://archive.org/details/mt.-s-iron-empire +[^60]: Maryland, *Act of Incorporation of the Consolidation Coal Company of Maryland* (Baltimore: Hanzsche, 1863), chapter 265, passed March 9, 1860. https://archive.org/details/actofincorporati00mary +[^61]: Harry M. Caudill, *Theirs Be the Power: The Moguls of Eastern Kentucky* (University of Illinois Press, 1983), on the formation of the Consolidation Coal Company in 1864 (April 19, 1864; first directors including Corning, Forbes and Aspinwall; directors including Nathaniel Stone Simpkins, John Murray Forbes and Warren Delano, "grandfather of Franklin Delano Roosevelt"; pages not pinned). https://archive.org/details/theirsbepowerthe00caud +[^62]: Ward, *Before the Trumpet* (1985), chapters on James Roosevelt and on Sara's courtship (James Roosevelt as director of the Consolidated Coal Company of Maryland, the Aspinwall connection, and Delano's remark to his son on the company squabble). https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.151116 +[^63]: Henry V. Poor, *Manual of the Railroads of the United States* for 1873-74, "Cumberland and Pennsylvania Railroad," p. 300 (directors elected October 14, 1872). https://archive.org/details/poorsmanualofrai00unse +[^64]: Henry V. Poor and Henry W. Poor, *Manual of the Railroads of the United States* for 1880, St. Louis, Iron Mountain and Southern Railway (directors elected April 15, 1880). https://archive.org/details/poorsmanualofr1880newyuoft +[^65]: Pennsylvania Geological Survey, *Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Pennsylvania for 1887* (Harrisburg, 1889), "Report on the New Boston and Morea Coal Lands in Schuylkill County, Pennsylvania," by Benjamin Smith Lyman, presentation note "Presented to the Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, by Warren Delano, Esq., for publication." https://archive.org/details/annualreportgeo06survgoog +[^66]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Delano Family Papers, 1568 to 1919, biographical sketch of Warren Delano III (Union Mining Company, Mt. Savage; president of the Delano Coal Company; chairman of the Vinton Colliery Company). https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_delanofamily.pdf +[^67]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Delano Family Papers, 1568 to 1919, series I (subject file of Franklin Hughes Delano, folder "American and Cuba Copper Company"). https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_delanofamily.pdf +[^68]: *Newburgh; Her Institutions, Industries and Leading Citizens* (Newburgh, 1891), account of the Church of Our Father (Unitarian), p. 146 (the 1869 advisory council to which Warren Delano was added, and his later presidency; the building cost of $16,000; consecration on July 17, 1870), and index entry "Delano, Warren, 146." https://archive.org/details/newburghherinsti1891nutt +[^69]: American Unitarian Association, *Annual Report* (1937), list of funds, "Annie Delano Hitch Memorial Fund for Newburgh, N.Y. (1899)," $10,000. https://archive.org/details/annualreport0000amer_o1p2 +[^70]: Joel Andrews Delano, *The Genealogy, History and Alliances of the American House of Delano, 1621 to 1899* (1899), pp. 505-506, Warren Delano 2d entry (children; Sara, born 1854, married James Roosevelt October 7, 1880; son Franklin Delano born 1882; Dora's marriage to William Howell Forbes at Paris April 25, 1867; Annie Lyman's marriage to Frederick Delano Hitch at Newburgh October 16, 1877) and Warren Delano 3d entry. https://archive.org/details/genealogyhistory46dela +[^71]: Westbrook Pegler, column distributed by King Features Syndicate, *Hope Star* (Hope, Arkansas), December 5, 1945 (the phrase "the old Canton opium smuggler, who founded the Delano fortune in this trade," and the statement that Frederic Delano and other Delanos "still have financial interests in the properties"). Attributed to Pegler. +[^72]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Delano Family Papers, 1568 to 1919, biographical sketch (death at Algonac on January 17, 1898; wife died February 10, 1896; the house burned in 1916, was rebuilt in 1917, and was sold by the family in 1955). https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_delanofamily.pdf +[^73]: Joel Andrews Delano, *The Genealogy, History and Alliances of the American House of Delano, 1621 to 1899* (1899), p. 505, Warren Delano 2d entry ("d. 'Algonac' Newburg-on-Hudson 17 Jan 1898 'Left personal estate of 1338000'"). https://archive.org/details/genealogyhistory46dela +[^74]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Delano Family Papers, 1568 to 1919, series 5 (general correspondence 1830 to 1891; material on China financial interests 1835 to 1871; typescript copies of letters to members of Russell and Company, 1840 to 1841). https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_delanofamily.pdf +[^75]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Papers of Frederic A. Delano, 1812 to 1959, series II and subject files (transcripts of letters from Warren Delano II to members of Russell and Co. during the Opium War, 1840 to 1841; notes by Warren Delano II on U.S. sea trade, [1877]; Warren Delano portrait by Charles L. Elliott, 1852). https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_freddelano.pdf diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/William J. Casey.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/William J. Casey.md index 0656b991..1d72a48d 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/William J. Casey.md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/William J. Casey.md @@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ aliases: - "William Casey" category: "Intelligence & Government" created: 2024-04-25 -updated: 2026-10-12 +updated: 2026-10-26 tags: - KeyFigure - Person @@ -27,7 +27,7 @@ relations: role: "chairman" start: 1971-04-14 end: 1973-02-02 - fn: 18 + fn: 20 --- William Joseph Casey was born March 13, 1913, in Elmhurst, Queens, New York. He attended [[St. John's University]] and Fordham Law School, becoming a corporate and tax attorney. During World War II he served in the [[Office of Strategic Services]] (OSS) under [[William J. Donovan|William "Wild Bill" Donovan]], rising to head the OSS's Secret Intelligence operations in Europe and coordinating the infiltration of agents into Nazi-controlled territory. After the war he became a wealthy lawyer and author of tax shelter guides. President [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] appointed him Chairman of the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] in 1971, a post he held through 1973. He managed [[Ronald Reagan]]'s 1980 presidential campaign. Reagan appointed him [[Director of Central Intelligence]] in January 1981, and he served as DCI until resigning due to illness in January 1987. He died May 6, 1987, at a hospital in Glen Cove, New York, having suffered a seizure in December 1986 and subsequently undergone brain surgery. He was subpoenaed to testify before the Senate [[Iran-Contra Affair|Iran-Contra]] investigating committee but died before he could appear.[^1] @@ -53,29 +53,37 @@ Reagan approved the intelligence finding for covert operations in [[Nicaragua]] In early 1982, Casey and Attorney General [[William French Smith]] signed a formal Memorandum of Understanding that exempted CIA assets from drug crimes reporting. Crimes committed by people "acting for" an intelligence agency no longer needed to be reported to the [[Department of Justice]], and narcotics violations by non-employees were not on the list of crimes the CIA was required to report.[^6] Gary Webb, after quoting [[Fred Hitz|Hitz]]'s March 1998 testimony that the arrangement had been "hammered out" in 1982, wrote that for thirteen years "the CIA and Justice had a gentleman's agreement to look the other way."[^5] In an interview for the PBS series Frontline, Hitz said: "We didn't find any evidence of an understanding that official Washington was going to look the other way with respect to allegations of drug trafficking."[^7] Robert Parry argued the timing proved premeditation: "That could only have been done for one purpose. They were anticipating what eventually happened. They knew drugs were going to be sold."[^5] +### Dresser drill bit plant assessment, 1982" in chronological order among the page's 1982 material. Check the live page for an existing Dresser or tungsten carbide mention first; none was found when the draft was written. Footnotes D1 and D2. + +Insert-ready section: + +### Dresser drill bit plant assessment, 1982 + +In February 1982 Casey, as Director of Central Intelligence, wrote to Commerce Secretary [[Malcolm Baldrige]] that "the CIA now believes that the tungsten carbide production technology transferred as part of the Dresser drill bit plant sold to the USSR will be used in improving the armor-penetrating performance of anti-tank ammunition." He sent the attached assessment "because of your current review of this case."[^8] The assessment stated that "we believe this effort derives from Dresser Industries sales to the USSR" and that the know-how "probably was supplied as part of the drill bit turnkey plant built by Dresser Industries in Kuybyshev."[^9] The Carter administration had licensed the plant to [[Dresser Industries]] in August 1978. + ### Protecting Drug Traffickers Casey decided not to raise allegations of [[Manuel Noriega|Noriega's]] cocaine trafficking with him "on the ground that Noriega was providing valuable support for our policies in [[Central America]]." [[Oliver North]] wrote that Casey did not want the Contras' "unofficial funds" coming into U.S. banks because Treasury agents on the lookout for drug money would grow suspicious. A former CIA station chief testified that the unspoken policy was that "we were going to play with these guys. That was made clear by Casey and [[Dewey Clarridge|Clarridge]]."[^5] ### High Frontier correspondence -[[Daniel O. Graham]], the retired lieutenant general who directed the [[Defense Intelligence Agency]] from September 1974 to January 1, 1976, wrote to Casey about [[High Frontier]], the space defense group he had founded in 1981. On January 8, 1982 Casey wrote to Graham that the High Frontier prospectus was "very well done and deserving of close attention" and that he found "something of a disconnect" in its budget paragraphs, from a $35 billion figure to a higher $50 billion figure.[^8] Casey wrote to Graham on December 20, 1982 that he had enjoyed Graham's talk at the [[National Strategy Information Center]] breakfast and offered to arrange for Graham to exchange ideas with CIA officers knowledgeable about space and missile technology.[^9] +[[Daniel O. Graham]], the retired lieutenant general who directed the [[Defense Intelligence Agency]] from September 1974 to January 1, 1976, wrote to Casey about [[High Frontier]], the space defense group he had founded in 1981. On January 8, 1982 Casey wrote to Graham that the High Frontier prospectus was "very well done and deserving of close attention" and that he found "something of a disconnect" in its budget paragraphs, from a $35 billion figure to a higher $50 billion figure.[^10] Casey wrote to Graham on December 20, 1982 that he had enjoyed Graham's talk at the [[National Strategy Information Center]] breakfast and offered to arrange for Graham to exchange ideas with CIA officers knowledgeable about space and missile technology.[^11] -On July 23, 1986 Graham wrote to Casey enclosing a paper titled "Is the KGB Sabotaging SDI?", written after the loss of the shuttle Challenger, and urged Casey and [[Edwin Meese]] to "leave no stone unturned" in getting answers. A cover memorandum dated July 28, 1986, titled "Possible Soviet Sabotage of Our Space Program," carries Casey's instruction: "Please take the lead in drafting a response from me to General Graham."[^10] Casey replied on August 16, 1986, acknowledging Graham's letters of July 23 and 29, 1986, and rejected Graham's sabotage theory. He wrote that "we do not believe the U.S. space launch failures you cited were due to Soviet action," that the failures had been traced to "errors or procedural problems," and that "none of the investigations found any evidence of Soviet involvement."[^11] On December 8, 1986 Graham wrote to [[Robert Gates|Robert M. Gates]], then deputy director of the CIA, praising his assessment of Soviet strategic defense efforts, with a copy to Casey.[^12] +On July 23, 1986 Graham wrote to Casey enclosing a paper titled "Is the KGB Sabotaging SDI?", written after the loss of the shuttle Challenger, and urged Casey and [[Edwin Meese]] to "leave no stone unturned" in getting answers. A cover memorandum dated July 28, 1986, titled "Possible Soviet Sabotage of Our Space Program," carries Casey's instruction: "Please take the lead in drafting a response from me to General Graham."[^12] Casey replied on August 16, 1986, acknowledging Graham's letters of July 23 and 29, 1986, and rejected Graham's sabotage theory. He wrote that "we do not believe the U.S. space launch failures you cited were due to Soviet action," that the failures had been traced to "errors or procedural problems," and that "none of the investigations found any evidence of Soviet involvement."[^13] On December 8, 1986 Graham wrote to [[Robert Gates|Robert M. Gates]], then deputy director of the CIA, praising his assessment of Soviet strategic defense efforts, with a copy to Casey.[^14] ### National Intelligence Study Center -Casey is listed on the advisory board of the [[National Intelligence Study Center]] in Washington, alongside Graham and [[Paul Nitze]]. The board of directors of the center included [[Ray Cline]]. The center's invitation to an exhibit of intelligence books, dated November 3, 1983, carries these lists.[^13] +Casey is listed on the advisory board of the [[National Intelligence Study Center]] in Washington, alongside Graham and [[Paul Nitze]]. The board of directors of the center included [[Ray Cline]]. The center's invitation to an exhibit of intelligence books, dated November 3, 1983, carries these lists.[^15] ### Recruitment of James D. Theberge to the Senior Review Panel -The Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, in its October 24, 1991 report on the nomination of Gates, named Casey as one of three CIA officials involved in the recruitment and selection of [[James D. Theberge]] for the Senior Review Panel, with Deputy Director [[John McMahon]] and Executive Director [[James Taylor]].[^14] The report states that "the Committee's documentary evidence makes clear that Director Casey was the CIA official most instrumental in recruiting Mr. Theberge."[^14] The report records that Theberge disclosed his consulting work for a Cardoen subsidiary in the personal history statement he submitted to the CIA in December 1985, and that he was hired on a three-days-per-week basis.[^14] CIA visitor records held in the reading room list Theberge as meeting the director at headquarters in November 1984 and, as "Ambassador Theberge," calling on the director on September 23, 1985.[^15] A routing sheet of August 12, 1985 confirms a courtesy call on the director at 1100 hours on August 14, 1985, twelve days after Theberge left his post in Chile, stating that he "has completed his tour in Chile and has no particular items to discuss."[^16] In a memorandum of August 19, 1985 titled "Soviet Game Plan," Casey told the Vice Chairman of the [[National Intelligence Council]]: "You will get in touch with Theberge, talk about the project generally, see what he has to contribute and perhaps have him do some work on the Latin America phase of it."[^17] +The Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, in its October 24, 1991 report on the nomination of Gates, named Casey as one of three CIA officials involved in the recruitment and selection of [[James D. Theberge]] for the Senior Review Panel, with Deputy Director [[John McMahon]] and Executive Director [[James Taylor]].[^16] The report states that "the Committee's documentary evidence makes clear that Director Casey was the CIA official most instrumental in recruiting Mr. Theberge."[^16] The report records that Theberge disclosed his consulting work for a Cardoen subsidiary in the personal history statement he submitted to the CIA in December 1985, and that he was hired on a three-days-per-week basis.[^16] CIA visitor records held in the reading room list Theberge as meeting the director at headquarters in November 1984 and, as "Ambassador Theberge," calling on the director on September 23, 1985.[^17] A routing sheet of August 12, 1985 confirms a courtesy call on the director at 1100 hours on August 14, 1985, twelve days after Theberge left his post in Chile, stating that he "has completed his tour in Chile and has no particular items to discuss."[^18] In a memorandum of August 19, 1985 titled "Soviet Game Plan," Casey told the Vice Chairman of the [[National Intelligence Council]]: "You will get in touch with Theberge, talk about the project generally, see what he has to contribute and perhaps have him do some work on the Latin America phase of it."[^19] ### Securities and Exchange Commission, 1971 to 1973 -Casey served as chairman of the Securities and Exchange Commission from April 14, 1971 to February 2, 1973.[^18] During his chairmanship the commission was investigating the 1970 takeover of [[Investors Overseas Services]] by [[International Controls Corporation]]. The complaint filed in November 1972 described transfers of International Controls assets to entities controlled by [[Robert Vesco]].[^19] +Casey served as chairman of the Securities and Exchange Commission from April 14, 1971 to February 2, 1973.[^20] During his chairmanship the commission was investigating the 1970 takeover of [[Investors Overseas Services]] by [[International Controls Corporation]]. The complaint filed in November 1972 described transfers of International Controls assets to entities controlled by [[Robert Vesco]].[^21] -The New Jersey Supreme Court's disciplinary opinion on [[Harry L. Sears]], a former majority leader of the New Jersey Senate, records that Sears conveyed Vesco's requests to [[John N. Mitchell]], then attorney general, in two letters and three meetings, and that Vesco hoped Mitchell could induce Casey "to monitor and limit the investigation." The opinion records that Mitchell telephoned Casey and arranged a meeting between Sears and the chairman. At that meeting Casey gave assurances that International Controls could respond to the investigation, and that he would personally review its claims of SEC harassment.[^20] +The New Jersey Supreme Court's disciplinary opinion on [[Harry L. Sears]], a former majority leader of the New Jersey Senate, records that Sears conveyed Vesco's requests to [[John N. Mitchell]], then attorney general, in two letters and three meetings, and that Vesco hoped Mitchell could induce Casey "to monitor and limit the investigation." The opinion records that Mitchell telephoned Casey and arranged a meeting between Sears and the chairman. At that meeting Casey gave assurances that International Controls could respond to the investigation, and that he would personally review its claims of SEC harassment.[^22] ### Footnotes @@ -86,16 +94,18 @@ The New Jersey Supreme Court's disciplinary opinion on [[Harry L. Sears]], a for [^5]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Epilogue. [^6]: CIA Office of Inspector General, *Report of Investigation: Allegations of Connections Between CIA and the Contras in Cocaine Trafficking to the United States* (96-0143-IG), Vol. II, *The Contra Story.* https://archive.org/details/nps56-111612-04 [^7]: PBS Frontline, *Drug Wars,* interview with Frederick P. Hitz, CIA Inspector General 1990 to 1998. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/drugs/special/hitz.html -[^8]: Letter, William J. Casey to Lt. Gen. Daniel O. Graham, January 8, 1982, CIA-RDP83M00914R001900220074-1. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp83m00914r001900220074-1 -[^9]: Letter, William J. Casey to Graham, December 20, 1982, CIA-RDP88B00443R001203980021-9, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp88b00443r001203980021-9; the reading room also catalogues Graham's letter to Casey of December 9, 1982 under CIA-RDP83M00914R002400010001-8. -[^10]: Letter, Daniel O. Graham to William J. Casey, July 23, 1986, enclosing "Is the KGB Sabotaging SDI?", with the cover memorandum "Possible Soviet Sabotage of Our Space Program," July 28, 1986, CIA-RDP88B00443R001904460005-6. -[^11]: Letter, William J. Casey to Lt. Gen. Daniel O. Graham, August 16, 1986, CIA-RDP88B00443R002004470017-0. -[^12]: Letter, Daniel O. Graham to Robert M. Gates, December 8, 1986, CIA-RDP88G01116R000700840002-1, copy to William J. Casey. -[^13]: National Intelligence Study Center, invitation to the Russell J. Bowen collection exhibit, Georgetown University, November 3, 1983, CIA-RDP90-00806R000100430001-2. -[^14]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Intelligence, *Nomination of Robert M. Gates to be Director of Central Intelligence*, S. Exec. Rept. 102-19, 102d Cong., 1st sess., October 24, 1991, section 5, PDF pages 186 to 188. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/sites-default-filesations-10219.pdf -[^15]: Central Intelligence Agency, "American Ambassadors" visitor log, November 1984 (1045), CREST document CIA-RDP93-00415R000100040012-4, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp93-00415r000100040012-4; visitor record, September 23, 1985 (1645), CREST document CIA-RDP93-00415R000200230005-0, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp93-00415r000200230005-0. -[^16]: Central Intelligence Agency, "DCI 14 August 1985 Meeting with Mr. James D. Theberge, Former U.S. Ambassador to Chile," August 12, 1985, CREST document CIA-RDP87M00539R000801050023-0. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp87m00539r000801050023-0 -[^17]: Central Intelligence Agency, "Soviet Game Plan," memorandum from the Director of Central Intelligence to the Vice Chairman, National Intelligence Council, August 19, 1985, signed William J. Casey, CREST document CIA-RDP97M00248R000500220030-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp97m00248r000500220030-9 -[^18]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, "Historical Summary of Chairmen and Commissioners" (William Casey, Chairman, April 14, 1971 to February 2, 1973). https://www.sec.gov/about/sec-commissioners/sec-historical-summary-chairmen-commissioners -[^19]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, News Digest, November 28, 1972 (complaint of November 27, 1972 against Robert L. Vesco and 41 other defendants; transfers from International Controls Corp.; purchase in early 1971 of 6,000,000 shares of Investors Overseas Services). https://www.sec.gov/news/digest/1972/dig112872.pdf -[^20]: In re Sears, 71 N.J. 175 (1976) (Supreme Court of New Jersey, disciplinary opinion; the requests conveyed by Sears to Mitchell, and the meeting Mitchell arranged between Sears and Casey). https://static.case.law/nj/71/cases/0175-01.json +[^8]: William J. Casey, letter to Malcolm Baldrige, February 1982, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP83M00914R001200090040-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83m00914r001200090040-0 +[^9]: Central Intelligence Agency, "The Transfer of U.S. Tungsten Carbide Technology to the USSR and its Military Application," CIA-RDP83M00914R001200090041-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83m00914r001200090041-9 +[^10]: Letter, William J. Casey to Lt. Gen. Daniel O. Graham, January 8, 1982, CIA-RDP83M00914R001900220074-1. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp83m00914r001900220074-1 +[^11]: Letter, William J. Casey to Graham, December 20, 1982, CIA-RDP88B00443R001203980021-9, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp88b00443r001203980021-9; the reading room also catalogues Graham's letter to Casey of December 9, 1982 under CIA-RDP83M00914R002400010001-8. +[^12]: Letter, Daniel O. Graham to William J. Casey, July 23, 1986, enclosing "Is the KGB Sabotaging SDI?", with the cover memorandum "Possible Soviet Sabotage of Our Space Program," July 28, 1986, CIA-RDP88B00443R001904460005-6. +[^13]: Letter, William J. Casey to Lt. Gen. Daniel O. Graham, August 16, 1986, CIA-RDP88B00443R002004470017-0. +[^14]: Letter, Daniel O. Graham to Robert M. Gates, December 8, 1986, CIA-RDP88G01116R000700840002-1, copy to William J. Casey. +[^15]: National Intelligence Study Center, invitation to the Russell J. Bowen collection exhibit, Georgetown University, November 3, 1983, CIA-RDP90-00806R000100430001-2. +[^16]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Intelligence, *Nomination of Robert M. Gates to be Director of Central Intelligence*, S. Exec. Rept. 102-19, 102d Cong., 1st sess., October 24, 1991, section 5, PDF pages 186 to 188. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/sites-default-filesations-10219.pdf +[^17]: Central Intelligence Agency, "American Ambassadors" visitor log, November 1984 (1045), CREST document CIA-RDP93-00415R000100040012-4, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp93-00415r000100040012-4; visitor record, September 23, 1985 (1645), CREST document CIA-RDP93-00415R000200230005-0, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp93-00415r000200230005-0. +[^18]: Central Intelligence Agency, "DCI 14 August 1985 Meeting with Mr. James D. Theberge, Former U.S. Ambassador to Chile," August 12, 1985, CREST document CIA-RDP87M00539R000801050023-0. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp87m00539r000801050023-0 +[^19]: Central Intelligence Agency, "Soviet Game Plan," memorandum from the Director of Central Intelligence to the Vice Chairman, National Intelligence Council, August 19, 1985, signed William J. Casey, CREST document CIA-RDP97M00248R000500220030-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp97m00248r000500220030-9 +[^20]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, "Historical Summary of Chairmen and Commissioners" (William Casey, Chairman, April 14, 1971 to February 2, 1973). https://www.sec.gov/about/sec-commissioners/sec-historical-summary-chairmen-commissioners +[^21]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, News Digest, November 28, 1972 (complaint of November 27, 1972 against Robert L. Vesco and 41 other defendants; transfers from International Controls Corp.; purchase in early 1971 of 6,000,000 shares of Investors Overseas Services). https://www.sec.gov/news/digest/1972/dig112872.pdf +[^22]: In re Sears, 71 N.J. 175 (1976) (Supreme Court of New Jersey, disciplinary opinion; the requests conveyed by Sears to Mitchell, and the meeting Mitchell arranged between Sears and Casey). https://static.case.law/nj/71/cases/0175-01.json diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/William P. Bundy.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/William P. Bundy.md index 39485621..000a4e7a 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/William P. Bundy.md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/William P. Bundy.md @@ -47,7 +47,7 @@ relations: - type: member_of with: "[[Skull and Bones]]" start: 1939 - fn: 8 + fn: 12 - type: employed_by with: "[[Covington & Burling]]" start: 1947 @@ -57,14 +57,14 @@ relations: with: "[[Central Intelligence Agency]]" start: 1951-06 role: "Office of National Estimates; chief of staff and liaison to the National Security Council staff" - fn: 11 + fn: 15 - type: investigated with: "[[Joseph McCarthy]]" reverse: true start: 1953-07 end: 1953-08 role: "Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations chairman's inquiry into his $400 contribution to the defense of Alger Hiss" - fn: 13 + fn: 17 - type: appointed with: "[[John F. Kennedy]]" start: 1961 @@ -81,7 +81,7 @@ relations: start: 1961-02 end: 1961-03 role: "attended the White House meetings of March 11, 15, 16 and 29, 1961 on the Trinidad and Zapata plans" - fn: 19 + fn: 23 - type: participant_in with: "[[Cuban Missile Crisis]]" start: 1962-10 @@ -114,7 +114,7 @@ relations: start: 1972 end: 1984 role: "editor of Foreign Affairs" - fn: 41 + fn: 45 created: 2026-10-26 updated: 2026-10-26 --- @@ -125,69 +125,73 @@ William Putnam Bundy (September 24, 1917 to October 6, 2000) was a staff officer The [[Washington Post]] reported that Bundy was born in Washington, where his father was serving as counsel to the World War I Food Administration.[^2] [[Antony C. Sutton]] wrote that Harvey Hollister Bundy was born in Grand Rapids, Michigan in 1888, died in 1963, was initiated into [[Skull and Bones]] in 1909, and served as law clerk to Justice [[Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.]] in 1914 and 1915, a clerkship Sutton noted [[Alger Hiss]] also held in 1929 and 1930.[^3] [[Henry L. Stimson]] appointed Harvey H. Bundy Assistant Secretary of State, and Stimson's memoir records the appointment as filling a gap left by the death of a senior officer with economic experience.[^4] Harvey H. Bundy was present by invitation at the meeting of the wartime [[Interim Committee]] on May 31, 1945, whose secretary recorded him among the attendees with Stimson and the committee's scientists.[^5] -Sutton listed the elder Bundy's five children: Harvey Hollister Bundy Jr. (Yale 1938, which Sutton recorded as not initiated into Skull and Bones), William Putnam Bundy (initiated 1939), McGeorge Bundy (initiated 1940), Harriet Lowell Bundy, who married Gaspar d'Andelot Belin of [[Covington & Burling]], and Katharine Lawrence Bundy, who married Hugh Auchincloss Jr.[^6] The Post obituary calls William Bundy the older brother of McGeorge Bundy and records that he was sometimes known as "the other Bundy."[^2] +The *Register of the Department of State* for 1932 gives his father's record: Harvey Hollister Bundy, born at Grand Rapids, Michigan, March 30, 1888; Hackley School; Yale, B.A. 1909; Harvard, LL.B. 1914; secretary to a United States Supreme Court justice 1914 to 1915; assistant counsel, United States Food Administration, 1917 to 1919; law practice in Boston 1919 to 1931; appointed Assistant Secretary of State June 10, 1931.[^6] *Who's Who in America* (1956-57) records that his father married Katharine L. Putnam on April 17, 1915 and was chairman of the board of the [[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]];[^7] the endowment's minutes show him vice chairman of the board by December 1951 and elected chairman on December 8, 1952, and the Danvers Historical Society genealogy of the Putnam family records that Katharine Lawrence Putnam, born December 5, 1890, was the daughter of William Lowell Putnam and Elizabeth Lowell, a daughter of Augustus Lowell.[^8] A 1953 Grand Rapids profile of William Bundy places his father's Carnegie Endowment membership in 1948, vice presidency in 1951, and board chairmanship in 1952.[^9] -In 1943 he married Mary Acheson, daughter of Dean Acheson.[^1] The couple had three children.[^2] Sutton described the connection as the "Whitney-Stimson-Bundy-Acheson Chain of Influence," wrote that Dean Acheson was a member of Scroll and Key at Yale, and that Acheson's son David was a member of Skull and Bones; Sutton also wrote that Acheson and Belin were former partners of Covington & Burling, the firm where Bundy worked from 1947 to 1951.[^7] +Sutton listed the elder Bundy's five children: Harvey Hollister Bundy Jr. (Yale 1938, which Sutton recorded as not initiated into Skull and Bones), William Putnam Bundy (initiated 1939), McGeorge Bundy (initiated 1940), Harriet Lowell Bundy, who married Gaspar d'Andelot Belin of [[Covington & Burling]], and Katharine Lawrence Bundy, who married Hugh Auchincloss Jr.[^10] The Post obituary calls William Bundy the older brother of McGeorge Bundy and records that he was sometimes known as "the other Bundy."[^2] + +In 1943 he married Mary Acheson, daughter of Dean Acheson.[^1] The couple had three children.[^2] Sutton described the connection as the "Whitney-Stimson-Bundy-Acheson Chain of Influence," wrote that Dean Acheson was a member of Scroll and Key at Yale, and that Acheson's son David was a member of Skull and Bones; Sutton also wrote that Acheson and Belin were former partners of Covington & Burling, the firm where Bundy worked from 1947 to 1951.[^11] ### Groton, Yale and Skull and Bones Bundy attended [[Groton School]] (completed 1935) and [[Yale University]] (Yale College, 1939), and he attended the [[Harvard University|Harvard Graduate School]] in 1940.[^1] The Post reported that he was a trustee of Yale for 20 years.[^2] -Sutton's index of members by class year lists "William Putnam Bundy" in the class of 1939 of Skull and Bones, with the notation "CIA, Editor Foreign Affairs."[^8] [[Ron Rosenbaum]] wrote in [[Esquire]] in September 1977 that a reader could ask Bill Bundy or [[William F. Buckley Jr.|William F. Buckley]], "both of whom went into the C.I.A. after leaving Bones," whether the society's experience was useful training for the clandestine trade; the same passage names McGeorge Bundy.[^9] The Covert Action Information Bulletin stated in 1990 that "William Bundy is a Bonesman from the class of 1939."[^10] +Sutton's index of members by class year lists "William Putnam Bundy" in the class of 1939 of Skull and Bones, with the notation "CIA, Editor Foreign Affairs."[^12] [[Ron Rosenbaum]] wrote in [[Esquire]] in September 1977 that a reader could ask Bill Bundy or [[William F. Buckley Jr.|William F. Buckley]], "both of whom went into the C.I.A. after leaving Bones," whether the society's experience was useful training for the clandestine trade; the same passage names McGeorge Bundy.[^13] The Covert Action Information Bulletin stated in 1990 that "William Bundy is a Bonesman from the class of 1939."[^14] ### Army service and Bletchley Park -Bundy served in the United States Army from 1941 to 1946. During the war he commanded an [[Army Signal Corps]] unit that worked with the British at [[Bletchley Park]] on the [[Ultra]] operation, which broke high-level German Enigma ciphers. He received the Legion of Merit and was made a member of the Order of the British Empire.[^1] The Post quoted his later writing: "Although I have done many interesting things in my life and known many interesting people, my work at Bletchley Park was the most satisfying of my career."[^2] The Covert Action Information Bulletin wrote that his intelligence career began in the [[Office of Strategic Services]] during the war.[^10] +Bundy served in the United States Army from 1941 to 1946. During the war he commanded an [[Army Signal Corps]] unit that worked with the British at [[Bletchley Park]] on the [[Ultra]] operation, which broke high-level German Enigma ciphers. He received the Legion of Merit and was made a member of the Order of the British Empire.[^1] The Post quoted his later writing: "Although I have done many interesting things in my life and known many interesting people, my work at Bletchley Park was the most satisfying of my career."[^2] The Covert Action Information Bulletin wrote that his intelligence career began in the [[Office of Strategic Services]] during the war.[^14] After law school at [[Harvard Law School]], which he finished in 1947, he worked for four years at Covington & Burling in Washington.[^1] ### Office of National Estimates, from 1951 -A CIA letter to [[Joseph McCarthy]] dated July 22, 1953 states that Bundy joined the agency in June 1951 and was attached to the [[Office of National Estimates]], and that from June 1952 he served as assistant to the agency's adviser on the National Security Council's planning board.[^11] A report by [[Allen Drury]] of August 4, 1953 describes him as assistant to the adviser of the Office of National Estimates and as serving on the planning board of the [[National Security Council]].[^12] The Princeton finding aid records his post as chief of staff of the office and liaison to the National Security Council staff.[^1] The Post wrote that his work in the office included evaluating information gathered by field operatives, and quoted him: "I'm not the kind of fellow you can make a spook out of."[^2] +A CIA letter to [[Joseph McCarthy]] dated July 22, 1953 states that Bundy joined the agency in June 1951 and was attached to the [[Office of National Estimates]], and that from June 1952 he served as assistant to the agency's adviser on the National Security Council's planning board.[^15] A report by [[Allen Drury]] of August 4, 1953 describes him as assistant to the adviser of the Office of National Estimates and as serving on the planning board of the [[National Security Council]].[^16] The Princeton finding aid records his post as chief of staff of the office and liaison to the National Security Council staff.[^1] The Post wrote that his work in the office included evaluating information gathered by field operatives, and quoted him: "I'm not the kind of fellow you can make a spook out of."[^2] -The Covert Action Information Bulletin gave his CIA service as 1951 to 1961, and Sutton gave the same years, adding that Bundy's four years at Covington & Burling suggested to him that Bundy "probably had CIA dealings" in the 1947 to 1951 period.[^6][^10] In 1960 Bundy was staff director of the President's Commission on National Goals.[^1][^2] The Bulletin quoted a foreword by Bundy to a book on the counter-insurgency era in which he wrote that "the preservation of liberal values, for America and other nations, required the use of the full range of U.S. power, including if necessary, its more shady applications."[^10] +The Covert Action Information Bulletin gave his CIA service as 1951 to 1961, and Sutton gave the same years, adding that Bundy's four years at Covington & Burling suggested to him that Bundy "probably had CIA dealings" in the 1947 to 1951 period.[^10][^14] In 1960 Bundy was staff director of the President's Commission on National Goals.[^1][^2] The Bulletin quoted a foreword by Bundy to a book on the counter-insurgency era in which he wrote that "the preservation of liberal values, for America and other nations, required the use of the full range of U.S. power, including if necessary, its more shady applications."[^14] ### The Hiss defense fund and the McCarthy letters, 1953 -In July 1953 McCarthy, as chairman of the [[Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations]], wrote to [[Allen Dulles]], director of the CIA, about Bundy's contribution to the defense of Alger Hiss. McCarthy's information was that Bundy had given $400 to the defense and had joined the [[United Public Workers of America]], which McCarthy identified as the Communist front organization to which Bundy belonged.[^11][^13] +In July 1953 McCarthy, as chairman of the [[Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations]], wrote to [[Allen Dulles]], director of the CIA, about Bundy's contribution to the defense of Alger Hiss. McCarthy's information was that Bundy had given $400 to the defense and had joined the [[United Public Workers of America]], which McCarthy identified as the Communist front organization to which Bundy belonged.[^15][^17] -An FBI memorandum of July 10, 1953 recorded that Dulles told the Bureau's liaison agent, [[Sam Papich]], that he had taken the position that it would be prejudicial to the interests of the United States to permit CIA employees to testify before the McCarthy committee, that he had been in touch with the White House about that position and had its support, and that he wanted to know where McCarthy obtained his information. Papich answered that the Bureau was not supplying it.[^14] +An FBI memorandum of July 10, 1953 recorded that Dulles told the Bureau's liaison agent, [[Sam Papich]], that he had taken the position that it would be prejudicial to the interests of the United States to permit CIA employees to testify before the McCarthy committee, that he had been in touch with the White House about that position and had its support, and that he wanted to know where McCarthy obtained his information. Papich answered that the Bureau was not supplying it.[^18] -The agency's reply of July 22, 1953 confirmed the $400 contribution. It said that the reasons Bundy gave for the contribution were not in accord, in substantial respects, with the reasons given in the matter then under review, and that comment on those reasons would await a re-evaluation of his case under Executive Order 10450. The reply stated that the agency's files showed a field investigation of the three general allegations and a favorable determination by the CIA Loyalty Board and by the Loyalty Review Board of the [[Civil Service Commission]]. It also stated that Bundy had joined the union, attended one meeting and resigned, and that the record did not indicate membership in any other organization within the scope of McCarthy's third question.[^11] Drury reported that Dulles had told McCarthy that Bundy had joined the union in the summer of 1940 while working at the [[Library of Congress]], and that the exchange followed a conversation between the two on July 14.[^12] +The agency's reply of July 22, 1953 confirmed the $400 contribution. It said that the reasons Bundy gave for the contribution were not in accord, in substantial respects, with the reasons given in the matter then under review, and that comment on those reasons would await a re-evaluation of his case under Executive Order 10450. The reply stated that the agency's files showed a field investigation of the three general allegations and a favorable determination by the CIA Loyalty Board and by the Loyalty Review Board of the [[Civil Service Commission]]. It also stated that Bundy had joined the union, attended one meeting and resigned, and that the record did not indicate membership in any other organization within the scope of McCarthy's third question.[^15] Drury reported that Dulles had told McCarthy that Bundy had joined the union in the summer of 1940 while working at the [[Library of Congress]], and that the exchange followed a conversation between the two on July 14.[^16] -According to the Drury report, Bundy's explanation was that he had contributed to help his father-in-law, Dean Acheson, in clearing Hiss.[^12] +According to the Drury report, Bundy's explanation was that he had contributed to help his father-in-law, Dean Acheson, in clearing Hiss.[^16] -McCarthy replied on July 27, 1953 that the confirmation of the contribution "raises the gravest question as to his holding a sensitive post in an intelligence agency," adding that a good part of that work "must involve the detection of activities of people such as Alger Hiss."[^15] He asked Dulles to explain Bundy's reasons more fully.[^15] +McCarthy replied on July 27, 1953 that the confirmation of the contribution "raises the gravest question as to his holding a sensitive post in an intelligence agency," adding that a good part of that work "must involve the detection of activities of people such as Alger Hiss."[^19] He asked Dulles to explain Bundy's reasons more fully.[^19] -Dulles replied on August 1. The Drury report quotes the reply: "After most careful consideration of your letter, I feel that the proper course to pursue is to follow the procedure described in the President's executive order," and Dulles declined to comment on certain phases of the matter pending the conclusion of those proceedings.[^12] McCarthy's letter of August 3 answered that Dulles's position was extremely revealing, and that Congress was entitled to information about improper conduct by the agency's top officers. He wrote that "the last man in the world who would try to protect and hide the facts" about an officer's "contributions to a convicted traitor" would be the head of the CIA.[^16] The Drury report of August 4 carried McCarthy's statement that the full matter would be submitted to his subcommittee and to the Senate when it returned.[^12] +The Grand Rapids profile reports that Allen Dulles conceded the $400 contribution to the Hiss defense but denied the reasons William Bundy had described for it in his 1951 application to the CIA.[^9] -A syndicated column clipped into the FBI's liaison file described Bundy as "the CIA man under both Smith and Allen Dulles, who gave the $400 for the Hiss defense," a son-in-law of Acheson and "a member of the Acheson coterie," and reported that Senator [[Mike Monroney]] had defended the agency on the Senate floor against McCarthy's inquiry. A later Bureau memorandum noted that "the wide publicity given to the William Bundy matter" and Dulles's encounter with McCarthy had placed Dulles in "a most uncomfortable position."[^17] Sutton wrote that McCarthy "wanted to call William Bundy as a witness before the Committee and found the establishment strongly arrayed against this idea," and suggested that the establishment's reaction concerned more than McCarthy's treatment of witnesses.[^6] +Dulles replied on August 1. The Drury report quotes the reply: "After most careful consideration of your letter, I feel that the proper course to pursue is to follow the procedure described in the President's executive order," and Dulles declined to comment on certain phases of the matter pending the conclusion of those proceedings.[^16] McCarthy's letter of August 3 answered that Dulles's position was extremely revealing, and that Congress was entitled to information about improper conduct by the agency's top officers. He wrote that "the last man in the world who would try to protect and hide the facts" about an officer's "contributions to a convicted traitor" would be the head of the CIA.[^20] The Drury report of August 4 carried McCarthy's statement that the full matter would be submitted to his subcommittee and to the Senate when it returned.[^16] + +A syndicated column clipped into the FBI's liaison file described Bundy as "the CIA man under both Smith and Allen Dulles, who gave the $400 for the Hiss defense," a son-in-law of Acheson and "a member of the Acheson coterie," and reported that Senator [[Mike Monroney]] had defended the agency on the Senate floor against McCarthy's inquiry. A later Bureau memorandum noted that "the wide publicity given to the William Bundy matter" and Dulles's encounter with McCarthy had placed Dulles in "a most uncomfortable position."[^21] Sutton wrote that McCarthy "wanted to call William Bundy as a witness before the Committee and found the establishment strongly arrayed against this idea," and suggested that the establishment's reaction concerned more than McCarthy's treatment of witnesses.[^10] ### Defense Department, 1961 to 1964 The Princeton finding aid records his appointment as Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs in 1961 and his service as Assistant Secretary of Defense for the same office from 1963 to 1964. It describes him as a political appointee under [[John F. Kennedy]] and [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] from 1961 to 1969.[^1] The Washington Post wrote that he was a lifelong Democrat who joined the Kennedy administration as deputy assistant secretary of defense.[^2] -The Foreign Relations of the United States volume on Cuba lists him at the planning of the Bay of Pigs invasion. On February 7, 1961 he attended, for the Defense Department, a three-hour meeting in the office of Assistant Secretary of State [[Thomas C. Mann]], chaired by [[Adolf Berle]] of the State Department's Latin American Task Force, with [[Richard Bissell]], [[Tracy Barnes]] and Colonel J. C. King of the CIA, [[Richard Goodwin]] of the White House staff and Haydn Williams of Defense.[^18] The President's appointment book places William Bundy at the White House meetings of March 11 (Trinidad plan, with Allen Dulles, Bissell, [[Robert S. McNamara]], [[Dean Rusk]] and McGeorge Bundy), March 15 and 16 (the revised Zapata plan) and March 29, 1961, at which the tentative D-Day of April 5 was postponed.[^19][^20][^21][^22] The Princeton finding aid places the Bay of Pigs deliberations in the years of his State Department post; the operation took place in April 1961, when he held the Defense appointment. The Post obituary describes his participation in those deliberations, and in those on the Cuban Missile Crisis, as part of his service as deputy assistant secretary of defense.[^1][^2] +The Foreign Relations of the United States volume on Cuba lists him at the planning of the Bay of Pigs invasion. On February 7, 1961 he attended, for the Defense Department, a three-hour meeting in the office of Assistant Secretary of State [[Thomas C. Mann]], chaired by [[Adolf Berle]] of the State Department's Latin American Task Force, with [[Richard Bissell]], [[Tracy Barnes]] and Colonel J. C. King of the CIA, [[Richard Goodwin]] of the White House staff and Haydn Williams of Defense.[^22] The President's appointment book places William Bundy at the White House meetings of March 11 (Trinidad plan, with Allen Dulles, Bissell, [[Robert S. McNamara]], [[Dean Rusk]] and McGeorge Bundy), March 15 and 16 (the revised Zapata plan) and March 29, 1961, at which the tentative D-Day of April 5 was postponed.[^23][^24][^25][^26] The Princeton finding aid places the Bay of Pigs deliberations in the years of his State Department post; the operation took place in April 1961, when he held the Defense appointment. The Post obituary describes his participation in those deliberations, and in those on the Cuban Missile Crisis, as part of his service as deputy assistant secretary of defense.[^1][^2] -In the summer of 1961, apparently at his instigation, an interagency group began meeting at lunch on Tuesdays. His record of the October 3, 1961 luncheon lists [[Walt Rostow]], [[U. Alexis Johnson]], George McGhee, Robert Amory, Bissell, Fowler, [[Paul Nitze]], General Parker and Bundy, and records a discussion of Vietnam.[^23] After the [[Maxwell Taylor]] mission to Vietnam, McNamara asked Bundy to draft a memorandum on whether the United States should make a "Berlin-type" commitment to Vietnam; the draft is dated November 5, 1961 and the editors of the Foreign Relations series state that Bundy recalled finishing it on a Sunday and sending it to the President only after extensive discussions with the Joint Chiefs and revisions to its last part.[^24] His drafts of a McNamara memorandum of November 8 (marked "Not used") and of a November 28 telegram to the Pacific commander are also printed.[^25] +In the summer of 1961, apparently at his instigation, an interagency group began meeting at lunch on Tuesdays. His record of the October 3, 1961 luncheon lists [[Walt Rostow]], [[U. Alexis Johnson]], George McGhee, Robert Amory, Bissell, Fowler, [[Paul Nitze]], General Parker and Bundy, and records a discussion of Vietnam.[^27] After the [[Maxwell Taylor]] mission to Vietnam, McNamara asked Bundy to draft a memorandum on whether the United States should make a "Berlin-type" commitment to Vietnam; the draft is dated November 5, 1961 and the editors of the Foreign Relations series state that Bundy recalled finishing it on a Sunday and sending it to the President only after extensive discussions with the Joint Chiefs and revisions to its last part.[^28] His drafts of a McNamara memorandum of November 8 (marked "Not used") and of a November 28 telegram to the Pacific commander are also printed.[^29] -In September 1963 Bundy accompanied McNamara to [[Vietnam]]; on October 3 he appears as Deputy Assistant Secretary in the record of the meeting that prepared the report on that trip, and an October 3 draft of its annex on Vietnam named him as drafter.[^26] On November 20, 1963, after the Honolulu meeting, McGeorge Bundy sent him a draft of National Security Action Memorandum 273 for comment.[^27] When [[Henry Cabot Lodge Jr.]] sent [[W. Averell Harriman]] a paper on "neutralization" of North Vietnam in December 1963, William Bundy, reviewing his papers after leaving State, called it "a bizarre aberration" that was "never considered or taken seriously by anyone, so far as I know."[^28] +In September 1963 Bundy accompanied McNamara to [[Vietnam]]; on October 3 he appears as Deputy Assistant Secretary in the record of the meeting that prepared the report on that trip, and an October 3 draft of its annex on Vietnam named him as drafter.[^30] On November 20, 1963, after the Honolulu meeting, McGeorge Bundy sent him a draft of National Security Action Memorandum 273 for comment.[^31] When [[Henry Cabot Lodge Jr.]] sent [[W. Averell Harriman]] a paper on "neutralization" of North Vietnam in December 1963, William Bundy, reviewing his papers after leaving State, called it "a bizarre aberration" that was "never considered or taken seriously by anyone, so far as I know."[^32] ### Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs, 1964 to 1969 -Bundy held the post of Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs (then titled Far Eastern Affairs) from 1964 to 1969.[^1] On May 15, 1964 he wrote to Rusk that Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. was urging covert air strikes against North Vietnam and that the record of Lodge's earlier talk with Rusk in Saigon did not support Lodge's account of it; he called Lodge "fairly woolly."[^29] The [[Pentagon Papers]] chronology records that President Johnson designated him coordinating executive in National Security Action Memorandum 288 and that on May 23, 1964 he presented members of the Southeast Asia executive committee a 30-day scenario of graduated military and political pressure on North Vietnam.[^30] On June 3, 1964, after the Honolulu conference, Bundy sent Rusk his notes, which McNamara, Taylor and [[John McCone]] also received; McGeorge Bundy wrote on the source text, "Hitting the North is required," and Johnson met the two Bundys with Rusk, McNamara, Taylor and McCone that evening.[^31] +Bundy held the post of Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs (then titled Far Eastern Affairs) from 1964 to 1969.[^1] On May 15, 1964 he wrote to Rusk that Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. was urging covert air strikes against North Vietnam and that the record of Lodge's earlier talk with Rusk in Saigon did not support Lodge's account of it; he called Lodge "fairly woolly."[^33] The [[Pentagon Papers]] chronology records that President Johnson designated him coordinating executive in National Security Action Memorandum 288 and that on May 23, 1964 he presented members of the Southeast Asia executive committee a 30-day scenario of graduated military and political pressure on North Vietnam.[^34] On June 3, 1964, after the Honolulu conference, Bundy sent Rusk his notes, which McNamara, Taylor and [[John McCone]] also received; McGeorge Bundy wrote on the source text, "Hitting the North is required," and Johnson met the two Bundys with Rusk, McNamara, Taylor and McCone that evening.[^35] -The Pentagon Papers record that McGeorge Bundy's memorandum of June 15, 1964 announcing a meeting on a Congressional resolution on Southeast Asia enclosed a memorandum by W. P. Bundy dated June 12 on "Probable Developments and [the] Case for Congressional Resolution on Southeast Asia," together with a draft resolution.[^32] The chronology entry for that memorandum states that it "called for a Congressional Resolution right away to demonstrate U.S. resolve (especially to Souvanna and Khanh) and provide flexibility for executive action."[^33] A draft resolution on Southeast Asia prepared in the State Department is dated May 24, 1964; the editors describe it as among "working papers, no official standing" prepared for the executive committee meeting that day.[^34] +The Pentagon Papers record that McGeorge Bundy's memorandum of June 15, 1964 announcing a meeting on a Congressional resolution on Southeast Asia enclosed a memorandum by W. P. Bundy dated June 12 on "Probable Developments and [the] Case for Congressional Resolution on Southeast Asia," together with a draft resolution.[^36] The chronology entry for that memorandum states that it "called for a Congressional Resolution right away to demonstrate U.S. resolve (especially to Souvanna and Khanh) and provide flexibility for executive action."[^37] A draft resolution on Southeast Asia prepared in the State Department is dated May 24, 1964; the editors describe it as among "working papers, no official standing" prepared for the executive committee meeting that day.[^38] -On August 4, 1964, the day of a second reported attack in the [[Gulf of Tonkin]], Bundy was on vacation in Massachusetts. Rusk called him back to Washington.[^35] The National Security Council met that evening, and the summary of the meeting printed an attached "Draft Joint Resolution on Southeast Asia"; the editors state there is "no indication on the source text of the drafter."[^36] A Department of State telegram to the Embassy in Saigon sent at 6:35 p.m. that evening was drafted by [[Michael V. Forrestal]] and cleared by William Bundy.[^37] In a telephone call with Rusk on August 5, Bundy asked about the resolution; Rusk replied that McGeorge Bundy and [[George Ball]] were "going over the final touches," and asked him and [[John T. McNaughton]] to prepare a ten-minute statement for the next morning's House and Senate hearings.[^38] The Pentagon Papers chronology records that the President sent Congress a message requesting a joint resolution of support, and that "identical draft resolutions prepared by the executive branch" were introduced by Senator [[J. William Fulbright]] in the Senate and by Representative Morgan in the House.[^39] +On August 4, 1964, the day of a second reported attack in the [[Gulf of Tonkin]], Bundy was on vacation in Massachusetts. Rusk called him back to Washington.[^39] The National Security Council met that evening, and the summary of the meeting printed an attached "Draft Joint Resolution on Southeast Asia"; the editors state there is "no indication on the source text of the drafter."[^40] A Department of State telegram to the Embassy in Saigon sent at 6:35 p.m. that evening was drafted by [[Michael V. Forrestal]] and cleared by William Bundy.[^41] In a telephone call with Rusk on August 5, Bundy asked about the resolution; Rusk replied that McGeorge Bundy and [[George Ball]] were "going over the final touches," and asked him and [[John T. McNaughton]] to prepare a ten-minute statement for the next morning's House and Senate hearings.[^42] The Pentagon Papers chronology records that the President sent Congress a message requesting a joint resolution of support, and that "identical draft resolutions prepared by the executive branch" were introduced by Senator [[J. William Fulbright]] in the Senate and by Representative Morgan in the House.[^43] -A University of Houston Digital History essay describes Bundy as "one of the chief architects of the Vietnam War and coauthor of the Tonkin Gulf Resolution."[^40] A 1972 press item likewise described him as having been "an architect of U.S. policy in Vietnam" at the State Department.[^41] +A University of Houston Digital History essay describes Bundy as "one of the chief architects of the Vietnam War and coauthor of the Tonkin Gulf Resolution."[^44] A 1972 press item likewise described him as having been "an architect of U.S. policy in Vietnam" at the State Department.[^45] -In the NSC Principals' deliberations of late 1964, a working group paper of November 21, 1964, "Courses of Action in Southeast Asia," was drafted by William Bundy and McNaughton; the editors state that Bundy prepared a first draft on November 17 that was revised after the working group's meeting of November 19.[^42] The Pentagon Papers record that after the Principals' meeting of November 28 to 30 Bundy was charged with preparing a draft National Security Action Memorandum on a two-phase program, a thirty-day period of slightly increased pressure followed by air strikes against [[North Vietnam]], and that the Principals decided not to call his draft a memorandum.[^43] +In the NSC Principals' deliberations of late 1964, a working group paper of November 21, 1964, "Courses of Action in Southeast Asia," was drafted by William Bundy and McNaughton; the editors state that Bundy prepared a first draft on November 17 that was revised after the working group's meeting of November 19.[^46] The Pentagon Papers record that after the Principals' meeting of November 28 to 30 Bundy was charged with preparing a draft National Security Action Memorandum on a two-phase program, a thirty-day period of slightly increased pressure followed by air strikes against [[North Vietnam]], and that the Principals decided not to call his draft a memorandum.[^47] -On January 6, 1965 Bundy sent Rusk notes prepared with Forrestal and Leonard Unger on the South Vietnamese situation: "Saigon morale in all quarters is now very shaky indeed," he wrote, and he attributed it to a widespread feeling that the United States was "not ready for stronger action and indeed is possibly looking for a way out."[^44] On February 15 and 18, 1965 he sent Rusk a memorandum of unresolved questions on a negotiating position and a draft "Sequence of Actions" reflecting a proposal discussed that morning at the White House with the President, McGeorge Bundy, Ball and Ambassador Llewellyn Thompson.[^45] After helping Ball prepare his June 28, 1965 paper urging withdrawal, Bundy disagreed with its conclusion and wrote a "Middle Way" course of action sent to the President on July 1; the editors cite his unpublished memoir for the account.[^46] +On January 6, 1965 Bundy sent Rusk notes prepared with Forrestal and Leonard Unger on the South Vietnamese situation: "Saigon morale in all quarters is now very shaky indeed," he wrote, and he attributed it to a widespread feeling that the United States was "not ready for stronger action and indeed is possibly looking for a way out."[^48] On February 15 and 18, 1965 he sent Rusk a memorandum of unresolved questions on a negotiating position and a draft "Sequence of Actions" reflecting a proposal discussed that morning at the White House with the President, McGeorge Bundy, Ball and Ambassador Llewellyn Thompson.[^49] After helping Ball prepare his June 28, 1965 paper urging withdrawal, Bundy disagreed with its conclusion and wrote a "Middle Way" course of action sent to the President on July 1; the editors cite his unpublished memoir for the account.[^50] -The Foreign Relations volume on Indonesia, Malaysia-Singapore and the Philippines prints two memoranda addressed to Bundy by [[William Colby]], then Chief of the Far East Division of the CIA's Directorate of Operations: one of November 1, 1965 in the Philippines file and one of December 3, 1965 in the Indonesia file on State Department liaison.[^47] On November 5, 1965 Bundy sent Rusk an assessment of the Philippine election between [[Ferdinand Marcos]] and Diosdado Macapagal, drafted by the officer in charge of Philippine affairs.[^48] +The Foreign Relations volume on Indonesia, Malaysia-Singapore and the Philippines prints two memoranda addressed to Bundy by [[William Colby]], then Chief of the Far East Division of the CIA's Directorate of Operations: one of November 1, 1965 in the Philippines file and one of December 3, 1965 in the Indonesia file on State Department liaison.[^51] On November 5, 1965 Bundy sent Rusk an assessment of the Philippine election between [[Ferdinand Marcos]] and Diosdado Macapagal, drafted by the officer in charge of Philippine affairs.[^52] ### Newsweek, MIT and the Council on Foreign Relations, 1969 to 1972 @@ -195,13 +199,13 @@ Bundy left government in May 1969 and taught at the [[Massachusetts Institute of ### Foreign Affairs, 1972 to 1984 -A 1972 press item from the CIA reading room reports that Bundy would succeed [[Hamilton Fish Armstrong]] as editor of Foreign Affairs, a post Armstrong had held for 43 years, beginning in the fall of 1972. The item describes him as a former Assistant Secretary of State who was then a senior research associate at MIT; Bundy says in it that he has "been in this field since 1951" and planned a book on American involvement in Vietnam, written as history rather than as a personal reminiscence.[^41] The Princeton finding aid gives his editorship as 1972 to 1984. Bundy donated the journal correspondence series to the Mudd Library of Princeton University in 1994.[^1] +A 1972 press item from the CIA reading room reports that Bundy would succeed [[Hamilton Fish Armstrong]] as editor of Foreign Affairs, a post Armstrong had held for 43 years, beginning in the fall of 1972. The item describes him as a former Assistant Secretary of State who was then a senior research associate at MIT; Bundy says in it that he has "been in this field since 1951" and planned a book on American involvement in Vietnam, written as history rather than as a personal reminiscence.[^45] The Princeton finding aid gives his editorship as 1972 to 1984. Bundy donated the journal correspondence series to the Mudd Library of Princeton University in 1994.[^1] From 1985 to 1987 he was a visiting professor at the [[Woodrow Wilson School]] of [[Princeton University]].[^1] ### A Tangled Web, 1998 -After 1987 Bundy devoted his time to a critical history of American foreign policy in the [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] and [[Henry Kissinger|Kissinger]] period, including the later years of the [[Vietnam War]]. The book was published in 1998 as *A Tangled Web: The Making of Foreign Policy in the Nixon Presidency*.[^1][^49] The Post quoted a Book World review calling it "a sharply critical study of the Nixon-Kissinger foreign policy."[^2] +After 1987 Bundy devoted his time to a critical history of American foreign policy in the [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] and [[Henry Kissinger|Kissinger]] period, including the later years of the [[Vietnam War]]. The book was published in 1998 as *A Tangled Web: The Making of Foreign Policy in the Nixon Presidency*.[^1][^53] The Post quoted a Book World review calling it "a sharply critical study of the Nixon-Kissinger foreign policy."[^2] ### Death @@ -214,47 +218,51 @@ Bundy died of heart ailments on October 6, 2000, at age 83, at his home in Princ [^3]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section "Harvey Hollister Bundy," https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones [^4]: Henry L. Stimson and McGeorge Bundy, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1948), ch. VII, p. 193 (appointment of Harvey H. Bundy as Assistant Secretary, after the death of an officer named Cotton). [^5]: "Notes of the Interim Committee Meeting, Thursday, 31 May 1945," signed R. Gordon Arneson, Secretary, Records of the Army Corps of Engineers (RG 77), Manhattan Engineer District, Harrison-Bundy files, folder 100, in National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 162, Document 12, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/12.pdf -[^6]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment*, sections "William P. Bundy" and the Bundy family (children of Harvey Hollister Bundy; Covington & Burling; the 1953 McCarthy passage), https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^7]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment*, section "The Whitney-Stimson-Bundy-Acheson Chain of Influence," https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^8]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment*, index of members by class year, entry "1939 William Putnam Bundy CIA, Editor Foreign Affairs," https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^9]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. -[^10]: "Skull & Bones," *Covert Action Information Bulletin* no. 33 (Winter 1990), pp. 20-22 (passages on William Bundy, including the foreword to *The Counter-Insurgency Era*). -[^11]: Letter from the Central Intelligence Agency to Joseph R. McCarthy, July 22, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080014-6, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080014-6 -[^12]: Allen Drury, "McCarthy Warns CIA Head Fight on Bundy Isn't Over," newspaper article, August 4, 1953 (including the text of Dulles to McCarthy, August 1, 1953), CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP74-00297R000401370024-4, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp74-00297r000401370024-4 -[^13]: Letter from Joseph R. McCarthy, Chairman, Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, to Allen W. Dulles, July 27, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080022-7, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080022-7 -[^14]: Federal Bureau of Investigation memorandum, "Information Concerning Allen W. Dulles," July 10, 1953, in FBI file 62-HQ-80750, "FBI Files on CIA Liaison," section 31, https://archive.org/details/FBI-CIA-Liaison -[^15]: Letter from Joseph R. McCarthy, Chairman, Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, to Allen W. Dulles, July 27, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080022-7, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080022-7 -[^16]: Letter from Joseph R. McCarthy to Allen W. Dulles, August 3, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080020-9, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080020-9 -[^17]: FBI file 62-HQ-80750, "FBI Files on CIA Liaison," section 31 (syndicated column on Senator Monroney's Senate speech, 1953, and Bureau memorandum on adverse publicity concerning the CIA, August 1953), https://archive.org/details/FBI-CIA-Liaison -[^18]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. X, Cuba, January 1961-September 1962, doc. 38, Memorandum for the Record, "Meeting on Cuba," February 7, 1961, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d38 -[^19]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. X, doc. 59, editorial note on the White House meeting of March 11, 1961, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d59 -[^20]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. X, doc. 65, editorial note on the meeting of March 15, 1961, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d65 -[^21]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. X, doc. 66, editorial note on the meeting of March 16, 1961, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d66 -[^22]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. X, doc. 74, editorial note on the meeting of March 29, 1961, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d74 -[^23]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. I, Vietnam, 1961, doc. 144, Memorandum for the Record by the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs (Bundy), October 5, 1961, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v01/d144 -[^24]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. I, doc. 214, Draft Memorandum From the Secretary of Defense to the President, November 5, 1961, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v01/d214 -[^25]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. I, doc. 226 (draft of November 8, 1961) and doc. 289 (telegram of November 28, 1961), https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v01/d226 -[^26]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, Vietnam, August-December 1963, doc. 150 (September 26, 1963), doc. 172 (October 3, 1963) and doc. 175 (annex, October 4, 1963), https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d175 -[^27]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, doc. 331, National Security Action Memorandum No. 273 and editorial note, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d331 -[^28]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, doc. 342, Lodge to Harriman, December 3, 1963, and footnote 4 quoting Bundy's papers, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d342 -[^29]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. I, Vietnam, 1964, doc. 158, Bundy to Rusk, May 15, 1964, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d158 -[^30]: *The Pentagon Papers*, Gravel edition, vol. III (Boston: Beacon Press, 1971), chronology entry for May 23, 1964, https://archive.org/details/pentagonpapersde02beac -[^31]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. I, doc. 193, Bundy to Rusk, "Highlights of Honolulu Conference," June 3, 1964, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d193 -[^32]: *The Pentagon Papers*, Gravel edition, vol. III, account of the June 15, 1964 meeting and its six enclosures, https://archive.org/details/pentagonpapersde02beac -[^33]: *The Pentagon Papers*, Gravel edition, vol. III, chronology, p. 128, entry for June 12, 1964, https://archive.org/details/pentagonpapersde02beac -[^34]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. I, doc. 169, Draft Congressional Resolution Prepared in the Department of State, May 24, 1964, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d169 -[^35]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. I, doc. 276, editorial note on the August 4, 1964 meeting, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d276 -[^36]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. I, doc. 278, "Summary Notes of the 538th Meeting of the National Security Council," August 4, 1964, with attached "Draft Joint Resolution on Southeast Asia," https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d278 -[^37]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. I, doc. 279, Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Vietnam, August 4, 1964, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d279 -[^38]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. I, doc. 293, Memorandum of a Telephone Conversation Between the Secretary of State and the Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (Bundy), August 5, 1964, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d293 -[^39]: *The Pentagon Papers*, Gravel edition, vol. III, chronology entries for August 5 to 11, 1964, https://archive.org/details/pentagonpapersde02beac -[^40]: University of Houston Digital History, William Bundy biography in the Vietnam exploration, https://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/active_learning/explorations/vietnam/bundy2.cfm -[^41]: "William Bundy to Head Foreign Affairs Journal," press item, 1972, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP88-01314R000100540012-3, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01314r000100540012-3 -[^42]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. I, doc. 418, Paper Prepared by the National Security Council Working Group, "Courses of Action in Southeast Asia," November 21, 1964, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d418 -[^43]: *The Pentagon Papers*, Gravel edition, vol. III, chronology, p. 136, and "Military Pressures Against North Vietnam, Feb. 1964-Jan. 1965," p. 245, https://archive.org/details/pentagonpapersde02beac -[^44]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. II, Vietnam, January-June 1965, doc. 15, Bundy to Rusk, January 6, 1965, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v02/d15 -[^45]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. II, doc. 122 (Bundy to Rusk, February 15, 1965) and doc. 136 (draft paper, February 18, 1965), https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v02/d136 -[^46]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. III, Vietnam, June-December 1965, doc. 41, Memorandum by the Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (Bundy), July 1, 1965, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v03/d41 -[^47]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. XXVI, Indonesia; Malaysia-Singapore; Philippines, doc. 316 (Colby to Bundy, November 1, 1965) and doc. 180 (Colby to Bundy, December 3, 1965), https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v26/d180 -[^48]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. XXVI, doc. 317, Bundy to Rusk, "Philippine National Elections," November 5, 1965, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v26/d317 -[^49]: William P. Bundy, *A Tangled Web: The Making of Foreign Policy in the Nixon Presidency* (New York: Hill and Wang, 1998), catalogue record, https://catalog.lib.kyushu-u.ac.jp/ja/recordID/1000161811 +[^6]: *Register of the Department of State for the year 1932*, Biographies, entry "Bundy, Harvey Hollister," https://archive.org/details/registerofdepart1932unit +[^7]: *Who's Who in America*, vol. 29, 1956-1957, entry "BUNDY, Harvey Hollister," https://archive.org/details/whos-who-in-america_1956-1957_29_3954 +[^8]: *The Historical Collections of the Danvers Historical Society*, vol. 10 (1922), "Descendants of Judge Samuel Putnam," https://archive.org/details/historicalcollec10danv; Carnegie Endowment Board of Trustees minutes of December 8, 1952, Edward R. Murrow Papers, vol. 42, https://archive.org/details/per_edward-r-murrow-papers_edward-r-murrow-papers_1927-1973_42 +[^9]: William F. Pyper, profile of William P. Bundy, Grand Rapids newspaper, undated (internal references place it after August 1953), CIA reading room copy, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000100280087-2 +[^10]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment*, sections "William P. Bundy" and the Bundy family (children of Harvey Hollister Bundy; Covington & Burling; the 1953 McCarthy passage), https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^11]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment*, section "The Whitney-Stimson-Bundy-Acheson Chain of Influence," https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^12]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment*, index of members by class year, entry "1939 William Putnam Bundy CIA, Editor Foreign Affairs," https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^13]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. +[^14]: "Skull & Bones," *Covert Action Information Bulletin* no. 33 (Winter 1990), pp. 20-22 (passages on William Bundy, including the foreword to *The Counter-Insurgency Era*). +[^15]: Letter from the Central Intelligence Agency to Joseph R. McCarthy, July 22, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080014-6, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080014-6 +[^16]: Allen Drury, "McCarthy Warns CIA Head Fight on Bundy Isn't Over," newspaper article, August 4, 1953 (including the text of Dulles to McCarthy, August 1, 1953), CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP74-00297R000401370024-4, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp74-00297r000401370024-4 +[^17]: Letter from Joseph R. McCarthy, Chairman, Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, to Allen W. Dulles, July 27, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080022-7, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080022-7 +[^18]: Federal Bureau of Investigation memorandum, "Information Concerning Allen W. Dulles," July 10, 1953, in FBI file 62-HQ-80750, "FBI Files on CIA Liaison," section 31, https://archive.org/details/FBI-CIA-Liaison +[^19]: Letter from Joseph R. McCarthy, Chairman, Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, to Allen W. Dulles, July 27, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080022-7, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080022-7 +[^20]: Letter from Joseph R. McCarthy to Allen W. Dulles, August 3, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080020-9, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080020-9 +[^21]: FBI file 62-HQ-80750, "FBI Files on CIA Liaison," section 31 (syndicated column on Senator Monroney's Senate speech, 1953, and Bureau memorandum on adverse publicity concerning the CIA, August 1953), https://archive.org/details/FBI-CIA-Liaison +[^22]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. X, Cuba, January 1961-September 1962, doc. 38, Memorandum for the Record, "Meeting on Cuba," February 7, 1961, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d38 +[^23]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. X, doc. 59, editorial note on the White House meeting of March 11, 1961, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d59 +[^24]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. X, doc. 65, editorial note on the meeting of March 15, 1961, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d65 +[^25]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. X, doc. 66, editorial note on the meeting of March 16, 1961, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d66 +[^26]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. X, doc. 74, editorial note on the meeting of March 29, 1961, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d74 +[^27]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. I, Vietnam, 1961, doc. 144, Memorandum for the Record by the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs (Bundy), October 5, 1961, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v01/d144 +[^28]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. I, doc. 214, Draft Memorandum From the Secretary of Defense to the President, November 5, 1961, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v01/d214 +[^29]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. I, doc. 226 (draft of November 8, 1961) and doc. 289 (telegram of November 28, 1961), https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v01/d226 +[^30]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, Vietnam, August-December 1963, doc. 150 (September 26, 1963), doc. 172 (October 3, 1963) and doc. 175 (annex, October 4, 1963), https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d175 +[^31]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, doc. 331, National Security Action Memorandum No. 273 and editorial note, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d331 +[^32]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, doc. 342, Lodge to Harriman, December 3, 1963, and footnote 4 quoting Bundy's papers, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d342 +[^33]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. I, Vietnam, 1964, doc. 158, Bundy to Rusk, May 15, 1964, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d158 +[^34]: *The Pentagon Papers*, Gravel edition, vol. III (Boston: Beacon Press, 1971), chronology entry for May 23, 1964, https://archive.org/details/pentagonpapersde02beac +[^35]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. I, doc. 193, Bundy to Rusk, "Highlights of Honolulu Conference," June 3, 1964, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d193 +[^36]: *The Pentagon Papers*, Gravel edition, vol. III, account of the June 15, 1964 meeting and its six enclosures, https://archive.org/details/pentagonpapersde02beac +[^37]: *The Pentagon Papers*, Gravel edition, vol. III, chronology, p. 128, entry for June 12, 1964, https://archive.org/details/pentagonpapersde02beac +[^38]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. I, doc. 169, Draft Congressional Resolution Prepared in the Department of State, May 24, 1964, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d169 +[^39]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. I, doc. 276, editorial note on the August 4, 1964 meeting, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d276 +[^40]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. I, doc. 278, "Summary Notes of the 538th Meeting of the National Security Council," August 4, 1964, with attached "Draft Joint Resolution on Southeast Asia," https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d278 +[^41]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. I, doc. 279, Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Vietnam, August 4, 1964, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d279 +[^42]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. I, doc. 293, Memorandum of a Telephone Conversation Between the Secretary of State and the Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (Bundy), August 5, 1964, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d293 +[^43]: *The Pentagon Papers*, Gravel edition, vol. III, chronology entries for August 5 to 11, 1964, https://archive.org/details/pentagonpapersde02beac +[^44]: University of Houston Digital History, William Bundy biography in the Vietnam exploration, https://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/active_learning/explorations/vietnam/bundy2.cfm +[^45]: "William Bundy to Head Foreign Affairs Journal," press item, 1972, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP88-01314R000100540012-3, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01314r000100540012-3 +[^46]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. I, doc. 418, Paper Prepared by the National Security Council Working Group, "Courses of Action in Southeast Asia," November 21, 1964, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d418 +[^47]: *The Pentagon Papers*, Gravel edition, vol. III, chronology, p. 136, and "Military Pressures Against North Vietnam, Feb. 1964-Jan. 1965," p. 245, https://archive.org/details/pentagonpapersde02beac +[^48]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. II, Vietnam, January-June 1965, doc. 15, Bundy to Rusk, January 6, 1965, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v02/d15 +[^49]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. II, doc. 122 (Bundy to Rusk, February 15, 1965) and doc. 136 (draft paper, February 18, 1965), https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v02/d136 +[^50]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. III, Vietnam, June-December 1965, doc. 41, Memorandum by the Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (Bundy), July 1, 1965, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v03/d41 +[^51]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. XXVI, Indonesia; Malaysia-Singapore; Philippines, doc. 316 (Colby to Bundy, November 1, 1965) and doc. 180 (Colby to Bundy, December 3, 1965), https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v26/d180 +[^52]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. XXVI, doc. 317, Bundy to Rusk, "Philippine National Elections," November 5, 1965, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v26/d317 +[^53]: William P. Bundy, *A Tangled Web: The Making of Foreign Policy in the Nixon Presidency* (New York: Hill and Wang, 1998), catalogue record, https://catalog.lib.kyushu-u.ac.jp/ja/recordID/1000161811 diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/William Sloane Coffin.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/William Sloane Coffin.md new file mode 100644 index 00000000..16115910 --- /dev/null +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/William Sloane Coffin.md @@ -0,0 +1,232 @@ +--- +aliases: + - William Sloane Coffin Jr. + - William Sloane Coffin + - William S. Coffin Jr. + - Rev. William Sloane Coffin + - Bill Coffin +category: "Religious Figures" +tags: + - Person + - YaleUniversity + - SkullAndBones + - CentralIntelligenceAgency + - FreedomRiders + - BostonFive + - RiversideChurch + - SloaneFamily + - Vanderbilt + - DraftResistance + - UnionTheologicalSeminary + - RussianEmigres +summary: "William Sloane Coffin Jr., Sloane family descendant, served with the CIA from 1950 to 1953 among Russian émigrés in Germany, then became Yale chaplain, Boston Five defendant and Riverside Church minister." +born: 1924-07-01 +died: 2006-04-12 +relations: + - type: member_of + with: "[[Skull and Bones]]" + role: "member, class of 1949" + fn: 2 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Central Intelligence Agency]]" + start: 1950 + end: 1953 + role: "officer in West Germany working with Russian émigrés; three years as an agent by his own account" + fn: 29 + - type: appointed + with: "[[Yale University]]" + start: 1958 + role: "chaplain" + fn: 3 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Riverside Church]]" + start: 1977 + end: 1987 + role: "senior minister" + fn: 21 + - type: head_of + with: "[[SANE/FREEZE]]" + start: 1988 + role: "first president" + fn: 22 + - type: participant_in + with: "[[Freedom Rides]]" + start: 1961 + role: "rode with a group of three white theology professors and three Black students; arrested in Montgomery, Alabama" + fn: 41 + - type: participant_in + with: "[[Boston Five]]" + start: 1967 + end: 1969 + role: "defendant; indicted January 1968, convicted June 1968, verdict set aside July 11, 1969" + fn: 36 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Henry Sloane Coffin]]" + role: "uncle" + fn: 7 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[William Sloane Coffin Sr.]]" + role: "father" + fn: 1 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Frank Lindsay]]" + role: "brother-in-law, per Weiner" + fn: 4 + - type: spouse_of + with: "[[Eva Rubinstein]]" + start: 1956 + end: 1968 + role: "first wife" + fn: 22 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Artur Rubinstein]]" + role: "father-in-law" + fn: 22 +created: 2026-10-26 +updated: 2026-10-26 +--- + +William Sloane Coffin Jr. (1924 to 2006) was a chaplain at [[Yale University]] from 1958, a [[Freedom Rides|Freedom Rider]] in 1961, one of the defendants in the [[Boston Five]] draft-counseling conspiracy case, and senior minister of [[Riverside Church]] in [[New York City|New York]] from 1977 to 1987. He was born on July 1, 1924, to a father who was a vice president of [[W. & J. Sloane]], the Fifth Avenue furniture store.[^1] He was a member of [[Skull and Bones]] in the class of 1949 and served with the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] from 1950 to 1953, working with Russian émigrés in West Germany.[^2][^3][^4] He died at his home in Vermont on April 12, 2006.[^5] + +### The Sloane and Coffin families + +The firm that gave the family its fortune was started by William Sloane, who was born in Ayrshire, Scotland, in 1810 or 1811 and came to the United States in 1834. He worked for nine years in the carpet house of Thompson and Company in Spring Street, then started his own business at 245 Broadway opposite City Hall, and a few years later admitted his brother John to a partnership under the name W. and J. Sloane.[^6] The firm moved to 501 Broadway, about 1856 to 591 Broadway, and in 1867 into buildings of its own at 649 to 655 Broadway, before moving north to Fifth Avenue and Forty-seventh Street. John Sloane left the firm about 1864 without a change of name. By his death on May 23, 1879, William Sloane had taken his four sons John, William D., Henry T. and Thomas C. into the business, and he was a director of the Bigelow Carpet Company and of Alexander Smith & Sons Carpet Company. His will left his Bigelow stock to his widow.[^6] + +His daughter Euphemia Sloane married Edmund Coffin, a merchant, in New York City on February 3, 1874. Their sons were [[Henry Sloane Coffin]], born January 5, 1877, a Yale graduate of 1897, and William Sloane Coffin, born April 15, 1879, a Yale graduate of 1900.[^7] The younger son was the father of the subject, and the elder the uncle. Another of William Sloane's sons, Henry Thompson Sloane, entered Yale in the class of 1866, was a partner in the firm from 1873 and its treasurer from 1906 to 1925, and gave Yale a recitation building and physics laboratory in 1883 and, with his brother William Douglas Sloane, the Sloane Laboratory of Physics in 1912. His published biography lists his college societies, among them Skull and Bones.[^8] + +[[Antony C. Sutton]]'s index of members lists four Sloanes: Henry Thompson Sloane under the class of 1866, Thomas Chalmers Sloane under 1868, William Sloane under 1895 and John Sloane under 1905. It lists Henry Sloane Coffin under 1897 and William Sloane Coffin under 1900.[^9][^10] In Sutton's chart of what he called The Order, the Sloane family appears among the families of new wealth under the heading "Retail," in a list that runs from the Rockefellers and Paynes through the Harrimans and Davisons to the Weyerhaeusers and Pillsbury.[^11] [[Ron Rosenbaum]] wrote in 1977 that the subject was "a descendant of an aptly named family with three generations of Bonesmen."[^12] + +[[Wayne Andrews]]'s 1941 history of the Vanderbilt family calls William Sloane "the carpet magnate" and describes his third son, William Douglas Sloane, as "unremarkable, although charitable." William Douglas Sloane married Emily Thorn Vanderbilt, the second daughter of [[William Henry Vanderbilt]]. In 1886 he gave $200,000 to a maternity hospital at [[Columbia University]], and his wife presented $250,000 for the enlargement of the building. Sloane died in 1915 at the age of seventy-one. Andrews lists their children as Florence, who married James A. Burden Jr. and then Richard Tobin; Edith, who married John Henry Hammond; Lilian, who married W. B. Osgood Field; Malcolm Douglas Sloane, who married Elinor Lee; and William Douglas Sloane Jr. In 1920 Emily Thorn Vanderbilt Sloane married [[Henry White]], who had served as United States ambassador to France and Italy.[^13] + +A 1922 [[Military Intelligence Division]] file in the CIA reading room records that Major Churchill of the Army's G-2 wrote to a Mr. John Sloane at Fifth Avenue and 47th Street about contacts with the foreign representatives of reputable firms. Sloane replied that he would be glad to cooperate, and in March 1922 he offered to have G-2's economic estimates of countries including Siberia, Turkey and Japan criticized.[^14] + +The subject's father, William Sloane Coffin Sr., became president of the trustees of the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]. The Museum's Bulletin lists William Sloane Coffin as president in its March 1933 issue, after the trustees' meeting of February 20, 1933.[^15] The memorial minute the trustees adopted on December 18, 1933, describes him as trustee, treasurer and first vice-president after the death of [[Robert W. de Forest]] before he became president.[^16] [[George Blumenthal]] was elected on January 9, 1934 to fill "the office left vacant by the death of William Sloane Coffin."[^17] The 1961 profile of the son calls his father a vice president of W. & J. Sloane, Inc., and the president of the museum's trustees.[^1] + +Henry Sloane Coffin was a lecturer at [[Union Theological Seminary]] from 1904 to 1909, associate professor of pastoral theology from 1909 to 1926, minister of the Madison Avenue Presbyterian Church from 1905 to 1926, a Fellow of Yale University from 1921 and president of Union from 1926; the reference entry gives his parents as Edmund Coffin and Euphemia Sloane.[^18] Sutton's text gives him a professorship of practical theology at Union from 1904 to 1926 and the presidency from 1926 to 1945, and calls the seminary "a key penetration" of The Order.[^19] In another passage Sutton wrote that "a Robert Taft and a William Buckley on the right" are just as important to "the fundamental change desired by The Order" as "a William Sloan Coffin and a Harry Payne Whitney (who financed the left)," and that "Their conflict is essential for change."[^20] + +The 1987 feature on the subject describes him as "a member of the W. & J. Sloane furniture family, whose ancestors go back to the Pilgrims on his mother's side."[^21] Catherine Butterfield Coffin raised her three children alone after her husband's death in 1933, according to the [[Washington Times]] profile of January 1988. The same profile says that the uncle, Henry Sloane Coffin, wanted the boy in prep school. Bill was enrolled at [[Deerfield Academy]] at his uncle's insistence, and his mother arranged for him to take a year off to study piano and harmony in [[Paris]].[^22] + +### Youth and the Army + +Coffin attended Deerfield and then [[Phillips Academy]] at [[Andover, Massachusetts|Andover]], before going to Yale to major in government.[^1][^22] At Andover he was a classmate of [[George H.W. Bush]]; a 1988 profile of Bush says the two were also fellow members of Skull and Bones and "took separate paths afterward."[^23] He joined the Army in 1943.[^1] The 1958 announcement of his Yale appointment described his wartime service as an infantry officer in Europe and a liaison officer with the French Army.[^3] A 1961 CIA reading room profile describes him as a skillful pianist and an enthusiastic gardener, fluent in French and Russian.[^1] + +### Plattling + +After the war Coffin served as a young Army officer at [[Plattling, Germany]]. The Washington Times profile says that the arrangement made at [[Yalta Conference|Yalta]] had provided for each side to return the other's citizens, and that [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] soldiers who had deserted faced certain death if returned. Unaware of their fate, a group of these soldiers invited Coffin to a party on the eve of their return, and the profile says he was not ignorant of their doom. In his autobiography Coffin recounted that when a Soviet commandant bid him goodnight he almost blurted out "Get out quick!" but did not, and instead "drove off cursing the commandant for being so trusting." The next day the operation began, and the profile says Coffin watched several Soviet soldiers kill themselves by cutting their throats on broken windows.[^22] The autobiography says that his part in the operation "left a burden of guilt that I am sure to carry the rest of my life." Asked about it in 1988, he said: "That was a major tragic mistake."[^22] + +The draft reciprocal agreement that the [[Combined Chiefs of Staff]] approved on February 8, 1945 provided that Soviet citizens liberated under American or British command "will, without delay after their liberation, be separated from enemy prisoners of war," and kept apart until they were handed over to Soviet authorities.[^24] + +### The CIA, 1950 to 1953 + +Coffin graduated from Yale in 1949 and entered Union Theological Seminary that autumn. A 1958 profile in the [[New Haven Register]] reported that he studied for the ministry at Union in 1949 and 1950, spent the years until 1953 in Europe with the Central Intelligence Agency, and in 1954 returned to Yale to complete his preparation for the ministry. The article added that because of the secrecy surrounding the work the chaplain did not discuss that phase of his career, and quoted him as saying that he had served as a liaison officer with the Russian army after the war and knew the language.[^25] + +[[Tim Weiner]] wrote that in early 1950 [[Frank Wisner]] ordered a new assault on the Iron Curtain, and that the job went to "another Yale man in Munich, by the name of Bill Coffin, a new recruit with the special anticommunist fervor of an ardent socialist." According to Weiner, Coffin came to the agency through a family connection, recruited by his brother-in-law [[Frank Lindsay]], Wisner's Eastern Europe operations officer. Weiner quotes Coffin, from a 2005 interview: "I said to them, when I went into CIA, 'I don't want to do spy work, I want to do underground political work.' The question was: can Russians operate underground? And that seemed to me quite morally acceptable at the time." Weiner adds that the postwar repatriations had left Coffin with a great burden of guilt which influenced his decision, and quotes him: "I had seen that Stalin could occasionally make Hitler look like a Boy Scout. I was very anti-Soviet but very pro-Russian."[^4] + +Weiner wrote that Wisner placed his money on the Solidarists, a Russian émigré group, and that only the handful of CIA officers who spoke Russian, like Coffin, could work with them. In Weiner's account the agency and the Solidarists first smuggled leaflets into Soviet barracks in East Germany, then launched balloons carrying pamphlets, then sent four-man parachute missions in unmarked airplanes as far east as the outskirts of Moscow, and the agents were hunted down, captured and killed one by one. Coffin told Weiner, long after he left the agency: "It was a fundamentally bad idea. We were quite naive about the use of American power."[^4] Weiner also wrote that Lindsay, who had run Eastern Europe operations from headquarters, resigned in anguish after the collapse of the Polish resistance operation and told Dulles and Wisner that scientific and technical means would have to replace covert action, because "quixotic paramilitary missions to support imaginary resistance movements could not push the Russians out of Europe"; he dates Lindsay's report, "A Program for the Development of New Cold War Instruments," to March 3, 1953.[^26] Weiner cited a retrospective in the Nixon-era [[303 Committee]] record for the agency's later view that "assistance to the émigrés for the eventuality of war with or revolution within the USSR was unrealistic." The memorandum, dated December 12, 1969, says that anti-Soviet émigrés had been regarded as an important potential asset in the early postwar years, "at a time when fear of eventual if not imminent war with the USSR was very real in the West," and that they were wanted to staff anti-Soviet activities and "serve generally as a reserve for a possible war emergency."[^27] + +Other accounts of the same work come from a library biography and from Coffin's own words. The Burns Library at [[Boston College]] describes his expertise in Russian as leading to "a three-year period as a CIA agent in Germany training operatives for subversive operations within the Soviet Union."[^28] The Washington Times profile of 1988 links his decision to "spend three years in the CIA, opposing Stalin's regime" to the Plattling operation and quotes his later written view: "I now think it is unwise of the CIA to topple regimes of other countries, no matter how rotten they may be."[^22] In a 1967 television interview he said: "I have been three years an agent for the CIA, and I think I'm well aware of the dangers of Communism."[^29] A 1987 feature refers to "his anti-Stalinist work for the CIA in the 1950s" and to his "fluency in French and Russian."[^21] The 1958 announcement says that during the [[Korean War]] he served abroad with the Central Intelligence Agency.[^3] + +[[R. Harris Smith]]'s 1972 history of the OSS and CIA describes Coffin as one of the liberals [[Allen Dulles]] set out to bring into intelligence work, "a CIA officer in Eastern Europe" twenty years earlier. Smith quotes Coffin, from [[Jessica Mitford]]'s account of the Boston trial: "Stalin made Hitler look like a Boy Scout. I was very strongly anti-Soviet. In that frame of mind I watched the Korean War shape up. But I didn't follow it too closely, or question the causes. When I graduated from Yale in 1949, I was thinking of going into the CIA, but I went into the seminary instead. After a year at the Union Theological Seminary, when war with the Soviet Union seemed to be threatening, I quit to go into the CIA, hoping to be useful in the war effort." Smith adds that Coffin "remained with the Agency until 1953," and quotes him: "The CIA financed the non-Communist left; they gave with minimal strings attached. In those days, I had no quarrel with American policy, but, in retrospect, I wouldn't be so innocent and smirchless."[^30] + +[[Frances Stonor Saunders]] listed Coffin among the prominent members of "the P source," her term for the agency's connection with the Ivy League, in which she called [[James Jesus Angleton]] "the vital link," and wrote that Coffin was recruited by Allen Dulles. In the same passage she named [[Archibald Roosevelt Jr.]] and his cousin [[Kermit Roosevelt]] among "Coffin's Ivy League recruits."[^31] A 1987 speech by [[Robert Gates|Robert M. Gates]], then the CIA's deputy director for intelligence, lists Coffin among academics who joined the agency. It says he left the Union Theological Seminary to join the CIA for the duration of the Korean War, before becoming chaplain at Yale, and that he recalled joining because "Stalin made Hitler look like a boy scout."[^32] + +Later statements by Coffin on the period are reported by others. [[Mark Tooley]] quoted him as saying "Even as I was getting out of the CIA, the CIA was overthrowing Mossadegh in '53 in Iran; the next year the Arbenz government, duly elected in Guatemala, et cetera, et cetera."[^33] Sutton wrote that Coffin "spent three years with CIA and then became a leader of anti-Vietnam war activity."[^34] + +### Skull and Bones + +Rosenbaum's 1977 article in [[Esquire]] describes Coffin as a CIA Bonesman who later led the antiwar movement. Rosenbaum wrote that Coffin "headed for the C.I.A. not long after graduation from Bones," and that "the man Coffin tapped for Bones, William F. Buckley Jr., was himself tapped by the C.I.A. the following year." Rosenbaum wrote that when he tried to reach Coffin about CIA recruiting in Bones, he was told that Coffin was "in seclusion," writing his memoirs. Rosenbaum asked whether [[William P. Bundy]] and [[William F. Buckley Jr.|Buckley]], "both of whom went into the C.I.A. after leaving Bones," had found the society's experience useful as "training for the clandestine trade."[^12] + +A 1977 [[Newsweek]] review of Coffin's memoir, [[Once to Every Man]], says that "Skull and Bones called him brother," and that the author had made "a mission to Hanoi" after his arrest for helping undergraduate draft resisters at Yale. The same review asks how he reconciled his Christian studies with "his concurrent decision to train agents to kill for the CIA."[^35] The 1988 profile of Bush records that Coffin and Bush were both members of the society.[^23] Sutton's text calls a Boston Five defendant "Henry Sloane Coffin, Jr. ('49)," but the appeal opinion names him William Sloane Coffin, Jr.[^19][^36] + +### Union Theological Seminary and the Yale chaplaincy + +Coffin studied divinity for a year at Union and was graduated from [[Yale Divinity School]] in 1956, when he was ordained in the [[Presbyterian Church]].[^1] Union's chapel was the site of his marriage in December 1956 to [[Eva Rubinstein]], a daughter of the pianist [[Artur Rubinstein]]; the same profile gives the marriage as lasting from 1956 to 1968 and records a second marriage to Harriet Harvey from 1969 to 1980.[^22] A 1977 review states that [[Reinhold Niebuhr]] and [[Richard Niebuhr]] taught him theology, that [[Arthur J. Goldberg]] defended him in court, and that [[Erik Erikson]] psychoanalyzed him.[^35] + +The appointment of Coffin as Yale chaplain, effective July 1, was announced on March 17, 1958, when he was chaplain of [[Williams College]]. The announcement identified him as a nephew of the late Henry Sloane Coffin.[^3] On March 27, 1958, Dulles, then director of the CIA, wrote to Coffin about the appointment.[^37] The 1987 feature gave his Yale tenure as eighteen years.[^21] The Washington Times called him "Yale's freedom-riding chaplain," and recorded his friendships with [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] and [[Andrew Young]].[^22] + +In September 1964 Buckley wrote in his column "On the Right" that Coffin, who had urged Americans to pray for the defeat of [[Barry Goldwater]], had been on a speaking tour of [[India]] whose salary and expenses were paid by the United States government.[^38] + +In March 1966 Coffin was listed as co-chairman, with [[Norman Thomas]], of a National Voters' Pledge Campaign on [[Vietnam War|Vietnam]], whose advertisement invited readers to speak their minds on the war.[^39] In March 1967 Armando Chardiet, a professor at [[Southern Connecticut State College]], called Coffin and two correspondents of the [[New York Times]], [[Harrison E. Salisbury]] and [[Herbert L. Matthews]], "useful idiots" for the Communists in a talk to the [[Civitan Club]]. The New Haven Register reported that a colleague, [[Irving J. Stolberg]], took "strong exception" to Chardiet's remarks and called Coffin "a fine symbol for American youth."[^40] + +### The Freedom Ride + +In May 1961 Coffin joined a Freedom Ride with three white theology professors and three Black students. The group had met at Yale before leaving, and at that meeting Coffin criticized Southern ministers for failing to support the riders. The riders were arrested in [[Montgomery, Alabama]] and released on bail. In 1961 LIFE described him as a World War II veteran and a member of the [[Peace Corps]] Advisory Council. In his account for LIFE, Coffin wrote: "As Christians and Americans we couldn't not go on the Freedom Ride."[^41] In 1960 he had served with a [[Crossroads Africa]] group that built a community center in [[Mamou, Guinea|Mamou]], Guinea.[^1] + +### The Boston Five + +A grand jury in Boston indicted Coffin, [[Benjamin Spock]], [[Michael Ferber]], [[Mitchell Goodman]] and [[Marcus Raskin]] in January 1968 for conspiring to "counsel, aid and abet" registrants to evade service. *Time* reported that the charge carried up to five years in prison and a $10,000 fine, and that Coffin had collected draft cards at a rally at the [[Arlington Street Church]] and later turned them over to the Justice Department. It quoted Coffin on the day before the Pentagon march: "If they are now arrested for failing to comply with the law that violates their consciences, we too must be arrested, for in the sight of that law we are now as guilty as they."[^42] The prosecutor's papers at the Burns Library include a December 16, 1967 letter from Coffin to the FBI with an inventory of draft cards.[^43] + +According to the appeal opinion, the case grew out of discussions among "a number of academic, clerical, and professional persons" in August 1967 that produced "A Call to Resist Illegitimate Authority" and a cover letter requesting signatures, signed by Spock, Coffin and two others. Coffin, Goodman, Spock and others spoke at a press conference in New York City on October 2, 1967 to launch the Call. On October 16 a draft-card burning and turn-in took place at the Arlington Street Church in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], arranged by Ferber and "participated in by Coffin."[^36] The press conference was chaired by Coffin. Goodman advanced a companion paper, signed also by Coffin, entitled "Civil Disobedience Against the War."[^44] The court wrote that Coffin "not only spoke but assisted in the collection of draft cards" at the church.[^45] The indictment charged a single count of conspiracy under section 12 of the Military Selective Service Act of 1967, and a fifth defendant was acquitted.[^36] + +Coffin was represented on appeal by Arthur J. Goldberg of New York.[^46] *Time* reported in June 1968 that an all-male jury found Coffin, then 44, guilty together with Spock, 65, Ferber, 23, and Goodman, 44, that Raskin, 34, a former White House disarmament aide, was acquitted, and that the trial had run for 19 days. Coffin responded with the remark "I think they have confused the lightning bugs with the lightning."[^47] A CIA situation report of October 18, 1968, lists fall antiwar activities and notes that Spock and Coffin had been invited to speak at one of them.[^48] + +On July 11, 1969, the [[First Circuit Court of Appeals]] opened its opinion with the sentence "We reverse." It held that the verdicts were set aside and the judgments vacated, ordered judgments entered for Spock and Ferber, and stated that "a new trial is ordered for the defendants Goodman and Coffin."[^36][^49] Judge Coffin, who the court noted shared a surname with one of the defendants, dissented in part and would have granted acquittals to all appellants.[^50] + +### Riverside Church and SANE/FREEZE + +Coffin became senior minister of Riverside Church in 1977. The 1987 feature describes Riverside as across the street from the Union Theological Seminary where his uncle had been president. Its critics in the church's Men's Class included Bryan Sterling, who acknowledged writing a newsletter editorial that accused Coffin of mismanagement and called Riverside a "notorious den for politicos of the left." The feature lists among the programs his opponents disliked a sanctuary for a Guatemalan refugee family and a fellowship group for gays and lesbians. In the interview he said, "Justice is central, not ancillary, to the Christian faith."[^21] In July 1982 Coffin wrote to the Rev. B. S. Hruby asking that The Messenger, the unsigned newsletter that the 1987 feature associates with the Men's Class, be printed and mailed from outside the church. He said that its personal attacks on staff and church members had continued after an agreement to stop them.[^51] + +In July 1987 Coffin announced that he would resign effective December 31 to head a new disarmament organization in [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] called [[SANE/FREEZE]], formed from the Committee for a SANE Nuclear Policy and the Nuclear Weapons Freeze Campaign.[^21] The Washington Times reported in January 1988 that he had become the first president of SANE/FREEZE and that its top priority for 1988 was passage of the INF treaty.[^22] + +### The Tehran Christmas visit + +At Christmas 1979 Coffin went to [[Iran]] with [[William Howard]], president of the [[National Council of Churches]], and [[Thomas Gumbleton]], an auxiliary bishop of [[Detroit]]. They held Christmas Day services for the hostages in [[Tehran]] and carried 33 messages to the families of hostages. The clergymen said they had the names of 43 hostages they had seen inside the embassy, while the State Department contended it was "quite positive" there were 50 prisoners. Coffin offered a theory that captives using double identities might account for the difference, and the dispatch noted that he had worked for the CIA before becoming a minister.[^52] + +### Death + +Coffin died at his home in Strafford, Vermont, on April 12, 2006, at the age of 81.[^28] The university announcement of his death records that from 1991 to 1995 he was the Anne Potter Wilson Distinguished Visiting Professor at Vanderbilt Divinity School.[^5] + +### Footnotes + +[^1]: CIA Reading Room, "Bus-Riding Chaplain," newspaper profile of William Sloane Coffin Jr., May 1, 1961, CIA-RDP75-00001R000300020007-6. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp75-00001r000300020007-6 +[^2]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1949 ("Coffin, William S. Jr."). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^3]: CIA Reading Room, "Former Infantry Officer Named Yale Chaplain," special dispatch to *The New York Times*, March 17, 1958, CIA-RDP75-00001R000300020009-4. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp75-00001r000300020009-4 +[^4]: Tim Weiner, *Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA* (Doubleday, 2007), chapter 5, section "A Fundamentally Bad Idea," citing a Coffin interview with the author (2005) for the quotations. https://archive.org/details/legacy-of-ashes-the-history-of-the-cia-tim-weiner +[^5]: Vanderbilt University News, "The Rev. William Sloane Coffin dead at 81," April 14, 2006 (death on April 12 at his Vermont home; visiting professor at Vanderbilt Divinity School, 1991 to 1995). https://news.vanderbilt.edu/2006/04/14/the-rev-william-sloane-coffin-dead-at-81-59026 +[^6]: *Widener, Dunton, Elkins, Broomall, and Allied Families* (1953), Sloane family chapter, pp. 125 to 127, on William Sloane (born 1810 or 1811; died May 23, 1879), his arrival in 1834, employment at Thompson and Company, the business at 245 Broadway, the partnership with his brother John and the name W. and J. Sloane, the later locations, the four sons in the business, the directorships in the Bigelow Carpet Company and Alexander Smith & Sons Carpet Company, and the abstract of his will. https://archive.org/details/widenerduntonelk00unse +[^7]: *Widener, Dunton, Elkins, Broomall, and Allied Families* (1953), Sloane family chapter, pp. 127 to 128, children of William and Euphemia (Douglas) Sloane, including "Euphemia, married, in New York City, February 3, 1874, Edmund Coffin, a merchant of New York City," and their sons Henry Sloane Coffin (born January 5, 1877; Yale 1897) and William Sloane Coffin (born April 15, 1879; Yale 1900). https://archive.org/details/widenerduntonelk00unse +[^8]: *Widener, Dunton, Elkins, Broomall, and Allied Families* (1953), Sloane family chapter, pp. 128 to 129, on Henry Thompson Sloane (Yale 1866; partner 1873; treasurer 1906 to 1925; the Sloane physics laboratory gifts of 1883 and 1912; listed societies including Skull and Bones). https://archive.org/details/widenerduntonelk00unse +[^9]: Sutton (1983), index of members by class year: Sloane, Henry Thompson (1866); Sloane, Thomas Chalmers (1868); Sloane, William (1895); Sloane, John (1905). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^10]: Sutton (1983), index of members by class year: Coffin, Henry Sloane (1897); Coffin, William Sloane (1900). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^11]: Sutton (1983), "Hypothesis Number One" chart and the text describing the families of old and new wealth, including the Sloane family labeled "Retail." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^12]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977, passages on Coffin, William F. Buckley Jr. and William P. Bundy. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977 +[^13]: Wayne Andrews, *The Vanderbilt Legend: The Story of the Vanderbilt Family, 1794-1940* (1941), passages on William Sloane, William Douglas Sloane, Emily Thorn Vanderbilt and their children. https://archive.org/details/vanderbiltlegend00andr +[^14]: CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP84-00022R000300060060-9, Military Intelligence Division correspondence, February 2 to March 27, 1922, concerning Mr. John Sloane. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp84-00022r000300060060-9 +[^15]: *Bulletin of the Metropolitan Museum of Art*, vol. 28, March 1933, listing of officers after the trustees' meeting of February 20, 1933. https://archive.org/details/sim_metropolitan-museum-of-art-new-york-bulletin_1933-03_28_3 +[^16]: *Bulletin of the Metropolitan Museum of Art*, vol. 29, January 1934, "William Sloane Coffin: In Memoriam" (minute of the trustees, December 18, 1933). https://archive.org/details/sim_metropolitan-museum-of-art-new-york-bulletin_1934-01_29_1 +[^17]: *Bulletin of the Metropolitan Museum of Art*, vol. 29, February 1934, "George Blumenthal," and the January 1934 note on the special meeting of January 9, 1934. https://archive.org/details/sim_metropolitan-museum-of-art-new-york-bulletin_1934-02_29_2 +[^18]: *Who's Who* 1935 (London: A. & C. Black), entry "Coffin, Rev. Henry Sloane, D.D.," born New York City, January 5, 1877, son of Edmund Coffin and Euphemia Sloane. https://archive.org/details/whoswho1935001355mbp +[^19]: Sutton (1983), passage on the Order's penetration of the church, including Union Theological Seminary, Henry Sloane Coffin's professorship and presidency, and "Henry Sloane Coffin, Jr. ('49) was one of the Boston Five indicted on federal conspiracy charges." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^20]: Sutton (1983), passage on the Order's role in "the forward motion of society," naming "a William Sloan Coffin and a Harry Payne Whitney (who financed the left)." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^21]: CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP91-00587R000100010069-7, feature on "Rev. William Sloane Coffin: Controversial Clergyman," July 26, 1987. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp91-00587r000100010069-7 +[^22]: Charlotte Hays, "The peace minister," *Washington Times*, January 20, 1988, CIA-RDP91-00587R000100010070-5. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp91-00587r000100010070-5 +[^23]: "The Ultimate Loyalist," CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP99-01448R000401580046-1, August 22, 1988, profile of George H. W. Bush. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp99-01448r000401580046-1 +[^24]: "Draft Reciprocal Agreement on Prisoners of War as Approved by the Combined Chiefs of Staff on February 8, 1945 (C.C.S. 777/2)," *Foreign Relations of the United States: The Conferences at Malta and Yalta, 1945*, p. 754. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Malta +[^25]: *New Haven Register*, 1958, profile "New Yale Chaplain, Ex-CIA Agent, Believes Soft Life Hurting US," CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP75-00001R000300020008-5. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp75-00001r000300020008-5 +[^26]: Weiner, *Legacy of Ashes* (2007), chapter 5, on Frank Lindsay's resignation, and the chapter notes citing Lindsay's report of March 3, 1953, "A Program for the Development of New Cold War Instruments" (Dwight D. Eisenhower Library). https://archive.org/details/legacy-of-ashes-the-history-of-the-cia-tim-weiner +[^27]: Memorandum for the 303 Committee, "U.S. Policy on Support for Covert Action Involving Emigres Directed at the Soviet Union," December 12, 1969, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XII, Soviet Union, January 1969-October 1970, document 106, pp. 321 to 322. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v12/d106 +[^28]: John J. Burns Library, Boston College, authority record "Coffin, William Sloane, Jr., 1924-2006," biographical note (sourced to the H. W. Wilson biographical reference). https://findingaids.bc.edu/agents/people/2681 +[^29]: Radio TV Reports, Inc., transcript of "Rev. Coffin Interviewed," *The Today Show*, WRC-TV, July 25, 1967, CIA-RDP75-00001R000300020003-0. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp75-00001r000300020003-0 +[^30]: R. Harris Smith, *OSS: The Secret History of America's First Central Intelligence Agency* (University of California Press, 1972), pp. 367 to 368, quoting Jessica Mitford, *The Trial of Dr. Spock* (New York, 1969), pp. 38 to 39. https://archive.org/details/oss-the-secret-history-of-americas-first-central-intelligence-agency +[^31]: Frances Stonor Saunders, *The Cultural Cold War: The CIA and the World of Arts and Letters* (New Press, 1999; 2013 edition), passage on "the P source" and note 12 citing Mitford, *The Trial of Dr Spock* (London: Macdonald, 1969). https://archive.org/details/frances-stonor-saunders-the-cultural-cold-war-the-cia-and-the-world-of-arts-and- +[^32]: Robert M. Gates, "CIA and the University," address to the Association of Former Intelligence Officers, Tysons Corner, Virginia, October 10, 1987, CIA-RDP89G00720R000500070019-9. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp89g00720r000500070019-9 +[^33]: Mark Tooley, "The Coffin Legacy," *The American Spectator*, September 22, 2006. https://spectator.org/46433_coffin-legacy/ +[^34]: Sutton (1983), passage on the public positions of individual members, quoting "spent three years with CIA and then became a leader of anti-Vietnam war activity." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^35]: "Glamorous Activist," review of *Once to Every Man* by William Sloane Coffin Jr., *Newsweek*, October 24, 1977, CIA-RDP88-01350R000200160002-5. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp88-01350r000200160002-5 +[^36]: *United States v. Spock*, 416 F.2d 165, 168 (1st Cir. 1969) (Nos. 7205-7208; heard January 7, 1969; decided July 11, 1969). https://static.case.law/f2d/416/html/0165-01.html +[^37]: Allen W. Dulles to William Sloane Coffin Jr., March 27, 1958, CIA-RDP80B01676R003800030070-3. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp80b01676r003800030070-3 +[^38]: William F. Buckley Jr., "On the Right: Prayermongering Against Goldwater," column of September 25, 1964, CIA-RDP75-00001R000300020004-9. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp75-00001r000300020004-9 +[^39]: "Vote Now on Vietnam! You Can Speak Your Mind in the National Voters' Pledge Campaign," advertisement, March 13, 1966, CIA-RDP73-00475R000400060001-7. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp73-00475r000400060001-7 +[^40]: *New Haven Register*, 1967, report of a Civitan Club talk by Armando Chardiet, CIA-RDP75-00149R000700390024-0. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp75-00149r000700390024-0 +[^41]: William Sloane Coffin Jr., "Why Yale Chaplain Rode: Christians Can't Be Outside," as told to Ronald Bailey, *LIFE*, June 2, 1961, CIA-RDP75-00001R000300020005-8. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp75-00001r000300020005-8 +[^42]: "The Draft: Doctor's Dilemma," *Time*, January 12, 1968 (the indictment; the Arlington Street Church draft cards; Coffin's statement before the Pentagon march). https://archive.org/details/time-1968-12-13 +[^43]: John J. Burns Library, Boston College, John E. Wall legal papers pertaining to the trial of the Boston Five (MS-2008-010), "Coffin - letter to FBI, inventory of draft cards, 1967 December 16," Box 8, Folder 2. https://findingaids.bc.edu/repositories/2/archival_objects/92392 +[^44]: *United States v. Spock*, 416 F.2d 165, 174 to 175 (1st Cir. 1969). https://static.case.law/f2d/416/html/0165-01.html +[^45]: *United States v. Spock*, 416 F.2d 165, 178 (1st Cir. 1969). https://static.case.law/f2d/416/html/0165-01.html +[^46]: *United States v. Spock*, 416 F.2d 165, 166 to 167 (1st Cir. 1969) (counsel for the appellants). https://static.case.law/f2d/416/html/0165-01.html +[^47]: "Trials: Cost of Counseling," *Time*, June 21, 1968 (the verdict; reproduced in the CIA Reading Room clippings file, document 00544404). https://archive.org/details/time-1968-12-13 +[^48]: CIA Reading Room, "Situation Information Report 18 Oct 68: Activities of Possible Interest Tentatively Scheduled for the Fall of 1968," October 18, 1968, document 00018081. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/00018081 +[^49]: *United States v. Spock*, 416 F.2d 165, 183 (1st Cir. 1969) (disposition). https://static.case.law/f2d/416/html/0165-01.html +[^50]: *United States v. Spock*, 416 F.2d 165, 169 n.6 and 184 (1st Cir. 1969) (opinion of Circuit Judge Coffin, dissenting in part). https://static.case.law/f2d/416/html/0165-01.html +[^51]: William Sloane Coffin Jr. to the Rev. B. S. Hruby, letter of July 22, 1982, on Riverside Church letterhead, CIA-RDP83M00914R002700220068-9. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp83m00914r002700220068-9 +[^52]: Wire dispatch datelined London ("Combined Dispatches") in the *New York Daily News*, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80B01554R003300180004-7, record dated January 20, 1980. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp80b01554r003300180004-7 diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Zbigniew Brzezinski.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Zbigniew Brzezinski.md index 17ba4543..189b99d5 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Zbigniew Brzezinski.md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Zbigniew Brzezinski.md @@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ relations: role: "national security adviser during the White House response to the Vela event" start: 1979-09-22 end: 1980-12-01 - fn: 3 + fn: 5 --- [[Zbigniew Brzezinski]] was the [[United States|U.S.]] National Security Adviser during the [[Jimmy Carter|Carter]] administration, playing a key role in foreign policy decisions during a period of significant Middle Eastern upheaval. @@ -25,16 +25,26 @@ relations: Brzezinski dismissed suggestions from [[Menachem Begin|Prime Minister Begin]] that the U.S. should support [[Mehdi Bazargan|Mehdi Bazargan's]] government in [[Iran]] against the growing [[Iraq|Iraqi]] threat. Instead, Brzezinski and the Carter administration believed Iran should be allowed to disintegrate until a U.S.-supported leader emerged.[^1] +### Dresser drill bit memorandum, 1978" placed in chronological order among the page's 1978 material. The live page does not mention Dresser. Footnotes D1 and D2. + +Insert-ready section: + +### Dresser drill bit memorandum, 1978 + +On August 29, 1978 Brzezinski sent Jimmy Carter a memorandum on the [[Dresser Industries]] export licenses. It summarized a [[Defense Science Board]] assessment, which found deep-well drilling technology a critical technology wholly concentrated in the United States, rock drill bit manufacture critical, and tungsten carbide of military significance because it was easily diverted and not foreign-sourced at that scale of manufacture. The memorandum recommended a suspension of the licenses on national security and foreign policy grounds rather than revocation, and it described the State and Commerce decision as "clearly hasty." It warned that ignoring the report "would be to play into Senator [[Henry M. Jackson]]'s hands."[^2] Brzezinski wrote in *Power and Principle* that he learned of Commerce's August approval from the newspaper, and that [[James R. Schlesinger]] had opposed the deal.[^3] + ### VELA Satellite Nuclear Incident -On September 22, 1979, a [[VELA Satellite]] recorded two distinctive bright flashes of light from a region of about 3,000 miles in diameter that included the southern Atlantic, the Indian Ocean, the southern tip of Africa and part of Antarctica. The signal was a double flash of the kind associated with a nuclear explosion; a presidential science panel later judged it probably not nuclear.[^2] This event, suspected to be a joint Israeli-South African nuclear test, was reported to Brzezinski and President Jimmy Carter. [[Seymour Hersh]] wrote that [[Gerald G. Oplinger]], Brzezinski's aide for global issues, recalled that Brzezinski was present at an urgent meeting in the [[White House]] situation room where the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] and [[Defense Intelligence Agency|DIA]] stated that the odds were at least ninety percent that it had been a nuclear explosion, and that Brzezinski had little to say during this meeting.[^3] The summary of conclusions of the mini-Special Coordination Committee meeting held in the Situation Room on September 22, 1979 lists [[Henry Owen]] (chairman), William E. Odom, Jerry Schecter and Gerald Funk for the National Security Council. Owen "summed up the evidence as follows: Strong positive evidence. No negative evidence." The summary records that the meeting began with an intelligence briefing.[^4] +On September 22, 1979, a [[VELA Satellite]] recorded two distinctive bright flashes of light from a region of about 3,000 miles in diameter that included the southern Atlantic, the Indian Ocean, the southern tip of Africa and part of Antarctica. The signal was a double flash of the kind associated with a nuclear explosion; a presidential science panel later judged it probably not nuclear.[^4] This event, suspected to be a joint Israeli-South African nuclear test, was reported to Brzezinski and President Jimmy Carter. [[Seymour Hersh]] wrote that [[Gerald G. Oplinger]], Brzezinski's aide for global issues, recalled that Brzezinski was present at an urgent meeting in the [[White House]] situation room where the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] and [[Defense Intelligence Agency|DIA]] stated that the odds were at least ninety percent that it had been a nuclear explosion, and that Brzezinski had little to say during this meeting.[^5] The summary of conclusions of the mini-Special Coordination Committee meeting held in the Situation Room on September 22, 1979 lists [[Henry Owen]] (chairman), William E. Odom, Jerry Schecter and Gerald Funk for the National Security Council. Owen "summed up the evidence as follows: Strong positive evidence. No negative evidence." The summary records that the meeting began with an intelligence briefing.[^6] -In September 1977 Brzezinski wrote to the secretary of state that, in response to Ambassador [[Samuel Lewis]]' cable from [[Tel Aviv]], the president "stated that it is obvious that past cooperation is excluded, and that we shouldn't push it any more for now." [[Gerard C. Smith]] replied on September 17, 1977 that the response was confined to the present and that "we could find it difficult to explain why we had accepted so reserved a response."[^5] +In September 1977 Brzezinski wrote to the secretary of state that, in response to Ambassador [[Samuel Lewis]]' cable from [[Tel Aviv]], the president "stated that it is obvious that past cooperation is excluded, and that we shouldn't push it any more for now." [[Gerard C. Smith]] replied on September 17, 1977 that the response was confined to the present and that "we could find it difficult to explain why we had accepted so reserved a response."[^7] ### Footnotes [^1]: Ben-Menashe, Ari. _Profits of War: Inside the Secret U.S.-Israeli Arms Network_. Sheridan Square Press, 1992 (TrineDay reprint, 2015). -[^2]: Richelson, Jeffrey T., ed., "The Vela Incident: Nuclear Test or Meteoroid?" National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 190, May 5, 2006, narrative. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB190/index.htm ; Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980, vol. XVI, Southern Africa, Document 362, September 23, 1979 ("south Atlantic, southern Indian Ocean, southern Africa, or Antarctica"). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v16/d362 -[^3]: Hersh, Seymour M. _The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy_. Random House, 1991. Chapter 20. -[^4]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980, vol. XVI, Southern Africa, Document 361. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v16/d361 -[^5]: Brzezinski, Zbigniew, memorandum to the Secretary of State, "Possible Israeli-South African Nuclear Connection," September 13, 1977, Secret, and Smith, Gerard C., memorandum to Brzezinski, September 17, 1977. Documents 2 and 3 in Burr, William, and Avner Cohen, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 570, December 6, 2016. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/nuclear-vault/2016-12-06/vela-incident-south-atlantic-mystery-flash-september-1979-raised-questions-about-nuclear-test +[^2]: Brzezinski to Carter, August 29, 1978, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980*, vol. VI, document 141. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v06/d141 +[^3]: Same, editors' note 2, citing Zbigniew Brzezinski, *Power and Principle* (New York: Farrar, Straus, Giroux, 1983), pp. 322 to 325. +[^4]: Richelson, Jeffrey T., ed., "The Vela Incident: Nuclear Test or Meteoroid?" National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 190, May 5, 2006, narrative. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB190/index.htm ; Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980, vol. XVI, Southern Africa, Document 362, September 23, 1979 ("south Atlantic, southern Indian Ocean, southern Africa, or Antarctica"). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v16/d362 +[^5]: Hersh, Seymour M. _The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy_. Random House, 1991. Chapter 20. +[^6]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980, vol. XVI, Southern Africa, Document 361. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v16/d361 +[^7]: Brzezinski, Zbigniew, memorandum to the Secretary of State, "Possible Israeli-South African Nuclear Connection," September 13, 1977, Secret, and Smith, Gerard C., memorandum to Brzezinski, September 17, 1977. Documents 2 and 3 in Burr, William, and Avner Cohen, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 570, December 6, 2016. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/nuclear-vault/2016-12-06/vela-incident-south-atlantic-mystery-flash-september-1979-raised-questions-about-nuclear-test diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Albert Hofmann.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Albert Hofmann.md index fe22285b..e1a0184f 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Albert Hofmann.md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Albert Hofmann.md @@ -39,7 +39,7 @@ Hofmann isolated [[psilocybin]], the primary psychoactive component of the Psilo CIA operative James Moore, a 29-year-old chemist working under cover as a natural-products researcher, was central to the Agency's effort to obtain psilocybin. In March 1953, Moore signed an initial CIA contract worth $8,000 per year, later expanded to $16,000 annually when he became an assistant professor at the [[University of Delaware]] in Newark in 1955. His cover funding flowed through the [[Geschickter Fund for Medical Research]], a CIA conduit, categorized as MKULTRA Subproject 58. In his role, Moore maintained "the fiction that the botanical specimens he collects are for his own use since his field interest is natural-product chemistry."[^3] -Moore's most significant operation in the psilocybin chain came through [[R. Gordon Wasson]], vice president of [[J.P. Morgan]] and an amateur mycologist who had published a landmark account of a 1955 mushroom ceremony in [[Huautla de Jimenez]], [[Mexico]], in [[Life (magazine)|Life magazine]] in 1957. The Geschickter Fund provided Wasson with a $2,000 grant for his 1956 follow-up expedition (designated MKULTRA Subproject 58), which Wasson accepted not knowing it was an intelligence operation. Moore accompanied Wasson on the 1956 expedition, collected samples from the ceremony led by shaman [[Maria Sabina]], but reportedly had a poor reaction to the mushrooms. When Hofmann isolated psilocybin from the samples that [[Roger Heim]] had grown in Paris and sent to Sandoz in 1958, Moore billed the CIA $1,147.60 for mushrooms and used the Sandoz synthesis to pursue the Agency's operational research agenda.[^3] +Moore's most significant operation in the psilocybin chain came through [[R. Gordon Wasson]], vice president of [[J. P. Morgan & Co.|J.P. Morgan]] and an amateur mycologist who had published a landmark account of a 1955 mushroom ceremony in [[Huautla de Jimenez]], [[Mexico]], in [[Life (magazine)|Life magazine]] in 1957. The Geschickter Fund provided Wasson with a $2,000 grant for his 1956 follow-up expedition (designated MKULTRA Subproject 58), which Wasson accepted not knowing it was an intelligence operation. Moore accompanied Wasson on the 1956 expedition, collected samples from the ceremony led by shaman [[Maria Sabina]], but reportedly had a poor reaction to the mushrooms. When Hofmann isolated psilocybin from the samples that [[Roger Heim]] had grown in Paris and sent to Sandoz in 1958, Moore billed the CIA $1,147.60 for mushrooms and used the Sandoz synthesis to pursue the Agency's operational research agenda.[^3] ### LSD: My Problem Child diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Alger Hiss.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Alger Hiss.md new file mode 100644 index 00000000..8a5feae6 --- /dev/null +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Alger Hiss.md @@ -0,0 +1,378 @@ +--- +aliases: + - Alger Hiss +category: "Intelligence & Government" +tags: + - Person + - StateDepartment + - CarnegieEndowment + - WhittakerChambers + - HouseCommitteeOnUnAmericanActivities + - NyeCommittee + - AgriculturalAdjustmentAdministration + - Yalta + - UnitedNationsFounding + - Venona + - PerjuryTrial + - CoramNobis + - SovietEspionage + - NoelField + - JohnFosterDulles +summary: "Alger Hiss, State Department official and Carnegie Endowment president, convicted of perjury in 1950 after Whittaker Chambers named him a Communist, who denied Soviet espionage until his death in 1996." +born: 1904-11-11 +died: 1996 +location: "Baltimore, Maryland" +created: 2026-10-26 +updated: 2026-10-26 +relations: + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.]]" + start: 1929 + end: 1930 + role: "secretary to the Associate Justice of the Supreme Court" + fn: 2 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Agricultural Adjustment Administration]]" + start: 1933-05 + end: 1934 + role: "assistant general counsel on the legal staff of Jerome Frank" + fn: 2 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Nye Committee]]" + start: 1934 + end: 1935 + role: "counsel, titled legal assistant; the hearings list him as investigator" + fn: 6 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Department of State]]" + start: 1936-09 + end: 1947-01-15 + role: "Trade Agreements work, then special assistant and deputy director of the Office of Special Political Affairs" + fn: 12 + - type: head_of + with: "[[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]]" + start: 1947-02-01 + end: 1949-05 + role: "president; elected December 1946; leave of absence from December 13, 1948" + fn: 22 + - type: director_of + with: "[[World Peace Foundation]]" + role: "trustee, fiscal year ended December 31, 1947" + fn: 34 + - type: participant_in + with: "[[Yalta Conference]]" + start: 1945-02-04 + end: 1945-02-11 + role: "member of the Stettinius delegation; penciled notes of plenary and Foreign Ministers' meetings" + fn: 16 + - type: participant_in + with: "[[United Nations Conference on International Organization]]" + start: 1945-04 + end: 1945-06 + role: "Secretary-General of the conference" + fn: 20 + - type: investigated + with: "[[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]" + start: 1948-08-03 + role: "testified August 5, 1948 in the hearings on Communist espionage in the government" + reverse: true + fn: 3 + - type: investigated + with: "[[Federal Bureau of Investigation]]" + start: 1947 + role: "agents questioned him about Whittaker Chambers; Hiss file, New York field file 65-14920" + reverse: true + fn: 42 + - type: prosecuted + with: "[[Department of Justice]]" + start: 1948-12-15 + end: 1950-01-25 + role: "perjury indictment after grand jury testimony; convicted on both counts at the second trial" + reverse: true + fn: 40 + - type: represented + with: "[[Debevoise & Plimpton]]" + start: 1975 + end: 1982 + role: "defense files; Freedom of Information Act suit and coram nobis petition" + reverse: true + fn: 48 + - type: spouse_of + with: "[[Priscilla Hiss]]" + role: "wife; named in the 1948 hearings and at the trials" + fn: 52 +--- + +Alger Hiss (1904 to 1996) was a lawyer who worked for the [[Agricultural Adjustment Administration]], the [[Nye Committee]] and the [[Department of State]] before he became president of the [[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]] in 1947. In August 1948 [[Whittaker Chambers]] named him before the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]] as one of a group of Communists in Washington in the 1930s. Hiss denied the accusation under oath. He was indicted for perjury after testifying before a federal grand jury in December 1948, the first trial ended in a jury disagreement, and at a second trial he was convicted and sentenced on January 25, 1950. + +### Education and early career + +Hiss told the House committee that he was born in [[Baltimore]] on November 11, 1904, and that he was educated in the public schools of Baltimore and at a preparatory school in Massachusetts before entering [[Johns Hopkins University]], from which he took an A.B. in 1926.[^1] He then entered [[Harvard Law School]] and graduated in 1929.[^1] He said that his first federal employment was as secretary to one of the Associate Justices of the [[Supreme Court of the United States]], and he named the justice as [[Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.]][^2] He practiced law in Boston and New York for about three years. In May 1933 he came to [[Washington, D.C.]] at the request of officials of the Agricultural Adjustment Administration, where [[Jerome Frank]] was general counsel, and took a post as assistant general counsel.[^2] He named [[Lee Pressman]] and [[Nathan Witt]] as members of the same legal staff, and said he knew [[Henry Collins]] from boyhood.[^3] + +A press report on the reorganization of the Agricultural Adjustment Administration, reprinted in the House record, said that Hiss, one of Frank's assistants, was "recently assigned to assist Senator Nye's committee in its munitions investigation."[^4] + +### Nye Committee + +In early 1934, by his own recollection, the Department of Agriculture lent Hiss to the Senate Special Committee on Investigation of the Munitions Industry, chaired by Senator [[Gerald Nye]]. Asked about his position, he said: "I was counsel. The technical title was legal assistant."[^5] The committee's preliminary report of 1935 lists "Alger Hiss, Legal Assistant" among its staff, with [[Stephen Raushenbush]] as secretary.[^6] The printed hearings record the senators present and add "Also present: Alger Hiss, investigator."[^7] + +The transcripts show Hiss examining witnesses on corporate ownership and war profits. On September 10, 1934 the chairman told the room that "Mr. Hiss, one of the committee's staff, will proceed with the examination" of John S. Allard, president of the Curtiss-Wright Export Corporation. Hiss took the Curtiss-Wright witnesses through the company's stock holdings, interlocking directors and the position of the Sperry Corporation, and offered a chart (Exhibit No. 268) of the interest of the [[General Motors]] Corporation in airplane manufacturing companies. He stated that the [[DuPont Company|du Pont Company]], through a wholly owned subsidiary, held a 28 percent interest in General Motors; that General Motors held 48 percent of the General Aviation Corporation; and that General Aviation and General Motors together owned 52 percent of North American Aviation.[^7] Hiss continued the examination of Allard and Clarence W. Webster through September 12, and on September 17 and 18 he questioned Francis H. Love, Donald L. Brown and Charles W. Deeds.[^7] + +In December 1934 the committee turned to the du Pont interests. On December 12 Hiss questioned Lieutenant Colonel C. T. Harris of the Army Ordnance Department about wartime contracts, entered a War Department statement of cantonment and facilities construction (a grand total of $1,271,000,000), and examined an Interstate Commerce Commission accountant, John H. Rudd, on the 1916 and 1917 incomes and taxes of certain corporations, matching the coded entries in a Senate document of 1918 to company names. He then questioned Harris on the Old Hickory powder plant contract, in which the du Pont Engineering Company acted as agent of the government.[^8] The transcript records Hiss as questioner in the sessions of December 12 to 21, 1934 whose headings include the testimony of [[Pierre S. du Pont]], [[Irénée du Pont]] and Lammot du Pont, C. K. Davis, Edwin Pugsley and Sol A. Rosenblatt.[^9] + +The 1982 district court opinion summarizes Chambers's testimony at both trials: he was introduced to Hiss in June or July 1934 by [[J. Peters]] and [[Harold Ware]], and at first Hiss, "who was then counsel to the Nye Committee, furnished Chambers with copies of confidential State Department documents."[^10] Hiss testified that a free-lance writer calling himself George Crosley came to his Senate office during the munitions investigation.[^11] + +### State Department, 1936 to 1947 + +After the munitions committee Hiss was employed in the office of the [[Solicitor General of the United States]]. He said he went to the Department of State when [[Francis B. Sayre]], the Assistant Secretary in charge of the Trade Agreements Act, asked him to supervise the constitutional arguments on that act. He testified: "I entered the Department of State, I think it was, in September, 1936. I resigned in January, 1947, to accept the appointment to my present position in private life to which I had been elected the preceding December."[^12] The [[Foreign Relations of the United States]] volume for the Yalta conference identifies him as special assistant to the director of the [[Office of Special Political Affairs]] from May to October 1944 and as deputy director thereafter.[^13] + +At the second trial the prosecutor asked Hiss whether he had recommended [[Noel Field]] to Sayre when Sayre went out to the [[Philippines]] as High Commissioner. Hiss answered: "Along with one or two others, yes." He named four others he had recommended to Sayre (Golden Bell, Woodbury Willoughby, Henry Hart and Claude Buss).[^14] Hiss testified that he had known Field through [[Laurence Duggan]].[^14] + +### Yalta and the San Francisco conference + +A telegram from Secretary of State [[Edward Stettinius]] to Ambassador [[W. Averell Harriman]] in [[Moscow]], dated January 15, 1945, lists the members of the American party for the [[Yalta Conference]]. It includes "Alger Hiss, for Dumbarton Oaks matters."[^15] The Foreign Relations volume states that "The collection contains the original penciled notes taken by Hiss at a number of meetings at Yalta," and it prints those notes in facsimile.[^16] For one plenary meeting the editors state that the notes "appear to have been taken by Hiss only during the discussion of the question of voting in the United Nations."[^16] The table of contents lists Hiss notes for the Foreign Ministers' meetings and plenary sessions of February 4, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10.[^16] + +The agreed record dated February 2, 1945 states that Hiss was asked to explain briefly the purpose of the proposed European High Commission. "Mr. Hiss said that the essential purpose was to secure unity of approach between the three Big powers to the manifold difficulties that must arise in liberated territories in Europe." The record adds that the proposed High Commission "would be a temporary body functioning until the World Organisation was set up."[^17] + +The notes for the February 6 plenary session at [[Livadia Palace]] are a separate document. It is headed "Dictated at San Francisco, June 3, 1945," and the editors state that it was dictated on the basis of longhand notes made during the meeting.[^18] Its account of the session includes the statement: "The President said that he felt strongly that people are going to insist on getting something that will insure peace, not for all time, but say for fifty years."[^18] Several undated memoranda of the Hiss Collection carry the editors' attributions to him. Of a draft report to the Foreign Ministers by the subcommittee on arrangements for the United Nations conference, the editors state that [[H. Freeman Matthews]] wrote on August 13, 1954 that it was written by Hiss. Of a memorandum of arguments against inclusion of any of the Soviet republics among the initial members of the organization, they state that the author was presumably Hiss. The editors also note that penciled changes in Hiss's handwriting on the draft invitation to the United Nations conference were incorporated in the text Stettinius presented on February 9, 1945, and that Hiss was a member of the subcommittee that drafted the report.[^19] Of the Foreign Ministers' meeting of February 11 the editors write that "Hiss was certainly there" with Stettinius, [[Anthony Eden]] and [[Vyacheslav Molotov]].[^19] + +At San Francisco Hiss held the post of Secretary-General of the [[United Nations Conference on International Organization]]. On June 20, 1945 the president of Commission III opened the fifth meeting by stating: "The Secretary-General, Mr. Hiss, has asked me to make the following announcement."[^20] The conference drafted the charter of the [[United Nations]]. [[John Foster Dulles]], a member of the American delegation to the conference, testified in 1949 that he first met Hiss in the early part of 1945, probably about March, during briefings in Washington before the delegation left, and that he saw him with fair frequency at San Francisco, where Hiss was on the international secretariat and not on the American delegation.[^21] + +### Carnegie Endowment for International Peace + +Hiss testified in 1948 that the board of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace elected him president in December 1946 and that he assumed office on February 1, 1947.[^22] John Foster Dulles was chairman of the board of trustees. Asked by Representative [[F. Edward Hebert]] whether Dulles was the first to approach him, Hiss answered: "He first approached me." He described Dulles as "the chairman of my board of trustees." When Hebert asked whether Dulles had urged him to take the post, Hiss answered that Dulles had, "And other members of the board of trustees."[^22] + +Dulles gave a different account at the second trial, where he testified in rebuttal for the government. He said he had been a trustee for about five years, and that he was "not elected chairman until the same meeting at which Mr. Hiss was elected president."[^21] Shown Hiss's testimony that Dulles had first raised the Carnegie presidency on the ship to London for the first meeting of the United Nations General Assembly, Dulles answered that he possibly asked Hiss whether he expected to stay in government service. He added: "I am quite clear in my own mind that I did not mention the Carnegie Endowment to Mr. Hiss at that time," and put his first mention of it at about April 1946, after he had spoken to other trustees. The selection committee consisted of [[John W. Davis]], [[Arthur Ballantine]] and [[Elliott Wadsworth]]. Dulles testified that he gave the committee a list of names that included Hiss, that he arranged a luncheon in New York in the spring of 1946 at which Hiss met two of the three committee members, that he did not investigate Hiss's record, and that it was "through me that the committee obtained its primary information about his availability." He said he had probably spoken to [[Dean Acheson]] about Hiss, and asked about Hiss's reputation before the election, said that it "was very high, as far as I knew it."[^21] + +Davis, a defense character witness at the same trial, testified that his committee investigated "the nature of his past services, his interest in international affairs ... and his general reputation," that it recommended Hiss, and that Dulles "was not a member of that committee. He was chairman of the Endowment and, of course, thoroughly advised of whatever the committee was doing." He testified that he had heard "that Mr. Dulles and Mr. Hiss had some conversation" about reports of Communist association, "purely hearsay on my part," and that no adverse reports reached him before August 1948.[^23] [[James T. Shotwell]], a trustee and a defense witness, testified that he had made inquiries at the State Department and was told that Hiss "was regarded as one of the ablest men in the Department."[^24] + +### The Kohlberg letters and the Dulles conversations + +Hiss testified before the House committee on August 25, 1948 that "shortly after I had been elected but before I had assumed office I had a conversation with Mr. John Foster Dulles in which he said that he had heard reports that people had called me a Communist."[^25] He said he assumed that Dulles "was satisfied that there was nothing to the reports, as I was myself." Representative [[Richard Nixon]] questioned him in the same hearings about his conversations with Secretary of State [[James F. Byrnes]] in 1946 about the charges, and Representative [[Karl Mundt]] asked whether he had told the Carnegie directors of them. In his answer Hiss said that before accepting the Carnegie post he had "checked with" Byrnes "specifically as to whether he thought the issue had been laid to rest."[^26] + +At the second trial Hiss gave a fuller account. He testified that in December 1946, a week or ten days after his election was announced, Dulles telephoned from New York and asked "What shall I say in answer to a letter from some man who claims you are a Communist?"; that he replied that the subject had been "laid to rest"; and that Dulles later named the writer as Mr. Kohlberg, "the publisher of Plain Talk."[^27] Dulles contradicted him. He testified that the letter, dated December 31 and received on January 2 (Hiss took office on February 1, 1947), "led me to call up Mr. Kohlberg," who came to see him that afternoon, and that he did not discuss the contents with Hiss until some days later. He denied discussing the matter with Byrnes, said he did not recall naming Kohlberg to Hiss and that he never wrote to Kohlberg in answer to the first letter, and testified that he had received three letters from Kohlberg in all, in January, February and April or May.[^27] The writer appears in the transcript as "Mr. Kohlburg" and is described as the publisher of the magazine [[Plain Talk]]; he was [[Alfred Kohlberg]].[^27] + +Hiss and Dulles gave separate accounts of March 1948 as well. Dulles testified that in March 1948 he told Hiss of a communication he had recently received, that Hiss mentioned he had just been before a grand jury, and that Hiss said he had been questioned about a number of people, knew only Pressman among them, and had met some left-leaning people in the Department of Agriculture only casually. Asked on cross-examination whether he had told Dulles that after law school he was "thrown into association with people who were Communists," Hiss answered: "Not in that form; definitely not."[^27] + +### The resignation offer and the board's action + +Hiss testified that on August 3, 1948, the day Chambers testified, he telephoned Dulles before doing anything else, and told him that he would have "enough on my shoulders" for the next weeks and asked Dulles to decide, as chairman, whether his continuing as president became an embarrassment, adding that "at that moment he had my resignation."[^28] Dulles testified that he recalled no discussion of resignation until a meeting he called at the Hotel Roosevelt shortly before he went abroad in the latter part of August. He told Hiss then, he said, that the Chambers testimony "was very disturbing to the trustees," that some had communicated with him, and that he was "confident that the trustees would not take any initiative in asking for his resignation." Hiss, in Dulles's account, said he would probably resign in September, but not while the hearings continued. Hiss testified that Dulles told him that two or perhaps three trustees thought the publicity embarrassing and that it was their feeling that he should resign, and that his counsel afterward spoke to John W. Davis, who became acting chairman while Dulles was abroad.[^27][^28] + +Dulles remained abroad on United Nations business from late August 1948 until December 24, 1948.[^21] Shotwell testified that Davis presided at the trustees' dinner of December 12, 1948, and that [[William C. Bullitt]], a trustee, asked Hiss at the dinner whether he had testified to the House committee that he had checked with Justice Byrnes about coming to the Endowment. Hiss withdrew; each trustee was called on separately, and Davis summed up.[^24] *The Charlotte News* reported on December 13, 1948 that Hiss submitted his resignation and that the trustees tabled it and granted him a three-month leave of absence.[^29] Shotwell testified that the leave was with full pay, that the executive committee voted on February 17, 1949 to extend it to the annual meeting of May 5, 1949, that at Hiss's request he communicated Hiss's decision informally to the executive committee before a letter to the May 5 meeting, and that he himself served as acting president from early September 1948.[^24] Dulles, cross-examined, confirmed that he was a member of the executive committee that voted the extension.[^21] Shotwell also said he had collected some 360 letters about Hiss and had talked to many people.[^24] Hiss testified in December 1949 that he had asked the board not to put his name up at the election of the preceding May.[^28] + +The Bureau's Hiss file summarizes the press reports of the period. It records that [[Drew Pearson]], in his column in the [[Washington Post]] of September 15, 1948, reported that Senator [[Styles Bridges]] told Governor [[Thomas E. Dewey]] that the directors of the Foundation had been "lukewarm about Hiss" and were brought into the appointment by Dulles, and that Dulles might have difficulty in being confirmed by the Senate. The same summary records an item from the Washington Evening Star of August 5, 1948 headed "Hiss Declares Dulles Helped Him to Get Carnegie Peace Post," and the statement of an informant that Dulles had been advised of Hiss's background and had discounted the report.[^30] A Bureau memorandum of September 28, 1949 records a lead to learn what happened at the Endowment after Chambers's accusation, and notes that Shotwell and Ballantine had suggested examining the stenographic minutes of the board's meetings.[^31] + +Joseph E. Johnson was elected president of the Carnegie Endowment on May 11, 1950; the nominating committee, as the Endowment described it to the House foundations committee, was headed by Dulles.[^32] In a 1951 Bureau interview about Johnson, Shotwell remarked that "the Foundation, and particularly Dulles, is quite sensitive regarding the Alger Hiss" matter.[^32] The House select committee on tax-exempt foundations (the Cox Committee) stated in its report that Hiss's "nomination and election came about through the efforts of men of proven loyalty and broad experience in public affairs" and that "during his term as president of the Carnegie Endowment, Hiss took no official action to further the Communist cause."[^33] + +The 1948 directory of foundations lists Hiss as a trustee of the [[World Peace Foundation]] for the fiscal year ended December 31, 1947. The same entry gives [[Harvey H. Bundy]] as president of that board.[^34] At the second trial the government introduced Hiss's letter on Carnegie Endowment letterhead, signed "Alger Hiss, President," sent to Duggan, whose agency was the [[Institute of International Education]]. Hiss testified that Field had written to Duggan to ask whether the Endowment had any work he could do, that the request came to Hiss through Duggan, and that he asked [[Freda Kirchwey]], whom he met at a dinner party, whether she would be interested in articles from Field.[^35] + +### Chambers's accusation and the 1948 hearings + +Chambers testified before the committee in early August 1948. He said that he had approached Hiss in an effort to persuade him to leave the [[Communist Party USA]]. "I went to the Hiss home one evening at what I considered considerable risk to myself and found Mrs. Hiss at home," Chambers said, and he added that Hiss "absolutely refused to break."[^36] Chambers also named Hiss among the Communists in a Washington group, saying: "One of them clearly was Alger Hiss," in the context of members of the group who were going "places in the Government."[^37] According to the 1982 district court opinion, Chambers had spoken guardedly from 1939 to 1946 to various officials, among them Assistant Secretary of State [[Adolf Berle|Adolf A. Berle]], and had stated in those conversations that Hiss was a Communist.[^10] + +Hiss appeared on August 5, 1948 and read a statement denying the charges. He said: "the statements made about me by Mr. Chambers are complete fabrications." He said that he had first heard of Chambers in 1947, when two agents of the Federal Bureau of Investigation asked him whether he knew Chambers and other people, and that "So far as I know, I have never laid eyes on him, and I should like to have the opportunity to do so."[^3] He later told the committee that a man named George Crosley, a free-lance writer whom he met while working for the Nye committee, had sublet his apartment and stayed in his house.[^11] + +In the later exchanges Chambers was asked to identify Hiss as the man he had known. He answered "Positive identification."[^38] Hiss rose and walked toward Chambers. He then said that he would invite Chambers to make the same statements outside the committee room, without the protection of privilege, and added: "I challenge you to do it, and I hope you will do it damned quickly."[^38] + +Nixon questioned both men. During the exchange over Chambers's account of his dental work, Nixon interrupted: "Since some repartee goes on between these two people, I think Mr. Chambers should be sworn." Nixon then asked Hiss whether he would have to have the dentist tell "just what he did to the teeth before you could tell anything about this man." Hiss answered: "I would like a few more questions asked."[^39] + +### Pumpkin papers and the grand jury + +On December 15, 1948 Hiss testified before a federal grand jury in the Southern District of New York. He stated that he had never, nor had his wife in his presence, turned over any documents of the State Department, or copies of them, to Chambers or any other unauthorized person, and that he did not see Chambers after January 1, 1937.[^40] The grand jury indicted him on perjury counts based on those two statements.[^40] + +The committee had subpoenaed Chambers for documents. The appellate opinion records that "In response to a subpoena duces tecum served upon him by the Committee above mentioned at his farm in Maryland that same evening, Mr. Chambers produced from a pumpkin, in which he had recently hidden them, two rolls of developed micro-film, which had been made of other confidential documents from the State Department, and three rolls of undeveloped micro-film."[^40] The opinion adds that some of the papers so produced were of a nature that, for security reasons, they could not safely be made public, and that the proper officials of the government took charge of them.[^40] + +Hiss had brought suit against Chambers in the United States District Court in Maryland for defamation. In the pretrial deposition there Chambers produced on November 17, 1948 four handwritten notes and sixty-five typewritten pages, which became known as the Baltimore documents. The 1982 district court opinion states that Hiss later conceded the notes were in his hand and that most of the typed pages were typed on the Woodstock typewriter belonging to Priscilla Hiss.[^41] + +The Bureau's New York office recorded the day of the indictment. A memorandum by Assistant Special Agent in Charge A. H. Belmont dated December 15, 1948 states that the FBI Laboratory had told the office that the pumpkin documents (items Q74 through Q131) "were compared with" the Baltimore documents and "it was ascertained that different machines were used," and that the Laboratory had reported that it could not determine from the paper, writing or typing the age of the Baltimore documents. The same memorandum records a conference that day of the government attorneys on what indictments the grand jury, whose term was ending, could return; the recommendation to indict Hiss for perjury, which [[Alexander Campbell]] of the Department of Justice put by telephone to [[Peyton Ford]]; the consideration and rejection of an indictment of Priscilla Hiss for want of evidence; a presentment proposed by Campbell that would have criticized the House committee, to which United States Attorney [[John F. X. McGohey]], [[Thomas F. Donegan]] and the other attorneys were "outspokenly opposed"; and the Department's intention to call a new grand jury "in an effort to find additional evidence which will bring the substantive espionage case within the statute of limitations."[^42] The [[Washington Times]] reported in 1992 that Hiss "was never charged with spying because the statute of limitations for that crime had elapsed."[^43] + +### The typewriter + +The case on the documents turned in part on a typewriter. The appellate opinion says that "Tending to substantiate Mr. Chambers' testimony was the concession that all the copied documents produced by him were, save one, copied on the Hiss Woodstock typewriter." The opinion records the testimony of Hiss and his wife that the typewriter "had been given to one of their servants and taken away from their home before the dates of any of the documents of which Mr. Chambers produced copies." The court held that the jury could find the typewriter was in the Hiss home when the copies were made, and that this evidence corroborated Chambers. The opinion acknowledges that the copies could have been typed later from the originals or from microfilmed copies.[^44] + +The Bureau's file records the effort to trace the machine. In a memorandum of May 18, 1949 Belmont recorded a call from the special agent in charge in Philadelphia, who noted that a report of the Chicago office of December 23, 1948 reflected that a Woodstock bearing serial number 230,099 "would have been produced in 1929, whereas the Woodstock typewriter sold in Philadelphia to the MARTIN & FANSLER CORP. was sold in 1927," and that the laboratory had identified that earlier machine as the one used to type the Chambers documents. Belmont advised that the number 230,099 appeared on the receipt given by Hiss's attorney to the person from whom he bought the Woodstock, "which may be the Woodstock typewriter in question," and recommended a complete history of the machine from manufacture, adding that the Chicago office could not assume "that this serial number was accurate."[^45] The December 15, 1948 memorandum had already asked the laboratory for typing specimens identified with the machine as in the possession of the Hisses after September 9, 1936, which Belmont called very important.[^42] + +Hiss's 1978 petition raised the serial number. In the 1982 opinion Judge Owen wrote that the Bureau's reports on the question were "highly contradictory and far from conclusive," quoting Judge Goddard's 1952 opinion denying a new trial: "The defense reasoning that No. 230,099 was manufactured after the Hiss machine is not sustained by any proof."[^46] + +### The trials + +The appellate opinion summarizes the two trials in these words: "He was duly tried by jury twice, the jury at the first trial having failed to agree upon a verdict. At the second trial he was convicted on both counts."[^40] The 1982 district court opinion gives the dates: the first trial ran from May 31 to July 7, 1949, and the second began on November 17, 1949 and ended with a conviction on both counts on January 25, 1950.[^47] The finding aid for the defense files of [[Debevoise & Plimpton]], which represented Hiss and his wife, [[Priscilla Hiss]], records the same two trials.[^48] Hiss was sentenced on January 25, 1950. The footnote to the [[Harry S. Truman Library]]'s press conference transcript of January 27, 1950 records that he was sentenced to five years in a federal penitentiary for perjury.[^49] The Washington Times reported that he served 44 months of the sentence.[^43] + +The government's witnesses at the second trial included Chambers and his wife, [[Henry Julian Wadleigh]], [[Felix Inslerman]], [[Philip C. Jessup]] and [[Hede Massing]]. The defense called Hiss, Priscilla Hiss, Hiss's brother [[Donald Hiss]], Sayre, and witnesses including Davis, [[Gerard Swope Jr.]], Shotwell and [[Charles E. Wyzanski Jr.]]; Dulles testified for the government in rebuttal.[^50] + +On January 25, 1950, the day of sentencing, Dean Acheson, then secretary of state, spoke about Hiss. Acheson told reporters at his press conference that day, according to the [[New York Times]] as the Truman Library footnote records: "I do not intend to turn my back on Alger Hiss."[^49] + +### Noel Field and Hede Massing + +Massing, a witness for the government at the second trial, testified that she met Hiss in the late summer or early fall of 1935 at the Washington home of Noel Field, then in the State Department, whom she described as working in what she believed was the Western European Division. She testified that she was working in "a Russian apparatus" and that she said to Hiss, "I understand that you are trying to get Noel Field away from my organization into yours," that he replied, "So you are this famous girl that is trying to get Noel Field away from me," and that he said, as she remembered it, "Well, we will see who is going to win." She testified that either he or she then said that "Whoever is going to win we are working for the same boss."[^51] She testified that she never saw Hiss again, that an arrangement was made at an FBI office so that he could look at her, and that at a second meeting about a year before the trial, attended by one of his lawyers and an FBI agent, he was friendly and said he did not remember her.[^51] + +Priscilla Hiss testified that she first heard of Hede Massing when she appeared at the grand jury, had never met her, and that she and her husband had been to the home of Noel Field and his wife "a few times."[^52] Hiss testified that he had known Field through Duggan, had seen him once or twice after his returns to the United States in the late 1940s, and had recommended him to Sayre.[^14][^35] Asked whether he knew that Field had been dismissed by the Unitarian Service Committee for using its funds for Communist purposes, Hiss answered, "Quite the contrary," and said that a Boston Unitarian official had told him of a difference of opinion over relief policy.[^53] The defense called Henrikas Rabinavicius, who testified that at a gathering at the home of the journalist [[Eugene Lyons]], Massing, asked how she had met Hiss, described a young State Department man she called "Mr. X" and quoted Hiss as saying "You can't have that man"; Massing's account at trial was of a meeting at Field's home.[^54] + +The Bureau's file summary records that Massing told agents Duggan was one of the State Department employees she had tried to recruit for Soviet espionage, and that Duggan, a close associate of Hiss according to her, "fell or jumped" out of a New York City office room on December 20, 1948.[^30] A September 1949 Bureau memorandum records an informant's story that after the loyalty program began, State Department employees who left were placed by Duggan at the Institute of International Education, which received funds from the Carnegie Endowment, and that Hiss had pressed Duggan to take them; the Bureau considered whether the Institute's files might bear on a retrial.[^31] + +Hungarian records bear on Field. Ethan Klingsberg, the only foreign researcher permitted to read Field's dossier of about 2,500 pages in the Hungarian Interior Ministry archive, wrote in [[The Nation]] on November 8, 1993 that its references to Hiss amount to about four pages.[^55] The Hungarian historian [[Maria Schmidt]] presented findings from the Hungarian secret-police files on Field at a seminar of the Institute for the Humanities of [[New York University]] on October 11, 1993. [[Sam Tanenhaus]] relied on her unpublished work in an op-ed in the New York Times on October 15, 1993 and in an article in [[Commentary]], and Klingsberg wrote that both pieces claimed the files contain "unimpeachable" evidence that will "seal the case against Alger Hiss."[^55] In the statements and prison autobiographies the Hungarian police took from Field he said that Hiss tried to recruit him about 1935 and that Field had replied that he was too late, that Hiss later supported his State Department career and tried to get him a Philippines post in 1940, and that they met briefly in 1939 and agreed on a signal if either's cover was blown. Klingsberg wrote that those statements were made under coercion, citing Field's March 1954 letter to the Central Committee of the Soviet Communist Party describing beatings and starvation, a 1991 Hungarian memoir by [[Vladimir Farkas]] that says Field was tortured, and the confirmation by the archive's director that political prisoners were routinely abused. Klingsberg wrote that Field's letters of 1948 and 1954 were supportive of Hiss and that in one of 1954 Field called Massing's testimony about him "nothing but a lie."[^55] + +### Appeals and petitions + +Hiss's conviction was affirmed by the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit]] on December 7, 1950 in an opinion by Circuit Judge Chase, with Judges Swan and Hand on the panel. The opinion holds that the sentences on the two counts were concurrent and that a conviction on either count, if without error, "would alone sustain the judgment and require its affirmance." The reported citation is [[United States v. Hiss]], 185 F.2d 822 (2d Cir. 1950).[^44] The Supreme Court denied certiorari on March 12, 1951.[^56] In 1952 Hiss moved for a new trial on the ground, among others, that the Woodstock was not the Hiss machine; [[Judge Goddard]] denied the motion, the Second Circuit affirmed on his opinion, and certiorari was denied in 1953.[^46] + +The defense files at Debevoise & Plimpton record that a 1975 suit under the Freedom of Information Act, brought by Hiss with [[William Ruben]], produced FBI documents. Those documents formed the basis of a petition for a writ of error coram nobis, filed in 1978, which argued that the FBI documents had been withheld from the defense. The finding aid states that the petition was rejected in 1982. Its abstract dates the petition to 1979, while its historical note dates it to 1978.[^48] + +The petition was decided on July 15, 1982 in [[In re Hiss]], 542 F. Supp. 973 (S.D.N.Y. 1982), No. 78 Civ. 3433, by District Judge Richard Owen. Hiss moved on about 150 of the documents he had obtained, asserting (1) improper contacts between the prosecution and an investigator for the defense, (2) suppression of three statements by Chambers, (3) suppression of information about the Woodstock typewriter, (4) the knowing use of perjured testimony by two government witnesses, and (5) improper argument by the prosecutor in summation. The court wrote that the claims "raise no real question whatsoever, let alone a reasonable doubt, as to Hiss's guilt," that "The trial was a fair one by any standard," and that "nothing presented in these papers, extensive though they are, places that verdict under any cloud." It dismissed the petition without a hearing: "Accordingly, Hiss's petition for a writ of error coram nobis is dismissed."[^57] The opinion also recorded that Hiss served three years of the five-year sentence.[^57] + +### Venona cable 1822 + +The [[National Security Agency]] released a set of decrypted Soviet intelligence messages under the Venona program. The cable numbered 1822 was sent from the Soviet residency in Washington to Moscow on March 30, 1945. It names an agent called ALES, who had worked with the "Neighbors" (a Soviet military intelligence organization) since 1935, had led for some years a small group of probationers made up mostly of his relatives, and whose group worked on obtaining military information only. The cable says that the group was recently awarded Soviet decorations, and that after the Yalta Conference, when ALES had gone on to Moscow, a senior Soviet official, whom ALES understood to be Vyshinsky, got in touch with him.[^58] + +The NSA release annotates the name ALES with the words "Probably Alger HISS."[^58] Ehrman's 2007 review in the CIA journal [[Studies in Intelligence]] reports that a historian at the [[United States Air Force]], [[Eduard Mark]], published findings in 2003 in Intelligence and National Security: that he found eight members of the Yalta delegation who had traveled to Moscow immediately afterward and that, in his judgment, only Hiss met the other criteria, so that "ALES was very probably Hiss."[^59] + +The identification has been contested. In 2000 [[John Lowenthal]], one of Hiss's lawyers, published "Venona and Alger Hiss" in Intelligence and National Security 15 (Autumn 2000), arguing that ALES was not Hiss. Ehrman reports that Lowenthal pointed out that Hiss had been accused of espionage only to 1938, of acting alone except for his wife and Chambers, and of passing State Department and not military documents; that he cited Venona cable 1579 of September 28, 1943, from the Soviet military intelligence office in New York, which mentions a State Department official named Hiss, and concluded that it "would seem to be a first-time reference to someone unknown to the GRU and not a spy"; and that he suggested a correct translation of cable 1822 would concern the presence of Soviet Deputy Foreign Minister [[Andrei Vyshinsky]] at Yalta. Ehrman reports that Lowenthal also wrote that when Hiss appealed in 1950 the "FBI had an urgent need...for new evidence."[^59] Ehrman wrote that Mark answered that Soviet cables sometimes used true names mistakenly, and that in 2005 the NSA released the original Russian text of the cable, which Ehrman states showed the English translation to be correct.[^59] + +In April 2007 the historians [[Kai Bird]] and [[Svetlana Chervonnaya]] proposed Henry Wilder Foote, an assistant to Stettinius, as ALES, at a conference at New York University titled "Alger Hiss and History." Ehrman states that they relied on notes taken by [[Aleksandr Vassiliev]] in the KGB archives on a cable of March 5, 1945, which Vassiliev's notes record as stating that ALES had been at Yalta but had since left for Mexico City and had not yet returned to Washington. Ehrman reports that Hiss and Foote had both accompanied Stettinius to Mexico City on February 20, 1945 for the Inter-American Conference on the Problems of War and Peace, that Stettinius then sent Hiss back to Washington to prepare the San Francisco conference, and that on March 3, 1945 Hiss appeared on a State Department radio broadcast over NBC, which the Washington Star and the New York Times reported on March 4. Bird and Chervonnaya concluded, as Ehrman summarizes them, that because the Soviet resident knew Hiss was in Washington, ALES was someone else. Ehrman rejected that argument. Hiss's stepson, [[Timothy Hobson]], spoke at the same conference and denied key elements of Chambers's testimony.[^59] + +### Volkogonov and the Russian archives + +In late 1992, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, Lowenthal asked the Soviet general and historian [[Dmitri Volkogonov]], then a military adviser to Russian President Boris Yeltsin, to search the Russian archives for information about Hiss.[^60] Volkogonov's letter to Lowenthal, dated October 14, 1992, reads, in the text Victor Navasky of The Nation later quoted: "On the basis of a very careful analysis of all the information available, I can inform you that Alger Hiss was never an agent of the intelligence services of the Soviet Union ... Not a single document, and a great amount of materials has been studied, substantiates the allegation that Mr. A. Hiss collaborated with the intelligence services of the Soviet Union."[^61] The Washington Post of October 31, 1992 printed another sentence of the letter: "Mr. A. Hiss had never and nowhere been recruited as an agent of the intelligence service of the U.S.S.R." It reported that Volkogonov added that there was no evidence Hiss was a Communist Party member.[^62] Hiss said he was "overjoyed, pleased as punch." [[Allen Weinstein]], the author of Perjury, said: "We don't know what he's (Volkogonov) seen, we don't know what he hasn't seen."[^62] + +On December 17, 1992 the New York Times printed an article by [[Serge Schmemann]] titled "Russian General Retreats on Hiss." According to the quotation of it by Mark Kramer of Harvard, Volkogonov told Schmemann: "I was not properly understood. The Ministry of Defense also has an intelligence service, which is totally different, and many documents have been destroyed. I looked only through what the K.G.B. had. All I said was that I saw no evidence." Kramer quotes him as saying that his motive had been "primarily humanitarian" and that "His attorney, Lowenthal, pushed me hard to say things of which I was not fully convinced."[^61] Kramer wrote that Volkogonov published an article in the Russian newspaper Nezavisimaya gazeta on November 24, 1992 retracting the written statement, and that in January 1993 he told Kramer that he had "not seen anything from the GRU archive."[^61] + +Navasky replied that Lowenthal had reinterviewed Volkogonov in Washington, on a date Kramer gives as November 11, 1992, on video, and quoted the transcript: Lowenthal asked whether he had examined the GRU files, and Volkogonov answered, "Yes, we also asked to examine the military intelligence files and there, too, no traces of Alger Hiss have been found," adding "naturally I can't say that I've seen all existing documents." In the transcript Volkogonov also said: "naturally I can not give a one hundred percent guarantee that something wasn't destroyed, but as far as I know ... these documents were not touched." Navasky wrote that Major General Julius Kobyakov, who did some of the research for Volkogonov, said publicly that he would "take a bite of my hat" if the GRU files, once opened, showed that Hiss was a spy, and that in messages to the H-DIPLO list beginning October 16, 2003 Kobyakov wrote that he had corresponded with the GRU and received "the relevant answer."[^61] Ehrman's 2004 review of G. Edward White's book on Hiss states that Volkogonov wrote a second letter "a few weeks later" stating that his search had not been thorough, and that the Venona releases of 1995 ended any chance that Hiss could be exonerated.[^60] + +### The Bundy contribution and the Hiss defense + +The Bureau's Hiss file includes a 1953 memorandum on Harvey H. Bundy that began with a December 1952 letter to Senator McCarthy from a reader in Clanton, Alabama. The letter enclosed a newspaper clipping that said Bundy had a post at the Carnegie Endowment "with Alger Hiss' background."[^63] In July 1953 [[Joseph McCarthy]] wrote to [[Allen Dulles]], director of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], about a $400 contribution to the defense of Hiss by Bundy's son [[William P. Bundy]], a CIA employee and Acheson's son-in-law; McCarthy's letter of July 27, 1953 said the confirmation of the contribution "raises the gravest question as to his holding a sensitive post in an intelligence agency."[^64] + +### Michael Whitney Straight + +[[Michael Whitney Straight]] appears in the Hiss record through Allen Weinstein's book [[Perjury: The Hiss-Chambers Case]], which asserted that Straight tried to recruit Hiss. Straight wrote to [[The New York Review of Books]] in December 1997 that in the June 1938 dispatch of Akhmerov, the Soviet contact "Jung," published by Weinstein, Akhmerov noted only that Straight "mentioned" Hiss as "a very progressive man." Weinstein replied that the book's line should read that Straight, code-named "Nigel," "identified and described Hiss to Itzhak Akhmerov."[^65] + +### Footnotes + +[^1]: *Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage in the United States Government*, House Committee on Un-American Activities, 80th Congress, 2d session, 1948, testimony of Alger Hiss, pp. 643-644, https://archive.org/details/hearingsregardin1948unit (text: https://archive.org/download/hearingsregardin1948unit/hearingsregardin1948unit_djvu.txt) + +[^2]: Same hearings, testimony of Alger Hiss, p. 644 (Holmes, Agricultural Adjustment Administration, May 1933; Jerome Frank). + +[^3]: Same hearings, testimony of Alger Hiss, pp. 643-644 (statement of August 5, 1948; Pressman, Witt, Collins; "complete fabrications"; "never laid eyes on him"). + +[^4]: Same hearings, p. 641, press report on the Agricultural Adjustment Administration reorganization reprinted in the record. + +[^5]: Same hearings, testimony of Alger Hiss, p. 645 ("I was counsel. The technical title was legal assistant."). + +[^6]: *Munitions Industry: Preliminary Report of the Special Committee on Investigation of the Munitions Industry*, United States Senate, 1935, staff listing, https://archive.org/details/munitionsindustr00unit + +[^7]: *Munitions Industry: Hearings before the Special Committee Investigating the Munitions Industry*, Senate, 73d Congress, Part 4, hearings of September 10 to 18, 1934 (Curtiss-Wright Export Corporation; testimony of John S. Allard, Henry G. Hotchkiss and Clarence W. Webster; Hiss's examination and Exhibit No. 268), pp. 692-694, https://archive.org/details/munitionsindustr46unit + +[^8]: Same hearings, Part 13, hearing of December 12, 1934 (Lieutenant Colonel C. T. Harris; John H. Rudd; Old Hickory contract), pp. 2929-2932, https://archive.org/details/munitionsindustr1114unit + +[^9]: Same hearings, Parts 13 to 14 (December 12 and 14, 1934) and Part 15 and following (December 17 to 21, 1934), https://archive.org/details/munitionsindustr1114unit and https://archive.org/details/munitionsindustr1519unit + +[^10]: *In re Hiss*, 542 F. Supp. 973 (S.D.N.Y. July 15, 1982), "The History" and "The Trials" (Chambers's contacts with Berle, Raymond Murphy and FBI agents; Chambers's testimony on introduction to Hiss in 1934), https://static.case.law/f-supp/542/cases/0973-01.json + +[^11]: *Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage* (1948), testimony of Alger Hiss (the man "named George Crosley. I met him when I was working for the Nye committee. He was a writer."), https://archive.org/details/hearingsregardin1948unit + +[^12]: Same hearings, testimony of Alger Hiss, p. 645 (State Department from September 1936; Francis B. Sayre; resignation January 1947). + +[^13]: *Foreign Relations of the United States: The Conferences at Malta and Yalta, 1945*, list of persons ("Hiss, Alger, Special Assistant to the Director, Office of Special Political Affairs, Department of State, May-October 1944; Deputy Director ..."), https://raw.githubusercontent.com/HistoryAtState/frus/master/volumes/frus1945Malta.xml + +[^14]: *United States of America, Appellee, against Alger Hiss, Appellant: Transcript of Record*, Second Circuit, vol. IV (second trial), testimony of Alger Hiss on cross-examination, trial transcript p. 2873, and redirect, pp. 3159-3161 (Sayre recommendations), https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesofam04hiss + +[^15]: *FRUS, Malta and Yalta*, telegram from the Secretary of State to Ambassador Harriman, Washington, January 15, 1945. + +[^16]: *FRUS, Malta and Yalta*, editorial note on the Hiss Collection (the collection "contains the original penciled notes taken by Hiss at a number of meetings at Yalta"), and notes to the plenary meeting of February 6, 1945, and table of contents (Hiss notes, pp. 660, 704, 718, 741, 771, 802, 850, 871). + +[^17]: *FRUS, Malta and Yalta*, agreed record of the Foreign Ministers' meeting, February 2, 1945 (European High Commission), https://raw.githubusercontent.com/HistoryAtState/frus/master/volumes/frus1945Malta.xml + +[^18]: *FRUS, Malta and Yalta*, "Excerpts From Handwritten Notes of Plenary Session of February 6, 1945," dictated at San Francisco, June 3, 1945, memorandum by the Director of the Office of Special Political Affairs (Hiss), unsigned, author presumed to be Hiss. + +[^19]: *FRUS, Malta and Yalta*, Hiss Collection: draft report to the Foreign Ministers by the Subcommittee on Arrangements for the United Nations Conference (editorial note citing Matthews's note of August 13, 1954, 640.0029/8-1354); memorandum of arguments against inclusion of the Soviet republics; draft invitation to the United Nations conference with penciled modifications in Hiss's handwriting; editorial note on the Foreign Ministers' meeting of February 11, 1945. + +[^20]: *Documents of the United Nations Conference on International Organization, San Francisco, 1945*, Volume XI, Commission III, Security Council, fifth meeting, June 20, 1945, https://archive.org/details/documentsoftheun008818mbp + +[^21]: Transcript of Record, second trial, testimony of John Foster Dulles (rebuttal for the government), cross-examination, trial transcript pp. 4483-4493, https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesofam05hiss + +[^22]: *Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage* (1948), testimony of Alger Hiss, pp. 645-646 (Carnegie election, office from February 1, 1947; Dulles as chairman of the board of trustees; "He first approached me."; Dulles urging, "And other members of the board of trustees."). + +[^23]: Transcript of Record, vol. III (second trial), testimony of John W. Davis for the defendant, direct and cross-examination, trial transcript pp. 1926-1932, https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesofam03hiss + +[^24]: Transcript of Record, vol. V (second trial), testimony of James T. Shotwell for the defendant, direct, trial transcript pp. 4100-4114, including defendant's exhibits 6x1 to 6xN (actions of the trustees of December 13, 1948, the executive committee of February 17, 1949 and the board of May 5, 1949), https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesofam05hiss + +[^25]: *Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage* (1948), testimony of Alger Hiss, August 25, 1948, p. 1133, https://archive.org/details/hearingsregardin1948unit + +[^26]: Same hearings, testimony of Alger Hiss, pp. 1130-1135, including the exchange with Representative Mundt at p. 1134 and Hiss's account of checking with Byrnes on "whether he thought the issue had been laid to rest." + +[^27]: Transcript of Record, vol. V (second trial), testimony of John Foster Dulles, direct examination, trial transcript pp. 4474-4483, quoting Hiss's direct testimony at pp. 2649, 2652, 2688, 2692 and 2911 (vol. III-IV), https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesofam05hiss + +[^28]: Transcript of Record, vol. IV (second trial), testimony of Alger Hiss on cross-examination, trial transcript pp. 2919-2925, https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesofam04hiss + +[^29]: *The Charlotte News*, December 13, 1948, news summary on the Carnegie Endowment trustees' action (digitized with editor's summary at https://wjcash.org/WJCash16/Charlotte.News.Articles/12-13-48.htm). + +[^30]: Federal Bureau of Investigation, Alger Hiss file, cross-reference summaries (Drew Pearson column of September 15, 1948; Washington Evening Star of August 5, 1948; Duggan; Massing), FOIA release at https://archive.org/details/foia_Hiss_Alger-Whittaker_Chambers-xrefs-4 + +[^31]: Federal Bureau of Investigation, New York field office memoranda of September 22 and 28, 1949 (Assistant U.S. Attorney Murphy's informant; Carnegie Endowment leads), Alger Hiss file, https://archive.org/details/foia_Hiss_Alger-Whittaker_Chambers-NYC-36 + +[^32]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, answers to the questionnaire of the Select Committee to Investigate Tax-Exempt Foundations (Cox Committee), 1952, answer on the nominating committee for the president (election of Joseph E. Johnson on May 11, 1950), Edward R. Murrow Papers, vol. 42, https://archive.org/details/per_edward-r-murrow-papers_edward-r-murrow-papers_1927-1973_42 ; Federal Bureau of Investigation, Joseph Esrey Johnson file (loyalty inquiry, 1951), FOIA release 1368175-0, https://archive.org/details/JosephEsreyJohnson + +[^33]: Report of the Select Committee to Investigate Foundations and Other Comparable Organizations, as filed in the Edward R. Murrow Papers, vol. 46, https://archive.org/details/per_edward-r-murrow-papers_edward-r-murrow-papers_1927-1973_46 + +[^34]: *American Foundations and Their Fields*, vol. 6 (1948), World Peace Foundation entry, trustees for the fiscal year ended December 31, 1947, p. 121, https://archive.org/details/americanfoundati0000wilm + +[^35]: Transcript of Record, vol. IV (second trial), testimony of Alger Hiss on redirect and recross, Government's Exhibit 60 (letter on the Carnegie Endowment letterhead, "Alger Hiss, President"), trial transcript pp. 3157-3163 and 3211-3212, https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesofam04hiss + +[^36]: *Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage* (1948), testimony of Whittaker Chambers, p. 572, https://archive.org/details/hearingsregardin1948unit + +[^37]: Same hearings, testimony of Whittaker Chambers, p. 576. + +[^38]: Same hearings, p. 988 (Chambers's identification; Hiss's invitation to repeat the charges outside the committee room). + +[^39]: Same hearings, pp. 978-979 (Nixon, "Since some repartee goes on between these two people, I think Mr. Chambers should be sworn."; Nixon and Hiss on the dental work). + +[^40]: *United States v. Hiss*, 185 F.2d 822 (2d Cir., December 7, 1950), opinion by Chase, Circuit Judge, Swan and Augustus N. Hand, Circuit Judges, text at https://static.case.law/f2d/185/cases/0822-01.json (Harvard Caselaw Access Project static files). + +[^41]: *In re Hiss*, 542 F. Supp. 973, "The History" (Baltimore libel action; production of the Baltimore documents on November 17, 1948; Hiss's concession as to the handwriting and the Woodstock typewriter). + +[^42]: Federal Bureau of Investigation, New York field office, memorandum of A. H. Belmont, December 15, 1948, "Jay David Whittaker Chambers, was., Perjury, Internal Security - R, Espionage - R," file NY 65-14920, Alger Hiss file, https://archive.org/details/foia_Hiss_Alger-Whittaker_Chambers-NYC-2 + +[^43]: Carleton R. Bryant, "Hiss glad Russian disputes his guilt," *The Washington Times*, October 30, 1992, https://stuff.mit.edu/afs/net.mit.edu/user/tytso/usenet/americast/twt/news/259 + +[^44]: *United States v. Hiss*, 185 F.2d 822 (2d Cir. 1950), same opinion, discussion of the Woodstock typewriter, the corroboration standard, the concurrent sentences and the affirmance. + +[^45]: Federal Bureau of Investigation, New York field office, memorandum of A. H. Belmont, May 18, 1949, on the call of May 17, 1949 from the Philadelphia office on the history of the Woodstock typewriter, file NY 65-14920, Alger Hiss file, https://archive.org/details/foia_Hiss_Alger-Whittaker_Chambers-NYC-28 + +[^46]: *In re Hiss*, 542 F. Supp. 973, section "The Typewriter" (quoting *United States v. Hiss*, 107 F. Supp. 128, 134 (S.D.N.Y. 1952), aff'd, 201 F.2d 372 (2d Cir.), cert. denied, 345 U.S. 942 (1953)). + +[^47]: *In re Hiss*, 542 F. Supp. 973, "The Trials." + +[^48]: New York University Tamiment Library and Robert F. Wagner Labor Archives, "Debevoise & Plimpton Records on Alger Hiss," TAM.674, finding aid, https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/tamwag/tam_674 (historical note and abstract). + +[^49]: Harry S. Truman Library, "The President's News Conference," January 27, 1950, footnote on the sentence of January 25, 1950 and on the New York Times report of Acheson's remark, https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/public-papers/23/presidents-news-conference + +[^50]: Transcript of Record, Second Circuit, vols. II to V, indexes of witnesses for the government and the defense (second trial). + +[^51]: Transcript of Record, vol. II (second trial), testimony of Hede Massing for the government, direct examination, trial transcript pp. 1668-1679, https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesofam02hiss + +[^52]: Transcript of Record, vol. IV (second trial), testimony of Priscilla Hiss for the defendant, direct, trial transcript pp. 3356-3357, https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesofam04hiss + +[^53]: Transcript of Record, vol. IV (second trial), testimony of Alger Hiss on cross-examination, trial transcript pp. 3129-3130. + +[^54]: Transcript of Record, vol. V (second trial), testimony of Henrikas Rabinavicius for the defendant, trial transcript pp. 3800-3807, https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesofam05hiss + +[^55]: Ethan Klingsberg, "Case Closed on Alger Hiss?," *The Nation*, November 8, 1993 (page "Noel Field (Klingsberg)," https://algerhiss.com/?p=875), on Maria Schmidt's findings in the Hungarian Interior Ministry files on Noel Field, Sam Tanenhaus's New York Times op-ed of October 15, 1993 and Commentary article. + +[^56]: *In re Hiss*, 542 F. Supp. 973, opening paragraphs (affirmance, 185 F.2d 822; cert. denied, 340 U.S. 948 (1951); three years of the five-year sentence served). + +[^57]: *In re Hiss*, 542 F. Supp. 973 (S.D.N.Y. July 15, 1982), Owen, District Judge, opinion and "Conclusion," https://static.case.law/f-supp/542/cases/0973-01.json + +[^58]: National Security Agency, Venona release, decrypt of cable No. 1822 from Washington to Moscow, March 30, 1945, "KGB interviews GRU agent and net controller name ALES," annotation "ALES: Probably Alger HISS," https://archive.org/details/1945_30mar_kgb_interviews_gru_agent + +[^59]: John Ehrman, "The Mystery of ALES: Once Again, the Alger Hiss Case," *Studies in Intelligence* 51, no. 4 (2007), https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/once-again-alger-hiss.pdf (Mark; Lowenthal, "Venona and Alger Hiss," *Intelligence and National Security* 15 (Autumn 2000), as cited at note 4; the 2005 release of the Russian text; Bird and Chervonnaya; Vassiliev's notes; Hobson). + +[^60]: John Ehrman, review of G. Edward White, *Alger Hiss's Looking-Glass Wars* (Oxford University Press, 2004), *Studies in Intelligence* 48, no. 4, https://cia.gov/resources/csi/static/alger-hiss-lookingglass-wars.pdf + +[^61]: Mark Kramer and Victor Navasky, "Mark Kramer Vs. Victor Navasky: Hiss & History," exchange of April 17 to 20, 2007, History News Network, https://www.historynewsnetwork.org/article/37819 (Volkogonov's letter of October 14, 1992; New York Times, December 17, 1992; Nezavisimaya gazeta, November 24, 1992; transcript of the Lowenthal interview of November 11, 1992). + +[^62]: "Stalin Biographer Offers Latest Twist in Hiss Case; No Evidence Diplomat," *The Washington Post*, October 31, 1992, https://stuff.mit.edu/afs/net.mit.edu/user/tytso/usenet/americast/wpost/364 + +[^63]: Federal Bureau of Investigation, memorandum to the Assistant Attorney General, Criminal Division, April 1953, "Harvey Hollister Bundy, Miscellaneous Information Concerning," with the December 27, 1952 letter to Senator Joseph R. McCarthy and the *Union Banner* clipping, in the Alger Hiss file, https://archive.org/details/foia_Hiss_Alger-Whittaker_Chambers-Misc_Field-3. + +[^64]: Letter from Joseph R. McCarthy, Chairman, Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, to Allen W. Dulles, July 27, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080022-7, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080022-7 ; letter from the Central Intelligence Agency to McCarthy, July 22, 1953, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080014-6, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080014-6 + +[^65]: Michael Straight and Allen Weinstein, letters under the heading "Not a Recruiter," *The New York Review of Books*, December 18, 1997, https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1997/12/18/not-a-recruiter/ diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Henry A. Kissinger.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Henry A. Kissinger.md index 99cf85fa..7eb5d297 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Henry A. Kissinger.md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Henry A. Kissinger.md @@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ aliases: - Heinz Alfred Kissinger - Kissinger created: 2026-05-14 -updated: 2026-10-14 +updated: 2026-10-26 category: "Intelligence & Government" tags: - KeyFigure @@ -81,13 +81,13 @@ relations: with: "[[Kissinger Associates]]" role: "co-founder with Brent Scowcroft" start: 1982 - fn: 63 + fn: 68 - type: member_of with: "[[Banca Nazionale del Lavoro]]" role: "international advisory board member" start: 1985 end: 1991-06 - fn: 63 + fn: 68 - type: reported_to with: "[[Richard Nixon]]" role: "Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs" @@ -123,7 +123,7 @@ relations: role: "consulting contract for Kissinger Associates, July 1986 to June 1988" start: 1986-07-01 end: 1988-06-30 - fn: 65 + fn: 70 --- Henry Alfred Kissinger (1923 to 2023) was a German-born American political scientist and diplomat who served as [[United States Secretary of State]] and as National Security Advisor under Presidents [[Richard Nixon]] and [[Gerald R. Ford]]. [[Seymour Hersh]] wrote that in the fall of 1967, while a [[Harvard University]] professor and consultant on [[Vietnam]] to the [[Lyndon B. Johnson|Johnson]] administration, Kissinger visited [[Tel Aviv]] to teach for a week at the Israeli Defense College, and that at the end of that course he went to [[William N. Dale]]'s office in the embassy and sent an urgent, top-secret message to the [[White House]] warning about [[Dimona]] and concluding that [[Israel]] was making nuclear warheads.[^1] @@ -262,101 +262,182 @@ The East Timor Truth Commission subsequently concluded that U.S. material suppor The American response to the [[Cyprus]] crisis of July 1974 was handled through Washington Special Actions Group meetings and Nixon's telephone calls with Kissinger. In a conversation on July 17, 1974, Nixon and Kissinger discussed the European position that [[Makarios]] should be brought back to Cyprus and that the United States should press the Greeks to accept it.[^58] A Washington Special Actions Group meeting on July 20, 1974, discussed the evacuation of civilians from Cyprus and the positioning of the amphibious task force south of the island.[^59] In an April 29, 1975, memorandum to President Ford, Kissinger attributed the Greek request for military assistance in large part to the wish to recoup military losses "suffered during last summer's Cyprus crisis."[^60] +### China opening, 1971 to 1973 + +[[Winston Lord]], of the [[Lord family]] and a member of the National Security Council staff, is named in the FRUS record of the opening to Beijing. On April 17, 1971 Lord sent Kissinger a seven-page memorandum listing the major contacts between the United States and the People's Republic of China through Pakistan, Romania and other channels.[^61] On June 21, 1971 Kissinger, Lord and the Pakistani ambassador Agha Hilaly met at the White House, where Hilaly handed over two notes in the exchange that arranged the trip.[^62] Lord was one of the four Americans who met Premier Chou En-lai in Beijing on July 9, 1971, with Kissinger, John Holdridge and Richard Smyser, and Lord, Holdridge and Smyser prepared the transcripts.[^63] On October 21, 1971 Kissinger said of CIA agents, "Most write long, incomprehensible reports and don't make revolution," and added, "They are mostly from Yale and they don't have the people." Chou asked whether Lord was from Yale, and Kissinger answered, "Does he look like a revolutionary?"[^64] Lord, by then director of planning and coordination at the State Department, prepared the briefing papers for the Beijing trip of November 10 to 14, 1973.[^65] + ### Israel and the 1973 War -Kissinger's Israeli contacts during the October 1973 war ran principally through Ambassador [[Simcha Dinitz]]. On October 8, 1973, Kissinger and Dinitz discussed Israeli aircraft losses, including a reference to the SAM-6 missiles, which were "very effective against our planes."[^61] On October 13, 1973, Kissinger told Dinitz, "We are going to do three separate things."[^62] +Kissinger's Israeli contacts during the October 1973 war ran principally through Ambassador [[Simcha Dinitz]]. On October 8, 1973, Kissinger and Dinitz discussed Israeli aircraft losses, including a reference to the SAM-6 missiles, which were "very effective against our planes."[^66] On October 13, 1973, Kissinger told Dinitz, "We are going to do three separate things."[^67] ### Kissinger Associates, Banca Nazionale del Lavoro and Iraq -Kissinger and Brent Scowcroft set up [[Kissinger Associates]] in 1982. Scowcroft served as vice chairman and head of the firm's Washington office until he became head of the National Security Council under President [[George H. W. Bush]] in January 1989.[^63] [[Lawrence Eagleburger]] was the firm's president.[^63] +Kissinger and Brent Scowcroft set up [[Kissinger Associates]] in 1982. Scowcroft served as vice chairman and head of the firm's Washington office until he became head of the National Security Council under President [[George H. W. Bush]] in January 1989.[^68] [[Lawrence Eagleburger]] was the firm's president.[^68] -The House Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs and its chairman, [[Henry B. Gonzalez]], pursued the relationship between the firm and the [[Banca Nazionale del Lavoro]] during the lending of its [[Atlanta]] branch to [[Iraq]]. Gonzalez told the House that Kissinger was a paid member of the bank's advisory board for international policy between 1985 and June 1991, and that he received at least $10,000 for attending each meeting of the board.[^63] Gonzalez said that Kissinger's contract expired in the summer of 1991, more than four months after the date Kissinger had previously reported for his departure from the board.[^63] Gonzalez inserted into the House hearing record the minutes of the advisory board's meeting in [[Madrid]] on May 4 and 5, 1987, which quote Kissinger giving "the victory of Iran over Iraq at 55 percent" and stating that he would change that estimate.[^64] +The House Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs and its chairman, [[Henry B. Gonzalez]], pursued the relationship between the firm and the [[Banca Nazionale del Lavoro]] during the lending of its [[Atlanta]] branch to [[Iraq]]. Gonzalez told the House that Kissinger was a paid member of the bank's advisory board for international policy between 1985 and June 1991, and that he received at least $10,000 for attending each meeting of the board.[^68] Gonzalez said that Kissinger's contract expired in the summer of 1991, more than four months after the date Kissinger had previously reported for his departure from the board.[^68] Gonzalez inserted into the House hearing record the minutes of the advisory board's meeting in [[Madrid]] on May 4 and 5, 1987, which quote Kissinger giving "the victory of Iran over Iraq at 55 percent" and stating that he would change that estimate.[^69] -[[Christopher Drogoul]], the Atlanta branch manager, testified in 1993 that [[Wafai Dajani]] had told him in 1989 that Kissinger was "the architect of foreign policy in the United States." Drogoul also testified that "it became clear to us that the people at Kissinger and Associates were somehow assisting clients of Iraq in further developing business."[^64] +[[Christopher Drogoul]], the Atlanta branch manager, testified in 1993 that [[Wafai Dajani]] had told him in 1989 that Kissinger was "the architect of foreign policy in the United States." Drogoul also testified that "it became clear to us that the people at Kissinger and Associates were somehow assisting clients of Iraq in further developing business."[^69] -The report of the Italian Senate's parliamentary commission of inquiry on the Atlanta branch of BNL, approved on April 22, 1992, states that BNL's executive committee decided in June 1986 to begin a consulting relationship with Kissinger Associates, under a two-year contract at $150,000 a year plus expenses that ran from July 1, 1986 to June 30, 1988; that five meetings took place between officers of the bank and of the firm, with Iraq not among the countries examined; and that Scowcroft attended as a representative of the firm and received no personal compensation, only travel and lodging expenses. The commission gave June 30, 1991 as the end of Kissinger's membership of BNL's international advisory committee under his own consulting contract, which provided $50,000 for the address at the dinner preceding the committee's annual meeting, and noted Gonzalez's statement that the membership continued to August 1991. It reported that Alan Stoga of Kissinger Associates took part in a June 1989 meeting in Baghdad between the US-Iraq Business Forum and Iraqi government officials, and listed among the firm's clients [[American Express]], [[Coca-Cola]], [[Anheuser-Busch]], [[H. J. Heinz]], [[Volvo]], [[Arco]], [[Hunt Oil]], Chase Manhattan Bank, [[American International Group]] and [[Freeport-McMoRan]].[^65] +The report of the Italian Senate's parliamentary commission of inquiry on the Atlanta branch of BNL, approved on April 22, 1992, states that BNL's executive committee decided in June 1986 to begin a consulting relationship with Kissinger Associates, under a two-year contract at $150,000 a year plus expenses that ran from July 1, 1986 to June 30, 1988; that five meetings took place between officers of the bank and of the firm, with Iraq not among the countries examined; and that Scowcroft attended as a representative of the firm and received no personal compensation, only travel and lodging expenses. The commission gave June 30, 1991 as the end of Kissinger's membership of BNL's international advisory committee under his own consulting contract, which provided $50,000 for the address at the dinner preceding the committee's annual meeting, and noted Gonzalez's statement that the membership continued to August 1991. It reported that Alan Stoga of Kissinger Associates took part in a June 1989 meeting in Baghdad between the US-Iraq Business Forum and Iraqi government officials, and listed among the firm's clients [[American Express]], [[Coca-Cola]], [[Anheuser-Busch]], [[H. J. Heinz]], [[Volvo]], [[Arco]], [[Hunt Oil]], Chase Manhattan Bank, [[American International Group]] and [[Freeport-McMoRan]].[^70] -Gonzalez also reported that Eagleburger was at a meeting between the bank's managers and Kissinger Associates in New York in 1987 or 1988, and that Kissinger had stated that Eagleburger did not handle the BNL account at the firm.[^63] +Gonzalez also reported that Eagleburger was at a meeting between the bank's managers and Kissinger Associates in New York in 1987 or 1988, and that Kissinger had stated that Eagleburger did not handle the BNL account at the firm.[^68] -The Senate Foreign Relations Committee's December 1992 report on [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International]] by [[John Kerry]] and [[Hank Brown]] devotes its chapter 20 to Kissinger Associates. It states that from the fall of 1986 through early 1989 BCCI initiated contacts with the firm, which then had five partners (Kissinger, Scowcroft, Eagleburger, Alan Stoga and T. Jefferson Cunningham III); that Stoga and a retired Brazilian ambassador working as a Kissinger Associates consultant, Sergio Correa da Costa, explored ways to link BCCI's banks with the firm's services; and that the discussions "ended in early 1989 at Henry Kissinger's personal insistence," after which Kissinger Associates referred BCCI to its director William D. Rogers and the law firm [[Arnold & Porter]]. Letters of November 3, 1986 set da Costa's terms at $40,000 a year plus 10 to 20 percent of fees on transactions he arranged, and da Costa told Kissinger in them that he would also work for BCCI. In the summer of 1987 da Costa wrote to the firm about "that amusing luncheon with the BNL crowd." On September 20, 1987 da Costa invited Kissinger to a dinner at the plantation of the BCCI shareholder [[Ghaith Pharaon]], suggesting Pharaon as a client; the report states that Kissinger declined the invitation.[^66] +The Senate Foreign Relations Committee's December 1992 report on [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International]] by [[John Kerry]] and [[Hank Brown]] devotes its chapter 20 to Kissinger Associates. It states that from the fall of 1986 through early 1989 BCCI initiated contacts with the firm, which then had five partners (Kissinger, Scowcroft, Eagleburger, Alan Stoga and T. Jefferson Cunningham III); that Stoga and a retired Brazilian ambassador working as a Kissinger Associates consultant, Sergio Correa da Costa, explored ways to link BCCI's banks with the firm's services; and that the discussions "ended in early 1989 at Henry Kissinger's personal insistence," after which Kissinger Associates referred BCCI to its director William D. Rogers and the law firm [[Arnold & Porter]]. Letters of November 3, 1986 set da Costa's terms at $40,000 a year plus 10 to 20 percent of fees on transactions he arranged, and da Costa told Kissinger in them that he would also work for BCCI. In the summer of 1987 da Costa wrote to the firm about "that amusing luncheon with the BNL crowd." On September 20, 1987 da Costa invited Kissinger to a dinner at the plantation of the BCCI shareholder [[Ghaith Pharaon]], suggesting Pharaon as a client; the report states that Kissinger declined the invitation.[^71] -In a letter of January 30, 1992 to Kerry, the firm's attorney [[Lloyd Cutler]] wrote that Kissinger Associates "have never represented or provided any services for BCCI, ICIC, or any BCCI shareholder." The committee's electronic text, published by the Federation of American Scientists, adds the comment that the account "is not untrue" but "does fail to characterize the full extent of the contacts"; the Government Printing Office print omits that comment, and both editions record that the firm declined to provide its client list to the subcommittee. The printed chapter says the contacts "extended over a period of 2 years" and adds a paragraph stating that "in each case reviewed by the Subcommittee, Kissinger declined the overtures."[^66] A note by Steven Aftergood of the Federation of American Scientists on the copy of the report published by that organization states that Hank Brown, "reportedly acting at the behest of Henry Kissinger," pressed after its release for the deletion of a few passages, particularly in chapter 20, so that the Government Printing Office edition differs slightly from the committee's softcopy.[^66] +In a letter of January 30, 1992 to Kerry, the firm's attorney [[Lloyd Cutler]] wrote that Kissinger Associates "have never represented or provided any services for BCCI, ICIC, or any BCCI shareholder." The committee's electronic text, published by the Federation of American Scientists, adds the comment that the account "is not untrue" but "does fail to characterize the full extent of the contacts"; the Government Printing Office print omits that comment, and both editions record that the firm declined to provide its client list to the subcommittee. The printed chapter says the contacts "extended over a period of 2 years" and adds a paragraph stating that "in each case reviewed by the Subcommittee, Kissinger declined the overtures."[^71] A note by Steven Aftergood of the Federation of American Scientists on the copy of the report published by that organization states that Hank Brown, "reportedly acting at the behest of Henry Kissinger," pressed after its release for the deletion of a few passages, particularly in chapter 20, so that the Government Printing Office edition differs slightly from the committee's softcopy.[^71] ### Telephone Transcripts -Beginning in January 1969, Kissinger had his telephone conversations transcribed for his office files, a practice that continued through his tenure as Secretary of State. On October 29, 1976, while still Secretary of State, Kissinger arranged to move the transcripts as personal papers from his State Department office to Nelson Rockefeller's estate in [[Tarrytown, New York]], before arranging a donation to the Library of Congress under terms excluding public access. State Department lawyers advised in 1975 and 1976 that the transcripts were not subject to the Freedom of Information Act as personal property, despite having been created by government secretaries using government resources. William Safire's January 14, 1976, *New York Times* column, "The Dead-Key Scrolls," first brought the issue to public attention. The National Security Archive began corresponding with the Archivist of the United States, [[John W. Carlin]], about recovering the transcripts in January 1999. A complaint written by its pro bono counsel at [[Mayer Brown]] was presented to the Archivist and the Secretary of State on January 25, 2001, and its attorneys wrote again to the State Department, the National Archives and the Department of Justice on April 25, 2001. The government recovered copies of the transcripts to the National Archives and State Department in 2001, and a State Department statement of August 8, 2001 credited the Archive with prompting the recovery. On May 26, 2004 the National Archives released about 20,000 pages of the transcripts, covering Kissinger's service from 1969 to August 1974.[^67] These materials are documented in NSAEBB Briefing Book No. 852. +Beginning in January 1969, Kissinger had his telephone conversations transcribed for his office files, a practice that continued through his tenure as Secretary of State. On October 29, 1976, while still Secretary of State, Kissinger arranged to move the transcripts as personal papers from his State Department office to Nelson Rockefeller's estate in [[Tarrytown, New York]], before arranging a donation to the Library of Congress under terms excluding public access. State Department lawyers advised in 1975 and 1976 that the transcripts were not subject to the Freedom of Information Act as personal property, despite having been created by government secretaries using government resources. William Safire's January 14, 1976, *New York Times* column, "The Dead-Key Scrolls," first brought the issue to public attention. The National Security Archive began corresponding with the Archivist of the United States, [[John W. Carlin]], about recovering the transcripts in January 1999. A complaint written by its pro bono counsel at [[Mayer Brown]] was presented to the Archivist and the Secretary of State on January 25, 2001, and its attorneys wrote again to the State Department, the National Archives and the Department of Justice on April 25, 2001. The government recovered copies of the transcripts to the National Archives and State Department in 2001, and a State Department statement of August 8, 2001 credited the Archive with prompting the recovery. On May 26, 2004 the National Archives released about 20,000 pages of the transcripts, covering Kissinger's service from 1969 to August 1974.[^72] These materials are documented in NSAEBB Briefing Book No. 852. ### Commission Chairmanship, 2002 -On November 27, 2002, President [[George W. Bush]] announced his choice of Kissinger to chair the independent commission on the September 11 attacks: "my choice for commission chairman, Dr. Henry Kissinger."[^68] +On November 27, 2002, President [[George W. Bush]] announced his choice of Kissinger to chair the independent commission on the September 11 attacks: "my choice for commission chairman, Dr. Henry Kissinger."[^73] ### Footnotes [^1]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991, chapter 12. + [^2]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991, chapter 16. + [^3]: Nobel Prize Outreach, "Henry Kissinger: Biographical," Nobelprize.org, https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/1973/kissinger/biographical/. Gives the birth at Fuerth on May 27, 1923, arrival in the United States in 1938, naturalization on June 19, 1943, the Harvard degrees of 1950, 1952 and 1954, membership of the Harvard faculty from 1954 until 1971, the Associate Directorship of the Center for International Affairs from 1957 to 1960, direction of the Harvard International Seminar from 1951 to 1971, study directorship for the Council on Foreign Relations from 1955 to 1956, and the founding of Kissinger Associates. + [^4]: Rockefeller Archive Center, Nelson A. Rockefeller personal papers, description of the folder for Henry A. Kissinger's Spring 1980 interview, as quoted in the account of Daniel Bessner of the Quantico II panel. + [^5]: *Prospect for America: The Rockefeller Panel Reports*. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1961. Report of the Rockefeller Brothers Fund Special Studies Project, which Kissinger directed. + [^6]: National Security Archive, "The Kissinger Telcons," Electronic Briefing Book No. 123, edited by Thomas Blanton and William Burr, posted May 26, 2004, telephone conversation of Kissinger and David Rockefeller, March 13, 1972, 11:12 a.m. (Nixon Presidential Materials Project, NSC Files, HAK Office Files, Box 87). https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB123/. + [^7]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, "Henry Alfred Kissinger," https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/kissinger-henry-alfred. Identifies him as the 56th Secretary of State, 1973 to 1977, while continuing as Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs. + [^8]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, Volume VI, Vietnam, January 1969 to July 1970, document 39, Memorandum for the Record, Washington, March 15, 1969, "March 16 Rocket Attack on Saigon." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v06/d39. + [^9]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume VI, document 40, Memorandum From the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger) to President Nixon, Washington, March 16, 1969, "Breakfast Plan." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v06/d40. + [^10]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume VI, document 41, Editorial Note, quoting Kissinger's remarks after the first raid. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v06/d41. + [^11]: *Halperin v. Kissinger*, 606 F.2d 1192 (D.C. Cir. 1979). Text from the Caselaw Access Project (static.case.law, F.2d volume 606, case 1192). The opinion recounts the April 25, 1969 meeting, the events of May 9 and 10, 1969, the procedures worked out by FBI officials and Colonel Haig, the logs kept in special files where Kissinger and Haig reviewed them, the September 15, 1969 request, the continuation of the tap to February 10, 1971, and the 21 months of the wiretap. + [^12]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Intelligence Activities and the Rights of Americans*, Book II, Final Report, S. Rept. 94-755 (1976), PDF pages 215-216 (the "seventeen" wiretaps, May 1969 to February 1971, Nixon's "gobs of material" remark, and the finding that no leak was identified), PDF pages 222-223 (the authorization and duration of the taps), and PDF page 244, note 2 (taps requested by Kissinger or Haig). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_II.pdf. + [^13]: Report to the President by the Commission on CIA Activities Within the United States (Rockefeller Commission), June 1975, introduction (the commission "heard 51 witnesses," including Secretary of State Henry A. Kissinger) and Chapter 11, "Operation CHAOS" (Helms's covering memorandum of February 18, 1969, delivering the first version of "Restless Youth" to Kissinger). https://archive.org/details/Rockefeller-commission-report-to-the-president-by-the-commission-on-cia-activiti. + [^14]: *Intelligence Activities and the Rights of Americans*, Book II, S. Rept. 94-755, PDF page 162, on the CIA's student-dissent survey and the letter from Richard Helms to Henry Kissinger, February 18, 1969. + [^15]: National Security Archive, "Kissinger and Chile: The Declassified Record on Regime Change," Electronic Briefing Book No. 437, document 1, Helms-Kissinger telephone conversation, September 12, 1970, 12:00 noon. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB437/. + [^16]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXI, Chile, 1969-1973, document 88, Transcript of a Telephone Conversation Between Secretary of State Rogers and the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger), Washington, September 14, 1970, 12:15 p.m. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v21/d88. + [^17]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXI, document 93, Editorial Note, quoting Helms's notes of the September 15, 1970 meeting and Kissinger's August 12, 1975 testimony before the Church Committee. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v21/d93. + [^18]: National Security Archive, "Kissinger and Chile," EBB No. 437, document 3, handwritten notes of the September 15, 1970 meeting at the White House, with Mitchell and Kissinger listed as present. + [^19]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXI, Chile, 1969-1973, document 94, Memorandum for the Record, Washington, September 16, 1970, "Genesis of Project FUBELT" (William V. Broe, Chief, Western Hemisphere Division). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v21/d94. + [^20]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Covert Action in Chile, 1963-1973*, Staff Report, December 1975, PDF page 37 ("Richard Helms' notes from his September 15, 1970, meeting with President Nixon, the meeting which initiated Track II, contain the indication: 'Make the economy scream.'"). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94chile.pdf. + [^21]: Covert Action in Chile, 1963-1973, PDF page 29 (Track II "was initiated by President Nixon on September 15"), and PDF page 14 (the "no doubt" finding and the conflicting testimony). + [^22]: *Covert Action in Chile, 1963-1973*, PDF page 57, on the operating restrictions placed on Track II. + [^23]: *Covert Action in Chile, 1963-1973*, PDF page 62, chronology entry for President Nixon's instruction to CIA Director Helms. + [^24]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXI, document 152, Memorandum of Conversation, Washington, October 15, 1970 (Kissinger, Karamessines and Haig present; Central Intelligence Agency, Job 80-000012A, Chile Task Force Files). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v21/d152. + [^25]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXI, document 153, Transcript of a Telephone Conversation Between President Nixon and the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger), Washington, October 15, 1970. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v21/d153. + [^26]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXI, document 162, Briefing Notes Prepared in the Central Intelligence Agency, Washington, October 23, 1970, "Track II." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v21/d162. + [^27]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXI, document 168, Briefing Notes Prepared in the Central Intelligence Agency, Washington, October 28, 1970, "Recent Developments: Track II." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v21/d168. + [^28]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXI, document 172, Memorandum From the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger) to President Nixon, Washington, November 5, 1970, "NSC Meeting, November 6, Chile." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v21/d172. + [^29]: National Security Archive, "Kissinger and Chile," EBB No. 437, document 7, Kissinger-Nixon telephone conversation, September 16, 1973. + [^30]: National Security Archive, "Kissinger and Chile," EBB No. 437, document 10, Memorandum of Conversation, Santiago, June 8, 1976, noon (Gerald R. Ford Library copy), participants and Kissinger's statement. + [^31]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume E-11, Part II, document 238, Memorandum From the Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs (Shlaudeman) to Secretary of State Kissinger, Washington, August 3, 1976. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve11p2/d238. + [^32]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume E-11, Part II, Documents on South America, 1973-1976, document 241, Telegram 209192 From the Department of State to the Embassies in Argentina, Uruguay, Chile, and Bolivia, Washington, August 23, 1976. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve11p2/d241. + [^33]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume E-11, Part II, document 242, Telegram 8210 From the Embassy in Chile to the Department of State, Santiago, August 24, 1976, "Subject: Operation Condor" (signed Popper). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve11p2/d242. + [^34]: National Security Archive, "Kissinger Blocked Demarche on International Assassinations to Condor States," Electronic Briefing Book No. 312, edited by Peter Kornbluh, posted April 10, 2010, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB312/index.htm, with document 1 (ARA memorandum of August 30, 1976, "Operation Condor," released in part under FOIA) and document 2 (SECTO 27128, Lusaka, September 16, 1976, Department of State, released 2004 on 25-year review; the cable text is in capitals and is quoted in lowercase). The Siracusa account is the Archive's description of the August 30 memorandum. + [^35]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume E-11, Part II, Documents on South America, 1973-1976, document 245, Telegram 4526 From the Embassy in Costa Rica to the Department of State, San José, September 20, 1976, "For ARA-Luers from Shlaudeman" (also National Security Archive EBB No. 312, document 3). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve11p2/d245. + [^36]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume E-11, Part II, document 246, Memorandum From Mary Brownell and Dan Mozeleski of the National Security Council Staff to Les Janka, Washington, September 21, 1976. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve11p2/d246. + [^37]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume E-11, Part II, document 249, Memorandum From the Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs (Shlaudeman) to Secretary of State Kissinger, Washington, October 8, 1976, "Operation Condor." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve11p2/d249. + [^38]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume E-11, Part II, document 48, Memorandum of Conversation, Santiago, June 10, 1976, 8:10 to 9:15 a.m. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve11p2/d48. + [^39]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume E-11, Part II, document 56, Memorandum of Conversation, New York, October 7, 1976, "Secretary's Meeting with Argentine Foreign Minister Guzzetti." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve11p2/d56. + [^40]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume E-11, Part II, document 57, Telegram 6871 From the Embassy in Argentina to the Department of State, Buenos Aires, October 19, 1976, "Foreign Minister Guzzetti Euphoric Over Visit to United States" (signed Hill). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve11p2/d57. + [^41]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume E-7, Documents on South Asia, 1969-1972, document 125, Telegram 959 From the Consulate General in Dacca to the Department of State, Dacca, March 28, 1971, "Selective Genocide." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve07/d125. + [^42]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XI, South Asia Crisis, 1971, document 19, Telegram 1138 From the Consulate General in Dacca to the Department of State, Dacca, April 6, 1971, 0730Z. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v11/d19. + [^43]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume E-7, document 130, Telegram 1249 From the Consulate General in Dacca to the Department of State, Dacca, April 10, 1971, "Specific Areas of Dissent With Current U.S. Policy Toward East Pakistan." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve07/d130. + [^44]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XI, document 36, Memorandum From the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger) to President Nixon, Washington, April 28, 1971, "Policy Options Toward Pakistan," with the editorial note on Nixon's handwritten annotation (Library of Congress, Kissinger Papers, Box CL 210). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v11/d36. + [^45]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume E-4, Documents on Iran and Iraq, 1969-1972, document 200, Memorandum of Conversation, Tehran, May 30, 1972, 5:35 to 6:35 p.m. (participants: the Shah, the President, Kissinger). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve04/d200. + [^46]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume E-4, document 315, Memorandum From the Chief of the Near East and South Asia Division, CIA (Waller) to the Director of Central Intelligence (Helms), Washington, June 12, 1972. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve04/d315. + [^47]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume E-4, document 313, Memorandum From Harold Saunders of the National Security Staff to the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger), Washington, June 7, 1972, "Message from Shah on Kurds." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve04/d313. + [^48]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume E-4, document 321, Memorandum From the President's Deputy Assistant for National Security Affairs (Haig) to the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger), Washington, July 28, 1972, "Kurdish Problem," attaching Helms's memorandum of July 18, 1972. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve04/d321. + [^49]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXVII, Iran; Iraq, 1973-1976, document 233, Memorandum From the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger) to President Nixon, Washington, September 6, 1973, "Increased Assistance to the Kurds." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v27/d233. + [^50]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXVII, document 246, Memorandum From the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger) to President Nixon, Washington, April 11, 1974, "Further Support for the Kurds in Iraq." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v27/d246. + [^51]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXVII, document 254, Memorandum From the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger) to President Nixon, Washington, June 24, 1974, "Fiscal Year 1975 Support for the Kurds." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v27/d254. + [^52]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXVII, document 281, Backchannel Message From the President's Deputy Assistant for National Security Affairs (Scowcroft) to the Ambassador to Iran (Helms), Washington, March 16, 1975, 1336Z, WH50453. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v27/d281. + [^53]: *FRUS 1977-1980*, Volume XI, Part 1, Iran: Hostage Crisis, November 1979-September 1980, document 2, Summary of Conclusions of a Special Coordination Committee Meeting, Washington, November 5, 1979. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v11p1/d2. + [^54]: *FRUS 1977-1980*, Volume XI, Part 1, document 30, Editorial Note (Bani-Sadr announcement of November 14, 1979; John Kifner, "Iran Defends Move To Withdraw Funds," *New York Times*, November 15, 1979). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v11p1/d30. + [^55]: *FRUS 1977-1980*, Volume XI, Part 1, document 60, Memorandum From Secretary of State Vance to President Carter, Washington, November 26, 1979. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v11p1/d60. + [^56]: *FRUS 1977-1980*, Volume XI, Part 1, document 144, Memorandum From the White House Chief of Staff (Jordan) to President Carter, Secretary of State Vance, and the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Brzezinski), undated, with Jordan's summary of notes. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v11p1/d144. + [^57]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume E-12, Documents on East and Southeast Asia, 1973-1976, document 141, Telegram 14946 From the Embassy in Indonesia to the Department of State, Jakarta, December 6, 1975, 1000Z (the telegram header reads "JAKARTA 14945" and "PRIORITY 1579"), "Ford-Suharto Meeting." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve12/d141. The telegram text is in capitals; quotations are rendered in lowercase. + [^58]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXX, Greece, Turkey, Cyprus, 1973-1976, document 93, Transcript of a Telephone Conversation Between President Nixon and Secretary of State Kissinger, Washington, July 17, 1974, 4:30 p.m. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v30/d93. + [^59]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXX, document 105, Minutes of Meeting of the Washington Special Actions Group, Washington, July 20, 1974, "Cyprus." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v30/d105. + [^60]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXX, document 46, Memorandum From the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger) to President Ford, Washington, April 29, 1975. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v30/d46. -[^61]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXV, Arab-Israeli Crisis and War, 1973, document 126, Transcript of Telephone Conversation Between Secretary of State Kissinger and the Israeli Ambassador (Dinitz), Washington, October 8, 1973, 1:14 p.m. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v25/d126. -[^62]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXV, document 168, Transcript of Telephone Conversation Between Secretary of State Kissinger and the Israeli Ambassador (Dinitz), Washington, October 13, 1973, 1:03 a.m. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v25/d168. -[^63]: Gonzalez, Henry B. "Kissinger Associates, Scowcroft, Eagleburger, Stoga, Iraq, and BNL," *Congressional Record*, House, April 28, 1992, pp. H2694-H2701. https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/congress/1992_cr/h920428g.htm. -[^64]: U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs, *Testimony of Former Employees of the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro*, Serial No. 103-95, hearing of November 9, 1993, testimony of Christopher P. Drogoul, with the Madrid advisory board minutes inserted into the record by Chairman Gonzalez. https://archive.org/details/testimonyofforme1994unit. -[^65]: Senato della Repubblica, X Legislatura, Doc. XXII-bis n. 4, Allegato, Commissione parlamentare d'inchiesta sul caso della filiale di Atlanta della Banca Nazionale del Lavoro e sue connessioni, Relazione conclusiva approvata il 22 aprile 1992, schede di documentazione 30 ("La società Kissinger Associates. Rapporti con la Banca Nazionale del Lavoro") and 31 ("Scowcroft"), pp. 188-189, drawing on BNL document 158 (the consulting contract and renewals) and document 428 (transcript of a CBS interview with Kissinger, March 29, 1992). https://www.senato.it/application/xmanager/projects/leg18/file/DOC%20XXII%20bis%20n.%204%20Allegato.pdf. -[^66]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations, *The BCCI Affair*, report by Senator John Kerry and Senator Hank Brown, S. Prt. 102-140, December 1992, chapter 20, "BCCI and Kissinger Associates," footnote 1 (Cutler letter) and text; the FAS note appears on the index page of the copy. https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/20kiss.htm and https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/index.html. -[^67]: National Security Archive, "The Kissinger Telcons," Electronic Briefing Book No. 123, edited by Thomas Blanton and William Burr, posted May 26, 2004, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB123/. Describes the release on May 26, 2004 of approximately 20,000 declassified pages (10 cubic feet) spanning 1969 to August 1974. -[^68]: White House, Office of the Press Secretary, "President Names Henry Kissinger Chairman of Commission," November 27, 2002. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2002/11/20021127-1.html. + +[^61]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, vol. XVII, China, 1969-1972, Document 20, editorial note. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v17/d20 + +[^62]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, vol. XVII, Document 135, editorial note on the June 21, 1971 White House meeting. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v17/d135 + +[^63]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, vol. XVII, Document 139, memorandum of conversation, Beijing, July 9, 1971, and source note on the transcripts. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v17/d139 + +[^64]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, vol. XVII, Document 162, memorandum of conversation, Beijing, October 21, 1971. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v17/d162 + +[^65]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, vol. XVIII, China, 1973-1976, Document 55, memorandum of conversation, Beijing, November 10, 1973, and headnote on the briefing papers. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v18/d55 + +[^66]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXV, Arab-Israeli Crisis and War, 1973, document 126, Transcript of Telephone Conversation Between Secretary of State Kissinger and the Israeli Ambassador (Dinitz), Washington, October 8, 1973, 1:14 p.m. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v25/d126. + +[^67]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, Volume XXV, document 168, Transcript of Telephone Conversation Between Secretary of State Kissinger and the Israeli Ambassador (Dinitz), Washington, October 13, 1973, 1:03 a.m. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v25/d168. + +[^68]: Gonzalez, Henry B. "Kissinger Associates, Scowcroft, Eagleburger, Stoga, Iraq, and BNL," *Congressional Record*, House, April 28, 1992, pp. H2694-H2701. https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/congress/1992_cr/h920428g.htm. + +[^69]: U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs, *Testimony of Former Employees of the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro*, Serial No. 103-95, hearing of November 9, 1993, testimony of Christopher P. Drogoul, with the Madrid advisory board minutes inserted into the record by Chairman Gonzalez. https://archive.org/details/testimonyofforme1994unit. + +[^70]: Senato della Repubblica, X Legislatura, Doc. XXII-bis n. 4, Allegato, Commissione parlamentare d'inchiesta sul caso della filiale di Atlanta della Banca Nazionale del Lavoro e sue connessioni, Relazione conclusiva approvata il 22 aprile 1992, schede di documentazione 30 ("La società Kissinger Associates. Rapporti con la Banca Nazionale del Lavoro") and 31 ("Scowcroft"), pp. 188-189, drawing on BNL document 158 (the consulting contract and renewals) and document 428 (transcript of a CBS interview with Kissinger, March 29, 1992). https://www.senato.it/application/xmanager/projects/leg18/file/DOC%20XXII%20bis%20n.%204%20Allegato.pdf. + +[^71]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations, *The BCCI Affair*, report by Senator John Kerry and Senator Hank Brown, S. Prt. 102-140, December 1992, chapter 20, "BCCI and Kissinger Associates," footnote 1 (Cutler letter) and text; the FAS note appears on the index page of the copy. https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/20kiss.htm and https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/index.html. + +[^72]: National Security Archive, "The Kissinger Telcons," Electronic Briefing Book No. 123, edited by Thomas Blanton and William Burr, posted May 26, 2004, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB123/. Describes the release on May 26, 2004 of approximately 20,000 declassified pages (10 cubic feet) spanning 1969 to August 1974. + +[^73]: White House, Office of the Press Secretary, "President Names Henry Kissinger Chairman of Commission," November 27, 2002. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2002/11/20021127-1.html. diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Henry Luce.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Henry Luce.md index 0f30a8dc..022f169f 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Henry Luce.md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Henry Luce.md @@ -86,7 +86,7 @@ He entered Yale in 1916 and served as managing editor of the [[Yale Daily News]] ### Skull and Bones -The Harvard Crimson printed a special dispatch from New Haven dated May 15, 1919, reporting the men elected to the senior societies at Yale in that year's tap day. The Skull and Bones list read: DeForest Van Slyck, James McHenry, Joseph Weir Sargent, L. G. Adams, Daniel R. Winter, Henry R. Luce, John M. Hincks, Harry P. Davison, Theodore L. Safford, Morehead Patterson, Briton Hadden, Alfred C. Schermerhorn, Frank P. Hefflefinger, Francis T. Hobson and David L. Ingalls.[^3] The name index to [[Antony C. Sutton]]'s 1983 study of the society lists the class of 1920 with "Hadden, Briton" and "Luce, Henry Robinson."[^2] +The Harvard Crimson printed a special dispatch from New Haven dated May 15, 1919, reporting the men elected to the senior societies at Yale in that year's tap day. The Skull and Bones list read: DeForest Van Slyck, James McHenry, Joseph Weir Sargent, L. G. Adams, Daniel R. Winter, Henry R. Luce, John M. Hincks, [[Henry P. Davison Jr.|Harry P. Davison]], Theodore L. Safford, Morehead Patterson, Briton Hadden, Alfred C. Schermerhorn, Frank P. Hefflefinger, Francis T. Hobson and David L. Ingalls.[^3] The name index to [[Antony C. Sutton]]'s 1983 study of the society lists the class of 1920 with "Hadden, Briton" and "Luce, Henry Robinson."[^2] Sutton's section on communications states that "There has been a significant penetration into communications," and gives as its first example "Henry Luce of Time-Life is in The Order."[^4] In 1977 [[Ron Rosenbaum]] named Luce among the society's members in an article in [[Esquire]]. Rosenbaum wrote of Bones reunions: "Where else can you hear Archibald MacLeish take on Henry Luce in a soul-versus-capital debate with no holds barred?"[^5] @@ -164,7 +164,7 @@ A review board letter of May 1, 1995 to [[E. Gabriel Perle]], a former general c ### LSD and the Luce magazines -The first Time article on LSD, "Dream Stuff," ran in 1954 and reported on the drug as an adjunct to psychotherapy. In May 1957 Life published R. Gordon Wasson's account of a mushroom ceremony in Mexico in its Great Adventure series, a seventeen-page spread with color photographs. [[Martin A. Lee]] and [[Bruce Shlain]] wrote in their 1985 book [[Acid Dreams]] that Wasson was then a vice president of [[J. P. Morgan and Company]].[^38][^39] +The first Time article on LSD, "Dream Stuff," ran in 1954 and reported on the drug as an adjunct to psychotherapy. In May 1957 Life published R. Gordon Wasson's account of a mushroom ceremony in Mexico in its Great Adventure series, a seventeen-page spread with color photographs. [[Martin A. Lee]] and [[Bruce Shlain]] wrote in their 1985 book [[Acid Dreams]] that Wasson was then a vice president of [[J. P. Morgan & Co.|J. P. Morgan and Company]].[^38][^39] Lee and Shlain wrote that Luce "turned on a half-dozen times in the late 1950s and early 1960s under the supervision of Dr. Sidney Cohen," a Los Angeles psychiatrist attached to UCLA and the Veterans Hospital, and that Cohen also gave the drug to Clare Boothe Luce. Their notes cite W. A. Swanberg's biography Luce and His Empire (p. 463) and Wilfred Sheed's Clare Boothe Luce (p. 125) for the count.[^38] Jack Shafer wrote in Slate that [[Alan Brinkley]]'s biography of Luce limits the discussion to about three pages and says Henry took the drug once or perhaps twice, against Clare's multiple trips.[^39] diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/J. P. Morgan.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/J. P. Morgan.md new file mode 100644 index 00000000..48ef98d2 --- /dev/null +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/J. P. Morgan.md @@ -0,0 +1,287 @@ +--- +aliases: + - John Pierpont Morgan + - J. Pierpont Morgan + - Pierpont Morgan +category: "Business & Finance" +tags: + - Person + - JPMorganAndCompany + - DrexelMorgan + - MoneyTrust + - PujoCommittee + - UnitedStatesSteel + - NorthernSecurities + - TennesseeCoal + - GoldSyndicate + - HallCarbines + - PierpontFamily + - PeabodyLondon + - PeabodyEducationFund + - MetropolitanMuseum + - SkullAndBones + - HenryPDavison + - FTrubeeDavison +summary: "Senior member of J. P. Morgan & Co. who lent $20,000 on the Hall carbines in 1861, managed the 1895 gold syndicate and told the Pujo subcommittee in 1912 \"the first thing is character.\"" +born: 1837-04-17 +died: 1913-03-31 +location: "New York, New York" +created: 2026-10-26 +updated: 2026-10-26 +relations: + - type: head_of + with: "[[J. P. Morgan & Co.]]" + start: 1895 + role: "senior member of the New York house; confirmed in Pujo testimony of December 18, 1912" + fn: 12 + - type: partner_of + with: "[[Anthony J. Drexel]]" + role: "co-appellant with members of the Drexel family as the firm of Drexel, Morgan & Co., New York, in the 1886 Supreme Court record" + fn: 9 + - type: partner_of + with: "[[Henry P. Davison]]" + start: 1909 + role: "partner in the New York house; Davison testified that he became a member of the firm on January 1, 1909, the family finding aid calls him a senior partner from 1909, and the New York Times obituary of May 7, 1922 says Morgan invited him to become a partner in late 1908" + fn: 65 + - type: partner_of + with: "[[Thomas W. Lamont]]" + role: "partner in the firm; confirmed in Pujo testimony of December 19, 1912" + fn: 59 + - type: partner_of + with: "[[Charles Steele]]" + role: "partner in the firm; Steele confirmed his partnership before the Pujo subcommittee" + fn: 58 + - type: partner_of + with: "[[George W. Perkins]]" + role: "member of the firm at the Hotel Manhattan conference of October 22, 1907, according to Cortelyou's testimony before the Pujo subcommittee" + fn: 60 + - type: partner_of + with: "[[J. P. Morgan Jr.]]" + role: "son; named among the partners of the New York house in Pujo testimony of December 18, 1912" + fn: 11 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[J. P. Morgan Jr.]]" + role: "father; residuary legatee under the will of January 4, 1913" + fn: 72 + - type: subject_of + with: "[[Pujo Committee]]" + start: 1912-12-18 + role: "testified before the House subcommittee of the Committee on Banking and Currency on December 18 and 19, 1912" + fn: 12 + - type: subject_of + with: "[[Northern Securities Company]]" + role: "named individual defendant in the United States suit decided by the Supreme Court on March 14, 1904" + fn: 49 + - type: head_of + with: "[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]" + start: 1904 + end: 1913 + role: "elected president in 1904 after becoming a trustee in 1889" + fn: 66 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Peabody Education Fund]]" + start: 1893 + end: 1899 + role: "trustee and treasurer, re-elected at the annual meetings from 1893 to 1899" + fn: 43 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[John Pierpont]]" + role: "maternal grandfather; his daughter Juliet Pierpont was Morgan's mother" + fn: 4 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Junius Spencer Morgan]]" + role: "father; married Juliet Pierpont on May 2, 1836" + fn: 4 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[James Pierpont]]" + role: "descendant of the Yale founder through the Pierpont line" + fn: 3 +--- + +John Pierpont Morgan (April 17, 1837 to March 31, 1913) was the senior member of the New York banking house of [[J. P. Morgan & Co.]], a partnership with allied houses in [[London]], [[Paris]] and [[Philadelphia]]. The record places him in the Hall carbine loan of 1861, the gold syndicate of 1895, the syndicate that financed the [[United States Steel Corporation]] in 1901, the [[Northern Securities Company]] suit, the Tennessee Coal and Iron purchase of 1907 and the [[Pujo Committee]] hearings of December 1912. He died at [[Rome]] on March 31, 1913.[^1][^2] + +### Pierpont descent + +Morgan's mother was [[Juliet Pierpont]], a daughter of Rev. [[John Pierpont]], minister of [[Hollis Street Church]] in [[Boston]] and a poet. The 1928 genealogy printed by the poet's great-grandson, [[James Allen Crosby]], traces the line back to [[James Pierpont]], born at Roxbury, Massachusetts, in 1659, who graduated from [[Harvard University]] in 1681, settled at New Haven in 1685, and is described in the genealogy as "one of the founders of Yale College." James Pierpont's grandson James Pierpont 3d married Elizabeth Collins in 1782, and their son was the poet, born at Litchfield on April 6, 1785.[^3] + +The genealogy records that Juliet Pierpont, born July 30, 1816, married [[Junius Spencer Morgan]] on May 2, 1836, and identifies him as "of Hartford, Conn., but later associated with the Banking-house of Peabody & Morgan of London, England." John Pierpont Morgan was born April 17, 1837. He married [[Amelia Sturges]] in 1861, who died in February 1862, and [[Frances Louisa Tracy]] in 1865.[^4] + +The genealogy's entry on Morgan calls him "America's leading financier of International fame" and lists his houses as "J. P. Morgan & Co., of New York, Drexel, Morgan & Co. of Philadelphia, Morgan, Grenfeld & Co. of London, Morgan, Harjes & Co. of Paris."[^5] + +### London and George Peabody + +Junius Spencer Morgan was associated with the London house of [[George Peabody]], the American merchant and banker. A speaker at the memorial meeting of the [[Chamber of Commerce of the State of New York]] on April 3, 1913 said that Junius Morgan became "a partner with, and successor to, George Peabody, and, like him, one of the noblest and grandest merchants and bankers of London."[^6] An 1884 Supreme Court caption names "Junius S. Morgan and Walter H. Burns, copartners as J. S. Morgan & Company" in a case against the United States.[^7] + +The same memorial recorded two details of Morgan's early career. One speaker described him as "a clerk in the office, I believe, of Duncan, Sherman & Company." Another gave his "first entrance into the banking house" as 1857.[^8] + +### Drexel, Morgan and J. P. Morgan & Company + +In 1886 the complainants in a suit over the will of [[Robert Berney]], who died at Paris, were identified in the record as "the firm of Drexel, Morgan & Co., bankers at the City of New York." The appellants in the Supreme Court appeal included "John Pierpont Morgan" and "J. Hood Wright," with [[Anthony J. Drexel]] (printed "Anthony D. Drexel" in the caption) and other members of the Drexel family.[^9] In December 1912 Morgan was asked about the Philadelphia house, [[Drexel & Company]]. He answered: "It is the same house. There is no difference. It is one partnership. It only has a different name, owning to my desire to keep Mr. Drexel's name in Philadelphia."[^10] + +Morgan read the names of the partners of the New York house into the record, and he said that the firm was a partner, as a firm, in the London and Paris houses. The names he read were "J. P. Morgan, E. T. Stotesbury, Charles Steele, J. P. Morgan, jr., Henry P. Davison, Arthur E. Newbold, William Pierce Hamilton, William H. Porter, Thomas W. Lamont, Horatio G. Lloyd, and Temple Bowdoin."[^11] Asked whether he was "senior member of the partnership or firm of J. P. Morgan & Co., bankers, of New York City," he answered, "I am, sir."[^12] Davison testified in January 1913 that he was "a member of the firm of J. P. Morgan & Co." since "the 1st of January, 1909."[^13] The New York Times obituary of Davison, dated May 7, 1922, says that Morgan invited him to become a partner in late 1908.[^14] + +On the second day of his examination he estimated the deposits of the New York house at "one hundred millions," of which a statement already furnished showed more than $81,000,000 held for seventy-three interstate corporations. Asked whether he or any member of his firm sat as a director in the corporations that deposited with the house, he answered, "With some of them."[^15] On the New Haven railroad, he said the firm had "financial arrangements with them, but nothing formal" before the written agency, and that he thought the firm had been its financial agents.[^16] + +### The 1861 Hall carbine transaction + +The first report of the House select committee on the contracts of the government, presented by Representative [[Elihu B. Washburne]] as House Report No. 2 of the 37th Congress, second session, devotes a section to "The purchase of the Hall carbines." The committee had been appointed in July 1861 and its members included [[Charles H. Van Wyck]], [[William S. Holman]], [[Reuben E. Fenton]], [[Henry L. Dawes]] and [[William G. Steele]]. The report states the sequence: in June 1861 [[Arthur M. Eastman]] of [[Manchester, New Hampshire]], bought 5,400 Hall's carbines from the Ordnance Bureau at $3.50 each; after a slight alteration costing from 75 cents to $1.25 an arm, Eastman sold 5,000 to [[Simon Stevens]] at $12.50; Stevens sold the lot to Major General [[John C. Frémont]] at $22.[^17] + +The report names Morgan as the person who held the arms. In the committee's words, "The arms were placed under the control of J. Pierpont Morgan to secure him the payment of $20,000 he had advanced to Stevens."[^18] Stevens testified before the committee in New York. Asked "Of whom did you procure those arms?" he answered, "I got them from J. Pierpont Morgan, to send to General Fremont." Asked how the arms went into Morgan's hands, he said, "They were placed in his hands as collateral security for money loaned upon them," the money having been loaned to him. Asked what interest Morgan had in the sale, he answered that Morgan "had no interest in the sale of the carbines to General Fremont other than that he was to be refunded the $20,000 borrowed from him, with interest, and to be paid for his services and expenses in attending to the sale and collection of the money as trustee for all parties concerned." Stevens declined to state the amount of that compensation, and said that [[Morris Ketchum]]'s banking house, Ketchum, Sons & Co., held a draft he had given Eastman on J. P. Morgan, payable when in funds from the proceeds of the sale to Frémont.[^19] Ketchum testified that he advanced "between forty and fifty thousand dollars," that his only security was the Frémont telegram and letter "held by Mr. Morgan," and that "Mr. Morgan holds subject to me, when he gets his pay from the government."[^20] + +The payee on the government's vouchers was Morgan. Captain [[Franklin D. Callender]], the ordnance officer at the St. Louis arsenal, testified on October 26, 1861: "According to the best information I have, J. Pierpont Morgan sold them to the government." He produced a bill dated August 7, 1861, headed "The United States to J. Pierpont Morgan, Dr.," for 2,500 Hall's rifled carbines at $55,550, certified by Frémont on September 9 and marked "Paid September 10, 1861," with a receipt for "fifty-five thousand five hundred and fifty dollars, in full of the above account" signed "J. PIERPONT MORGAN, By his attorney, J. T. HOWARD." Callender said the funds came from $82,662.50 turned over by the quartermaster, Captain Turnley, who had been directed to transfer $100,000, and that Howard had wanted the account paid so that Stevens's draft on Frémont would not "go back protested."[^21] A second bill in Morgan's name, for the other 2,500 carbines at $22 and accessories, totalled $58,175 and was marked "Not paid for want of funds."[^22] + +The committee reached these findings: that the arm was worth to the government "very nearly $12 50," the sum Stevens paid Eastman; that the government had paid Morgan $55,550, a sum that "seems to include one per cent. for interest, exchange, or commission"; that $6,950 remained due on that basis; and that the claim sought "some $49,000 over and above the value of the property sold." The report added that "if J. Pierpont Morgan was the party actually selling the arms to the government, it would be difficult to explain Stevens's connexion with the draft, except as the general's agent," and it questioned Frémont's certification on that ground. Its resolution, offered by Van Wyck, asked the Secretary of the Treasury to adjust the claim for the five thousand carbines "on the basis of a sale of said arms to the government for $12 50 each, rejecting all other demands."[^23][^24] The resolution was before the House on May 1, 1862.[^25] + +Dawes defended the committee on April 25, 1862, describing "a private speculation in which one Simon Stevens was interested, and through which $90,000 was to be taken out of the Treasury of the United States, without a dollar of consideration, in the simple sale and repurchase of five thousand arms." [[Thaddeus Stevens]] answered on April 28 that the resolution charged Frémont with "buying them for the Government through an agent." A letter from [[C. B. Sedgwick]] to Frémont dated February 20, 1862 asked about the carbines, and Frémont replied on February 22 that "the Hall's carbines, concerning which question is made, were purchased by me directly from Mr. Stevens, and not through him, agreeably to the offer of sale received from him by telegram."[^26] The debates of February 6, 1862 had already recorded that the carbines were "purchased ... of Simon Stevens, for the sum of twenty-two dollars apiece," on a letter of June 20, 1861 giving Eastman "all of the Hall's carbines ... at the rate of $3 50 each."[^27] + +The claim was also before the War Department's commission of [[Joseph Holt]] and [[Robert Dale Owen]], which Secretary [[Edwin M. Stanton]] created on March 13, 1862, and which docketed it as Case No. 97 in Morgan's name, taken from the voucher. R. Gordon Wasson, in a study of the affair, quotes the commission's opening finding from its report (Senate Executive Document 72, 37th Congress, second session, p. 460): "The purchase was not made from the claimant, J. Pierpont Morgan, but from Simon Stevens. Morgan having loaned Stevens money, the carbines passed into the possession of Morgan as a security for the advance thus made, and were by him delivered to General Fremont, under the sale made by Stevens to him; and the bills against the government were made out in favor of Morgan." Wasson reports that the commission decided the case on June 12, 1862, found a fair value of $65,228.05, credited the $55,550 already paid, and allowed a brokerage fee of 2.5 per cent.[^28] Ketchum appeared before the committee again on January 22, 1862 with a statement of the financial relationships in the transaction. Wasson's reckoning is that the $55,550 voucher yielded net proceeds of $54,994.50; that Morgan retained $26,343.54, of which $156.04 was interest at 7 per cent and $5,400 a commission; and that he passed the balance of $28,650.96 to Ketchum on September 16, 1861.[^29] + +Stevens sued the United States in the [[United States Court of Claims]] in 1866. Wasson reports a judgment of May 6, 1867, for $58,175 by a three to one decision, Judge Peck writing the opinion in *Stevens v. United States*, 2 Ct. Cl. 95; the government's appeal was dismissed on August 22, 1868, and Stevens was paid $61,577.83 on August 24, 1868.[^30] Wasson cites a remark by Holman in the House that Stevens "uses the name of J. Pierpont Morgan, a New York broker, to cover the transaction."[^31] + +Wasson's essay was printed in 1941 in an edition of 100 copies and revised in 1948 in an edition of 750. Its preface states that, "insofar as the case against Morgan is concerned," the alleged transaction "is legend, not history."[^32] The author, [[R. Gordon Wasson]], was a vice president at J.P. Morgan & Company.[^33] + +The same committee report treats a different Morgan in its naval section: [[George D. Morgan]] of New York, to whom the purchase of vessels for the Navy Department at New York was transferred on May 8, 1861 under an arrangement the committee called "most singular and extraordinary," with compensation that the committee estimated at more than $95,000. The Senate and House named him in February 1862 as the agent "to purchase vessels for the Government."[^34] + +### The 1895 gold syndicate + +The [[Commercial and Financial Chronicle]] reported on February 9, 1895 that "The syndicate is managed by Messrs. J. P. Morgan and August Belmont."[^35] The contract dated February 8, 1895, printed in the February 16 issue, was made between the Secretary of the Treasury and a syndicate that included [[August Belmont & Co.]], [[N. M. Rothschild & Sons]] of London, and "J. P. Morgan & Co. ... on behalf of Messrs. J. S. Morgan & Co., of London." Under the contract the syndicate agreed to deliver 3,500,000 ounces of standard gold coin at $17.80441 per ounce, payable in 4 per cent thirty-year United States bonds dated February 1, 1895. At least one half of the gold was to be obtained in and shipped from Europe.[^36] + +The Treasury's annual report for 1895 records that the amount of bonds issued under the contract was $62,315,400 and the gold received $65,116,244.62; the last deposit under the contract was made June 24, 1895 and syndicate deposits continued until September 11, 1895.[^37] The report states that the parties to the contract stipulated that they would "as far as lies in their power exert all financial influence and will make all legitimate efforts to protect the Treasury of the United States against the withdrawals of gold pending the complete performance of this contract."[^38] + +In January 1896 Morgan wrote to the members of what he called the United States Bond Syndicate, a circular printed by the Chronicle on January 18, 1896. He wrote that on December 23 he "was invited to Washington for a conference" and that "no negotiations for a loan were commenced or even suggested" during the visit. On his return, he wrote, he formed a syndicate to sell the government $200,000,000 in gold coin, naming [[James Stillman]] of the [[National City Bank]], [[Edward D. Adams]] for the [[Deutsche Bank]] of Berlin, [[John A. Stewart]] of the [[United States Trust Company]] and [[Pliny Fisk]] among those whose "ready acquiescence" encouraged him. The participations reached $200,000,000 in three or four days and were, he wrote, "about equally divided" among four classes: European institutions prepared to ship gold, banks and individuals holding gold who wanted bonds, banks in several cities willing to exchange gold for bonds, and parties willing to obtain gold at any cost.[^39] + +The circular reprinted his letter of January 4, 1896 to the President, signed "J. PIERPONT MORGAN," which urged a contract for 11,500,000 ounces of gold, "approximating 200,000,000 of dollars, on about the basis of the contract of February 8, 1895," and pledged, if the President preferred public advertisement, "every influence and effort in my power" to make the sale successful. The Treasury issued its call for $100,000,000 of bonds on January 6; Morgan wrote that the minimum fixed in the syndicate contract made it available only for a bid for "all or none," and that he "at once decided to dissolve the Syndicate," delaying notice until January 14 because "every financial interest required the protection afforded by the knowledge that the Syndicate was in existence."[^40][^41] + +### Peabody Education Fund + +The trustees of the Peabody Education Fund, the trust created by George Peabody, included Morgan, Anthony J. Drexel, former President [[Grover Cleveland]], [[Joseph H. Choate]], [[Rutherford B. Hayes]] and [[Daniel Coit Gilman]].[^42] At the annual meetings of the trustees from 1893 to 1899 the minutes record that "Mr. J. Pierpont Morgan was re-elected Treasurer."[^43] + +### United States Steel + +The prospectus of the United States Steel Corporation, dated March 2, 1901 from the "Office of J. P. Morgan & Co., 23 Wall Street, New York," was addressed to the stockholders of the Federal Steel, National Steel, National Tube, American Steel and Wire, American Tin Plate, American Steel Hoop and American Sheet Steel companies. It stated that the corporation had been organized under New Jersey law, that "A syndicate, comprising leading financial interests throughout the United States and Europe, of which the undersigned are managers," had been formed with subscriptions of $200,000,000, and that the syndicate had "already arranged for the acquisition of substantially all the bonds and stock of the Carnegie Company, including Mr. Carnegie's holdings." The authorized capital stock was $850,000,000, half 7 per cent preferred, with 5 per cent gold bonds up to $904,000,000. The document ends: "J. P. Morgan & Co. are to receive no compensation for their services as syndicate managers beyond a share in any sum which ultimately may be realised by the syndicate." It was printed as Exhibit 1 to the testimony of [[Charles M. Schwab]] before the Industrial Commission.[^44] + +Asked by a commissioner about the terms on which the constituent companies had been exchanged, Schwab answered: "I did not make the agreement. You must get that from Mr. Morgan."[^45] Another witness, E. R. Chapman, told the same commission that the formation of the corporation "became an absolute necessity under the situation confronting Mr. Morgan" and that "Mr. Morgan stepped to the front and devised a system by which practically the entire steel business of the country could be brought under control."[^46] + +[[Andrew Carnegie]] gave two accounts of the sale to the House committee in 1911 and 1912. Asked whether the Carnegie properties could have met the Morgan combination, he answered: "Nonsense. [Laughter.] Why did Morgan send word to me that he would like to buy me out?" He added, "Ask Schwab about that."[^47] Later, asked by Representative McGillicuddy when he first negotiated with Morgan, he answered: "I never negotiated with Mr. Morgan at all, nor saw him nor heard from him nor any of his men. Mr. Schwab came to me." Pressed for a date, he said it was "near January, 1901."[^48] + +### Northern Securities + +Morgan was one of the individual defendants in the suit that the United States brought under the Sherman Act against the Northern Securities Company. The statement of the case lists "J. Pierpont Morgan" with [[James J. Hill]], [[Robert Bacon]], [[George F. Baker]], [[D. Willis James]], [[John S. Kennedy]], [[William P. Clough]] and [[Daniel S. Lamont]], and it names the [[Great Northern Railway Company]] and the [[Northern Pacific Railway Company]] as defendants.[^49] The Supreme Court decided the case on March 14, 1904 and affirmed the decree. Justice [[John Marshall Harlan]]'s opinion states that "under the leadership of the defendants Hill and Morgan" the stockholders of the two railways combined to organize the holding corporation, and quotes Morgan's testimony: asked why the stocks of both companies were put into one holding company, he "frankly answered: 'In the first place, this holding company was simply a question of custodian, because it had no other alliances.'"[^50] + +### The 1907 panic and Tennessee Coal + +In November 1907, during the panic, the steel corporation was asked to take up a block of [[Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Company]] stock that the brokerage firm [[Moore & Schley]] had been holding. On November 4, 1907 [[Theodore Roosevelt]] wrote to the Attorney General, [[Charles J. Bonaparte]], after a visit from [[Elbert H. Gary]] and [[Henry C. Frick]]. The letter, read into the record of the House committee chaired by [[Augustus Owsley Stanley]], quoted their account of "a certain business firm" that "will undoubtedly fail this week if help is not given," and of the purchase as urged "by the combination of the most responsible bankers in New York who are now thus engaged in endeavoring to save the situation." Roosevelt wrote that "I felt it no public duty of mine to interpose any objection."[^51] + +Gary testified that in the panic transaction he dealt "with Mr. Ledyard alone. Mr. Ledyard was the attorney of Col. Payne. Col. Payne was one of the customers of Moore & Schley," adding: "It was he who first suggested, I think, the possibility of the United States Steel Corporation buying the stock."[^52] The lawyer [[Lewis Cass Ledyard]] testified that [[Oliver Hazard Payne]], a [[Standard Oil]] figure, had told him he "thought it could be best brought to the attention of the United States Steel Corporation through Mr. Morgan."[^53] [[John W. Gates]] of the Moore & Schley syndicate testified that on his return from Europe on November 6 or 7, 1907 he found negotiations pending, and that "Judge Gary, Mr. Morgan, and Mr. Frick were trying to acquire this block of stock," with the principals at Morgan's residence on Thirty-sixth Street, the trade being made after "three, four, or five hours of telephoning backward and forward."[^54] + +### The Pujo hearings, December 1912 + +The House subcommittee of the Committee on Banking and Currency, chaired by [[Arsène Pujo]], examined Morgan on December 18 and 19, 1912 under House Resolutions 429 and 504. [[Samuel Untermyer]] conducted the examination for the committee. On the first day the examination established the partnership and its membership.[^11][^12] + +On the second day Untermyer asked whether Morgan wanted control. Morgan answered, "I want to control nothing," and "I do not want any control." He continued: "control is a thing, particularly in money, and you are talking about a money control, now, there is nothing in the world that you can make a trust on money." Asked about competition, he said, "I do not object to competition, either. I like a little competition."[^55] In the afternoon he was asked whether control of credit involves control of money: "A control of credit? No." He added, "Money is gold, and nothing else."[^56] + +On the same day, as printed on page 1084, Untermyer asked, "Is not commercial credit based primarily upon money or property?" Morgan answered: "No, sir; the first thing is character." Asked "Before money or property?" he added: "Before money or anything else. Money can not buy it."[^57] + +The subcommittee also confirmed the partners of the firm. Asked whether he was "a partner in the firm of J. P. Morgan & Co.," [[Charles Steele]] answered, "I am."[^58] Asked whether [[Thomas W. Lamont]] was a partner, Morgan answered, "He is."[^59] [[George B. Cortelyou]], Secretary of the Treasury from March 5, 1907 to March 18, 1909, testified that on the evening of October 22, 1907 he met at the [[Hotel Manhattan]] with "Mr. Morgan, Mr. Stillman ... Mr. Hepburn, Mr. Cannon, Mr. George F. Baker, Mr. Vanderlip, Mr. Perkins, and two or three others." Asked whether [[George W. Perkins]] "was then a member of the firm of J. P. Morgan & Co.," Cortelyou answered, "He was."[^60] Perkins's family appears on the [[Perkins family]] page. [[Walter E. Frew]], president of the [[Corn Exchange Bank]], testified on December 10, 1912 that he became a director of the [[Bankers Trust Company]] (organized in March 1903) about 1905 on the invitation of [[Henry P. Davison]]. Untermyer asked, "Mr. H. P. Davison, of J. P. Morgan & Co.?" and Frew answered, "Of the First National Bank at that time." Asked whether Davison was a member of J. P. Morgan & Co., he said, "He is now; yes, sir. He was not at the time." Frew agreed that the voting trustees of the Bankers Trust Company were "Henry P. Davison, George W. Perkins, and Daniel G. Reid," and that Perkins "was then a member of J. P. Morgan & Co."[^61] + +[[Antony C. Sutton]] wrote in his 1983 book on [[Skull and Bones]] that "Although Morgan himself was not a member of The Order, some of his partners were." Sutton named the partner Henry P. Davison, "whose son H.P. Davison, Jr. was initiated in 1920," and wrote that Davison "brought Thomas Lamont and Willard Straight into the Morgan firm."[^62] + +### Jekyll Island, 1910 + +In late 1910 a group of bankers and federal officials met at [[Jekyll Island]], Georgia, to draft the plan that became the [[Aldrich Plan]] for a central banking system. [[Frank A. Vanderlip]] wrote in 1935 that a letter from James Stillman set out Aldrich's plan of "getting Davison and me down to his estate in Rhode Island without any one's knowing of it." The meeting went to Georgia instead. Vanderlip wrote: "Those who had been asked to go were Henry Davison, Paul Warburg, Ben Strong, and myself," and he recorded that [[A. Piatt Andrew]] came from Washington.[^63] + +Vanderlip described Davison as "a splendid person to prevent wrangles in any company."[^64] The Davison family finding aid says that Davison "became a senior partner at JP Morgan & Company" in 1909, that "The following year Davison attended a secret meeting in Jekyll Island, Georgia," and that "Many believe this meeting led to the creation of the Federal Reserve." The finding aid lists the children of Davison and his wife, [[Mary Kate Trubee]], as including [[Henry P. Davison Jr.]] and [[F. Trubee Davison]].[^65] + +### Art and the Metropolitan Museum + +Morgan became a trustee of the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] in 1889 and was elected its president in 1904. A speaker at the Chamber of Commerce memorial said Morgan "was interested in our Metropolitan Museum from the very beginning," and that he was one of the public-spirited citizens who worked for a year to raise "the pitiful $106,000 with which it was started." The speaker also said that Morgan "had a broad vision of a great American Academy at Rome," formed by the union of the original Academy with the American School for Classical Study.[^66] + +The 1928 genealogy calls the donation of his library, miniatures and other works of art to the public "his most precious monument."[^67] + +### Will and death + +Morgan died in Rome on March 31, 1913. The Chronicle reported on April 12 that his funeral would be held at [[St. George's Church]], Stuyvesant Square, with burial at [[Hartford, Connecticut]]. The honorary pallbearers were [[George S. Bowdoin]], Lewis Cass Ledyard and [[Robert W. de Forest]]. The Stock Exchange closed.[^68] The Chamber of Commerce met on April 3, 1913, and its memorial speakers included [[Elihu Root]], Joseph H. Choate, Robert W. de Forest and [[Seth Low]].[^66] + +The *New-York Tribune* of April 20, 1913 printed the will, which Morgan had made in New York on January 4, 1913, with a codicil of January 6, shortly before he left for [[Egypt]]. Its first article reads: "I commit my soul into the hands of my Saviour, in full confidence that, having redeemed it and washed it in His most precious blood, He will present it faultless before the throne of my Heavenly Father; and I entreat my children to maintain and defend, at all hazard and at any cost of personal sacrifice, the blessed doctrine of the complete atonement for sin through the blood of Jesus Christ, once offered, and through that alone." The Tribune counted about thirteen thousand words and legacies of about $17,000,000, and gave the art collection, which it valued at $60,000,000, with the books and curios in the library on East Thirty-sixth Street and Morgan's 502 shares in the [[Equitable Life Assurance Society]], to [[J. P. Morgan Jr.]] as residuary legatee.[^69] + +Article XXXII of the will states that Morgan had long been "interested in gathering my collections of paintings, miniatures, porcelains and other works of art," that it was his intention to make a disposition "which would render them permanently available for the instruction and pleasure of the American people," and that, failing that in his lifetime, the collections would pass to his son. It adds that "it would be agreeable to me to have 'The Morgan Memorial' which forms a portion of the property of the [[Wadsworth Atheneum]] at Hartford, Conn., utilized to effectuate a part of this purpose," while imposing on his son no "duty or obligation, legal or moral."[^70] The will directed burial in the family plot at Hartford, with services at St. George's Church, and made provision for the continuation of the firm: the executors were to carry out the agreements in the partnership.[^71] The executors were J. P. Morgan Jr., [[William Pierson Hamilton]], [[Herbert L. Satterlee]] and Lewis Cass Ledyard, and the witnesses to the codicil were Ledyard, Choate and Gary.[^72] + +### Successor banks + +The firm passed into later banks. On December 31, 2000 J.P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated "merged with and into The Chase Manhattan Corporation," which was renamed J.P. Morgan Chase & Co. The [[Morgan Guaranty Trust]] had been formed on April 24, 1959 by the merger of J.P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated with the Guaranty Trust Company of New York.[^73] + +### Footnotes + +[^1]: James Allen Crosby, *Pierpont Genealogy and Connecting Lines, Particularly Rev. John Pierpont of Hollis Street Church, Boston, Massachusetts* (Boston: Arthur E. Boardman, 1928), entry for John Pierpont Morgan (born April 17, 1837, died March 31, 1913). https://archive.org/details/pierpontgenealog00barn +[^2]: *The Commercial and Financial Chronicle*, vol. 96, no. 2494 (April 12, 1913), report of the death at Rome on March 31 and the funeral arrangements. https://archive.org/details/sim_commercial-and-financial-chronicle_1913-04-12_96_2494 +[^3]: Crosby, *Pierpont Genealogy* (1928), founder's entry (James Pierpont, born Roxbury 1659, Harvard 1681, New Haven 1685, died November 14, 1714; "one of the founders of Yale College"), the entry for James Pierpont 3d (married Elizabeth Collins, 1782), and the entry for Rev. John Pierpont (born Litchfield, South Farms, April 6, 1785; Hollis Street Church, Boston). https://archive.org/details/pierpontgenealog00barn +[^4]: Crosby, *Pierpont Genealogy* (1928), "The Morgan Line" (entry P.XXV.3, Juliet Pierpont, born July 30, 1816, married May 2, 1836, to Junius Spencer Morgan "of Hartford, Conn., but later associated with the Banking-house of Peabody & Morgan of London, England"; John Pierpont Morgan, born April 17, 1837; Amelia Sturges, married 1861, died February 1862; Frances Louisa Tracy, married 1865). https://archive.org/details/pierpontgenealog00barn +[^5]: Crosby, *Pierpont Genealogy* (1928), entry for John Pierpont Morgan ("America's leading financier of International fame"; the firms listed). https://archive.org/details/pierpontgenealog00barn +[^6]: Chamber of Commerce of the State of New York, *Tribute of the Chamber of Commerce of the State of New York to the Memory of John Pierpont Morgan* (memorial meeting of April 3, 1913), remarks on Peabody and Junius Spencer Morgan. https://archive.org/details/tributeofchamberny00newy +[^7]: *Junius S. Morgan and Walter H. Burns, copartners as J. S. Morgan & Company, Appellants, v. The United States*, No. 526, Supreme Court of the United States, October Term 1884 (case caption). https://archive.org/details/per_scotus_1884_526-527 +[^8]: Chamber of Commerce memorial (1913): the Duncan, Sherman clerkship and the 1857 entry into the banking house. https://archive.org/details/tributeofchamberny00newy +[^9]: *Drexel v. Berney*, No. 305, Supreme Court of the United States, October Term 1886, on appeal from the Circuit Court for the Southern District of New York (appellants Francis A. Drexel, Anthony D. Drexel, Charles H. Godfrey, Joseph W. Drexel, John Pierpont Morgan and J. Hood Wright; "Statement of the Case": "The complainants compose the firm of Drexel, Morgan & Co., bankers at the City of New York"; the will of Robert Berney, who died at Paris). https://archive.org/details/per_scotus_1886_305 +[^10]: U.S. House of Representatives, *Money Trust Investigation: Investigation of Financial and Monetary Conditions in the United States under House Resolutions Nos. 429 and 504*, Subcommittee of the Committee on Banking and Currency, 62d Cong., 3d sess., Part 14 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1913), testimony of J. Pierpont Morgan, December 18, 1912, pp. 1003 to 1004 (the Philadelphia house). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0014.001.umich.edu +[^11]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 14, pp. 1003 to 1004 (the partners read by Morgan; the firm as partner in the London and Paris houses). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0014.001.umich.edu +[^12]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 14, p. 1003 (Untermyer: "Are you senior member of the partnership or firm of J. P. Morgan & Co., bankers, of New York City?" Morgan: "I am, sir."). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0014.001.umich.edu +[^13]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 25, testimony of Henry P. Davison, p. 1808 ("I am a member of the firm of J. P. Morgan & Co."; "Since the 1st of January, 1909."). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0025.001.umich.edu +[^14]: *New York Times*, May 7, 1922, obituary and life sketch of Henry Pomeroy Davison (birth on June 13, 1867; the Astor Place National Bank; the Liberty National Bank presidency at thirty-two; "the idea of a trust depository for national bank money"; the tablet at the Bankers Trust building; the 1907 Clearing House committee; "expert on banking" to the Monetary Commission; Morgan's invitation in late 1908; the 1910 Six-Power Chinese loan negotiations in Paris; the Geneva conference; the $600,000,000 proposal; the Foreign Finance Corporation; honors; directorships; "died today upon the conclusion of an operation upon an infiltrating tumor which could only be partially removed"). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1922-05-07_71_23479 +[^15]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 15 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1913), testimony of J. Pierpont Morgan, December 19, 1912, pp. 1011 to 1012 (deposits of about "one hundred millions"; "upward of eighty-one millions" held for seventy-three interstate corporations; directors "With some of them"). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0015.001.umich.edu +[^16]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 15, p. 1015 (the New Haven: "I know we had financial arrangements with them, but nothing formal"; "Were you not their financial agents ... ?" "I think we had."). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0015.001.umich.edu +[^17]: U.S. House of Representatives, 37th Cong., 2d sess., House Report No. 2, "Government Contracts" (report of the select committee to inquire into the contracts of the government, presented by Mr. Washburne; the committee was appointed July 8 and 10, 1861), section "The purchase of the Hall carbines," pp. 40 to 43. https://archive.org/details/governmentcontra00unit_1 +[^18]: House Report No. 2, 37th Cong., 2d sess., p. 43 ("The arms were placed under the control of J. Pierpont Morgan to secure him the payment of $20,000 he had advanced to Stevens"). https://archive.org/details/governmentcontra00unit_1 +[^19]: House Report No. 2, 37th Cong., 2d sess., testimony of Simon Stevens, "Testimony: Purchase of Arms," pp. 242 to 245 (the sale to Frémont at $22; "I got them from J. Pierpont Morgan, to send to General Fremont"; the collateral security; Morgan's interest; the draft on J. P. Morgan held by Ketchum, Sons & Co.), also quoted in the committee's report at p. 43. https://archive.org/details/11037290bsb +[^20]: House Report No. 2, 37th Cong., 2d sess., testimony of Morris Ketchum, quoted in the committee's report at pp. 43 to 44 ("between forty and fifty thousand dollars"; "Mr. Morgan holds subject to me, when he gets his pay from the government"). https://archive.org/details/governmentcontra00unit_1 +[^21]: House Report No. 2, 37th Cong., 2d sess., testimony of Captain Franklin D. Callender, St. Louis, October 26, 1861, quoted in the committee's report at pp. 47 to 49 (Form No. 13, "The United States to J. Pierpont Morgan, Dr.," August 7, 1861, 2,500 Hall's rifled carbines, $55,550; Frémont's certificate of September 9; payment of September 10; the $82,662.50 from Captain Turnley). https://archive.org/details/governmentcontra00unit_1 +[^22]: House Report No. 2, 37th Cong., 2d sess., p. 50 (second Form No. 13, 2,500 Hall's carbines at $22 and accessories, $58,175; "Not paid for want of funds"). https://archive.org/details/governmentcontra00unit_1 +[^23]: House Report No. 2, 37th Cong., 2d sess., pp. 51 to 53 (the committee's findings on value, the $55,550 paid, the $6,950 balance and "some $49,000 over and above the value of the property sold"). https://archive.org/details/governmentcontra00unit_1 +[^24]: House Report No. 2, 37th Cong., 2d sess., closing resolutions offered by Mr. Van Wyck (the Hall carbine resolution "on the basis of a sale of said arms to the government for $12 50 each, rejecting all other demands"). https://archive.org/details/governmentcontra00unit_1 +[^25]: *Congressional Globe*, 37th Cong., 2d sess., May 1, 1862 (the resolution before the House). https://archive.org/details/sim_united-states-congress-congressional-globe_1862-05-01_117 +[^26]: Henry L. Dawes, *Defence of the Committee on Government Contracts*, speech of April 25, 1862. https://archive.org/details/defenceofcommitt00dawe ; Thaddeus Stevens, *Government Contracts*, speech of April 28, 1862, printing C. B. Sedgwick to John C. Frémont, February 20, 1862, and Frémont's reply of February 22, 1862. https://archive.org/details/governmentcontra00stev +[^27]: *Congressional Globe*, 37th Cong., 2d sess., February 6, 1862 (Hall's carbines "purchased ... of Simon Stevens, for the sum of twenty-two dollars apiece"; the letter of June 20, 1861 to Eastman). https://archive.org/details/sim_united-states-congress-congressional-globe_1862-02-06_67 +[^28]: R. Gordon Wasson, *The Hall Carbine Affair: A Study in Contemporary Folklore* (revised edition, 1948), pp. 44 to 48, quoting and citing the Report of the Commission on Ordnance Claims and Contracts, Senate Executive Document 72, 37th Cong., 2d sess., p. 460 (Case No. 97; the opening finding; the decision of June 12, 1862; the fair value of $65,228.05; the 2.5 per cent brokerage). https://archive.org/details/hallcarbineaffai012466mbp +[^29]: Wasson, *The Hall Carbine Affair* (1948), pp. 21 to 23 (Ketchum's statement of January 22, 1862; the net proceeds of $54,994.50; the $26,343.54 retained by Morgan; the balance of $28,650.96 paid on September 16, 1861). https://archive.org/details/hallcarbineaffai012466mbp +[^30]: Wasson, *The Hall Carbine Affair* (1948), pp. 51 to 53, citing *Stevens v. United States*, Nott & Huntington, *Cases Decided in the Court of Claims*, December Term 1866, vol. 2, pp. 95 to 103 (judgment of May 6, 1867, $58,175; appeal dismissed August 22, 1868; payment of $61,577.83 on August 24, 1868). https://archive.org/details/hallcarbineaffai012466mbp +[^31]: Wasson, *The Hall Carbine Affair* (1948), p. 44, citing *Congressional Globe*, 37th Cong., 2d sess., Appendix, p. 136 (Holman). https://archive.org/details/hallcarbineaffai012466mbp +[^32]: Wasson, *The Hall Carbine Affair* (1948), title page, copyright page ("First edition in 1941, 100 copies; Revised edition in 1948, 750 copies") and preface. https://archive.org/details/hallcarbineaffai012466mbp +[^33]: Annie Jacobsen, *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis* (Little, Brown and Company, 2017), on R. Gordon Wasson as vice president at J.P. Morgan & Company. +[^34]: House Report No. 2, 37th Cong., 2d sess., section on the purchase of vessels, from p. 21 (the transfer of vessel purchasing to George D. Morgan on May 8, 1861; the compensation arrangement and the figure of "more than $95,000"). https://archive.org/details/governmentcontra00unit_1 ; *Congressional Globe*, 37th Cong., 2d sess., Senate, February 8, 1862 (the employment of "George D. Morgan, of New York, to purchase vessels for the Government") and February 15, 1862 (the appointment of "Mr. George D. Morgan, of the city of New York, to that agency"). https://archive.org/details/sim_united-states-congress-congressional-globe_1862-02-08_45 ; https://archive.org/details/sim_united-states-congress-congressional-globe_1862-02-15_51 +[^35]: *The Commercial and Financial Chronicle*, vol. 60, no. 1546 (February 9, 1895), financial notes on the gold contract ("The syndicate is managed by Messrs. J. P. Morgan and August Belmont"). https://archive.org/details/sim_commercial-and-financial-chronicle_1895-02-09_60_1546 +[^36]: *The Commercial and Financial Chronicle*, vol. 60, no. 1547 (February 16, 1895), p. 283, "Syndicate for the Sale Contract of Gold," printing the contract dated February 8, 1895 (3,500,000 ounces at $17.80441; 4 per cent thirty-year bonds dated February 1, 1895; at least one half of the coin from Europe; "J. P. Morgan & Co ... on behalf of Messrs. J. S. Morgan & Co, of London"). https://archive.org/details/sim_commercial-and-financial-chronicle_1895-02-16_60_1547 +[^37]: U.S. Department of the Treasury, *Annual Report of the Secretary of the Treasury on the State of the Finances for the Year 1895* (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1896), "Condition of the Treasury and the Currency," p. lxx (bonds issued under the contract $62,315,400; gold received $65,116,244.62; last deposit June 24, 1895; syndicate deposits until September 11, 1895); also the statement of receipts (the purchase of $65,116,244.62 gold coin "at a cost in four per cent thirty year bonds of $62,315,400"). https://archive.org/details/annualreportofco1895trea_a1t1 +[^38]: Treasury, *Annual Report ... 1895*, p. lxx (the stipulation "as far as lies in their power exert all financial influence and will make all legitimate efforts to protect the Treasury of the United States against the withdrawals of gold pending the complete performance of this contract"). https://archive.org/details/annualreportofco1895trea_a1t1 +[^39]: *The Commercial and Financial Chronicle*, vol. 62, no. 1595 (January 18, 1896), pp. 117 to 118, "Mr. Morgan and the Bond Syndicate" (circular of January 14, 1896 from 23 Wall Street: the invitation to Washington of December 23; the four classes of participants; the names of Stillman, Adams, Stewart and Fisk). https://archive.org/details/sim_commercial-and-financial-chronicle_1896-01-18_62_1595 +[^40]: *The Commercial and Financial Chronicle*, vol. 62, no. 1595 (January 18, 1896), p. 118 (Morgan to the President, January 4, 1896, signed "J. PIERPONT MORGAN"). https://archive.org/details/sim_commercial-and-financial-chronicle_1896-01-18_62_1595 +[^41]: *The Commercial and Financial Chronicle*, vol. 62, no. 1595 (January 18, 1896), p. 118 (the Treasury call of January 6 for $100,000,000 of bonds; the "all or none" minimum; the dissolution of the syndicate). https://archive.org/details/sim_commercial-and-financial-chronicle_1896-01-18_62_1595 +[^42]: *Proceedings of the Trustees of the Peabody Education Fund*, vol. 5 (Boston: John Wilson and Son, 1900), "Trustees of the Peabody Education Fund" (list including J. Pierpont Morgan, Anthony J. Drexel, Ex-President Grover Cleveland, Joseph H. Choate, Ex-President Rutherford B. Hayes and Daniel C. Gilman). https://archive.org/details/proceedingstrus00fundgoog +[^43]: *Proceedings of the Trustees of the Peabody Education Fund*, vol. 5 (1900), annual meetings of 1893 (p. 53) through 1899 (p. 407) ("Mr. J. Pierpont Morgan was re-elected Treasurer"). https://archive.org/details/proceedingstrus00fundgoog +[^44]: U.S. Industrial Commission, *Reports of the Industrial Commission*, vol. 13, *Industrial Combinations* (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901), testimony of Charles M. Schwab, Exhibit 1, "Prospectus of United States Steel Corporation," pp. 475 to 477 (Office of J. P. Morgan & Co., 23 Wall Street, March 2, 1901; the $200,000,000 syndicate; $850,000,000 authorized stock; bonds up to $904,000,000; the compensation sentence; signed "J. P. Morgan & Co., Syndicate Managers"). https://archive.org/details/report141commgoog +[^45]: *Reports of the Industrial Commission*, vol. 13 (1901), testimony of Charles M. Schwab, p. 467. https://archive.org/details/report141commgoog +[^46]: *Reports of the Industrial Commission*, vol. 13 (1901), testimony of E. R. Chapman, p. 109. https://archive.org/details/report141commgoog +[^47]: *Hearings before the Committee on Investigation of United States Steel Corporation*, House of Representatives, vol. 4 (pp. 2469 to 3255), testimony of Andrew Carnegie, p. 2513. https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste00stangoog +[^48]: *Hearings before the Committee on Investigation of United States Steel Corporation*, vol. 4, testimony of Andrew Carnegie, pp. 2535 to 2536. https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste00stangoog +[^49]: *Northern Securities Co. v. United States*, 193 U.S. 197 (1904), statement of the case (defendants including "J. Pierpont Morgan," and the suit under the act of July 2, 1890). https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/193/197 +[^50]: *Northern Securities Co. v. United States*, 193 U.S. 197 (1904), opinion of Justice Harlan and the judgment (decree affirmed), decided March 14, 1904. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/193/197 +[^51]: Theodore Roosevelt to Charles J. Bonaparte, November 4, 1907, in *Hearings before the Committee on Investigation of United States Steel Corporation*, vol. 1 (pp. 1 to 782), testimony of Elbert H. Gary, pp. 140 to 141. https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste02corpgoog +[^52]: *Hearings before the Committee on Investigation of United States Steel Corporation*, vol. 1, p. 184 (testimony of Elbert H. Gary: "Mr. Ledyard was the attorney of Col. Payne. Col. Payne was one of the customers of Moore & Schley"; "It was he who first suggested, I think, the possibility of the United States Steel Corporation buying the stock"). https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste02corpgoog +[^53]: *Hearings before the Committee on Investigation of United States Steel Corporation*, vol. 2 (pp. 783 to 1602), p. 934 (testimony of Lewis Cass Ledyard on Payne's statement that he "thought it could be best brought to the attention of the United States Steel Corporation through Mr. Morgan"). https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste03corpgoog +[^54]: *Hearings before the Committee on Investigation of United States Steel Corporation*, vol. 1, pp. 4 to 5 (testimony of John W. Gates). https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste02corpgoog +[^55]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 15, pp. 1050 to 1051 (Morgan: "I want to control nothing"; "I do not want any control"; "there is nothing in the world that you can make a trust on money"; "I like a little competition"). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0015.001.umich.edu +[^56]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 15, p. 1081 (Untermyer: "The control of credit involves a control of money, does it not?" Morgan: "A control of credit? No."; "Money is gold, and nothing else."). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0015.001.umich.edu +[^57]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 15, testimony of J. Pierpont Morgan, December 19, 1912, p. 1084 ("No, sir; the first thing is character." "Before money or anything else. Money can not buy it."). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0015.001.umich.edu +[^58]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 6, testimony of Charles Steele, p. 455 (Untermyer: "You are a partner in the firm of J. P. Morgan & Co., are you not?" Steele: "I am."). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0006.001.umich.edu +[^59]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 15, p. 1044 (Untermyer: "Is Mr. Thomas W. Lamont a partner in your firm?" Morgan: "He is."). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0015.001.umich.edu +[^60]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 6, testimony of George B. Cortelyou, pp. 430 to 431 (Secretary of the Treasury, March 5, 1907 to March 18, 1909; the conference at the Hotel Manhattan on the evening of October 22, 1907; Untermyer: "Mr. Perkins was then a member of the firm of J. P. Morgan & Co.?" Cortelyou: "He was."). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0006.001.umich.edu +[^61]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 8, p. 596, testimony of Walter E. Frew, December 10, 1912 (Frew a director of the Bankers Trust Co. from about 1905; "Who invited you to become a member?" "Mr. H. P. Davison, sir."; "Mr. H. P. Davison, of J. P. Morgan & Co.?" "Of the First National Bank at that time."; "Mr. Davison is a member of J. P. Morgan & Co., is he not?" "He is now; yes, sir. He was not at the time."; the voting trustees Davison, Perkins and Daniel G. Reid; Perkins "then a member of J. P. Morgan & Co."). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0008.001.umich.edu +[^62]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), text on the Morgan partnership ("Although Morgan himself was not a member of The Order, some of his partners were"; "whose son H.P. Davison, Jr. was initiated in 1920"; "brought Thomas Lamont and Willard Straight into the Morgan firm"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^63]: Frank A. Vanderlip, *From Farm Boy to Financier* (New York: D. Appleton-Century, 1935), chapter XXI, "A Conclave on Jekyl Island," pp. 209 to 215 (the Stillman letter and the Rhode Island estate; "Those who had been asked to go were Henry Davison, Paul Warburg, Ben Strong, and myself"; "From Washington came A. Piatt Andrew"). https://archive.org/details/from-farm-boy-to-financier-by-frank-vanderlip +[^64]: Vanderlip, *From Farm Boy to Financier* (1935), pp. 216 to 217 ("Harry Davison was a splendid person to prevent wrangles in any company."). https://archive.org/details/from-farm-boy-to-financier-by-frank-vanderlip +[^65]: Pritzker Military Museum & Library, Davison Family Collection, finding aid for Henry Pomeroy Davison and Henry Pomeroy Davison Jr. (biographical note: "In 1909, Davison became a senior partner at JP Morgan & Company. The following year Davison attended a secret meeting in Jekyll Island, Georgia. Many believe this meeting led to the creation of the Federal Reserve."; family list). https://www.pritzkermilitary.org/sites/default/files/files/Davison_Finding_Aid_Feb_2018.pdf +[^66]: Chamber of Commerce memorial (April 3, 1913): the Metropolitan Museum (trustee 1889, president 1904, "the pitiful $106,000 with which it was started"), the American Academy at Rome and the list of speakers. https://archive.org/details/tributeofchamberny00newy +[^67]: Crosby, *Pierpont Genealogy* (1928), entry for John Pierpont Morgan ("his most precious monument"). https://archive.org/details/pierpontgenealog00barn +[^68]: *The Commercial and Financial Chronicle*, vol. 96, no. 2494 (April 12, 1913), report of the funeral arrangements (St. George's Church, Stuyvesant Square; burial at Hartford; honorary pallbearers; the Stock Exchange closed). https://archive.org/details/sim_commercial-and-financial-chronicle_1913-04-12_96_2494 +[^69]: *New-York Tribune*, April 20, 1913, p. 1 and continuation, "Morgan's Will a Human Document" and "Left Nearly $17,000,000 in Specific Legacies" (Library of Congress, Chronicling America, New-York Tribune, April 20, 1913, images 1, 6 and 7; the will text of Article I; the dates of January 4 and 6; the 502 Equitable shares; the $60,000,000 art valuation). https://www.loc.gov/item/sn83030214/1913-04-20/ed-1/ +[^70]: *New-York Tribune*, April 20, 1913 (full text of the will, Article XXXII, art collections and "The Morgan Memorial" of the Wadsworth Athenaeum). https://www.loc.gov/item/sn83030214/1913-04-20/ed-1/ +[^71]: *New-York Tribune*, April 20, 1913 (the will's articles on burial at Hartford, services at St. George's Church and Article XXVI on the firm's agreements). https://www.loc.gov/item/sn83030214/1913-04-20/ed-1/ +[^72]: *New-York Tribune*, April 20, 1913 (the executors named in Article XXXIII; witnesses to the codicil; residuary legatee). https://www.loc.gov/item/sn83030214/1913-04-20/ed-1/ +[^73]: J.P. Morgan Chase & Co., Form 10-K405 for 2001 (filed March 22, 2002), Item 1, Item 14 Exhibit 4.1 and Management's Discussion (the December 31, 2000 merger with The Chase Manhattan Corporation); the April 24, 1959 merger as recorded on the vault's Morgan Guaranty Trust page. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/19617/000095012302002823/y57010e10-k405.htm diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/John Kerry.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/John Kerry.md index dec645f3..5cbbdcf1 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/John Kerry.md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/John Kerry.md @@ -19,44 +19,54 @@ relations: - type: member_of with: "[[Skull and Bones]]" role: "member, Class of 1966" + fn: 4 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Forbes family]]" + role: "mother's line: Rosemary Isabel Forbes (1913 to 2002), daughter of James Grant Forbes (1879 to 1955), a son of Francis Blackwell Forbes of Russell and Company" fn: 2 --- John Kerry is a former Democratic Senator from [[Massachusetts]] who chaired the Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics, and International Operations of the [[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]].[^1] +### Family + +Kerry's mother, Rosemary Isabel Forbes, was born in Paris on October 27, 1913, and died at Manchester-by-the-Sea, Massachusetts on November 14, 2002. She was the daughter of James Grant Forbes (1879 to 1955), born at Shanghai, and Margaret Tyndal Winthrop, a daughter of Robert Charles Winthrop Jr., whom he married at Boston on November 28, 1906. She married Richard John Kerry at Montgomery, Alabama on February 8, 1941.[^2] James Grant Forbes was a son of Francis Blackwell Forbes (1839 to 1908), who went to China in 1857 and became a partner in [[Russell and Company]], and a grandson of the Reverend John Murray Forbes (1807 to 1885), a first cousin of the [[Robert Bennet Forbes]] and [[John Murray Forbes]] of Milton who appear on the [[Forbes family]] page.[^3] + ### Yale and Skull and Bones -John Forbes Kerry is listed under the class of 1966 in the index of members that [[Antony C. Sutton]] reproduces from the society's membership catalogue.[^2] +John Forbes Kerry is listed under the class of 1966 in the index of members that [[Antony C. Sutton]] reproduces from the society's membership catalogue.[^4] ### BCCI Investigation -Kerry's subcommittee spearheaded probes of drug trafficking and money laundering, which veered into [[Manuel Noriega]]'s financial dealings.[^3] He proposed a serious investigation of [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International|BCCI]], but his efforts were initially brushed aside, leading him to believe there was a high-level cover-up.[^3] +Kerry's subcommittee spearheaded probes of drug trafficking and money laundering, which veered into [[Manuel Noriega]]'s financial dealings.[^5] He proposed a serious investigation of [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International|BCCI]], but his efforts were initially brushed aside, leading him to believe there was a high-level cover-up.[^5] -He was a key figure in pushing for investigations into BCCI's activities, despite resistance from government agencies. Kerry's subcommittee issued subpoenas for BCCI records and investigated the bank's secret ownership of [[First American Bank]].[^4] He also questioned [[Richard J. Kerr]], Acting [[Central Intelligence Agency]] Director, about the agency's knowledge of BCCI's operations.[^5] +He was a key figure in pushing for investigations into BCCI's activities, despite resistance from government agencies. Kerry's subcommittee issued subpoenas for BCCI records and investigated the bank's secret ownership of [[First American Bank]].[^6] He also questioned [[Richard J. Kerr]], Acting [[Central Intelligence Agency]] Director, about the agency's knowledge of BCCI's operations.[^7] -Kerry received money from [[Clark Clifford]] and [[Robert Altman]], members of their law firm, during the same month that [[Jack Blum]]'s contract with his subcommittee was terminated.[^6] He introduced a bill that would allow the government to revoke the license of any bank whose officials had been convicted of money laundering, known as the "death penalty bill," which was opposed by BCCI's lawyers.[^7] +Kerry received money from [[Clark Clifford]] and [[Robert Altman]], members of their law firm, during the same month that [[Jack Blum]]'s contract with his subcommittee was terminated.[^8] He introduced a bill that would allow the government to revoke the license of any bank whose officials had been convicted of money laundering, known as the "death penalty bill," which was opposed by BCCI's lawyers.[^9] ### Contra Drug Trafficking Investigation -In 1987 and 1988, Kerry's subcommittee investigated links between the [[Contras]] and [[Cocaine]] trafficking, with chief investigator Jack Blum uncovering direct connections.[^8] The committee took videotaped depositions from Contra leaders who acknowledged receiving drug profits with the apparent knowledge of the CIA. Drug dealers admitted under oath to giving money to the Contras and passed polygraph tests. Pilots admitted flying weapons south and cocaine and marijuana north.[^8] +In 1987 and 1988, Kerry's subcommittee investigated links between the [[Contras]] and [[Cocaine]] trafficking, with chief investigator Jack Blum uncovering direct connections.[^10] The committee took videotaped depositions from Contra leaders who acknowledged receiving drug profits with the apparent knowledge of the CIA. Drug dealers admitted under oath to giving money to the Contras and passed polygraph tests. Pilots admitted flying weapons south and cocaine and marijuana north.[^10] -[[Norwin Meneses]] was an early target of the investigation, but the Justice Department stonewalled the committee's requests for information. Blum told Webb that he eventually gave up trying to obtain the records.[^8] +[[Norwin Meneses]] was an early target of the investigation, but the Justice Department stonewalled the committee's requests for information. Blum told Webb that he eventually gave up trying to obtain the records.[^10] ### Wanda Palacios and William Weld -In 1986, Kerry's staff interviewed [[Wanda Palacios]], a [[Miami]] FBI informant who reported witnessing [[Southern Air Transport]] planes being loaded with cocaine and unloading guns in Barranquilla, [[Colombia]]. Kerry and an aide took her eleven-page statement to the Justice Department and met with William Weld, one of Attorney General Edwin Meese's top assistants. Weld "read about a half a page and chuckled" and said "this isn't the first time today I've seen allegations about CIA agent involvement in drugs." Weld stated that "while he couldn't vouch for every line in it, there was nothing in it which didn't appear true to him." When Palacios's allegations leaked, she was publicly dismissed as a crank.[^9] +In 1986, Kerry's staff interviewed [[Wanda Palacios]], a [[Miami]] FBI informant who reported witnessing [[Southern Air Transport]] planes being loaded with cocaine and unloading guns in Barranquilla, [[Colombia]]. Kerry and an aide took her eleven-page statement to the Justice Department and met with William Weld, one of Attorney General Edwin Meese's top assistants. Weld "read about a half a page and chuckled" and said "this isn't the first time today I've seen allegations about CIA agent involvement in drugs." Weld stated that "while he couldn't vouch for every line in it, there was nothing in it which didn't appear true to him." When Palacios's allegations leaked, she was publicly dismissed as a crank.[^11] ### Suppression of Findings -Blum described how the investigation was systematically undermined: "We laid it all out, and we were trashed. We were totally hit by the leadership of the administration and much of the congressional leadership. They simply turned around and said, 'These people are crazy.' And they dumped all over us." The major newspapers largely ignored the committee's findings.[^8] +Blum described how the investigation was systematically undermined: "We laid it all out, and we were trashed. We were totally hit by the leadership of the administration and much of the congressional leadership. They simply turned around and said, 'These people are crazy.' And they dumped all over us." The major newspapers largely ignored the committee's findings.[^10] ### Footnotes [^1]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 9. -[^2]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1966 (Kerry, John Forbes). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^3]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank*. Random House, 1993, p. 26. -[^4]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank*. Random House, 1993, p. 30. -[^5]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank*. Random House, 1993, p. 89. -[^6]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank*. Random House, 1993, p. 65. -[^7]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank*. Random House, 1993, p. 370. -[^8]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Prologue: "It was like they didn't want to know" -[^9]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Chapter 13: "The wrong kind of friends" +[^2]: Holcombe genealogy, person page 547 (Rosemary Isabel Forbes, born Paris, October 27, 1913, died Manchester-by-the-Sea, November 14, 2002; James Grant Forbes, born Shanghai, October 22, 1879, died Paris, April 24, 1955; his marriage of November 28, 1906 to Margaret Tyndal Winthrop; Richard John Kerry and John Forbes Kerry, born December 11, 1943). https://www.holcombegenealogy.com/g0/p547.htm +[^3]: Massachusetts Historical Society, *Forbes Family Papers, 1732-1931* (Ms. N-49), collection guide, biographical sketch of Francis Blackwell Forbes and Appendix, "Condensed Genealogy of the Forbes Family." https://www.masshist.org/collection-guides/view/fa0269 +[^4]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1966 (Kerry, John Forbes). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^5]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank*. Random House, 1993, p. 26. +[^6]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank*. Random House, 1993, p. 30. +[^7]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank*. Random House, 1993, p. 89. +[^8]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank*. Random House, 1993, p. 65. +[^9]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank*. Random House, 1993, p. 370. +[^10]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Prologue: "It was like they didn't want to know" +[^11]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Chapter 13: "The wrong kind of friends" diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Lord family.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Lord family.md new file mode 100644 index 00000000..e7ec3eb9 --- /dev/null +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Lord family.md @@ -0,0 +1,300 @@ +--- +created: 2026-10-26 +updated: 2026-10-26 +aliases: + - "Lord family" + - "Lord family of Hartford" + - "Lord clan" +tags: + - Person + - Family + - Lord + - YaleUniversity + - SkullAndBones + - LordDayAndLord + - GaleyAndLord + - WinstonLord + - HerbertBrownell + - CouncilOnForeignRelations + - Kissinger + - UnitedNationsHumanRightsCommission + - Pillsbury + - AntonySutton + - NewYorkTimes + - PentagonPapers + - Onassis +category: "Intelligence & Government" +summary: "Hartford and New York family whose members include the Lord, Day and Lord law partners (Brownell's firm), a Galey and Lord textile executive, a United Nations human rights delegate and the diplomat Winston Lord." +location: "New York, New York" +relations: + - type: member_of + with: "[[Skull and Bones]]" + start: 1854-01-01 + role: "George DeForest Lord, Yale class of 1854, listed in Sutton's index of members" + fn: 6 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Skull and Bones]]" + start: 1898-01-01 + role: "Franklin Atkins Lord, class of 1898, per Sutton's index" + fn: 9 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Skull and Bones]]" + start: 1922-01-01 + role: "William Galey Lord, Yale class of 1922; the Yale Banner prints his name in the senior society list" + fn: 21 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Skull and Bones]]" + start: 1926-01-01 + role: "Oswald Bates Lord, Yale class of 1926; the Yale Banner prints his name in the senior society list" + fn: 24 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Skull and Bones]]" + start: 1949-01-01 + role: "Charles Edwin Lord II, class of 1949, per Sutton's index" + fn: 9 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Skull and Bones]]" + start: 1959-01-01 + role: "Winston Lord, Yale class of 1959, per Sutton's index and Quigley's list" + fn: 22 + - type: founded + with: "[[Lord, Day and Lord]]" + role: "Daniel Lord, senior member of the firm in 1849 when Henry Day became a partner" + fn: 8 + - type: represented + with: "[[New York Times]]" + start: 1948-01-01 + end: 1971-07-01 + role: "Lord, Day and Lord, corporate counsel to the Times for 23 years as of August 1971" + fn: 19 + - type: represented + with: "[[Aristotle Onassis]]" + start: 1948-01-01 + end: 1950-06-01 + role: "Lord, Day and Lord, George DeForest Lord the partner in charge, on the Shipping Act citizenship requirements" + fn: 17 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Galey & Lord]]" + start: 1923-01-01 + role: "William Galey Lord, salesman; vice president from 1933, president from 1943 per the Marquis entry" + fn: 20 + - type: head_of + with: "[[Council on Foreign Relations]]" + start: 1977-01-01 + end: 1985-06-30 + role: "Winston Lord, president" + fn: 2 + - type: appointed + with: "[[State Department]]" + start: 1973-10-12 + end: 1977-01-20 + role: "Winston Lord, director of the Policy Planning Staff" + fn: 40 + - type: appointed + with: "[[State Department]]" + start: 1985-11-06 + end: 1989-04-23 + role: "Winston Lord, ambassador to China" + fn: 40 + - type: appointed + with: "[[State Department]]" + start: 1993-04-22 + end: 1997-02-18 + role: "Winston Lord, Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs" + fn: 40 + - type: appointed + with: "[[United Nations Human Rights Commission]]" + start: 1953-01-01 + end: 1961-12-31 + role: "Mary Pillsbury Lord, United States representative" + fn: 28 + - type: spouse_of + with: "[[Mary Pillsbury Lord]]" + start: 1929-12-07 + role: "Oswald Bates Lord, married December 7, 1929" + fn: 25 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Pillsbury family]]" + role: "Mary Pillsbury Lord, daughter of Charles Stinson Pillsbury and granddaughter of Charles A. Pillsbury" + fn: 25 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Winston Lord]]" + role: "son of Oswald Bates Lord and Mary Pillsbury Lord" + fn: 33 +--- + +The Lord family is a Hartford and New York family of lawyers, textile merchants, United Nations delegates and diplomats. Its New England founder, [[Thomas Lord]], arrived in 1635 and settled among the followers of [[Thomas Hooker]] at [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]] and then at [[Hartford, Connecticut|Hartford]]. [[Antony C. Sutton]] places the family among the old-line families of the [[Skull and Bones]], with a chart label reading "LORD FAMILY (1635, Cambridge, Mass.)," and names the New York law firm [[Lord, Day and Lord]] as "dominated by the Lord family."[^1] The family's best-known public figure is [[Winston Lord]], president of the [[Council on Foreign Relations]] from 1977 to 1985 and ambassador to China from 1985 to 1989.[^2] + +### Thomas Lord and the Hartford settlers + +The 1892 family genealogy records that Thomas Lord, aged fifty, was registered on April 29, 1635 for transportation to New England on the ship [[Elizabeth and Ann]], with his wife Dorothy, aged forty-six, and seven children. The entry cites Hotten's Original Lists.[^3] [[James Savage|Savage]]'s genealogical dictionary gives the same ship and year, and says Thomas stopped at Boston or Cambridge for a year or more before settling at Hartford. Savage records the eldest son, Richard Lord, at Cambridge by 1632, admitted a freeman there on March 4, 1635, and sent to Hartford with Hooker in 1636 as an original proprietor. Savage adds that Richard was the captain relied on, with [[John Pynchon]], to secure the regicides [[William Goffe]] and [[Edward Whalley]] in New England. Richard died at [[New London, Connecticut|New London]] on May 17, 1662. His son Richard married Mary Smith in 1665 and was lost at sea in 1685, and the widow married Dr. Thomas Hooker in 1686.[^4] + +Sutton's chart gives the Lord settlement as Cambridge in 1635, and his text says Thomas Lord left [[Essex]] in 1635 in a company led by Hooker and settled at what is now Hartford.[^1] The 1892 genealogy traces the line through Thomas Lord's son William, his grandson Thomas (born 1645) and his great-grandson Joseph (born 1697) to Capt. Daniel Lord (born 1736), who married his first cousin Elizabeth Lord. Their son Dr. Daniel Lord settled at [[Stonington, Connecticut|Stonington]] and married Phebe Crary, and removed with his family to New York in 1797.[^5] + +### Daniel Lord and the founding of the law firm + +The New York lawyer [[Daniel Lord]] was born at Stonington in December 1794, the only child of Dr. Daniel and Phebe (Crary) Lord. The Yale obituary record for 1868 states that he began his law studies at the [[Litchfield Law School]], finished them in the office of [[George Griffin]] in New York, and was admitted to the bar in 1817. The same record states that he "stood in the foremost rank in his profession," steadily refused all public offices, and was engaged in "many of the most important cases of his day." He graduated from [[Yale University]] in 1814, married in 1818 Susan, daughter of Lockwood DeForest, and died in New York on March 4, 1868. One of his sons, George DeForest Lord, graduated from Yale in the class of 1854.[^6] + +The 1892 genealogy lists Daniel Lord's children as Daniel DeForest, Phoebe Lucretia, John Crary, James Couper, Sarah, Edward Crary and George DeForest Lord, the last married to Frances Shelton. Phoebe Lucretia married Henry Day, and the genealogy names among their children a George DeForest Lord Day. A grandson, Daniel Lord Jr., is described there as "one of the firm of Lord, Day and Lord, successors of Hon. Daniel Lord."[^7] + +Henry Day was born at South Hadley, Massachusetts in 1820, graduated from Yale in 1845, studied at Harvard Law School and practiced in New York. According to the 1897 biographical compendium *Prominent Families of New York*, he became in 1849 "a partner in the legal firm of Lord, Day & Lord, of which the distinguished Daniel Lord was the senior member." The same sketch says Day became attorney and a director of the Equitable Life Assurance Society and a director of the Consolidated Gas Company, the Mercantile Trust Company and the Lawyers' Title and Guarantee Company, that the legal affairs of the estates of Samuel F. B. Morse, Edward Morgan and the Astors were entrusted to him, and that at his death in 1893 he was the sole survivor of the original members of the firm, with which he had been connected for nearly forty-five years. His son George Lord Day, educated at [[Princeton University]], also became a member of the firm and retired after a hunting accident in 1894.[^8] + +Sutton's text names George DeForest Lord (initiated 1854) as the first Lord initiated into the Order and states that he and his father, Daniel Lord, established the firm. Sutton wrote that its present-day clients were the [[New York Times]] and the Rubin Foundation, which he describes as one of the financial supporters of the [[Institute for Policy Studies]], and, in his section on the law, that "the major establishment law firms in New York are saturated with The Order," naming Lord, Day and Lord first.[^9] + +### Lord, Day and Lord in the twentieth century + +The firm's partners recorded in the successive editions of *Who's Who in America* include [[Lucius Hart Beers]], a member of the firm, a director of Lawyers Title and Guaranty Company, Lawyers Trust Company and the 25 Broadway Corporation, and a member of the advisory board of the National Surety Company.[^10] [[Howard Mansfield]] (Yale 1871) is listed as a member of the firm from 1901, counsel for the [[Cuba Company]] and the Cuba Railroad Company from 1900, and trustee and treasurer of the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]].[^11] [[Randolph E. Paul]], the tax lawyer who became general counsel of the [[United States Department of the Treasury|Treasury Department]] in 1942, is recorded in the *National Cyclopaedia of American Biography* as becoming a member of Lord, Day and Lord in 1938.[^12] + +The firm kept a Washington address. The Federal Bureau of Investigation's [[Silvermaster file]] for December 1945 to January 1946 reports that [[Lauchlin Currie]] arrived in Washington from New York on December 5, 1945 and stayed at 1614 I Street, N.W. A Bureau agent determined on December 26 that the address was "apparently a law firm wherein several lawyers have a common reception room," and the directories available to the Washington Field Office listed at that address Lord, Day and Lord, lawyers, and Randolph Paul, lawyer, among others. On January 8, 1946 agents took up surveillance at Paul's office at the same address and saw Currie enter. The same report carries a background note on Paul from a 1940 investigation of his application for a Justice Department judicial post, which records that he had been associated with Lord, Day and Lord and that Lord, Day and Lord "also have offices at" the I Street address.[^13] Paul had left the firm for [[Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton and Garrison]] in March 1944.[^12] + +[[Aleister Crowley]]'s statement of October 11, 1918, as summarized by Bureau of Investigation Agent [[Frank X. O'Donnell]], says that the funds of the Order he described were deposited with the [[Title Guarantee and Trust Company]] in New York and had come through the law firm of Lord, Day and Lord from the sale of Crowley's property in [[Scotland]].[^14] + +[[Herbert Brownell]] moved to Lord, Day and Lord in 1929 and became a partner in 1932, according to the Justice Department's biography. He served as chairman of the [[Republican National Committee]] and was appointed Attorney General by [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] on January 21, 1953, serving until November 8, 1957.[^15] + +### The Onassis shipping inquiry + +In 1958 a special subcommittee of the House Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries examined the "trade-out and build" activities of the Onassis shipping companies. [[Aristotle Onassis]] testified that he had consulted many law firms about the Shipping Act of 1916 requirement that an American citizen hold control of vessels under the American flag, and when Representative Herbert Zelenko asked whether Lord, Day and Lord was among them, Onassis answered: "Lord, Day & Lord, Mr. George Lord was the highest authority in admiralty law in the United States, and one in the world." Asked whether Brownell was a member of that firm, Onassis answered that he was. Zelenko observed that Brownell was the man who "later became Attorney General and you were indicted by him."[^16] + +Brownell appeared before the subcommittee. His statement said that from 1948 to 1950 Onassis, for himself and certain shipping companies, consulted Lord, Day and Lord on questions of interpretation of the Shipping Act, "the late Mr. George DeForest Lord being the partner in charge," that Mr. Lord died in February 1950 and that by June 1950 the firm ceased to advise Onassis. He added that the firm did not advise Onassis at the time of the 1951 applications to the [[Maritime Commission]] on which the later indictment was based, and that he took no part in the Justice Department's handling of the cases after becoming Attorney General. He also stated that he approved, with the recommendations of the Civil and Criminal Division heads, the December 1955 disposition of the civil and criminal cases against the Onassis group, and that he became counsel to Lord, Day and Lord in November 1957. Under questioning he agreed that as a member of the firm he shared in the fees and was responsible for the firm's opinions, and that he had testified as a defense witness in 1954 in *United States v. Philadelphia Marine*, another prosecution brought by his department, about a legal opinion given by the firm in 1948.[^17] The Yale obituary record of 1868 names a George DeForest Lord, a son of Daniel Lord, in the class of 1854; the hearing names the partner in charge of the Onassis matter as the late Mr. George DeForest Lord, who died in February 1950. + +### The Times, Sullivan and the Pentagon Papers + +In the Times libel appeal *New York Times Co. v. Sullivan* (1964), the United States Reports list Herbert Wechsler as arguing the cause for the Times, with the notation "With him on the brief were Herbert Brownell, Thomas F. Daly, Louis M. Loeb, T. Eric Embry, Marvin E. Frankel, Ronald S. Diana and Doris Wechsler." Brownell and Louis Loeb are the Lord, Day and Lord partners *Time* later named in connection with the Times.[^18] + +*Time* reported on August 2, 1971 that Lord, Day and Lord had been corporate counsel to the Times for twenty-three years and that, when the Times fought the Pentagon Papers case to the Supreme Court, the firm "played no part." According to *Time*, the firm felt strongly that the paper should not publish the classified material; when Times executives debated the series in spring 1971, partner Louis Loeb "repeatedly advised that publication would be improper and might be illegal," while the Times's general counsel, James Goodale, disagreed. *Time* quoted Goodale: "Lord, Day & Lord backed out on us," and "We had to get another law firm at the last minute." It attributed the stated conflict of interest to Brownell, who "has long been associated with Richard Nixon, John Mitchell and William Rogers" and who, as Eisenhower's Attorney General, "supervised the drafting of the current classification regulations." The firm weighed, the magazine reported, whether to inform the government of the Times's intention to publish, and decided not to. The Times then gave its litigation to Cahill, Gordon, Sonnett, Reindel and Ohl, whose lawyers, with [[Alexander Bickel]] of Yale, represented the paper in the case.[^19] + +### William Galey Lord and the Yale societies + +[[Charles Edwin Lord]] of [[Tarrytown, New York|Tarrytown]], New York, and his wife Lucie-Taylor (Weart) Lord had at least two sons who went to Yale. The elder, [[William Galey Lord]], was born in Tarrytown on July 1, 1901, took an A.B. at Yale in 1922 and married Frances Norton in 1925. The *Who's Who in Commerce and Industry* entry records him as a salesman for [[Galey & Lord]], Inc., of New York from 1923, vice president from 1933, a director from 1934 and president from 1943, president of the National Federation of Textiles from 1942, and a member of the [[Board of Economic Warfare]]. His children are listed as Sheridan Norton and Charles Edwin II.[^20] + +The *Yale Banner and Pot Pourri* for 1921 to 1922 lists William G. Lord as class secretary, chairman of the class book committee, class historian and business manager of the yearbook. Under the heading "Senior Society," without naming the society, it prints fifteen names including William Galey Lord, a list that matches the 1922 class given by Sutton.[^21] Sutton's index and [[Carroll Quigley]]'s list of members both give William Galey Lord the class of 1922.[^22] + +A company of the same name, Galey & Lord, Inc., was incorporated in Delaware in 1987 to acquire in February 1988 the Blends Apparel and Prints divisions of [[Burlington Industries]]. Its 1996 annual report describes it as a maker of cotton and cotton blend apparel fabrics.[^23] + +### Oswald Bates Lord and Mary Pillsbury Lord + +[[Oswald Bates Lord]], born March 15, 1903, the younger son, graduated from Yale in 1926. The *Yale Banner and Pot Pourri* for that year prints his name in a "Senior Society" list with Daniel Allen James Davis Bronson Jr., Henry Stetson Crosby, Reginald Dean Root and others, which matches Sutton's 1926 class. It also lists him as business manager of the *Yale Daily News* under chairman Carlos French Stoddard Jr., and as chairman of the academic senior class book.[^24] Sutton's index lists "1926 Oswald Bates Lord ... = Mary Pillsbury (of Pillsbury flour family) ... son is Winston Lord," and Quigley's list carries "Oswald B. Lord FR/S&B 1926."[^22] + +Mary Stinson Pillsbury was born on November 14, 1904, a daughter of Charles Stinson Pillsbury and Helen Pendleton Winston and a granddaughter of [[Charles A. Pillsbury]]. *Vogue* announced the engagement in October 1929 and reported in January 1930 that on December 7 Oswald Bates Lord, son of Charles E. Lord, and Mary Stinson Pillsbury had married at Minneapolis. Her brother was [[Philip W. Pillsbury]].[^25] The 1978 Associated Press obituary names Oswald as a New York merchant.[^26] In 1970 [[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan]] published *Exit Backward, Bowing*, credited to Oswald Bates Lord "with the advice and dissent of Mary Pillsbury Lord," with drawings by [[Roy Doty]].[^27] + +Mary Pillsbury Lord was active in the Eisenhower campaign in 1951 and 1952, according to the finding aid for her oral history at the [[Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library]]. She served as United States representative to the [[United Nations Human Rights Commission]] from 1953 to 1961, as an alternate representative to the [[United Nations General Assembly]] from 1953 to 1959, and as a delegate to the General Assembly in 1958 and 1960.[^28] Her first instruction came from [[John Foster Dulles]]'s department. A memorandum of March 26, 1953 from Assistant Secretary [[John D. Hickerson]] and Legal Adviser Herman Phleger proposed that "Mrs. Oswald B. Lord point out in the Commission" that the United States considered there were more effective ways to promote the Charter's human rights objectives than drafting the proposed Covenants on Human Rights, and that the Commission give its attention to other means, among them world-wide surveys by a rapporteur on freedom of religion and the right to a fair trial.[^29] Dulles recommended a presidential message for the April 7 opening of the Commission's Geneva session, and Eisenhower's message of April 7, 1953 named "Mrs. Oswald B. Lord, the new Representative of the United States."[^30] A *Time* report of November 23, 1953 identified her as the United States representative on the Commission on Human Rights.[^31] + +Her oral history, recorded for the [[Columbia University]] oral history project by [[John T. Mason Jr.]] in 1967 to 1969, runs to 429 pages in the finding aid. The first interview covers her first meeting with Eisenhower, her service as assistant director of civil defense for New York, New Jersey and Delaware, the advisory committee on women in the Army and the Defense Advisory Committee on Women in the Services, a trip to Europe to visit the Women's Army Corps, [[William J. Donovan]], pre-convention work for Eisenhower, [[UNICEF]], the United Nations covenants on human rights, [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] and [[Marietta Tree]].[^28] In 1965 she sat on the panel of judges for the [[Federal Woman's Award]].[^32] She died of cancer on Friday, July 21, 1978, at the age of seventy-three.[^26] + +### Winston Lord + +Winston Lord was born in New York City on August 14, 1937, the son of Oswald Bates Lord and Mary Pillsbury Lord.[^33] A State Department biography issued in 1993 records a Yale B.A., magna cum laude, in 1959 and an M.A. from the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy in 1960, service as a Foreign Service officer from 1961 to 1967, the Defense Department's Policy Planning Staff in International Security Affairs from 1967 to 1969, and the National Security Council staff from 1969. It gives his later posts as chairman of the National Endowment for Democracy, vice chairman of the International Rescue Committee and chairman of the [[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]]'s National Commission on America and the New World, and says he met his wife, [[Bette Bao Lord]], while both were students at the Fletcher School.[^34] Sutton's index and Quigley's list both give him the class of 1959; Quigley's entry reads "Winston Bao Lord BB/S&B 1959/TC."[^22] The [[Trilateral Commission]] page lists him among its North American members. + +The *Foreign Relations of the United States* volume on China lists him as a member of the Office of International Security Affairs in the [[Department of Defense]] until 1969, a member of the [[National Security Council]] Planning Group, and from 1971 a member of the NSC staff for United Nations affairs.[^35] On April 17, 1971 Lord sent [[Henry A. Kissinger]] a seven-page memorandum listing the major contacts between the United States and the People's Republic of China through [[Pakistan]], [[Romania]] and other channels.[^36] On June 21, 1971 Kissinger, Lord and the Pakistani ambassador [[Agha Hilaly]] met at the White House, where Hilaly handed over two notes in the exchange that arranged Kissinger's trip to China.[^37] Lord was one of the four Americans who met Premier [[Chou En-lai]] in [[Beijing]] on July 9, 1971, with Kissinger, [[John Holdridge]] and [[Richard Smyser]]; Lord, Holdridge and Smyser prepared the transcripts, according to Lord's memoranda to Kissinger of July 29, August 6 and August 12.[^38] + +On October 21, 1971, in Beijing, Kissinger said of CIA agents, "Most write long, incomprehensible reports and don't make revolution," and added, "They are mostly from Yale and they don't have the people." Chou asked, "He is from Yale [pointing to Winston Lord]?" Kissinger answered, "Does he look like a revolutionary?"[^39] + +Lord was director of the Policy Planning Staff at the [[State Department]] from October 12, 1973 to January 20, 1977.[^40] In November 1973 he prepared the briefing papers for Kissinger's trip to Beijing, which ran from November 10 to 14. The record of the Beijing talks of November 11 lists him as director of planning and coordination among the American participants, with Kissinger, Holdridge, [[David Bruce]], chief of the [[United States Liaison Office in China]], and [[Robert McCloskey]], the State Department press spokesman.[^41] + +He was president of the Council on Foreign Relations from 1977 to 1985. The Council's annual report for July 1, 1984 to June 30, 1985 lists "Winston Lord, President, 1977-1985" on its staff page, and in a letter dated August 19, 1985 [[David Rockefeller]] wrote of "wishing Winston and Bette well as they embark on their challenging new career," linking it to Lord's role as "the President's emissary to the People's Republic of China."[^42] Sutton's 1983 text states that David Rockefeller is not a member of the Order "but the present CFR chairman, Winston Lord, is," and his chart carries the caption "Chairman of the Council on Foreign Relations (1983)."[^43] + +Lord was ambassador to China from November 6, 1985 to April 23, 1989, and Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs from April 22, 1993 to February 18, 1997.[^40] The Senate proceedings of the 99th Congress record the nomination of Winston Lord, of New York, to be ambassador to the People's Republic of China, and the 1993 State Department biography records that the Senate confirmed him as Assistant Secretary on April 21, 1993.[^34][^44] Bette Bao Lord was described as chairman of [[Freedom House]] in the 1994 and 1998 press; in 1994 the *Jordan Times* quoted her as Freedom House chairwoman at a news conference on the organization's annual survey.[^45] + +### Other Lords in the Order + +Sutton's index lists the Lords of the Order as George DeForest Lord (initiated 1854), Franklin Atkins Lord (1898), William Galey Lord (1922), Oswald Bates Lord (1926), Charles Edwin Lord II (1949) and Winston Lord (1959).[^9] Quigley's list gives "Lord S&B 1854," William Galey Lord and Oswald B. Lord of the classes of 1922 and 1926, and Winston with the middle name "Bao," the middle name of his wife.[^22] + +A Charles E. Lord served as Acting Comptroller of the Currency in 1981: he signed as such in the *Federal Register* on November 24, 1981 and testified as such before a Senate panel on October 30, 1981. [[Ronald Reagan]] nominated a Charles E. Lord of the District of Columbia to be first vice president and vice chairman of the [[Export-Import Bank of the United States]], and the Senate Banking Committee held a hearing on the nominations of Charles E. Lord and James E. Yonge in 1982.[^46] The Council's 1984 to 1985 membership list includes a "Charles E. Lord" on page 127.[^47] Sutton's chart caption names a Charles Edwin Lord as Acting Comptroller of the Currency in 1981.[^48] Charles Edwin Lord II, of the Yale class of 1949, is recorded as a son of William Galey Lord. Sutton's chart caption gives the name of the Acting Comptroller of the Currency of 1981 as Charles Edwin Lord, the name under which his index lists the class of 1949 member. + +### Footnotes + +[^1]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chart "Hypothesis Number One" (label "LORD FAMILY (1635, Cambridge, Mass.)"), the passage on the Lord family (Thomas Lord who left Essex in 1635 in a company led by Rev. Thomas Hooker and settled in what is now Hartford) and the section on the law ("Lord, Day and Lord, dominated by the Lord family already discussed"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^2]: Council on Foreign Relations, *Annual Report, July 1, 1984 to June 30, 1985* (New York, 1985), staff page ("Winston Lord, President, 1977-1985"). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000100210066-5 + +[^3]: "Family histories and genealogies," vol. 1 (1892), Lord family section, p. 247, citing Hotten's Original Lists for the registration on the *Elizabeth and Ann* of April 29, 1635 of Thomas Lord, aged fifty, his wife Dorothy, aged forty-six, and seven named children. https://archive.org/details/familyhistoriesg01sali + +[^4]: James Savage, *A Genealogical Dictionary of the First Settlers of New England*, vol. 3 (Boston, 1860 to 1862), pp. 115 to 116, entries for Richard Lord (Cambridge 1632; freeman March 4, 1635; with Hooker to Hartford in 1636; "capt. relied on" with John Pyncheon for the regicides Goffe and Whalley; died New London May 17, 1662; son Richard married Mary Smith in 1665, lost at sea in 1685, widow married Dr. Thomas Hooker in 1686) and Thomas Lord of Hartford (came in the *Elizabeth and Ann* in 1635, aged 50, with wife Dorothy, 46; stopped at Boston or Cambridge a year or more). https://archive.org/details/genealogicaldic03savarich + +[^5]: "Family histories and genealogies," vol. 1 (1892), Lord family section, pp. 247 to 274, descent from Thomas and Dorothy Lord through William, Thomas (born 1645), Joseph (born 1697) and Capt. Daniel (born October 12, 1736), who married Elizabeth Lord, and Dr. Daniel Lord, who married Phebe Crary, settled at Stonington and removed to New York in 1797. https://archive.org/details/familyhistoriesg01sali + +[^6]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale College deceased during the academical year ending in July 1868* (New Haven, 1868), entry for Daniel Lord, class of 1814 (died New York March 4, 1868, aged 73; son of Dr. Daniel and Phebe (Crary) Lord, born Stonington December 1794; law studies at Litchfield and in the office of George Griffin; admitted to the bar 1817; married 1818 Susan, daughter of Lockwood DeForest; "One of his sons, George DeForest Lord, is a graduate of this College, of the Class of 1854"). https://archive.org/details/obituaryrecordof00yale_0 + +[^7]: "Family histories and genealogies," vol. 1 (1892), Lord family section, "Children of Hon. Daniel Lord" (p. 279) and the memorial supplied by "his grandson Daniel Lord Jun. Esq. of New York, one of the firm of Lord, Day and Lord, successors of Hon. Daniel Lord" (p. 274). https://archive.org/details/familyhistoriesg01sali + +[^8]: Lyman Horace Weeks, ed., *Prominent Families of New York* (New York: The Historical Company, 1897), sketch of George Lord Day (Henry Day, born South Hadley 1820, Yale 1845; "In 1849, he became a partner in the legal firm of Lord, Day & Lord, of which the distinguished Daniel Lord was the senior member"; attorney and director of the Equitable Life Assurance Society; estates of Morse, Edward Morgan and the Astors; died 1893, sole survivor of the original members; George Lord Day, Princeton, retired 1894). https://archive.org/details/prominentfamilie00week + +[^9]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), the passage on George DeForest Lord and Daniel Lord ("Among its present day clients are The New York Times and the Rubin Foundation. The Rubin Foundation is one of the financial angels for the Institute for Policy Studies"), the section "The Law," and the list "Past Lords In The Order" (1854, 1898, 1922, 1926, 1949, 1959). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^10]: *Who's Who in America*, vol. 15 (1928 to 1929), entry for Lucius Hart Beers (born New York November 28, 1859; Columbia A.B. 1881, LL.B. 1883; "mem. firm of Lord, Day & Lord"; director of Lawyers Title and Guaranty Co., Lawyers Trust Co., 25 Broadway Corporation; advisory board of the National Surety Co.). https://archive.org/details/whoswhoinamerica15chic + +[^11]: *Who's Who in America*, vol. 16 (1930 to 1931), entry for Howard Mansfield (born Hamden, Conn., July 2, 1849; Yale A.B. 1871; Columbia LL.B. 1874; "mem. firm Lord, Day & Lord since 1901. Since 1900 counsel for Cuba Co., Cuba R.R. Co., etc."; Metropolitan Museum of Art trustee and treasurer). https://archive.org/details/whoswhoinamerica16chic + +[^12]: *The National Cyclopaedia of American Biography*, vol. 45, entry for Randolph Evernghim Paul (born Hackensack, N.J., August 8, 1890; "In 1938 he became a member of the firm of Lord, Day & Lord, New York city"; special adviser to Treasury Secretary Morgenthau December 1941; general counsel to the Treasury August 1942; left March 1944 for Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison). https://archive.org/details/nationalcyclopae45newy + +[^13]: Federal Bureau of Investigation, Silvermaster file, part 19 (December 1945 to January 1946), report on Lauchlin Currie (arrival in Washington December 5, 1945 and stay at 1614 I Street, N.W.; agent's determination of December 26 that the address was "apparently a law firm wherein several lawyers have a common reception room," with directory listings including "Lord, Day and Lord, lawyers" and "Randolph Paul, lawyer"; surveillance at the offices of Randolph E. Paul, 1614 I Street, on January 8, 1946; background note on Paul recording his association with Lord, Day and Lord and that the firm "also have offices at" 1614 I Street). https://archive.org/details/FBISilvermasterFile + +[^14]: Frank X. O'Donnell, Bureau of Investigation report of July 19, 1919 (case 365985, filed July 30, 1919), summarizing Crowley's statement of October 11, 1918; reproduced in Richard T. Cole, *From Crowley With Love: The F.B.I. Files* (2009) and at https://aleistercrowleytimeline.com/Diaries/Law-Enforcement/1919-07-19-Frank-O-Donnell.html + +[^15]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Attorney General, "Attorney General: Herbert Brownell, Jr." (born Peru, Nebraska, February 20, 1904; Yale Law School 1927; "moved to the firm of Lord, Day & Lord in 1929 and became a partner in 1932"; chairman of the Republican National Committee; appointed Attorney General January 21, 1953, in office until November 8, 1957). https://www.justice.gov/ag/bio/brownell-herbert-jr + +[^16]: U.S. Congress, House Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries, *Study of Trade-Out and Build Activities of Onassis Companies*, hearing before the Special Subcommittee, 85th Cong., June 17 to August 15, 1958, testimony of Aristotle Onassis, pp. 176 to 177 (exchange with Rep. Zelenko on Lord, Day & Lord and Brownell). https://archive.org/details/sim_united-states-congress-hearings-prints-and-reports_june-17-19-24-july-8-15-22-august-13-15-19 + +[^17]: *Study of Trade-Out and Build Activities of Onassis Companies* (1958), testimony of Herbert Brownell, Jr., pp. 313 to 322 (statement on the firm's advice from 1948 to 1950 with "the late Mr. George DeForest Lord being the partner in charge," Mr. Lord's death in February 1950, resignation from the firm on becoming Attorney General, approval of the 1955 dispositions, and counsel to Lord, Day & Lord from November 1957; fee-sharing exchange; testimony in *United States v. Philadelphia Marine*, December 1954), and p. 310 (testimony of George C. Doub). https://archive.org/details/sim_united-states-congress-hearings-prints-and-reports_june-17-19-24-july-8-15-22-august-13-15-19 + +[^18]: *New York Times Co. v. Sullivan*, 376 U.S. 254 (1964), counsel listing for No. 39. https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/usrep/usrep376/usrep376254/usrep376254.pdf + +[^19]: "The Law: The Times v. Its Law Firm," *Time*, August 2, 1971, p. 42. https://archive.org/details/time-1971-11-15 + +[^20]: *Who's Who in Commerce and Industry: The International Business Who's Who*, Fifth International Edition (Marquis, 1947; copyright 1936, 1938, 1940, 1944, 1947), entry for William Galey Lord (born Tarrytown July 1, 1901; son of Charles Edwin and Lucie (Weart) Lord; A.B. Yale 1922; married Frances Norton June 22, 1925; children Sheridan Norton and Charles Edwin II; salesman, Galey & Lord, Inc., 1923; vice president 1933; director 1934; president 1943; president of the National Federation of Textiles from 1942; Board of Economic Warfare). https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.75608 + +[^21]: *The Yale Banner and Pot Pourri*, 1921-1922 (New Haven), "Senior Society" list (Malcolm Pratt Aldrich, James Smith Bush, Ward Cheney, Albert Hastings Crosby, Albert Carl Frost Jr., Frederick Whiley Hilles, Robert Johnson Larner, William Galey Lord, Robert Guthrie Page, Welles Crosby Root, Robert Folger Solley, Henry Barnard Strong, John Allen Thomas, Frederic dePeyster Townsend Jr., Stanley Woodward) and class officer and committee listings for William G. Lord. https://archive.org/details/yalebannerpotpo192122newh + +[^22]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, classes of 1922, 1926 and 1959, and Carroll Quigley, *Tragedy and Hope: A History of the World in Our Time* (1966), list of Skull and Bones members ("Lord S&B 1854," "Oswald B. Lord FR/S&B 1926," "William Galey Lord S&B 1922," "Winston Bao Lord BB/S&B 1959/TC"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones ; https://archive.org/details/tragedy-and-hope-a-history-of-the-world-in-our-time-carroll-quigley-1st-edition-1966 + +[^23]: Galey & Lord, Inc., Annual Report on Form 10-K for fiscal 1996, Item 1 ("incorporated in Delaware in 1987 for the purpose of acquiring, in February 1988, substantially all of the assets of the Blends Apparel and Prints divisions of Burlington Industries, Inc."). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/884124/0000950168-96-002475.txt + +[^24]: *The Yale Banner and Pot Pourri*, 1925-1926 (New Haven), "Senior Society" list (Daniel Allen James Davis Bronson Jr., Henry Cornick Coke, Henry Stetson Crosby, Benjamin Crawford Cutler, John Alfred Davenport, Alfred Ludlow Ferguson Jr., John McArthur Hoysradt, Howard Thayer Kingsbury Jr., Oswald Bates Lord, Anthony Lee Michel, Charles Graydon Poore, Reginald Dean Root, Frank Ford Russell, Charles Hastings Willard); *Yale Daily News* masthead (Carlos French Stoddard Jr., chairman; Oswald Bates Lord, business manager); "Academic Senior Class Book, 1926, Oswald Bates Lord, Chairman." https://archive.org/details/yalebannerandpo00univgoog + +[^25]: *Vogue*, October 26, 1929 (engagement of Mary Stinson Pillsbury, daughter of Mr. and Mrs. Charles Stinson Pillsbury of Minneapolis, to Oswald Bates Lord, son of Mr. and Mrs. Charles E. Lord) and January 4, 1930 ("Lord-Pillsbury. On December 7, Mr. Oswald Bates Lord ... and Miss Mary Stinson Pillsbury"); John McGill, *The Beverley Family of Virginia* (Columbia, S.C.: R. L. Bryan Company, 1956), Winston line, p. 987 and following (Mary Stinson Pillsbury, born November 14, 1904, daughter of Charles Stinson Pillsbury and Helen Pendleton Winston, married December 7, 1929 Oswald Bates Lord, born March 15, 1903); William Pope Anderson, *Anderson-Overton* (Cincinnati, 1945), entries 122, 1221 and 1222 (Philip Winston Pillsbury; issue Charles Pillsbury Lord and Winston Lord). https://archive.org/details/sim_vogue_1930-01-04_75_1 ; https://archive.org/details/sim_vogue_1929-10-26_74_9 ; https://archive.org/details/beverleyfamilyof00mcgi ; https://archive.org/details/andersonovertonc00ande + +[^26]: "Bank Robber: The Case of the Overeager Author" (Associated Press item datelined New York, July 23, 1978, headed "Mary Pillsbury Lord"), *International Herald Tribune*, July 24, 1978, p. 2 ("Mary Stinson Pillsbury Lord, 73, a former U.S. representative to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights, died Friday of cancer"; granddaughter of Charles A. Pillsbury; wife of Oswald Lord, a New York merchant). https://archive.org/details/InternationalHeraldTribune1978FranceEnglish + +[^27]: Catalog of Copyright Entries, Third Series, Part 1, July to December 1970, entry "Lord, Mary Pillsbury. Exit backward, bowing. Oswald Bates Lord, with the advice and dissent of Mary Pillsbury Lord; drawings by Roy Doty. Macmillan, 240 p." https://archive.org/details/catalogofco1970324112libr + +[^28]: Eisenhower Presidential Library, oral history finding aid OH-115, "Lord, Mary Pillsbury" (Eisenhower campaign, 1951 to 1952; U.S. Representative, United Nations Human Rights Commission, 1953 to 1961; alternate representative 1953 to 1959 and delegate 1958 and 1960 to the General Assembly; Columbia Oral History Project, interviews by John T. Mason, Jr., 1967 to 1969; 429 pages). https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/oral-histories/oral-history-finding-aids/ohfa115.pdf + +[^29]: U.S. Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954, United Nations Affairs, Volume III*, Document 976, memorandum by Assistant Secretary Hickerson and Legal Adviser Phleger to the Secretary of State, March 26, 1953, "United States Policy Concerning Proposed Covenants on Human Rights." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v03/d976 + +[^30]: *FRUS 1952-1954*, vol. III, Document 982, Dulles to the President, with the proposed message for April 7, 1953; Dwight D. Eisenhower, "Message to the Members of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights," April 7, 1953, The American Presidency Project. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v03/d982 ; https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/message-the-members-the-united-nations-commission-human-rights + +[^31]: *Time*, November 23, 1953, item identifying "Mary Pillsbury Lord, U.S. representative on the U.N. Commission on Human Rights." https://archive.org/details/time-1953-11-23 + +[^32]: Virginia Koerber, "Talented Women Win Recognition," *Washington Star*, 1965, report on the Federal Woman's Award, listing the 1965 panel of judges, including Mary Pillsbury Lord. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000200460024-0 + +[^33]: McGill, *The Beverley Family of Virginia* (1956), p. 987 and following, and Anderson, *Anderson-Overton* (1945), entries 122, 1221 and 1222 (issue Charles Pillsbury Lord and Winston Lord); Sutton's index ("son is Winston Lord"). https://archive.org/details/beverleyfamilyof00mcgi ; https://archive.org/details/andersonovertonc00ande + +[^34]: U.S. Department of State, archived biography of Winston Lord, issued with his April 1993 appointment (born New York City, August 14, 1937; Yale B.A. magna cum laude 1959; Fletcher School M.A. 1960; Foreign Service officer 1961 to 1967; Defense Department 1967 to 1969; NSC staff 1969 to 1973; Policy Planning director 1973 to 1977; ambassador to China 1985 to 1989; chairman of the National Endowment for Democracy; vice chairman of the International Rescue Committee; mother Mary Pillsbury Lord; Senate confirmation April 21, 1993). https://web-archive-2017.ait.org.tw/en/19851119-winston-lord.html + +[^35]: U.S. Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976, Volume XVII, China, 1969-1972*, list of persons (Lord, Winston). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v17 + +[^36]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, vol. XVII, Document 20, editorial note on Lord's seven-page memorandum to Kissinger of April 17, 1971. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v17/d20 + +[^37]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, vol. XVII, Document 135, editorial note on the June 21, 1971 White House meeting of Kissinger, Winston Lord and Ambassador Agha Hilaly. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v17/d135 + +[^38]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, vol. XVII, Document 139, memorandum of conversation, Beijing, July 9, 1971, and source note on the transcripts. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v17/d139 + +[^39]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, vol. XVII, Document 162, memorandum of conversation, Beijing, October 21, 1971. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v17/d162 + +[^40]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, biography of Winston Lord (Director of the Policy Planning Staff, October 12, 1973 to January 20, 1977; ambassador to China, appointed November 6, 1985, left post April 23, 1989; Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs, April 22, 1993 to February 18, 1997). https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/lord-winston + +[^41]: *FRUS 1969-1976*, vol. XVIII, China, 1973-1976, Document 55 (headnote: Lord produced the briefing papers for the trip of November 10 to 14, 1973) and Document 56, memorandum of conversation, Beijing, November 11, 1973 (participants include Winston Lord, Director of Planning and Coordination; David Bruce; Robert McCloskey; John Holdridge). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v18/d55 ; https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v18/d56 + +[^42]: Council on Foreign Relations, *Annual Report, July 1, 1984 to June 30, 1985*: President's Office staff page, the President's Report (departure June 30, 1985) and the letter of David Rockefeller dated August 19, 1985. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000100210066-5 + +[^43]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), section "The Role Of The Order" and the chart caption for Winston Lord. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^44]: *Journals and Records of the 99th United States Congress* (Senate proceedings, including the nomination of Winston Lord, of New York, to be Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary to the People's Republic of China). https://archive.org/details/us_congress_99 + +[^45]: *Jordan Times* (1994), report of a Freedom House news conference ("Freedom House Chairwoman Bette Bao Lord"); *The Jerusalem Post* (1994), "Bette Bao Lord, Freedom House chairman"; *International Herald Tribune* (1998), op-ed by Bette Bao Lord ("The writer is chairman of Freedom House"). https://archive.org/details/JordanTimes1994JordanEnglish ; https://archive.org/details/TheJerusalemPost1994IsraelEnglish ; https://archive.org/details/InternationalHeraldTribune1998FranceEnglish + +[^46]: *Federal Register*, vol. 46 (1981), notice signed "Charles E. Lord, Acting Comptroller of the Currency," November 24, 1981; *Journals and Records of the 97th United States Congress* (hearing panel of October 30, 1981 including "The Honorable Charles E. Lord, Acting Comptroller of the Currency"; Senate committee action on the nomination of Charles E. Lord of the District of Columbia to be First Vice President of the Export-Import Bank); *Monthly Catalog of United States Government Publications*, 1982 ("Nominations of Charles E. Lord and James E. Yonge: hearing before the Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs"). https://archive.org/details/federalregister46punit ; https://archive.org/details/us_congress_97 ; https://archive.org/details/6monthlycatalogof1982unit + +[^47]: Council on Foreign Relations, *Annual Report, July 1, 1984 to June 30, 1985*, membership list, p. 127 ("Charles E. Lord"). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000100210066-5 + +[^48]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), chart captions for the Lords ("CHARLES EDWIN LORD, Acting Comptroller of the Currency (1981)"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/W. Averell Harriman.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/W. Averell Harriman.md index e64e95ac..7a77a299 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/W. Averell Harriman.md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/W. Averell Harriman.md @@ -80,31 +80,31 @@ relations: start: 1946 end: 1948 role: "Ambassador to the United Kingdom, then Secretary of Commerce; later Special Representative in Europe" - fn: 45 + fn: 47 - type: appointed with: "[[Harry S. Truman]]" reverse: true start: 1951-10-11 role: "Director for Mutual Security, nominated" - fn: 49 + fn: 51 - type: director_of with: "[[Council on Foreign Relations]]" start: 1952 end: 1953 role: "Director" - fn: 51 + fn: 53 - type: head_of with: "[[New York]]" start: 1955 end: 1958 role: "Governor of New York" - fn: 53 + fn: 55 - type: appointed with: "[[John F. Kennedy]]" reverse: true start: 1962-09-21 role: "Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs, later Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs" - fn: 56 + fn: 58 - type: spouse_of with: "[[Pamela Harriman]]" start: 1971 @@ -123,7 +123,7 @@ Sutton writes that E. H. Harriman bought into the Union Pacific after the crash ### Union Pacific and Illinois Central -The Library of Congress chronology lists Harriman as vice president of the Union Pacific from 1915 to 1917, director of the [[Illinois Central Railroad]] from 1915 to 1946, chairman of the Illinois Central executive committee from 1931 to 1942, and chairman of the board of the Union Pacific from 1932 to 1946.[^1] His brother E. Roland Harriman succeeded him as chairman of the board of the Union Pacific in 1946 and held the post until January 30, 1969, according to the company's annual report for 1968; the same report states that Roland Harriman was elected a director in 1920.[^10] On November 2, 1950, [[Harry S. Truman]] announced at a news conference that Roland Harriman, "a brother of Averell Harriman, Special Assistant to me," would become president of the [[American Red Cross]] on December 1, 1950.[^11] A report of December 1930 describes Judge Lovett as the "now chairman" of E. H. Harriman's Union Pacific.[^12] Sutton's chronology adds that in 1917 Harriman became a director of the [[Guaranty Trust Company]], and states that the Harriman family's holding of about one third of Guaranty stock was put into a [[J. P. Morgan and Company]] voting trust in 1912, when Mrs. Edward Harriman sold 8,000 of the 20,000 outstanding shares to Morgan.[^13][^14] The finding aid states that Harriman "took charge of the Union Pacific Railroad" in the early 1930s and was credited with reviving the line during the worst years of the Depression.[^3] +The Library of Congress chronology lists Harriman as vice president of the Union Pacific from 1915 to 1917, director of the [[Illinois Central Railroad]] from 1915 to 1946, chairman of the Illinois Central executive committee from 1931 to 1942, and chairman of the board of the Union Pacific from 1932 to 1946.[^1] His brother E. Roland Harriman succeeded him as chairman of the board of the Union Pacific in 1946 and held the post until January 30, 1969, according to the company's annual report for 1968; the same report states that Roland Harriman was elected a director in 1920.[^10] On November 2, 1950, [[Harry S. Truman]] announced at a news conference that Roland Harriman, "a brother of Averell Harriman, Special Assistant to me," would become president of the [[American Red Cross]] on December 1, 1950.[^11] A report of December 1930 describes Judge Lovett as the "now chairman" of E. H. Harriman's Union Pacific.[^12] Sutton's chronology adds that in 1917 Harriman became a director of the [[Guaranty Trust Company]], and states that the Harriman family's holding of about one third of Guaranty stock was put into a [[J. P. Morgan & Co.|J. P. Morgan and Company]] voting trust in 1912, when Mrs. Edward Harriman sold 8,000 of the 20,000 outstanding shares to Morgan.[^13][^14] The finding aid states that Harriman "took charge of the Union Pacific Railroad" in the early 1930s and was credited with reviving the line during the worst years of the Depression.[^3] ### Shipping and the Hamburg-American Line @@ -135,71 +135,73 @@ The Harriman papers contain incoming and outgoing cable files with the Hamburg-A The Library of Congress lists Harriman as chairman of the board of W. A. Harriman and Company from 1920 to 1931; a report of December 1930 states that he and his brother formed the firm in 1919. The same report says the firm "was one of the first to enter Europe after the War, made many a loan in Germany," was active in Polish financing, financed Silesian zinc mines with the [[Anaconda Copper Mining Company|Anaconda]] group, and in 1929 backed the Aviation Corporation together with [[Lehman Brothers]].[^1][^12] Sutton's chronology lists 1920 as the year the firm was established with Roland Harriman as vice president.[^13] +The firm also bought the Dresser family's business (later [[Dresser Industries]]) in Bradford, Pennsylvania, in 1928. The company history describes W. A. Harriman and Company as "an investment-banking firm intending to make the Dresser business into a public company with separate ownership and management," and says the share count rose from 5,000 to 300,000, with 100,000 Class A shares offered at $48 each.[^17] The Handbook of Texas entry names [[Prescott Bush]] as a W. A. Harriman and Company executive involved in the conversion, and Darwin Payne's 1979 corporate history places E. Roland Harriman among the firm's principals.[^18] + ### The Georgian manganese concession -The Soviet government concluded a concession contract with the American company "Harriman ('The Georgian Manganese' Stock Company)" dated June 12, 1925, relating to property nationalized by the Georgian Soviet decrees; the Soviet side cited it in 1936 as an example of a concession made by the Union government for property nationalized by a constituent republic.[^17] The Hoover Institution holds an agreement of 1925 between the Tchitouri Manganese Exporting Society (Tchemo) and W. A. Harriman and Company, and the Harriman papers list a Tchemo agreement and a syndicate agreement of June 12, 1925, an assignment from W. A. Harriman and Company of July 18, 1925, property of voting trustees of August 10, 1925, and an ore-shipment contract of November 1925.[^18][^19] Sutton gives the date of the concession agreement as July 12, 1925, states that four million dollars was spent on mechanizing the mines and on a loading elevator at [[Poti]], and writes that the chairman of the Georgian Manganese Company was Matthew C. Brush, whom he calls the Order's "front man." Sutton's chronology dates the formation of the company to 1923.[^13][^20] +The Soviet government concluded a concession contract with the American company "Harriman ('The Georgian Manganese' Stock Company)" dated June 12, 1925, relating to property nationalized by the Georgian Soviet decrees; the Soviet side cited it in 1936 as an example of a concession made by the Union government for property nationalized by a constituent republic.[^19] The Hoover Institution holds an agreement of 1925 between the Tchitouri Manganese Exporting Society (Tchemo) and W. A. Harriman and Company, and the Harriman papers list a Tchemo agreement and a syndicate agreement of June 12, 1925, an assignment from W. A. Harriman and Company of July 18, 1925, property of voting trustees of August 10, 1925, and an ore-shipment contract of November 1925.[^20][^21] Sutton gives the date of the concession agreement as July 12, 1925, states that four million dollars was spent on mechanizing the mines and on a loading elevator at [[Poti]], and writes that the chairman of the Georgian Manganese Company was Matthew C. Brush, whom he calls the Order's "front man." Sutton's chronology dates the formation of the company to 1923.[^13][^22] -A report of March 1926 ranked the manganese rights obtained by the Harriman interests second among the concessions granted to foreigners, after the Volga timber concessions given to the former German chancellor [[Joseph Wirth]]. A report of July 1927 states that the Soviets had reconfirmed the concession and that the British had been using their offices to thwart it.[^21][^22] The Library of Congress lists a trip to the USSR in 1926 and the investment as running 1925 to 1928; its files include Harriman's correspondence while in the USSR for 1926 and 1927, his resignation in 1928, a termination agreement of August 21 to 28, 1928, and Soviet notes from 1928 to 1943.[^1][^19] The Soviet Bureau of Foreign Concessions announced in July 1928 the "amicable termination" of the 22-year concession after three years, with the 3,500,000 dollars spent by the concessionaires to be treated as a loan repaid by the Soviet government.[^23] Sutton wrote that the Soviets expropriated the concessions of the 1920s, including Harriman's, usually without reimbursement, and that Harriman took three million dollars in Soviet bonds as compensation. Sutton quotes a statement of Harriman to [[John B. Stetson Jr.]] of the State Department: "Mr. Harriman said that they expect to drop about three million dollars which they would charge off to experience."[^24] +A report of March 1926 ranked the manganese rights obtained by the Harriman interests second among the concessions granted to foreigners, after the Volga timber concessions given to the former German chancellor [[Joseph Wirth]]. A report of July 1927 states that the Soviets had reconfirmed the concession and that the British had been using their offices to thwart it.[^23][^24] The Library of Congress lists a trip to the USSR in 1926 and the investment as running 1925 to 1928; its files include Harriman's correspondence while in the USSR for 1926 and 1927, his resignation in 1928, a termination agreement of August 21 to 28, 1928, and Soviet notes from 1928 to 1943.[^1][^21] The Soviet Bureau of Foreign Concessions announced in July 1928 the "amicable termination" of the 22-year concession after three years, with the 3,500,000 dollars spent by the concessionaires to be treated as a loan repaid by the Soviet government.[^25] Sutton wrote that the Soviets expropriated the concessions of the 1920s, including Harriman's, usually without reimbursement, and that Harriman took three million dollars in Soviet bonds as compensation. Sutton quotes a statement of Harriman to [[John B. Stetson Jr.]] of the State Department: "Mr. Harriman said that they expect to drop about three million dollars which they would charge off to experience."[^26] -A second Soviet-related business, the Russian Finance and Construction Corporation, is documented in the Harriman papers for 1921 to 1952, including its consolidation with the Georgia Manganese Company in 1927 and an agreement with the Soviet government in 1928. A folder in the same files is titled "Reynders, John V. W. re J. Henry Schroder Banking Corp. acquisition of Thyssen stock, 1940."[^25] The Georgian National Archives hold a photograph of Harriman in Poti dated about 1920 to 1921, and the description attached to the image states that "Harriman's company held the concession for the Chiatura manganese mines during this period."[^26] Sutton writes that Harriman participated in [[Ruskombank]], the first Soviet commercial bank, whose first vice president for foreign operations was Max May of Guaranty Trust Company.[^27] +A second Soviet-related business, the Russian Finance and Construction Corporation, is documented in the Harriman papers for 1921 to 1952, including its consolidation with the Georgia Manganese Company in 1927 and an agreement with the Soviet government in 1928. A folder in the same files is titled "Reynders, John V. W. re J. Henry Schroder Banking Corp. acquisition of Thyssen stock, 1940."[^27] The Georgian National Archives hold a photograph of Harriman in Poti dated about 1920 to 1921, and the description attached to the image states that "Harriman's company held the concession for the Chiatura manganese mines during this period."[^28] Sutton writes that Harriman participated in [[Ruskombank]], the first Soviet commercial bank, whose first vice president for foreign operations was Max May of Guaranty Trust Company.[^29] ### Brown Brothers Harriman -On December 22, 1930 the merger of Brown Brothers and Company and the Harriman firms was reported as completed "last week"; the report counts 16 partners in the new firm of Brown Bros., Harriman and Company, eleven of them Yale graduates, and notes that partner [[Ellery Sedgwick James]] was a classmate of the Harriman partners Edward Roland Noel Harriman, [[Prescott Bush]] and [[Knight Woolley]], and that Robert A. Lovett was the son of Judge Lovett.[^12] The firm's own history states that the merger was first discussed among six partners in November 1930, that twelve of 17 partners had graduated from Yale, and that in 1931 an emergency infusion of 10 million dollars from Averell and Roland Harriman averted collapse after Germany declared a standstill on debt payments to foreign creditors.[^28] A finding aid for the firm's records gives 1931 as the year Brown Brothers merged with the Harriman interests.[^29] The printed circular announcing the union, dated January 2, 1931, states that "effective January 1, 1931" the businesses of Brown Brothers & Co., Harriman Brothers & Co. and W. A. Harriman & Co., Inc. were united in Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.[^30] The firm's partner table gives October 30, 1926 as the date Averell and Roland Harriman became partners of the Harriman bank (organized on St. Patrick's Day 1927 under the name W. A. Harriman & Co. and renamed Harriman Brothers & Co.), and January 1, 1931 to October 31, 1946 as his term as general partner of the merged firm, with limited partner status afterward.[^30] The firm's history records that he chaired the Department of Commerce Business Advisory Council from 1937 to 1939 and served with the N.R.A., the [[National Defense Advisory Commission]] and the [[Office of Production Management]] before going to Great Britain for lend-lease.[^30] [[Zachary Karabell]] wrote that the merger was announced on December 12, 1930, and that Harriman "was flush with the millions provided by his father's fortune" but "his business was struggling as well."[^31] The Library of Congress lists Harriman as a partner from 1931 to 1946, and holds a cable file of Brown Brothers Harriman for 1931.[^1][^16] The report describes Brown Brothers as formed in 1825 by Alexander Brown, with an associate house, Brown, Shipley and Company, in which Montagu Norman had been a partner before becoming head of the Bank of England. Sutton's chronology gives 1933 for the merger and lists the Brown Brothers Harriman partners who were members of the society, including Averell Harriman (class of 1913) and Roland Harriman (class of 1917).[^13] +On December 22, 1930 the merger of Brown Brothers and Company and the Harriman firms was reported as completed "last week"; the report counts 16 partners in the new firm of Brown Bros., Harriman and Company, eleven of them Yale graduates, and notes that partner [[Ellery Sedgwick James]] was a classmate of the Harriman partners Edward Roland Noel Harriman, Prescott Bush and [[Knight Woolley]], and that Robert A. Lovett was the son of Judge Lovett.[^12] The firm's own history states that the merger was first discussed among six partners in November 1930, that twelve of 17 partners had graduated from Yale, and that in 1931 an emergency infusion of 10 million dollars from Averell and Roland Harriman averted collapse after Germany declared a standstill on debt payments to foreign creditors.[^30] A finding aid for the firm's records gives 1931 as the year Brown Brothers merged with the Harriman interests.[^31] The printed circular announcing the union, dated January 2, 1931, states that "effective January 1, 1931" the businesses of Brown Brothers & Co., Harriman Brothers & Co. and W. A. Harriman & Co., Inc. were united in Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.[^32] The firm's partner table gives October 30, 1926 as the date Averell and Roland Harriman became partners of the Harriman bank (organized on St. Patrick's Day 1927 under the name W. A. Harriman & Co. and renamed Harriman Brothers & Co.), and January 1, 1931 to October 31, 1946 as his term as general partner of the merged firm, with limited partner status afterward.[^32] The firm's history records that he chaired the Department of Commerce Business Advisory Council from 1937 to 1939 and served with the N.R.A., the [[National Defense Advisory Commission]] and the [[Office of Production Management]] before going to Great Britain for lend-lease.[^32] [[Zachary Karabell]] wrote that the merger was announced on December 12, 1930, and that Harriman "was flush with the millions provided by his father's fortune" but "his business was struggling as well."[^33] The Library of Congress lists Harriman as a partner from 1931 to 1946, and holds a cable file of Brown Brothers Harriman for 1931.[^1][^16] The report describes Brown Brothers as formed in 1825 by Alexander Brown, with an associate house, Brown, Shipley and Company, in which Montagu Norman had been a partner before becoming head of the Bank of England. Sutton's chronology gives 1933 for the merger and lists the Brown Brothers Harriman partners who were members of the society, including Averell Harriman (class of 1913) and Roland Harriman (class of 1917).[^13] ### Union Banking Corporation -A Treasury Department memorandum of August 18, 1941, from Mr. May to [[J. W. Pehle]], subject "Union Banking Corporation," states that the corporation, incorporated August 4, 1924, was wholly owned by the [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]] of Rotterdam, that the investigation "produced no evidence as to the ownership of this Dutch bank," and that its president, Cornelis Lievense, believed Baron [[Heinrich Thyssen]] might own a substantial interest. It records gold purchases of over eight million dollars in 1931 to 1933, of which 3,085,000 dollars was delivered to the Federal Reserve Bank on June 15, 1934, and states that "In the fall of 1938, during the Munich crisis, Union Banking Corporation held two million dollars in currency in a safe deposit box in New York, but this sum was subsequently deposited in the company's account with Brown Brothers, Harriman."[^32] +A Treasury Department memorandum of August 18, 1941, from Mr. May to [[J. W. Pehle]], subject "Union Banking Corporation," states that the corporation, incorporated August 4, 1924, was wholly owned by the [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]] of Rotterdam, that the investigation "produced no evidence as to the ownership of this Dutch bank," and that its president, Cornelis Lievense, believed Baron [[Heinrich Thyssen]] might own a substantial interest. It records gold purchases of over eight million dollars in 1931 to 1933, of which 3,085,000 dollars was delivered to the Federal Reserve Bank on June 15, 1934, and states that "In the fall of 1938, during the Munich crisis, Union Banking Corporation held two million dollars in currency in a safe deposit box in New York, but this sum was subsequently deposited in the company's account with Brown Brothers, Harriman."[^34] -On October 20, 1942 the [[Alien Property Custodian]], Leo T. Crowley, signed Vesting Order Number 248, vesting the 4,000 shares of Union Banking Corporation, published in the [[Federal Register]] on November 7, 1942. The registered owners were E. Roland Harriman with 3,991 shares, [[Cornelius Lievense]] with 4, and Harold D. Pennington, Ray Morris, Prescott S. Bush, H. J. Kouwenhoven and Johann G. Groeninger with one share each. The order states that the shares were held for the benefit of the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, which it describes as owned or controlled by members of the [[Thyssen family]]. W. Averell Harriman is not among the registered owners.[^33] Sutton writes that "the Harrimans had a financial interest in" the corporation, that Roland was a director, and that Averell Harriman, Roland Harriman, E. S. James and Knight Woolley were "through the Union Bank (in which they held a major interest) prime financial backers of Hitler"; he lists eight directors in 1932: E. Roland Harriman, H. J. Kouwenhoven, Knight Woolley, Cornelius Lievense, Ellery Sedgwick James, Johann Groninger, J. L. Guinter and Prescott Sheldon Bush.[^34] A [[Council on Foreign Relations]] table of November 1951 lists Brown Brothers Harriman officers who were members as E. Roland Harriman, Ray Morris, Knight Woolley and Thomas McCance.[^35] +On October 20, 1942 the [[Alien Property Custodian]], Leo T. Crowley, signed Vesting Order Number 248, vesting the 4,000 shares of Union Banking Corporation, published in the [[Federal Register]] on November 7, 1942. The registered owners were E. Roland Harriman with 3,991 shares, [[Cornelius Lievense]] with 4, and Harold D. Pennington, Ray Morris, Prescott S. Bush, H. J. Kouwenhoven and Johann G. Groeninger with one share each. The order states that the shares were held for the benefit of the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, which it describes as owned or controlled by members of the [[Thyssen family]]. W. Averell Harriman is not among the registered owners.[^35] Sutton writes that "the Harrimans had a financial interest in" the corporation, that Roland was a director, and that Averell Harriman, Roland Harriman, E. S. James and Knight Woolley were "through the Union Bank (in which they held a major interest) prime financial backers of Hitler"; he lists eight directors in 1932: E. Roland Harriman, H. J. Kouwenhoven, Knight Woolley, Cornelius Lievense, Ellery Sedgwick James, Johann Groninger, J. L. Guinter and Prescott Sheldon Bush.[^36] A [[Council on Foreign Relations]] table of November 1951 lists Brown Brothers Harriman officers who were members as E. Roland Harriman, Ray Morris, Knight Woolley and Thomas McCance.[^37] ### Today, Newsweek and the Business Advisory Council -The Library of Congress lists Harriman as co-founder with [[Vincent Astor]] of the weekly Today in 1933, merged with [[Newsweek]] in 1937, and as chairman of the [[Business Advisory Council]] from 1937 to 1939; he held the position of Administrator and special assistant at the [[National Recovery Administration]] in 1934 and 1935 and founded the Sun Valley ski resort in Idaho in 1935 and 1936.[^1] On September 11, 1933 Astor and Harriman announced a weekly, Today, to be edited by [[Raymond Moley]].[^36] On March 17, 1961 [[Philip Graham]] sent [[Alfred Friendly]] to Rome to secure a pledge from Harriman, "an early Newsweek backer," to sell his 13 percent holding in Newsweek to the [[Washington Post]].[^37] +The Library of Congress lists Harriman as co-founder with [[Vincent Astor]] of the weekly Today in 1933, merged with [[Newsweek]] in 1937, and as chairman of the [[Business Advisory Council]] from 1937 to 1939; he held the position of Administrator and special assistant at the [[National Recovery Administration]] in 1934 and 1935 and founded the Sun Valley ski resort in Idaho in 1935 and 1936.[^1] On September 11, 1933 Astor and Harriman announced a weekly, Today, to be edited by [[Raymond Moley]].[^38] On March 17, 1961 [[Philip Graham]] sent [[Alfred Friendly]] to Rome to secure a pledge from Harriman, "an early Newsweek backer," to sell his 13 percent holding in Newsweek to the [[Washington Post]].[^39] ### Lend-Lease and the Moscow embassy -Harriman became [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]'s special representative to Great Britain with the rank of ambassador in March 1941, serving until September 1943, and chaired the President's special mission to the USSR.[^1][^3] On August 6, 1941 the Secretary of State sent [[Winant]], the ambassador in the United Kingdom, a telegram marked "Personal from Harriman" relaying a conversation with [[Brendan Bracken]], the British Minister of Information, about American belief that Britain was using Lend-Lease materials to foster and retain its commercial exports.[^38] +Harriman became [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]'s special representative to Great Britain with the rank of ambassador in March 1941, serving until September 1943, and chaired the President's special mission to the USSR.[^1][^3] On August 6, 1941 the Secretary of State sent [[Winant]], the ambassador in the United Kingdom, a telegram marked "Personal from Harriman" relaying a conversation with [[Brendan Bracken]], the British Minister of Information, about American belief that Britain was using Lend-Lease materials to foster and retain its commercial exports.[^40] -He was ambassador to the Soviet Union from 1943 to 1946.[^1] A telegram of February 10, 1944 from Moscow reports a conversation with [[Anastas Mikoyan]] about the Persian route and the decorations proposed for the American officers who supervised it.[^39] On February 13, 1944 he wrote to [[Harry Hopkins]] that he did not intend to object to a supplementary agreement to the Third Protocol and that the Department had indicated legal difficulties in arranging a reconstruction credit under the [[Johnson Act]].[^40] Sutton quotes a report of June 30, 1944 from Harriman in Moscow to the State Department in which Stalin is said to have stated that about two-thirds of all the large industrial enterprises in the Soviet Union had been built with United States help or technical assistance.[^41] On February 10, 1944 the Acting Secretary of State had sent Harriman the replies approved by the President to three questions asked by the Polish government.[^42] +He was ambassador to the Soviet Union from 1943 to 1946.[^1] A telegram of February 10, 1944 from Moscow reports a conversation with [[Anastas Mikoyan]] about the Persian route and the decorations proposed for the American officers who supervised it.[^41] On February 13, 1944 he wrote to [[Harry Hopkins]] that he did not intend to object to a supplementary agreement to the Third Protocol and that the Department had indicated legal difficulties in arranging a reconstruction credit under the [[Johnson Act]].[^42] Sutton quotes a report of June 30, 1944 from Harriman in Moscow to the State Department in which Stalin is said to have stated that about two-thirds of all the large industrial enterprises in the Soviet Union had been built with United States help or technical assistance.[^43] On February 10, 1944 the Acting Secretary of State had sent Harriman the replies approved by the President to three questions asked by the Polish government.[^44] -Sutton reproduces an account of a dinner party in 1971 at which, he writes, the journalist [[Edward Weintal]] told Harriman: "You told Roosevelt that you were convinced that the Soviets did not want to introduce a Communist government into Poland." Sutton states that Weintal cited a State Department telegram of February 12, 1944 from Harriman to Roosevelt, that Harriman shouted "If you print anything like that in your book, I'll break your jaw," and that a Washington Post reporter noted the details in a column by [[Maxine Cheshire]] of March 17, 1971.[^43] +Sutton reproduces an account of a dinner party in 1971 at which, he writes, the journalist [[Edward Weintal]] told Harriman: "You told Roosevelt that you were convinced that the Soviets did not want to introduce a Communist government into Poland." Sutton states that Weintal cited a State Department telegram of February 12, 1944 from Harriman to Roosevelt, that Harriman shouted "If you print anything like that in your book, I'll break your jaw," and that a Washington Post reporter noted the details in a column by [[Maxine Cheshire]] of March 17, 1971.[^45] ### Ambassador to the United Kingdom and Secretary of Commerce -The State Department records that Harriman resigned as ambassador to the Soviet Union in February 1946 and assumed his duties as ambassador in the United Kingdom in April 1946.[^44] On April 22, 1948 President Truman accepted his resignation as United States Secretary of Commerce, effective that day, so that he could take up the administration of the European Recovery Program.[^45] The Library of Congress lists the commerce post as 1946 to 1948, and states that Truman named him ambassador to the Court of St. James's before recalling him to Washington to become secretary of commerce.[^1][^3] [[Harry Kern]] and the historian [[Howard Schonberger]] wrote that Kern and Harriman, as Secretary of Commerce, helped to turn American occupation policy in Japan away from democratic reform.[^46] +The State Department records that Harriman resigned as ambassador to the Soviet Union in February 1946 and assumed his duties as ambassador in the United Kingdom in April 1946.[^46] On April 22, 1948 President Truman accepted his resignation as United States Secretary of Commerce, effective that day, so that he could take up the administration of the European Recovery Program.[^47] The Library of Congress lists the commerce post as 1946 to 1948, and states that Truman named him ambassador to the Court of St. James's before recalling him to Washington to become secretary of commerce.[^1][^3] [[Harry Kern]] and the historian [[Howard Schonberger]] wrote that Kern and Harriman, as Secretary of Commerce, helped to turn American occupation policy in Japan away from democratic reform.[^48] ### The Marshall Plan -In May 1948 Truman sent Harriman to Paris as Special Representative in Europe to carry out the European Recovery Program, and he returned to the United States in mid-1950 to become the president's special assistant.[^3] [[Lincoln Gordon]] worked under Harriman on the Marshall Plan mission in London. [[Vernon Walters]] served as Harriman's aide at Marshall Plan headquarters in Paris.[^47] [[Robert R. Mullen]] recalled that he and [[E. Howard Hunt]] both worked for the Marshall Plan in Paris from 1948 to 1950, when [[Dorothy Hunt]] was employed by Harriman.[^48] The Library of Congress files for the period also record his mediation in the British-Iranian oil crisis of 1951 and the Korean War controversy over the dismissal of General [[Douglas MacArthur]].[^3] +In May 1948 Truman sent Harriman to Paris as Special Representative in Europe to carry out the European Recovery Program, and he returned to the United States in mid-1950 to become the president's special assistant.[^3] [[Lincoln Gordon]] worked under Harriman on the Marshall Plan mission in London. [[Vernon Walters]] served as Harriman's aide at Marshall Plan headquarters in Paris.[^49] [[Robert R. Mullen]] recalled that he and [[E. Howard Hunt]] both worked for the Marshall Plan in Paris from 1948 to 1950, when [[Dorothy Hunt]] was employed by Harriman.[^50] The Library of Congress files for the period also record his mediation in the British-Iranian oil crisis of 1951 and the Korean War controversy over the dismissal of General [[Douglas MacArthur]].[^3] ### Mutual Security and the Council on Foreign Relations -The volume of Foreign Relations of the United States for 1951 records that the [[International Security Affairs Committee]] was to be abolished and that Harriman had been nominated as Director for Mutual Security on October 11, 1951; the Library of Congress lists him as director of the [[Mutual Security Agency]] from 1951 to 1953 and chairman of the North Atlantic Commission on Defense Plans in 1951 and 1952.[^1][^49] On December 12, 1950 [[Hamilton Fish Armstrong]] sent Harriman, then at the [[White House]], a statement of a Council study group on aid to Europe, noting in the covering letter that [[Allen Dulles]] had spoken to Harriman about it that morning.[^50] The Council's officers for 1952 to 1953 included Harriman among the directors, and he is listed among the individual donors of 10,000 dollars or more.[^51][^52] +The volume of Foreign Relations of the United States for 1951 records that the [[International Security Affairs Committee]] was to be abolished and that Harriman had been nominated as Director for Mutual Security on October 11, 1951; the Library of Congress lists him as director of the [[Mutual Security Agency]] from 1951 to 1953 and chairman of the North Atlantic Commission on Defense Plans in 1951 and 1952.[^1][^51] On December 12, 1950 [[Hamilton Fish Armstrong]] sent Harriman, then at the [[White House]], a statement of a Council study group on aid to Europe, noting in the covering letter that [[Allen Dulles]] had spoken to Harriman about it that morning.[^52] The Council's officers for 1952 to 1953 included Harriman among the directors, and he is listed among the individual donors of 10,000 dollars or more.[^53][^54] ### Governor of New York -Harriman was governor of New York from 1955 to 1958; the Library of Congress lists the term as 1955 to 1959 and notes that the papers of the governorship are held at Syracuse University.[^1][^53] [[Mary Lasker]] recalled in her Columbia oral history that Harriman asked for suggestions for a commissioner of mental hygiene soon after the election, and that [[Lester Markel]] of the New York Times telephoned to ask whether she knew [[Paul Hoch]], then in charge of research at the institute; Hoch's appointment was announced in July 1955.[^54] The Columbia oral history of [[Grayson Kirk]], held by the Eisenhower Library, covers Harriman's donation of the Arden House estate to [[Columbia University]].[^55] +Harriman was governor of New York from 1955 to 1958; the Library of Congress lists the term as 1955 to 1959 and notes that the papers of the governorship are held at Syracuse University.[^1][^55] [[Mary Lasker]] recalled in her Columbia oral history that Harriman asked for suggestions for a commissioner of mental hygiene soon after the election, and that [[Lester Markel]] of the New York Times telephoned to ask whether she knew [[Paul Hoch]], then in charge of research at the institute; Hoch's appointment was announced in July 1955.[^56] The Columbia oral history of [[Grayson Kirk]], held by the Eisenhower Library, covers Harriman's donation of the Arden House estate to [[Columbia University]].[^57] ### Kennedy administration and Vietnam -By September 1962 Harriman was Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs, and by August 1963 Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs.[^56][^57] On August 24, 1963 the State Department sent telegram 243 to [[Henry Cabot Lodge]] in Saigon, stating that the "US Government cannot tolerate situation in which power lies in Nhu's hands" and instructing the country team to "make detailed plans as to how we might bring about Diem's replacement if this should become necessary." The telegram was signed by [[George Ball]].[^58] A memorandum for the record by [[Victor Krulak]] of the same day records the account of [[Michael Forrestal]] that "Hilsman and Governor Harriman" had converted a proposed course of action into an instruction to Lodge, that it had been sent to the President for approval, and that it was not something on which Defense clearance was desired.[^59] [[Maxwell Taylor]] said in 1981 that the telegram had been drafted by Harriman, [[Roger Hilsman]] and Forrestal and dispatched "without the concurrence of the Defense Department, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, or the CIA," and called it an "end run" in his memoirs; Hilsman maintained that the President and representatives of the agencies concerned had cleared it.[^60] +By September 1962 Harriman was Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs, and by August 1963 Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs.[^58][^59] On August 24, 1963 the State Department sent telegram 243 to [[Henry Cabot Lodge]] in Saigon, stating that the "US Government cannot tolerate situation in which power lies in Nhu's hands" and instructing the country team to "make detailed plans as to how we might bring about Diem's replacement if this should become necessary." The telegram was signed by [[George Ball]].[^60] A memorandum for the record by [[Victor Krulak]] of the same day records the account of [[Michael Forrestal]] that "Hilsman and Governor Harriman" had converted a proposed course of action into an instruction to Lodge, that it had been sent to the President for approval, and that it was not something on which Defense clearance was desired.[^61] [[Maxwell Taylor]] said in 1981 that the telegram had been drafted by Harriman, [[Roger Hilsman]] and Forrestal and dispatched "without the concurrence of the Defense Department, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, or the CIA," and called it an "end run" in his memoirs; Hilsman maintained that the President and representatives of the agencies concerned had cleared it.[^62] -On October 7, 1963 Harriman attended a White House meeting on Brazil with Kennedy, [[Robert McNamara]], [[Edwin Martin]] and Lincoln Gordon, at which Kennedy asked whether the United States might find it desirable to intervene militarily.[^61] On June 19, 1963 he attended the meeting at which Kennedy approved a sabotage program against Cuba, one of the programs later grouped as [[Operation Mongoose]], with [[John McCone]] and McGeorge Bundy present.[^62] +On October 7, 1963 Harriman attended a White House meeting on Brazil with Kennedy, [[Robert McNamara]], [[Edwin Martin]] and Lincoln Gordon, at which Kennedy asked whether the United States might find it desirable to intervene militarily.[^63] On June 19, 1963 he attended the meeting at which Kennedy approved a sabotage program against Cuba, one of the programs later grouped as [[Operation Mongoose]], with [[John McCone]] and McGeorge Bundy present.[^64] ### Laos -Harriman headed the American delegation to the Geneva conference on Laos in 1961 and 1962; the Library of Congress lists him as deputy representative to the conference.[^1][^63] A memorandum of his conversation with the North Vietnamese foreign minister at Geneva on July 22, 1962 records that he said the United States intended to carry out the Laos agreements "in the letter and in the spirit," including the removal of its military personnel from Laos.[^64] The State Department editorial note states that "On July 23, Secretary Rusk signed for the United States the Declaration on the Neutrality of Laos."[^65] +Harriman headed the American delegation to the Geneva conference on Laos in 1961 and 1962; the Library of Congress lists him as deputy representative to the conference.[^1][^65] A memorandum of his conversation with the North Vietnamese foreign minister at Geneva on July 22, 1962 records that he said the United States intended to carry out the Laos agreements "in the letter and in the spirit," including the removal of its military personnel from Laos.[^66] The State Department editorial note states that "On July 23, Secretary Rusk signed for the United States the Declaration on the Neutrality of Laos."[^67] ### Paris peace talks -In October 1968 Harriman and [[Cyrus Vance]] led the American side in the Paris talks on Vietnam. A telegram from the Paris embassy dated October 9, 1968 is headed "From Harriman and Vance" and reports a meeting in which [[Le Duc Tho]], [[Xuan Thuy]] and Lau joined the Americans during a tea break.[^66] +In October 1968 Harriman and [[Cyrus Vance]] led the American side in the Paris talks on Vietnam. A telegram from the Paris embassy dated October 9, 1968 is headed "From Harriman and Vance" and reports a meeting in which [[Le Duc Tho]], [[Xuan Thuy]] and Lau joined the Americans during a tea break.[^68] ### Marriages and papers The Library of Congress lists Harriman's marriages as 1915 to Kathleen Lanier Lawrence (divorced 1929), 1930 to Marie Norton Whitney (died 1970) and 1971 to [[Pamela Harriman]], formerly Pamela Digby Churchill Hayward. Sutton notes that Pamela Hayward had been married to [[Randolph Churchill]].[^1][^13] -The W. Averell Harriman Papers in the Library of Congress Manuscript Division run to 346,760 items in 1,041 containers, with series for the Georgian Manganese Company and the Russian Finance and Construction Corporation, and a Classified, Top Secret, Restricted Data and Sensitive Compartmented Information series for 1946 to 1980.[^3] FRUS volume III for 1961 to 1963 records that its documents were drawn from the papers while still in the possession of the late ambassador, and other volumes cite the Chronology File for May to August 1962.[^30][^64] +The W. Averell Harriman Papers in the Library of Congress Manuscript Division run to 346,760 items in 1,041 containers, with series for the Georgian Manganese Company and the Russian Finance and Construction Corporation, and a Classified, Top Secret, Restricted Data and Sensitive Compartmented Information series for 1946 to 1980.[^3] FRUS volume III for 1961 to 1963 records that its documents were drawn from the papers while still in the possession of the late ambassador, and other volumes cite the Chronology File for May to August 1962.[^32][^66] ### Footnotes @@ -219,53 +221,55 @@ The W. Averell Harriman Papers in the Library of Congress Manuscript Division ru [^14]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), chronology and the section "The Guaranty Trust Company." [^15]: "Sanction Plan to Run Ships on German Routes," The Omaha Bee, August 17, 1920, p. 2 (Washington dispatch of August 16, 1920). https://nebnewspapers.unl.edu/lccn/sn99021999/1920-08-17/ed-1/seq-2 [^16]: W. Averell Harriman Papers finding aid, Library of Congress, Special Files: Business (cables incoming and outgoing, Hamburg-American Line 1920 to 1926; Cuno, Wilhelm, 1920 to 1931; Brown Brothers Harriman and Co., 1931), Subject File (Hamburg-American Line, 1933 to 1937, Box 56; United American Lines re sale of steamers, 1926). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003012.pdf -[^17]: Telegram, the Chargé in the Soviet Union (Henderson) to the Secretary of State, Moscow, September 22, 1936, Foreign Relations of the United States, The Soviet Union, 1933 to 1939, document 334. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1933-39/d334 -[^18]: W. A. Harriman and Company agreement, 1925, Hoover Institution Library and Archives (Online Archive of California). https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt867nf2wp -[^19]: W. Averell Harriman Papers finding aid, Special Files: Business, Georgian Manganese Company, 1921 to 1946 (Boxes 694 to 709: Tchemo agreement and syndicate agreement of June 12, 1925; W. A. Harriman and Co. assignment of July 18, 1925; property of voting trustees, August 10, 1925; ore shipments, November 1925 contract; Harriman correspondence while in USSR, 1926 to 1927; resignation, 1928; termination agreement, August 21 to 28, 1928; Soviet notes). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003012.pdf -[^20]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), section "How the Order Developed the Stagnant Soviet Union" (concession agreement of July 12, 1925; four million dollars; Matthew C. Brush; State Department Decimal File 316-138-12/331), and the Order chart naming Brush as chairman of the Georgian Manganese Company. -[^21]: "Russia: Concessions," Time, March 15, 1926. https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,736634,00.html -[^22]: Time, July 25, 1927, on the Soviet reconfirmation of the Harriman manganese concession. https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,736830,00.html -[^23]: "Foreign News: Harriman Out," Time, July 16, 1928. https://time.com/archive/6778286/foreign-news-harriman-out/ -[^24]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), Harriman chapter, discussing Harriman's article in Look, October 3, 1967, and State Department file 861.637-Harriman (Stetson). -[^25]: W. Averell Harriman Papers finding aid, Special Files: Business, Russian Finance and Construction Corporation, 1921 to 1952 (Boxes 710 to 731). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003012.pdf -[^26]: National Archives of Georgia photograph, "American Industrialist W. Averell Harriman in Poti, c. 1920," institutional description, Internet Archive item. https://archive.org/details/043-harriman-in-poti-with-mikaberidze-c-1920-01 -[^27]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), introductory examples of the Order's activity (Ruskombank and Max May of Guaranty Trust). -[^28]: Brown Brothers Harriman, "Joining Forces: The Birth of Brown Brothers Harriman," firm history. https://www.bbh.com/apac/en/bbh-who-we-are/our-story/200-years-of-partnership/joining-forces-the-birth-of-brown-brothers-harriman.html -[^29]: Brown Brothers Harriman records, finding aid, New-York Historical Society collection at NYU. https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms78_brown_brothers_harriman/ -[^30]: John A. Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking: An Historical Portrait of a Great Private Bank, Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., 1818-1968* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1968), pp. 12 to 19, 202 and partner table pp. 231 to 234. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb -[^31]: Zachary Karabell, "Inside Money: Brown Brothers Harriman and the American Way of Power," *Financial History* 138 (Summer 2021), Museum of American Finance, pp. 15 to 16. https://archive.org/details/financialhistory138 -[^32]: Treasury Department memorandum, Mr. May to Mr. J. W. Pehle, August 18, 1941, "Re: Union Banking Corporation," ref. 9-151, declassified by NARA (NND 960103). https://archive.org/details/BushDocuments0008b-LetterJ.W.PebleToMay -[^33]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 248, executed October 20, 1942, 7 Federal Register 9097 to 9098 (November 7, 1942). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf -[^34]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), introductory examples and section "The Union Banking Connection" (directors in 1932, Roland Harriman as director). -[^35]: Council on Foreign Relations, Receipts (1946-1951), Research Budget, with Contributions of Corporations, Individual Contributions to the 25th Anniversary Fund and Corporations with Officers who are members of the Council on Foreign Relations, November 1951, CIA-RDP80R01731R001100170005-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001100170005-1 -[^36]: "Press: Today," *Time*, September 11, 1933. https://time.com/archive/6751591/press-today/ -[^37]: "The Press: Newsweek's News," *Time*, March 17, 1961. https://time.com/archive/6829457/the-press-newsweeks-news/ -[^38]: Telegram, Secretary of State to the Ambassador in the United Kingdom (Winant), Washington, August 6, 1941, "Personal from Harriman," Foreign Relations of the United States, 1941, vol. III. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1941v03/d14 -[^39]: Telegram 440, Ambassador in the Soviet Union (Harriman) to the Secretary of State, Moscow, February 10, 1944, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1944, vol. IV, document 761. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944v04/d761 -[^40]: Telegram, Harriman to the Chairman of the President's Soviet Protocol Committee (Hopkins), Moscow, February 13, 1944, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1944, vol. IV, document 957. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944v04/d957 -[^41]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), Harriman chapter, citing State Department Decimal File 033.1161 Johnston Eric/6-3044, telegram of June 30, 1944. -[^42]: Telegram, the Acting Secretary of State to the Ambassador in the Soviet Union (Harriman), Washington, February 10, 1944, 8 p.m., Foreign Relations of the United States, 1944, vol. III, document 1162. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944v03/d1162 -[^43]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), Harriman chapter, passage on Edward Weintal, citing the Washington Post, March 17, 1971, VIP column by Maxine Cheshire. -[^44]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1946, vol. VI, document 420, editorial headnote. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1946v06/d420 -[^45]: Harry S. Truman, Letter to Secretary Harriman Following His Nomination as U.S. Special Representative in Europe, April 22, 1948, Public Papers, Harry S. Truman Library. https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/public-papers/83/letter-secretary-harriman-following-his-nomination-us-special -[^46]: Howard B. Schonberger, *Aftermath of War: Americans and the Remaking of Japan, 1945-1952* (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1989), p. 7. -[^47]: Vernon Walters, *Silent Missions* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1978). -[^48]: Central Intelligence Agency, Central Cover Staff, "Request for CSA concerning E. Howard Hunt," June 3, 1970, CIA Reading Room document C00297384. -[^49]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1951, vol. I, document 769 and its headnote on the Mutual Security Agency. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1951v01/d769 -[^50]: Letter, Hamilton Fish Armstrong to W. Averell Harriman, December 12, 1950, CIA-RDP80R01731R003100010004-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003100010004-7 -[^51]: Council on Foreign Relations, Annual Report of the Executive Director, 1951-1952, with list of members and by-laws (New York, 1952), Officers and Standing Committees, CIA-RDP80R01731R001200010036-3. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R001200010036-3 -[^52]: Council on Foreign Relations, Annual Report, July 1, 1984 to June 30, 1985 (New York, 1985), Campaign for the Council, individual donors of $10,000 or more, CIA-RDP90-00806R000100210066-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000100210066-5 -[^53]: Empire State Plaza, Hall of Governors, "W. Averell Harriman, 48th Governor, 1955 to 1958," New York State Office of General Services. https://empirestateplaza.ny.gov/node/3471 -[^54]: Columbia University Libraries, Oral History Research Office, Mary Lasker oral history, transcript pages laskerm_1_19_570 and laskerm_1_19_572. https://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/digital/collections/nny/laskerm/transcripts/laskerm_1_19_572.html ; University at Albany, M.E. Grenander Department of Special Collections and Archives, record of a 1956 interview of Dr. Paul H. Hoch, Commissioner of Mental Hygiene. https://archives.albany.edu/description/catalog/apap015aspace_033e27487bc26a06ec8cf9fd535fb0c3 -[^55]: Eisenhower Library, Oral History Project, finding aid OH-364, Grayson L. Kirk, interview by David Horrocks, 1975. https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/oral-histories/oral-history-finding-aids/ohfa364.pdf -[^56]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. XXIV, document 423, Memorandum from the Deputy Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs (Johnson) to the Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (Harriman), September 21, 1962. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v24/d423 -[^57]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. III, document 243, Memorandum of Telephone Conversation Between the Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs (Harriman) and the Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (Hilsman). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d243 -[^58]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. III, document 281, Telegram 243, Department of State to the Embassy in Vietnam, Washington, August 24, 1963, 9:36 p.m. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d281 -[^59]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. III, document 282, Memorandum for the Record by Krulak, August 24, 1963. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d282 -[^60]: Robert S. Gallagher, "Gen. Maxwell Taylor: Memories of Peace and War," *American Heritage*, vol. 32, no. 3 (April/May 1981), https://www.americanheritage.com/gen-maxwell-taylor-memories-peace-and-war ; *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. III, document 281, source note citing Taylor, *Swords and Plowshares*, pp. 292-294, and Hilsman, *To Move a Nation*, pp. 487-488. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d281 -[^61]: National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 465, Document 9 (White House meeting recording, October 7, 1963; present: Kennedy, Harriman, McNamara, Martin, Gordon and others). -[^62]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, S. Rept. 94-465 (1975), p. 337 and pp. 172 to 173 (Special Group minutes and memorandum of June 19, 1963). https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit -[^63]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. XXIV, document 106, Paper Prepared by the Head of the Delegation to the Laos Conference (Harriman). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v24/d106 -[^64]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. XXIV, document 410, Memorandum of Conversation, Geneva, July 22, 1962, source Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, Harriman Papers, Chronology File, May to August 1962. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v24/d410 -[^65]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. XXIV, document 411, Editorial Note. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v24/d411 -[^66]: Telegram 805 (Delto), Embassy in France to the Department of State, Paris, October 9, 1968, "From Harriman and Vance," Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964 to 1968, vol. VII, document 54. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v07/d54 +[^17]: International Directory of Company Histories, "Dresser Industries, Inc." (St. James Press), reproduced on Encyclopedia.com, section on the 1928 sale to W. A. Harriman and Company. https://encyclopedia.com/books/politics-and-business-magazines/dresser-industries-inc +[^18]: Darwin Payne, *Initiative in Energy: Dresser Industries, Inc., 1880-1978* (1979), on the Harriman partners and the 1928 conversion; Darwin Payne, "Dresser Industries: A Legacy in Energy and Natural Resources," *Handbook of Texas Online*, Texas State Historical Association, section on the 1928 conversion. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/dresser-industries +[^19]: Telegram, the Chargé in the Soviet Union (Henderson) to the Secretary of State, Moscow, September 22, 1936, Foreign Relations of the United States, The Soviet Union, 1933 to 1939, document 334. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1933-39/d334 +[^20]: W. A. Harriman and Company agreement, 1925, Hoover Institution Library and Archives (Online Archive of California). https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt867nf2wp +[^21]: W. Averell Harriman Papers finding aid, Special Files: Business, Georgian Manganese Company, 1921 to 1946 (Boxes 694 to 709: Tchemo agreement and syndicate agreement of June 12, 1925; W. A. Harriman and Co. assignment of July 18, 1925; property of voting trustees, August 10, 1925; ore shipments, November 1925 contract; Harriman correspondence while in USSR, 1926 to 1927; resignation, 1928; termination agreement, August 21 to 28, 1928; Soviet notes). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003012.pdf +[^22]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), section "How the Order Developed the Stagnant Soviet Union" (concession agreement of July 12, 1925; four million dollars; Matthew C. Brush; State Department Decimal File 316-138-12/331), and the Order chart naming Brush as chairman of the Georgian Manganese Company. +[^23]: "Russia: Concessions," Time, March 15, 1926. https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,736634,00.html +[^24]: Time, July 25, 1927, on the Soviet reconfirmation of the Harriman manganese concession. https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,736830,00.html +[^25]: "Foreign News: Harriman Out," Time, July 16, 1928. https://time.com/archive/6778286/foreign-news-harriman-out/ +[^26]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), Harriman chapter, discussing Harriman's article in Look, October 3, 1967, and State Department file 861.637-Harriman (Stetson). +[^27]: W. Averell Harriman Papers finding aid, Special Files: Business, Russian Finance and Construction Corporation, 1921 to 1952 (Boxes 710 to 731). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003012.pdf +[^28]: National Archives of Georgia photograph, "American Industrialist W. Averell Harriman in Poti, c. 1920," institutional description, Internet Archive item. https://archive.org/details/043-harriman-in-poti-with-mikaberidze-c-1920-01 +[^29]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), introductory examples of the Order's activity (Ruskombank and Max May of Guaranty Trust). +[^30]: Brown Brothers Harriman, "Joining Forces: The Birth of Brown Brothers Harriman," firm history. https://www.bbh.com/apac/en/bbh-who-we-are/our-story/200-years-of-partnership/joining-forces-the-birth-of-brown-brothers-harriman.html +[^31]: Brown Brothers Harriman records, finding aid, New-York Historical Society collection at NYU. https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms78_brown_brothers_harriman/ +[^32]: John A. Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking: An Historical Portrait of a Great Private Bank, Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., 1818-1968* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1968), pp. 12 to 19, 202 and partner table pp. 231 to 234. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb +[^33]: Zachary Karabell, "Inside Money: Brown Brothers Harriman and the American Way of Power," *Financial History* 138 (Summer 2021), Museum of American Finance, pp. 15 to 16. https://archive.org/details/financialhistory138 +[^34]: Treasury Department memorandum, Mr. May to Mr. J. W. Pehle, August 18, 1941, "Re: Union Banking Corporation," ref. 9-151, declassified by NARA (NND 960103). https://archive.org/details/BushDocuments0008b-LetterJ.W.PebleToMay +[^35]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 248, executed October 20, 1942, 7 Federal Register 9097 to 9098 (November 7, 1942). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf +[^36]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), introductory examples and section "The Union Banking Connection" (directors in 1932, Roland Harriman as director). +[^37]: Council on Foreign Relations, Receipts (1946-1951), Research Budget, with Contributions of Corporations, Individual Contributions to the 25th Anniversary Fund and Corporations with Officers who are members of the Council on Foreign Relations, November 1951, CIA-RDP80R01731R001100170005-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001100170005-1 +[^38]: "Press: Today," *Time*, September 11, 1933. https://time.com/archive/6751591/press-today/ +[^39]: "The Press: Newsweek's News," *Time*, March 17, 1961. https://time.com/archive/6829457/the-press-newsweeks-news/ +[^40]: Telegram, Secretary of State to the Ambassador in the United Kingdom (Winant), Washington, August 6, 1941, "Personal from Harriman," Foreign Relations of the United States, 1941, vol. III. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1941v03/d14 +[^41]: Telegram 440, Ambassador in the Soviet Union (Harriman) to the Secretary of State, Moscow, February 10, 1944, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1944, vol. IV, document 761. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944v04/d761 +[^42]: Telegram, Harriman to the Chairman of the President's Soviet Protocol Committee (Hopkins), Moscow, February 13, 1944, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1944, vol. IV, document 957. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944v04/d957 +[^43]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), Harriman chapter, citing State Department Decimal File 033.1161 Johnston Eric/6-3044, telegram of June 30, 1944. +[^44]: Telegram, the Acting Secretary of State to the Ambassador in the Soviet Union (Harriman), Washington, February 10, 1944, 8 p.m., Foreign Relations of the United States, 1944, vol. III, document 1162. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944v03/d1162 +[^45]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), Harriman chapter, passage on Edward Weintal, citing the Washington Post, March 17, 1971, VIP column by Maxine Cheshire. +[^46]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1946, vol. VI, document 420, editorial headnote. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1946v06/d420 +[^47]: Harry S. Truman, Letter to Secretary Harriman Following His Nomination as U.S. Special Representative in Europe, April 22, 1948, Public Papers, Harry S. Truman Library. https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/public-papers/83/letter-secretary-harriman-following-his-nomination-us-special +[^48]: Howard B. Schonberger, *Aftermath of War: Americans and the Remaking of Japan, 1945-1952* (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1989), p. 7. +[^49]: Vernon Walters, *Silent Missions* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1978). +[^50]: Central Intelligence Agency, Central Cover Staff, "Request for CSA concerning E. Howard Hunt," June 3, 1970, CIA Reading Room document C00297384. +[^51]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1951, vol. I, document 769 and its headnote on the Mutual Security Agency. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1951v01/d769 +[^52]: Letter, Hamilton Fish Armstrong to W. Averell Harriman, December 12, 1950, CIA-RDP80R01731R003100010004-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003100010004-7 +[^53]: Council on Foreign Relations, Annual Report of the Executive Director, 1951-1952, with list of members and by-laws (New York, 1952), Officers and Standing Committees, CIA-RDP80R01731R001200010036-3. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R001200010036-3 +[^54]: Council on Foreign Relations, Annual Report, July 1, 1984 to June 30, 1985 (New York, 1985), Campaign for the Council, individual donors of $10,000 or more, CIA-RDP90-00806R000100210066-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000100210066-5 +[^55]: Empire State Plaza, Hall of Governors, "W. Averell Harriman, 48th Governor, 1955 to 1958," New York State Office of General Services. https://empirestateplaza.ny.gov/node/3471 +[^56]: Columbia University Libraries, Oral History Research Office, Mary Lasker oral history, transcript pages laskerm_1_19_570 and laskerm_1_19_572. https://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/digital/collections/nny/laskerm/transcripts/laskerm_1_19_572.html ; University at Albany, M.E. Grenander Department of Special Collections and Archives, record of a 1956 interview of Dr. Paul H. Hoch, Commissioner of Mental Hygiene. https://archives.albany.edu/description/catalog/apap015aspace_033e27487bc26a06ec8cf9fd535fb0c3 +[^57]: Eisenhower Library, Oral History Project, finding aid OH-364, Grayson L. Kirk, interview by David Horrocks, 1975. https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/oral-histories/oral-history-finding-aids/ohfa364.pdf +[^58]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. XXIV, document 423, Memorandum from the Deputy Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs (Johnson) to the Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (Harriman), September 21, 1962. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v24/d423 +[^59]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. III, document 243, Memorandum of Telephone Conversation Between the Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs (Harriman) and the Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (Hilsman). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d243 +[^60]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. III, document 281, Telegram 243, Department of State to the Embassy in Vietnam, Washington, August 24, 1963, 9:36 p.m. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d281 +[^61]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. III, document 282, Memorandum for the Record by Krulak, August 24, 1963. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d282 +[^62]: Robert S. Gallagher, "Gen. Maxwell Taylor: Memories of Peace and War," *American Heritage*, vol. 32, no. 3 (April/May 1981), https://www.americanheritage.com/gen-maxwell-taylor-memories-peace-and-war ; *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. III, document 281, source note citing Taylor, *Swords and Plowshares*, pp. 292-294, and Hilsman, *To Move a Nation*, pp. 487-488. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d281 +[^63]: National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 465, Document 9 (White House meeting recording, October 7, 1963; present: Kennedy, Harriman, McNamara, Martin, Gordon and others). +[^64]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, S. Rept. 94-465 (1975), p. 337 and pp. 172 to 173 (Special Group minutes and memorandum of June 19, 1963). https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit +[^65]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. XXIV, document 106, Paper Prepared by the Head of the Delegation to the Laos Conference (Harriman). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v24/d106 +[^66]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. XXIV, document 410, Memorandum of Conversation, Geneva, July 22, 1962, source Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, Harriman Papers, Chronology File, May to August 1962. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v24/d410 +[^67]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. XXIV, document 411, Editorial Note. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v24/d411 +[^68]: Telegram 805 (Delto), Embassy in France to the Department of State, Paris, October 9, 1968, "From Harriman and Vance," Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964 to 1968, vol. VII, document 54. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v07/d54 diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Antony C. Sutton.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Antony C. Sutton.md index 4938af24..f2a1258d 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Antony C. Sutton.md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Antony C. Sutton.md @@ -36,7 +36,7 @@ relations: with: "[[Phoenix Letter]]" start: 1984 role: "editor, Phoenix Letter, vol. 3, no. 8 (October 1984) masthead" - fn: 45 + fn: 54 --- Antony Cyril Sutton (1925 to 2002) was born in London, educated at the Universities of London, Göttingen and California, and held a research fellowship at the [[Hoover Institution]] at [[Stanford University]] from 1968 to 1973. He died in [[Reno, Nevada]]. His Hoover studies of Western technology in the Soviet economy were published in three volumes, and his later books covered the financing of the Bolshevik and Nazi movements, the [[Skull and Bones]] and other [[Yale University]] senior societies, and the [[Trilateral Commission]].[^1][^2][^3][^4] @@ -89,7 +89,7 @@ The synopsis adds further claims. Sutton wrote that [[Ludwig Martens]], the firs #### Wall Street and FDR (1975) -The second book, dated October 1974 in its preface, extends the thesis to [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and the New Deal. Sutton wrote that the evidence was based largely on Roosevelt's own papers and that Wall Street financiers were associated with Roosevelt between 1917 and 1934.[^27] Its chapter on the 1934 [[Business Plot]] hearings describes [[Grayson M.-P. Murphy & Co.]] of 52 Broadway, and [[Smedley Butler]]'s testimony that [[Gerald P. MacGuire]] proposed a plan through that firm. Sutton wrote that Murphy was, in the early 1930s, a director of several companies controlled by the [[J. P. Morgan]] interests, including the Guaranty Trust Company, and that the speechwriter proposed for Butler, [[John W. Davis]], was a partner at Davis, Polk, Wardwell, Gardner and Reed.[^28] He suggested that Wall Street "had none other than Franklin Delano Roosevelt in mind as 'the man on the white horse.'"[^28] +The second book, dated October 1974 in its preface, extends the thesis to [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and the New Deal. Sutton wrote that the evidence was based largely on Roosevelt's own papers and that Wall Street financiers were associated with Roosevelt between 1917 and 1934.[^27] Its chapter on the 1934 [[Business Plot]] hearings describes [[Grayson M.-P. Murphy & Co.]] of 52 Broadway, and [[Smedley Butler]]'s testimony that [[Gerald P. MacGuire]] proposed a plan through that firm. Sutton wrote that Murphy was, in the early 1930s, a director of several companies controlled by the [[J. P. Morgan & Co.|J. P. Morgan]] interests, including the Guaranty Trust Company, and that the speechwriter proposed for Butler, [[John W. Davis]], was a partner at Davis, Polk, Wardwell, Gardner and Reed.[^28] He suggested that Wall Street "had none other than Franklin Delano Roosevelt in mind as 'the man on the white horse.'"[^28] #### Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler (1976) @@ -107,35 +107,45 @@ The book's sections are organized as numbered "memoranda," in which the author s #### Hypothesis One and the family tiers -The chart lists nine old-line families with settlement dates and places: Whitney (1635, Watertown, Massachusetts), Stimson (1635, Watertown), Perkins (1631, Boston), Taft (1679, Braintree), Phelps (1630, Dorchester), Bundy (1635, Boston), Wadsworth (1632, Newtown), Lord (1635, Cambridge) and Gilman (1638, Hingham). It labels seven families of newer wealth with their sources of fortune: Rockefeller and Payne (Standard Oil), Harriman (railroads), Davison (J. P. Morgan), Weyerhaeuser (lumber), Pillsbury (flour milling) and Sloane (retail).[^36] +The chart lists nine old-line families with settlement dates and places: Whitney (1635, Watertown, Massachusetts), Stimson (1635, Watertown), [[Perkins family|Perkins]] (1631, Boston), Taft (1679, Braintree), [[Phelps family|Phelps]] (1630, Dorchester), Bundy (1635, Boston), [[Wadsworth family|Wadsworth]] (1632, Newtown), [[Lord family|Lord]] (1635, Cambridge) and Gilman (1638, Hingham). It labels seven families of newer wealth with their sources of fortune: Rockefeller and Payne (Standard Oil), Harriman (railroads), Davison (J. P. Morgan), [[Weyerhaeuser family|Weyerhaeuser]] (lumber), [[Pillsbury family|Pillsbury]] (flour milling) and Sloane (retail).[^36] -Sutton wrote that a group of 20 to 30 families had come to dominate the society, and that the families fell into two groups. The first were "old line American families who arrived on the East coast in the 1600s, e.g., Whitney, Lord, Phelps, Wadsworth, Allen, Bundy, Adams." The second were "families who acquired wealth in the last 100 years, sent their sons to Yale and in time became almost old line families, e.g., Harriman, Rockefeller, Payne, Davison."[^37] He wrote that intermarriage among these families was common, and that the Puritan families "either intermarried with financial power" or took in the sons of money.[^36] +Sutton's chart captions give Charles Edwin Lord as Acting Comptroller of the Currency (1981) and [[Winston Lord]] as Chairman of the [[Council on Foreign Relations]] (1983), and his text states that [[David Rockefeller]], a former Council chairman, is not a member of the Order but that "the present CFR chairman, Winston Lord, is."[^37] -Sutton's book calls Charles Phelps Taft, a member of the Yale class of 1918, a nephew of [[William Howard Taft]] and places him at the Twentieth Century Foundation.[^38] The Yale obituary record for William Howard Taft lists a Charles Phelps, 2d, B.A. 1918 and LL.B. 1921, among Taft's own children.[^39] The Yale record of the President's half brother, Charles Phelps Taft (B.A. 1864, 1843 to 1929), lists "Charles P. Taft, 2d, '18" among that half brother's nephews.[^40] The Yale class of 1918 member is therefore the President's son and the nephew of the elder Charles Phelps Taft. +The 1889 genealogy of the John Perkins family of Ipswich records that John Perkins sailed from Bristol in the ship Lyon on December 1, 1630 and took the freeman's oath at Boston on May 18, 1631.[^38] The same genealogy lists George Walbridge Perkins of Chicago (born January 31, 1862) as a descendant through Jacob, Joseph, Joseph, Joseph, Elijah and William W. Perkins of Erie, and the 1910 Who's Who gives [[George W. Perkins]] as born at Chicago on that date, a J. P. Morgan & Co. partner from 1901 and a director of the [[Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad]].[^38][^39] Sutton wrote: "The name Morgan has never appeared on the membership lists, although some Morgan partners are with the inner core, for example, Davison and Perkins."[^40] Sutton's index of members lists four Perkinses, in the classes of 1840, 1842 and 1858.[^41] + +Sutton wrote that a group of 20 to 30 families had come to dominate the society, and that the families fell into two groups. The first were "old line American families who arrived on the East coast in the 1600s, e.g., Whitney, Lord, Phelps, Wadsworth, Allen, Bundy, Adams." The second were "families who acquired wealth in the last 100 years, sent their sons to Yale and in time became almost old line families, e.g., Harriman, Rockefeller, Payne, Davison."[^42] He wrote that intermarriage among these families was common, and that the Puritan families "either intermarried with financial power" or took in the sons of money.[^36] + +Sutton's book calls Charles Phelps Taft, a member of the Yale class of 1918, a nephew of [[William Howard Taft]] and places him at the Twentieth Century Foundation.[^43] The Yale obituary record for William Howard Taft lists a Charles Phelps, 2d, B.A. 1918 and LL.B. 1921, among Taft's own children.[^44] The Yale record of the President's half brother, Charles Phelps Taft (B.A. 1864, 1843 to 1929), lists "Charles P. Taft, 2d, '18" among that half brother's nephews.[^45] The Yale class of 1918 member is therefore the President's son and the nephew of the elder Charles Phelps Taft. + +Sutton named [[William Huntington Russell]] and [[Alphonso Taft]] as the two founding members who "went far," and wrote that Taft "was Secretary of War in 1876 - the first of several members of The Order to hold this post down into the 1950s." He gave Taft's later offices as Attorney General in 1876 to 1877, minister to Austria in 1882 to 1884 and, in his words, "Ambassador to Russia" in 1884 to 1885; the Office of the Historian of the Department of State lists both posts as Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary (Austria, appointed April 26, 1882; Russia, appointed July 4, 1884).[^46] The family history that Alphonso Taft gave at the 1874 Taft family gathering in Uxbridge, Massachusetts dates the family's Braintree holding to 1678 and says that Robert Taft made arrangements to move to Mendon in 1679; Sutton's chart gives 1679 at Braintree.[^47] + +In the section on [[G. Stanley Hall]] at Antioch College, Sutton wrote that "The most prominent trustee of Antioch College was none other than the co-founder of The Order, Alphonso Taft," and in his discussion of [[Horace Mann]] and the look-say method that "The most influential Trustee of Antioch College was the co-founder of The Order - Alphonso Taft."[^48] Hall's memoir gives the trustee claim in his own words, in a passage on his Sundays in Cincinnati: "Ex-President Taft was then a boy and his father, Judge Alonzo Taft, was a trustee of Antioch College." Sutton's quotation of Hall adds "(sic)" after the spelling "Alonzo" and cites page 201 of the memoir; the passage is on page 200 of the 1923 Appleton edition.[^49] ### Brown Brothers Harriman, Union Banking and Prescott Bush -Sutton's account of the [[Brown Brothers Harriman]] partnership says that by the 1970s the firm had "taken in so many of 'the Brotherhood'" that, of its 26 individual partners, "no fewer than 9 were members of The Order."[^41] The list he gives of partners who were members includes [[Prescott Bush]], whom he describes as a partner for over forty years, the father of President George H. W. Bush, and initiated in 1917. It also includes W. Averell Harriman (initiated 1913) and his brother [[E. Roland Harriman]] (initiated 1917).[^41] +Sutton's account of the [[Brown Brothers Harriman]] partnership says that by the 1970s the firm had "taken in so many of 'the Brotherhood'" that, of its 26 individual partners, "no fewer than 9 were members of The Order."[^50] The list he gives of partners who were members includes [[Prescott Bush]], whom he describes as a partner for over forty years, the father of President George H. W. Bush, and initiated in 1917. It also includes W. Averell Harriman (initiated 1913) and his brother [[E. Roland Harriman]] (initiated 1917).[^50] -Sutton devotes a passage to the [[Union Banking Corporation]] of New York. He writes that Union Banking had eight directors, including four members of the Yale class of 1917, that Guaranty Trust was represented by [[Knight Woolley]], that two directors, Kouwenhoven and Groninger, were Nazi directors of the Rotterdam bank [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]], which he identifies as the former von Heydt bank, and that Prescott Bush and [[Ellery Sedgwick James|Ellery S. James]] were partners in Brown Brothers, later Brown Brothers, Harriman.[^41][^42] In The Rise of Hitler he describes Union Banking as a joint Thyssen and Harriman operation, with E. Roland Harriman as a director in 1932.[^42][^43] +Sutton devotes a passage to the [[Union Banking Corporation]] of New York. He writes that Union Banking had eight directors, including four members of the Yale class of 1917, that Guaranty Trust was represented by [[Knight Woolley]], that two directors, Kouwenhoven and Groninger, were Nazi directors of the Rotterdam bank [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]], which he identifies as the former von Heydt bank, and that Prescott Bush and [[Ellery Sedgwick James|Ellery S. James]] were partners in Brown Brothers, later Brown Brothers, Harriman.[^50][^51] In The Rise of Hitler he describes Union Banking as a joint Thyssen and Harriman operation, with E. Roland Harriman as a director in 1932.[^51][^52] ### The Stimson and Bundy chain -The book's section "The Whitney-Stimson-Bundy-Acheson Chain of Influence" follows a family line through a sequence of offices. Sutton wrote that [[Henry L. Stimson]] went to work for the Root firm in 1890 after Yale and Harvard Law School, married the daughter of a Skull and Bones member, was appointed Secretary of War by William Howard Taft in 1911, and held offices under every president from Taft through Truman except [[Warren G. Harding]].[^44] He wrote that Stimson brought [[Harvey Hollister Bundy]] into the wartime Pentagon as a special assistant, and that Stimson brought Harvey's son [[McGeorge Bundy]] into the Pentagon to work on the 1948 book On Active Service in Peace and War.[^44] Sutton summarized the pattern as Stimson using his office "to advance the career of fellow members of The Order," naming Harvey Hollister Bundy and McGeorge Bundy.[^44] +The book's section "The Whitney-Stimson-Bundy-Acheson Chain of Influence" follows a family line through a sequence of offices. Sutton wrote that [[Henry L. Stimson]] went to work for the Root firm in 1890 after Yale and Harvard Law School, married the daughter of a Skull and Bones member, was appointed Secretary of War by William Howard Taft in 1911, and held offices under every president from Taft through Truman except [[Warren G. Harding]].[^53] He wrote that Stimson brought [[Harvey Hollister Bundy]] into the wartime Pentagon as a special assistant, and that Stimson brought Harvey's son [[McGeorge Bundy]] into the Pentagon to work on the 1948 book On Active Service in Peace and War.[^53] Sutton summarized the pattern as Stimson using his office "to advance the career of fellow members of The Order," naming Harvey Hollister Bundy and McGeorge Bundy.[^53] -Sutton's account of Stimson in the Second World War also refers to the atomic bombing of [[Japan]], which he says Stimson recommended in 1945.[^44] +Sutton's account of Stimson in the Second World War also refers to the atomic bombing of [[Japan]], which he says Stimson recommended in 1945.[^53] ### Phoenix Letter and the Yale senior societies -Sutton's October 1984 issue of the Phoenix Letter, which named him as editor and was published by Research Publications at a Phoenix, Arizona post office box, argues that the three Yale senior societies, Skull and Bones ([[Russell Trust Association|Russell Trust]]), [[Scroll and Key]] (Kingsley Trust) and [[Wolf's Head]] (Phelps Trust), form a network. It states that Scroll and Key had been founded by members of Skull and Bones, and that "three quarters of the inner core" had been identified in his diagram of the society.[^45] The same issue cites [[George Wilson Pierson]]'s official history of Yale, and it states that the [[Elihu]] society catalog lists [[Anson Phelps Stokes]] as a Skull and Bones member and an honorary member of Elihu since its founding in 1903.[^45] The newsletter also says that it had not yet accounted for the power of Edward Mandel House, whom it had earlier identified as a friend of Yale initiates in the society.[^45] +Sutton's October 1984 issue of the Phoenix Letter, which named him as editor and was published by Research Publications at a Phoenix, Arizona post office box, argues that the three Yale senior societies, Skull and Bones ([[Russell Trust Association|Russell Trust]]), [[Scroll and Key]] (Kingsley Trust) and [[Wolf's Head]] (Phelps Trust), form a network. It states that Scroll and Key had been founded by members of Skull and Bones, and that "three quarters of the inner core" had been identified in his diagram of the society.[^54] The same issue cites [[George Wilson Pierson]]'s official history of Yale, and it states that the [[Elihu]] society catalog lists [[Anson Phelps Stokes]] as a Skull and Bones member and an honorary member of Elihu since its founding in 1903.[^54] The newsletter also says that it had not yet accounted for the power of Edward Mandel House, whom it had earlier identified as a friend of Yale initiates in the society.[^54] -Sutton's booklet How the Order Controls Education is catalogued by archive.org with a 1985 date.[^46] +The class history of 1896 records [[Anson Phelps Stokes Jr.]], Secretary of Yale University from 1899, as a member of Bones: "Phi Beta Kappa. He Boule. D. K. E. Bones."[^55] Rupert Hughes in *Munsey's Magazine* for June 1894 and A. C. Stevens in *The Cyclopaedia of Fraternities* (1899) give the Phelps Trust Association as the corporate name of Wolf's Head, and George W. Pierson's history of Yale College dates the incorporation to 1886.[^56] + +Sutton's booklet How the Order Controls Education is catalogued by archive.org with a 1985 date.[^57] ### Trilaterals Over America and later works -Sutton's book on the Trilateral Commission, in the 1995 edition titled Trilaterals Over America, states that the commission was founded in 1973 by the New York banker [[David Rockefeller]], then chairman of [[Chase Manhattan Bank]], and the Harvard academic [[Zbigniew Brzezinski]], later National Security Adviser to President [[Jimmy Carter]]. Its appendix lists members as of October 1978 and July 1993.[^47] The book refers to an earlier volume, Trilaterals Over Washington, written with [[Patrick M. Wood]] and published in Scottsdale, Arizona, by the August Corporation (the Library of Congress record gives c1978, 1979 printing).[^47][^48] The 1995 book directs readers to the Phoenix Letter, then in its twelfth year, at an address in Billings, Montana.[^47] +Sutton's book on the Trilateral Commission, in the 1995 edition titled Trilaterals Over America, states that the commission was founded in 1973 by the New York banker David Rockefeller, then chairman of [[Chase Manhattan Bank]], and the Harvard academic [[Zbigniew Brzezinski]], later National Security Adviser to President [[Jimmy Carter]]. Its appendix lists members as of October 1978 and July 1993.[^58] The book refers to an earlier volume, Trilaterals Over Washington, written with [[Patrick M. Wood]] and published in Scottsdale, Arizona, by the August Corporation (the Library of Congress record gives c1978, 1979 printing).[^58][^59] The 1995 book directs readers to the Phoenix Letter, then in its twelfth year, at an address in Billings, Montana.[^58] -His later titles include The War on Gold (1977), Energy: The Created Crisis (1979), The Federal Reserve Conspiracy (1995) and Cold Fusion: The Secret Energy Revolution (1999), each catalogued by archive.org.[^49] +His later titles include The War on Gold (1977), Energy: The Created Crisis (1979), The Federal Reserve Conspiracy (1995) and Cold Fusion: The Secret Energy Revolution (1999), each catalogued by archive.org.[^60] ### Death and the 2002 edition @@ -144,51 +154,121 @@ Sutton's copyright page for America's Secret Establishment gives 1983, 1986 and ### Footnotes [^1]: International Economic Policy: Hearings before the Subcommittee on International Trade of the Committee on Banking and Currency, House of Representatives, Ninety-third Congress, second session, on H. Res. 774 and H.R. 13838 and 13839 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1974), statement of Antony C. Sutton, April 24, 1974, pp. 156 to 167. https://archive.org/details/international-economic-policy-hearings-before-the-subcommittee-on-international- + [^2]: Sutton, prepared statement, April 24, 1974, in International Economic Policy (1974), pp. 159 to 160 (volume chronology, publication dates, the 1972 Republican convention attempt, removal from Hoover and the dust-jacket wording). + [^3]: Library of Congress Name Authority File, "Sutton, Antony C., 1925-2002," record n79122365 (birth 1925, London; death 2002, Reno, Nevada; source note citing the 2009 edition of America's Secret Establishment, p. iv). https://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n79122365 + [^4]: Author note, Antony C. Sutton, Wall Street and FDR (reissue with publisher's note; born in London in 1925, educated at the universities of London, Göttingen and California, Hoover research fellow 1968 to 1973, later economics professor at California State University, Los Angeles, "He died in 2002"). The same note appears in the Trine Day edition of America's Secret Establishment, which adds a D.Sc. from the University of Southampton. + [^5]: Author note, Sutton, Wall Street and the Bolshevik Revolution (1981 printing), back cover ("still affiliated with the institution"; "former economics professor at California State University, Los Angeles"; "bom in London in 1925"). + [^6]: Hoover Institution Library & Archives, Antony C. Sutton papers, 1920 to 1972 (4 manuscript boxes, 1 microfilm reel; acquired 1990), Online Archive of California finding aid. https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt287033k0 + [^7]: Sutton, Western Technology and Soviet Economic Development, 3 vols. (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1968, 1971, 1973), as listed in Sutton, Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler (1976), Selected Bibliography, pp. 209 to 210. + [^8]: Michael R. Dohan, review of Sutton, Western Technology and Soviet Economic Development, 1930 to 1945, Slavic Review 31, no. 4 (December 1972): 904 to 905. https://doi.org/10.2307/2493797 + [^9]: Howard J. Sherman, review of Sutton, Western Technology and Soviet Economic Development, 1917 to 1930, American Political Science Review 67, no. 3 (September 1973): 1126 to 1128. https://doi.org/10.2307/1958770 + [^10]: Carl B. Turner, review of Sutton, Western Technology and Soviet Economic Development, 1930 to 1945, American Political Science Review 70, no. 3 (September 1976): 1017 to 1018. https://doi.org/10.2307/1959932 + [^11]: Sutton, prepared statement, April 24, 1974, in International Economic Policy (1974), Appendix A, "Bibliography of Published Works" (pp. 165 to 166) and Appendix B, "Reviews of Western Technology and Soviet Economic Development, Volumes One and Two (up to March 1973 only)" (pp. 166 to 167). + [^12]: Antony C. Sutton, "Western Technology in the Soviet Union: A Summation," Washington and Lee Commerce Review, vol. 1, no. 1 (Winter 1973), Lexington, Virginia. + [^13]: Press summary of the 1972 Republican platform, Michael Raoul-Duval Papers, Box 23, folder "Republican Platform - 1976: Background Material, 1960-1975 (2)," Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library (hearings for a week in Miami Beach; Representative John J. Rhodes, committee chairman, naming Martin C. Anderson of the Hoover Institution as the "wordsmith"). https://www.fordlibrarymuseum.gov/sites/default/files/pdf_documents/library/document/0205/148729960.pdf + [^14]: Republican Party, 1972 platform, proposed by the Committee on Resolutions to the Republican National Convention, August 21, 1972, Miami Beach, Florida, foreign policy section. https://www.fordlibrarymuseum.gov/sites/default/files/pdf_documents/library/document/0205/1672784.pdf + [^15]: Antony C. Sutton, "The East-West Trade Fight," Human Events, vol. 32, no. 11, March 11, 1972, p. 14. + [^16]: Antony C. Sutton, National Suicide: Military Aid to the Soviet Union (New York: Arlington House, 1973). + [^17]: Sutton, oral statement, April 24, 1974, in International Economic Policy (1974), p. 159 ("reminiscent of Hitler's book burning"; urging that Congress investigate), and prepared statement, p. 160 ("police state tactics of Hitler's Germany"). + [^18]: Sutton, oral statement, April 24, 1974, in International Economic Policy (1974), pp. 157 to 159 (marine diesel engines, the 68 and 80 percent figures, computers, ball bearings and trucks). + [^19]: International Economic Policy (1974), colloquy between Chairman Ashley and Sutton following the panel testimony, April 24, 1974. + [^20]: International Economic Policy (1974), statement of Franklyn D. Holzman, following Sutton's statement (the 1920s concession arrangements "larger than has commonly been believed"). + [^21]: International Economic Policy (1974), prepared statement of a panel witness preceding Sutton's, referring to "the recent work by Antony C. Sutton" on the 1920s concessions. + [^22]: International Economic Policy (1974), questioning by Representative Ben B. Blackburn of Roger E. Shields and other witnesses, pp. 796 to 797 (Sutton's computer findings; Bryant Chucking Grinder ball bearing machines sold in 1972). + [^23]: Antony C. Sutton, Wall Street and the Bolshevik Revolution (New York: Arlington House, 1974), Preface, p. 11 (dated March 1974); the Decimal File quotation appears in the same preface. + [^24]: Sutton, Wall Street and the Bolshevik Revolution (1974), note 1 to the synopsis, p. 169, citing Michael Futrell, Northern Underground (London: Faber and Faber, 1963); Stefan Possony, Lenin: The Compulsive Revolutionary (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1966); and George Katkov, "German Foreign Office Documents on Financial Support to the Bolsheviks in 1917," International Affairs 32 (1956). + [^25]: Sutton, Wall Street and the Bolshevik Revolution (1974), "The Evidence Presented: A Synopsis," pp. 169 to 171 (Aschberg, May, Ruskombank, Thompson's one million dollars and the cablegram, 120 Broadway). + [^26]: Sutton, Wall Street and the Bolshevik Revolution (1974), Chapter 8, "120 Broadway, New York City," pp. 125 to 137, and synopsis, pp. 171 to 172. + [^27]: Sutton, Wall Street and FDR (New York: Arlington House, 1975), Preface, p. 9 (dated October 1974, Cupertino, California). + [^28]: Sutton, Wall Street and FDR (1975), Chapter 10, "FDR: Man on the White Horse," pp. 144 to 147 (Murphy as director, the Butler plan, Davis and the speech, the "man on the white horse" passage). + [^29]: Sutton, Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler (1976), p. 21, quoting the Kilgore Committee. The quotation begins "The United States accidentally played an important role in the technical arming of Germany." + [^30]: Sutton, Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler (1976), pp. 21 to 22 and p. 68 (Standard Oil and the Jasco agreement, quoting the Kilgore Committee's conclusion that Standard "fully accomplished I.G.'s purpose"). + [^31]: Sutton, Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler (1976), Selected Bibliography, pp. 209 to 211 (Senate Military Affairs subcommittee hearings, 1944 and 1945; Control Council Field Information Agency report EF/ME/1, September 4, 1945; Strategic Bombing Survey reports; Nuremberg Military Tribunals, Volume VIII, I.G. Farben case). + [^32]: Sutton, Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler (1976), pp. 102 to 103 (Thyssen, the 250,000 marks credit and the Harriman connection), and p. 106 (I Paid Hitler, "later repudiated"). + [^33]: Antony C. Sutton, America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull and Bones (Trine Day, 2002 edition), Preface, dated July 30, 1983 at Phoenix, Arizona. + [^34]: Antony C. Sutton, America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull and Bones (Trine Day, 2002 edition), copyright page (1983, 1986, 2002) and the section "The Order of Skull and Bones Yale Catalogue," compiled by Kris Millegan. + [^35]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section on the "Addresses" books (the membership lists back to 1832, and the remark about members bound by oath). + [^36]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), Memorandum Number Four, "Who Is In This Secret Society?" (membership of about 2,500 initiates, Hypothesis One) and the chart the text places on page 19. -[^37]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section on the membership history from 1833, including the founders William Huntington Russell and Alphonso Taft and the description of the two groups of families. -[^38]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), passage on the Twentieth Century Foundation and Evans Clark, naming "Charles Phelps Taft (The Order '18), nephew of President and Chief Justice William Howard Taft." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^39]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," p. 72 (children: "Charles Phelps, 2d (B.A. 1918, LL.B. 1921)"). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf -[^40]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "Charles Phelps Taft, B.A. 1864" (born December 21, 1843; died December 31, 1929; nephews include "William Howard Taft, 2d, '09, Robert A Taft, '10, and Charles P. Taft, 2d, '18"). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf -[^41]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section on Brown Brothers, Harriman, including the list of partners initiated into The Order in the mid-1970s. -[^42]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section on the directors of Union Banking Corporation (eight directors, four Yale 1917 initiates, Knight Woolley, Kouwenhoven and Groninger, and Ellery S. James and Prescott S. Bush). -[^43]: Sutton, Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler (1976), Table 7-1 and text, p. 103 (Union Banking Corporation directors in 1932, including E. Roland Harriman). -[^44]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section "The Whitney-Stimson-Bundy-Acheson Chain of Influence," points 1 to 4, and the summary bullets that follow. -[^45]: "The Yale Senior Society Program," Phoenix Letter, vol. 3, no. 8 (October 1984), Research Publications, Box 39850, Phoenix, Arizona, pp. 1 to 6. -[^46]: Antony C. Sutton, How the Order Controls Education (1985), archive.org catalogue record. -[^47]: Antony C. Sutton, Trilaterals Over America (1995), Chapter One, "What is the Trilateral Commission?" (founded in 1973 by David Rockefeller, then chairman of Chase Manhattan) and Appendix A, "Membership October 1978 and July 1993." -[^48]: Library of Congress catalog record, Sutton, Antony C., and Patrick M. Wood, Trilaterals Over Washington (Scottsdale, Ariz.: August Corp., c1978, 1979 printing), call number HF1411 .S8864. https://www.loc.gov/item/78078277 -[^49]: Archive.org catalogue records for The War on Gold (1977), Energy: The Created Crisis (1979), The Federal Reserve Conspiracy (1995) and Cold Fusion: The Secret Energy Revolution (1999), by Antony C. Sutton. + +[^37]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), chart captions for the Lords and section "The Role Of The Order." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^38]: George Augustus Perkins, *The Family of John Perkins of Ipswich, Massachusetts* (1889), pp. 1 to 3 and entries 387a, 619 and 886 to 890. https://archive.org/details/familyofjohnperk00perk + +[^39]: *Who's Who in America*, 1910-1911, entry for George Walbridge Perkins. https://archive.org/details/whos-who-in-america_1910-1911_6 + +[^40]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), on the membership lists and the Morgan partners. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^41]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, classes of 1840, 1842 and 1858. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^42]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section on the membership history from 1833, including the founders William Huntington Russell and Alphonso Taft and the description of the two groups of families. + +[^43]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), passage on the Twentieth Century Foundation and Evans Clark, naming "Charles Phelps Taft (The Order '18), nephew of President and Chief Justice William Howard Taft." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^44]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," p. 72 (children: "Charles Phelps, 2d (B.A. 1918, LL.B. 1921)"). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf + +[^45]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "Charles Phelps Taft, B.A. 1864" (born December 21, 1843; died December 31, 1929; nephews include "William Howard Taft, 2d, '09, Robert A Taft, '10, and Charles P. Taft, 2d, '18"). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf + +[^46]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), section on the first members of the Order; Office of the Historian, United States Department of State, "Alphonso Taft (1810-1891)." https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/taft-alphonso + +[^47]: *Taft Family Gathering. Proceedings of the Meeting of the Taft Family, at Uxbridge, Mass., August 12, 1874*, "Historical Address" by Judge Alphonso Taft of Cincinnati, Ohio, pp. 14 to 15. https://archive.org/details/taftfamilygather00uxbr + +[^48]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), section "Hall At Antioch College" and the memorandum on Horace Mann and the look-say method. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^49]: G. Stanley Hall, *Life and Confessions of a Psychologist* (New York: D. Appleton, 1923), p. 200, chapter "Germany, Antioch College." https://archive.org/details/lifeconfessionso0000gsta + +[^50]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section on Brown Brothers, Harriman, including the list of partners initiated into The Order in the mid-1970s. + +[^51]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section on the directors of Union Banking Corporation (eight directors, four Yale 1917 initiates, Knight Woolley, Kouwenhoven and Groninger, and Ellery S. James and Prescott S. Bush). + +[^52]: Sutton, Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler (1976), Table 7-1 and text, p. 103 (Union Banking Corporation directors in 1932, including E. Roland Harriman). + +[^53]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section "The Whitney-Stimson-Bundy-Acheson Chain of Influence," points 1 to 4, and the summary bullets that follow. + +[^54]: "The Yale Senior Society Program," Phoenix Letter, vol. 3, no. 8 (October 1984), Research Publications, Box 39850, Phoenix, Arizona, pp. 1 to 6. + +[^55]: *History of the Class of 1896, Yale College: Decennial Record* (New Haven, 1907), biography of Anson Phelps Stokes Jr., pp. 588 to 590. https://archive.org/details/decennialrecordo00yalerich + +[^56]: Rupert Hughes, "Secret Societies at Yale," *Munsey's Magazine*, vol. 11, no. 3 (June 1894), https://archive.org/details/sim_munseys-magazine_1894-06_11_3 ; A. C. Stevens, *The Cyclopaedia of Fraternities* (1899), https://archive.org/details/StevensACTheCyclopaediaOfFraternities1899 ; George W. Pierson, *Yale College: An Educational History, 1871-1921* (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1952), https://archive.org/details/yalecollegeeduca0000pier + +[^57]: Antony C. Sutton, How the Order Controls Education (1985), archive.org catalogue record. + +[^58]: Antony C. Sutton, Trilaterals Over America (1995), Chapter One, "What is the Trilateral Commission?" (founded in 1973 by David Rockefeller, then chairman of Chase Manhattan) and Appendix A, "Membership October 1978 and July 1993." + +[^59]: Library of Congress catalog record, Sutton, Antony C., and Patrick M. Wood, Trilaterals Over Washington (Scottsdale, Ariz.: August Corp., c1978, 1979 printing), call number HF1411 .S8864. https://www.loc.gov/item/78078277 + +[^60]: Archive.org catalogue records for The War on Gold (1977), Energy: The Created Crisis (1979), The Federal Reserve Conspiracy (1995) and Cold Fusion: The Secret Energy Revolution (1999), by Antony C. Sutton. diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Franklin D. Roosevelt.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Franklin D. Roosevelt.md index 24cf3279..e828a1fb 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Franklin D. Roosevelt.md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Franklin D. Roosevelt.md @@ -22,6 +22,10 @@ relations: with: "[[Warren Delano Jr.]]" role: "maternal grandfather (Franklin D. Roosevelt Library catalogues him as Warren Delano II)" fn: 2 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Frederic Adrian Delano]]" + role: "maternal uncle; son of Warren Delano II" + fn: 3 --- Franklin Delano Roosevelt (January 30, 1882 - April 12, 1945) was the thirty-second president of the [[United States]], elected to four terms from 1933 until his death in office in April 1945. His administration enacted the New Deal response to the Great Depression and led the country through most of [[World War II]].[^1] @@ -29,9 +33,11 @@ Franklin Delano Roosevelt (January 30, 1882 - April 12, 1945) was the thirty-sec Roosevelt's maternal grandfather, [[Warren Delano Jr.]] (catalogued by the Roosevelt Library as Warren Delano II, 1809 to 1898), sailed to [[Canton]] in 1833 as supercargo on the Commerce, was associated there with Russell Sturgis and Company, and in January 1840 became a partner in [[Russell and Company]], the American commission house at Canton. He remained in Canton and [[Macao]] during the [[Opium War]] and served as acting consul. The panic of 1857 brought him severe losses, and in 1859 he returned to China.[^2] The [[Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library]] holds the Delano family papers, and its finding aid lists the Russell and Company records among the family's China interests.[^2] +Roosevelt's maternal uncle, [[Frederic Adrian Delano]], a son of Warren Delano II, was born at [[Hong Kong]] on September 10, 1863. He was president of the [[Wabash Railroad]] from October 1905 and one of its receivers from 1911, and served on the [[Federal Reserve Board]] as vice governor from August 10, 1914 to August 9, 1916 and as a member until July 21, 1918.[^3] In 1925 and 1926 he chaired the [[League of Nations]] commission of enquiry into the production of opium in Persia.[^4] He was a member of the National Planning Board and its successors from July 1933 to August 1943 and chaired the [[National Resources Planning Board]] from 1939; in 1933 Roosevelt named him chairman for ten years.[^5] A profile of April 2, 1943 describes him as an uncle of the President.[^6] + ### Wartime Intelligence and Science -In July 1941 Roosevelt appointed [[William J. Donovan]] as Coordinator of Information, and in 1942 he authorized the creation of the [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]], the wartime intelligence agency that became the institutional ancestor of the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]. He also approved the [[Manhattan Project]], the secret program to build an atomic bomb, and appointed [[Nelson Rockefeller]] as [[Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs]] to manage hemispheric policy and propaganda.[^3] +In July 1941 Roosevelt appointed [[William J. Donovan]] as Coordinator of Information, and in 1942 he authorized the creation of the [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]], the wartime intelligence agency that became the institutional ancestor of the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]. He also approved the [[Manhattan Project]], the secret program to build an atomic bomb, and appointed [[Nelson Rockefeller]] as [[Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs]] to manage hemispheric policy and propaganda.[^7] ### Death and Succession @@ -41,4 +47,8 @@ Roosevelt died of a cerebral hemorrhage at Warm Springs, [[Georgia]], on April 1 [^1]: Smith, Jean Edward. *FDR*. Random House, 2007. [^2]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Delano family papers, biographical introduction to Warren Delano II, pp. 1-2 of the PDF. https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_delanofamily.pdf -[^3]: Colby, Gerard, and Charlotte Dennett. *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon: Nelson Rockefeller and Evangelism in the Age of Oil.* HarperCollins, 1995. +[^3]: *Chicago Daily Tribune*, October 6, 1905, p. 1; Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Papers of Frederic A. Delano, biographical note; Federal Reserve Board, *Federal Reserve Bulletin*, vol. 4, no. 7 (July 1, 1918), p. 587. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/files/docs/publications/FRB/1910s/frb_071918.pdf +[^4]: Edward Terry and Mabel Pellens, *The Opium Problem* (Bureau of Social Hygiene, 1928), pp. 720-721. https://archive.org/details/opiumproblem00terr +[^5]: National Archives, *Guide to the Records of Federal Agencies*, Record Group 187, §187.3.2. https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/187.html +[^6]: *United States News*, April 2, 1943, pp. 59-60. +[^7]: Colby, Gerard, and Charlotte Dennett. *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon: Nelson Rockefeller and Evangelism in the Age of Oil.* HarperCollins, 1995. diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Henry L. Stimson.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Henry L. Stimson.md index 4aa0dc2c..537a947e 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Henry L. Stimson.md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Henry L. Stimson.md @@ -55,23 +55,23 @@ relations: start: 1940 end: 1945 role: "Secretary of War, July 10, 1940 to September 21, 1945" - fn: 27 + fn: 28 - type: employed_by with: "[[United States Department of War]]" start: 1940 end: 1945 role: "Secretary of War" - fn: 27 + fn: 28 - type: head_of with: "[[Interim Committee]]" start: 1945 role: "chairman; George L. Harrison acted as chairman in his absence" - fn: 40 + fn: 44 - type: participant_in with: "[[Manhattan Project]]" start: 1945 role: "advised the President on the use of the atomic bomb; struck Kyoto from the target list" - fn: 50 + fn: 55 - type: partner_of with: "[[McGeorge Bundy]]" role: "co-author of On Active Service in Peace and War (1948), with Bundy credited for the writing" @@ -120,210 +120,161 @@ The [[National Security Agency]] account of the office states that an agreement In his 1931 book, *The American Black Chamber*, Yardley wrote: "The secret activities of the American Black Chamber, which I directed, ceased in 1929." The book's foreword says that "a new Secretary of State ordered the door of the Black Chamber closed and bolted."[^20] -In 1932 Stimson appointed [[Harvey H. Bundy]], a Boston lawyer with experience in finance, as Assistant Secretary of State. The memoir says that the death of a senior officer had left the Department "without a senior officer experienced in economic matters," and that Bundy was appointed to fill that gap.[^21] +In 1931 [[Harvey H. Bundy]], a Boston lawyer with experience in finance, became Assistant Secretary of State under Stimson. The Register of the Department of State records his commission on June 10, 1931, his entry on duty on July 13, 1931 and his retirement on March 4, 1933.[^21] The memoir says that the death of a senior officer had left the Department "without a senior officer experienced in economic matters," and that Bundy was appointed to fill that gap.[^22] ### The Stimson Doctrine, 1932 -A telegram of January 7, 1932 from the Secretary of State to the [[Nanking]] consul general instructed him to deliver a note to the Chinese and Japanese governments. The same instruction went to the ambassador in [[Japan]], and the text was repeated to the consul at [[Geneva]] for transmission to the League of Nations. The note stated that the United States "does not intend to recognize any situation, treaty or agreement which may be brought about by means contrary to the covenants and obligations of the Pact of Paris of August 27, 1928."[^22] +A telegram of January 7, 1932 from the Secretary of State to the [[Nanking]] consul general instructed him to deliver a note to the Chinese and Japanese governments. The same instruction went to the ambassador in [[Japan]], and the text was repeated to the consul at [[Geneva]] for transmission to the League of Nations. The note stated that the United States "does not intend to recognize any situation, treaty or agreement which may be brought about by means contrary to the covenants and obligations of the Pact of Paris of August 27, 1928."[^23] -The Office of the Historian's essay on the Mukden Incident is titled "The Mukden Incident of 1931 and the Stimson Doctrine." It states that Secretary Stimson "issued the Stimson Doctrine in early 1932," that the United States would not recognize any treaty or agreement between Japan and China that violated American rights or agreements to which it subscribed, and that the policy "proved incredibly ineffectual in the face of on-going Japanese aggression and expansion."[^23] The Department's biography of Stimson states that the doctrine "later became known as" the Stimson Doctrine.[^24] +The Office of the Historian's essay on the Mukden Incident is titled "The Mukden Incident of 1931 and the Stimson Doctrine." It states that Secretary Stimson "issued the Stimson Doctrine in early 1932," that the United States would not recognize any treaty or agreement between Japan and China that violated American rights or agreements to which it subscribed, and that the policy "proved incredibly ineffectual in the face of on-going Japanese aggression and expansion."[^24] The Department's biography of Stimson states that the doctrine "later became known as" the Stimson Doctrine.[^25] -The memoir's chapter on the Far Eastern crisis has a section headed "From Conciliation to Nonrecognition," and calls nonrecognition "a moral weapon, a moral sanction."[^25] +The memoir's chapter on the Far Eastern crisis has a section headed "From Conciliation to Nonrecognition," and calls nonrecognition "a moral weapon, a moral sanction."[^26] ### Secretary of War, 1940 to 1945 -Stimson went to New Haven for the Yale Commencement of June 1940. The memoir says that after addressing the alumni on compulsory military training he prepared a radio speech, delivered on June 18, that "fully set forth his principles and policies in the face of the crisis," and that its delivery put "him squarely on record before he accepted public office."[^26] The National Archives gives the dates of his service as Secretary of War as July 10, 1940, to September 21, 1945; [[Cordell Hull]] was Secretary of State from March 4, 1933, to November 20, 1944.[^27] +Stimson went to New Haven for the Yale Commencement of June 1940. The memoir says that after addressing the alumni on compulsory military training he prepared a radio speech, delivered on June 18, that "fully set forth his principles and policies in the face of the crisis," and that its delivery put "him squarely on record before he accepted public office."[^27] The National Archives gives the dates of his service as Secretary of War as July 10, 1940, to September 21, 1945; [[Cordell Hull]] was Secretary of State from March 4, 1933, to November 20, 1944.[^28] -The Department's principal civilian assistants included [[Robert A. Lovett]], who arrived in November 1940 as Stimson's air assistant, [[John J. McCloy]], and [[Robert P. Patterson]]. The memoir says that "only Patterson of all his civilian assistants was with Stimson from the beginning to the end." Harvey H. Bundy, who had served with Stimson before, is named among the same group.[^28] +The Department's principal civilian assistants included [[Robert A. Lovett]], who arrived in November 1940 as Stimson's air assistant, [[John J. McCloy]], and [[Robert P. Patterson]]. The memoir says that "only Patterson of all his civilian assistants was with Stimson from the beginning to the end." Harvey H. Bundy, who had served with Stimson before, is named among the same group.[^29] + +In April 1941 Stimson acquired a fourth assistant in Harvey H. Bundy, who with the title of Special Assistant to the Secretary became "my closest personal assistant."[^30] On July 22, 1943, at 10 Downing Street, Bundy wrote the record of the meeting at which [[Winston Churchill]], Sir John Anderson and Lord Cherwell met Stimson, Vannevar Bush and Bundy on the exchange of atomic information.[^31] The memoir calls Bundy Stimson's "direct agent" on the atomic project and American secretary of the Combined Policy Committee.[^32] ### Japanese American evacuation -The [[Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians]] quoted Stimson's diary entry for February 10, 1942, which says: "The second generation Japanese [Nisei] can only be evacuated either as part of a total evacuation, giving access to the areas only by permits, or by frankly trying to put them out on the ground that their racial characteristics are such that we cannot understand or trust even the citizen Japanese. This latter is the fact but I am afraid it will make a tremendous hole in our constitutional system to apply it."[^29] +The [[Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians]] quoted Stimson's diary entry for February 10, 1942, which says: "The second generation Japanese [Nisei] can only be evacuated either as part of a total evacuation, giving access to the areas only by permits, or by frankly trying to put them out on the ground that their racial characteristics are such that we cannot understand or trust even the citizen Japanese. This latter is the fact but I am afraid it will make a tremendous hole in our constitutional system to apply it."[^33] -The commission records that Stimson met on February 18, 1942 with officials of the Department of Justice and the War Department about the executive order, and quotes his record of February 17 for the scale of the plan: "It will involve the tremendous task of moving between fifty and one hundred thousand people from their homes and finding temporary support and sustenance for them in the meanwhile, and ultimately locating them in new places away from the coast."[^30] +The commission records that Stimson met on February 18, 1942 with officials of the Department of Justice and the War Department about the executive order, and quotes his record of February 17 for the scale of the plan: "It will involve the tremendous task of moving between fifty and one hundred thousand people from their homes and finding temporary support and sustenance for them in the meanwhile, and ultimately locating them in new places away from the coast."[^34] -[[Executive Order 9066]], dated February 19, 1942, carried the title "Executive Order Authorizing the Secretary of War to Prescribe Military Areas."[^31] The commission states that the order "empowered the Secretary of War or his delegate to designate military areas" to which entry of any or all persons could be barred.[^32] On February 20, 1942, Stimson wrote to [[John L. DeWitt]] delegating authority to implement the order within the [[Western Defense Command]].[^32] +[[Executive Order 9066]], dated February 19, 1942, carried the title "Executive Order Authorizing the Secretary of War to Prescribe Military Areas."[^35] The commission states that the order "empowered the Secretary of War or his delegate to designate military areas" to which entry of any or all persons could be barred.[^36] On February 20, 1942, Stimson wrote to [[John L. DeWitt]] delegating authority to implement the order within the [[Western Defense Command]].[^36] -The commission's summary states that "In May 1944 Secretary Stimson put before President Roosevelt and the Cabinet his position that the exclusion no longer had a military justification." It concludes that the President delayed action "until the first Cabinet meeting following the Presidential election of November 1944," and that "The inescapable conclusion from this factual pattern is that the delay was motivated by political considerations."[^33] Its account of the Cabinet meeting of May 26, 1944 records [[Francis Biddle]] noting that the Secretary of War raised "whether it was appropriate for the War Department, at this time, to cancel the Japanese Exclusion Orders and let the Japs go home."[^34] The commission describes McCloy as the "civilian aide to Stimson responsible for Japanese American questions."[^35] +The commission's summary states that "In May 1944 Secretary Stimson put before President Roosevelt and the Cabinet his position that the exclusion no longer had a military justification." It concludes that the President delayed action "until the first Cabinet meeting following the Presidential election of November 1944," and that "The inescapable conclusion from this factual pattern is that the delay was motivated by political considerations."[^37] Its account of the Cabinet meeting of May 26, 1944 records [[Francis Biddle]] noting that the Secretary of War raised "whether it was appropriate for the War Department, at this time, to cancel the Japanese Exclusion Orders and let the Japs go home."[^38] The commission describes McCloy as the "civilian aide to Stimson responsible for Japanese American questions."[^39] ### Bases and big powers, January 1945 -On January 23, 1945, Stimson sent Secretary of State [[Edward R. Stettinius Jr.]] a list of points under the heading "Bases and Big Powers," arguing that the four large powers would have to maintain security "during the time necessary to establish a permanent organization of the whole world," and that attempting to formulate the Dumbarton Oaks organization before settling those foundations repeated the error of creating the League of Nations without a prior guarantee of French security. The editors of the Foreign Relations series refer readers to the memoir's discussion at pages 599 to 605.[^36] +On January 23, 1945, Stimson sent Secretary of State [[Edward R. Stettinius Jr.]] a list of points under the heading "Bases and Big Powers," arguing that the four large powers would have to maintain security "during the time necessary to establish a permanent organization of the whole world," and that attempting to formulate the Dumbarton Oaks organization before settling those foundations repeated the error of creating the League of Nations without a prior guarantee of French security. The editors of the Foreign Relations series refer readers to the memoir's discussion at pages 599 to 605.[^40] ### April 25, 1945: the briefing of Truman -Stimson's memorandum of April 25, 1945, prepared with [[George L. Harrison]] and approved by [[George Marshall|George C. Marshall]] and Major General [[Leslie R. Groves]], began: "Within four months we shall in all probability have completed the most terrible weapon ever known in human history." It stated that no other nation could reach the American position for some years but that this was "practically certain" not to last, and that a system of control would involve "such thorough-going rights of inspection and internal controls as we have never heretofore contemplated." It added that the question of sharing the weapon with other nations "becomes a primary question of our foreign relations."[^37] +Stimson's memorandum of April 25, 1945, prepared with [[George L. Harrison]] and approved by [[George Marshall|George C. Marshall]] and Major General [[Leslie R. Groves]], began: "Within four months we shall in all probability have completed the most terrible weapon ever known in human history." It stated that no other nation could reach the American position for some years but that this was "practically certain" not to last, and that a system of control would involve "such thorough-going rights of inspection and internal controls as we have never heretofore contemplated." It added that the question of sharing the weapon with other nations "becomes a primary question of our foreign relations."[^41] -His diary for the same day records that he spent the morning on the paper with Harrison, showed it to Marshall and Groves, and then went to the White House by a route chosen so that the reporters waiting in the President's anteroom would not see him with Groves, whom Colonel McCarthy, the Secretary of the General Staff, had brought through underground passages to a room near the President. Stimson showed Truman the memorandum on the political aspects of "S-1," Groves reported on production, and Truman took one copy of the papers while Stimson and Groves kept the other. The same entry records a telephone conversation with McCloy about the war crimes plan for the San Francisco conference, in which Stimson wrote that the British "have come out strongly against having a trial and wish to kill the people offhand," and that Truman "strongly supported our position."[^38] +His diary for the same day records that he spent the morning on the paper with Harrison, showed it to Marshall and Groves, and then went to the White House by a route chosen so that the reporters waiting in the President's anteroom would not see him with Groves, whom Colonel McCarthy, the Secretary of the General Staff, had brought through underground passages to a room near the President. Stimson showed Truman the memorandum on the political aspects of "S-1," Groves reported on production, and Truman took one copy of the papers while Stimson and Groves kept the other. The same entry records a telephone conversation with McCloy about the war crimes plan for the San Francisco conference, in which Stimson wrote that the British "have come out strongly against having a trial and wish to kill the people offhand," and that Truman "strongly supported our position."[^42] ### The Interim Committee and the Manhattan Project -In April 1945 Stimson set up a committee "charged with the function of advising the President on the various questions raised by our apparently imminent success in developing an atomic weapon." It was known as the [[Interim Committee]], and advised on the atomic weapon then being developed under the [[Manhattan Project]]. The memoir states that Stimson was its chairman, but that the "principal labor of guiding its extended deliberations" fell to George L. Harrison, who acted as chairman in Stimson's absence. The memoir lists its other members as [[James F. Byrnes]], [[Ralph A. Bard]], [[William L. Clayton]], [[Vannevar Bush]], [[Karl T. Compton]] and [[James B. Conant]].[^39] +In April 1945 Stimson set up a committee "charged with the function of advising the President on the various questions raised by our apparently imminent success in developing an atomic weapon." It was known as the [[Interim Committee]], and advised on the atomic weapon then being developed under the [[Manhattan Project]]. The memoir states that Stimson was its chairman, but that the "principal labor of guiding its extended deliberations" fell to George L. Harrison, who acted as chairman in Stimson's absence. The memoir lists its other members as [[James F. Byrnes]], [[Ralph A. Bard]], [[William L. Clayton]], [[Vannevar Bush]], [[Karl T. Compton]] and [[James B. Conant]].[^43] -The notes of the committee's meeting of Thursday, May 31, 1945, taken by its secretary, Second Lieutenant R. Gordon Arneson, list Stimson as chairman and present with the committee members the scientists [[J. Robert Oppenheimer]], [[Enrico Fermi]], [[Arthur H. Compton]] and [[Ernest O. Lawrence]], and, by invitation, Marshall, Groves, Harvey H. Bundy and Arthur Page. The notes open with Stimson explaining that the committee "had been appointed by him with the approval of the President, to make recommendations on temporary war-time controls, public announcement, legislation and post-war organization," and that Marshall shared with him the responsibility for recommendations to the President on the military aspects.[^40] +The notes of the committee's meeting of Thursday, May 31, 1945, taken by its secretary, Second Lieutenant R. Gordon Arneson, list Stimson as chairman and present with the committee members the scientists [[J. Robert Oppenheimer]], [[Enrico Fermi]], [[Arthur H. Compton]] and [[Ernest O. Lawrence]], and, by invitation, Marshall, Groves, Harvey H. Bundy and Arthur Page. The notes open with Stimson explaining that the committee "had been appointed by him with the approval of the President, to make recommendations on temporary war-time controls, public announcement, legislation and post-war organization," and that Marshall shared with him the responsibility for recommendations to the President on the military aspects.[^44] -The notes record the discussion of Russia. Byrnes feared that if information were given to the Russians even in general terms, "Stalin would ask to be brought into the partnership." Marshall favored building a combination of like-minded powers and raised the question whether two prominent Russian scientists should be invited to witness the test. Oppenheimer suggested that the subject be opened with the Soviets tentatively and in the most general terms. The notes record the view, "generally agreed to by all present," that the United States should stay ahead in production and research while making every effort to better its political relations with Russia.[^40] +The notes record the discussion of Russia. Byrnes feared that if information were given to the Russians even in general terms, "Stalin would ask to be brought into the partnership." Marshall favored building a combination of like-minded powers and raised the question whether two prominent Russian scientists should be invited to witness the test. Oppenheimer suggested that the subject be opened with the Soviets tentatively and in the most general terms. The notes record the view, "generally agreed to by all present," that the United States should stay ahead in production and research while making every effort to better its political relations with Russia.[^44] -The afternoon session took up the effect of bombing on the Japanese. The notes state the conclusion "on which there was general agreement" as Stimson expressed it: that "we could not give the Japanese any warning," that the bomb should not be concentrated on a civilian area, but that the committee "should seek to make a profound psychological impression on as many of the inhabitants as possible." At Conant's suggestion Stimson agreed that the most desirable target would be a vital war plant employing a large number of workers and closely surrounded by workers' houses. Groves objected to several simultaneous strikes. Under a separate heading, Groves stated that the program had been "plagued since its inception by the presence of certain scientists of doubtful discretion and uncertain loyalty," and the meeting agreed that nothing could be done about dismissing them until after the bomb had been used or at least tested. The notes close with the next meeting set for June 1, 1945, at 11:00 a.m. in the Secretary of War's office, to hear four representatives of industry.[^40] +The afternoon session took up the effect of bombing on the Japanese. The notes state the conclusion "on which there was general agreement" as Stimson expressed it: that "we could not give the Japanese any warning," that the bomb should not be concentrated on a civilian area, but that the committee "should seek to make a profound psychological impression on as many of the inhabitants as possible." At Conant's suggestion Stimson agreed that the most desirable target would be a vital war plant employing a large number of workers and closely surrounded by workers' houses. Groves objected to several simultaneous strikes. Under a separate heading, Groves stated that the program had been "plagued since its inception by the presence of certain scientists of doubtful discretion and uncertain loyalty," and the meeting agreed that nothing could be done about dismissing them until after the bomb had been used or at least tested. The notes close with the next meeting set for June 1, 1945, at 11:00 a.m. in the Secretary of War's office, to hear four representatives of industry.[^44] -On June 6, 1945, Arneson wrote to Harrison that the notes of "the Thursday and Friday meetings" indicated the following action: that the committee, "while recognizing that the final selection of the target is essentially a military decision," recommended that the bomb be used against Japan as soon as possible, that it be used on a dual target, "that is, a military installation or war plant surrounded by or adjacent to homes or other buildings most susceptible to damage," and that it be used without prior warning. The memorandum also recommended that the committee advise the Secretary that there might be advantage in a small military panel on the highest level to discuss with him the type of target and the timing.[^41] +On June 6, 1945, Arneson wrote to Harrison that the notes of "the Thursday and Friday meetings" indicated the following action: that the committee, "while recognizing that the final selection of the target is essentially a military decision," recommended that the bomb be used against Japan as soon as possible, that it be used on a dual target, "that is, a military installation or war plant surrounded by or adjacent to homes or other buildings most susceptible to damage," and that it be used without prior warning. The memorandum also recommended that the committee advise the Secretary that there might be advantage in a small military panel on the highest level to discuss with him the type of target and the timing.[^45] -The memoir records that the committee "on June 1, recommended that the bomb should be used against Japan, without specific warning, as soon as possible, and against such a target as to make clear its devastating strength." It continues: "The ultimate responsibility for the recommendation to the President rested upon me, and I have no desire to veil it."[^42] +The memoir records that the committee "on June 1, recommended that the bomb should be used against Japan, without specific warning, as soon as possible, and against such a target as to make clear its devastating strength." It continues: "The ultimate responsibility for the recommendation to the President rested upon me, and I have no desire to veil it."[^46] -Stimson's memorandum of a conference with Truman on June 6, 1945, begins with the dispute with Charles de Gaulle over French troop movements into Italian territory, in which Stimson told Truman he had come to regard de Gaulle as psychopathic and that the President shared the opinion. It then reports that Byrnes had already told the President of the committee's work, and Stimson's account of its points of agreement: no revelation to Russia or others until the weapon had been successfully used on Japan, and an international committee of control with full power of inspection. Truman said he was thinking of the Polish, Rumanian, Yugoslavian and Manchurian settlements as the quid pro quo for bringing the Soviets into a partnership. In the same conference Stimson told Truman that he was holding down area bombing of Japan because he feared the United States would get "the reputation of outdoing Hitler in atrocities," and that the Air Force might leave Japan so thoroughly bombed that the new weapon would lack "a fair background to show its strength," at which, the memorandum records, Truman laughed and said he understood.[^43] +Stimson's memorandum of a conference with Truman on June 6, 1945, begins with the dispute with Charles de Gaulle over French troop movements into Italian territory, in which Stimson told Truman he had come to regard de Gaulle as psychopathic and that the President shared the opinion. It then reports that Byrnes had already told the President of the committee's work, and Stimson's account of its points of agreement: no revelation to Russia or others until the weapon had been successfully used on Japan, and an international committee of control with full power of inspection. Truman said he was thinking of the Polish, Rumanian, Yugoslavian and Manchurian settlements as the quid pro quo for bringing the Soviets into a partnership. In the same conference Stimson told Truman that he was holding down area bombing of Japan because he feared the United States would get "the reputation of outdoing Hitler in atrocities," and that the Air Force might leave Japan so thoroughly bombed that the new weapon would lack "a fair background to show its strength," at which, the memorandum records, Truman laughed and said he understood.[^47] ### Potsdam, July 1945 -The first test of the weapon in New Mexico took place on July 16, 1945, while Stimson was at Potsdam. Harrison's coded telegram of that date to Stimson reads: "Operated on this morning. Diagnosis not yet complete but results seem satisfactory and already exceed expectations." Stimson's diary records that he took the first message to the President's house at 7:30 p.m. and showed it to Truman and Byrnes.[^44] +The first test of the weapon in New Mexico took place on July 16, 1945, while Stimson was at Potsdam. Harrison's coded telegram of that date to Stimson reads: "Operated on this morning. Diagnosis not yet complete but results seem satisfactory and already exceed expectations." Stimson's diary records that he took the first message to the President's house at 7:30 p.m. and showed it to Truman and Byrnes.[^48] -On July 16 Stimson sent Truman a memorandum on the conduct of the war with Japan, urging that "we are at the psychological moment to commence our warnings to Japan," and recommending a warning delivered during the conference, with "the full force of our newer weapons" to follow if Japan persisted. His diary for July 17 records that Byrnes "was opposed to a prompt and early warning to Japan which I had first suggested," and that he outlined a timetable the President had apparently agreed to, so Stimson "pressed it no further."[^45] On July 20 Stimson proposed changing the words "until her unconditional capitulation" in the draft proclamation to "until she ceases to resist," observing that a capitulation was defined in his only dictionary as "a conditional surrender; a treaty."[^46] +Harvey H. Bundy, Stimson's special assistant, was present at three of Stimson's conversations at Potsdam. Stimson's diary summaries in the Foreign Relations volume record that on July 19 "he and Bundy and I sat out under the trees" with [[Lord Cherwell]]. On July 21 Stimson "picked up Bundy, and went to the Prime Minister's house." On July 22 the diary records: "At ten-forty Bundy and I again went to the British headquarters and talked to the Prime Minister and Lord Cherwell for over an hour. Churchill read Groves' report in full."[^49] -On July 21 Groves's special report on the test reached Stimson by courier. Stimson's diary describes it as "an immensely powerful document," states that it revealed "far greater destructive power than we expected," and records that he read it to Truman and Byrnes, who were "immensely pleased," and that the President said it "gave him an entirely new feeling of confidence."[^47] +On July 16 Stimson sent Truman a memorandum on the conduct of the war with Japan, urging that "we are at the psychological moment to commence our warnings to Japan," and recommending a warning delivered during the conference, with "the full force of our newer weapons" to follow if Japan persisted. His diary for July 17 records that Byrnes "was opposed to a prompt and early warning to Japan which I had first suggested," and that he outlined a timetable the President had apparently agreed to, so Stimson "pressed it no further."[^50] On July 20 Stimson proposed changing the words "until her unconditional capitulation" in the draft proclamation to "until she ceases to resist," observing that a capitulation was defined in his only dictionary as "a conditional surrender; a treaty."[^51] -On July 25 Stimson met [[Joseph Stalin]] at Potsdam for eighteen minutes and spoke of the Teheran and Yalta conferences and the Pacific war. His memorandum of the conversation records Stalin saying that "Three Power intervention in the Pacific would surely speed up victory."[^48] +On July 21 Groves's special report on the test reached Stimson by courier. Stimson's diary describes it as "an immensely powerful document," states that it revealed "far greater destructive power than we expected," and records that he read it to Truman and Byrnes, who were "immensely pleased," and that the President said it "gave him an entirely new feeling of confidence."[^52] + +On July 25 Stimson met [[Joseph Stalin]] at Potsdam for eighteen minutes and spoke of the Teheran and Yalta conferences and the Pacific war. His memorandum of the conversation records Stalin saying that "Three Power intervention in the Pacific would surely speed up victory."[^53] ### Kyoto -Harrison cabled Stimson on July 21 that all his local military advisers "definitely favor your pet city," meaning Kyoto, and would like to use it as first choice if those on the scene selected it from the four possible targets.[^49] Stimson replied on July 23, asking for the date and for the name of the target or alternates, "always excluding the particular place against which I have decided," and adding: "My decision has been confirmed by highest authority." The Foreign Relations editors print his diary entries for the period. On July 22 Truman "strongly confirmed my view and said he felt the same way." General [[Henry H. Arnold]] told Stimson he agreed "about the target which I had struck off the program." On July 24 Stimson gave Truman his reasons again, and Truman was "particularly emphatic in agreeing" that a "wanton act" at Kyoto "might make it impossible during the long post-war period to reconcile the Japanese to us in that area rather than to the Russians."[^50] +Harrison cabled Stimson on July 21 that all his local military advisers "definitely favor your pet city," meaning Kyoto, and would like to use it as first choice if those on the scene selected it from the four possible targets.[^54] Stimson replied on July 23, asking for the date and for the name of the target or alternates, "always excluding the particular place against which I have decided," and adding: "My decision has been confirmed by highest authority." The Foreign Relations editors print his diary entries for the period. On July 22 Truman "strongly confirmed my view and said he felt the same way." General [[Henry H. Arnold]] told Stimson he agreed "about the target which I had struck off the program." On July 24 Stimson gave Truman his reasons again, and Truman was "particularly emphatic in agreeing" that a "wanton act" at Kyoto "might make it impossible during the long post-war period to reconcile the Japanese to us in that area rather than to the Russians."[^55] -In the Harper's article Stimson wrote: "With President Truman's warm support I struck off the list of suggested targets the city of Kyoto. Although it was a target of considerable military importance, it had been the ancient capital of Japan and was a shrine of Japanese art and culture. We determined that it should be spared. I approved four other targets including the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki."[^51] +In the Harper's article Stimson wrote: "With President Truman's warm support I struck off the list of suggested targets the city of Kyoto. Although it was a target of considerable military importance, it had been the ancient capital of Japan and was a shrine of Japanese art and culture. We determined that it should be spared. I approved four other targets including the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki."[^56] ### The Hiroshima decision and the 1947 Harper's article -The memoir states that "It was in the fall of 1941 that the question of atomic energy was first brought directly to my attention." It describes Stimson's article in [[Harper's Magazine]] of February 1947 as "a careful record of his personal connection with this issue."[^52] +The memoir states that "It was in the fall of 1941 that the question of atomic energy was first brought directly to my attention." It describes Stimson's article in [[Harper's Magazine]] of February 1947 as "a careful record of his personal connection with this issue."[^57] -The article was reprinted in the *Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists* of February 1947. It prints the memorandum of July 2, 1945, which proposed a warning to Japan and stated: "I personally think that if in saying this we should add that we do not exclude a constitutional monarchy under her present dynasty, it would substantially add to the chances of acceptance." Stimson wrote of that memorandum: "It was designed to promise destruction if Japan resisted, and hope, if she surrendered," and that the atomic bomb was not mentioned in it because "on grounds of secrecy the bomb was never mentioned except when absolutely necessary, and furthermore, it had not yet been tested." He wrote that the Potsdam ultimatum of July 26 "very closely followed" the memorandum "with the exception that it made no mention of the Japanese Emperor," and that on July 28 Premier Suzuki rejected it by announcing that it was "unworthy of public notice."[^51] +The article was reprinted in the *Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists* of February 1947. It prints the memorandum of July 2, 1945, which proposed a warning to Japan and stated: "I personally think that if in saying this we should add that we do not exclude a constitutional monarchy under her present dynasty, it would substantially add to the chances of acceptance." Stimson wrote of that memorandum: "It was designed to promise destruction if Japan resisted, and hope, if she surrendered," and that the atomic bomb was not mentioned in it because "on grounds of secrecy the bomb was never mentioned except when absolutely necessary, and furthermore, it had not yet been tested." He wrote that the Potsdam ultimatum of July 26 "very closely followed" the memorandum "with the exception that it made no mention of the Japanese Emperor," and that on July 28 Premier Suzuki rejected it by announcing that it was "unworthy of public notice."[^56] -The article states that "all the evidence I have seen indicates that the controlling factor in the final Japanese decision to accept our terms of surrender was the atomic bomb," and, of the two bombs, that "The two atomic bombs which we had dropped were the only ones we had ready, and our rate of production at the time was very small." It describes Hiroshima as an army center and Nagasaki as a naval and industrial city. Its closing passage reads: "The decision to use the atomic bomb was a decision that brought death to over a hundred thousand Japanese. No explanation can change that fact and I do not wish to gloss it over."[^51] The two bombs were dropped on [[Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki]] in August 1945. +The article states that "all the evidence I have seen indicates that the controlling factor in the final Japanese decision to accept our terms of surrender was the atomic bomb," and, of the two bombs, that "The two atomic bombs which we had dropped were the only ones we had ready, and our rate of production at the time was very small." It describes Hiroshima as an army center and Nagasaki as a naval and industrial city. Its closing passage reads: "The decision to use the atomic bomb was a decision that brought death to over a hundred thousand Japanese. No explanation can change that fact and I do not wish to gloss it over."[^56] The two bombs were dropped on [[Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki]] in August 1945. -The memoir's introduction states that "The writing of the book has been the work of Mr. McGeorge Bundy. Its style and composition are his."[^53] Bundy's note at the end of the book describes the sources as "two: Mr. Stimson himself and his records," and describes the diary as beginning in 1910, with "a long account of the period May, 1911 to March, 1913, written in the spring of the latter year," sporadic entries between 1913 and 1926, and a separate manuscript volume of entries made overseas in 1918.[^54] +The memoir's introduction states that "The writing of the book has been the work of Mr. McGeorge Bundy. Its style and composition are his."[^58] Bundy's note at the end of the book describes the sources as "two: Mr. Stimson himself and his records," and describes the diary as beginning in 1910, with "a long account of the period May, 1911 to March, 1913, written in the spring of the latter year," sporadic entries between 1913 and 1926, and a separate manuscript volume of entries made overseas in 1918.[^59] ### The Morgenthau Plan -On September 5, 1944, Stimson sent Roosevelt, through Hull, his comments on a Cabinet Committee paper on the treatment of Germany. He wrote that "With the exception of the last paragraph I find myself in agreement with the principles stated therein." The paragraph called for the German standard of living to be "held down to subsistence levels" and for German economic position in Europe to be eliminated.[^55] [[Henry Morgenthau Jr.]] wrote to Stimson on September 6, 1944: "I do not remember anybody suggesting closing down the Saar."[^55] +On September 5, 1944, Stimson sent Roosevelt, through Hull, his comments on a Cabinet Committee paper on the treatment of Germany. He wrote that "With the exception of the last paragraph I find myself in agreement with the principles stated therein." The paragraph called for the German standard of living to be "held down to subsistence levels" and for German economic position in Europe to be eliminated.[^60] [[Henry Morgenthau Jr.]] wrote to Stimson on September 6, 1944: "I do not remember anybody suggesting closing down the Saar."[^60] -Stimson's memorandum of September 9, 1944 set out his objection to the Morgenthau proposal: "The fundamental remedy of Mr. Morgenthau is to provide that the industry of Germany shall be substantially obliterated."[^56] The editors of the Foreign Relations series state that Stimson's diary for September 7, 8 and 9, 1944 shows that the enclosures were prepared with the assistance of McCloy, and that Stimson presented them at a meeting between the Cabinet Committee on Germany and Roosevelt on September 9.[^57] +Stimson's memorandum of September 9, 1944 set out his objection to the Morgenthau proposal: "The fundamental remedy of Mr. Morgenthau is to provide that the industry of Germany shall be substantially obliterated."[^61] The editors of the Foreign Relations series state that Stimson's diary for September 7, 8 and 9, 1944 shows that the enclosures were prepared with the assistance of McCloy, and that Stimson presented them at a meeting between the Cabinet Committee on Germany and Roosevelt on September 9.[^62] ### Papers and diaries -Stimson's papers for the years before 1933 were placed on deposit in the Yale University Library in 1949 and became a gift on February 11, 1952.[^58] They are held by the Manuscripts and Archives department as the Henry Lewis Stimson papers, MS 465.[^59] The National Security Archive's collection of atomic bomb documents prints diary entries of April 25, May 14 and 15, June 6 and July 1945 from the Stimson Diary at Yale, with a microfilm copy at the Library of Congress.[^38] The editors of the Foreign Relations series cite Stimson's diary for September 1944 to the "Stimson Papers."[^57] +Stimson's papers for the years before 1933 were placed on deposit in the Yale University Library in 1949 and became a gift on February 11, 1952.[^63] They are held by the Manuscripts and Archives department as the Henry Lewis Stimson papers, MS 465.[^64] The National Security Archive's collection of atomic bomb documents prints diary entries of April 25, May 14 and 15, June 6 and July 1945 from the Stimson Diary at Yale, with a microfilm copy at the Library of Congress.[^42] The editors of the Foreign Relations series cite Stimson's diary for September 1944 to the "Stimson Papers."[^62] ### Footnotes [^1]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1950-1951 (New Haven: Yale University, 1951), entry "Henry Lewis Stimson, B.A. 1888," pp. 11-12 (born September 21, 1867, New York City; died October 20, 1950, Huntington, N.Y.; lawyer 1891-1950; U.S. attorney Southern District of New York 1906-9 and special assistant 1909-10; Secretary of War 1911-13 and 1940-45; Secretary of State 1929-33; special Presidential representative in Nicaragua 1927; Governor General of the Philippine Islands 1928-29; London Naval Conference 1930 and Geneva Disarmament Conference 1932; marriage of July 6, 1893; coronary thrombosis; burial). Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1950-51.pdf. - [^2]: Henry L. Stimson and McGeorge Bundy, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1948), Introduction by Henry L. Stimson, p. xi; "A Note of Explanation and Acknowledgment" by McGeorge Bundy, pp. 673-674; title page (Secretary of War 1940-45, Secretary of State 1929-33). - [^3]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), ch. I, pp. 3-6, quoting "In the autumn of 1884 I entered the class of '88 at Yale." - [^4]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1950-1951, entry "Henry Lewis Stimson, B.A. 1888," p. 11 (Berkeley Premium, English composition prize, Townsend Premium, DeForest Prize Medal, "He Boule, Psi Upsilon, Skull and Bones, Chi Delta Theta, Phi Beta Kappa"). - [^5]: *The Yale Banner*, vol. 47 (New Haven, 1888), "Commencement" section, Commencement speakers, June 27, 1888 ("'John Hale and the Latitudinarians,' by Henry Lewis Stimson, of New York City"). https://archive.org/details/yalebanner02univgoog. - [^6]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chart "Hypothesis Number One," with the family entries for Stimson (1635, Watertown, Mass.), Taft (1679, Braintree, Mass.), Bundy (1635, Boston, Mass.) and Harriman (railroads). - [^7]: Ron Rosenbaum, article on Skull and Bones, *Esquire*, September 1977. - [^8]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), ch. I, pp. 3-6 (admission to the bar in June 1891, clerkship with Root & Clarke, admission to the firm on January 1, 1893, Bronson Winthrop, and the 1897 firm name). - [^9]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), ch. I, p. 6 (West Hills, Township of Huntington, the central ridge of Long Island, the name "Highhold," and forty-four years). - [^10]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), ch. I, p. 9 (Hearst's office, seven indictments within five months, fourteen more the following year). - [^11]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), ch. I, pp. 9-10 (New York Central and the American Sugar Refining Company, three successive jury trials, the company's surrender on the remaining indictments, the counsel's remark, and Root's advice). - [^12]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), ch. I, p. 10 (prosecution of Charles W. Morse for misusing the funds of the Bank of North America). - [^13]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), ch. II, p. 29 (Taft's offer of the Secretary of War post, accepted by Stimson); Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University 1950-1951, p. 11 ("Secretary of War of the United States 1911-13"); United States Department of State, Office of the Historian, "Henry Lewis Stimson," Biographies of the Secretaries of State (appointed Secretary of War by Taft in 1911), https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/stimson-henry-lewis. - [^14]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), ch. II, "With Roosevelt and Taft," pp. 18-55, and table of contents ("The Split of 1912"). - [^15]: United States Department of State, Office of the Historian, "Henry Lewis Stimson," Biographies of the Secretaries of State (Chile-Peru mediation of 1925, Nicaraguan civil war of 1927, appointment as Governor General by Coolidge, Secretary of State from March 1929), https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/stimson-henry-lewis. - [^16]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), table of contents and chapter headings: ch. V, "As Private Citizen," section "The Peace of Tipitapa" (pp. 101-116); ch. VI, "Governor General of the Philippines" (p. 117), with sections "The Background," "A Happy Year" and "Later Disappointments and Some Hopes" (pp. 117-154). - [^17]: United States Department of State, Office of the Historian, "Henry Lewis Stimson" (Secretary of State: appointed March 5, 1929; entry on duty March 28, 1929; termination March 4, 1933; succeeded Frank Kellogg; London Naval Conference 1930; Geneva Disarmament Conference 1932), https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/stimson-henry-lewis. - [^18]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), ch. VII, p. 188 (the Black Chamber passage and the principle that "the way to make men trustworthy is to trust them"). - [^19]: National Security Agency, "The Black Chamber", https://www.nsa.gov/History/Cryptologic-History/Historical-Events/Article-View/Article/2740622/the-black-chamber/ (May 1919 agreement and $100,000 appropriation; Stimson's decision; May 1929 Signal Corps reorganization; severance and "confidential funds"; Yardley's charge and Stimson's autobiography). - [^20]: Herbert O. Yardley, *The American Black Chamber* (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1931), ch. 1, "The State Department Code Room" (the "ceased in 1929" sentence) and Foreword (the "new Secretary of State" sentence). - -[^21]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), ch. VII, p. 193 (appointment of Harvey H. Bundy as Assistant Secretary, and of Herbert Feis as Economic Adviser, after the death of an officer named Cotton). - -[^22]: United States Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States, Diplomatic Papers, 1932, Volume III, The Far East*, telegram, The Secretary of State to the Consul General at Nanking (Peck), January 7, 1932, document 10, p. 7, with the text of the note (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1932v03/d10). - -[^23]: United States Department of State, Office of the Historian, "The Mukden Incident of 1931 and the Stimson Doctrine," Milestones: 1921-1936, https://history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/mukden-incident. - -[^24]: United States Department of State, Office of the Historian, "Henry Lewis Stimson," Biographies of the Secretaries of State ("what later became known as the 'Stimson Doctrine'"), https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/stimson-henry-lewis. - -[^25]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), ch. IX, "The Far Eastern Crisis," section 1, "From Conciliation to Nonrecognition," beginning p. 220. - -[^26]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), p. 317 (Yale Commencement of June 1940, the radio speech of June 18, 1940, and "before he accepted public office"). - -[^27]: National Archives, Records of the Office of the Secretary of War (Record Group 107), agency history note ("The wartime Secretaries of War were Henry L. Stimson, July 10, 1940-September 21, 1945, and Robert P. Patterson"), https://www.archives.gov/research/holocaust/finding-aid/military/rg-107.html; United States Department of State, Office of the Historian, "Cordell Hull" (appointed March 4, 1933; served until November 20, 1944), https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/hull-cordell. - -[^28]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), p. 338 (Lovett's arrival in November 1940 as air assistant, Patterson's service "from the beginning to the end," and Harvey H. Bundy's earlier service with Stimson). - -[^29]: Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, *Personal Justice Denied* (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1982), pp. 79-80, including nn. 151-152 (Stimson diary, February 10, 1942). - -[^30]: *Personal Justice Denied* (1982), p. 83, including nn. 166-167 (Stimson's record of February 17, 1942, and the meeting of February 18, 1942). - -[^31]: National Archives, "Executive Order 9066: Resulting in Japanese-American Incarceration (1942)," transcript of Executive Order No. 9066, February 19, 1942 (https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/executive-order-9066). - -[^32]: *Personal Justice Denied* (1982), p. 99 (the powers conferred by Executive Order 9066, and Stimson's letter of February 20, 1942 to DeWitt). - -[^33]: *Personal Justice Denied* (1982), Summary, p. 15 (May 1944 position; delay until after the November 1944 election; "motivated by political considerations"). - -[^34]: *Personal Justice Denied* (1982), p. 227 (Cabinet meeting of May 26, 1944, and Biddle's note). - -[^35]: *Personal Justice Denied* (1982), p. 47 (McCloy as civilian aide to Stimson responsible for Japanese American questions). - -[^36]: United States Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States: Diplomatic Papers, 1945, Volume I, General: The United Nations*, document 6, Memorandum by the Secretary of War (Stimson) to the Secretary of State, January 23, 1945, with editorial note citing Stimson and Bundy, *On Active Service in Peace and War*, pp. 599-605 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v01/d6). - -[^37]: Memorandum discussed with the President, April 25, 1945, Henry Stimson Diary, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library (microfilm at the Library of Congress), in National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 162, "The Atomic Bomb and the End of World War II," Document 3b (https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/3b.pdf); see also Document 3a, the memorandum of April 23, 1945 prepared by Groves. - -[^38]: Stimson Diary, April 25, 1945, in National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 162, Document 3d (https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/3d.pdf); Document 3c (War Department record of the arrangements for Groves to accompany Stimson); the collection's index of documents drawn from the Stimson Diary (https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/). - -[^39]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), "The Atomic Bomb and the Surrender of Japan," p. 616 (the committee set up in April, its chairmanship, and the list of members). - -[^40]: "Notes of the Interim Committee Meeting, Thursday, 31 May 1945," signed R. Gordon Arneson, Secretary, Records of the Army Corps of Engineers (RG 77), Manhattan Engineer District, Harrison-Bundy files, folder 100, in National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 162, Document 12 (https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/12.pdf), sections on the opening statement, Russia, effect of the bombing on the Japanese, undesirable scientists and next meeting. - -[^41]: Memorandum from R. Gordon Arneson to Mr. Harrison, June 6, 1945, RG 77, Harrison-Bundy files, folder 100, in National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 162, Document 14 (https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/14.pdf). - -[^42]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), p. 617. - -[^43]: Memorandum of Conference with the President, June 6, 1945, Stimson Papers, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library, in National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 162, Document 15 (https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/15.pdf). - -[^44]: United States Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States: Diplomatic Papers, The Conference of Berlin (The Potsdam Conference), 1945, Volume II*, document 1303, Harrison to Stimson, July 16, 1945, with the editorial footnote quoting Stimson's diary of July 16 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02/d1303). - -[^45]: *Foreign Relations: The Conference of Berlin, 1945, Volume II*, document 1236, Stimson to the Secretary of State, with memorandum for the President, "The Conduct of the War with Japan," July 16, 1945, and the editorial footnote quoting Stimson's diary of July 17, 23 and 24 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02/d1236). - -[^46]: *Foreign Relations: The Conference of Berlin, 1945, Volume II*, document 1241, Stimson to the President, "Proposed Proclamation to Japan," July 20, 1945 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02/d1241). - -[^47]: *Foreign Relations: The Conference of Berlin, 1945, Volume II*, document 1305, Groves to Stimson, editorial footnote quoting Stimson's diary of July 21, 1945 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02/d1305). - -[^48]: *Foreign Relations: The Conference of Berlin, 1945, Volume II*, document 710a-109, Memorandum by the Secretary of War, "Conference with Generalissimo Stalin, 25 July 1945, 1225 to 1243 at Schloss Cecilienhof" (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02/d710a-109). - -[^49]: *Foreign Relations: The Conference of Berlin, 1945, Volume II*, document 1307, Harrison to Stimson, July 21, 1945, with editorial footnote on the selection of Kyoto as a possible target (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02/d1307). - -[^50]: *Foreign Relations: The Conference of Berlin, 1945, Volume II*, document 1310, Stimson to Harrison, July 23, 1945, with editorial footnote quoting Stimson's diary of July 22 and 24, 1945 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02/d1310). - -[^51]: Henry L. Stimson, "The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb," *Harper's Magazine*, February 1947, as reprinted in *Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists*, vol. 3, no. 2 (February 1947) (https://archive.org/details/sim_bulletin-of-the-atomic-scientists_1947-02_3_2), sections on the memorandum of July 2, "The Use of the Bomb" and "A Personal Summary," and the Bulletin's editorial "The Decision to Use the Bomb." - -[^52]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), p. 609 (the fall of 1941, and the Harper's article as "a careful record"). - -[^53]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), Introduction, p. xi. - -[^54]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), "A Note of Explanation and Acknowledgment," pp. 673-674. - -[^55]: *Foreign Relations of the United States: Conferences at Quebec, 1944*, document 85, The Secretary of War (Stimson) to the President, September 5, 1944, and footnote quoting Morgenthau's letter to Stimson of September 6, 1944 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944Quebec/d85). - -[^56]: *Foreign Relations of the United States: Conferences at Quebec, 1944*, document 90, Memorandum by the Secretary of War (Stimson), September 9, 1944, enclosure 1 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944Quebec/d90). - -[^57]: *Foreign Relations of the United States: Conferences at Quebec, 1944*, document 90, editorial footnote on Stimson's diary for September 7, 8 and 9, 1944, citing "Stimson Papers" (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944Quebec/d90). - -[^58]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1950-1951, p. 12 ("Mr. Stimson's papers for the years prior to 1933 were placed on deposit in the University Library in 1949, and became a gift February 11, 1952"). - -[^59]: Henry Lewis Stimson papers (MS 465), Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library (https://hdl.handle.net/10079/fa/mssa.ms.0465). +[^21]: *Register of the Department of State for the year 1933*, list of former officers. https://archive.org/details/registerofdepart1933unit +[^22]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), ch. VII, p. 193 (appointment of Harvey H. Bundy as Assistant Secretary, and of Herbert Feis as Economic Adviser, after the death of an officer named Cotton). +[^23]: United States Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States, Diplomatic Papers, 1932, Volume III, The Far East*, telegram, The Secretary of State to the Consul General at Nanking (Peck), January 7, 1932, document 10, p. 7, with the text of the note (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1932v03/d10). +[^24]: United States Department of State, Office of the Historian, "The Mukden Incident of 1931 and the Stimson Doctrine," Milestones: 1921-1936, https://history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/mukden-incident. +[^25]: United States Department of State, Office of the Historian, "Henry Lewis Stimson," Biographies of the Secretaries of State ("what later became known as the 'Stimson Doctrine'"), https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/stimson-henry-lewis. +[^26]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), ch. IX, "The Far Eastern Crisis," section 1, "From Conciliation to Nonrecognition," beginning p. 220. +[^27]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), p. 317 (Yale Commencement of June 1940, the radio speech of June 18, 1940, and "before he accepted public office"). +[^28]: National Archives, Records of the Office of the Secretary of War (Record Group 107), agency history note ("The wartime Secretaries of War were Henry L. Stimson, July 10, 1940-September 21, 1945, and Robert P. Patterson"), https://www.archives.gov/research/holocaust/finding-aid/military/rg-107.html; United States Department of State, Office of the Historian, "Cordell Hull" (appointed March 4, 1933; served until November 20, 1944), https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/hull-cordell. +[^29]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), p. 338 (Lovett's arrival in November 1940 as air assistant, Patterson's service "from the beginning to the end," and Harvey H. Bundy's earlier service with Stimson). +[^30]: Stimson and Bundy, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), pp. 343-344. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.506235 +[^31]: *Foreign Relations of the United States: The Conferences at Washington and Quebec, 1943*, Memorandum by the Secretary of War's Special Assistant (Bundy), London, July 22, 1943. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1943 +[^32]: Stimson and Bundy, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), p. 614. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.506235 +[^33]: Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, *Personal Justice Denied* (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1982), pp. 79-80, including nn. 151-152 (Stimson diary, February 10, 1942). +[^34]: *Personal Justice Denied* (1982), p. 83, including nn. 166-167 (Stimson's record of February 17, 1942, and the meeting of February 18, 1942). +[^35]: National Archives, "Executive Order 9066: Resulting in Japanese-American Incarceration (1942)," transcript of Executive Order No. 9066, February 19, 1942 (https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/executive-order-9066). +[^36]: *Personal Justice Denied* (1982), p. 99 (the powers conferred by Executive Order 9066, and Stimson's letter of February 20, 1942 to DeWitt). +[^37]: *Personal Justice Denied* (1982), Summary, p. 15 (May 1944 position; delay until after the November 1944 election; "motivated by political considerations"). +[^38]: *Personal Justice Denied* (1982), p. 227 (Cabinet meeting of May 26, 1944, and Biddle's note). +[^39]: *Personal Justice Denied* (1982), p. 47 (McCloy as civilian aide to Stimson responsible for Japanese American questions). +[^40]: United States Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States: Diplomatic Papers, 1945, Volume I, General: The United Nations*, document 6, Memorandum by the Secretary of War (Stimson) to the Secretary of State, January 23, 1945, with editorial note citing Stimson and Bundy, *On Active Service in Peace and War*, pp. 599-605 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v01/d6). +[^41]: Memorandum discussed with the President, April 25, 1945, Henry Stimson Diary, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library (microfilm at the Library of Congress), in National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 162, "The Atomic Bomb and the End of World War II," Document 3b (https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/3b.pdf); see also Document 3a, the memorandum of April 23, 1945 prepared by Groves. +[^42]: Stimson Diary, April 25, 1945, in National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 162, Document 3d (https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/3d.pdf); Document 3c (War Department record of the arrangements for Groves to accompany Stimson); the collection's index of documents drawn from the Stimson Diary (https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/). +[^43]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), "The Atomic Bomb and the Surrender of Japan," p. 616 (the committee set up in April, its chairmanship, and the list of members). +[^44]: "Notes of the Interim Committee Meeting, Thursday, 31 May 1945," signed R. Gordon Arneson, Secretary, Records of the Army Corps of Engineers (RG 77), Manhattan Engineer District, Harrison-Bundy files, folder 100, in National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 162, Document 12 (https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/12.pdf), sections on the opening statement, Russia, effect of the bombing on the Japanese, undesirable scientists and next meeting. +[^45]: Memorandum from R. Gordon Arneson to Mr. Harrison, June 6, 1945, RG 77, Harrison-Bundy files, folder 100, in National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 162, Document 14 (https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/14.pdf). +[^46]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), p. 617. +[^47]: Memorandum of Conference with the President, June 6, 1945, Stimson Papers, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library, in National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 162, Document 15 (https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/15.pdf). +[^48]: United States Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States: Diplomatic Papers, The Conference of Berlin (The Potsdam Conference), 1945, Volume II*, document 1303, Harrison to Stimson, July 16, 1945, with the editorial footnote quoting Stimson's diary of July 16 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02/d1303). +[^49]: *Foreign Relations of the United States: The Conference of Berlin (Potsdam), 1945*, vol. II, Stimson-Cherwell conversation, noon, July 19, 1945; Stimson-Churchill conversations, about 4:30 p.m., July 21, 1945, and 10:40 a.m., July 22, 1945, with the editorial notes quoting Stimson's diary. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02 +[^50]: *Foreign Relations: The Conference of Berlin, 1945, Volume II*, document 1236, Stimson to the Secretary of State, with memorandum for the President, "The Conduct of the War with Japan," July 16, 1945, and the editorial footnote quoting Stimson's diary of July 17, 23 and 24 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02/d1236). +[^51]: *Foreign Relations: The Conference of Berlin, 1945, Volume II*, document 1241, Stimson to the President, "Proposed Proclamation to Japan," July 20, 1945 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02/d1241). +[^52]: *Foreign Relations: The Conference of Berlin, 1945, Volume II*, document 1305, Groves to Stimson, editorial footnote quoting Stimson's diary of July 21, 1945 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02/d1305). +[^53]: *Foreign Relations: The Conference of Berlin, 1945, Volume II*, document 710a-109, Memorandum by the Secretary of War, "Conference with Generalissimo Stalin, 25 July 1945, 1225 to 1243 at Schloss Cecilienhof" (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02/d710a-109). +[^54]: *Foreign Relations: The Conference of Berlin, 1945, Volume II*, document 1307, Harrison to Stimson, July 21, 1945, with editorial footnote on the selection of Kyoto as a possible target (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02/d1307). +[^55]: *Foreign Relations: The Conference of Berlin, 1945, Volume II*, document 1310, Stimson to Harrison, July 23, 1945, with editorial footnote quoting Stimson's diary of July 22 and 24, 1945 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv02/d1310). +[^56]: Henry L. Stimson, "The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb," *Harper's Magazine*, February 1947, as reprinted in *Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists*, vol. 3, no. 2 (February 1947) (https://archive.org/details/sim_bulletin-of-the-atomic-scientists_1947-02_3_2), sections on the memorandum of July 2, "The Use of the Bomb" and "A Personal Summary," and the Bulletin's editorial "The Decision to Use the Bomb." +[^57]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), p. 609 (the fall of 1941, and the Harper's article as "a careful record"). +[^58]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), Introduction, p. xi. +[^59]: Stimson, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), "A Note of Explanation and Acknowledgment," pp. 673-674. +[^60]: *Foreign Relations of the United States: Conferences at Quebec, 1944*, document 85, The Secretary of War (Stimson) to the President, September 5, 1944, and footnote quoting Morgenthau's letter to Stimson of September 6, 1944 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944Quebec/d85). +[^61]: *Foreign Relations of the United States: Conferences at Quebec, 1944*, document 90, Memorandum by the Secretary of War (Stimson), September 9, 1944, enclosure 1 (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944Quebec/d90). +[^62]: *Foreign Relations of the United States: Conferences at Quebec, 1944*, document 90, editorial footnote on Stimson's diary for September 7, 8 and 9, 1944, citing "Stimson Papers" (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944Quebec/d90). +[^63]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1950-1951, p. 12 ("Mr. Stimson's papers for the years prior to 1933 were placed on deposit in the University Library in 1949, and became a gift February 11, 1952"). +[^64]: Henry Lewis Stimson papers (MS 465), Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library (https://hdl.handle.net/10079/fa/mssa.ms.0465). diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/John D. Rockefeller Jr..md b/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/John D. Rockefeller Jr..md index 7833329f..a5ed21ba 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/John D. Rockefeller Jr..md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/John D. Rockefeller Jr..md @@ -119,7 +119,7 @@ relations: role: "8.5 million dollars for the East River site" fn: 1 created: 2026-10-01 -updated: 2026-10-01 +updated: 2026-10-26 --- John Davison Rockefeller Jr. (January 29, 1874, in [[Cleveland]], to May 11, 1960, in [[Tucson]]) was the son of [[John D. Rockefeller Sr.]], founder of [[Standard Oil]], and [[Laura Spelman Rockefeller]]. He graduated from [[Brown University]] in 1897, married [[Abby Aldrich Rockefeller]] (daughter of Senator [[Nelson W. Aldrich]] of [[Rhode Island]]) on October 9, 1901, and, three years after her death in 1948, married [[Martha Baird Rockefeller|Martha Baird Allen]] on August 15, 1951.[^1] Estimates of his net worth were 995 million dollars in 1928, 379.6 million in 1938 and 336.5 million in 1950. His children were Abby, [[John D. Rockefeller III]], [[Nelson Rockefeller]], [[Laurance Rockefeller]], [[Winthrop Rockefeller]] and [[David Rockefeller]]; five sons established the [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund]] in 1940, and he gave it 58.9 million dollars.[^1] His first employment was in his father's office at 26 Broadway, where he worked with the Reverend [[Frederick T. Gates]].[^1] @@ -174,7 +174,7 @@ In 1910 he served on a New York grand jury that investigated "white slavery," an ### Standard Oil of Indiana -Before the 1929 annual meeting of [[Standard Oil of Indiana]], Rockefeller, a minority stockholder, examined the testimony of its chairman [[Robert W. Stewart]] before the [[United States Senate Committee on Public Lands and Surveys|Senate Committee on Public Lands]] about the [[Continental Trading Company]] bonds, talked with him and asked him to resign. [[Time]] reported on January 28, 1929 that Stewart had testified "I never had anything to do with the distribution of any bonds" and later "I know about the disposition of $759,500 of these bonds," that the Senate had charged him with perjury and contempt and that juries acquitted him of both, and that Rockefeller, who according to his own account had received Stewart's promise to comply nine months earlier, "sailed for Egypt last fortnight, but left behind him a letter to stockholders, expressing loss of confidence."[^17] The company had 9,160,000 shares held by about 58,000 holders, and the vote was set for March 7 at [[Whiting, Indiana]]. Time listed the acting Alien Property Custodian, [[Howard Sutherland]] (proxies for 12,000 shares seized from Germans and Austrians in the World War), and [[A. P. Giannini]] (32,000 shares) among Rockefeller's supporters, reported that the house of [[J. P. Morgan and Company]] was "authoritatively said to be advising clients to support" him, and noted that the [[University of Chicago]], "object of many Rockefeller benefactions," was expected to vote its 30,000 shares with him; the company's president [[Edward G. Seubert]] and its board voted unanimously for Stewart, and Time reported that Standard Oil of Indiana profits for 1928 were estimated at 80 million dollars.[^17] +Before the 1929 annual meeting of [[Standard Oil of Indiana]], Rockefeller, a minority stockholder, examined the testimony of its chairman [[Robert W. Stewart]] before the [[United States Senate Committee on Public Lands and Surveys|Senate Committee on Public Lands]] about the [[Continental Trading Company]] bonds, talked with him and asked him to resign. [[Time]] reported on January 28, 1929 that Stewart had testified "I never had anything to do with the distribution of any bonds" and later "I know about the disposition of $759,500 of these bonds," that the Senate had charged him with perjury and contempt and that juries acquitted him of both, and that Rockefeller, who according to his own account had received Stewart's promise to comply nine months earlier, "sailed for Egypt last fortnight, but left behind him a letter to stockholders, expressing loss of confidence."[^17] The company had 9,160,000 shares held by about 58,000 holders, and the vote was set for March 7 at [[Whiting, Indiana]]. Time listed the acting Alien Property Custodian, [[Howard Sutherland]] (proxies for 12,000 shares seized from Germans and Austrians in the World War), and [[A. P. Giannini]] (32,000 shares) among Rockefeller's supporters, reported that the house of [[J. P. Morgan & Co.|J. P. Morgan and Company]] was "authoritatively said to be advising clients to support" him, and noted that the [[University of Chicago]], "object of many Rockefeller benefactions," was expected to vote its 30,000 shares with him; the company's president [[Edward G. Seubert]] and its board voted unanimously for Stewart, and Time reported that Standard Oil of Indiana profits for 1928 were estimated at 80 million dollars.[^17] The Whiting-Robertsdale Historical Society states that Rockefeller retained [[Charles Evans Hughes]] to lead his lawyers and that Stewart retained [[Frank J. Hogan]], who had defended [[Edward L. Doheny]] in the [[Teapot Dome scandal|Teapot Dome]] case, and that Hughes's staff published a 69-page statement of Rockefeller's case. According to the society, Rockefeller did not attend the meeting and sent his brother-in-law Winthrop W. Aldrich with about 200 eastern stockholders; the Rockefeller side claimed 57 percent of the proxies; Stewart conceded, "I'm afraid, my friends, that the 'noes' have it, if the vote is taken by shares"; and the society quotes the [[Gary Times]] that Stewart "was plucked out of the chairmanship."[^18] The society's account names [[Harry F. Sinclair]] as one of the four oil company heads who created the Continental Trading Company in 1921.[^18] diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Michael Whitney Straight.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Michael Whitney Straight.md index 5ccb58d3..06c3e76d 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Michael Whitney Straight.md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Michael Whitney Straight.md @@ -97,7 +97,7 @@ Michael Whitney Straight (September 1, 1916 to January 4, 2004) was a magazine p ### Parents and Childhood -His father was an investment banker with [[JPMorgan Chase|J. P. Morgan & Company]], who died of septic pneumonia while serving with the American Expeditionary Forces in France in 1918. His mother, an heiress, had started [[The New Republic]] with her husband in 1914. In 1925 she married [[Leonard Knight Elmhirst]], and the couple ran [[Dartington Hall]], the progressive school in [[Devon]]. Michael was the third and youngest child; his brother [[Whitney Straight]] became a racing driver and head of the [[British Overseas Airways Corporation]], and his sister [[Beatrice Straight]] an actress.[^1] The [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] recorded his birth as September 1, 1916, at [[Southampton, Long Island|Southampton]], [[Long Island]], while the [[The New York Times|New York Times]] gave [[New York City]].[^1][^2] He attended the [[Lincoln School]] in New York and Dartington Hall, then spent a year at the [[London School of Economics]] before going on to Cambridge in 1934.[^1] He told the FBI in 1963 that his father died two years after his birth, that he was taken to [[England]] and raised there, and that his early life was that of an orphan who lacked no material thing.[^2] An FBI summary of his military record lists the London School of Economics in 1934 and [[Cambridge University]] from 1934 to 1937.[^3] +His father was an investment banker with [[J. P. Morgan & Co.|J. P. Morgan & Company]], who died of septic pneumonia while serving with the American Expeditionary Forces in France in 1918. His mother, an heiress, had started [[The New Republic]] with her husband in 1914. In 1925 she married [[Leonard Knight Elmhirst]], and the couple ran [[Dartington Hall]], the progressive school in [[Devon]]. Michael was the third and youngest child; his brother [[Whitney Straight]] became a racing driver and head of the [[British Overseas Airways Corporation]], and his sister [[Beatrice Straight]] an actress.[^1] The [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] recorded his birth as September 1, 1916, at [[Southampton, Long Island|Southampton]], [[Long Island]], while the [[The New York Times|New York Times]] gave [[New York City]].[^1][^2] He attended the [[Lincoln School]] in New York and Dartington Hall, then spent a year at the [[London School of Economics]] before going on to Cambridge in 1934.[^1] He told the FBI in 1963 that his father died two years after his birth, that he was taken to [[England]] and raised there, and that his early life was that of an orphan who lacked no material thing.[^2] An FBI summary of his military record lists the London School of Economics in 1934 and [[Cambridge University]] from 1934 to 1937.[^3] ### Cambridge and the Apostles diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Nelson Rockefeller.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Nelson Rockefeller.md index 6ffd7964..80f371a7 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Nelson Rockefeller.md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Nelson Rockefeller.md @@ -16,25 +16,25 @@ born: 1908-07-08 died: 1979-01-26 location: New York, NY created: 2026-06-05 -updated: 2026-10-09 +updated: 2026-10-26 relations: - type: head_of with: "[[Planning Coordination Group]]" role: "chairman" start: 1955-03-10 end: 1955 - fn: 23 + fn: 25 - type: participant_in with: "[[Interdepartmental Committee on Foreign Nationality Problems]]" start: 1942 role: "CIAA representative (Mr. N. A. Rockefeller)" - fn: 11 + fn: 13 - type: participant_in with: "[[Quantico Vulnerabilities Panel]]" role: "convener, Quantico II" start: 1955-08-16 end: 1955-12-05 - fn: 26 + fn: 28 --- Nelson Aldrich Rockefeller (July 8, 1908 - January 26, 1979), named after his maternal grandfather and US Senator [[Nelson Aldrich]], was the dominant figure in US-Latin American relations from World War II through the mid-1970s. As coordinator of inter-American affairs (1940-1944), assistant secretary of state for American republic affairs (1944-1945), and later as President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]'s special assistant for national security, he built the institutional architecture that governed American policy toward [[Latin America]] and shaped the intelligence community's covert operations in the Western Hemisphere. His private vehicles, the [[IBEC]] (International Basic Economy Corporation) and the [[AIA]] (American International Association), extended [[Rockefeller family]] commercial interests into the Brazilian Amazon and beyond. @@ -57,51 +57,53 @@ In 1936-1940, Nelson assembled a coterie of trusted advisers he called "the Junt On August 16, 1940, the US [[Council of National Defense]] established the Office for Coordination of Commercial and Cultural Relations Between the American Republics (OCCCRBAR) and named Rockefeller, then 32, as its first coordinator. President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] formalized and expanded the office through [[Executive Order 8840]], signed July 30, 1941, which reconstituted it as the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs (OCIAA) within the Executive Office of the President and named Rockefeller as Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs. Executive Order 8840 designated the Coordinator as "the center for the coordination of the cultural and commercial relations of the Nation affecting hemisphere defense" and granted authority to develop programs across "the arts and sciences, education and travel, the radio, the press, and the cinema." The appointment reflected Roosevelt's need to remove German and British commercial and cultural influence from Latin America and replace it with American hegemony before the United States entered the war.[^6] -Under Rockefeller's direction, the CIAA became the first official US government propaganda operation, producing radio programs broadcast throughout Latin America, subsidizing 1,200 newspaper publishers dependent on CIAA-controlled newsprint shipments, producing newsreels and political cartoons, and publishing the magazine *En Guardia* with a circulation of 80,000 by summer 1941. The CIAA battled and defeated [[William J. Donovan]]'s rival Coordinator of Information for control of Latin American psychological warfare. Roosevelt ruled in Rockefeller's favor, restricting Donovan's future [[OSS]] to Europe and Asia.[^7] +In January 1942 the trade weekly [[Motion Picture Herald]] reported that Rockefeller and [[John Hay Whitney]] had selected [[Walt Disney]] as the first Hollywood producer of films meant to carry a message of goodwill to South America.[^7] The film work of the agency was then run through a unit directed by Whitney, and in October 1942 the trade paper recorded that [[Francis Alstock]] had succeeded him as director of the motion picture division.[^8] -The CIAA's "coordinating committees" in Brazil and elsewhere were staffed with American businessmen and served primarily to draw Latin American raw materials (rubber, tin, quinine, and oil) into the US war supply chain. Critics within the State Department noted the committees were composed of "the biggest businessmen" with "the most reactionary" policy views. The CIAA spent $140 million by 1944, far beyond its initial $3.5 million authorization.[^8] +Under Rockefeller's direction, the CIAA became the first official US government propaganda operation, producing radio programs broadcast throughout Latin America, subsidizing 1,200 newspaper publishers dependent on CIAA-controlled newsprint shipments, producing newsreels and political cartoons, and publishing the magazine *En Guardia* with a circulation of 80,000 by summer 1941. The CIAA battled and defeated [[William J. Donovan]]'s rival Coordinator of Information for control of Latin American psychological warfare. Roosevelt ruled in Rockefeller's favor, restricting Donovan's future [[OSS]] to Europe and Asia.[^9] -Rockefeller used the CIAA to advance US aviation dominance in Latin America through the [[Inter-American Escadrille]], displacing German airlines from Colombia, Bolivia, and Brazil, and integrating Latin American air forces into a US-led hemispheric defense system. His brother [[Laurance Rockefeller]] supported this effort through his position as director of [[Eastern Airlines]].[^9] +The CIAA's "coordinating committees" in Brazil and elsewhere were staffed with American businessmen and served primarily to draw Latin American raw materials (rubber, tin, quinine, and oil) into the US war supply chain. Critics within the State Department noted the committees were composed of "the biggest businessmen" with "the most reactionary" policy views. The CIAA spent $140 million by 1944, far beyond its initial $3.5 million authorization.[^10] -The CIAA's rubber program in the Amazon drove 100,000 people off their land (including a Haitian displacement project), a pattern that would repeat throughout Rockefeller's career in Latin American development.[^10] +Rockefeller used the CIAA to advance US aviation dominance in Latin America through the [[Inter-American Escadrille]], displacing German airlines from Colombia, Bolivia, and Brazil, and integrating Latin American air forces into a US-led hemispheric defense system. His brother [[Laurance Rockefeller]] supported this effort through his position as director of [[Eastern Airlines]].[^11] -Minutes and memoranda of the [[Interdepartmental Committee on Foreign Nationality Problems]], convened by [[Adolf Berle|Adolf A. Berle]] at the State Department in 1942 and filed in the CIA reading room under an [[Office of Strategic Services]] heading, list Rockefeller among the CIAA representatives. A [[Coordinator of Information]] memorandum of February 11, 1942 names "Mr. Nelson Rockefeller, Dr. Max Ascoli and Mr. Wallace K. Harrison of the Office of the Coordinator for Latin American Relations" among those present; Berle's letter of February 27, 1942 to the Secretary of War lists the CIAA members as "Mr. N. A Rockefeller; Mr. Wallace K. Harrison; Dr. Ascoli"; and the minutes of the sixth meeting (March 11, 1942) record Rockefeller, Harrison and [[Max Ascoli]] as CIAA representatives. At that meeting Ascoli reported on the possible recruitment of anti-Fascist Italians in South America for an Italian legion.[^11] Laura Fermi writes that Ascoli was associate director of cultural relations in the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs.[^12] [[Hugh Wilford]] writes that during the war Ascoli "worked alongside Nelson Rockefeller, John Hay Whitney, and C. D. Jackson."[^13] +The CIAA's rubber program in the Amazon drove 100,000 people off their land (including a Haitian displacement project), a pattern that would repeat throughout Rockefeller's career in Latin American development.[^12] -Rockefeller's office was one of the principal customers of the [[Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service]]. He wrote to FCC chairman [[James L. Fly]] on March 5, 1942 about the "invaluable aid" the service supplied to his organization. On July 29, 1942 he wrote that his office had "been able thus far to make good use of the material provided by teletype from the Kingsville Field Bureau," and asked for a greater volume of verbatim transcripts for hemispheric propaganda work.[^14] [[Goodwin Watson]] wrote to him on July 7, 1942 about an offer the CIAA had made to an FBIS analyst, and [[Robert D. Leigh]] wrote to him on January 2, 1943 proposing a release system for Latin American information modeled on the service's own.[^15] +Minutes and memoranda of the [[Interdepartmental Committee on Foreign Nationality Problems]], convened by [[Adolf Berle|Adolf A. Berle]] at the State Department in 1942 and filed in the CIA reading room under an [[Office of Strategic Services]] heading, list Rockefeller among the CIAA representatives. A [[Coordinator of Information]] memorandum of February 11, 1942 names "Mr. Nelson Rockefeller, Dr. Max Ascoli and Mr. Wallace K. Harrison of the Office of the Coordinator for Latin American Relations" among those present; Berle's letter of February 27, 1942 to the Secretary of War lists the CIAA members as "Mr. N. A Rockefeller; Mr. Wallace K. Harrison; Dr. Ascoli"; and the minutes of the sixth meeting (March 11, 1942) record Rockefeller, Harrison and [[Max Ascoli]] as CIAA representatives. At that meeting Ascoli reported on the possible recruitment of anti-Fascist Italians in South America for an Italian legion.[^13] Laura Fermi writes that Ascoli was associate director of cultural relations in the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs.[^14] [[Hugh Wilford]] writes that during the war Ascoli "worked alongside Nelson Rockefeller, John Hay Whitney, and C. D. Jackson."[^15] + +Rockefeller's office was one of the principal customers of the [[Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service]]. He wrote to FCC chairman [[James L. Fly]] on March 5, 1942 about the "invaluable aid" the service supplied to his organization. On July 29, 1942 he wrote that his office had "been able thus far to make good use of the material provided by teletype from the Kingsville Field Bureau," and asked for a greater volume of verbatim transcripts for hemispheric propaganda work.[^16] [[Goodwin Watson]] wrote to him on July 7, 1942 about an offer the CIAA had made to an FBIS analyst, and [[Robert D. Leigh]] wrote to him on January 2, 1943 proposing a release system for Latin American information modeled on the service's own.[^17] ### The Act of Chapultepec and Cold War Architecture (1945) -Appointed assistant secretary of state for American republic affairs on December 20, 1944 (his entry on duty date), Rockefeller convened the Inter-American Conference on Problems of War and Peace at [[Chapultepec Castle]] in [[Mexico City]], which ran from February 21 to March 8, 1945. There he pushed through the Act of Chapultepec (formally adopted March 6, 1945), which authorized a regional military pact making an attack on any American state an attack on all, a Latin American precursor to [[NATO]] that both the State Department and the Soviet Union recognized as a violation of the Yalta accords.[^16] +Appointed assistant secretary of state for American republic affairs on December 20, 1944 (his entry on duty date), Rockefeller convened the Inter-American Conference on Problems of War and Peace at [[Chapultepec Castle]] in [[Mexico City]], which ran from February 21 to March 8, 1945. There he pushed through the Act of Chapultepec (formally adopted March 6, 1945), which authorized a regional military pact making an attack on any American state an attack on all, a Latin American precursor to [[NATO]] that both the State Department and the Soviet Union recognized as a violation of the Yalta accords.[^18] -At Chapultepec, Rockefeller assembled his "Latin American Junta": [[Galo Plaza]] of Ecuador, [[Alberto Lleras Camargo]] of Colombia, and Mexico's [[Ezequiel Padilla]]. These men would become presidents, OAS secretaries-general, and trustees of the Rockefeller Foundation. Rockefeller also arranged for Adolf Berle to replace [[Jefferson Caffery]] as US ambassador to Brazil.[^17] +At Chapultepec, Rockefeller assembled his "Latin American Junta": [[Galo Plaza]] of Ecuador, [[Alberto Lleras Camargo]] of Colombia, and Mexico's [[Ezequiel Padilla]]. These men would become presidents, OAS secretaries-general, and trustees of the Rockefeller Foundation. Rockefeller also arranged for Adolf Berle to replace [[Jefferson Caffery]] as US ambassador to Brazil.[^19] -The Act of Chapultepec killed 180 Latin American resolutions promoting industrialization and protective tariffs, replacing them with an open-door policy for American corporate investment and commitments to road-building that served extractive industries. Rockefeller supported Argentina's [[Juan Perón]]'s admission to the founding United Nations conference over strong objections, adding the Latin American bloc's 19 votes to the Western tally against the Soviets. Adolf Berle warned him privately this would be a political error; Rockefeller ignored the advice and paid with his job when the move was exposed as a violation of Yalta.[^18] +The Act of Chapultepec killed 180 Latin American resolutions promoting industrialization and protective tariffs, replacing them with an open-door policy for American corporate investment and commitments to road-building that served extractive industries. Rockefeller supported Argentina's [[Juan Perón]]'s admission to the founding United Nations conference over strong objections, adding the Latin American bloc's 19 votes to the Western tally against the Soviets. Adolf Berle warned him privately this would be a political error; Rockefeller ignored the advice and paid with his job when the move was exposed as a violation of Yalta.[^20] -Nelson's appointment as assistant secretary terminated on August 17, 1945. President [[Harry S. Truman]] reversed his policies and shut down the OCIAA shortly thereafter; whether his departure was a dismissal or a resignation has been characterized differently by different sources, with the State Department's official record listing a termination date of August 17, 1945.[^19] +Nelson's appointment as assistant secretary terminated on August 17, 1945. President [[Harry S. Truman]] reversed his policies and shut down the OCIAA shortly thereafter; whether his departure was a dismissal or a resignation has been characterized differently by different sources, with the State Department's official record listing a termination date of August 17, 1945.[^21] ### Private Instruments: IBEC, AIA, and the "First Cold War Coup" -Back in New York, Rockefeller reconvened his Junta and created two private vehicles for Latin American penetration: the IBEC (International Basic Economy Corporation, of which he served as president from 1947 to 1953 and again from 1956 to 1958) and the AIA (American International Association for Economic and Social Development, of which he served as president from 1946 to 1953 and again from 1957 to 1958). These nominally separate entities combined Rockefeller commercial interests with US government development goals.[^20] +Back in New York, Rockefeller reconvened his Junta and created two private vehicles for Latin American penetration: the IBEC (International Basic Economy Corporation, of which he served as president from 1947 to 1953 and again from 1956 to 1958) and the AIA (American International Association for Economic and Social Development, of which he served as president from 1946 to 1953 and again from 1957 to 1958). These nominally separate entities combined Rockefeller commercial interests with US government development goals.[^22] -Through his former CIAA aide Adolf Berle and his CIA Western Hemisphere operations director [[J.C. King]] (a former Johnson & Johnson Latin American manager), Rockefeller was connected to the 1945 coup that overthrew Brazilian president [[Getulio Vargas]]. The coup ended Vargas's plan for state-directed Amazon development and opened Brazil to the American corporate penetration Rockefeller had prepared during the CIAA years.[^21] +Through his former CIAA aide Adolf Berle and his CIA Western Hemisphere operations director [[J.C. King]] (a former Johnson & Johnson Latin American manager), Rockefeller was connected to the 1945 coup that overthrew Brazilian president [[Getulio Vargas]]. The coup ended Vargas's plan for state-directed Amazon development and opened Brazil to the American corporate penetration Rockefeller had prepared during the CIAA years.[^23] ### Eisenhower's Cold War General (1953-1955) -In 1953, Rockefeller accepted appointment as chair of the President's Advisory Committee on Government Organization, which ran from 1952 to 1953, before becoming Under Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare (1953-1954). On December 15, 1954, President Eisenhower sent Rockefeller a letter appointing him Special Assistant to the President for Foreign Affairs (also described as Special Assistant for Cold War Strategy). The appointment letter tasked him with providing "advice and assistance in the development of increased understanding and cooperation among all peoples" and attending meetings of the Cabinet, the National Security Council, the [[Council on Foreign Economic Policy]], and the [[Operations Coordinating Board]].[^22] +In 1953, Rockefeller accepted appointment as chair of the President's Advisory Committee on Government Organization, which ran from 1952 to 1953, before becoming Under Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare (1953-1954). On December 15, 1954, President Eisenhower sent Rockefeller a letter appointing him Special Assistant to the President for Foreign Affairs (also described as Special Assistant for Cold War Strategy). The appointment letter tasked him with providing "advice and assistance in the development of increased understanding and cooperation among all peoples" and attending meetings of the Cabinet, the National Security Council, the [[Council on Foreign Economic Policy]], and the [[Operations Coordinating Board]].[^24] -On March 3, 1955, Bureau of the Budget Director Rowland Hughes recommended that Eisenhower designate Rockefeller as a member and vice chairman of the OCB and as chairman of a new Planning Coordination Group. Eisenhower approved these recommendations on March 10, 1955. The Planning Coordination Group (PCG), operating within the framework of [[NSC 5412]] governing covert operations, comprised Rockefeller as chairman, the Under Secretary of State, the Deputy Secretary of Defense, and the Director of Central Intelligence. Its function was to "advise and assist the responsible operating agencies in the coordinated development of plans and programs" and to serve as the "normal channel for giving policy approval" for CIA covert operations. CIA director [[Allen Dulles]] and State Department officials refused to cooperate, and their obstruction stymied the PCG's initiatives. Rockefeller recommended the group's abolishment in September 1955 and resigned as Special Assistant to the President in December 1955.[^23] +On March 3, 1955, Bureau of the Budget Director Rowland Hughes recommended that Eisenhower designate Rockefeller as a member and vice chairman of the OCB and as chairman of a new Planning Coordination Group. Eisenhower approved these recommendations on March 10, 1955. The Planning Coordination Group (PCG), operating within the framework of [[NSC 5412]] governing covert operations, comprised Rockefeller as chairman, the Under Secretary of State, the Deputy Secretary of Defense, and the Director of Central Intelligence. Its function was to "advise and assist the responsible operating agencies in the coordinated development of plans and programs" and to serve as the "normal channel for giving policy approval" for CIA covert operations. CIA director [[Allen Dulles]] and State Department officials refused to cooperate, and their obstruction stymied the PCG's initiatives. Rockefeller recommended the group's abolishment in September 1955 and resigned as Special Assistant to the President in December 1955.[^25] -In this role, he commissioned and partly directed the [[Quantico Vulnerabilities Panel|Quantico I and II]] strategy panels. Quantico I convened June 5-10, 1955, at the Marine Corps School in [[Quantico]], [[Virginia]], where eleven experts in Soviet-American relations (including [[W.W. Rostow]] of [[MIT]] as panel chairman, [[C.D. Jackson]] of [[Time-Life]], and [[Hans Speier]] of the [[RAND Corporation]]) assessed the US position in the psychological dimensions of the Cold War. The panel's aerial inspection proposal is identified in the Foreign Relations volumes as the genesis of the "Open Skies" offer, which Rockefeller, [[Arthur W. Radford]], [[Harold Stassen]], [[Robert B. Anderson]] and [[Alfred Gruenther]] discussed in Paris and which Eisenhower and Dulles took up at Geneva before the President made it on July 21, 1955.[^24] The [[Rockefeller Archive Center]]'s description of his Special Assistant subseries states that he "played a key role in the development of the Open Skies policy."[^25] Quantico II, which Rockefeller invited on August 16, 1955 to study "the psychological aspects of future United States strategy," met in Washington in late August and at Quantico in September, with Major General [[Frederick L. Anderson]], USAF (ret.), as chairman. Its twelve members sought "an optimum, integrated national program within which specific long-term military, economic, technological and ideological programs can be developed and financed."[^26] Bessner dates the Quantico sessions to September 25 to 29, 1955.[^27] Anderson submitted the panel's report, "Psychological Aspects of United States Strategy," on November 29, 1955, with a source book of individual papers dated November 1955.[^26][^28] Rockefeller forwarded it to Eisenhower on December 2.[^26] His papers at the Rockefeller Archive Center hold folders for Quantico I and II and a 1956 folder, "Quantico III Meeting," described as a preliminary meeting to the Rockefeller Brothers Fund Special Studies Project.[^25] He brought [[Henry Kissinger]], then a young Harvard academic, in as director of the Special Studies Project of the [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund]], whose six panel reports appeared between January 1958 and September 1960; Kissinger directed the project until June 30, 1958.[^29] Gerard Colby and Charlotte Dennett wrote that the reports shaped the Kennedy administration's counterinsurgency strategy.[^30] +In this role, he commissioned and partly directed the [[Quantico Vulnerabilities Panel|Quantico I and II]] strategy panels. Quantico I convened June 5-10, 1955, at the Marine Corps School in [[Quantico]], [[Virginia]], where eleven experts in Soviet-American relations (including [[W.W. Rostow]] of [[MIT]] as panel chairman, [[C.D. Jackson]] of [[Time-Life]], and [[Hans Speier]] of the [[RAND Corporation]]) assessed the US position in the psychological dimensions of the Cold War. The panel's aerial inspection proposal is identified in the Foreign Relations volumes as the genesis of the "Open Skies" offer, which Rockefeller, [[Arthur W. Radford]], [[Harold Stassen]], [[Robert B. Anderson]] and [[Alfred Gruenther]] discussed in Paris and which Eisenhower and Dulles took up at Geneva before the President made it on July 21, 1955.[^26] The [[Rockefeller Archive Center]]'s description of his Special Assistant subseries states that he "played a key role in the development of the Open Skies policy."[^27] Quantico II, which Rockefeller invited on August 16, 1955 to study "the psychological aspects of future United States strategy," met in Washington in late August and at Quantico in September, with Major General [[Frederick L. Anderson]], USAF (ret.), as chairman. Its twelve members sought "an optimum, integrated national program within which specific long-term military, economic, technological and ideological programs can be developed and financed."[^28] Bessner dates the Quantico sessions to September 25 to 29, 1955.[^29] Anderson submitted the panel's report, "Psychological Aspects of United States Strategy," on November 29, 1955, with a source book of individual papers dated November 1955.[^28][^30] Rockefeller forwarded it to Eisenhower on December 2.[^28] His papers at the Rockefeller Archive Center hold folders for Quantico I and II and a 1956 folder, "Quantico III Meeting," described as a preliminary meeting to the Rockefeller Brothers Fund Special Studies Project.[^27] He brought [[Henry Kissinger]], then a young Harvard academic, in as director of the Special Studies Project of the [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund]], whose six panel reports appeared between January 1958 and September 1960; Kissinger directed the project until June 30, 1958.[^31] Gerard Colby and Charlotte Dennett wrote that the reports shaped the Kennedy administration's counterinsurgency strategy.[^32] ### Brazil and the 1964 Coup -By 1964, Rockefeller's instruments were in place for a more decisive intervention. His former CIAA colleague Adolf Berle maintained connections to Brazilian military officers through the State Department and private channels. The CIA's J.C. King coordinated with US Ambassador [[Lincoln Gordon]] and Military Attaché [[Vernon Walters]]. Rockefeller's IBEC had major agricultural and commercial holdings in Brazil, and his brother [[David Rockefeller]]'s [[Chase Manhattan Bank]] was deeply invested in the Brazilian economy.[^31] +By 1964, Rockefeller's instruments were in place for a more decisive intervention. His former CIAA colleague Adolf Berle maintained connections to Brazilian military officers through the State Department and private channels. The CIA's J.C. King coordinated with US Ambassador [[Lincoln Gordon]] and Military Attaché [[Vernon Walters]]. Rockefeller's IBEC had major agricultural and commercial holdings in Brazil, and his brother [[David Rockefeller]]'s [[Chase Manhattan Bank]] was deeply invested in the Brazilian economy.[^33] -The April 1964 coup deposing President [[Joao Goulart]] was welcomed within the Rockefeller network. Planning for the contingency had been underway since at least December 1962: a November 22, 1963 contingency plan showed "heavy emphasis on U.S. armed intervention," and Ambassador Gordon's March 28, 1964 telegram from Rio de Janeiro described Goulart as "now definitely engaged on campaign to seize dictatorial power, accepting the active collaboration of the Brazilian Communist Party." On March 31, 1964, the Joint Chiefs of Staff assigned the code name "Brother Sam" to a naval task force authorized to supply arms and potentially deploy combat troops in support of the coup if needed. [[Operation Brother Sam]] was the military expression of a strategy Rockefeller had been building since Chapultepec. These deliberations are documented in FRUS 1964-1968, Vol. XXXI, which covers South and Central America and includes the Lincoln Gordon cables and the JCS Brother Sam authorization.[^32] +The April 1964 coup deposing President [[Joao Goulart]] was welcomed within the Rockefeller network. Planning for the contingency had been underway since at least December 1962: a November 22, 1963 contingency plan showed "heavy emphasis on U.S. armed intervention," and Ambassador Gordon's March 28, 1964 telegram from Rio de Janeiro described Goulart as "now definitely engaged on campaign to seize dictatorial power, accepting the active collaboration of the Brazilian Communist Party." On March 31, 1964, the Joint Chiefs of Staff assigned the code name "Brother Sam" to a naval task force authorized to supply arms and potentially deploy combat troops in support of the coup if needed. [[Operation Brother Sam]] was the military expression of a strategy Rockefeller had been building since Chapultepec. These deliberations are documented in FRUS 1964-1968, Vol. XXXI, which covers South and Central America and includes the Lincoln Gordon cables and the JCS Brother Sam authorization.[^34] ### The Nixon Mission and Latin American Backlash (1969) -In 1969, President [[Richard Nixon]] asked Rockefeller, on Nixon's first full day in office, to assess the effectiveness of the [[Alliance for Progress]] program and prepare a policy report on Latin America. Rockefeller undertook a 20-nation tour in summer 1969. The tour was met with riots, demonstrations, and stone-throwing in nearly every country he visited, a response that shocked official Washington but not those who had watched his career from the other side. The tour's report, delivered to Nixon and titled "Quality of Life in the Americas," recommended reversing recent trends to reduce security assistance to Latin American military governments. The report stated, "At the moment there is only one Castro among the 26 nations of the hemisphere; there can well be more in the future." Its military aid recommendations further deepened US backing for Latin American military dictatorships.[^33] +In 1969, President [[Richard Nixon]] asked Rockefeller, on Nixon's first full day in office, to assess the effectiveness of the [[Alliance for Progress]] program and prepare a policy report on Latin America. Rockefeller undertook a 20-nation tour in summer 1969. The tour was met with riots, demonstrations, and stone-throwing in nearly every country he visited, a response that shocked official Washington but not those who had watched his career from the other side. The tour's report, delivered to Nixon and titled "Quality of Life in the Americas," recommended reversing recent trends to reduce security assistance to Latin American military governments. The report stated, "At the moment there is only one Castro among the 26 nations of the hemisphere; there can well be more in the future." Its military aid recommendations further deepened US backing for Latin American military dictatorships.[^35] ### The Rockefeller Commission (1975) @@ -109,21 +111,21 @@ In 1975, amid the congressional [[Church Committee]] investigations into CIA abu Rockefeller "attempted to head off inclusion of the subject" of CIA assassination plots, restricting consideration of assassinations to the question of Cuba's possible role in the assassination of [[John F. Kennedy]]. When the Commission voted on whether to include assassination investigations, it overrode its own chairman, with [[Ronald Reagan]] (then Governor of California, serving as a commissioner) siding with executive director David Belin against Rockefeller. In a March 10, 1975 memorandum to Commission members, Belin argued that selective investigation of assassination plots would confuse the public and that "the threat of assassination" warranted comprehensive inquiry. The Commission took testimony from CIA General Counsel [[John Warner]] on April 14, 1975. -Despite the Commission's vote to include the assassination material, the Ford White House suppressed it. An entire 86-page section, "Summary of Facts: Investigation of CIA Involvement in Plans to Assassinate Foreign Leaders" (dated June 5, 1975), covering plots against [[Fidel Castro]], [[Rafael Trujillo]], and references to [[Patrice Lumumba]] and [[Sukarno]], was removed from the final report before public release. Then-Deputy White House Chief of Staff [[Richard Cheney]] made handwritten edits throughout the draft on or around June 1, 1975, altering language describing CIA activities from "unlawful" to merely "improper" in most instances, while drug experiments on US citizens retained the characterization "illegal." White House Counsel [[Philip Buchen]] coordinated the suppression. Commission public affairs director Peter Clapper warned that deleting the section would "cast doubt on the rest of the report" and be perceived as a cover-up; his objection was overridden. Senator [[Frank Church]] personally visited Rockefeller in early May 1975, alleging that CIA documents were being withheld from the Church Committee by the Rockefeller Commission. President Ford wrote to Church on October 31, 1975, urging suppression of assassination findings; Church rejected the request, stating that "the national interest is better served by letting the American people know the true and complete story." These internal documents are collected in National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 543, published February 29, 2016, edited by John Prados and Arturo Jimenez-Bacardi.[^34] +Despite the Commission's vote to include the assassination material, the Ford White House suppressed it. An entire 86-page section, "Summary of Facts: Investigation of CIA Involvement in Plans to Assassinate Foreign Leaders" (dated June 5, 1975), covering plots against [[Fidel Castro]], [[Rafael Trujillo]], and references to [[Patrice Lumumba]] and [[Sukarno]], was removed from the final report before public release. Then-Deputy White House Chief of Staff [[Richard Cheney]] made handwritten edits throughout the draft on or around June 1, 1975, altering language describing CIA activities from "unlawful" to merely "improper" in most instances, while drug experiments on US citizens retained the characterization "illegal." White House Counsel [[Philip Buchen]] coordinated the suppression. Commission public affairs director Peter Clapper warned that deleting the section would "cast doubt on the rest of the report" and be perceived as a cover-up; his objection was overridden. Senator [[Frank Church]] personally visited Rockefeller in early May 1975, alleging that CIA documents were being withheld from the Church Committee by the Rockefeller Commission. President Ford wrote to Church on October 31, 1975, urging suppression of assassination findings; Church rejected the request, stating that "the national interest is better served by letting the American people know the true and complete story." These internal documents are collected in National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 543, published February 29, 2016, edited by John Prados and Arturo Jimenez-Bacardi.[^36] -Rockefeller's chairmanship of the commission investigating the agency he had supervised under Eisenhower was widely considered a conflict of interest. Key findings were withheld or classified. The Commission also added Recommendations 29 (civilian oversight committee) and 20 (periodic declassification reviews) to the report without a Commission vote, under [[White House]] direction.[^35] +Rockefeller's chairmanship of the commission investigating the agency he had supervised under Eisenhower was widely considered a conflict of interest. Key findings were withheld or classified. The Commission also added Recommendations 29 (civilian oversight committee) and 20 (periodic declassification reviews) to the report without a Commission vote, under [[White House]] direction.[^37] ### New York Politics and the Vice Presidency -Rockefeller served as governor of New York from 1959 to 1973, during which time he built the South Mall (later renamed the [[Nelson A. Rockefeller Empire State Plaza]]) and pursued the presidency unsuccessfully in 1960, 1964, and 1968, repeatedly blocked by the Republican right wing. On August 20, 1974, President Ford nominated Rockefeller as vice president under Section 2 of the [[25th Amendment]]. After a nearly four-month confirmation process, the Senate confirmed the nomination 90-7 on December 10, 1974, and the House confirmed 287-128 on December 19, 1974. Rockefeller was sworn in as the 41st Vice President on December 19, 1974, the second person appointed vice president under the 25th Amendment (Ford having been the first).[^36] +Rockefeller served as governor of New York from 1959 to 1973, during which time he built the South Mall (later renamed the [[Nelson A. Rockefeller Empire State Plaza]]) and pursued the presidency unsuccessfully in 1960, 1964, and 1968, repeatedly blocked by the Republican right wing. On August 20, 1974, President Ford nominated Rockefeller as vice president under Section 2 of the [[25th Amendment]]. After a nearly four-month confirmation process, the Senate confirmed the nomination 90-7 on December 10, 1974, and the House confirmed 287-128 on December 19, 1974. Rockefeller was sworn in as the 41st Vice President on December 19, 1974, the second person appointed vice president under the 25th Amendment (Ford having been the first).[^38] ### Death -Rockefeller died on January 26, 1979, of a heart attack at his townhouse at 13 West 54th Street in Manhattan, in the presence of Megan Marshack, a 25-year-old aide who had worked for him during his vice presidency and to whom he had provided financial assistance in purchasing a condominium nearby. After Rockefeller suffered the cardiac event, Marshack called her friend, television journalist Ponchitta Pierce, to the townhouse; Pierce phoned an ambulance approximately one hour after the attack. Initial reports, quickly corrected, stated he had died at his desk at Rockefeller Center. The circumstances received extensive press coverage but diverted attention from his political legacy.[^37] +Rockefeller died on January 26, 1979, of a heart attack at his townhouse at 13 West 54th Street in Manhattan, in the presence of Megan Marshack, a 25-year-old aide who had worked for him during his vice presidency and to whom he had provided financial assistance in purchasing a condominium nearby. After Rockefeller suffered the cardiac event, Marshack called her friend, television journalist Ponchitta Pierce, to the townhouse; Pierce phoned an ambulance approximately one hour after the attack. Initial reports, quickly corrected, stated he had died at his desk at Rockefeller Center. The circumstances received extensive press coverage but diverted attention from his political legacy.[^39] ### The Pocantico Network -The Rockefeller family's 3,600-acre Pocantico Hills estate in Sleepy Hollow, New York, served as both residence and operational headquarters for family strategic planning. The Rockefeller Brothers Fund, co-organized in 1940, became the vehicle for coordinating family philanthropy, "soft" intelligence operations, and policy influence across generations. Nelson used the RBF to channel funds into psychological warfare and counterintelligence programs, with his brother David reluctantly acquiescing to Nelson's demands. The Rockefeller Archive Center, which holds the family papers and is located at Pocantico, holds the primary records for Rockefeller's government and private activities.[^38] +The Rockefeller family's 3,600-acre Pocantico Hills estate in Sleepy Hollow, New York, served as both residence and operational headquarters for family strategic planning. The Rockefeller Brothers Fund, co-organized in 1940, became the vehicle for coordinating family philanthropy, "soft" intelligence operations, and policy influence across generations. Nelson used the RBF to channel funds into psychological warfare and counterintelligence programs, with his brother David reluctantly acquiescing to Nelson's demands. The Rockefeller Archive Center, which holds the family papers and is located at Pocantico, holds the primary records for Rockefeller's government and private activities.[^40] ### Footnotes @@ -133,35 +135,37 @@ The Rockefeller family's 3,600-acre Pocantico Hills estate in Sleepy Hollow, New [^4]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 5 ("The Rites of Political Passage"); Ch. 6 ("Good Neighbors Make Good Allies"); Rockefeller Archive Center biographical summary (director of Creole Petroleum Company from 1935). [^5]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 6; Ch. 13 ("Latin America's First Cold War Coup"). [^6]: Council of National Defense order establishing OCCCRBAR, August 16, 1940; Executive Order 8840, "Establishing the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs in the Executive Office of the President and Defining Its Functions and Duties," July 30, 1941, signed by Franklin D. Roosevelt. Text at The American Presidency Project (presidency.ucsb.edu). Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("The Coordinator"). -[^7]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("Nelson's Grand Alliance"). -[^8]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("The Business Imperative"). -[^9]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("The Secret War for the Skies"). -[^10]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 12 ("Preempting the Cold War"). -[^11]: CIA reading room, "OSS: Memoranda on meetings of the Interdepartmental Committee on Foreign Nationality Problems," CIA-RDP13X00001R000100370009-5, PDF pp. 17-18, 22, 29-30 and 39-41, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp13x00001r000100370009-5. -[^12]: Laura Fermi, Illustrious Immigrants (University of Chicago Press, 1968), p. 284. -[^13]: Hugh Wilford, The Mighty Wurlitzer (Harvard University Press, 2008), pp. 230-231. -[^14]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis, 1941-1945," Studies in Intelligence 45, no. 5 (2001), note 24, quoting Nelson A. Rockefeller to James L. Fly, 29 July 1942, National Archives, RG 262, Entry 68, Box 22. https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol45no5/html/v45i5a04p.htm. Roop, Part I, pp. 158-159, on the 5 March 1942 letter. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. -[^15]: Roop, Part I, pp. 218-219, on Watson's letter of 7 July 1942, and pp. 101-102, on Leigh's letter of 2 January 1943. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. -[^16]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 12 ("Triumph at Chapultepec"); Act of Chapultepec, formally adopted March 6, 1945, at the Inter-American Conference on Problems of War and Peace (Chapultepec Castle, Mexico City, February 21 - March 8, 1945). Text at Avalon Project, Yale Law School (avalon.law.yale.edu). State Department appointment record: "Nelson Aldrich Rockefeller," Office of the Historian, People, Department History (history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/rockefeller-nelson-aldrich), entry on duty December 20, 1944. -[^17]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 12 ("Nelson's Latin American Junta"). -[^18]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 12 ("Roosevelt's Crucial Decision"; "Rekindling the Cold War"). -[^19]: State Department Office of the Historian, "Nelson Aldrich Rockefeller," termination date August 17, 1945 (history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/rockefeller-nelson-aldrich). -[^20]: Rockefeller Archive Center biographical summary (president of AIA 1946-1953, 1957-1958; president of IBEC 1947-1953, 1956-1958). Colby and Dennett, Ch. 13 ("Latin America's First Cold War Coup"); Ch. 14. -[^21]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 13; Introduction (2017). -[^22]: Rockefeller Archive Center biographical summary; Dwight D. Eisenhower, "Letter to Nelson A. Rockefeller Appointing Him Special Assistant to the President," December 15, 1954 (released December 16, 1954), The American Presidency Project (presidency.ucsb.edu). -[^23]: Rowland Hughes memorandum, March 3, 1955 (FRUS 1950-55, Intelligence, Document 210, history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d210); Eisenhower approval, March 10, 1955. NSC 5412, "National Security Council Directive on Covert Operations." Colby and Dennett, Introduction (2017); Ch. 18 ("Ike's Cold War General"). -[^24]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1955-1957, Volume V, Austrian State Treaty; Summit and Foreign Ministers Meetings, 1955*, editorial note preceding document 221, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1955-57v05/d221, stating "Its genesis lies in the Quantico Vulnerabilities Panel which met in June." Document 208 (July 20, 1955, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1955-57v05/d208) lists Rockefeller, Radford, Stassen, Robert B. Anderson and Gruenther as "recent arrivals from Paris" at the President's villa meeting of July 20, 1955. -[^25]: Rockefeller Archive Center, Nelson A. Rockefeller personal papers, Washington, DC, Series O, Special Assistant to the President for Foreign Affairs, Subseries 7, and Activities, Series A ("Quantico III Meeting," 1956), https://dimes.rockarch.org/collections/H45i6yf7MUHuaRwQVupvg5. -[^26]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1955-1957, Volume XIX, National Security Policy*, document 42, editorial note on the Quantico II Panel, pp. 153-154, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1955-57v19/d42. Gives the August 16, 1955 invitations, the twelve members, the November 29 submission, the December 2 letter to the President and the December 5 memorandum "Action Program for Free World Strength." -[^27]: Daniel Morris Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State" (PhD dissertation, Duke University, 2013), p. 265 and note 145, citing James Desmond, *Nelson Rockefeller, a Political Biography* (Macmillan, 1964), p. 151. -[^28]: "Psychological Aspects of United States Strategy: Source Book of Individual Papers," November 1955, CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP86B00269R000300120001-4, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp86b00269r000300120001-4. Preface names Rockefeller as "Special Assistant to the President." -[^29]: Rockefeller Brothers Fund. *Prospect for America: The Rockefeller Panel Reports.* Doubleday, 1961, list of project staff and preface. https://archive.org/details/prospect-for-america-the-rockefeller-panel-reports-rockefeller-brothers-fund-1961 -[^30]: Colby and Dennett, Introduction (2017); Ch. 23 ("Ascent of the Hawk"); Ch. 27. Quantico I panel composition from FRUS 1955-57, Vol. 24, Editorial Note, Document 12 (history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1955-57v24/d12). -[^31]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 28-29. -[^32]: FRUS 1964-1968, Vol. XXXI (South and Central America). Document 12 (March 29, 1964), Ambassador Lincoln Gordon telegram, Rio de Janeiro: Goulart "now definitely engaged on campaign to seize dictatorial power, accepting the active collaboration of the Brazilian Communist Party." Document 15 (April 1, 1964), coup status update. JCS code name "Brother Sam" assigned March 31, 1964 (Document 198, FRUS 1964-68 Vol. XXXI, history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v31). National Security Archive, NSAEBB No. 465 ("Brazil Marks 50th Anniversary of Military Coup"), 2014. Colby and Dennett, Ch. 29 ("Operation Brother Sam"). -[^33]: Nelson A. Rockefeller, "Quality of Life in the Americas" (Report of a Presidential Mission for the Western Hemisphere), 1969. Published in Department of State Bulletin. Colby and Dennett, Ch. 38-40; Appendix A. -[^34]: National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 543, "Gerald Ford White House Altered Rockefeller Commission Report in 1975; Removed Section on CIA Assassination Plots," February 29, 2016, edited by John Prados and Arturo Jimenez-Bacardi (nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/intelligence/2016-02-29/gerald-ford-white-house-altered-rockefeller-commission-report). Documents cited: Document 3 (David W. Belin memorandum to Commission members, "Scope of Commission Investigation - Assassinations," March 10, 1975, Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library); Document 7 (Testimony of CIA General Counsel John Warner, April 14, 1975); Document 15 (Richard Cheney handwritten edits, c. June 1, 1975); Document 19 (86-page suppressed section, "Summary of Facts: Investigation of CIA Involvement in Plans to Assassinate Foreign Leaders," June 5, 1975); Document 21 (Ford letter to Church, October 31, 1975); Document 22 (Church response rejecting suppression request, November 4, 1975). -[^35]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 44 ("Hiding the Family Jewels"); Appendix B. -[^36]: 1974 United States vice presidential confirmation: Senate vote 90-7, December 10, 1974; House vote 287-128, December 19, 1974; sworn in December 19, 1974. -[^37]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 40-44. Death circumstances and location (13 West 54th Street townhouse): "Megan Marshack dies at 70; was with Nelson Rockefeller at his death," *Seattle Times*, October 3, 2024; *New York Times* obituary, January 27, 1979. Marshack died October 2, 2024, at age 70. -[^38]: Colby and Dennett, Introduction (2017); Ch. 13. Rockefeller Archive Center, Sleepy Hollow, New York (rockarch.org). +[^7]: "Rockefeller and Whitney Hire Disney to Make Goodwill Films," *Motion Picture Herald*, January 10, 1942 (selection of Walt Disney by Nelson Rockefeller and John Hay Whitney as first Hollywood producer of films for the goodwill program; South American cartoons to be produced at cost). https://archive.org/details/motionpictureher146unse +[^8]: *Motion Picture Herald*, October 3, 1942 (staff changes at Nelson Rockefeller's Office of Inter-American Affairs: "Francis Alstock, who succeeded John Hay Whitney as director of the motion picture division"). https://archive.org/details/motionpictureher1481unse +[^9]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("Nelson's Grand Alliance"). +[^10]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("The Business Imperative"). +[^11]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("The Secret War for the Skies"). +[^12]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 12 ("Preempting the Cold War"). +[^13]: CIA reading room, "OSS: Memoranda on meetings of the Interdepartmental Committee on Foreign Nationality Problems," CIA-RDP13X00001R000100370009-5, PDF pp. 17-18, 22, 29-30 and 39-41, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp13x00001r000100370009-5. +[^14]: Laura Fermi, Illustrious Immigrants (University of Chicago Press, 1968), p. 284. +[^15]: Hugh Wilford, The Mighty Wurlitzer (Harvard University Press, 2008), pp. 230-231. +[^16]: Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis, 1941-1945," Studies in Intelligence 45, no. 5 (2001), note 24, quoting Nelson A. Rockefeller to James L. Fly, 29 July 1942, National Archives, RG 262, Entry 68, Box 22. https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol45no5/html/v45i5a04p.htm. Roop, Part I, pp. 158-159, on the 5 March 1942 letter. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. +[^17]: Roop, Part I, pp. 218-219, on Watson's letter of 7 July 1942, and pp. 101-102, on Leigh's letter of 2 January 1943. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. +[^18]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 12 ("Triumph at Chapultepec"); Act of Chapultepec, formally adopted March 6, 1945, at the Inter-American Conference on Problems of War and Peace (Chapultepec Castle, Mexico City, February 21 - March 8, 1945). Text at Avalon Project, Yale Law School (avalon.law.yale.edu). State Department appointment record: "Nelson Aldrich Rockefeller," Office of the Historian, People, Department History (history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/rockefeller-nelson-aldrich), entry on duty December 20, 1944. +[^19]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 12 ("Nelson's Latin American Junta"). +[^20]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 12 ("Roosevelt's Crucial Decision"; "Rekindling the Cold War"). +[^21]: State Department Office of the Historian, "Nelson Aldrich Rockefeller," termination date August 17, 1945 (history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/rockefeller-nelson-aldrich). +[^22]: Rockefeller Archive Center biographical summary (president of AIA 1946-1953, 1957-1958; president of IBEC 1947-1953, 1956-1958). Colby and Dennett, Ch. 13 ("Latin America's First Cold War Coup"); Ch. 14. +[^23]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 13; Introduction (2017). +[^24]: Rockefeller Archive Center biographical summary; Dwight D. Eisenhower, "Letter to Nelson A. Rockefeller Appointing Him Special Assistant to the President," December 15, 1954 (released December 16, 1954), The American Presidency Project (presidency.ucsb.edu). +[^25]: Rowland Hughes memorandum, March 3, 1955 (FRUS 1950-55, Intelligence, Document 210, history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d210); Eisenhower approval, March 10, 1955. NSC 5412, "National Security Council Directive on Covert Operations." Colby and Dennett, Introduction (2017); Ch. 18 ("Ike's Cold War General"). +[^26]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1955-1957, Volume V, Austrian State Treaty; Summit and Foreign Ministers Meetings, 1955*, editorial note preceding document 221, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1955-57v05/d221, stating "Its genesis lies in the Quantico Vulnerabilities Panel which met in June." Document 208 (July 20, 1955, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1955-57v05/d208) lists Rockefeller, Radford, Stassen, Robert B. Anderson and Gruenther as "recent arrivals from Paris" at the President's villa meeting of July 20, 1955. +[^27]: Rockefeller Archive Center, Nelson A. Rockefeller personal papers, Washington, DC, Series O, Special Assistant to the President for Foreign Affairs, Subseries 7, and Activities, Series A ("Quantico III Meeting," 1956), https://dimes.rockarch.org/collections/H45i6yf7MUHuaRwQVupvg5. +[^28]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1955-1957, Volume XIX, National Security Policy*, document 42, editorial note on the Quantico II Panel, pp. 153-154, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1955-57v19/d42. Gives the August 16, 1955 invitations, the twelve members, the November 29 submission, the December 2 letter to the President and the December 5 memorandum "Action Program for Free World Strength." +[^29]: Daniel Morris Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State" (PhD dissertation, Duke University, 2013), p. 265 and note 145, citing James Desmond, *Nelson Rockefeller, a Political Biography* (Macmillan, 1964), p. 151. +[^30]: "Psychological Aspects of United States Strategy: Source Book of Individual Papers," November 1955, CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP86B00269R000300120001-4, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp86b00269r000300120001-4. Preface names Rockefeller as "Special Assistant to the President." +[^31]: Rockefeller Brothers Fund. *Prospect for America: The Rockefeller Panel Reports.* Doubleday, 1961, list of project staff and preface. https://archive.org/details/prospect-for-america-the-rockefeller-panel-reports-rockefeller-brothers-fund-1961 +[^32]: Colby and Dennett, Introduction (2017); Ch. 23 ("Ascent of the Hawk"); Ch. 27. Quantico I panel composition from FRUS 1955-57, Vol. 24, Editorial Note, Document 12 (history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1955-57v24/d12). +[^33]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 28-29. +[^34]: FRUS 1964-1968, Vol. XXXI (South and Central America). Document 12 (March 29, 1964), Ambassador Lincoln Gordon telegram, Rio de Janeiro: Goulart "now definitely engaged on campaign to seize dictatorial power, accepting the active collaboration of the Brazilian Communist Party." Document 15 (April 1, 1964), coup status update. JCS code name "Brother Sam" assigned March 31, 1964 (Document 198, FRUS 1964-68 Vol. XXXI, history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v31). National Security Archive, NSAEBB No. 465 ("Brazil Marks 50th Anniversary of Military Coup"), 2014. Colby and Dennett, Ch. 29 ("Operation Brother Sam"). +[^35]: Nelson A. Rockefeller, "Quality of Life in the Americas" (Report of a Presidential Mission for the Western Hemisphere), 1969. Published in Department of State Bulletin. Colby and Dennett, Ch. 38-40; Appendix A. +[^36]: National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 543, "Gerald Ford White House Altered Rockefeller Commission Report in 1975; Removed Section on CIA Assassination Plots," February 29, 2016, edited by John Prados and Arturo Jimenez-Bacardi (nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/intelligence/2016-02-29/gerald-ford-white-house-altered-rockefeller-commission-report). Documents cited: Document 3 (David W. Belin memorandum to Commission members, "Scope of Commission Investigation - Assassinations," March 10, 1975, Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library); Document 7 (Testimony of CIA General Counsel John Warner, April 14, 1975); Document 15 (Richard Cheney handwritten edits, c. June 1, 1975); Document 19 (86-page suppressed section, "Summary of Facts: Investigation of CIA Involvement in Plans to Assassinate Foreign Leaders," June 5, 1975); Document 21 (Ford letter to Church, October 31, 1975); Document 22 (Church response rejecting suppression request, November 4, 1975). +[^37]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 44 ("Hiding the Family Jewels"); Appendix B. +[^38]: 1974 United States vice presidential confirmation: Senate vote 90-7, December 10, 1974; House vote 287-128, December 19, 1974; sworn in December 19, 1974. +[^39]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 40-44. Death circumstances and location (13 West 54th Street townhouse): "Megan Marshack dies at 70; was with Nelson Rockefeller at his death," *Seattle Times*, October 3, 2024; *New York Times* obituary, January 27, 1979. Marshack died October 2, 2024, at age 70. +[^40]: Colby and Dennett, Introduction (2017); Ch. 13. Rockefeller Archive Center, Sleepy Hollow, New York (rockarch.org). diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Oliver Hazard Payne.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Oliver Hazard Payne.md new file mode 100644 index 00000000..08522831 --- /dev/null +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Oliver Hazard Payne.md @@ -0,0 +1,325 @@ +--- +category: "Business & Finance" +aliases: + - "Oliver Hazard Payne" + - "Oliver H. Payne" + - "Oliver Payne" + - "Col. Oliver H. Payne" + - "Colonel Oliver H. Payne" + - "Colonel Payne" + - "O. H. Payne" +tags: + - Person + - Payne + - StandardOil + - Whitney + - Yale + - AmericanTobacco + - TennesseeCoal + - Philanthropy + - Cleveland + - CivilWar +summary: "Standard Oil treasurer and trustee, uncle of Payne Whitney and son of Ohio senator Henry B. Payne, who sat on the boards of American Tobacco and Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad." +born: 1839 +died: 1917 +location: "Cleveland, Ohio; New York City" +relations: + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Standard Oil]]" + role: "treasurer until 1884" + end: 1884 + fn: 12 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Standard Oil]]" + start: 1884 + role: "board of directors after 1884 per the Yale record; the Evening World reported that he withdrew from the directorates after the antitrust decrees" + fn: 12 + - type: participant_in + with: "[[South Improvement Company]]" + start: 1872 + role: "stockholder, 180 shares" + fn: 15 + - type: participant_in + with: "[[Standard Oil Trust]]" + start: 1882 + end: 1885 + role: "trustee in the first term of the 1882 trust agreement" + fn: 17 + - type: subject_of + with: "[[Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States]]" + start: 1911 + role: "named among the seven individual defendants" + fn: 19 + - type: director_of + with: "[[American Tobacco Company]]" + role: "director, per Yale obituary record" + fn: 50 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Company]]" + role: "director, per Yale obituary record" + fn: 50 + - type: subject_of + with: "[[United States v. American Tobacco Co.]]" + start: 1911 + role: "named among the individual defendants" + fn: 51 + - type: participant_in + with: "[[Moore & Schley]]" + start: 1907 + role: "member of the Tennessee Coal syndicate (10,300 shares per the committee counsel's list), creditor of the firm and lender of securities to it" + fn: 53 + - type: participant_in + with: "[[124th Ohio Infantry]]" + start: 1861 + end: 1865 + role: "first lieutenant, then lieutenant colonel and colonel; brevet brigadier general of volunteers March 13, 1865" + fn: 9 + - type: funded + with: "[[Cornell University Medical College]]" + role: "gifts, including $4,000,000 per the Weill Cornell history, and a bequest of a permanent endowment of $500,000" + fn: 76 + - type: funded + with: "[[Yale University]]" + end: 1917 + role: "bequest of one million dollars by will" + fn: 82 + - type: funded + with: "[[New York Public Library]]" + end: 1917 + role: "bequest of one million dollars by will" + fn: 82 + - type: funded + with: "[[Lakeside Hospital]]" + end: 1917 + role: "bequest of one million dollars by will" + fn: 82 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Henry B. Payne]]" + role: "son" + fn: 6 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Flora Payne]]" + role: "sister" + fn: 2 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[William Collins Whitney]]" + role: "brother-in-law" + fn: 2 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Payne Whitney]]" + role: "uncle" + fn: 3 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Harry Payne Whitney]]" + role: "uncle" + fn: 2 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Dorothy Payne Whitney]]" + role: "uncle" + fn: 3 +created: 2026-10-26 +updated: 2026-10-26 +--- + +Oliver Hazard Payne (July 21, 1839 to June 27, 1917) was a Cleveland oil refiner who served as treasurer of [[Standard Oil]] until 1884 and then sat on its board in New York. He was the son of [[Henry B. Payne]], a United States senator from Ohio, and the brother of [[Flora Payne]], who married [[William Collins Whitney]]. He entered [[Yale University]] with the class of 1863 and left in October 1861 for the Union Army.[^1] His sister Flora was the mother of his nephews [[Payne Whitney]] and [[Harry Payne Whitney]], who were sons of the [[Whitney family]].[^2][^3] + +[[Antony C. Sutton]], in his book on [[Skull and Bones]], placed the Payne family under Standard Oil among the families of new wealth in his chart "Hypothesis Number One," beside the old-line Whitney family.[^4] Sutton wrote that William C. Whitney "married Flora Payne, daughter of Standard Oil Treasurer Oliver Payne," and that adding "the Payne piece of the Standard Oil fortune made Whitney's fortune that much larger."[^5] Payne Whitney's Yale record gives his mother as Flora Payne, and Oliver Payne's Yale record lists one of his sisters as the wife of William Collins Whitney.[^2][^3] + +### Early life and Yale + +Payne was born in [[Cleveland, Ohio|Cleveland]] on July 21, 1839, the son of Henry B. Payne and Mary (Perry) Payne, a daughter of Nathan Perry.[^1] The Yale record gives his father's career as a Cleveland lawyer for twelve years, a member of the Ohio Senate from 1849 to 1851, the Democratic candidate for United States Senate in 1851 and for governor in 1857, a member of the Forty-fourth Congress, a candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination in 1880 and 1884, and a United States senator from 1885 to 1891.[^6] Oliver Payne was prepared for Yale at [[Phillips Academy]] in Andover, Massachusetts.[^7] + +He remained in the class of 1863 only until October 1861, when he left to accept a commission as first lieutenant in the [[124th Ohio Infantry]].[^7] The Yale Corporation voted him the degree of B.A. in 1878, and from that date he was enrolled in the class of 1863.[^8] His brother, [[Henry W. Payne]], graduated from Yale in 1867 and died in 1878. One of his sisters, Flora Payne, was the wife of William Collins Whitney (Yale 1863), and another was the wife of [[Charles W. Bingham]] (Yale 1868); a niece was the wife of Dudley S. Blossom (Yale 1901).[^2][^3] The Yale record states that he never married.[^2] + +### Civil War service + +The Yale record says that Payne rose to the rank of colonel in the 124th Ohio and that on March 13, 1865 he was brevetted brigadier general of volunteers.[^9] The Heitman register of Army officers gives the regiment and dates in more detail. It lists him as lieutenant colonel of the 124th Ohio Infantry from September 11, 1862, colonel from January 1, 1863, and brevet brigadier general of volunteers from March 13, 1865 for faithful and meritorious service, with a resignation dated November 2, 1864.[^10] The Yale record says that he returned to Cleveland "after completing his service in the Army."[^11] The two records agree on the March 13, 1865 brevet. They differ on whether his service ended in 1864 or 1865. + +### Cleveland refining and the Standard Oil combination + +After leaving the Army, Payne entered the oil refining business in Cleveland with [[James B. Clark]]. [[John Huntington]] later became a partner.[^12] The Yale record says that the business was absorbed by the Standard Oil Company, that Payne was its treasurer until 1884, when he removed to New York City, and that he had been on its board of directors since.[^12] The [[Encyclopedia of Cleveland History]] names the firm as Clark, Payne & Co., describes it as the largest Cleveland competitor of the Rockefeller, Andrews and Flagler firm, and says it merged into the Standard Oil Company in 1872, with Payne becoming its treasurer.[^13] + +[[Ida M. Tarbell]] wrote that Payne was "one of the thirteen original members of the South Improvement Company," and "one of the rare Cleveland refiners who had a strong enough stomach to go into the Standard Oil Company when it swept up the oil trade of Cleveland in 1872."[^14] Her list of the South Improvement Company's stockholders gives "O. H. Payne, Cleveland" 180 shares, the same holding as [[Henry M. Flagler|H. M. Flagler]], [[William Rockefeller]] and [[John D. Rockefeller]]. She wrote that Payne and [[J. A. Bostwick]] "soon after became stockholders in the Standard Oil Company."[^15] + +Tarbell also described Payne as treasurer in the House inquiry of 1879. She wrote that the Committee on Commerce summoned "O. H. Payne, treasurer of the Standard Oil Company" with the railroad officers, and that Payne "refused also to furnish the committee with information."[^16] She names his father as an ally in the same matter: "Congressman H. B. Payne, of Cleveland," through whose good offices the matter was referred to that committee.[^16] + +### The 1882 trust and the trustees + +The trust agreement of January 2, 1882 vested the stock of the Standard Oil companies in nine trustees, under what is called here the [[Standard Oil Trust]]. The Ohio Supreme Court reproduced the agreement in its 1892 decision in the state's suit. It named as trustees for the first term, ending in April 1885, "J. D. Rockefeller, O. H. Payne and Wm. Rockefeller," together with "J. A. Bostwick, H. M. Flagler and W. G. Warden," and "Chas. Pratt, Benj. Brewster and Jno. D. Archbold."[^17] The same decision lists "O. H. Payne, trustee" among the holders of trust stock.[^18] Two of the nine places went to members of the [[Rockefeller family]], John D. and William Rockefeller. + +In the Supreme Court's 1911 decision in the government's suit, the seven individual defendants were John D. Rockefeller, William Rockefeller, [[Henry H. Rogers]], Henry M. Flagler, [[John D. Archbold]], Oliver H. Payne and [[Charles M. Pratt]].[^19] The Court's statement of the trust agreement names the same trustees as the Ohio decision.[^19] + +### The 1884 Ohio Senate election of Henry B. Payne + +The Ohio legislature elected Henry B. Payne to the United States Senate in January 1884, after the Democratic caucus of January 8, 1884 gave him 46 votes on the first ballot, against 17 for Durbin Ward, 15 for George H. Pendleton and one for Booth.[^20] His credentials were received in the Senate, and he took his oath on March 4, 1885.[^21] + +Tarbell wrote that the Payne candidacy was promoted at the Neil House in Columbus by his son, "Oliver H. Payne, at that time treasurer of the Standard Oil Company," and by "Colonel Thompson, a prominent personage in the same concern." She wrote that a rumour held that Oliver Payne said the election cost him $100,000, and that it was claimed that a check for $65,000 had been cashed in Cleveland by a man prominent in the Payne boom and spent in Columbus.[^22] Tarbell quoted newspapers that blamed the Standard for the result, among them the Butler County Democrat, the Columbus Times, and a New York Sun letter headed "Was Payne's Election Bought?"[^23] + +A Republican legislature took office in January 1886. On January 13, 1886 the Ohio House of Representatives adopted a resolution creating a select committee of five (Thomas A. Cowgill, chairman, George C. Rawlins, Emmett Tompkins, Charles M. Le Blond and E. B. Hubbard) to inquire into charges that the Cincinnati Commercial-Gazette had printed on the authority of S. K. Donavin against four named House members.[^24] The committee took the testimony of fifty-five witnesses between January 20 and April 6, 1886, and the testimony and the committee's reports were laid before the United States Senate on April 27, 1886 and printed as Senate Miscellaneous Document No. 106.[^24] + +The testimony, as printed, names Oliver Payne and officers of the Standard Oil Company in the following passages. + +L. A. Russell, a Cleveland lawyer and Democrat, testified that on the afternoon of the caucus he watched members of the legislature go from the Payne headquarters in room 32 of the Neil House to the room of David R. Paige, "where Colonel Oliver Payne and Colonel Thompson were most of the time or at least where I frequently saw them as I passed."[^25] Asked whether he recognized "the principal officers of the great corporation known as the Standard Oil Company" among the leading workers for Henry B. Payne, Russell answered: "there was Oliver H. Payne, Henry B. Payne's son, who was the leader and manager of the Payne forces. At least that was our understanding at the time that he was, and was certainly supposed to be by anybody that knew anything about the way matters were conducted here. Oliver Payne was at that time treasurer of the Standard Oil Company." He added that Thompson "was employed by the company in some capacity at that time" and "has since been made treasurer himself, since Payne's resignation."[^26] + +L. C. Cole, a Democratic member of the legislature, testified: "The Standard Oil Company, with its officers and workers, were here in force. The secretary and the treasurer of the company were here, and there was the unlimited use of money to bring the friends of every member of the legislature here from their own county for the purpose of laboring with them to support Mr. Payne." Cole said that his own conjecture was that the result was brought about "not by corrupting members, not by purchasing them, but by the unlimited use of money to bring men here upon the ground, and to be kept here and to nurse these members."[^27] + +James Boyle, the Commercial-Gazette correspondent, testified that a member from Hamilton County told him he had dined at the Neil House "on tickets which were distributed by the hundred by Oliver H. Payne, and the men associated with him in the election of his father." Boyle also testified that Representative L. A. Bruner told him that the only thing he received was a promise from Oliver Payne of help if he needed it, and later that he had "either borrowed or got Mr. Payne to indorse a note" for about $3,500.[^28] Boyle described two members elected as workingmen's representatives who arrived at the Neil House "with some gentlemen who were pointed out to me by residents of Columbus as officers of the Standard Oil Company," Thompson and, he believed, Huntington.[^29] W. A. Taylor testified that "Mr. Huntington and Mr. Thompson and others of the Standard Oil Company" were "here who were the most prominent figures in the canvass."[^30] + +D. C. Coolman, a Parkersburg banker, testified that Paige deposited between ten and twelve thousand dollars with his firm in 1883 and drew drafts on it to county committees across Ohio. Asked whether he had heard that Oliver Payne contributed to the fund, he answered: "I know that Oliver Payne contributed some, but I don't know how much."[^31] + +W. L. Matthews, a member of the legislature, testified that Bruner told him that Oliver Payne asked him to come to Cleveland, asked whom he would support if Converse did not run, and then "wrote out a check for $150" with the request that he go to Washington and see Converse.[^32] S. K. Donavin testified to a report that Bruner said "he borrowed $3,500 from Col. Oliver Payne, and that it was given him on account of services that he had time and again rendered the family."[^33] Bruner did not testify before the committee.[^34] + +James E. Fisher, a newspaper correspondent, testified that he published a list of members said to have been paid, and that "one day when I was in Cleveland the Standard Oil Company, or Col. Oliver Payne, said he didn't approve of lists being published, and I never published any lists after that." Fisher said the list "was guess-work, or a good part of it was."[^35] + +Other witnesses gave testimony that did not support the charges. Joseph W. Brewster, who testified that he knew Oliver Payne and slept in the room of John R. McLean, a Payne supporter, testified that he saw no money paid and heard no discussion of the use of money; he said Payne's conversation with him "was on the general subjects of politics, with a view to give me a very favorable opinion of himself as always having rewarded his friends."[^36] Asked whether he ever received money from Colonel Oliver Payne, the witness George L. Johnson answered, "No, sir; I never received a dollar," and the witness W. H. McLyman said he "had my mind fully made up to vote for Mr. Payne before I ever saw Oliver."[^37] + +The majority of the select committee (Cowgill, Rawlins and Tompkins) found that the charges against the four named members were not sustained. They reported "a general concurrence of testimony" that Henry B. Payne's candidacy was not publicly announced until well after the October 1883 election, that suspicion of illegal means was prevalent and "in many instances amounted almost to conviction," and that there were "numerous remarkable changes, difficult to account for without assuming the use of unusual inducements." They reported that "leading actors in behalf of the successful candidate" had "kept themselves beyond the jurisdiction of the House and the process of the committee," and recommended that the testimony be sent to the Senate.[^38] The minority (Le Blond and Hubbard) found nothing "whatever to cast any reflection" on the four members and reported that the testimony created no suspicion against Henry B. Payne's election.[^39] + +Ex-Lieutenant Governor Mueller's account of the Paige room, which Hall repeated to the committee, ended with Mueller telling Henry B. Payne that money was in use, and with Payne's reply: "You don't suppose I would indorse anything of that kind, do you?"[^40] Henry B. Payne wrote to the chairman on January 22, 1886, "My private correspondence and books of account will be cheerfully submitted to your inspection if you desire it." Cowgill replied on January 25 that if any testimony tending to inculpate Payne was received, his request to appear before the committee would be granted.[^41] + +[[Henry Demarest Lloyd]], in *Wealth Against Commonwealth* (1894), wrote that the Ohio memorialists, John Little and [[Benjamin Butterworth]], presented to the Senate committee charges that "among the chief managers of Mr. Payne's canvass, and those who controlled its financial operations, were four of the principal members in Ohio of the oil trust: its treasurer, the vice-president of one of its most important subordinate companies, its Cincinnati representative, and another." Lloyd wrote that one of the four "carried $65,000 with him, 'next to his skin,' to Columbus," that the cashier of a Cleveland bank would testify that the money was procured on a check given by the treasurer of the oil combination, and that "the treasurer of the oil trust and other wealthy Democrats" contributed $10,000 to $13,500 before the legislative election. He also wrote: "No charge was made to connect Senator Payne personally with the corruption."[^42] Lloyd wrote that the Senate committee voted against investigating, "Senators Pugh, Saulsbury, Vance, and Eustis voting against Hoar and Frye."[^43] + +[[Albert H. Walker]], a Hartford lawyer, wrote in a pamphlet of 1886 that Oliver Payne's payment of $150 to Bruner and the later "loan" of $3,500 to him called for "a thorough investigation of the true character" of the advance, and he called the $150 payment "an undeniable case of bribery." Walker noted that Bruner "did not himself testify before the committee."[^44] + +The Senate referred the Ohio papers to its Committee on Privileges and Elections on May 11, 1886.[^21] The Ohio Senate's resolution of May 14, 1886 stated that the election "was procured and brought about by the corrupt use of money paid to or for the benefit of divers and sundry members" of the legislature, and on May 18, 1886 the Ohio House adopted a resolution that the testimony warranted the belief that the seat "was purchased by the corrupt use of money."[^45] The committee's report of July 15, 1886, submitted by [[James L. Pugh]] for four Democratic members, held that the testimony taken by the Ohio House was "merely cumulative and speculative" and that it did not justify an investigation. The majority recommended that the Senate make no further investigation.[^46] Three Republican members, [[Henry M. Teller]], [[William M. Evarts]] and [[John A. Logan]], submitted separate views recommending against an investigation, on the ground that the testimony showed no fraud, corruption or bribery affecting the votes "in the caucus or in the legislature" sufficiently to vitiate the election.[^47] According to the Senate's historical summary, a minority of two Republicans urged an investigation. On July 23, 1886 the Senate voted 44 to 17 to drop the matter.[^21] + +Tarbell quoted [[George F. Hoar]], who said, "The most unfortunate fact in the history of the Senate," and she wrote that the failure to investigate "rather intensified the convictions that Payne's seat was bought by the Standard Oil Company."[^48] She also wrote that "It was never proved that his seat was bought," and that "In the minds of great numbers this silence was a confession of guilt."[^49] + +### Directorships: American Tobacco and Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad + +Yale lists his directorships as the [[American Tobacco Company]], the Virginia and Southeastern Railway Company, the Coal Creek Mining and Manufacturing Company, and the [[Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Company]].[^50] The Supreme Court's 1911 opinion in the government's suit against American Tobacco lists "Oliver H. Payne" among the twenty-nine individual defendants.[^51] The same opinion states that before the merger that created the American Tobacco Company, the [[Consolidated Tobacco Company]] had acquired nearly all the common shares of the old American and Continental companies, and that "a majority of whose $40,000,000 share capital was held by J. B. Duke, Thomas F. Ryan, William C. Whitney, Anthony N. Brady, Peter A. B. Widener, and Oliver H. Payne."[^51] The list includes William C. Whitney, Payne's brother-in-law. + +The *Evening World* of New York wrote at his death that Payne and his father had lent John D. Rockefeller the capital that started him in the oil business, that Payne was one of the largest Standard Oil stockholders and was heavily interested in American Tobacco and in railroads, and that after the government's antitrust suits had reorganized the Standard Oil and tobacco "trusts" he withdrew from the directorates.[^52] + +### The Tennessee Coal syndicate and the 1907 panic + +The House Committee on Investigation of United States Steel Corporation, chaired by [[Augustus Owsley Stanley]], took testimony in 1911 and 1912 on the acquisition of the Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Company by the [[United States Steel Corporation]] in November 1907. The firm of [[Moore & Schley]] held a majority of the Tennessee Coal stock on behalf of a syndicate that included Payne.[^53] + +[[J. W. Gates]] testified that "the majority of the stock was bought by a syndicate. Col. Oliver Payne was in that syndicate, and I think Mr. J. B. Duke and Mr. E. J. Berwind." Gates put the syndicate at "in the neighborhood of 200,000 shares, perhaps more," and said that "in the original participation, I think Payne, Kessler, Berwind, Schley, Duke, and myself each had 18,000 shares."[^54] In the testimony of [[Elbert H. Gary]], chairman of United States Steel, the committee's counsel, Mr. Littleton, read a list of the syndicate: "O. H. Payne, who had 10,300 shares," with [[L. C. Hanna]], [[J. B. Duke]], [[E. J. Berwind]], Gates, [[A. N. Brady]], [[G. A. Kessler]], [[Oakleigh Thorne]] and [[G. B. Schley]], each with the same number, and smaller holdings for the rest, a total of 118,300 shares. Gary answered that the list was correct "except I do not think Kessler was in the original syndicate."[^55] A report of the Senate Committee on the Judiciary in 1909 (Senators Culberson, Kittredge, Overman, Rayner, Bacon, Nelson and Foraker), reprinted in the hearings, printed the same list under the heading O. H. Payne 10,300 and stated that in 1905 a number of persons at the suggestion of Grant B. Schley purchased a controlling interest in the company.[^56] + +[[Lewis Cass Ledyard]], a New York lawyer, testified that he had been Payne's counsel "for many years, and am still," and that Payne "had retired from active business many years ago." Ledyard testified: "within the last week of October, 1907, Col. Payne said to me that the firm of Moore & Schley were very largely indebted to him, and that he was very much concerned over their condition." Payne told him that "he did not see any way for Moore & Schley to be saved, except through the acquisition of that stock by the United States Steel Corporation," that the stock "could be best brought to the attention of the United States Steel Corporation through Mr. Morgan," and that "he intended to suggest to Mr. Schley that I be asked to see Mr. Morgan."[^57] Ledyard described the loans: "Col. Payne would lend them Northern Pacific and Great Northern and standard railroad stock, and they would secure that by giving him uncurrent and unactive securities." He testified that Payne had a million dollars of profit out of the transactions, was "quite angry at having a profit," and asked him to cancel them.[^58] Ledyard testified that Payne held 25,000 shares of Tennessee Coal, 10,000 of his own and 15,000 received from Moore and Schley as collateral, that the shares were turned into United States Steel bonds, and that Payne loaned those bonds to Moore and Schley, who "again had an extra $2,500,000."[^59] He testified that his object was "to save Col. Payne's very large interest in that house as a creditor."[^60] Ledyard also testified that Morgan proposed that three men, one of them Payne, put up securities with [[J. P. Morgan & Co.|J. P. Morgan and Company]] against a cash credit of a million dollars each, to be used in Morgan's discretion to support Moore and Schley, and that "Col. Payne has his credit of a million dollars for the purpose."[^61] + +The Republican minority's supplementary report, signed by H. O. Young, states that "Col. Oliver H. Payne, one of the syndicate, who was a warm friend of Mr. Schley, loaned Mr. Schley, for the use of Moore & Schley, from $6,000,000 to $8,000,000 of standard securities to use in supporting their loans, taking as security therefor uncurrent securities of Moore & Schley." The loan was later changed into an exchange. The report states that Payne, "becoming alarmed at the situation, urged Mr. Schley to dispose of his Tennessee Coal, Iron & Railroad Co. stock as the only possible means of relief," that this urging "continued for about a month," and that "at Col. Payne's solicitation Mr. Schley finally sent for Mr. Ledyard, and asked him to go and see Mr. J. P. Morgan." It records Ledyard's account of the meeting with Morgan on the day after October 31, 1907, that Morgan telephoned Gary and [[Henry Clay Frick]], and that Gary "expressed great reluctance to buy the stock, saying it was not worth over $60 or $65 per share."[^62] The same report states that Payne, Baker, president of the First National Bank of New York, and one other tendered $1,000,000 each of securities to Morgan.[^63] The majority report of the committee (Stanley) states that Schley, with "$6,000,000 or $7,000,000 of current securities, the property of O. H. Payne, in his possession, had hypothecated them to save his imperiled credit, and had afterwards given Payne 'uncurrent' securities in their stead."[^64] The majority report quotes Ledyard that "Col. Payne, who had a lot of this stock did not want to sell it."[^65] + +Gary testified before the Stanley committee: "Commodore Ledyard was the counsel of Col. Oliver Payne. Payne was one of the syndicate members. I understood that Mr. Schley, or Moore & Schley, were indebted to Col. Payne in a considerable amount," and that Ledyard "was acting for and in behalf of the interests of Mr. Schley, because that would benefit Mr. Payne, who was a creditor of Moore & Schley."[^66] Of the sale, Gary said: "Mr. Ledyard was the attorney of Col. Payne. Col. Payne was one of the customers of Moore & Schley and, I think, was a large creditor of Moore & Schley. ... It was he who first suggested, I think, the possibility of the United States Steel Corporation buying the stock." Gary also said: "we had nothing to do except to accept the statement of Commodore Ledyard that Moore & Schley could be relieved only by the purchase of the securities of the syndicate, represented, in the way I have suggested, through Col. Payne, and from him through his lawyer, Mr. Ledyard."[^67] Gary also said that "Commodore Ledyard said Mr. Payne would provide a million dollars, and other parties, I remember, about two millions more," and that United States Steel then offered to add a loan of five or six million dollars.[^68] + +On November 4, 1907 President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] wrote to Attorney General [[Charles J. Bonaparte]] that Gary and Frick had called on him on behalf of the Steel Corporation, that a business firm "will undoubtedly fail this week if help is not given," that "among its assets are a majority of the securities of the Tennessee Coal Co.," and that "I answered that while of course I could not advise them to take the action proposed, I felt it no public duty of mine to interpose any objection." In his message to the Senate of January 6, 1909 he wrote that "I was personally cognizant of and responsible for its every detail."[^69] The seven senators on the Judiciary Committee who signed the 1909 views wrote: "In our opinion the President permitted and sanctioned the acquisition and merger."[^70] + +### Yachting and residence + +The Yale record says that each summer from 1898 to 1914 Payne went to Europe in his steam yacht [[Aphrodite]], and that the war led him to confine his cruising to American waters.[^71] A news dispatch of July 7, 1917 described the yacht as then "in commission for the federal government."[^72] Payne lived in New York City, where he died at his home.[^73] + +### Philanthropy + +The Yale obituary names his most notable gifts as those to the Cornell Medical School, and it records that in 1887 he endowed the Loomis Laboratory, "an institution organized for the promotion of original research in chemistry, biology, and pathology."[^74] The obituary also lists gifts to the University of Virginia, Western Reserve University, the New York University Medical College and the Post-Graduate Hospital of New York City.[^75] + +The Weill Cornell Medicine history of the medical center states that after the affiliation agreement between Cornell University Medical College and the Society of the New York Hospital, "the college's benefactor, Oliver Hazard Payne, donated $4,000,000 to Cornell University Medical College."[^76] The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History puts his anonymous lifetime gifts at "more than $8 million."[^77] + +### Death, will and estate + +Payne died at his home in New York City on June 27, 1917, after an illness of eight months due to spinal rheumatism, and was buried in Cleveland.[^78] The *Evening World* of June 28, 1917 reported his death in his town house and described him as a bachelor and the brother of the first wife of William C. Whitney, Secretary of the Navy under President Cleveland.[^79] + +According to the news dispatch of July 7, 1917, his will left cash bequests of more than $7,000,000 to charitable and educational institutions, the largest being $1,000,000 each to Lakeside Hospital in Cleveland, Yale University and the New York Public Library, and a permanent endowment of $500,000 to Cornell University Medical College.[^80] The *Evening World* of July 7, 1917 listed further bequests of $200,000 each to St. Vincent's Charity Hospital in Cleveland, the Cleveland Jewish Orphan Asylum, Hamilton College and the University of Virginia, and a bequest to Phillips Academy.[^81] The Yale obituary states that the bequests of a million dollars each to Yale, the New York Public Library and Lakeside Hospital were made by will.[^82] The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History lists the Lakeside gift among his gifts and bequests.[^77] + +The same dispatches state that Payne Whitney received most of the household and personal effects, including the yacht Aphrodite, Greenwood Plantation at Thomasville, Georgia, and all real estate except a country place in Ulster County, which went with a legacy of $2,000,000 to his nephew Harry Payne Bingham, and that Harry Payne Whitney received a painting of Payne. Lewis Cass Ledyard, one of the executors, was bequeathed $100,000.[^80] The *Evening World* wrote that the residue of the estate went equally to nephews and nieces: Payne Whitney, [[Pauline Whitney Paget]] (who had died the previous fall, leaving two daughters), Harry Payne Bingham, William Bingham 2d, Elizabeth R. Blossom and [[Frances Payne Bolton|Frances Bolton]].[^81] The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History gives the estate as estimated at $190 million and says it was distributed, after the bequests, among nieces and nephews.[^83] + +According to the Washington Daily News, which reported the New York appraisal of Payne Whitney's estate in November 1928, the larger part of that estate was a half interest in the [[Northern Finance Corporation]]. The paper said the holding grew from a fund set aside by Payne Whitney's uncle, Col. Oliver H. Payne, whom it described as a director of Standard Oil of New Jersey, and who established the fund to be relieved of the care of large blocks of Standard Oil and subsidiary stocks and of tobacco shares.[^84] + +### Payne Whitney, Harry Payne Whitney and the Whitney line + +Payne Whitney, born in New York City on March 20, 1876, was the son of William Collins Whitney and Flora Payne. He graduated from Yale in 1898. The Yale obituary lists him as a member of "Hé Boulé, Delta Kappa Epsilon, and Skull and Bones."[^3] He took an LL.B. at Harvard in 1901, was a director of the [[Great Northern Paper Company]], and was director and vice president of the Northern Finance Corporation from 1911 until 1927.[^3] He married [[Helen Hay Whitney|Helen Hay]], daughter of [[John Hay]], in 1902, and gave $2,000,000 to the New York Public Library in 1923.[^3] He died in [[Manhasset, New York]] on May 25, 1927.[^3] + +The Weill Cornell history says that Payne Whitney's will provided $12,400,000 for the New York Hospital, $6,200,000 for the Payne Whitney Psychiatric Clinic and $2,800,000 for the medical college.[^76] Oliver Payne's gifts to Cornell University Medical College and his nephew's bequest to the same medical center therefore appear in one institution's history. + +Harry Payne Whitney, Yale 1894, is the other nephew of Oliver Payne named in the Yale record.[^2] Sutton's text gives the two brothers as Harry Payne ('94) and Payne Whitney ('98) and states that they "went to Yale and became members of The Order." His index of members by class year prints them in reverse order, listing Payne Whitney as 1894 and Harry Payne Whitney as 1898.[^85] The Yale records give Harry Payne Whitney 1894 and Payne Whitney 1898.[^2][^3] Sutton wrote that Harry Payne Whitney "inherited two Standard Oil fortunes from the Payne and the Whitney families."[^86] The 1917 Yale entry names a third nephew as [[Henry Payne Bingham]], Yale 1910. The 1927 entry for Payne Whitney calls him "Harry Payne Bingham" and a cousin.[^2][^3] + +[[Dorothy Payne Whitney]], a niece of Oliver Payne and the sister of Payne Whitney, appears in the 1927 record as the sister who married Leonard K. Elmhirst of Yorkshire.[^3] + +### Footnotes + +[^1]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, B.A. 1863, pp. 295 to 296 (birth July 21, 1839; death June 27, 1917; class of 1863; commission in the 124th Ohio; the Standard Oil treasurership and board). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft. +[^2]: Yale, *Obituary Record 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, pp. 295 to 296 (brother Henry W. Payne, Yale 1867, died 1878; sisters Flora, wife of William Collins Whitney, Yale 1863, and the wife of Charles W. Bingham, Yale 1868; nephews Harry Payne Whitney, Yale 1894, Payne Whitney, Yale 1898, and Henry Payne Bingham, Yale 1910; "never married"). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft. +[^3]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased During the Year Ending July 1, 1927*, entry for Payne Whitney, B.A. 1898, pp. 171 to 172 (birth, death, descent, Yale relatives including "Oliver H. Payne, 63" as an uncle and "Harry Payne Bingham, '10" as a cousin, the listing "member Hé Boulé, Delta Kappa Epsilon, and Skull and Bones," the Harvard LL.B., Northern Finance Corporation, the New York Public Library gift of 1923, the marriage to Helen Hay, and survivors including a sister, Mrs. Leonard K. Elmhirst). https://archive.org/details/obituaryrecordof00yale_4. +[^4]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chart "Hypothesis Number One: A Secret Society Dominated By Old Line American Families And New Wealth Has Existed From 1833 To The Present Day," with the spokes WHITNEY FAMILY (1635, Watertown, Mass.), PAYNE FAMILY (Standard Oil) and ROCKEFELLER AND PAYNE (Standard Oil). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones. +[^5]: Sutton (1983), section on the Whitney family, passage beginning "William C. Whitney married Flora Payne, daughter of Standard Oil Treasurer Oliver Payne." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones. +[^6]: Yale, *Obituary Record 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, p. 295 (parents Henry B. Payne and Mary Perry Payne; Henry B. Payne's Ohio Senate service 1849 to 1851, candidacies of 1851, 1857, 1880 and 1884, Forty-fourth Congress, Senate 1885 to 1891). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft. +[^7]: Yale, *Obituary Record 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, p. 295 (preparation at Phillips Academy, Andover; departure from the class in October 1861 for a commission as first lieutenant in the 124th Ohio). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft. +[^8]: Yale, *Obituary Record 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, p. 295 (degree of B.A. voted by the Corporation in 1878; enrolment in the class of 1863 from that date). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft. +[^9]: Yale, *Obituary Record 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, p. 295 (rank of colonel in the 124th Ohio; brevet of brigadier general of volunteers on March 13, 1865). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft. +[^10]: Francis B. Heitman, *Historical Register and Dictionary of the United States Army, from its Organization, September 29, 1789, to March 2, 1903*, vol. 1 (Washington: GPO, 1903), entry "Payne, Oliver Hazard. Ohio." (Lt. col. 124 Ohio inf. September 11, 1862; col. January 1, 1863; brevet brigadier general of volunteers March 13, 1865; resigned November 2, 1864). https://archive.org/details/historicalregist01heitrich. +[^11]: Yale, *Obituary Record 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, p. 295 (return to Cleveland "after completing his service in the Army"). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft. +[^12]: Yale, *Obituary Record 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, pp. 295 to 296 (oil refining with James B. Clark, John Huntington as later partner, treasurer of the Standard Oil Company until 1884 and member of its board thereafter). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft. +[^13]: Encyclopedia of Cleveland History, "Payne, Oliver Hazard," Case Western Reserve University (Clark, Payne & Co.; the 1872 merger into Standard Oil; treasurer). https://case.edu/ech/articles/p/payne-oliver-hazard/. +[^14]: Ida M. Tarbell, *The History of the Standard Oil Company*, vol. 2 (New York: McClure, Phillips, 1904), p. 112 (Payne as one of the thirteen original members of the South Improvement Company, and as one of the Cleveland refiners who joined the Standard in 1872). https://archive.org/details/historyofstandar02tarbuoft. +[^15]: Tarbell, *The History of the Standard Oil Company*, vol. 1 (1904), p. 57 (the South Improvement Company subscription list: "O. H. Payne, Cleveland 180"; "O. H. Payne and J. A. Bostwick, who soon after became stockholders in the Standard Oil Company, also had each 180 shares"). https://archive.org/details/historyofstandar01tarbuoft. +[^16]: Tarbell, *The History of the Standard Oil Company*, vol. 1 (1904), p. 168 (the Committee on Commerce summons of "O. H. Payne, treasurer of the Standard Oil Company," his refusal to furnish information, and the reference of the matter through "Congressman H. B. Payne, of Cleveland"). https://archive.org/details/historyofstandar01tarbuoft. +[^17]: *State, ex rel. Attorney General v. Standard Oil Company*, 49 Ohio St. 137 (1892), statement of the trust agreement of January 2, 1882 (nine trustees; first term to the first Wednesday of April, 1885). https://cite.case.law/ohio-st/49/137/. +[^18]: *State, ex rel. Attorney General v. Standard Oil Company*, 49 Ohio St. 137 (1892), list of holders of trust stock naming "O. H. Payne, trustee." https://cite.case.law/ohio-st/49/137/. +[^19]: *Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States*, 221 U.S. 1 (1911), opinion of White, C.J., statement of the bill and of the decree (the seven individual defendants, including "Oliver H. Payne," and the trust agreement of 1882 with its nine trustees). https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/221/1. +[^20]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Privileges and Elections, Report No. 1490, 49th Cong., 1st sess., July 15, 1886 (submitted by Mr. Pugh), "Ohio Senatorial Election," p. 9 (caucus of January 8, 1884: Booth one vote, Pendleton fifteen, Ward seventeen, Payne forty-six). https://www.senate.gov/about/origins-foundations/electing-appointing-senators/contested-senate-elections/pdf/75_Jul_15_1886_Payne.pdf. +[^21]: U.S. Senate, "Henry B. Payne (Ohio)," Contested Senate Elections (oath March 4, 1885; referral of April 27 and May 11, 1886; reports of July 15, 1886; minority of two Republicans favoring investigation; vote of July 23, 1886, 44 to 17, to drop further investigation). https://www.senate.gov/about/origins-foundations/electing-appointing-senators/contested-senate-elections/075Henry_Payne.htm. The page cites Anne M. Butler and Wendy Wolff, *United States Senate Election, Expulsion, and Censure Cases, 1793-1990*, S. Doc. 103-33 (1995). +[^22]: Tarbell, *The History of the Standard Oil Company*, vol. 2 (1904), pp. 112 to 113 (the Payne boom at the Neil House; "Oliver H. Payne, at that time treasurer of the Standard Oil Company," and "Colonel Thompson"; the rumour of $100,000; the $65,000 check). https://archive.org/details/historyofstandar02tarbuoft. +[^23]: Tarbell, *The History of the Standard Oil Company*, vol. 2 (1904), pp. 113 to 114 (newspaper comment from the Butler County Democrat, the Carroll County Chronicle, the Columbus Times and the New York Sun, "Was Payne's Election Bought?"). https://archive.org/details/historyofstandar02tarbuoft. +[^24]: U.S. Senate, Mis. Doc. No. 106, 49th Cong., 1st sess. (April 27, 1886), "Ohio Senatorial Investigation," pp. 1 to 2 (House resolution No. 28 of January 13, 1886; committee of Cowgill, Rawlins, Tompkins, Le Blond and Hubbard; House resolution No. 75 of April 16, 1886 directing transmission to the Senate) and p. 10 ("fifty-five witnesses have been examined"). https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/SERIALSET-02346_00_00-008-0106-0000. The dates of January 20 to April 6, 1886 for the testimony are from Senate Report No. 1490 (1886), pp. 1 to 3. +[^25]: Senate Mis. Doc. No. 106 (1886), testimony of L. A. Russell, pp. 216 to 217 (the Payne headquarters in room 32 of the Neil House and Paige's room above it on the afternoon of the caucus; Colonel Oliver Payne and Colonel Thompson in the headquarters). The passage is also quoted in the select committee's report, pp. 4 to 5. +[^26]: Senate Mis. Doc. No. 106 (1886), testimony of L. A. Russell, p. 221 (answer on the principal officers of the Standard Oil Company; Oliver Payne as treasurer; Thompson's employment and later treasurership). +[^27]: Senate Mis. Doc. No. 106 (1886), testimony of L. C. Cole, p. 42 (the Standard Oil Company "in force"; the secretary and treasurer present; Cole's own conjecture). The first sentences are quoted in the select committee's report, p. 3. +[^28]: Senate Mis. Doc. No. 106 (1886), testimony of James Boyle, pp. 57 to 58 (Bruner's statements about the promise of help and the note or loan of about $3,500; Cummings and the dinner tickets distributed by Oliver H. Payne), and recalled, p. 60 (Bruner "had either got Mr. Oliver H. Payne to indorse a note, or he had loaned him the money"). +[^29]: Senate Mis. Doc. No. 106 (1886), testimony of James Boyle, p. 61 (Mooney and Roach arriving with gentlemen "pointed out to me by residents of Columbus as officers of the Standard Oil Company. Mr. Thompson was one, and I believe Mr. Huntingdon"). +[^30]: Senate Mis. Doc. No. 106 (1886), testimony of W. A. Taylor, p. 124 ("There was Mr. Huntington and Mr. Thompson and others of the Standard Oil Company here who were the most prominent figures in the canvass"). +[^31]: Senate Mis. Doc. No. 106 (1886), testimony of D. C. Coolman, pp. 62 to 65 (funds deposited by Paige with Coolman & Paige in 1883 and drawn on for county committees; "I know that Oliver Payne contributed some, but I don't know how much," p. 65). +[^32]: Senate Mis. Doc. No. 106 (1886), testimony of W. L. Matthews, pp. 66 to 67 (Bruner's account of the visit to Cleveland, the question about Converse, the check for $150 and the journey to Washington). +[^33]: Senate Mis. Doc. No. 106 (1886), testimony of S. K. Donavin, p. 84 (a report from a person on the cars that Bruner "borrowed $3,500 from Col. Oliver Payne, and that it was given him on account of services that he had time and again rendered the family"). +[^34]: Albert H. Walker, *The Payne Bribery Case and the United States Senate* (Hartford: Clark & Smith, 1886), p. 17 ("Bruner did not himself testify before the committee"). https://archive.org/details/paynebriberycas00walkgoog. +[^35]: Senate Mis. Doc. No. 106 (1886), testimony of James E. Fisher, p. 26 (the Cleveland remark and the list "guess-work"). +[^36]: Senate Mis. Doc. No. 106 (1886), testimony of Joseph W. Brewster, pp. 44 to 46 (rooms; Payne's room "on the first floor, nearly opposite the elevator"; no money seen; Payne's conversation on rewarding friends). +[^37]: Senate Mis. Doc. No. 106 (1886), testimony of George L. Johnson, p. 243 (no money received from Colonel Oliver Payne), and of W. H. McLyman, p. 257 (conversation with Oliver Payne before the caucus; no inducements); testimony of George W. Hull, recalled, p. 115 (no recollection of a conversation with Oliver H. Payne about money). +[^38]: Senate Mis. Doc. No. 106 (1886), report of the select committee majority, pp. 2 to 11 (the charges against the four members "not sustained"; the three points of "general concurrence of testimony"; leading actors "beyond the jurisdiction of the House"; recommendation of transmittal to the Senate, p. 11). +[^39]: Senate Mis. Doc. No. 106 (1886), minority report of the select committee (Le Blond and Hubbard), pp. 12 to 16. +[^40]: Senate Mis. Doc. No. 106 (1886), select committee report, p. 4 (testimony of J. J. Hall repeating the account of ex-Lieutenant Governor Mueller of Paige's room and Henry B. Payne's reply). +[^41]: U.S. Senate, Report No. 1490 (1886), p. 10 (letter of Henry B. Payne to Thomas A. Cowgill, Washington, January 22, 1886; reply of Cowgill, Columbus, January 25, 1886). https://www.senate.gov/about/origins-foundations/electing-appointing-senators/contested-senate-elections/pdf/75_Jul_15_1886_Payne.pdf. +[^42]: Henry Demarest Lloyd, *Wealth Against Commonwealth* (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1894), pp. 374 to 381 (the memorial of Ohio presented by John Little and Benjamin Butterworth; "No charge was made to connect Senator Payne personally with the corruption," p. 377; the four oil trust principals, the $65,000, the Cleveland bank cashier and the $10,000 to $13,500, pp. 377 to 381). Lloyd cites Report No. 1490 and Senate Mis. Doc. No. 106. https://archive.org/details/cu31924079612051. +[^43]: Lloyd, *Wealth Against Commonwealth* (1894), p. 383 (the committee vote). https://archive.org/details/cu31924079612051. +[^44]: Walker, *The Payne Bribery Case and the United States Senate* (1886), pp. 16 to 18 (the case of L. A. Bruner, citing Mis. Doc. 106 at pp. 57, 66 and following). https://archive.org/details/paynebriberycas00walkgoog. +[^45]: U.S. Senate, Report No. 1490 (1886), pp. 1 to 4 and 14 (Ohio Senate resolution of May 14, 1886; Ohio House resolution of May 18, 1886). https://www.senate.gov/about/origins-foundations/electing-appointing-senators/contested-senate-elections/pdf/75_Jul_15_1886_Payne.pdf. +[^46]: U.S. Senate, Report No. 1490 (1886), pp. 6 and 8 (majority of Pugh, Saulsbury, Vance and Eustis: testimony "merely cumulative and speculative"; recommendation that the Senate make no further investigation; requirement of personal participation by the sitting member). +[^47]: U.S. Senate, Report No. 1490 (1886), pp. 12 to 15, "Views of Mr. Teller, Mr. Evarts, and Mr. Logan" (no evidence "which purports to prove that fraud, corruption, or bribery was employed in the election of Mr. Payne" "in the caucus or in the legislature"; recommendation against investigation). https://www.senate.gov/about/origins-foundations/electing-appointing-senators/contested-senate-elections/pdf/75_Jul_15_1886_Payne.pdf. +[^48]: Tarbell, *The History of the Standard Oil Company*, vol. 2 (1904), p. 116 (quotation of Senator Hoar, "The most unfortunate fact in the history of the Senate"; the sentence on the failure to investigate). https://archive.org/details/historyofstandar02tarbuoft. +[^49]: Tarbell, *The History of the Standard Oil Company*, vol. 2 (1904), p. 118 ("It was never proved that his seat was bought"; "In the minds of great numbers this silence was a confession of guilt"). https://archive.org/details/historyofstandar02tarbuoft. +[^50]: Yale, *Obituary Record 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, p. 296 (directorships: American Tobacco Company, Virginia and Southeastern Railway Company, Coal Creek Mining and Manufacturing Company, Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Company). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft. +[^51]: *United States v. American Tobacco Co.*, 221 U.S. 106 (1911), opinion of White, C.J., statement of the defendants (the margin list of twenty-nine individuals, including "Oliver H. Payne") and of the Consolidated Tobacco Company's share holdings before the merger. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/221/106. +[^52]: "O. H. Payne Dies in His Town Home," *The Evening World* (New York), June 28, 1917, p. 15. https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn83030193/1917-06-28/ed-1/?sp=15. +[^53]: U.S. House of Representatives, *Hearings before the Committee on Investigation of United States Steel Corporation*, 62nd Cong., vol. 1 (1911), testimony of Elbert H. Gary, pp. 128 to 129 (Moore & Schley holding a majority of the Tennessee Coal stock for a syndicate). https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste02corpgoog. +[^54]: Hearings, vol. 1, testimony of J. W. Gates, pp. 5 to 6 (Col. Oliver Payne in the syndicate; "in the neighborhood of 200,000 shares, perhaps more"; 18,000 shares each for Payne, Kessler, Berwind, Schley, Duke and Gates). https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste02corpgoog. +[^55]: Hearings, vol. 1, testimony of Elbert H. Gary, pp. 128 to 129 (Mr. Littleton's reading of the syndicate list with "O. H. Payne, who had 10,300 shares"; Gary's answer that Kessler was not in the original syndicate; "118,300 shares"). https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste02corpgoog. +[^56]: Senate Committee on the Judiciary, "Absorption of the Tennessee Coal & Iron Co.," S. Rept. 1110, pt. 2, 60th Cong., 2d sess. (March 2, 1909), views of Messrs. Culberson, Kittredge, Overman, Rayner, Bacon, Nelson and Foraker, reprinted in *Hearings before the Committee on Investigation of United States Steel Corporation*, vol. 2 (1911), pp. 1124 to 1125 (the 1905 purchase "at the suggestion of Grant B. Schley"; "O.H. Payne 10,300"; total 118,300). https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste03corpgoog. +[^57]: Hearings, vol. 2, testimony of Lewis Cass Ledyard, pp. 932 to 934 (counsel for Payne "for many years"; Payne's statements in the last week of October 1907). https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste03corpgoog. +[^58]: Hearings, vol. 2, testimony of Lewis Cass Ledyard, p. 935 (Payne's loans of Northern Pacific, Great Northern and standard railroad stock against uncurrent securities of Moore & Schley; conversion into exchanges; the million dollars of profit and Payne's request to cancel). https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste03corpgoog. +[^59]: Hearings, vol. 2, testimony of Lewis Cass Ledyard, p. 939 (Payne's 25,000 shares of Tennessee Coal, "10,000 shares of his own" and 15,000 as collateral; conversion into steel bonds and loan to Moore & Schley). https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste03corpgoog. +[^60]: Hearings, vol. 2, testimony of Lewis Cass Ledyard, p. 943 ("My object was to save Col. Payne's very large interest in that house as a creditor at the time"). https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste03corpgoog. +[^61]: Hearings, vol. 2, testimony of Lewis Cass Ledyard, p. 950 (three gentlemen, one of them Col. Payne, to put up securities with J. P. Morgan & Co. against a cash credit of a million dollars each; "Col. Payne has his credit of a million dollars for the purpose"). https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste03corpgoog. +[^62]: U.S. House of Representatives, H. Rept. No. 1127, pt. 3, 62nd Cong., 2d sess. (August 2, 1912), "Investigation of United States Steel Corporation," views of the minority, supplementary report on the facts by H. O. Young, pp. 55 to 56 (Payne's loan of standard securities; his urging of the sale; Ledyard's account of October 1907; Morgan, Gary and Frick). https://archive.org/details/cu31924002403917. +[^63]: H. Rept. No. 1127, pt. 3 (1912), Young, p. 63 (Payne's 25,000 shares converted into steel bonds; Payne, Baker and one other tendering $1,000,000 each of securities to Morgan). https://archive.org/details/cu31924002403917. +[^64]: H. Rept. No. 1127, pt. 1, 62nd Cong., 2d sess. (August 2, 1912), report of the committee (Stanley), p. 191 (Schley and the securities "the property of O. H. Payne"). https://archive.org/details/cu31924002403917. +[^65]: H. Rept. No. 1127, pt. 1 (1912), p. 178, quoting Ledyard, Hearings, p. 963 ("Col. Payne, who had a lot of this stock did not want to sell it"). https://archive.org/details/cu31924002403917. +[^66]: Hearings, vol. 1, testimony of Elbert H. Gary, p. 177 (Ledyard as counsel of Col. Oliver Payne; Payne as a syndicate member; Moore & Schley indebted to Payne). https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste02corpgoog. +[^67]: Hearings, vol. 1, testimony of Elbert H. Gary, pp. 184 and 191 to 192 (Ledyard as Payne's attorney; "It was he who first suggested, I think, the possibility of the United States Steel Corporation buying the stock"; Ledyard's statement that Moore & Schley could be relieved only by the purchase of the syndicate's securities). https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste02corpgoog. +[^68]: Hearings, vol. 1, testimony of Elbert H. Gary, pp. 133 to 134 (exchange with Mr. Gardner on Payne's offer of a million dollars and the later loan proposal). https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste02corpgoog. +[^69]: Message of President Theodore Roosevelt to the Senate, January 6, 1909, enclosing his letter of November 4, 1907 to Attorney General Bonaparte, reprinted in Hearings, vol. 2, p. 1122. https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste03corpgoog. +[^70]: S. Rept. 1110, pt. 2, 60th Cong. (1909), views of Messrs. Culberson and others, reprinted in Hearings, vol. 2, p. 1123 ("we think it was, in effect, a direction to the Attorney General not to interfere"; "In our opinion the President permitted and sanctioned the acquisition and merger"). https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesste03corpgoog. +[^71]: Yale, *Obituary Record 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, p. 296 (summers in Europe in the steam yacht Aphrodite from 1898 to 1914; cruising confined to American waters). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft. +[^72]: "Col. Payne Left $7,000,000 in Gifts," *Brattleboro Daily Reformer* (Brattleboro, Vt.), July 7, 1917, p. 1 (yacht Aphrodite "now in commission for the federal government"). https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn86071593/1917-07-07/ed-1/?sp=1. +[^73]: Yale, *Obituary Record 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, p. 296 (residence in New York City; death at his home). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft. +[^74]: Yale, *Obituary Record 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, p. 296 (gifts to the Cornell Medical School; endowment of the Loomis Laboratory in 1887). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft. +[^75]: Yale, *Obituary Record 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, p. 296 (gifts to the University of Virginia, Western Reserve University, the New York University Medical College and the Post-Graduate Hospital). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft. +[^76]: Weill Cornell Medicine, "History of the Medical Center" (undated PDF, Weill Cornell Medicine Library), passages on the affiliation with the Society of the New York Hospital and the gift of Oliver Hazard Payne ($4,000,000 to Cornell University Medical College), and on Payne Whitney's will (provisions of $12,400,000 for the hospital, $6,200,000 for the Payne Whitney Psychiatric Clinic and $2,800,000 for the medical college). https://library.weill.cornell.edu/sites/default/files/history_of_the_medical_center.pdf. +[^77]: Encyclopedia of Cleveland History, "Payne, Oliver Hazard," Case Western Reserve University (anonymous lifetime gifts of "more than $8 million"; gifts and bequests including Lakeside Hospital). https://case.edu/ech/articles/p/payne-oliver-hazard/. +[^78]: Yale, *Obituary Record 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, p. 296 (death on June 27, 1917 after an illness of eight months due to spinal rheumatism; burial in Cleveland). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft. +[^79]: "O. H. Payne Dies in His Town Home," *The Evening World*, June 28, 1917, p. 15 (death in his town house; his sister Flora as the first wife of William C. Whitney; "Col. Payne was a bachelor"). https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn83030193/1917-06-28/ed-1/?sp=15. +[^80]: "Col. Payne Left $7,000,000 in Gifts," *Brattleboro Daily Reformer*, July 7, 1917, p. 1 (bequests of $1,000,000 each to Lakeside Hospital, Yale and the New York Public Library; permanent endowment for Cornell University Medical College; Payne Whitney's inheritance of the yacht Aphrodite and Greenwood Plantation; Harry Payne Bingham's $2,000,000; Ledyard as executor with $100,000; Harry Payne Whitney's painting). https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn86071593/1917-07-07/ed-1/?sp=1. +[^81]: "Col. Payne Left Public Bequests," *The Evening World*, July 7, 1917, p. 2 (institutional bequests, residue to nephews and nieces and the names printed). https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn83030193/1917-07-07/ed-1/?sp=2. +[^82]: Yale, *Obituary Record 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, p. 296 ("By his will, bequests of a million dollars each were made to Yale, the New York Public Library, and Lakeside Hospital, Cleveland"). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft. +[^83]: Encyclopedia of Cleveland History, "Payne, Oliver Hazard," Case Western Reserve University (estate estimated at $190 million, distributed after the bequests among nieces and nephews). https://case.edu/ech/articles/p/payne-oliver-hazard/. +[^84]: "Payne Whitney Left Biggest Estate Ever Appraised in U.S.," *Washington Daily News*, November 23, 1928, p. 6 (appraised net value, death tax estimate, the larger part of the estate as a half interest in the Northern Finance Corporation, and the statement that the holding grew from a fund set aside by "his uncle, Col. Oliver H. Payne"). https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn82016181/1928-11-23/ed-1/?sp=6. +[^85]: Sutton (1983), Whitney family section ("Harry Payne ('94) and Payne Whitney ('98), went to Yale and became members of The Order") and index of members by class year ("1894 Payne Whitney" and "1898 Harry Payne Whitney"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones. +[^86]: Sutton (1983), section on the Harriman family and the Whitney-Payne fortune, passage on "Harry Payne Whitney (The Order'94) inherited two Standard Oil fortunes from the Payne and the Whitney families." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones. diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Perkins family.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Perkins family.md new file mode 100644 index 00000000..38e57ed5 --- /dev/null +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Perkins family.md @@ -0,0 +1,289 @@ +--- +created: 2026-10-26 +updated: 2026-10-26 +aliases: + - "Perkins family" + - "Perkins clan" + - "The Perkins family of Boston" + - "Thomas Handasyd Perkins" +tags: + - Person + - Family + - Perkins + - ChinaTrade + - OpiumTrade + - SlaveTrade + - NorthwestCoast + - SaintDomingue + - Canton + - Smyrna + - Boston + - Forbes + - Delano + - Russell + - GraniteRailway + - BunkerHill + - Railroads + - Reparations + - SkullAndBones +category: "Business & Finance" +summary: "Boston merchant family whose firm J. and T. H. Perkins traded from Saint-Domingue and Africa to Canton and Smyrna, merged its China house into Russell and Company, and chartered the Granite Railway." +location: "Boston, Massachusetts" +relations: + - type: participant_in + with: "[[Russell and Company]]" + start: 1830-08-01 + end: 1831-12-31 + role: "Perkins & Co. at Canton merged into the house; Cushing arranged the merger" + fn: 36 + - type: founded + with: "[[J. and T. H. Perkins]]" + start: 1792-01-01 + role: "firm organized by Thomas Handasyd Perkins and James Perkins" + fn: 11 + - type: funded + with: "[[Boston Athenaeum]]" + start: 1826-01-01 + role: "$8,000 each from Thomas and his nephew James toward the 1826 additions fund" + fn: 54 + - type: funded + with: "[[Perkins Institution for the Blind]]" + start: 1833-01-01 + role: "gift of the Pearl Street mansion conditional on a public fund of more than $50,000" + fn: 55 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Massachusetts General Hospital]]" + start: 1814-01-02 + role: "trustee; first of the signers of the January 8, 1814 address" + fn: 52 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Massachusetts Senate]]" + start: 1805-01-01 + role: "elected 1805; afterward in one branch or the other of the legislature for eighteen to twenty years" + fn: 44 + - type: founded + with: "[[Granite Railway Company]]" + start: 1826-03-04 + role: "first-named incorporator in the act of March 4, 1826; first president" + fn: 50 + - type: head_of + with: "[[Bunker Hill Monument Association]]" + start: 1827-01-01 + end: 1829-12-31 + role: "president, succeeding Daniel Webster; vice-president 1823 to 1827; chairman of the Building Committee" + fn: 47 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Robert Bennet Forbes]]" + role: "Margaret Perkins, sister of James and Thomas H. Perkins, was the mother of Robert Bennet and John Murray Forbes" + fn: 3 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[John Murray Forbes]]" + role: "nephew through his sister Margaret Perkins Forbes" + fn: 3 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[James Handasyd Perkins]]" + role: "son of Samuel G. Perkins and nephew of Thomas H. Perkins" + fn: 57 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Charles Elliott Perkins]]" + role: "grandson of Samuel G. Perkins" + fn: 59 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Thomas Nelson Perkins]]" + role: "great-grandson of Samuel G. Perkins, through James Handasyd and Edward Cranch Perkins" + fn: 65 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Skull and Bones]]" + start: 1840-01-01 + role: "John Perkins of Natchez, class of 1840, listed in Sutton's index; Yale record of his life" + fn: 75 +--- + +The Perkins family of Boston was a merchant line whose firm J. and T. H. Perkins traded in the West Indies, on the Northwest Coast, in West African slaves, at Canton and at Smyrna, and whose Canton business was merged into [[Russell and Company]] in 1830 and 1831.[^1] [[Antony C. Sutton]] placed a Perkins family settled at Boston in 1631 among the old-line families of [[Skull and Bones]] in his chart.[^2] The best documented member is [[Thomas Handasyd Perkins]] (1764 to 1854), the firm's senior partner, who gave a house and his name to the school for the blind that became the [[Perkins Institution for the Blind]], took part in founding the [[Massachusetts General Hospital]], and chartered the [[Granite Railway Company]] and presided over the [[Bunker Hill Monument Association]]. His brother [[James Perkins]] (1761 to 1822) was his partner and his brother [[Samuel G. Perkins]] kept a separate house. Their sister Margaret married Ralph Bennet Forbes, and their sons [[Robert Bennet Forbes]] and [[John Murray Forbes]] went through the firm into the China trade.[^3] The later line produced [[Charles Elliott Perkins]], president of the [[Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad]], and [[Thomas Nelson Perkins]], a Boston lawyer, fellow of [[Harvard University]] and alternate American expert at the 1929 reparations conference in Paris. + +### Origins in the Boston merchant trade + +Thomas Handasyd Perkins was born in Boston on December 15, 1764, and was named for his maternal grandfather, a Boston dealer in furs and imported hats whom Cary calls Thomas Handasyd Peck.[^4] The 1907 family memoir of his grandniece gives the grandfather's name as James Handasyd Peck and gives the death of the father, the merchant James Perkins, as 1773; Cary places it in 1771. Both leave the widow with eight children.[^4][^5] Cary wrote that the father had been connected with [[George Erving]], one of the principal merchants of the town.[^4] The widow carried on the business, and she was part owner of the ship Beaver, which the French government chartered to carry part of its cavalry to [[Cap-Français]].[^6] She died in 1807, and the Boston Female Asylum voted its officers a badge of mourning in her honor.[^6] + +As a boy Thomas saw the Boston Massacre, passed part of his youth at Barnstable, where he knew [[Harrison Gray Otis]], was prepared for college by the Reverend Mr. Shute at Hingham, and was then placed in the counting-house of Messrs. Shattuck, with whom he remained until he was twenty-one.[^7] + +### Saint-Domingue + +Thomas left the Shattuck counting-room in 1785 and, not well, wintered at the French colony of [[Saint-Domingue]] with his elder brother James Perkins.[^8] From there he went to [[Charleston, South Carolina]], where he spent much of his time at the rice plantations of Thomas Ferguson, who "numbered upwards of eight hundred slaves" at Pon Pon.[^8] He then accepted an invitation to rejoin his brother in Saint-Domingue, and the two "formed a house there which was very successful," until the climate did not suit Thomas and he returned to Boston. He married Sarah Elliot in 1788.[^9] + +The insurrection in Saint-Domingue came in 1792. Cary records that the insurgents burned the town and the brothers' store, that the planters owed the house large sums that could no longer be paid, and that James and Samuel G. Perkins returned to Boston with most of their property lost.[^10] The Boston firm of J. and T. H. Perkins was organized in 1792, and it ran until James died in 1822.[^11] In 1819 it became J. and T. H. Perkins & Sons, and it kept two or three vessels in the West Indies trade, shipping coffee and sugar to Europe.[^11] The Owls Nest memoir names a Mr. Burling as James Perkins's business partner at Saint-Domingue.[^12] + +### The African coast and the slave trade + +Perkins's Batavia journal of July 1789 describes the household servants of the city as "the slaves being generally Malays," and records Malay bands of musicians, taken from arriving vessels, sold for "about one hundred paper-dollars a head." He adds: "I was astonished at the low price they bore in comparison to the Guinea slaves in America and the colonies."[^13] + +Elmer Donnan's collection of documents on the American slave trade prints a letter of October 6, 1792 from J. and T. H. Perkins to their Saint-Domingue house, Perkins, Burling & Co. The Boston firm agrees to buy slaves as agents of Daniel McNiel and to fit out his vessel, the Katy, for the Coast, at 5 percent on the outfit and 5 percent on the sales. The vessel "must be entered as from St. Eustatia and St. Thomas, and the papers calculated acordingly," a direction the letter explains with the words "we mean his log."[^14] Donnan's notes to the letter quote Briggs's history of the Cabot family. They give a letter of June 24, 1790 to Theodore Lyman, the voyage of the Betsey with thirty-two slaves to Simon Elliot (Thomas Perkins's father-in-law), a letter of December 16, 1791 from Thomas H. Perkins to Jean Laroque offering rum, tobacco and cloths "such as suit the Guinea Market," and a 1793 letter on slaves "worth 250 to 270 Ds." Donnan adds that the Perkins papers are said to contain over a hundred letters to traders in Africa.[^15] + +The Sierra Leone governor's account of the Willing Quaker, Robert Adamson master, records her arrival in April 1793 and her departure in July with "upwards of One hundred Slaves" for Surinam. Donnan's note says she had sailed from the West Indies on December 15, 1792 under Perkins and Burling, agents of Captain Daniel McNeil, an owner, and that J. and T. H. Perkins of Boston "may also have been owners." The note adds that the firm was dispatching the Clarissa to Havana with slaves under Captain William McNeil, a nephew of Daniel, and that Havana admitted American vessels only if they carried new negroes.[^16] The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database enters the Willing Quaker's 1792 voyage under Adamson, from Boston on December 15, 1792, with the owners listed as Daniel McNeil, J. Perkins and T. H. Perkins: 110 slaves embarked at the Sierra Leone estuary and 88 disembarked at Suriname in September 1793.[^17] A second entry for a Willing Quaker voyage of 1792, under Daniel McNeil with J. T. H. Perkins as owner, records 63 slaves embarked and 53 landed at Havana in April 1792.[^18] + +Donnan also prints a 1803 insurance record for the Danish ship Hope, "Coast of Africa to Havana," $33,300, for J. and T. H. Perkins, written in the office of N. P. Russell, together with a Charleston court's decision that notes were void because the Massachusetts act of 1788 forbade participation in the trade. A letter of January 25, 1810 from N. P. Russell to J. and T. H. Perkins on "the two African risks" (the San Francisco de Asis and the Carlota) records that the underwriters declined them; Donnan infers that the firm was "still concerned" in the trade although it had "apparently hesitated" after the act of Congress of May 10, 1800. A letter from the firm at Havana to James Graham on July 16, 1804 says: "we prefer losing a little upon a few horses than gaining upon human flesh."[^19] + +[[Kris Millegan]] wrote that the Perkins syndicate had been "Forced out of the lucrative African slave trade by U.S. law and Caribbean slave revolts," and that leaders of the Cabot, Lowell, Higginson, Forbes, Cushing and Sturgis families had married Perkins siblings and children.[^20] + +### The Northwest Coast and the Canton beginnings + +Thomas sailed for Canton in February 1789 as supercargo of the Astraea, owned by Elias Hasket Derby of Salem, under Captain James Magee.[^21] At Canton he saw the Columbia, the ship that Captain Gray later took across the bar of the Columbia River. Cary writes that Perkins gathered information on the Chinese market and on the value of sea-otter skins from the Northwest Coast, and that the Hong merchant [[Houqua]] had observed him and a relationship developed. He sent the brig Hope, under Captain Ingraham, to the Northwest Coast, intending the voyage to end at Canton; its main object failed, but it found the northern Marquesas. He then joined Magee in building the Margaret, with Magee as master, and a schooner of about thirty tons set up on the coast took "some twelve or fifteen hundred sea-otters" in one season.[^21] + +### Paris, Lafayette and Mount Vernon + +Perkins sailed in December 1794 in the Charlotte, a ship of his firm and of S. Higginson & Co., to Bordeaux, and was in Paris in March 1795, where he saw the execution of Fouquier-Tinville and others.[^22] [[James Monroe]], then American minister, asked him to help send George Washington La Fayette to America under the name G. W. Motier. Madame de La Fayette was in Paris, and [[Boissy d'Anglas]] was the contact. Perkins's friend Joseph Russell of Boston took the youth to Le Havre, and the ship was commanded by Captain Thomas Sturgis, a brother of the Robert Sturgis who had married Perkins's eldest sister. Russell and Perkins paid the expenses, and [[Marquis de Lafayette]] later wrote from Olmutz that Perkins had saved his life.[^22] A letter of October 18, 1796 to Joseph Russell, then in Europe, reports that Motier was with Washington.[^23] Perkins visited Mount Vernon in July 1796, introduced by Colonel Lear.[^24] Cary says that Perkins might have been made Secretary of the Navy and that his election to Congress would have been certain had he sought it.[^25] + +### Sealing voyages, the Mediterranean and Smyrna + +A letter from Boston dated December 27, 1796, to Mr. George Perkins at Smyrna, asks about the Smyrna market for coffee and sugar and refers to "your brother, Mr. Thomas Perkins."[^26] On November 1, 1799 the brig Sally, Captain Stephen Hall, sailed on a sealing voyage to Kerguelen, St Paul and Amsterdam islands, with Peron as chief mate and a plan to sell skins at Canton to the American consul, Mr. Snow. A letter of October 16, 1800 to Robert Bennet Forbes at New York says that Peter Peron was landed at St Paul with eight men and eight more were on Amsterdam.[^27] Orders of May 24, 1800 to Jackson and Tilden for the ship Thomas Russell directed her to Malaga, then up the Mediterranean, Smyrna included, and then to Calcutta.[^28] + +The National Park Service nomination for the Russell house at Middletown states that "The Perkins brothers of Boston, who had been associated with the Turkish opium trade since the 1780's, formally organized their Smyrna merchant house in 1816." It adds that "Both of these families would be associated with Russell during his tenure in Canton," and that it is uncertain whether [[John P. Cushing]] and others also explored the India opium market.[^29] + +Robert Bennet Forbes described an 1828 voyage to Smyrna in the Danube, fitted out at New York by [[Sturgis and Perkins]] with a credit on [[Baring Brothers]] of about 60,000 pounds, "the principal object being to procure Turkey opium for China."[^30] He sailed from Vourla under convoy and went on to [[Gibraltar]] to await operations on a larger scale.[^30] At Canton the drug was landed at the store-ships anchored at [[Lintin]] and run up the river in small boats.[^31] + +### Perkins and Company at Canton + +In 1798 the firm bought the ship Thomas Russell and sent Ephraim Bumstead as supercargo; in 1803 it engaged him to set up a China house, and John Perkins Cushing, then sixteen and a nephew of the brothers, went as his clerk.[^32] Hunter wrote that Perkins & Co. was "established soon after a visit made by Mr. Thomas H. Perkins with two vessels to Canton in 1798," that until the summer of 1829 it was "the most important of the American houses," and that Bumstead represented it until 1807, when Cushing succeeded him.[^33] Cary has Bumstead dying on the way home soon after 1803 and Cushing in copartnership until "the dissolution of the house in 1827"; Hunter has Cushing continuously at Canton until 1828, when he returned in the Milo.[^32][^33] Cary adds that the Canton house grew until consignments interfered with its own business, and "a distinct commission-house was, therefore, established at Canton" under the favor of Perkins and Co.[^32] + +Forbes says that Cushing "was principally instrumental in promoting the establishment of Russell & Co.," and that he transferred an important part of his business to the new house. An advertisement of the Canton house dated November 23, 1823, signed by [[Philip Ammidon]] and [[Samuel Russell]], gives as its references Perkins & Co. at Canton and the Boston houses J. and T. H. Perkins & Sons and S. G. Perkins & Co.[^34] + +On August 9, 1829, Thomas T. Forbes, who had succeeded Cushing in charge of Perkins & Co., drowned in a typhoon with S. H. Monson, the bookkeeper of Russell & Co. Among his papers was a sealed letter asking Russell & Co., in case of accident, to take charge of his local business and that of J. and T. H. Perkins. Hunter wrote that Houqua's business came to the Russell house with it. Cushing returned to Canton in August 1830, and Hunter quotes the result: "Russell & Co. were officially appointed sole agents for the Boston house, that of Perkins & Co. being wound up, while the important foreign business of Houqua was then also definitely secured to them."[^35] The Library of Congress finding aid for the Russell records dates the event to 1831, when "the China trading operations of John P. Cushing, William Perkins & Company of Boston, and Houqua" merged with Russell & Company.[^36] The Baker Library guide describes Cushing as the man who arranged to dissolve the Boston house by merging its Canton business into Russell & Co. in 1831, and holds Perkins & Co. letter books from Canton that precede the merger.[^37] J. and T. H. Perkins & Sons was wound up in 1838, and Cary says Thomas withdrew from business "with a large fortune."[^38] + +A George C. Perkins of Boston, bookkeeper of Russell & Co., is among the men Hunter names as drowned in the Lantao Channel; Forbes's memoir devotes a passage to "the tragical death of Mr. George Perkins," who sailed from the Sandwich Islands in March 1854 in the Hamburg barque Concordia for Hong Kong and disappeared after bargaining with a Chinese boat to carry him from Green Island passage to Macao. Forbes also records that Perkins and Edward King retired from the Russell house in 1849.[^39][^40] + +### The Hartford Convention and the 1815 mission + +Cary's appendix says that Perkins "was not a member of the Hartford Convention" but supported its principal measure and accepted a place in the mission that followed.[^41] The twelve Massachusetts delegates to the convention were [[George Cabot]], William Prescott, Harrison Gray Otis, Timothy Bigelow, Stephen Longfellow, Daniel Waldo, George Bliss, Nathan Dane, Hodijah Baylies, Joshua Thomas, Joseph Lyman and Samuel S. Wilde. The 1823 pamphlet A Short Account of the Hartford Convention records that the House resolve was adopted 159 to 48 and prints Governor [[Caleb Strong]]'s commission of January 31, 1815 naming Otis, Perkins and William Sullivan; the three arrived in Washington one day after news of peace.[^42] Perkins wrote from Washington on February 16, 1815 to Cushing at Canton: "I am here on public business in behalf of the State of Massachusetts. The joyful event of peace has suspended the mission on which I came."[^43] + +### Bank, Cadets and Senate + +Cary says that Perkins was elected to the Massachusetts Senate in 1805, that for eighteen or twenty years he sat in one branch or the other of the legislature, generally the Senate, and that he was president of the Boston branch of the Bank of the United States, succeeded by George Cabot.[^44] Forbes records that he was lieutenant colonel of the Boston Cadets and resigned on November 5, 1800.[^45] + +### The Bunker Hill Monument Association + +John C. Warren's 1877 history names Perkins as one of five principal originators of the monument, with William Tudor, [[Daniel Webster]], Edward Everett and Dr. John C. Warren, and says he hosted the founding dinner.[^46] The charter was approved on June 7, 1823; Perkins was vice-president from 1823 to 1827, president from 1827 to 1829 in succession to Webster, and chairman of the Building Committee.[^47] The Granite Railway, built to bring the stone, was organized with Perkins as president; Nathaniel P. Russell, in whose office the 1803 Perkins insurance was written, was treasurer of the Association in 1823.[^19][^48] Perkins gave $1,000 toward the Warren statue.[^49] + +### The Granite Railway + +The act incorporating the Granite Railway Company was passed on March 4, 1826. The incorporators were Thomas H. Perkins, William Sullivan, Amos Lawrence, David Moody, Solomon Willard and Gridley Bryant; section 8 authorized Perkins to call the first meeting. The charter was made perpetual in 1831, and the company's first contract, in 1827, was to carry stone for the monument at fifty cents per ton plus forty cents per ton. The company's 1870 history calls it the second railroad in the United States, where Cary calls it the first; Perkins owned nearly all of it when he died in 1854.[^50] Cary records that he had watched the start of railroads in England and caused a two-mile line to be built from the Quincy quarries to the water.[^51] + +### Boston institutions + +The trustees of the Massachusetts General Hospital met on January 2, 1814, with Perkins listed first among those present, and the board's address to the public dated January 8, 1814 carries his name first among the signatures.[^52] Cary says that he and his elder brother gave $5,000 each, and that he was active in the hospital's asylum for the insane.[^53] James Perkins's bequests included about $20,000 in real estate to the [[Boston Athenaeum]] and $20,000 to Harvard University.[^54] + +In 1826 the Athenaeum needed something over $30,000 for additions. Thomas and his nephew James Perkins each gave $8,000 on condition that the public subscribe the same amount.[^54] In 1833 Thomas proposed to give his mansion house in Pearl Street as a permanent residence for the blind, on condition that a fund be raised; the New-England Institution for the Education of the Blind reported in 1834 that "a twelvemonth ago" he had made the proposition, and that over $50,000 had been subscribed within a month.[^55] Cary says Dr. John D. Fisher had obtained an earlier act of incorporation and that Perkins's proposal "suddenly roused the community to aid in the project."[^51] Cary records the late fundraising for the Washington Monument and the toast to Perkins by [[Robert C. Winthrop]] at Faneuil Hall in October 1854.[^56] + +### The Samuel G. Perkins line and Cincinnati + +Samuel G. Perkins traded in Boston as S. G. Perkins & Co. and married Barbara Higginson, daughter of Stephen Higginson, in 1795.[^57] Their youngest child, [[James Handasyd Perkins]], was born in Boston on July 31, 1810, entered the counting room of his uncle Thomas at eighteen, studied law, and went to Cincinnati.[^58] He died in 1849.[^57] The Owls Nest property near Cincinnati was bought in 1845, and the sons of James Handasyd and Sarah Elliott Perkins gave it to the city as a park in 1905.[^57] + +### Charles Elliott Perkins and the Burlington + +Charles Elliott Perkins was born in Cincinnati on November 24, 1840 and went to Burlington, Iowa in 1859 to work on the Burlington and Missouri River Railroad, whose president was John Murray Forbes, a first cousin of his father.[^59] His children included Alice Forbes (born 1867), Edith Forbes (1873), Margaret Forbes (1876), Charles Elliott (1881), Mary Russell (1883) and Samuel George.[^59] The 1906 Who's Who entry records him as a clerk of the Burlington & Missouri River Railroad in 1859, director of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad in 1875, vice-president from 1876 to 1881 and president from 1881 to 1901, resigning on February 21, 1901.[^60] + +John Murray Forbes wrote that he held the presidency of the Burlington for two or three years, and that his "cousin, Mr. Perkins, was not yet sufficiently known to warrant putting him at the head of the road"; when Charles E. Perkins "had won the confidence of the board and of the stockholders" and "was entirely competent to run the road," Forbes "gladly turned over the presidency to him."[^61] A board resolution of October 18, 1898, after Forbes's death, is signed "C. E. Perkins, President."[^62] + +The Harvard Commission on Western History, in 1912, reprinted a letter of January 27, 1912 establishing the Charles Elliott Perkins Foundation, funded by Mrs. William Hooper in memory of her father. The commission's members were A. McF. Davis, Horace Davis, [[Grenville M. Dodge]], [[Charles G. Dawes]], Charles Moore, [[Howard Elliott]], [[Frederic Adrian Delano|Frederic A. Delano]], Frederick J. Turner, A. C. Coolidge and E. H. Wells; the commission's report says that Elliott and Delano "were trained under Mr. Perkins."[^63] + +### Thomas Nelson Perkins + +Edward Cranch Perkins, the second son of James Handasyd Perkins, married Jane Watson, described in the memoir as a niece of John Murray Forbes, and their children were Thomas Nelson (born 1870), Elliott (1873 to 1885), James Handasyd (1876) and John Forbes (1878; a daughter of his is listed as born in 1907).[^64] Who's Who records Thomas Nelson Perkins as born at Milton, Massachusetts, in 1870, the son of Edward C. and Jane S. (Watson) Perkins, Harvard A.B. 1891 and LL.B. 1894, a member of the Boston firm Ropes, Gray & Gorham (by 1920 Ropes, Gray, Boyden & Perkins), and a fellow of the President and Fellows of Harvard College.[^65] He married Louisa Catherine Adams, daughter of [[Charles Francis Adams Jr.]], at Lincoln on June 6, 1900.[^66] The Harvard quinquennial catalogue of 1915 lists him as Fellow from 1905; he resigned in 1924 to serve in Europe and was re-elected in October 1926.[^67][^68] In 1917 he sat on the priorities committee of the War Industries Board and studied the British and French control systems.[^69] From 1926 he was president of the Dawes Plan Arbitral Tribunal of Interpretation, signing Award No. II (January 29, 1927) and Award No. III (May 29, 1928).[^70] The Foreign Relations of the United States for 1929 lists, among the American experts at the Paris committee on reparations that produced the Young Plan, [[Owen D. Young]] and [[J. P. Morgan Jr.]], with Perkins and [[Thomas W. Lamont]] as alternates, and Perkins as chairman of its third subcommittee on deliveries in kind; he signed the report at Paris on June 7, 1929.[^71][^72] He was a director of the Boston and Maine from 1924 (chairman of the executive committee from 1928, acting president from 1929 to 1930) and of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company in the annual reports for 1929 through 1936.[^73] + +### Skull and Bones and the Perkins names + +Sutton's index of members by class year lists four Perkinses: John and William Perkins in the class of 1840, Nathaniel Shaw Perkins in 1842 and Thomas Albert Perkins in 1858.[^74] The Yale records give the following about them. + +John Perkins, class of 1840, was born at Natchez on July 1, 1819, the son of Judge John Perkins, took a Harvard LL.B. in 1842, practiced in New Orleans, sat in Congress from 1853, chaired the Louisiana secession convention in January 1861 and sat in the Confederate Congress; his house Somerset was burned, he left the country, returned in 1878 and died at Baltimore on November 28, 1885.[^75] Millegan wrote that John Perkins, Jr. (S&B 1840) was "chairman of the 1861 Louisiana Secession Convention, who fled abroad for 13 years after the Civil War."[^20] William Perkins of the same class was born on April 26, 1821 at Grand Gulf, Mississippi, practiced law, and perished on the steamer Arctic in 1854.[^76] Nathaniel Shaw Perkins (1842) was born at New London on April 19, 1822, the son of Nathaniel Shaw Perkins of the Yale class of 1812, was a partner in the whaling firm Perkins & Smith, and died on February 8, 1905.[^77] Thomas Albert Perkins (1858) was born at Brooklyn on January 17, 1839, the son of Dennis and Maria (Clarke) Perkins, was a cotton merchant at Dennis Perkins & Co., and died on January 1, 1909; the class of 1858's biographical record prints a Skull and Bones roster that includes him.[^78] + +Bagg's 1871 account of the Yale societies lists Samuel C. Perkins of the class of 1848 among the incorporators, by the Connecticut act of May 1860, of the Kingsley Trust Association, the legal body of Scroll and Key.[^79] + +### The Morgan partner George W. Perkins + +[[George W. Perkins]], a partner of [[J. P. Morgan & Co.]] from 1901 and later chairman of the executive committee and a director of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, was born at Chicago on January 31, 1862 and began at the Chicago office of the New York Life Insurance Company.[^80] [[George B. Cortelyou]], Secretary of the Treasury from 1907 to 1909, testified before the [[Pujo Committee|Pujo subcommittee]] that at the Hotel Manhattan conference of October 22, 1907 with [[J. P. Morgan]], James Stillman, George F. Baker and others, Perkins "was then a member of the firm of J. P. Morgan & Co."[^81] Walter E. Frew, a director of the [[Bankers Trust Company]], testified on December 10, 1912 that its voting trustees about 1905 were "Henry P. Davison, George W. Perkins, and Daniel G. Reid," and that Perkins "was then a member of J. P. Morgan & Co."[^82] The 1889 genealogy of the Perkins family of Ipswich enters his father, George Walbridge Perkins, as born at Erie, Pennsylvania, on December 25, 1831 and dead at Cleveland on March 29, 1886, who married Sarah Louisa Mills in November 1856 and moved to Chicago in 1859; the children listed are Charles Clarkson (1858), George Walbridge (January 31, 1862), William (1863), Emily Swan and Edward Richard. The genealogy's line runs from John Perkins of Ipswich through Jacob, Joseph, Joseph, Joseph and Elijah to William W. Perkins of Erie.[^83] The same genealogy records that John Perkins sailed in the Lyon from Bristol on December 1, 1630, took the freeman's oath at Boston on May 18, 1631 and removed to Ipswich in 1633, the Boston date Sutton gives for his Perkins family.[^2][^83] Sutton wrote: "The name Morgan has never appeared on the membership lists, although some Morgan partners are with the inner core, for example, Davison and Perkins."[^84] + +### Footnotes + +[^1]: Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, 'Russell & Co., Guangzhou, China, Records,' MSS38562, scope and content note. https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms010075 +[^2]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chart 'Hypothesis Number One: A Secret Society Dominated By Old Line American Families And New Wealth Has Existed From 1833 To The Present Day,' with the spoke 'Perkins (1631, Boston).' https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^3]: Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), p. 8, 'My mother was Margaret Perkins, sister of Messrs. James and Thomas H. Perkins'; Cunningham, *Owls Nest* (1907), p. 20, on Margaret Perkins and Ralph Bennet Forbes. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog +[^4]: Thomas Greaves Cary, *Memoir of Thomas Handasyd Perkins; containing extracts from his diaries and letters* (Boston, 1856), pp. 2 to 5, on the birth on December 15, 1764, the maternal grandfather, the father's death in 1771 and George Erving. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary +[^5]: Edith Perkins Cunningham, *Owls Nest: A Tribute to Sarah Elliott Perkins* (privately printed, 1907), pp. 14 to 16, on James Perkins's death in 1773, Elizabeth Peck and the grandfather James Handasyd Peck. https://archive.org/details/owlsnestatribut00famigoog +[^6]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), pp. 2 to 3, on the ship Beaver chartered by the French government and the mother's death in 1807. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary +[^7]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), pp. 5 to 8, on the Boston Massacre, Barnstable, Harrison Gray Otis, the Reverend Mr. Shute at Hingham and the Shattuck counting-house. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary +[^8]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), pp. 8 to 10, on the 1785 visit to Saint-Domingue, the stay in Charleston and the Pon Pon plantations of Thomas Ferguson. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary +[^9]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), pp. 10 to 11, on the house formed with James Perkins in Saint-Domingue and the marriage to Sarah Elliot in 1788. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary +[^10]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), p. 44, on the insurrection of 1792, the burned store, the planters' debts and the return to Boston. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary +[^11]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (Boston, 1882), addenda, 'Early American Commission Merchants in China,' pp. 333 to 336, on the 1792 organization of J. and T. H. Perkins and its later history; Cary, *Memoir* (1856), pp. 44 to 45. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog +[^12]: Cunningham, *Owls Nest* (1907), p. 18, on Mr. Burling as James Perkins's business partner at Saint-Domingue and Samuel G. Perkins's 'Reminiscences of the Insurrection in St. Domingo.' https://archive.org/details/owlsnestatribut00famigoog +[^13]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), p. 31, Perkins's Batavia journal of July 1789, on the Malay bands and the comparison with the Guinea slaves. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary +[^14]: Elizabeth Donnan, ed., *Documents Illustrative of the History of the Slave Trade to America*, vol. 3 (Washington, 1932), document 73, p. 88, letter of October 6, 1792 from J. and T. H. Perkins to Perkins, Burling & Co. https://archive.org/details/donnan3_documentsillustr00donn_1 +[^15]: Donnan, *Documents*, vol. 3, p. 88, notes 1 and 4, quoting Briggs, *The Cabot Family*, on the letters of 1790 and 1791 and the Betsey, and on the 1793 letter. https://archive.org/details/donnan3_documentsillustr00donn_1 +[^16]: Donnan, *Documents*, vol. 3, document 78, pp. 99 to 100, the governor of Sierra Leone on the Willing Quaker, with Donnan's note on Perkins and Burling, Daniel McNeil and the Clarissa. https://archive.org/details/donnan3_documentsillustr00donn_1 +[^17]: SlaveVoyages, Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database, voyage 25300 (Willing Quaker, 1792), sources Donnan vol. 3, pp. 99 to 100, and Cabot, vol. 1, p. 391. https://www.slavevoyages.org/documents/download/tastdb-exp-2019.csv +[^18]: SlaveVoyages, Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database, voyage 25047 (Willing Quaker, 1792), source Donnan vol. 3, p. 360. https://www.slavevoyages.org/documents/download/tastdb-exp-2019.csv +[^19]: Donnan, *Documents*, vol. 3, document 79, pp. 101 to 102, on the 1803 insurance of the Hope, the Charleston decision, the letter of January 25, 1810 on the two African risks, and the letter of July 16, 1804. https://archive.org/details/donnan3_documentsillustr00donn_1 +[^20]: Kris Millegan, ed., *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), the essay on the Perkins syndicate and the account of the early initiates. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones +[^21]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), pp. 11 and 42 to 43, on the 1789 voyage of the Astraea, the Columbia at Canton, Houqua, the brig Hope and the Margaret. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary +[^22]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), pp. 45 to 59, on the voyage of the Charlotte, Paris in 1795, Monroe's request, George Washington La Fayette and Captain Sturgis. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary +[^23]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), appendix, pp. 281 to 282, letter of October 18, 1796 to Joseph Russell. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary +[^24]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), pp. 197 to 201, on the visit to Mount Vernon in July 1796. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary +[^25]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), p. 207, on the Navy Department and Congress. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary +[^26]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), appendix, pp. 282 to 283, letter of December 27, 1796 to Mr. George Perkins, Smyrna. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary +[^27]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), appendix, pp. 284 to 285 and 293 to 294, on the Sally under Captain Stephen Hall and the letter of October 16, 1800. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary +[^28]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), appendix, pp. 289 to 290, orders of May 24, 1800 for the Thomas Russell. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary +[^29]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, 'Samuel Wadsworth Russell House,' Middletown, Connecticut, section 8, citing Alain Munkittrick, 'Samuel Wadsworth Russell (1789-1862): A Study in Ordered Investment' (Wesleyan University honors thesis, 1973). https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text +[^30]: Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 123 to 125, on the 1828 voyage of the Danube. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog +[^31]: Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 142 to 144, on the store-ships at Lintin. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog +[^32]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), pp. 208 to 210, on Bumstead, Cushing and the commission-house established at Canton. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary +[^33]: W. C. Hunter, *The 'Fan Kwae' at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 118 to 119. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog +[^34]: Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), addenda, pp. 333 to 336, on Cushing and the advertisement of November 23, 1823. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog +[^35]: Hunter (1882), pp. 118 to 119, on Thomas T. Forbes's death, the sealed letter and the 1830 arrangement. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog +[^36]: Library of Congress, 'Russell & Co., Guangzhou, China, Records,' MSS38562. https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms010075 +[^37]: Baker Library, Harvard Business School, collection guide, 'Russell & Company records,' Mss:766, and 'John Perkins Cushing business records,' Mss:8993. https://www.library.hbs.edu/hc/heard/manuscript-collections.html +[^38]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), p. 239, on the dissolution of the firm in 1838. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary +[^39]: Hunter (1882), p. 119, on George C. Perkins of Boston, drowned in the Lantao Channel. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog +[^40]: Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), chapter VIII, 'Mr. George Perkins's Death,' pp. 387 to 389, and the account of the partners of 1849 to 1851. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog +[^41]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), appendix, pp. 274 to 276, on the Hartford Convention and the mission. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary +[^42]: [Theodore Lyman], *A Short Account of the Hartford Convention* (Boston, O. Everett, 1823), pp. 13 to 16. https://archive.org/details/shortaccounthart00lymarich +[^43]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), p. 219, letter of February 16, 1815 from Washington to John P. Cushing. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary +[^44]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), p. 206, on the Senate, the legislature and the Bank of the United States. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary +[^45]: Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), addenda, on the lieutenant colonelcy of the Cadets. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog +[^46]: George Washington Warren, *The History of the Bunker Hill Monument Association* (New York, 1877), pp. 37 to 39. https://archive.org/details/historyofbunkerh00warr +[^47]: Warren, *History* (1877), pp. 44 to 45, the charter of June 7, 1823, and the list of presidents and vice-presidents. https://archive.org/details/historyofbunkerh00warr +[^48]: Warren, *History* (1877), pp. 209 and 212, on the Granite Railway and the Building Committee. https://archive.org/details/historyofbunkerh00warr +[^49]: Warren, *History* (1877), p. 350, on the Warren statue. https://archive.org/details/historyofbunkerh00warr +[^50]: *History of the Granite Railway Company* (Boston, Mudge, 1870), the act of March 4, 1826, section 8, the 1831 perpetual charter and the 1827 contract. https://archive.org/details/historyofgranite00unse +[^51]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), pp. 222 to 225, on the Granite Railway, Dr. John D. Fisher and the naming of the institution. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary +[^52]: Trustees of the Massachusetts General Hospital, *Address of the Board of Trustees to the Public* (Boston, 1814), minutes of January 2 and address of January 8, 1814. https://archive.org/details/addressofboardof00mass +[^53]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), p. 220, on the gifts to the hospital and the asylum. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary +[^54]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), pp. 221 to 222, on the bequests of James Perkins and the 1826 Athenaeum subscription. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary +[^55]: Trustees of the New-England Institution for the Education of the Blind, *Annual Report* (Boston, J. T. Buckingham, 1834), on the proposal to give the Pearl Street mansion; Cary, *Memoir* (1856), p. 223, 'In 1833.' https://archive.org/details/annualreportoftr110perk2 +[^56]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), pp. 256 to 258, on the Washington Monument fund and Winthrop's toast of October 1854. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary +[^57]: Cunningham, *Owls Nest* (1907), on Samuel G. Perkins's marriage to Barbara Higginson in 1795, James Handasyd Perkins (1810 to 1849), the purchase of Owls Nest in 1845 and the gift to the city in 1905. https://archive.org/details/owlsnestatribut00famigoog +[^58]: William Henry Channing, ed., *The Memoir and Writings of James Handasyd Perkins* (Boston, 1851), vol. 1, on his birth on July 31, 1810 and his years in his uncle's counting room. https://archive.org/details/memoirwritingsof01perkiala +[^59]: Cunningham, *Owls Nest* (1907), on Charles Elliott Perkins's birth on November 24, 1840, the move to Burlington in 1859 and his children. https://archive.org/details/owlsnestatribut00famigoog +[^60]: *Who's Who in America*, 1906-1907, entry for Charles Elliott Perkins. https://archive.org/details/whoswhoinamerica0004john +[^61]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 2, pp. 216 to 217. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect02forb +[^62]: Hughes, *Letters and Recollections* (1899), vol. 2, appendix, resolution of the directors of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad Company, October 18, 1898. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect02forb +[^63]: *The Harvard Commission on Western History, Charles Elliott Perkins Foundation* (1912). https://archive.org/details/harvardcommissi00histgoog +[^64]: Cunningham, *Owls Nest* (1907), genealogical table of the children of Edward Cranch Perkins and Jane Watson. https://archive.org/details/owlsnestatribut00famigoog +[^65]: *Who's Who in America*, 1910-1911, 1916-1917, 1928-1929 and 1930-1931 entries for Perkins, Thomas Nelson. https://archive.org/details/whos-who-in-america_1910-1911_6 ; https://archive.org/details/whos-who-in-america_1930-1931_16 +[^66]: *Harvard College Class of 1891, Secretary's Report, Number IV* (Boston, 1906), entry for Thomas Nelson Perkins: marriage at Lincoln June 6, 1900 to Louisa Catherine Adams, "daughter of Charles Francis Adams"; appointment as Fellow "to fill the vacancy caused by the death of the late Samuel Hoar." https://archive.org/details/secretarysreport41891harvuoft +[^67]: *Quinquennial Catalogue of the Officers and Graduates of Harvard University, 1636-1915* (Cambridge, 1915), "Thomas Nelson Perkins, (see A.B. 1891); Fellow 1905-." https://archive.org/details/quinquennialcat00univgoog +[^68]: "Thomas N. Perkins a Harvard Fellow," *The Christian Science Monitor*, October 26, 1926. https://archive.org/details/per_christian-science-monitor_1926-10-26_18_281 +[^69]: Bernard M. Baruch, *American Industry in the War* (1921), p. 48. https://archive.org/details/americanindustry00unit +[^70]: *Die Entscheidungen des Internationalen Schiedsgerichts zur Auslegung des Dawes-plans*, Awards No. II (January 29, 1927) and No. III (May 29, 1928), signed by Perkins as president. https://archive.org/details/dieentscheidunge02arbi ; https://archive.org/details/dieentscheidunge00arbi +[^71]: U.S. Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1929*, vol. II, documents 1039, 1041 and 1043 and the editorial note on the American experts (telegrams of January 18 and 21, 1929, files 462.00R296/2622 and 462.00R296/2630; March 3, 1929). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1929v02 +[^72]: *International Conciliation*, no. 253 (October 1929), report of the Committee of Experts, signature page, p. 56. https://archive.org/details/sim_international-conciliation_1929-10_253 +[^73]: Boston and Maine Railroad, *Annual Report* for 1937, directors' minute on Perkins; American Telephone and Telegraph Company, *Annual Reports* for 1929 to 1936, lists of directors. https://archive.org/details/bostonandmainerailroadannualreports ; https://archive.org/details/americantelephoneandtelegraphannualreports +[^74]: Sutton (1983), index of members by class year, classes of 1840, 1842 and 1858. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^75]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University*, 1886, pp. 308 to 309, entry for John Perkins, class of 1840. https://archive.org/details/obituaryrecordof1886yale +[^76]: *Class of 1840 Statistics*, Yale College, entry for William Perkins. https://archive.org/details/stat1840 +[^77]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University*, 1900-1910, pp. 420 to 421, entry for Nathaniel Shaw Perkins, class of 1842. https://archive.org/details/obituaryrecordof19001910yale +[^78]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University*, 1900-1910, class of 1858, entry for Thomas Albert Perkins; *Fifth Biographical Record of the Class of 1858, Yale College* (1908), roster of Skull and Bones. https://archive.org/details/cu31924030632487 +[^79]: Bagg, *Four Years at Yale* (New Haven, Chatfield, 1871), pp. 159 to 160, on the Kingsley Trust Association, incorporated at the May 1860 session of the Connecticut legislature. https://archive.org/details/fouryearsatyale00bagg +[^80]: *Who's Who in America*, 1910-1911, entry for George Walbridge Perkins. https://archive.org/details/whos-who-in-america_1910-1911_6 +[^81]: *Money Trust Investigation: Investigation of Financial and Monetary Conditions in the United States under House Resolutions Nos. 429 and 504*, Subcommittee of the Committee on Banking and Currency, 62d Cong., 3d sess., Part 6 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1913), testimony of George B. Cortelyou, pp. 430 to 431. https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0006.001.umich.edu +[^82]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 8, testimony of Walter E. Frew, December 10, 1912, p. 596. https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0008.001.umich.edu +[^83]: George Augustus Perkins, *The Family of John Perkins of Ipswich, Massachusetts* (1889), pp. 1 to 3, and entries 387a, 619 and 886 to 890. https://archive.org/details/familyofjohnperk00perk +[^84]: Sutton (1983), on the membership lists and the Morgan partners. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Phelps family.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Phelps family.md new file mode 100644 index 00000000..c7116ecf --- /dev/null +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Phelps family.md @@ -0,0 +1,325 @@ +--- +created: 2026-10-26 +updated: 2026-10-26 +aliases: + - "Phelps family" + - "The Phelps family of America" + - "Phelps family of Simsbury" +tags: + - Family + - Phelps + - PhelpsDodge + - PhelpsStokesFund + - Dodge + - Stokes + - James + - Metals + - CustomsFraud + - SkullAndBones + - Yale + - SheffieldScientificSchool + - Congress + - Diplomacy + - WolfsHead + - BisbeeDeportation + - NearEastRelief + - CopperQueen + - WoodrowWilson + - Dorchester + - NewYork +category: "Business & Finance" +summary: "Dorchester family whose Anson Greene Phelps built Phelps, Dodge & Co., and whose lines produced William Walter Phelps, Edward John Phelps, the Wolf's Head Phelps Association and Yale Secretary Anson Phelps Stokes." +location: "Dorchester, Massachusetts; New York City" +relations: + - type: founded + with: "[[Phelps Dodge]]" + start: 1828-01-01 + role: "Phelps, Dodge & Co. organized by Anson Greene Phelps and William Earl Dodge after the dissolution of Phelps, Peck & Co., per the family genealogy; later incorporated in New York in 1885" + fn: 4 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[William Earl Dodge]]" + role: "married Melissa Phelps, daughter of Anson Greene Phelps, on June 24, 1828" + fn: 10 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Daniel James]]" + role: "Daniel James, partner of Phelps, Dodge & Co., married Elizabeth Woodbridge Phelps, daughter of Anson Greene Phelps" + fn: 11 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[James Boulter Stokes]]" + role: "married Caroline Phelps, daughter of Anson Greene Phelps" + fn: 14 + - type: participant_in + with: "[[Arthur v. Dodge]]" + start: 1874-12-01 + role: "eight partners of Phelps, Dodge & Co. sued Chester A. Arthur, collector of the port of New York, in December 1874" + fn: 20 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Skull and Bones]]" + start: 1860-01-01 + role: "William Walter Phelps, class of 1860, per the class list in Sutton's book compiled by Kris Millegan from the Yale Catalogue" + fn: 36 + - type: funded + with: "[[Yale University]]" + start: 1870-01-01 + role: "William Walter Phelps pledged $250 a year for five years toward the Phelps barge races" + fn: 24 + - type: participant_in + with: "[[Sheffield Scientific School]]" + start: 1871-02-01 + role: "William Walter Phelps among the six incorporators of the school, February 1871" + fn: 28 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Alphonso Taft]]" + role: "Fanny Phelps, daughter of Judge Charles Phelps of Townshend, Vermont, married Alphonso Taft on August 29, 1841" + fn: 59 + - type: founded + with: "[[Phelps-Stokes Fund]]" + start: 1910-04-28 + role: "trust created by the will of Caroline Phelps Stokes; first meeting of trustees April 28, 1910" + fn: 16 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Skull and Bones]]" + start: 1918-01-01 + role: "Charles Phelps Taft, class of 1918, per Sutton's class list" + fn: 61 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Edward John Phelps]]" + role: "no. 7125 in the 1899 genealogy; son of Samuel S. Phelps of Vermont and a descendant of William Phelps of Windsor; Kent Professor of Law at Yale from 1881" + fn: 31 + - type: participant_in + with: "[[Bisbee Deportation]]" + start: 1917-07-11 + role: "managers and officials of the Copper Queen Consolidated Mining Company (Phelps Dodge) took part in the citizens' meeting that decided the deportation, per the President's Mediation Commission" + fn: 53 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Cleveland H. Dodge]]" + role: "grandson of William Earl Dodge; member of the Princeton class of 1879 with Woodrow Wilson; treasurer of the Near East Relief committee from July 18, 1917" + fn: 56 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Skull and Bones]]" + start: 1896-01-01 + role: "Anson Phelps Stokes Jr., Yale class of 1896, recorded as a member of Bones in the class history" + fn: 18 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Yale University]]" + start: 1899-01-01 + role: "Anson Phelps Stokes Jr., elected Secretary of Yale University in the spring of 1899" + fn: 18 +--- + +The Phelps family of [[Dorchester, Massachusetts]] is listed by [[Antony C. Sutton]] among the old-line families of [[Skull and Bones]], with a settlement date of 1630 in his chart.[^1] A two-volume family genealogy published in 1899 follows the descendants of the Dorchester settlers from New England to Connecticut and New York, where [[Anson Greene Phelps]] organized the metals house of [[Phelps Dodge]] and married his daughters into the [[William Earl Dodge|Dodge]], [[Daniel James|James]] and [[James Boulter Stokes|Stokes]] families.[^2] [[William Walter Phelps]], the son of the Wall Street banker [[John Jay Phelps]], sat in Congress, served as minister to Austria-Hungary and to Germany, and was a trustee of [[Yale University]]. A second line, descended from William Phelps of Windsor, Connecticut, produced the Vermont senator [[Samuel S. Phelps]] and his son [[Edward John Phelps]], Kent Professor of Law at Yale and United States minister to Great Britain. The Yale senior society [[Wolf's Head]] was incorporated as the Phelps Trust Association, and its hall of 1884 to 1885 was built for the Phelps Association. A Dodge, [[Cleveland H. Dodge]], was [[Woodrow Wilson]]'s classmate and the treasurer of the Armenian relief committee that became [[Near East Relief]], and a Stokes, [[Anson Phelps Stokes Jr.]], was Secretary of Yale from 1899 to 1921 and a member of Skull and Bones. + +### Settlement and the Simsbury branch + +The 1897 genealogy of one branch of the family, whose title names William and George Phelps as the founders of the family in America in 1630, states that the first Phelps arrivals landed at Dorchester that year on the ship Mary and John.[^3] Sutton's chart gives the same settlement date and place.[^1] The introduction to that 1897 genealogy names three brothers, William, George and Richard Phelps, as the family's arrivals of 1630.[^3] The fuller record is the 1899 genealogy, compiled by [[Oliver Seymour Phelps]] and [[Andrew T. Servin]] and published at Pittsfield, Massachusetts, which gives the English ancestry and the American descendants of the Phelps settlers in two volumes.[^2] + +The branch that matters for the New York firms descends from settlers at Simsbury, Connecticut. Anson Greene Phelps was born there on March 24, 1781. His mother died when he was twelve, and according to the genealogy he was then brought up in the house of the minister of Simsbury. In 1799 he chose his brother Thomas Woodbridge Phelps as his guardian. He settled at Hartford, where his first successful undertaking was a saddle business that shipped to the South, and he built a brick block on North Main Street known as the Phelps Block.[^4] After leaving Simsbury, William and Thomas Phelps and their cousin Job Phelps settled in the West.[^4] + +### Anson Greene Phelps and the metals house + +In 1812 Anson Greene Phelps moved to New York City and went into business with Elisha Peck as Phelps, Peck & Co., dealing in metals, iron and brass.[^4] The genealogy dates the dissolution of that firm to about 1828. Phelps then organized the house of Phelps, Dodge & Co., composed of himself, his son-in-law William Earl Dodge and others of his relations.[^4] The genealogy lists his support of the American Bible Society, the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, the American Home Missionary Society, the Colonization Society and the Blind Asylum of New York, of several of which he was at one time president.[^4] He died in New York in November 1853, in his seventy-third year.[^4] + +The dates given for the firm's beginning differ. The genealogy's date of about 1828 for the organization of the firm stands beside other dates. Robert Glass Cleland's history of the company, published in 1952, runs from 1834 to 1950 in its title.[^5] The Copper Manual of 1897 states that Anson G. Phelps, with Israel Coe and John Hungerford, built a brass mill at Wolcottville (now Torrington), Connecticut, in 1834, and that the firm of Phelps, Dodge & Company, which he founded, had operated a copper-rolling mill at Birmingham, Connecticut, before 1844, when Phelps bought the lands on which he founded Ansonia.[^6] Anson Phelps Stokes wrote in his family records that the firm made an assignment in the financial panic of 1837, that his father James Stokes had endorsed largely for it and received the assignment together with a brother-in-law of Dodge, and that the debts were soon paid and the firm "renewed business as before."[^7] The partnership was renewed at intervals thereafter. On December 31, 1878, the partnership of William E. Dodge, Daniel James, James Stokes, William E. Dodge Jr., D. Willis James, Anson Phelps Stokes, Charles C. Dodge, Thomas Stokes and Arthur James of England expired by limitation, and a new partnership under the same name was formed of William E. Dodge Jr., D. Willis James, Joseph Van Vleck and James McLean.[^8] + +The firm was later incorporated. The annual report of Phelps Dodge on Form 10-K for fiscal 2006 states that the company was incorporated as a business corporation under the laws of the State of New York in 1885.[^9] + +### Intermarriage with the Dodge, James and Stokes houses + +Anson Greene Phelps's children married into the partner families of his firm. Melissa Phelps, born at Hartford in 1809, married William Earl Dodge in New York on June 24, 1828. Dodge was the junior partner, and after Anson Greene Phelps died in 1853 he became the head and manager of the house. He sat in the Thirty-ninth Congress for the eighth district of New York and was president of the Chamber of Commerce in New York City.[^10] Their sons included [[William Earl Dodge Jr.]], [[Anson Greene Phelps Dodge]], [[David Stuart Dodge]] and [[Charles Cleveland Dodge]].[^10] + +Elizabeth Woodbridge Phelps, born in New York in 1807, married Daniel James, born in Vermont in 1811, who became a merchant at Liverpool. She died at Liverpool in 1847 and he died there in November 1876. Their children included D. Willis James, who married Ellen S. Curtis, and Olivia P. James, who married Robert Hoe.[^11] Dodge told the [[House Committee on Ways and Means]] that his partner Daniel James, the resident partner at Liverpool, had married a daughter of Mr. Phelps and had later joined the firm.[^12] + +The Dodge line married back into the Phelps family in the next generation. Ella Ada Phelps, born in New York on March 28, 1838, married Rev. David Stuart Dodge on June 20, 1860. Their daughter Ellen Ada Phelps Dodge married [[Anson Greene Phelps Dodge Jr.]] at London on June 5, 1880.[^13] + +### James Boulter Stokes and the Stokes line + +Caroline Phelps, born at Hartford on November 30, 1812, married James Boulter Stokes, born in New York on January 31, 1804, the son of Thomas Stokes of London and his wife Elizabeth Ann Boulter. Stokes was a partner in Phelps, Dodge & Co. in New York, in Phelps, James & Co. at Liverpool and in the banking house of [[Phelps, Stokes & Co.]] at 45 Wall Street. The genealogy also names him the first president of the Ansonia companies.[^14] + +Their son [[Anson Phelps Stokes]] was born in New York on February 22, 1838, and married [[Helen Louisa Phelps]] on October 17, 1865.[^14] The genealogy lists Helen Louisa, born August 20, 1846, among the children of [[Isaac Newton Phelps]], who had opened the banking office at 45 Wall Street with John Jay Phelps and who continued the business after his partner retired in 1858.[^15] The Stokes daughter [[Caroline Phelps Stokes]], born at New York on December 4, 1854, founded the [[Phelps-Stokes Fund]] by her will.[^16] Anson Phelps Stokes, in his family records, states that in January 1861 he became a partner in Phelps, Dodge & Co. and in Phelps, James & Co.; that in 1855, at the age of seventeen and a half, he had gone to the firm's office; and that his father and his uncles William E. Dodge and Daniel James were then partners, with his cousins William E. Dodge Jr. and D. Willis James.[^7] Of the banker Isaac Newton Phelps he writes that from 1834 to 1848 he was a partner in the hardware house of Sheldon, Phelps & Co., and afterward, with John J. Phelps, "a distant cousin (father of Hon. William Walter Phelps)," established the firm of I. N. and J. J. Phelps, bankers, at 45 Wall Street, which became Phelps, Stokes & Co.[^17] + +The son of this Anson Phelps Stokes and Helen Louisa Phelps, born at New Brighton, Staten Island, on April 13, 1874, graduated from Yale in 1896 and is treated below as Secretary of Yale.[^18] + +### The customs controversy + +The partners of Phelps, Dodge & Co. were involved in the most public episode of the firm's New York business. Dodge told the Ways and Means committee that his partner Daniel James, at Liverpool, found in a newspaper dispatch of December 1872 a report that the United States had seized the firm's books and papers for alleged frauds on the revenue amounting to $1,750,000.[^12] The proceedings of the Forty-third Congress, first session, on the customs laws and the firm were printed in 1875 as an abstract titled [[Congress and Phelps, Dodge & Co.]], which covers the customs "moieties" provisions. Its index lists testimony by George S. Boutwell, James B. Beck, W. E. Dodge and Daniel James, and it also lists an examination of a Mr. Jayne by Beck and a clerk of the firm described in the index as dishonest.[^19] + +In December 1874 eight partners of the firm sued [[Chester A. Arthur]], the collector of the port of New York, in the Superior Court of the City of New York. The plaintiffs were William E. Dodge, Daniel James, James Stokes, William E. Dodge Jr., D. Willis James, Anson P. Stokes, Charles C. Dodge and Thomas Stokes, as Phelps, Dodge & Co. The protest on file reads in part, "We do hereby protest against the payment of 15 per cent." The suit sought to recover duties at 15 percent ad valorem paid under protest on merchandise imported in 1874.[^20] The record of the case was filed in the Supreme Court of the United States on October 2, 1877, as No. 206 under the caption [[Arthur v. Dodge]].[^20] Anson Phelps Stokes's family records list under 1874 the publication of the "moiety report" by the Chamber of Commerce on February 2 and its printing by order of Congress on May 2.[^21] The genealogy states that William Walter Phelps resigned his Austrian post, and that "On President Arthur's succession he resigned this office."[^22] + +### William Walter Phelps: Yale, Sheffield and the bar + +William Walter Phelps was born in New York City on August 24, 1839, the elder and only surviving son of John Jay Phelps and Rachel B. Phinney Phelps.[^23] He entered [[Yale College]] in 1855, left in March 1857 because of his health, and in the autumn of 1858 joined the class of 1860.[^23] He married Ellen Sheffield, daughter of [[Joseph E. Sheffield]], on the evening of Commencement Day, July 26, 1860, and sailed for Europe.[^23] The genealogy gives the wedding as January 26, 1860, and also says it took place on the day of his graduation.[^22] + +Phelps graduated from the [[Columbia Law School]] in May 1863. His father's death in May 1869 obliged him to give up general practice in order to manage the family estates and private trusts, and he moved to Englewood, New Jersey.[^23] He was counsel to several large corporations. In 1872 he was elected to the Forty-third Congress as a Republican from New Jersey.[^23] + +Phelps's gifts to Yale began before he entered public life. [[Lyman Bagg]] recorded in 1871 that in 1870 William Walter Phelps of the class of 1860 pledged $250 a year for five years toward two summer races, one in six-oared barges in the harbor and one in six-oared shells on [[Lake Saltonstall]]. A barge race for a Phelps flag was rowed on June 7, 1871. Bagg credited the arrangement to his classmate [[Charles H. Owen]].[^24] The same history records a fund of $50,000 given by a William Phelps, the income of which the college was to spend under the direction of his son William W. Phelps of the class of 1860 during the son's lifetime.[^24] The Yale obituary record describes Phelps as the trustee of a large bequest from his father, and it states that his gifts and that bequest made him a helpful friend of the University Library.[^23] Bagg names the donor of the $50,000 as William Phelps, while the obituary names the father as John Jay Phelps.[^24][^23] The Yale treasurer's lists of gifts, reprinted in the 1899 volume on Yale's campus, record "the income of the Phelps legacy" for the University Library from William Walter Phelps, and separately "the income of legacy of John J. Phelps" for the same purpose.[^25] A history of American universities published in 1898 states that in 1874 Phelps "assigned to the Library the income of a bequest from his father," amounting to $3500 a year and continued for twenty years.[^26] + +### Congress + +Phelps sat in the Forty-third Congress, the body whose customs proceedings the 1875 abstract reproduces.[^23][^19] The genealogy describes him as a debater who took positions against the salary increase, the banking bill and the franking privilege, and who denounced the civil rights bill as improper and unconstitutional.[^22] It also states that he sat on the special committee to inquire into the White League, the Ku Klux Klan and other societies, and that the city of New Orleans gave him a public dinner in recognition of its work.[^22] He declined an offer of the post of assistant secretary of the treasury from President Grant.[^22] + +Phelps was the Republican nominee again in 1874 and lost by seven votes.[^23] He was re-elected in 1882, 1884 and 1886 and served several terms after that. The genealogy adds that he acted as a regent of the Smithsonian Institution.[^22][^23] + +### Diplomatic posts + +President Garfield appointed Phelps minister to Austria on May 5, 1881, and his credentials were presented on June 20, 1881. The mission was superseded on June 30, 1882.[^27] The Yale obituary states that he resigned in the summer of 1882.[^23] + +In 1889 President Harrison appointed him to the Samoan commission. The genealogy states that his management of the treaty negotiations with the English and German commissioners won him high honors.[^22] Harrison then appointed him minister to Germany on June 20, 1889, and his credentials were presented on September 26, 1889.[^27] He presented his recall on June 4, 1893.[^27] The Yale obituary says that after his return he accepted appointment as a lay judge of the Court of Errors and Appeals of New Jersey.[^23] + +While in Germany, according to the genealogy, Phelps caused a monument to be erected to John Phelps, one of the clerks of the court that tried Charles I, who with other regicides took refuge at Vevey in Switzerland.[^22] + +Phelps died of consumption at his home near Englewood on June 17, 1894, in his fifty-fifth year. The Yale obituary states that he was survived by his wife, two sons who were Yale graduates of the classes of 1883 and 1886, and a daughter.[^23] + +### Yale and the Sheffield Scientific School + +The Yale obituary record states that Phelps was included in the original election of alumni trustees in 1872 and held the office until he declined renomination in 1892. The Corporation conferred the degree of Doctor of Laws on him in June 1890, after Rutgers had given him the same degree in October 1889. He had made liberal gifts to the Sheffield Scientific School, the medical and law schools and other university interests.[^23] + +The Sheffield Scientific School was incorporated in February 1871 by Professors Brush, Gilman and Trowbridge and by [[John S. Beach]], William Walter Phelps and Charles J. Sheffield. The board of nine included the governor of Connecticut and the president of Yale.[^28] [[Daniel Coit Gilman]] is among the six incorporators.[^28] Sutton gives Beach the class of 1839, Gilman the class of 1852 and Phelps the class of 1860.[^29] + +### Edward John Phelps + +Edward John Phelps was born at [[Middlebury, Vermont]], in 1822, the son of Samuel Shether Phelps, who graduated from Yale in 1811, sat on the Supreme Court of Vermont from 1831 to 1838 and in the United States Senate from 1839 to 1851 and again from January 1853 to the close of that session, and died at Middlebury on March 25, 1855.[^30] The 1899 genealogy enters him as no. 7125, with a birth date of July 11, 1822, which an erratum corrects from the 6 April printed in the first volume.[^31] The memoir prefixed to his collected addresses states that the family descended from William Phelps, who emigrated in 1630 and founded Windsor, Connecticut; that he entered Middlebury College at fourteen and graduated in 1840, so that Yale conferred no first degree on him; that he attended a course of lectures at the New Haven law school; and that he studied law with [[Horatio Seymour]] and was admitted to the bar in 1843.[^32] + +He delivered the address on Chief Justice Marshall before the American Bar Association at Saratoga on August 21, 1879.[^32] When President [[Grover Cleveland]] named him to London in 1885, the retiring minister, [[James Russell Lowell]], was quoted as saying that "none but a distinguished and agreeable" man "could have chosen to be President of the American Bar Association."[^33] The Office of the Historian records his appointment as envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary to the United Kingdom on March 23, 1885, the presentation of credentials on May 19, 1885, and his departure on January 31, 1889.[^34] The 1899 genealogy says that on his return he settled at New Haven and lectured on international law at Yale.[^31] + +At Yale he was made Kent Professor of Law in 1881, and the memoir gives the chair as his until his death at New Haven on March 9, 1900.[^35] A professorship of commercial law and contracts bearing his name was founded in the law department in 1887 by an anonymous donor, with an endowment of $25,000 recorded in the treasurer's list, and was assigned in 1888 to William K. Townsend.[^35] Under appointment by President [[Benjamin Harrison]] in 1893 he served as senior counsel for the United States before the [[Bering Sea Arbitration|Bering Sea tribunal]] at Paris, and the memoir quotes the tribunal's president as telling him that the argument blended "the deep science of the lawyer with literary refinement and diplomatic dignity."[^32] + +The 1899 genealogy enters William Walter Phelps (no. 6131) and Edward John Phelps (no. 7125) in the same work, whose 1897 predecessor names William and George Phelps as the founders of the family in America in 1630.[^3][^31] + +### The Order's Phelps members + +Sutton's class list, which the book attributes to the Yale Catalogue as compiled by Kris Millegan, places members of the Order by year of graduation. The Phelps names in that list are as follows, each stated as the list gives it.[^36] + +- 1860: William Walter Phelps. +- 1862: Henry Phelps Johnston and John Phelps Taylor. +- 1868: Anson Phelps Tinker. +- 1882: William Phelps Eno. +- 1886: Edward Johnson Phelps and Sheffield Phelps. +- 1895: Zira Bennett Phelps. +- 1896: Anson Phelps Stokes. +- 1909: Harold Phelps Stokes. +- 1916: Putnam, Phelps. +- 1918: Charles Phelps Taft. +- 1927: Anson Phelps Stokes Jr. + +The 1886 entries can be set against other records. The Yale obituary states that the two sons of William Walter Phelps graduated in 1883 and 1886, and the genealogy names his sons John Jay Phelps and Sheffield Phelps.[^23][^37] A directory of fraternities published in 1899 names Sheffield Phelps among the graduates of Yale who were members of Skull and Bones.[^38] Sutton's list places Sheffield Phelps in the class of 1886. The list gives Edward Johnson Phelps in the same class; the Edward John Phelps of the genealogy (no. 7125) is the Vermont-born lawyer and diplomat whose children are Charles P. Phelps of Detroit and Mary, Mrs. Loomis.[^31] The 1896 Anson Phelps Stokes is Anson Phelps Stokes Jr., the Yale secretary, whose class history records "D. K. E. Bones."[^39][^18] The 1909 Harold Phelps Stokes corresponds to the younger brother whom that class history places in the class of 1909, and the 1927 Anson Phelps Stokes Jr. to the son recorded there as Anson Phelps Stokes 3d, born at New Haven on January 11, 1905.[^18] The Dodge names in the list are Francis Talmage Dodge (1904), Philip Lyndon Dodge (1907) and Washington Dodge (1929), and Sutton's text places Philip Lyndon Dodge among the members of the Order at 120 Broadway.[^40] Sutton also wrote that the membership lists are heavily laced with Dodge, Whitney, Phelps, Perkins, Norton and Putnam names used as middle names.[^41] + +Sutton's class list and chart place William Walter Phelps in the Order in the class of 1860, and the 1899 fraternity directory names him among the Yale graduates who were members of Skull and Bones.[^36][^38] + +### The Russell Trust, Wolf's Head and the Phelps Association + +The Order was incorporated as the Russell Trust Association by a Connecticut act of 1856. The act names [[William Huntington Russell]], John S. Beach, [[Henry B. Harrison]], Daniel Coit Gilman, [[Henry T. Blake]] and [[Henry D. White]] as the body corporate. It capped the association's real and personal estate at fifteen thousand dollars and fixed its first meeting at New Haven for the last Wednesday of July 1856.[^42] Sutton's book dates the incorporation to 1856 under the name The Russell Trust.[^43] + +In a 1984 newsletter Sutton identified the three senior societies at Yale as Skull and Bones (Russell Trust), Scroll and Key (Kingsley Trust) and Wolf's Head, which he gave as the Phelps Trust.[^44] Printed sources of the 1890s give the same names. Rupert Hughes, writing on the secret societies at Yale in Munsey's Magazine for June 1894, stated that Bones was incorporated as the Russell Trust Association, Keys as the Kingsley Trust Association and Wolf's Head as the Phelps Trust Association, each with a graduate organization that was "quite an expensive luxury."[^45] A. C. Stevens's Cyclopaedia of Fraternities (1899) states that Wolf's Head "was founded at Yale by a number of members of the class of '84," and that it "is incorporated as the Phelps Trust Association."[^38] Charles Pierson's history of Yale College lists the incorporated bodies of the senior societies with their dates, among them the Kingsley Trust Association (Scroll and Key), 1860, and the Phelps Trust Association (Wolf's Head), 1886.[^46] + +John Williams Andrews's history of the society, The Founding of Wolf's Head, issued by the Phelps Association in 1934 and reprinted in Kris Millegan's 2003 compilation, places the founding in June 1883, "entirely unknown to the College or the world-at-large," and says that the society "was to be called later Wolf's Head and 'The Phelps Association.'"[^47] Welch and Camp's volume on Yale of 1899 dates the three societies to 1832, 1842 and 1883.[^48] The society's hall on Prospect Street, in Richardsonian Romanesque, was designed by McKim, Mead & White in 1884 to 1885 for the Phelps Association; Yale's building history gives the property as later purchased by the University, and a later Wolf's Head building on York Street was designed by Bertram Goodhue in 1924.[^49] + +Yale's own records carry the Phelps name in other places in the same years. The treasurer's lists reprinted in 1899 record a bequest of $50,000 from William Walter Phelps for the erection of Phelps Hall, with $20,000 more from his family, and the chronology of the university records the erection of the Phelps Memorial Gateway in 1895. The Classical Club of the university had its headquarters in the principal room of Phelps Hall.[^25] The Phelps barge races and the Phelps flag of 1871 are recorded by Bagg.[^24] + +The same 1984 newsletter quotes the catalog of the Elihu society, founded in 1903, for the entry "Anson Phelps Stokes" as a Skull and Bones member and an honorary member of Elihu since its founding.[^44] The Yale class history of 1896 records Anson Phelps Stokes Jr., Secretary of the University, as a member of Bones.[^18] + +### The Phelps-Stokes Fund + +Caroline Phelps Stokes left her residuary estate in trust under the seventeenth clause of her will. The trust was to be known as the Phelps-Stokes Fund, and its income was to be used for tenement dwellings for poor families in New York City and for education, in Africa and the United States, of Black students, North American Indians and needy white students.[^50] The trustees named in the will were the Protestant Episcopal bishop of New York, the chancellor of the University of the City of New York, the Reverend Lyman Abbott, Olivia Egleston Phelps Stokes, I. Newton Phelps Stokes, Helen Olivia Phelps Stokes, Francis Louis Slade, Mabel Slade, Caroline M. Phelps Stokes, [[Grace H. Dodge]] and [[Arthur Curtiss James]].[^50] + +The trustees first met on April 28, 1910, at the New York residence of Anson Phelps Stokes, the meeting having been called by him and by Olivia E. P. Stokes. Bishop Greer was elected temporary chairman and Francis Louis Slade temporary secretary.[^50] The report's list of trustees for 1910 to 1920 includes [[Henry Sloane Coffin]], printed there as Henry Sloan Coffin and listed from 1916, along with Elmer Ellsworth Brown, Charles Sumner Burch, John Sherman Hoyt and Edward W. Sheldon.[^50] The report's biographical sketch of Caroline Phelps Stokes records that she gave Ansonia, Connecticut, a public library in memory of her grandfather, Anson G. Phelps, founder of the town, and of her parents.[^50] + +The trustees were authorized on the fund's incorporation under the laws of New York in 1911 to use its means for "research" and "publication." In November 1919 they voted to support a study of education in Africa, undertaken after the American Baptist Foreign Mission Society proposed a commission and the Committee of Reference and Counsel of the Foreign Missions Conference of North America asked that Thomas Jesse Jones, whom the report calls the educational director of the fund, serve as its chairman.[^51] The commission included Jones and James Emman Kwegyir Aggrey of the Gold Coast, and its report, Education in Africa (1922), covered West, South and Equatorial Africa. The report states that the fund's most important work to that date had been the two-volume federal study Negro Education, prepared under Jones's direction and published by the Bureau of Education in 1917.[^51] + +### The Copper Queen and the Bisbee deportation + +The [[Copper Queen Consolidated Mining Company]] at [[Bisbee, Arizona]], Arizona Territory, is described in the Copper Manual of 1897 as in operation since 1880, as "operated and controlled by the eminent and well-known firm of Phelps, Dodge & Co.," as the leading copper producer of the Territory, and as headed by J. Douglas as president, with a 1896 product of 23,298,150 pounds of fine copper.[^52] + +A strike was called in the Warren district, which contains the Copper Queen and the Calumet and Arizona mines, on June 26, 1917. On July 12 the sheriff of [[Cochise County, Arizona|Cochise County]], [[Harry Wheeler]], and a body of about two thousand armed men acting as his deputies rounded up 1,186 men in the district, put them aboard a train and carried them to [[Columbus, New Mexico]], where the authorities refused to receive them. They were taken on to Hermanas, left there for two days without adequate food, water or shelter, and on July 14 escorted by troops to Columbus.[^53] The [[President's Mediation Commission]], named by President Wilson, reported on the deportation in a text reproduced in the Mining Congress Journal for December 1917. Its seventh finding reads that the deportation "was formally decided upon at a meeting of citizens on the night of July 11, participated in by the managers and other officials of the Copper Queen Consolidated Mining Company (Phelps-Dodge Corporation, Copper Queen Division), and the Calumet and Arizona Mining Company," and that those who planned it "purposely abstained from consulting" the United States attorney in Arizona, the law officers of the state or county, or their own legal advisers. The eighth finding states that the leaders used the local offices of the Bell Telephone Company and exercised or attempted to exercise a censorship over parts of the interstate telephone and telegraph lines. The eleventh finding reads: "The deportation was wholly illegal and without authority in law either State or Federal."[^53] + +Histories of the event name [[Walter Douglas]], the son of [[James Douglas]]. [[James Byrkit]]'s study of the Arizona labor war carries his portrait among those of the principals, and Truett writes that Phelps Dodge president Walter Douglas, with company detectives, joined Wheeler, who deputized the force.[^54] The same December 1917 issue of the Mining Congress Journal prints the list of presidents of the American Mining Congress, in which Walter Douglas appears for the years 1917 to 1918.[^53] + +Twenty-five participants were indicted in federal court for conspiring, under section 19 of the Criminal Code, to injure and intimidate 221 named persons in their right to reside in Arizona and to be free from deportation. A judgment quashing the indictment was affirmed by the Supreme Court on December 13, 1920, in United States v. Wheeler, with Chief Justice White writing that the right asserted was secured against state action only and not against private persons; Justice Clarke dissented. [[Charles Evans Hughes]] appeared for the defendants.[^55] + +### Cleveland H. Dodge + +Cleveland Hoadley Dodge, grandson of William Earl Dodge and an heir to an interest in Phelps Dodge, was a member of the [[Princeton University]] class of 1879 with Wilson. Robert L. Daniel's study of the friendship states that as an alumni trustee of Princeton he joined other trustees in 1896 in raising a private fund to supplement Wilson's salary, and that in 1902 Dodge and two other members of the class of 1879 notified Wilson of his election as the university's first lay president.[^56] Grabill's study of missionary influence on American policy calls him vice-president of the Phelps Dodge Corporation.[^57] + +Daniel states that because Phelps Dodge owned mining properties in northern Mexico, Dodge was well informed on conditions there and that Wilson relied on him for advice during the first months of the administration. Dodge forwarded reports from Judge Haff, an attorney for the Southern Pacific Railroad and spokesman for Phelps Dodge, and Daniel writes that "largely on Dodge's recommendation" Wilson in May 1913 agreed to recognize the regime of [[Victoriano Huerta]] on condition of free elections, then turned with Dodge to [[Venustiano Carranza]] within a month. In 1913 Phelps Dodge officials were accused of making two shipments of ammunition to Mexico in violation of the arms embargo, and both charges were dropped when the United States attorney could not prove that any ammunition crossed the border. Daniel adds that a subsidiary of Phelps Dodge later sold a million rounds to the Carranza government after the State Department lifted the embargo, and that in the 1916 campaign pamphleteers and the Illinois congressman William A. Rodenberg named Dodge as the architect of Wilson's Mexican policy.[^56] + +In September 1915 the Armenian relief committee was organized in Dodge's board room. James L. Barton's history of Near East Relief states that Barton wrote to Dodge on September 14, 1915 proposing a conference in Dodge's office, that Dodge was a member of the executive committee from the first and treasurer from July 18, 1917 to his death on June 24, 1926, and that he was "the personal friend of President Woodrow Wilson" and chairman of the board of trustees of [[Robert College]].[^58] Daniel writes that Dodge served as treasurer of the organization and as the link between the committee and the Wilson administration, and that through Dodge the committee obtained access to State Department files and a presidential proclamation.[^56] The act of Congress of August 6, 1919 incorporating Near East Relief names as its first trustees [[James L. Barton]], Cleveland H. Dodge, [[Henry Morgenthau]], [[Charles R. Crane]], [[William Howard Taft]], Hughes, [[Elihu Root]], Cleveland E. Dodge, Arthur Curtiss James and others.[^58] Barton lists [[Edward S. Harkness]], James and Cleveland H. Dodge at the head of the generous supporters, and names [[Thomas Jesse Jones]] of the Phelps-Stokes Fund among those who counseled the field staff of the Near East survey.[^58] + +### Anson Phelps Stokes, Secretary of Yale + +Anson Phelps Stokes Jr. was born on April 13, 1874, and graduated from Yale in 1896. The class history of 1896 records that he was Class Deacon, chairman of the Yale News, winner of the DeForest Prize Medal, a member of Phi Beta Kappa, of Delta Kappa Epsilon and of Bones, and that he spent a year traveling around the world, took a divinity degree at the Episcopal Theological Seminary at Cambridge in 1900, was ordained deacon by Bishop Potter, and was elected Secretary of Yale University in the spring of 1899, entering on the duties on completing his divinity course.[^18] The same record states that he declined the presidency of Trinity College and the headmastership of St. Paul's School, was a founder of the Yale Foreign Missionary Society, and sat on the boards of the New Haven Y.M.C.A., the New Haven Hospital, the Wellesley College trustees and others; that the Hillhouse property was bought by a committee of Gifford Pinchot, Lewis S. Welch and himself; and that he married Carol Green Mitchell at Bernardsville, New Jersey, on December 30, 1903.[^18] Sutton lists him as Secretary of Yale from 1899 to 1921.[^39] + +Woodbridge Hall at Yale was given by his aunts Olivia and Caroline Phelps Stokes, who also gave a chapel to Berea College in 1907 and St. Paul's Chapel to Columbia University.[^17] In the Phelps-Stokes Fund's African education report of 1922 the introduction is signed by Dr. Anson Phelps Stokes.[^51] + +### The Vermont line and the Tafts + +[[Alphonso Taft]] married Fanny Phelps on August 29, 1841. She was the daughter of Judge Charles Phelps of Townshend, Vermont, and she died on June 2, 1852.[^59] Their sons included [[Peter Rawson Taft]], of the class of 1867, and [[Charles Phelps Taft]], of the class of 1864.[^36][^60] Sutton's class list gives Charles Phelps Taft of the class of 1918 as a member of the Order.[^61] + +The Yale obituary records for William Howard Taft and for Charles Phelps Taft name a Charles Phelps Taft, 2d, of the class of 1918, as a son of William Howard Taft and as a nephew of the elder Charles Phelps Taft.[^60] + +### Phelps Dodge in later corporate lists + +The proxy statement of [[J. P. Morgan & Co.]] for its annual meeting of April 12, 2000 lists Phelps Dodge among the organizations whose officers sat on the board of directors of J.P. Morgan and Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York and with which J.P. Morgan had transactions in the ordinary course.[^62] + +### Footnotes + +[^1]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chart "Hypothesis Number One" on p. 19 and the old-line family list, "PHELPS FAMILY (1630, Dorchester, Mass.)". https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^2]: Oliver Seymour Phelps and Andrew T. Servin, *The Phelps Family of America and Their English Ancestors*, 2 vols. (Pittsfield, Mass.: Eagle Publishing Company, 1899), vol. 1 and vol. 2, English ancestry and American descendants. https://archive.org/details/phelpsfamilyofam02phel +[^3]: *Genealogy and a Short Historical Narrative of One Branch of the Family of George Phelps since the Founding of the Family in America by William and George Phelps in 1630* (1897), account of the landing at Dorchester on the ship Mary and John. https://archive.org/details/genealogyandshor1897phel +[^4]: Phelps, *The Phelps Family of America*, vol. 2, entry for Anson Greene Phelps (no. 819), including the Simsbury guardianship, the Hartford saddle business, the Phelps Block, Phelps, Peck & Co. (1812), the dissolution about 1828, the organization of Phelps, Dodge & Co., and his death in November 1853. https://archive.org/details/phelpsfamilyofam02phel +[^5]: Robert Glass Cleland, *A History of Phelps Dodge, 1834-1950* (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1952), title and dates. https://archive.org/details/historyofphelpsd0000robe +[^6]: *Copper Manual: Copper Mines, Copper Statistics, Copper Shares* (1897), passages on Anson G. Phelps, "founder of the house of Phelps, Dodge & Company," the brass mill built at Wolcottville in 1834, and the copper-rolling mill at Birmingham, Connecticut. https://archive.org/details/coppermanualcop01cogoog +[^7]: Anson Phelps Stokes, *Stokes Records: Notes Regarding the Ancestry and Lives of Anson Phelps Stokes and Helen Louisa (Phelps) Stokes* (New York, 1910), vol. 1, entries for 1837 (the assignment of Phelps, Dodge & Co. to James Stokes and Mr. Porter), 1855 (entry into the firm's office), and 1861 ("In January, 1861, I became a partner in Phelps, Dodge & Co. and Phelps, James & Co."). https://archive.org/details/stokesrecordsnot12instok +[^8]: Stokes, *Stokes Records*, vol. 1, entry for December 31, 1878, on the expiry of the partnership of Phelps, Dodge & Co. and the formation of the new partnership of William E. Dodge Jr., D. Willis James, Joseph Van Vleck and James McLean. https://archive.org/details/stokesrecordsnot12instok +[^9]: Phelps Dodge Corporation, Annual Report on Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2006, filed February 27, 2007 (accession 0000950153-07-000431), Item 1, stating incorporation in New York in 1885. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/78066/000095015307000431/p73493e10vk.htm +[^10]: Phelps, *The Phelps Family of America*, vol. 2, entry for Melissa Phelps (no. 1467) and the entry for Hon. William Earl Dodge with his children, including the marriage of June 24, 1828, the junior partnership in Phelps, Dodge & Co., the Thirty-ninth Congress and the presidency of the Chamber of Commerce. https://archive.org/details/phelpsfamilyofam02phel +[^11]: Phelps, *The Phelps Family of America*, vol. 2, entry for Elizabeth Woodbridge Phelps (no. 1466) and her children by Daniel James (nos. 2392 to 2395). https://archive.org/details/phelpsfamilyofam02phel +[^12]: *Congress and Phelps, Dodge & Co.: An Extraordinary History; or, An Abstract of So Much of the Proceedings and Investigations of the 43d Congress (1st Session) in Relation to "Moieties and Customs Revenue Laws"* (1875), p. 28, testimony of W. E. Dodge before the Committee of Ways and Means on Daniel James and on the December 1872 dispatch. https://archive.org/details/congressphelpsdo00wellrich +[^13]: Phelps, *The Phelps Family of America*, vol. 2, entries for Ella Ada Phelps (no. 9930), with her marriage to Rev. David Stuart Dodge on June 20, 1860, and Ellen Ada Phelps Dodge (no. 9932), with her marriage to Anson Greene Phelps Dodge Jr. on June 5, 1880, in London. https://archive.org/details/phelpsfamilyofam02phel +[^14]: Phelps, *The Phelps Family of America*, vol. 2, entry for Caroline Phelps (no. 1469) and the entry for James Boulter Stokes with his children (nos. 2405 to 2417), including Anson Phelps (Stokes), born February 22, 1838, who married Helen Louise Phelps on October 17, 1865; the partnerships in Phelps, Dodge & Co., Phelps, James & Co. and Phelps, Stokes & Co.; the Ansonia companies. https://archive.org/details/phelpsfamilyofam02phel +[^15]: Phelps, *The Phelps Family of America*, vol. 2, entry for Isaac Newton Phelps (no. 617), the banking partner at 45 Wall Street, with his children by his first wife, including Helen Louisa Phelps (no. 1115); and Stokes, *Stokes Records*, vol. 1, on I. N. Phelps and the firm of I. N. and J. J. Phelps. https://archive.org/details/phelpsfamilyofam02phel +[^16]: *Educational Adaptations: Report of Ten Years' Work of the Phelps-Stokes Fund, 1910 to 1920* (New York: Phelps-Stokes Fund, 1920), "Biographical Sketch of Caroline Phelps Stokes," on her birth at Clifton Cottage on December 4, 1854, and on the founding of the fund by her will. https://archive.org/details/educationaladapt00phel +[^17]: Stokes, *Stokes Records*, vol. 1, on Isaac Newton Phelps ("From 1834 to 1848 he was a partner in the large hardware house of Sheldon, Phelps & Co.," afterward with "John J. Phelps, a distant cousin (father of Hon. William Walter Phelps)," the firm of I. N. and J. J. Phelps, and Phelps, Stokes & Co.), and on the gifts of Olivia and Caroline Phelps Stokes (Berea College chapel, 1907; Woodbridge Hall to Yale; St. Paul's Chapel to Columbia). https://archive.org/details/stokesrecordsnot12instok +[^18]: *History of the Class of 1896, Yale College: Decennial Record* (New Haven, 1907), biography of "Rev. Anson Phelps Stokes, Jr., Secretary of Yale University," pp. 588 to 590 (born April 13, 1874; parents; "Phi Beta Kappa. He Boule. D. K. E. Bones."; election as Secretary in spring 1899; the Hillhouse property committee; marriage December 30, 1903; son Anson Phelps Stokes 3d born January 11, 1905; a younger brother in the class of 1909); and the class-dinner narrative of the announcement that "Stokes, our Anson, was to succeed Professor Dexter as Secretary of the University." https://archive.org/details/decennialrecordo00yalerich +[^19]: *Congress and Phelps, Dodge & Co.* (1875), title page and index, including entries for George S. Boutwell (advice in the case of Phelps, Dodge & Co.), James B. Beck, W. E. Dodge and Daniel James. https://archive.org/details/congressphelpsdo00wellrich +[^20]: *Chester A. Arthur, Collector of the Port of New York, Plaintiff in Error, v. William E. Dodge, Daniel James, James Stokes, William E. Dodge, Jr., D. Willis James, Anson P. Stokes, Charles C. Dodge, and Thomas Stokes, as Phelps, Dodge & Co.*, No. 206, Supreme Court of the United States (filed October 2, 1877), record including the complaint filed in the Superior Court of the City of New York in December 1874 and the duties at 15 percent ad valorem. https://archive.org/details/per_scotus_1879_206 +[^21]: Stokes, *Stokes Records*, vol. 1, entries under 1874: "February 2, Moiety report published by Chamber of Commerce. May 2, ordered printed by Congress." https://archive.org/details/stokesrecordsnot12instok +[^22]: Phelps, *The Phelps Family of America*, vol. 2, entry for Hon. Wm. Walter Phelps, covering his service in Congress, the New Orleans committee, the declined assistant secretaryship, the Samoan commission, the Smithsonian regency, the monument to John Phelps, his resignation at Vienna on Arthur's succession, and the wedding date of January 26, 1860 with the statement that he married on the day of his graduation. https://archive.org/details/phelpsfamilyofam02phel +[^23]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1893-1894* (New Haven: Yale University, 1894), pp. 238 to 239, entry for William Walter Phelps (Yale entry and class, marriage on Commencement Day, July 26, 1860, Columbia Law School 1863, the father's death in May 1869, the 43d Congress, the Austrian and German missions, the alumni trusteeship from 1872 to 1892, the LL.D. of June 1890, and his death on June 17, 1894). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1859_1924/1893-94.pdf +[^24]: Lyman Bagg, *Four Years at Yale* (New Haven: Henry Holt, 1871), pp. 359 to 360 (the Phelps Barge Races and the second race for the Phelps flag on June 7, 1871), and the passages on gifts to the college (a fund of $50,000 given by William Phelps, with income under his son William W. Phelps of '60) and on the boating program (Phelps pledged $250 a year for five years in 1870, with Charles H. Owen responsible for the arrangement). https://archive.org/details/fouryearsatyale00baggrich +[^25]: Welch and Camp, *Yale: Her Campus, Class-Rooms, and Athletics* (1899), treasurer's lists of gifts ("For erection of Phelps Hall, from bequest of Hon. William Walter Phelps $50,000.00; by his family $20,000.00"; "For University Library, by Hon. William Walter Phelps (the income of the Phelps legacy) $3,000.00"; "from income of legacy of John J. Phelps $1,383.33"), the chronology entry "1895. Phelps Memorial Gateway erected," and the passage on the Classical Club in "the principal room of Phelps Hall." https://archive.org/details/yalehercampuscla00welc +[^26]: Joshua L. Chamberlain (ed.), *Universities and Their Sons* (Boston: R. Herndon, 1898), vol. 1, history of Yale University, section on the Library. https://archive.org/details/universitiesthei01cham +[^27]: Office of the Historian, United States Department of State, "William Walter Phelps," Department History, People (Austria-Hungary: appointed May 5, 1881, credentials June 20, 1881, superseded June 30, 1882; Germany: appointed June 20, 1889, credentials September 26, 1889, recall presented June 4, 1893). https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/phelps-william-walter +[^28]: Fabian Franklin, *The Life of Daniel Coit Gilman* (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1910), pp. 94 to 95, on the incorporation of the Sheffield Scientific School in February 1871 by Professors Brush, Gilman and Trowbridge and Messrs. John S. Beach, William Walter Phelps and Charles J. Sheffield. https://archive.org/details/lifeofdanielcoit00fran +[^29]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on the Sheffield Scientific School trustees, "John S. Beach (The Order, '39)," "William W. Phelps (The Order, '60)" and "Daniel Coit Gilman (The Order, '52)." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^30]: Phelps, *The Phelps Family of America*, vol. 1, no. 3609, Hon. Samuel Shether Phelps, born at Litchfield, Connecticut, May 13, 1793, "graduated at Yale in the Class of 1811," judge of the Supreme Court of Vermont 1831 to 1838, member of the United States Senate 1839 to 1851 and from January 1853 to the close of the session, died at Middlebury March 25, 1855, with his children including Edward John (no. 7125). https://archive.org/details/phelpsfamilyofam01phel +[^31]: Phelps, *The Phelps Family of America*, vol. 2, no. 7125, Hon. Edward John Phelps, born at Middlebury, Vermont, "11 July, 1822," married Mary S. Haight, settled at Burlington, appointed by President Cleveland Minister to the Court of St. James, and afterward "lectures on international law in Yale University"; the correction "No. 7125 b. July 11 instead of 6 April" in the errata for p. 692; and no. 6131, Hon. Wm. Walter Phelps. https://archive.org/details/phelpsfamilyofam02phel +[^32]: John W. Stewart, memoir in J. G. McCullough (ed.), *Orations and Essays of Edward John Phelps, Diplomat and Statesman* (New York and London: Harper & Brothers, 1901), pp. vii to xi (descent from William Phelps of Windsor; entry to Middlebury College at fourteen and graduation in 1840; the New Haven lectures; admission to the bar in 1843; the Bering Sea argument and the tribunal president's remarks; the American Bar Association address at Saratoga in 1879; the appointment to London in 1885), and the address "Chief Justice Marshall and the Constitutional Law of His Time," delivered at Saratoga, New York, August 21, 1879, before the American Bar Association. https://archive.org/details/orationsessaysof00phel +[^33]: *The Phrenological Journal and Science of Health*, vol. 80, no. 6 (June 1885), article on Edward J. Phelps, minister to England, quoting the retiring minister James Russell Lowell: "None but a distinguished and agreeable could have chosen to be President of the American Bar Association." https://archive.org/details/sim_phrenological-journal-and-science-of-health_1885-06_80_6 +[^34]: Office of the Historian, United States Department of State, "Edward John Phelps (1822-1900)," Department History, People (Vermont; Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, United Kingdom; appointed March 23, 1885; credentials presented May 19, 1885; left post January 31, 1889). https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/phelps-edward-john +[^35]: Stewart memoir, *Orations and Essays of Edward John Phelps* (1901), on his lectures "at Yale as Kent professor of law from 1881 to the date of his death, at New Haven, March 9, 1900"; and Lewis Sheldon Welch and Walter Camp, *Yale: Her Campus, Class-Rooms, and Athletics* (Boston: L. C. Page, 1899), chronology entries "1881. Hon. E. J. Phelps made Kent Professor of Law," "1887. Edward J. Phelps professorship founded" and "1888. The Edward J. Phelps professorship assigned to Wm. K. Townsend," and the treasurer's list entry "Edward J. Phelps Professorship of Commercial Law and Contracts in the Law Department, by an anonymous donor, $25,000.00." https://archive.org/details/yalehercampuscla00welc +[^36]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), class-by-class list of members of the Order, "This section compiled by Kris Millegan" from the Yale Catalogue, entries for classes 1860, 1862, 1867, 1868, 1882, 1886, 1895, 1896, 1909, 1916, 1918 and 1927. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^37]: Phelps, *The Phelps Family of America*, vol. 2, entry for Hon. Wm. Walter Phelps, with the children John Jay Phelps (no. 9937), Sheffield Phelps (no. 9938) and Marion Phelps (no. 9939). https://archive.org/details/phelpsfamilyofam02phel +[^38]: A. C. Stevens, *The Cyclopaedia of Fraternities* (1899), entry on Yale senior societies, listing "Sheffield Phelps" and "William Walter Phelps" among graduates who are "Bones" men, and stating that Wolf's Head "was founded at Yale by a number of members of the class of '84" and "is incorporated as the Phelps Trust Association"; the passage is reprinted in Kris Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2003). https://archive.org/details/StevensACTheCyclopaediaOfFraternities1899 +[^39]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), list of Yale officials and members of the Order, entry "STOKES, Anson P. 1896 Secretary of Yale (1899-1921)." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^40]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), class lists (Dodge, Francis Talmage, 1904; Dodge, Philip Lyndon, 1907; Dodge, Washington, 1929; Stokes, Horace Sheldon, 1889; Stokes, Harold Phelps, 1909) and the list of "Individual Members of the Order at 120 Broadway," including Philip Lyndon Dodge ('07). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^41]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), section on genetic problems, stating that the membership lists are heavily laced with Dodge, Whitney, Phelps, Perkins, Norton and Putnam used as middle (maternal) names. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^42]: "An Act incorporating Russell Trust Association" (1856), certified copy from the Connecticut Secretary of the State dated March 28, 2001, as reprinted in Kris Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2003), "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," pp. 693 to 694. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones +[^43]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), text stating that the Order "was incorporated as The Russell Trust in 1856." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^44]: Antony C. Sutton, "The Yale Senior Society Program," *Phoenix Letter*, vol. 3, no. 8 (October 1984), Research Publications, Phoenix, Arizona, pp. 1 to 6, on Skull & Bones (Russell Trust), Scroll & Key (Kingsley Trust), Wolfs Head (Phelps Trust), and the Elihu catalog entry for Anson Phelps Stokes. https://archive.org/details/sutton-antony-c.-the-yale-senior-society-program-phoenix-letter-vol.-3-no.-8-oct.-1984-pp.-1-6 +[^45]: Rupert Hughes, "Secret Societies at Yale," *Munsey's Magazine*, vol. 11, no. 3 (June 1894). https://archive.org/details/sim_munseys-magazine_1894-06_11_3 +[^46]: George W. Pierson, *Yale College: An Educational History, 1871-1921* (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1952), list of senior-society trust associations with dates: "Trust Association (Scroll and Key), 1860; Phelps Trust Association (Wolf's Head), 1886." https://archive.org/details/yalecollegeeduca0000pier +[^47]: John Williams Andrews, *The Founding of Wolf's Head* (New Haven: The Phelps Association, 1934), pp. 17 to 67, reprinted in Kris Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2003), pp. 485 to 508 (the passage at p. 506: "In June of 1883, eight months before, entirely unknown to the College or the world-at-large, a third senior society had been successfully founded"). https://archive.org/details/MilleganFleshingOutSkullBonesInvestigationsIntoAmericasMostPowerfulSecretSociety2003 +[^48]: Welch and Camp, *Yale: Her Campus, Class-Rooms, and Athletics* (1899), "Skull and Bones was founded in 1832, Scroll and Key in 1842, and Wolfs Head in 1883," with the society homes on High, College and Prospect Streets. https://archive.org/details/yalehercampuscla00welc +[^49]: *Buildings and Grounds of Yale University* (New Haven: Yale University, 1979), entries "Phelps Association, see 77 Prospect Street; Wolf's Head" and the McKim, Mead & White building "in Richardsonian Romanesque for the Phelps Association (Wolfs Head Society). Purchased by the University"; *McKim, Mead & White, Architects* (1983), list of works, "Phelps Association (Wolf's Head), Yale University, 1884-85"; and Patrick Pinnell, *Yale University: Campus Guide* (1999), "Wolf's Head Society" and "Phelps Association," Bertram G. Goodhue, 1924. https://archive.org/details/buildingsgrounds0000yale +[^50]: *Educational Adaptations* (1920), "History of the Phelps-Stokes Fund," text of the seventeenth clause of the will of Caroline Phelps Stokes, "First Meeting of Trustees" (April 28, 1910, at the New York residence of Anson Phelps Stokes, with Bishop Greer temporary chairman and Francis Louis Slade temporary secretary), the list of trustees, and the biographical sketch on the Ansonia library. https://archive.org/details/educationaladapt00phel +[^51]: Thomas Jesse Jones, *Education in Africa: A Study of West, South, and Equatorial Africa by the African Education Commission under the Auspices of the Phelps-Stokes Fund and Foreign Mission Societies of North America and Europe* (New York: Phelps-Stokes Fund, 1922), introduction by Dr. Anson Phelps Stokes, "Origin of the Study" (the 1911 incorporation, the trustees' vote of November 1919, the proposal of the American Baptist Foreign Mission Society, the membership of the commission, the 1917 federal report *Negro Education*). https://archive.org/details/educationinafric00afriuoft +[^52]: *Copper Manual* (1897), account of the Copper Queen Consolidated Mining Company ("in operation since 1880," "operated and controlled by the eminent and well-known firm of Phelps, Dodge & Co.," J. Douglas, president; 1896 product 23,298,150 pounds). https://archive.org/details/coppermanualcop01cogoog +[^53]: "Bisbee Deportations Condemned in Report," *The Mining Congress Journal*, vol. 3, no. 12 (December 1917), pp. 434 to 436, reproducing the report of the President's Mediation Commission, findings 1 to 14; and the same issue's list of presidents of the American Mining Congress ("Walter Douglas, President 1917-1918"). https://archive.org/details/sim_amc-journal_1917-12_3_12 +[^54]: James W. Byrkit, *Forging the Copper Collar: Arizona's Labor-Management War of 1901-1921* (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1982), list of illustrations ("Walter Douglas of Phelps Dodge Corporation") and chapter on the deportation; Samuel Truett, *Fugitive Landscapes: The Forgotten History of the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands* (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006), on Phelps Dodge president Walter Douglas and Sheriff Harry Wheeler. https://archive.org/details/forgingcoppercol0000byrk +[^55]: *United States v. Wheeler*, 254 U.S. 281 (1920), argued April 28, decided December 13, 1920 (indictment under section 19 of the Criminal Code against 25 defendants for conspiring against 221 persons deported from Bisbee to New Mexico; counsel for defendants included Charles E. Hughes; judgment affirmed; Justice Clarke dissenting). https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/254/281 +[^56]: Robert L. Daniel, "The Friendship of Woodrow Wilson and Cleveland H. Dodge," *Mid-America: An Historical Review*, vol. 43, no. 3 (July 1961), pp. 183 to 191 (Phelps Dodge interest; Princeton class of 1879; the 1896 fund and the 1902 election; Judge Haff's Mexican reports; the Huerta recognition of May 1913; the 1913 ammunition accusations; the 1916 campaign; the Armenian relief committee). https://archive.org/details/sim_mid-america-an-historical-review_1961-07_43_3 +[^57]: Joseph L. Grabill, *Protestant Diplomacy and the Near East: Missionary Influence on American Policy, 1810-1927* (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1971), on Cleveland H. Dodge, "vice-president of the Phelps Dodge Corporation." https://archive.org/details/protestantdiplom0000grab +[^58]: James L. Barton, *Story of Near East Relief (1915-1930)* (New York: Macmillan, 1930), caption on Cleveland H. Dodge ("in whose board room the Relief Committee was organized, September 16, 1915. A member of the Executive Committee from the first and Treasurer from July 18, 1917, to his death, June 24, 1926"), the letter of September 14, 1915, the passage calling him "the personal friend of President Woodrow Wilson," and the appendix text of "An Act To Incorporate Near East Relief," approved August 6, 1919. https://archive.org/details/storyofneareastr0001jame +[^59]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Academical Year ending in June, 1891* (New Haven: Yale University, 1891), entry for Alphonso Taft (married August 29, 1841, to Fanny, daughter of Charles Phelps of Townshend; she died June 2, 1852). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/ +[^60]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930* (New Haven: Yale University, 1930), entries for Charles Phelps Taft, B.A. 1864 (mother Fanny (Phelps) Taft, daughter of Judge Charles Phelps, B.A. honorary, University of Vermont, 1812, and of Eliza (Houghton) Phelps, of Townshend, Vermont; nephews including Charles P. Taft, 2d, '18) and William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878 (children including Charles Phelps, 2d, B.A. 1918). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf +[^61]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), class list, "Taft, Charles Phelps" in the class of 1918. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^62]: J.P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated, definitive proxy statement (Schedule 14A) for the annual meeting of April 12, 2000, filed March 8, 2000, "Item 1: Election of directors," "Transactions with directors and officers." https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/68100/0000891092-00-000171.txt diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Pillsbury family.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Pillsbury family.md new file mode 100644 index 00000000..500d916e --- /dev/null +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Pillsbury family.md @@ -0,0 +1,301 @@ +--- +created: 2026-10-26 +updated: 2026-10-26 +aliases: + - "Pillsbury family" + - "Pillsbury clan" + - "Pillsbury milling family" + - "Pillsbury flour family" + - "Pillsbury family of Minneapolis" +tags: + - Person + - Family + - Pillsbury + - FlourMilling + - Minneapolis + - MinnesotaSenate + - UniversityOfMinnesota + - PillsburyWashburn + - GrandMetropolitan + - Yale + - SkullAndBones + - AntonySutton + - WinstonLord + - Eisenhower + - UnitedNations +category: "Business & Finance" +summary: "Minneapolis flour-milling family that built the Pillsbury A Mill, sold its mills to a London syndicate in 1889, and produced a Minnesota governor, a state senator and the mother of diplomat Winston Lord." +location: "Minneapolis, Minnesota" +relations: + - type: founded + with: "[[C. A. Pillsbury and Company]]" + start: 1871-01-01 + role: "firm formed by Charles A. Pillsbury and his relatives; the A Mill nomination gives 1871, a 1898 genealogy gives 1872 for the partnership with George A. Pillsbury" + fn: 8 + - type: head_of + with: "[[Governor of Minnesota]]" + start: 1876-01-07 + role: "eighth governor; John S. Pillsbury" + fn: 11 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Minnesota Senate]]" + start: 1879-01-01 + end: 1886-12-31 + role: "Charles A. Pillsbury, sessions 1879 to 1886 (Districts 26 and 29)" + fn: 7 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Minnesota Senate]]" + start: 1971-01-01 + end: 1982-12-31 + role: "George Sturgis Pillsbury, Districts 33 and 42" + fn: 39 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Skull and Bones]]" + start: 1936-01-01 + role: "Edmund Pennington Pillsbury, Yale class of 1936, per the class book; Sutton's index also lists John Sargent Pillsbury Jr. in the class of 1935" + fn: 37 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[John S. Pillsbury]]" + role: "uncle of Charles A. Pillsbury" + fn: 3 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Mary Pillsbury Lord]]" + role: "daughter of Charles Stinson Pillsbury and sister of Philip W. Pillsbury; mother of Winston Lord" + fn: 31 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Winston Lord]]" + role: "grandson of Charles Stinson Pillsbury through his mother, Mary Pillsbury Lord" + fn: 32 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Philip W. Pillsbury]]" + role: "president of Pillsbury Mills 1940 to 1952 and chairman of the board from 1952; Yale B.A. 1924" + fn: 30 + - type: participant_in + with: "[[Pillsbury-Washburn Flour Mills Company]]" + start: 1889-10-29 + end: 1908-08-08 + role: "vendor family in the 1889 sale; Charles A. Pillsbury named managing director in the prospectus; 1908 receivership petition" + fn: 20 + - type: participant_in + with: "[[Grand Metropolitan Public Ltd. v. Pillsbury Co.]]" + start: 1988-10-03 + end: 1988-12-16 + role: "George S. Pillsbury named among the director defendants" + fn: 35 +--- + +The Pillsbury family is a New Hampshire and [[Minneapolis, Minnesota|Minneapolis]] flour-milling family. Its firm, [[C. A. Pillsbury and Company]], built the [[Pillsbury A Mill|Pillsbury "A" Mill]] in 1881 and sold its milling properties to an English syndicate in 1889. The company went into receivership in 1908 and was acquired by [[Grand Metropolitan plc]] in 1989.[^1] [[Antony C. Sutton]] places the family among the new-wealth families in his chart of [[Skull and Bones]] membership.[^2] + +### New Hampshire origins + +The family traces its descent from William and Dorothy Pillsbury of [[Newbury, Massachusetts|Newbury]] through a branch at [[Sutton, New Hampshire|Sutton]].[^3] [[John S. Pillsbury]] was born in Sutton on July 29, 1827. His older brother [[George A. Pillsbury]] was born there on August 29, 1816.[^4][^5] George A. kept a country store at [[Warner, New Hampshire|Warner]], served as postmaster there from 1844 to 1849, and from November 1851 to July 1875 was purchasing agent for the [[Concord Railroad]].[^4] He was an alderman and then mayor of [[Concord, New Hampshire|Concord]] in 1876 and 1877, and he moved to Minneapolis in March 1878.[^4] + +His son [[Charles A. Pillsbury]] was born at Warner. The birth date is December 3, 1842, in the 1898 genealogy and October 3, 1842, in the [[Minnesota Legislative Reference Library]] record.[^6][^7] He attended [[Dartmouth College]] and graduated in 1863.[^7] In 1866 he married Mary A. Stinson, and the couple had twin sons, John S. and Charles S.[^7] + +### Hardware, the first mill, and the "A" Mill + +John S. Pillsbury reached [[Minnesota]] in June 1855 and settled at St. Anthony, which is now part of Minneapolis. He opened a hardware business there with [[George F. Cross]] and his brother-in-law [[Woodbury Fisk]].[^5] A fire in 1857 caused a loss of about $38,000. The business was rebuilt and stayed in hardware until 1875, when John S. sold it to move into milling.[^5] On November 3, 1856 he had married Mahala Fisk, daughter of Captain John and Sarah (Goodhue) Fisk of Warner; their son Alfred F. Pillsbury was born on October 20, 1869.[^5] + +Charles A. Pillsbury came to Minneapolis in 1869 and bought an interest in a small flour mill at the Falls. He studied the milling process closely, and the firm adopted the middlings purifier, a Minneapolis invention.[^6][^8] His purchase is dated to June 4, 1869, for $10,000, and the formation of C. A. Pillsbury and Company to 1871, when the "Alaska" mill was bought.[^8] The 1898 genealogy gives 1872 for the association of George A. Pillsbury with the business and says John S. had been interested from the start.[^6] [[Fred C. Pillsbury]], another nephew of John S., was admitted to the partnership in 1875.[^9] + +The "A" Mill began operation on July 5, 1881, with a daily capacity of 4,000 barrels. A fire in December 1881 destroyed much of the older complex, and from July 1882 the West "A" ran alongside the East "A". The mill averaged about 17,500 barrels a day after 1905.[^8] The 1898 genealogy gives a capacity of 9,000 barrels a day at completion.[^10] At its completion the mill was the largest and most advanced flour mill in the world.[^8] + +### Public office in Minnesota + +John S. Pillsbury took office as the eighth governor of Minnesota on January 7, 1876.[^11] As a state senator he engineered the financial rescue of the [[University of Minnesota]] by streamlining its administration and retiring its debts. He is called the "Father of the University." He had completed no more than a common-school education before he became president of the university's board of regents.[^11] His administration coincided with the grasshopper invasions that followed the panic of 1873. The genealogy lists his directorships in the Minneapolis and St. Louis and the Minneapolis, St. Paul and Sault Ste. Marie railroads, the First National, Union National and Commercial banks of Minneapolis, the Minneapolis Stock Yards and Packing Company and the Pillsbury-Washburn Flour Mills Company.[^5] John S. died on October 18, 1901.[^11] His son Alfred F. Pillsbury worked for the Pillsbury-Washburn company from July 1893 until his father's death, later became a director of the Pillsbury Flour Mills Company, and served as president of the [[Minneapolis Institute of Arts]].[^12] + +Charles A. Pillsbury sat in the [[Minnesota Senate]] for the 1879 to 1886 sessions, first for District 26 and then for District 29.[^7] The 1898 genealogy instead places ten years of state senate service from January 1, 1877.[^6] George A. Pillsbury was elected mayor of Minneapolis in 1884 and served two years.[^4][^13] + +Charles A. Pillsbury died of heart disease in Minneapolis on September 17, 1899.[^7] + +### The 1889 sale to the English syndicate + +In July 1889, financiers representing outside capital held an option on the C. A. Pillsbury and Company property, the Washburn mills, the East and West Side water powers and the Pillsbury elevator system, which together had a capacity of 22,000 barrels a day.[^14] In early October, [[Levy Mayer]], a Chicago lawyer, asserted that two English syndicates with combined capital of $50,000,000 had bought the Pillsbury and W. D. Washburn mills. Charles A. Pillsbury denied that any sale had been completed.[^15] A Minneapolis report of October 18 had carried a Financial Times item that the Pillsbury and Washburn mills were to be promoted as a company with capital of 2,000,000 pounds.[^16] A London report on October 25 said the deal had fallen through.[^17] By November 1 the sale of the C. A. Pillsbury and W. D. Washburn mills was described as an assured fact.[^18] On November 8 Charles A. Pillsbury was still awaiting details of the sale by steamer.[^19] + +In November 1889 a London company offered shares to acquire Charles A. Pillsbury and Company; the [[Washburn Mill Company]], which owned the Palisade and Lincoln mills; the [[Minneapolis and Northern Elevator Company]]; the [[Minneapolis Mill Company]]; the [[St. Anthony Falls Water Power Company]]; and a majority of the shares of the [[Atlantic Elevator Company]].[^20] The share capital was 1,000,000 pounds, in 50,000 eight per cent preference shares and 50,000 ordinary shares of 10 pounds each, with six per cent debentures of 635,000 pounds. The purchase price was $6,250,000, of which 300,000 pounds was taken by the vendors in debentures, preference shares and ordinary shares. The shares were offered by [[Morton, Rose and Company]]. The English solicitors were [[Paine, Son and Pollock]], the bankers were [[Glyn, Mills, Currie and Company]], and the American solicitors were [[Cary and Whitridge]] of New York. The directors were [[Richard H. Glyn]], a director of the [[Bank of British North America]]; J. Flower Jackson; Sydney T. Klein of Wm. Klein and Sons; E. T. Rose; Charles A. Pillsbury as managing director; John S. Pillsbury; and [[William D. Washburn]].[^20] + +To comply with Minnesota law, the properties would be conveyed to the Minneapolis Mill Company, which held a special territorial charter, and the new company would own all of its shares except five. Charles A. Pillsbury was to remain managing director for five years. John S. Pillsbury and William D. Washburn were to sit with him on the committee of management in America.[^20] Contracts dated October 29, 1889 were made between George Alfred, John Sargent, Charles Alfred and Frederick Carlton Pillsbury and the company; between William Drew Washburn, the Washburn Mill Company and the company; and between [[James J. Hill]], acting through [[George Stephen|Sir George Stephen]], and the company.[^20] A November 22 report said the Pillsbury east-side elevator and a large flour warehouse had been reserved from the sale.[^21] + +On November 29 the *Weekly Northwestern Miller* reprinted London comment on the issue. A passage quoted from the *Chicago Tribune* of October 20 had said the Pillsburys desired to relinquish active business interests; the London commentator pointed to the prospectus clause keeping Charles A. Pillsbury as managing director for five years. The same comment objected that the agreements between the vendors and the promoters were not open for inspection, and noted that the director J. Flower Jackson was also a director of a London clearing bank. A later item in the same London journal reported that the public subscription was only 400,000 pounds, which left nearly 1,000,000 pounds of stock in the underwriters' hands.[^22] + +The 1898 genealogy dates the sale to 1890. It says the syndicate also acquired the Washburn milling property and the water power of the Falls of St. Anthony, and it describes Charles A. Pillsbury as manager of the property and one of three American directors.[^23] The company was known as the [[Pillsbury-Washburn Flour Mills Company]].[^1] Fred C. Pillsbury kept an interest in the new company but was not active in its management.[^9] + +### Receivership, 1907 and 1908 + +On August 8, 1908, stockholders of the [[Pillsbury-Washburn Flour Milling Company|Pillsbury-Washburn Flour Milling Company]] petitioned the federal court at Minneapolis for a receiver. A Minneapolis dispatch of that date, carried in Portland, ran under the headline "Pillsbury-Washburn Company Needs to Be Reorganized."[^24] The court named C. S. Pillsbury, son of the late Charles A. Pillsbury; [[A. C. Loring]], head of the [[North-Western Consolidated Milling Company]]; and A. C. Cobb, an attorney. The petitioners were the [[North Western National Bank]], the [[First National Bank of Minneapolis|First National Bank]], the [[Swedish-American National Bank]] and the [[Second National Bank of St. Paul]], together with J. S. Pillsbury. The company consented, and the proceeding was described as friendly.[^24] + +A later secondary history dates the receivership to 1907, after a poor harvest. It names Charles S. Pillsbury, a son of Charles A., as one of three men appointed to reorganize the company, which then became the Pillsbury Flour Mills Company.[^1] + +The accountants [[Marwick, Mitchell and Company]] reported on September 30, 1908 on the accounts as at August 8. They certified quick assets of $2,358,089.66 and general liabilities of $5,203,546.92, and noted that the Minneapolis and Northern Elevator Company appeared as maker or endorser on notes of $4,412,400 whose proceeds the Pillsbury-Washburn company had received. The debentures of 875,000 pounds carried a lien of about $4,335,000 on the mill and water power properties. The receivers were Albert C. Loring, Charles S. Pillsbury and Albert C. Cobb, with Henry F. Douglas as receiver for the elevator company. A tentative plan reported in the same issue of the trade paper would form a leasing company with a capitalization of about $3,000,000 to operate the mills, "with the Messrs. Pillsbury heavily interested."[^25] + +On October 21 the trade paper printed the circular of a committee of British shareholders. [[Lord Avebury]] was its chairman, A. G. Pollock was among its members, and its counsel were the London firm Slaughter and May and the New York attorney [[Samuel Untermyer]]. The circular referred to "the admitted insolvency of the company, brought about by grave irregularities in the American management," and said the committee represented about two-thirds of the preference shares and about one-half of the ordinary shares held in Great Britain.[^26] An A. G. Pollock is named as secretary pro tem in the 1889 prospectus, and the solicitors were Paine, Son and Pollock.[^20] At a London meeting of debenture holders, the chairman [[George A. Touche]] stated that J. B. Niven had been appointed an additional receiver for British interests and that nearly $1,800,000 of the $5,203,546 of liabilities had been kept in a private ledger, omitted from the company's financial statements, in a practice that began about May 1905. John S. Pillsbury and Ralph Whelan attended for the American side. The company's solicitor, William Paine, objected that the chairman's account gave the English board too little credit.[^27] + +At the annual meeting of November 26, 1908 at Winchester House, London, the chairman Richard H. Glyn, who had been a director in 1889, said, "The company has been brought to its present condition by a system of fraud carried on apparently for about three years." He said that the proceeds of some $1,800,000 of notes had gone into "a special and secret account with a bank in Minneapolis," that the notes were destroyed when paid, and that the manager, Mr. Little, had certified each year's accounts without them. He added that "undoubtedly a large amount has been lost in speculation in wheat" and spoke of "the conduct of certain of our own officials in whom we have hitherto placed trust and confidence." John S. Pillsbury and Ralph Whelan attended as the company's American representatives, and Paine explained the reorganization scheme.[^28] A cable of December 1 reported that the shareholders accepted the plan unanimously, and the longer account of the adjourned meeting records that the resolution passed with three dissentients.[^29][^28] + +### The third generation + +The twin sons of Charles A. Pillsbury were John Sargent Pillsbury and Charles Stinson Pillsbury, both born in Minneapolis on December 6, 1878.[^30][^31] John Sargent Pillsbury took a B.S. at the University of Minnesota in 1900 and entered the company that year. He was sales manager from 1906 to 1909, secretary-treasurer from 1909 to 1913, executive vice president from 1913 to 1932, chairman of the board from 1932 to 1952 and honorary chairman from 1952. His directorships included the [[Soo Line Railroad|Soo Line]] and [[Wisconsin Central Railroad|Wisconsin Central]] railroads, the [[Northwestern National Bank of Minneapolis|Northwestern National Bank]], [[Northwest Bancorporation]] and [[Munsingwear]]. He worked for the [[United States Food Administration|Food Administration]] in World War I and headed Treasury finance for Hennepin County in World War II. He married Eleanor J. Lawler of Mitchell, South Dakota, on December 5, 1911, and the couple had six children, John S. Jr., Edmund P., Ella S., Charles A., Jane L. and George S.[^30][^12] He was a trustee of the [[Pillsbury Settlement House]].[^12] + +Charles Stinson Pillsbury was a vice president of the Pillsbury Flour Mills Company. On December 7, 1901 he married Helen Pendleton Winston, born October 16, 1878, a daughter of Philip Eickerton Winston and Katharine D. Stevens. He died at Rochester, Minnesota, on May 21, 1939. Their children were Philip Winston, Mary Stinson, Katharine Stevens and Helen Winston Pillsbury.[^31][^32] + +### Philip W. Pillsbury + +Philip Winston Pillsbury was born in Minneapolis on April 16, 1903, the son of Charles S. Pillsbury and Nelle (Pendleton) Pillsbury. He received a [[Yale University]] B.A. in 1924 and an honorary LL.D. from [[Grinnell College]] in 1948, belonged to [[Alpha Delta Phi]], and joined Pillsbury Mills in 1924. He was treasurer in 1940, president and director from 1940 to 1952 and chairman of the board from 1952.[^30][^32] He married Eleanor Bellows of Minneapolis on July 5, 1934.[^30][^31] The [[Newcomen Society in North America]] published his 28-page booklet *The Pioneering Pillsburys* in 1950.[^33] A national wheat-quality contest bore his name, and a Utah congressman inserted an editorial on two of its 1945 national winners in the *Congressional Record*.[^34] The 1958 directory lists him as a director of the First National Bank of Minneapolis, the [[Continental Illinois National Bank and Trust Company]] of Chicago, [[Wayne Knitting Mills]] and the [[Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad]], a member of the Associates of [[Stanford Research Institute]], chairman of the [[Yale Corporation]] nomination committee, and president and director of the [[Minnesota Orchestral Association]].[^30] + +His sister was [[Mary Pillsbury Lord]], and the genealogies list [[Winston Lord]] as her son.[^31][^32] + +### The Grand Metropolitan takeover + +Litigation over the takeover reached the [[Delaware Court of Chancery]] in 1988 in *[[Grand Metropolitan Public Ltd. v. Pillsbury Co.]]*, 558 A.2d 1049.[^35] Grand Metropolitan, an English company with 1987 sales of about $10.17 billion, and its subsidiary [[Wendell Investments Limited]] sued Pillsbury and its directors on October 3, 1988. Pillsbury owned the restaurant chains [[Burger King]], Bennigan's and Steak and Ale, and had adopted a Stockholder Rights Plan (the "poison pill") in January 1986 without stockholder approval.[^35] [[William H. Spoor]], then chairman, president and chief executive of Pillsbury, was quoted in June 1988 as saying, "If you want to see a hell of a cat and dog fight, just let someone make a move on us."[^35] + +Pillsbury became aware of Grand Met's interest in May 1988. In the months before the bid it contacted state alcoholic beverage commissions about tied-house statutes, which restrict liquor manufacturers from owning retail outlets, and on the day the offer was announced it sued Grand Met in 14 jurisdictions.[^35] Grand Met began an all-cash tender offer for all Pillsbury common stock on October 4, 1988 at $60 a share. The opinion puts the aggregate value of the offer at about $5.5 billion, and the $63 price at about 60 percent above the roughly $39 closing price of September 30. The offer was raised to $63 on December 12, the day of oral argument. The letter delivered with the offer, from Grand Met's United States chief executive to Pillsbury chairman [[Philip L. Smith]], stated an intention to make Minneapolis the world headquarters of its International Food Group.[^35] The Pillsbury board voted on October 17 that the offer was inadequate and declined to redeem the rights. On November 6 it agreed to spin off Burger King to stockholders.[^35] + +Justice Duffy, retired, sitting by assignment, wrote on December 16, 1988 that about 87 percent of the shares had been tendered, that the Pillsbury board's own plan placed the minimum value at $68 a share, and, as described at oral argument, that Grand Met had offered $65 a share in weekend negotiations. He granted preliminary injunctions against the Burger King spin-off and ordered Pillsbury to redeem the rights, conditioned on prompt settlement with tendering stockholders.[^35] The directors named as defendants in the caption included W. Michael Blumenthal, John H. Perkins, James W. McLamore, Smith, Spoor and a George S. Pillsbury. The name and middle initial are those of George Sturgis Pillsbury, the former state senator and grandson of Charles A. Pillsbury, who had been a company group vice president.[^35][^13] Among the tendering stockholders the opinion lists [[Bear Stearns]], which held 14,050,000 shares, the [[California Public Employees' Retirement System]] and Prudential-Bache Securities.[^35] + +The company was acquired by Grand Metropolitan in 1989. In 2001 [[General Mills]] bought Pillsbury for $10.4 billion.[^1] + +### Yale, Skull and Bones, and the Pillsbury cousins + +Sutton's index of members of the Order by class year lists two Pillsburys: [[John Sargent Pillsbury Jr.]] in the class of 1935 and Edmund P. Pillsbury in the class of 1936.[^36] + +The class book of 1936 describes [[Edmund P. Pillsbury]] (Edmund Pennington Pillsbury), born December 22, 1913, the son of John Sargent Pillsbury and Eleanor Jerusha (Lawler) Pillsbury. He prepared at the [[Blake School]] in Minneapolis and [[St. Paul's School]] in Concord, majored in economics, belonged to [[Davenport College]] and took part in hockey, crew, football and rugby. The entry states that he belonged to [[Chi Psi]], the [[Torch Honor Society]] and Skull and Bones, and that he expected to enter the employ of the Pillsbury Flour Mills Company. The same book names his brothers John S. Pillsbury Jr., '35, and Charles A. Pillsbury, '39.[^37] The class book lists among his fellow members of Skull and Bones [[Jonathan Brewster Bingham]], [[John Hersey]] and [[Robert Train]].[^38] + +The 1958 directory records that John Sargent Pillsbury Jr., born October 28, 1912, received a Yale B.A. in 1935 and belonged to [[Psi Upsilon]]. He took an LL.B. at the University of Minnesota in 1940, was a partner of the Minneapolis law firm [[Faegre and Benson]] from 1945 to 1956, became president of the [[Northwestern National Life Insurance Company]] in 1956, and served on active duty in the U.S. Naval Reserve in World War II.[^30] He chaired the Orono school board and sat on the board of the Pillsbury Settlement House.[^30] + +George Sturgis Pillsbury, a son of John Sargent Pillsbury, graduated early from Yale in December 1942.[^39][^13] He then enlisted in the [[United States Marine Corps]] and served in the Philippines as a first lieutenant during World War II.[^39] He worked for the Pillsbury Company for 24 years, rising to group vice president.[^13] He was elected to the Minnesota Senate in November 1970 and served from 1971 to 1982, first for District 33 and then for District 42.[^39] He took part in the gubernatorial campaigns of his older brother John Jr. and of his brother-in-law [[Wheelock Whitney]]. He died at his Wayzata home on October 13, 2012, at the age of 91.[^13] + +[[Oswald Bates Lord]] appears in Sutton's index in the class of 1926, with the notation "Mary Pillsbury (of Pillsbury flour family)." Their son Winston Lord appears in the class of 1959.[^36] Sutton's chart labels the Lord family "1635, Cambridge, Mass." and his text places the Lords among the old-line families of the Order. The text gives the line from Thomas Lord, who left Essex in 1635 in a company led by Rev. Thomas Hooker and settled at what is now Hartford, and names George DeForest Lord (initiated 1854), who founded the New York law firm Lord, Day and Lord with his father Daniel Lord. Sutton's list of Lords in the Order runs 1854, 1898 (Franklin Atkins Lord), 1922 (William Galey Lord), 1926 (Oswald Bates Lord), 1949 (Charles Edwin Lord II) and 1959 (Winston Lord).[^40] + +Sutton wrote that a future volume would trace the [[University of Chicago]], which [[Rockefeller family|Rockefeller]] funds had founded, "through [[Frederick Gates]] (of Hartford, Connecticut), and the Pillsbury family (The Order)."[^41] + +### Mary Pillsbury Lord + +Mary Stinson Pillsbury was born on November 14, 1904, a daughter of Charles Stinson Pillsbury and Helen Pendleton Winston. On December 7, 1929 she married Oswald Bates Lord, born March 15, 1903, a son of Charles Edwin Lord and Lucie-Taylor (Weart) Lord of Tarrytown, New York.[^31][^32] + +Mary Pillsbury Lord served as a United States representative to the [[United Nations Human Rights Commission]] from 1953 to 1961, as an alternate representative to the [[United Nations General Assembly]] from 1953 to 1959, and as a delegate to the General Assembly in 1958 and 1960. The Eisenhower Library finding aid describes her as active in the Eisenhower campaign.[^42] Her oral history, given to [[John T. Mason Jr.]] for the [[Columbia University]] Oral History Project in 1967, 1968 and 1969, runs to 429 pages. The topics of the first interview include her first meeting with Eisenhower, her service as assistant director of civil defense for New York, New Jersey and Delaware, the advisory committee for women in the army and the Defense Advisory Committee on Women in the Services, a trip to Europe to visit the WACs, Bill Donovan ([[William J. Donovan]]), pre-convention work for Eisenhower's candidacy, Citizens for Eisenhower, [[UNICEF]], the United Nations covenants on human rights, [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] and [[Marietta Tree]]. The third interview lists a trip behind the Iron Curtain in 1948 for the Army, [[Anna Pauker]], [[Planned Parenthood]], the [[NATO|North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] and the [[Atlantic Institute]]; later interviews cover NATO parliamentarians, the Atlantic Treaty Association, and trips to Ethiopia and East Africa.[^42] In 1965 she sat on the panel of judges for the [[Federal Woman's Award]].[^43] With her husband she produced the memoir *Exit Backward, Bowing* (Macmillan, 1970).[^44] + +### Winston Lord + +Winston Lord, born in 1937, is the son of Oswald Bates Lord and Mary Pillsbury Lord and a grandson of Charles Stinson Pillsbury.[^45][^32] The *Foreign Relations of the United States* volume on China lists him as a member of the Office of International Security Affairs in the Department of Defense until 1969, a member of the [[National Security Council]] Planning Group, and from 1971 the NSC staff member for United Nations affairs.[^46] + +On April 17, 1971, Lord sent Kissinger a seven-page memorandum listing the major contacts between the United States and the People's Republic of China through Pakistan, Romania and other channels.[^47] On June 21, 1971, [[Henry A. Kissinger]], Winston Lord and the Pakistani ambassador [[Agha Hilaly]] met at the White House, where Hilaly handed over two notes in the exchange of messages that arranged Kissinger's trip to China.[^48] Lord was one of the four Americans in the party that met Premier [[Chou En-lai]] in Beijing on July 9, 1971 (Kissinger, [[John Holdridge]], Lord and [[Richard Smyser]]), and Lord, Holdridge and Smyser prepared the transcripts of that visit.[^49] On October 21, 1971, in Beijing, Kissinger told Chou En-lai that [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] agents "write long, incomprehensible reports" and added, "They are mostly from Yale and they don't have the people." Chou asked, "He is from Yale [pointing to Winston Lord]?" and Kissinger answered, "Does he look like a revolutionary?"[^50] + +Lord was director of the Policy Planning Staff at the [[State Department]] from October 12, 1973 to January 20, 1977, ambassador to China from November 6, 1985 to April 23, 1989, and Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs from April 22, 1993 to February 18, 1997.[^45] Sutton's 1983 text describes Lord as chairman of the [[Council on Foreign Relations]] and as a member of the Order, and its chart of the Lords carries the caption "Chairman of the Council on Foreign Relations (1983)."[^51][^40] + +### Michael Pillsbury + +[[Michael Pillsbury]] is described in the 1992 Senate report on [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International|BCCI]] as a former assistant undersecretary of defense and Senate staff assistant. He had a personal and business relationship with [[Mohammed Hammoud]]. The report states that Pillsbury told subcommittee staff he had met Hammoud through a real estate developer in 1981 or 1982, and that Hammoud gave him intelligence on American hostages in Lebanon, which he passed to government agencies.[^52] A 1984 memorandum for the record in the CIA reading room describes a "Mike Pillsbury" as a professional staff member of the [[Senate Labor Committee]], for whom Senator [[Orrin Hatch]] asked that daily access to the National Intelligence Daily and to National Intelligence Estimates be provided.[^53] A January 26, 1987 *Washington Post* column on Michael Pillsbury describes a Stanford graduate with a Columbia doctorate in Chinese studies, a [[Rand Corporation]] analyst from 1973, the recipient of a 1976 letter from [[Ronald Reagan]] endorsing a military relationship with China, a Senate Budget Committee staff member from 1978, and a man fired from a Senate committee staff, passed over for a post early in the Reagan administration, and dismissed from the Defense Department.[^54] + +The San Francisco law firm Pillsbury, Madison and Sutro, named in a federal court caption, carries the same surname.[^55] + +### Footnotes + +[^1]: Encyclopedia.com, entry "Pillsbury Company" (reference compilation drawn from business histories), sections on the 1889 sale, the 1907 receivership and reorganization, Philip W. Pillsbury's presidency in 1940, the 1989 acquisition by Grand Metropolitan and the 2001 purchase by General Mills. https://www.encyclopedia.com/books/politics-and-business-magazines/pillsbury-company + +[^2]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chart "Hypothesis Number One: A Secret Society Dominated By Old Line American Families And New Wealth Has Existed From 1833 To The Present Day," which carries the label "PILLSBURY FAMILY (Flour milling)" among the families of new wealth. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^3]: David B. Pilsbury and Emily A. Getchell, *The Pillsbury Family: Being a History of William and Dorothy Pillsbury (or Pilsbery) of Newbury in New England, and Their Descendants to the Eleventh Generation* (Everett, Mass.: Massachusetts Publishing Company, 1898), pp. 168 to 174. https://archive.org/details/pillsburyfamily00getcgoog + +[^4]: Pilsbury and Getchell, *The Pillsbury Family* (1898), pp. 168 to 172, entry for George A. Pillsbury (birth, Warner store and postmastership, Concord Railroad post, Concord mayoralty, removal to Minneapolis in 1878, mayoralty of Minneapolis in 1884). https://archive.org/details/pillsburyfamily00getcgoog + +[^5]: Pilsbury and Getchell, *The Pillsbury Family* (1898), pp. 172 to 177, entry for John S. Pillsbury (birth, marriage on November 3, 1856 to Mahala Fisk, children Susan, Sarah and Alfred F., June 1855 settlement at St. Anthony, hardware partnerships, 1857 fire, sale of the hardware business in 1875, election as governor, railroad, bank and milling directorships, presidency of the board of regents). https://archive.org/details/pillsburyfamily00getcgoog + +[^6]: Pilsbury and Getchell, *The Pillsbury Family* (1898), pp. 239 to 241, entry for Charles A. Pillsbury (college and Montreal, 1869 purchase at the Falls, middlings purifier, 1872 association with his father, state senate service from January 1, 1877 for ten years, sale and manager's role). https://archive.org/details/pillsburyfamily00getcgoog + +[^7]: Minnesota Legislative Reference Library, legislator record for Charles Alfred Pillsbury (birth, Dartmouth College graduation in 1863, spouse Mary A. Stinson, married September 12, 1866, twin sons John S. and Charles S., Senate sessions 1879 to 1886 in Districts 26 and 29, death on September 17, 1899, father George A. as Minneapolis mayor). https://www.lrl.mn.gov/legdb/fulldetail?id=14373 + +[^8]: National Register of Historic Places nomination form, Pillsbury "A" Mill, Minneapolis, Minnesota, prepared by Stephen Lissandrello, sections on history, specific dates and significance, bibliography. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/66000402_text + +[^9]: Pilsbury and Getchell, *The Pillsbury Family* (1898), pp. 242 to 243, entry for Fred C. Pillsbury (born in Concord, admitted to the firm in 1875, interest retained in the 1889 combine, death in Minneapolis on May 15, 1892). https://archive.org/details/pillsburyfamily00getcgoog + +[^10]: Pilsbury and Getchell, *The Pillsbury Family* (1898), pp. 240 to 241, on the "A" Mill at completion, with the 9,000 barrels a day figure. https://archive.org/details/pillsburyfamily00getcgoog + +[^11]: Minnesota Legislative Reference Library, biography and summary of Governor John Pillsbury (assumed office January 7, 1876; eighth governor; state senator who restructured the University of Minnesota; "Father of the University"; president of the board of regents; died October 18, 1901). https://www.lrl.mn.gov/mngov/govbio?govid=31 + +[^12]: *Who's Who in Commerce and Industry: The International Business Who's Who*, Fifth International Edition (Marquis, 1947; copyright 1936, 1938, 1940, 1944, 1947), entries for Alfred Fiske Pillsbury and John Sargent Pillsbury (children John Sargent, Edmund Pennington, Ella Sturgis, Charles Alfred, Jane Lawler and George Sturgis). https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.75608 + +[^13]: Neal St. Anthony, obituary of George Sturgis Pillsbury, *Star Tribune* (Minneapolis), October 14, 2012 (died October 13, 2012, at his Wayzata home, age 91; great-grandson of George A. Pillsbury, grandson of Charles A. Pillsbury, great-nephew of Gov. John S. Pillsbury; maternal great-grandfather Gen. Samuel Sturgis; graduated early from Yale in December 1942; Marine officer in the Pacific; group vice president of the Pillsbury Co. over 24 years; active in the gubernatorial campaigns of his older brother John Jr. and his brother-in-law Wheelock Whitney; brother Eddy deceased). Hosted by the Legislative Reference Library. https://www.lrl.mn.gov/LegDB/articles/10536STobit.pdf + +[^14]: *Weekly Northwestern Miller*, July 12, 1889, Minneapolis and Rochester correspondence on the English syndicate's option and the properties included. https://archive.org/details/sim_northwestern-miller_1889-07-12_28_2 + +[^15]: *Weekly Northwestern Miller*, October 4, 1889, report of Levy Mayer's statement and the denial attributed to C. A. Pillsbury. https://archive.org/details/sim_northwestern-miller_1889-10-04_28_14 + +[^16]: *Weekly Northwestern Miller*, October 18, 1889, item quoting the Financial Times of London on the proposed 2,000,000 pounds company. https://archive.org/details/sim_northwestern-miller_1889-10-18_28_16 + +[^17]: *Weekly Northwestern Miller*, October 25, 1889, report from London that the deal had fallen through. https://archive.org/details/sim_northwestern-miller_1889-10-25_28_17 + +[^18]: *Weekly Northwestern Miller*, November 1, 1889, Minneapolis report that the sale of the C. A. Pillsbury and W. D. Washburn mills was an assured fact. https://archive.org/details/sim_northwestern-miller_1889-11-01_28_18 + +[^19]: *Weekly Northwestern Miller*, November 8, 1889, report that C. A. Pillsbury awaited details of the sale by steamer. https://archive.org/details/sim_northwestern-miller_1889-11-08_28_19 + +[^20]: *Weekly Northwestern Miller*, November 15, 1889, abridged prospectus of the London company: share capital of 1,000,000 pounds in 50,000 eight per cent preference shares and 50,000 ordinary shares of 10 pounds each, debentures of 635,000 pounds, properties, purchase price of $6,250,000 with 300,000 pounds taken by the vendors, offering by Morton, Rose and Company, directors Richard H. Glyn (Bank of British North America), J. Flower Jackson, Sydney T. Klein (Wm. Klein and Sons), E. T. Rose, Charles A. Pillsbury (managing director), John S. Pillsbury and W. D. Washburn, English solicitors Paine, Son and Pollock, bankers Glyn, Mills, Currie and Company, American solicitors Cary and Whitridge, Minnesota charter arrangement, managing director for five years, committee of management, and contracts dated October 29, 1889 (including the James J. Hill contract through Sir George Stephen). https://archive.org/details/sim_northwestern-miller_1889-11-15_28_20 + +[^21]: *Weekly Northwestern Miller*, November 22, 1889, report that the Pillsbury east-side elevator and the east-side flour warehouse were reserved from the sale. https://archive.org/details/sim_northwestern-miller_1889-11-22_28_21 + +[^22]: *Weekly Northwestern Miller*, November 29, 1889, column of London press comment on the Pillsbury-Washburn prospectus, quoting the *Chicago Tribune* of October 20 and an unnamed London journal on the contract disclosures, the director J. Flower Jackson, and a public subscription of 400,000 pounds. https://archive.org/details/sim_northwestern-miller_1889-11-29_28_22 + +[^23]: Pilsbury and Getchell, *The Pillsbury Family* (1898), pp. 240 to 241, account of the sale to an English syndicate, the Washburn property, the water power and Charles A. Pillsbury as manager and American director. The genealogy dates the sale to 1890; the 1889 prospectus and contracts give October 29 to November 15, 1889. https://archive.org/details/pillsburyfamily00getcgoog + +[^24]: *The Morning Oregonian* (Portland), August 9, 1908, p. 3, "Receivers Take Big Flour Mills," dispatch from Minneapolis dated August 8, 1908 under the headline "Pillsbury-Washburn Company Needs to Be Reorganized." https://oregonnews.uoregon.edu/lccn/sn83045782/1908-08-09/ed-1/seq-3/ + +[^25]: *The Northwestern Miller* (Minneapolis), October 7, 1908, "Pillsbury Company: Plan for Reorganization, Auditors' Report, Receivers' Certificates Authorized": Marwick, Mitchell and Company statement of September 30, 1908 on the accounts as at August 8, 1908 (quick assets $2,358,089.66; general liabilities $5,203,546.92; notes of $4,412,400 made or endorsed by the Minneapolis and Northern Elevator Company; debentures of 875,000 pounds), the receivers' letter, the tentative leasing-company plan and the London directors Frank Spencer and George Cloutte. https://archive.org/details/sim_northwestern-miller_1908-10-07_76_1 + +[^26]: *The Northwestern Miller*, October 21, 1908, "Pillsbury Company: Committee Invites Shareholders to Co-operate in Independent Action," reprinting the circular of the shareholders' committee (Lord Avebury, chairman; Sir William J. Crump; A. G. Pollock and others; counsel Slaughter and May and Samuel Untermyer). https://archive.org/details/sim_northwestern-miller_1908-10-21_76_3 + +[^27]: *The Northwestern Miller*, November 11, 1908, "Pillsbury Company: Debenture Holders Meet in London and Appoint a Committee," report of the meeting chaired by George A. Touche for the Trustees, Executors and Securities Insurance Corporation (attendance of John S. Pillsbury and Ralph Whelan; appointment of J. B. Niven as additional receiver; the private ledger of nearly $1,800,000 begun about May 1905; the solicitor William Paine's reply). https://archive.org/details/sim_northwestern-miller_1908-11-11_76_6 + +[^28]: *The Northwestern Miller*, December 16, 1908, "Pillsbury Company: Report of Proceedings in London at Meeting of Shareholders and Debenture Owners," account of the nineteenth annual general meeting of November 26 and the adjourned meeting of December 1, 1908 at Winchester House, with the chairman Richard H. Glyn's speech on the "secret ledger." https://archive.org/details/sim_northwestern-miller_1908-12-16_76_11 + +[^29]: *The Northwestern Miller*, December 9, 1908, cable of December 1 from London reporting that the shareholders of the Pillsbury-Washburn Flour Mills Co., Ltd., unanimously accepted the plan of reorganization. https://archive.org/details/sim_northwestern-miller_1908-12-09_76_10 + +[^30]: *Who's Who in Minnesota* (Seattle: Hugh L. White, 1958), Hennepin County section, pp. 196 to 197, entries for John Sargent Pillsbury, John Sargent Pillsbury Jr. and Philip Winston Pillsbury. https://archive.org/details/whoswhoinminneso00whit + +[^31]: John McGill, *The Beverley Family of Virginia: Descendants of Major Robert Beverley, 1641-1687, and Allied Families* (Columbia, S.C.: R. L. Bryan Company, 1956), Winston line, p. 987 and following (Helen Pendleton Winston, born October 16, 1878, married December 7, 1901 Charles Stinson Pillsbury, born December 6, 1878, died May 21, 1939 at Rochester, Minnesota; children Philip Winston, Mary Stinson, Katharine Stevens and Helen Winston Pillsbury; Mary Stinson Pillsbury, born November 14, 1904, married December 7, 1929 Oswald Bates Lord, born March 15, 1903, son of Charles Edwin and Lucie-Taylor (Weart) Lord of Tarrytown). https://archive.org/details/beverleyfamilyof00mcgi + +[^32]: William Pope Anderson, *Anderson-Overton: A Continuation of Anderson Family Records* (Cincinnati: Gibson and Perin, 1945), Winston line, entries 122, 1221 and 1222 (Helen Pendleton Winston, daughter of Philip Eickerton Winston and Katharine D. Stevens; Philip Winston Pillsbury, "Y'24"; Mary Stinson Pillsbury, married December 7, 1929 Oswald Bates Lord; issue Charles Pillsbury Lord and Winston Lord). https://archive.org/details/andersonovertonc00ande + +[^33]: Library of Congress, Copyright Office, *Catalog of Copyright Entries, Third Series, Part 1A: Books, January-December 1950*, entry "Pillsbury, Philip Winston. The pioneering Pillsburys. New York, Newcomen Society in North America. 28p.," registered May 17, 1950. https://archive.org/details/catalogofcopyrig341libr + +[^34]: *Congressional Record*, Appendix, April 12, 1945, extension of remarks of Rep. Walter K. Granger of Utah inserting an editorial on two Utah farmers awarded national honors in the Philip W. Pillsbury wheat award contest. https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_march-23-june-08-1945_91_appendix + +[^35]: *Grand Metropolitan Public Ltd. v. Pillsbury Co.*, 558 A.2d 1049 (Del. Ch. 1988) (Civ. A. Nos. 10319 and 10323; memorandum opinion of Justice Duffy, retired, sitting by assignment; submitted December 12 and decided December 16, 1988), pp. 1050 to 1062 (parties and defendants, Grand Met's business, the January 1986 Stockholder Rights Plan, the May 1988 awareness of Grand Met's interest, tied-house suits in 14 jurisdictions, the October 4, 1988 tender offer at $60 raised to $63 on December 12, the October 17 board vote, the November 6 Burger King spin-off agreement, the tender of about 87 percent of the shares, the preliminary injunction). CourtListener, https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/2277114/grand-metro-public-ltd-v-pillsbury-co/ + +[^36]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year: classes of 1926, 1935, 1936 and 1959, entries for Lord and Pillsbury, including "1926 Oswald Bates Lord ... = Mary Pillsbury (of Pillsbury flour family) ... son is Winston Lord." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^37]: *History of the Class of Nineteen Thirty-Six, Yale College* (New Haven: Class Book Committee, 1936), biographical entry for Edmund Pennington Pillsbury, pp. 355 to 356 (born December 22, 1913 in Minneapolis; son of John Sargent Pillsbury and Eleanor Jerusha (Lawler) Pillsbury; brothers John S. Pillsbury Jr., '35, and Charles A. Pillsbury, '39; Blake School and St. Paul's School; Davenport College; Chi Psi, the Torch Honor Society and Skull and Bones; expected to join the Pillsbury Flour Mills Company), with the Skull and Bones entries for Jonathan Brewster Bingham, John Richard Hersey and Robert Train. https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00yale_0 + +[^38]: *History of the Class of Nineteen Thirty-Six, Yale College* (1936), biographical entries for Jonathan Brewster Bingham (Elizabethan Club, Phi Beta Kappa, Delta Kappa Epsilon, Skull and Bones), John Richard Hersey and Robert Train (Skull and Bones). https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00yale_0 + +[^39]: Minnesota Legislative Reference Library, legislator record for George Sturgis Pillsbury (Yale University, B.A. 1942; United States Marine Corps, World War II, Philippines, 1st lieutenant; Orono school board; Senate District 33 from 1971 and District 42 from 1973 to 1982; elected November 3, 1970; occupations including the Pillsbury Co.). https://www.leg.state.mn.us/legdb/fulldetail?id=10536 + +[^40]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passages on the Lord family (Thomas Lord, who left Essex in 1635 in a company led by Rev. Thomas Hooker and settled at what is now Hartford; George DeForest Lord, initiated 1854, and the law firm Lord, Day and Lord), the list "Past Lords In The Order" (1854, 1898, 1922, 1926, 1949, 1959) and the chart label "LORD FAMILY (1635, Cambridge, Mass.)," the chart captions for Charles Edwin Lord (Acting Comptroller of the Currency, 1981) and Winston Lord (Chairman of the Council on Foreign Relations, 1983). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^41]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on the University of Chicago, Frederick Gates and the Pillsbury family, which Sutton introduces as a subject for a later volume. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^42]: Eisenhower Presidential Library, oral history finding aid OH-115, "Lord, Mary Pillsbury," 429 pages, Columbia Oral History Project, interviews by John T. Mason, Jr., 1967 to 1969 (representative and alternate representative dates; topics of Interviews #1 through #8). https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/oral-histories/oral-history-finding-aids/ohfa115.pdf + +[^43]: Virginia Koerber, "Talented Women Win Recognition," *Washington Star*, 1965, report on the Federal Woman's Award, listing the 1965 panel of judges, including Mary Pillsbury Lord, former U.S. representative on the U.N. Commission on Human Rights. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000200460024-0 + +[^44]: Oswald Bates Lord, *Exit Backward, Bowing*, "with the advice and dissent of Mary Pillsbury Lord," drawings by Roy Doty (New York: Macmillan, 1970). https://archive.org/details/exitbackwardbowi00lord + +[^45]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, biography of Winston Lord (born 1937; Director of the Planning and Coordination Staff, then of the Policy Planning Staff, October 12, 1973 to January 20, 1977; ambassador to China, appointed November 6, 1985, credentials November 19, 1985, left post April 23, 1989; Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs, April 22, 1993 to February 18, 1997). https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/lord-winston + +[^46]: U.S. Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976, Volume XVII, China, 1969-1972*, list of persons (Lord, Winston: member, Office of International Security Affairs, Department of Defense, until 1969; member, National Security Council Planning Group; staff member for United Nations Affairs, National Security Council Operations Staff from 1971). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v17 + +[^47]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976, Volume XVII, China, 1969-1972*, Document 20, editorial note (Lord's seven-page memorandum to Kissinger of April 17, 1971 listing the major contacts between the United States and the People's Republic of China through Pakistan, Romania and other channels). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v17/d20 + +[^48]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976, Volume XVII, China, 1969-1972*, Document 135, editorial note on the June 21, 1971 meeting at the White House of Kissinger, Winston Lord and Ambassador Agha Hilaly. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v17/d135 + +[^49]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976, Volume XVII, China, 1969-1972*, Document 139, memorandum of conversation, Beijing, July 9, 1971, 4:35 to 11:20 p.m. (participants: Chou En-lai, Yeh Chien-ying, Huang Hua, Chang Wen-chin; Henry A. Kissinger, John Holdridge, Winston Lord and Richard Smyser; the source note records that Holdridge, Smyser and Lord prepared the transcripts, as stated in Lord's memoranda to Kissinger of July 29, August 6 and August 12). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v17/d139 + +[^50]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976, Volume XVII, China, 1969-1972*, Document 162, memorandum of conversation, Beijing, October 21, 1971, 10:30 a.m. to 1:45 p.m. (participants include Chou En-lai, Chi P'eng-fei, Kissinger, Jonathan Howe and Winston Lord). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v17/d162 + +[^51]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), section "The Role Of The Order," stating that David Rockefeller, a former chairman of the Council on Foreign Relations, is not a member of the Order but that "the present CFR chairman, Winston Lord, is." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^52]: John Kerry and Hank Brown, *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate* (1992), chapter 15, "Mohammed Hammoud: BCCI's Flexible Front-Man," on Michael Pillsbury's status, his account of meeting Hammoud and the intelligence he says he received. https://fas.org/irp/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/15hammoud.htm + +[^53]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum for the record, March 6, 1984, "Meeting with Mike Pillsbury," from the Chief, Legislation Division, Office of Legislative Liaison, on a meeting on March 2, 1984 with a professional staff member of the Senate Labor Committee and Senator Orrin Hatch's request for access to the National Intelligence Daily and National Intelligence Estimates. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90B01370R001101540047-9 + +[^54]: "The Agonies of Victory In Government's Substratum," *Washington Post*, January 26, 1987, on Michael Pillsbury (Stanford graduate, Columbia doctorate in Chinese studies, Rand analyst from 1973, 1976 letter from Ronald Reagan, Senate Budget Committee staff from 1978, dismissals), reproduced in the CIA reading room. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp91-00561r000100130017-9 + +[^55]: Federal court caption, *Spellman v. Pillsbury, Madison & Sutro Group Long Term Disability Plan*, E.D. Cal. https://archive.org/details/gov.uscourts.caed.171869 diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Richard Nixon.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Richard Nixon.md index 88d50a1b..8ccaddda 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Richard Nixon.md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Richard Nixon.md @@ -11,27 +11,36 @@ summary: "Richard Milhous Nixon was the 37th President of the United States, ser born: 1913-01-09 died: 1994-04-22 location: "Yorba Linda, California" +relations: + - type: investigated + with: "[[Alger Hiss]]" + role: "questioned Hiss and Chambers, House Committee on Un-American Activities, 1948" + fn: 2 --- Richard Milhous Nixon was the 37th President of the [[United States]], serving from 1969 to 1974. His presidency was marked by significant foreign policy initiatives, including opening relations with [[China]] and pursuing détente with the [[Soviet Union]].[^1] +### House Committee on Un-American Activities, 1948 + +As a member of the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]], Nixon questioned both [[Alger Hiss]] and [[Whittaker Chambers]] during the 1948 hearings. During an exchange over Chambers's dental history, Nixon interrupted: "Since some repartee goes on between these two people, I think Mr. Chambers should be sworn." He then asked Hiss whether he would have to have the dentist explain the work on his teeth "before you could tell anything about this man." Hiss answered: "I would like a few more questions asked."[^2] + ### Pre-Presidential Activities -Prior to his presidency, Nixon cultivated relationships with influential figures. He was often seen at [[Clint Murchison, Sr.]]'s Hotel Del Charro in La Jolla, California, during the 1950s, alongside [[J. Edgar Hoover]] and Senator [[Joseph McCarthy]].[^3] In 1961, after losing the presidential election to [[John F. Kennedy|JFK]], [[Clint Murchison, Sr.]] sold Nixon a lot in Beverly Hills for $35,000, a transaction financed through a [[Jimmy Hoffa|Hoffa]] loan. Nixon subsequently sold this lot two years later for $86,000.[^3] +Prior to his presidency, Nixon cultivated relationships with influential figures. He was often seen at [[Clint Murchison, Sr.]]'s Hotel Del Charro in La Jolla, California, during the 1950s, alongside [[J. Edgar Hoover]] and Senator [[Joseph McCarthy]].[^3] In 1961, after losing the presidential election to [[John F. Kennedy|JFK]], Clint Murchison, Sr. sold Nixon a lot in Beverly Hills for $35,000, a transaction financed through a [[Jimmy Hoffa|Hoffa]] loan. Nixon subsequently sold this lot two years later for $86,000.[^3] -As Vice President in 1960, Nixon served as the [[White House]]'s liaison to the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]'s Cuban operations, a period during which the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] initiated a series of assassination attempts against [[Fidel Castro]].[^3] [[Bebe Rebozo]] was also identified as a close associate of Nixon.[^3] +As Vice President in 1960, Nixon served as the [[White House]]'s liaison to the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]'s Cuban operations, a period during which the CIA initiated a series of assassination attempts against [[Fidel Castro]].[^3] [[Bebe Rebozo]] was also identified as a close associate of Nixon.[^3] ### Nuclear Policy and Israel -During his presidency, [[Israel]] received warmer treatment and support compared to the later [[Jimmy Carter|Carter]] administration.[^2] Nixon and [[Henry A. Kissinger]] approached inauguration day on January 20, 1969, convinced that [[Israel]]'s nuclear ambitions were justified and understandable. Once in office, they endorsed [[Israel]]'s nuclear ambitions. They also shared a contempt for the 1968 [[Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty|Nonproliferation Treaty]]. Nixon, midway in his campaign against [[Hubert H. Humphrey]], urged the Senate to delay ratification of the NPT until after the election, expressing concern about its failure to permit the transfer of "defensive nuclear weapons" to non-nuclear powers.[^2] +During his presidency, [[Israel]] received warmer treatment and support compared to the later [[Jimmy Carter|Carter]] administration.[^4] Nixon and [[Henry A. Kissinger]] approached inauguration day on January 20, 1969, convinced that Israel's nuclear ambitions were justified and understandable. Once in office, they endorsed Israel's nuclear ambitions. They also shared a contempt for the 1968 [[Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty|Nonproliferation Treaty]]. Nixon, midway in his campaign against [[Hubert H. Humphrey]], urged the Senate to delay ratification of the NPT until after the election, expressing concern about its failure to permit the transfer of "defensive nuclear weapons" to non-nuclear powers.[^4] -In the secrecy of their offices, Nixon and Kissinger simultaneously issued a presidential order (National Security Decision Memorandum No. 6) undercutting their public statements. This document stated that there should be no efforts by the [[United States]] government to pressure other nations, particularly [[West Germany]], to ratify the NPT. The government's public posture was to reflect optimism that other countries would sign or ratify, while privately disassociating itself from any plan to bring pressure on these countries.[^2] +In the secrecy of their offices, Nixon and Kissinger simultaneously issued a presidential order (National Security Decision Memorandum No. 6) undercutting their public statements. This document stated that there should be no efforts by the United States government to pressure other nations, particularly [[West Germany]], to ratify the NPT. The government's public posture was to reflect optimism that other countries would sign or ratify, while privately disassociating itself from any plan to bring pressure on these countries.[^4] -This new policy led to the end of the [[Floyd L. Culler, Jr.|Floyd Culler]] inspections of [[Dimona]] in 1969. The Nixon administration made a judgment that would become American policy for the next two decades: [[Israel]] had gone nuclear, and there was nothing the [[United States]] could - or wanted to - do about it.[^2] +This new policy led to the end of the [[Floyd L. Culler, Jr.|Floyd Culler]] inspections of [[Dimona]] in 1969. The Nixon administration made a judgment that would become American policy for the next two decades: Israel had gone nuclear, and there was nothing the United States could - or wanted to - do about it.[^4] ### Unusual Intelligence Incidents -Nixon's administration also saw the continuation of covert intelligence programs. In the early 1970s, he made a strange complaint to the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]], as testified by [[Sidney Gottlieb]], claiming that he and his staff experienced "inappropriate tears and crying" during a visit to a "potentially hostile country." [^1] +Nixon's administration also saw the continuation of covert intelligence programs. In the early 1970s, he made a strange complaint to the CIA, as testified by [[Sidney Gottlieb]], claiming that he and his staff experienced "inappropriate tears and crying" during a visit to a "potentially hostile country." [^1] ### Later Connections @@ -40,5 +49,9 @@ Later, [[Alan Michael May]], who had served as a former Northern California fiel ### Footnotes [^1]: Schnabel, Jim. _Remote Viewers_. Dell, 1997. -[^2]: Hersh, Seymour M. _The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy_. Random House, 1991. Chapter 16. -[^3]: Seymour, Cheri. _The Last Circle: Danny Casolaro's Investigation into the Octopus and the PROMIS Software Scandal_. First Edition. TrineDay, 2010. \ No newline at end of file + +[^2]: *Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage in the United States Government* (1948), House Committee on Un-American Activities, pp. 978-979. https://archive.org/details/hearingsregardin1948unit + +[^3]: Seymour, Cheri. _The Last Circle: Danny Casolaro's Investigation into the Octopus and the PROMIS Software Scandal_. First Edition. TrineDay, 2010. + +[^4]: Hersh, Seymour M. _The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy_. Random House, 1991. Chapter 16. diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Samuel Russell.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Samuel Russell.md new file mode 100644 index 00000000..477c9337 --- /dev/null +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Samuel Russell.md @@ -0,0 +1,288 @@ +--- +created: 2026-10-26 +updated: 2026-10-26 +title: Samuel Russell +aliases: + - Samuel Russell + - Samuel Wadsworth Russell + - Samuel W. Russell +tags: + - Person + - SamuelRussell + - RussellAndCompany + - RussellManufacturingCompany + - ChinaTrade + - OpiumTrade + - Canton + - MiddletownConnecticut + - RussellHouse + - RussellLibrary + - SkullAndBones + - WilliamHuntingtonRussell + - PhilipAmmidon + - Houqua + - AmericanColonizationSociety +category: "Business & Finance" +summary: "Middletown, Connecticut merchant who founded the Canton commission house Russell and Company, returned to Middletown in 1831, and built the Greek Revival house now owned by Wesleyan University." +born: 1789-08-25 +died: 1862-05-05 +location: "Middletown, Connecticut" +relations: + - type: founded + with: "[[Russell and Company]]" + start: 1819-01-01 + role: "founder at Canton; the Library of Congress dates the house to 1819, Hunter to a Samuel Russell and Company from December 26, 1818" + fn: 10 + - type: founded + with: "[[Russell Manufacturing Company]]" + start: 1834-06-01 + role: "co-founder with Samuel D. Hubbard; incorporated June 1834 according to the National Register nomination for the Upper Mill" + fn: 12 + - type: partner_of + with: "[[Philip Ammidon]]" + start: 1824-01-01 + end: 1830-06-30 + role: "partners at Canton; Hunter lists them as the sole partners of the house until the middle of 1830" + fn: 11 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[William Huntington Russell]]" + role: "second cousin through the Rev. William Russell (born 1690); Hamlin genealogy" + fn: 7 + - type: spouse_of + with: "[[Frances Ann Osborn]]" + start: 1827-01-01 + role: "second wife, sister of his first wife Mary Cotton Osborn" + fn: 18 + - type: funded + with: "[[American Colonization Society]]" + start: 1839-02-25 + end: 1839-03-31 + role: "donation printed among Middletown contributions to the society" + fn: 36 +--- + +Samuel Russell (August 25, 1789 to 1862) was a merchant of [[Middletown, Connecticut]] who founded the commission house [[Russell and Company]] at [[Canton]], [[China]], in 1819, according to the account of the [[National Park Service]] nomination for his Middletown house. The nomination calls the firm "the largest and most successful American firm involved in the China trade throughout the nineteenth century."[^1] He returned to Middletown in 1831, withdrew from the Canton house in 1836, and reinvested his profits in the [[Russell Manufacturing Company]], in banking, and in western railroad stock.[^2] The house he commissioned from [[Ithiel Town]] between 1827 and 1830 is now the [[Samuel Russell House]], part of [[Wesleyan University]]. + +### Birth and the death of his father + +Samuel Russell was born in Middletown on August 25, 1789, the eldest child of Capt. [[John Russell]] and Abigail Warner.[^3] John Russell, born August 19, 1765, married Abigail Warner at Middletown on June 29, 1788, and died there on December 7, 1801.[^3] The nomination says that he died insolvent.[^4] Abigail Russell outlived her husband by more than forty years and died at Middletown on July 11, 1846, at age 87.[^3] The Hamlin genealogy records three younger children: Lucy Warner Russell, born December 29, 1791; Julia Russell, born June 23, 1794; and Augustus Edward Russell, born June 10, 1797.[^3] The Library of Congress finding aid for the Canton records calls the last of these "Edward Augustus Russell," a New York businessman "involved in real estate investments and the East India trade."[^5] + +The nomination traces the line from William Russell (1612 to 1664), one of the founders of the Saybrook and New Haven colonies, through the Rev. [[Noadiah Russell]] (1659 to 1713), second pastor of the Congregational church at Middletown from 1698 and one of the founders of [[Yale University]], to the Rev. William Russell (born 1690) and then to Capt. Samuel Russell (born July 7, 1727), who was Samuel Russell's grandfather.[^6] The Hamlin genealogy gives the same line and records Capt. Samuel Russell as a Middletown merchant who died on March 14, 1794.[^7] The Yale sketch of the Rev. William Russell gives his birth as November 20, 1690, names him the eldest child of the Rev. Noadiah Russell and Mary Hamlin, and records four sons and five daughters.[^8] + +His middle name came from his great uncle, [[Jeremiah Wadsworth]] of Hartford, who had married the Rev. William Russell's daughter Mehitable. The nomination describes Wadsworth as Commissary General of the Continental Army and says that he died when Samuel was fifteen.[^4] + +### Apprenticeship and the New York years + +The nomination says that Russell and Wadsworth were both "orphaned at an early age," and that Russell was twelve when his father died.[^4] After his marriage in 1815 he lived with his widowed mother in the old family house on High Street.[^9] He was apprenticed as a clerk to [[Whittlesey and Alsop]], Middletown merchants in the maritime trade, and the apprenticeship ended in 1810 when he came of age. The nomination spells the firm "Whittlesley & Alsop." In the same year [[Samuel Wetmore]], a relative on his mother's side, was appointed guardian of the younger children.[^4] + +Russell then went to New York and joined [[Hull and Griswold]], a merchant house founded by Connecticut men that handled a range of goods. In 1812 the house sent him as supercargo on a ship bound for Spain, carrying flour worth $25,000. He was instructed to convert the proceeds into Spanish silver dollars, since the war with [[Great Britain]] was expected to cut foreign trade and leave the country short of hard currency.[^4] The voyage ended in 1813. Afterward he bought and sold goods on commission for Hull and Griswold in Middletown, and the first Russell and Company was founded in a building he had leased there before he sailed.[^4] + +Russell married Mary Cotton Osborn in New York in 1815. The nomination describes her as the daughter of a respectable Hartford family, with no dowry and no connection to the merchant trade.[^9] The Hamlin genealogy gives her parents as David Osborn and Polly (Cotton) Osborn, "of Middletown and Stratford, Ct."[^3] The couple returned to Middletown and lived in his mother's house, and by 1816 they had a son.[^9] Samuel Wetmore, who held an interest in the Providence firms [[Hoppins and Company]] and [[Edward Carrington and Company]], recommended Russell as supercargo on a ship owned by both houses. The ship carried Chinese tea and dishware to Savannah, exchanged them there for rice, tobacco and cotton, and went on to Hamburg.[^9] + +### The Providence contract and the first Canton venture + +[[Edward Carrington]] had been the American consul at Canton in 1802 to 1804, and by the nomination's account he carried on a commission business there until he left in 1811.[^9] The contract the Providence partners drew up for Russell in 1819 put $20,000 of capital into the venture. They paid his living costs in China and $500 a year to his family, and allowed him a commission of two percent on the import and export business of their vessels. At the end of the five-year contract he was to receive an equal share of the profits.[^10] + +Russell sailed in the ship Fame, carrying Indian cotton for sale at Le Havre or Amsterdam before going on to China around the Cape of Good Hope. The Fame left Gibraltar in late June 1819 and reached Macao in September. She anchored at [[Whampoa]], and Russell went upriver in a Chinese riverboat to the foreign compound at Canton.[^10] + +Hunter dates the earlier firm to the period "from December 26, 1818, to December 26, 1823," as Samuel Russell and Company.[^11] The Library of Congress describes the house as "founded in 1819 by Samuel Russell."[^5] The National Register nomination for the Upper Mill says that Russell "established his own trading station in Canton in 1818."[^12] + +The first venture returned about $15,000 to each of its five partners in 1823.[^13] The partners had little faith in his management and refused to increase the trading fund. The nomination says there is no evidence that Russell took part in the opium trade during this venture. His letters to the Providence partners, which the nomination quotes, describe opium as "the only article" which "of late can be said to have a profit."[^13] The nomination places the "Emily Affair" of 1821, when the Hong merchants found opium on an American ship and sent vessels off in ballast, in the background of the partners' caution. Its citation for the firm's position is a letter of June 30, 1821, from Russell and Company to Carrington and Company in the [[Library of Congress]] collection.[^14] + +Three friendships from this period mattered to the later house, according to the nomination. The first was with [[John Perkins Cushing]], also orphaned young and a cousin of the Boston brothers [[Thomas Handasyd Perkins]] and [[James Perkins]], who had left him in charge of the Canton office at sixteen. The second was with [[Philip Ammidon]], agent for [[Brown and Ives]] of Providence, who shared Russell's office and quarters. The third was with [[Houqua]], the leading Hong merchant, who remained a lifelong friend.[^15] + +### Samuel Russell and Company, and the partnership with Philip Ammidon + +Hunter gives the house's constitution as January 1, 1824, in succession to Samuel Russell and Company. "It is known amongst the Chinese as 'Kee-Chang-Hong.' It confined itself strictly to agency business." Hunter also records that the sole partners from January 1, 1824, to the middle of 1830 were Russell and Ammidon.[^11] Forbes gives the same succession in his own memoir, saying that the house "was first formed by Messrs. Samuel Russell and Philip Ammidon, and after a few years was changed to the present firm of Russell & Co."[^16] + +The nomination says that Cushing proposed a partnership with Ammidon and Russell, whom he regarded as "one of the best men in the country." Ammidon left for India with letters from Cushing and Houqua and made profitable deals with the Parsi opium growers there. The partnership was renewed in November 1826 for another four years, from January 1, 1828, which gave Russell time to return home.[^17] Russell was back at Canton by October 1827, after a spring and summer in Middletown in which he married Frances Ann Osborn. The nomination also says that he gained the commission business of the only two merchant houses in Manila and bought out smaller competitors in Canton.[^18] + +Ammidon did not return to Canton, and the nomination says that he sent William H. Low, "a very capable replacement with business connections in Philadelphia and Salem," who arrived in September 1829. In 1830 Augustine Heard of Boston was recommended as a further replacement. Russell and Low accepted him, and Ammidon was then terminated from the partnership.[^11][^18] The nomination describes Ammidon's dealings in India as having "made Russell & Company one of the most important American sellers of the opium in Canton, second or third in the trade behind the British firms of Jardine Matheson & Company and Dent & Company."[^19] + +### Houqua, the Perkins merger and the return from Canton + +[[Thomas Tunno Forbes]], a cousin of the Perkins brothers, drowned in a typhoon on August 9, 1829, with S. H. Monson, the bookkeeper of Russell and Company. Among his papers was a sealed letter asking the firm, in case of accident, to take charge of his local business and that of J. and T. H. Perkins.[^20] Cushing returned to Canton in August 1830, and the arrangement was then concluded: "Russell & Co. were officially appointed sole agents for the Boston house, that of Perkins & Co. being wound up, while the important foreign business of Houqua was then also definitely secured to them."[^20] + +The nomination gives a different chronology. It dates Forbes's death to 1827 and says that Cushing, eager to retire and lacking a suitable heir, arranged to dissolve Perkins and Company, with Russell delaying his own departure to set up the management of the combined houses.[^18] The Library of Congress says that in 1831 the China trading operations of John P. Cushing, William Perkins and Company of Boston, and Houqua "merged with Russell & Company."[^5] + +The nomination describes the two houses as complementary. Perkins and Company had been primarily a buyer and shipper of China cargoes, while Russell and Company was "exclusively a commission house" that did not necessarily own the goods it handled.[^21] Under Cushing's direction, [[Augustine Heard]] became the representative of the Perkins houses, [[Robert Bennet Forbes]] took charge of the storeship business at the Lintin station, and [[John Murray Forbes]] joined the firm as an assistant in line for partnership.[^18] Russell and Cushing left Canton together in the ship Bashaw on February 27, 1831.[^22] The nomination says that both returned to America after completing their work in March 1831.[^18] + +Houqua wrote to Russell after hearing of his retirement. The nomination quotes Houqua's letter of January 14, 1837, in the Library of Congress collection, which says that Russell's name had been associated with the house "during the whole course of its existence," and expresses Houqua's "sincere wish that you may live long to enjoy the fruit of your industry."[^19] The nomination adds that Houqua acknowledged Russell's "competent fortune," and that the Middletown mansion, known as the "China palace," held gifts from Houqua.[^19] In 1836 Russell had asked the manager to close his China affairs and to invest his profits "in teas or bills of exchange on London."[^19] + +### Opium + +In letters to his Providence partners, Samuel Russell wrote that opium "is the only article" which "of late can be said to have a profit" in the depressed China market. The nomination for his house says that during the first venture (1819 to 1823) there is no evidence that he took part in the trade, that he "was quite conversant with all the details of the opium trade," and that "with single drug cargoes selling for as much as $50,000, smuggling would have solved his cash problems."[^23][^24] + +From January 1, 1824, the house was Russell and Company, which Hunter describes as having "confined itself strictly to agency business."[^11] The nomination says that the firm's services included "marketing of imports (including opium which it sold for Perkins & Company on their storeship)," that John Perkins Cushing had begun to turn his commission business over to Russell and Company and other Canton houses in 1818 and "This included Cushing's opium shipments," and that Ammidon "made some successful deals with the Parsi opium growers in India" on the trip that preceded the 1826 renewal of the partnership.[^17][^18][^21] On his visit to Middletown in 1827 Russell solicited consignment business in the United States, "including most notably the sale of opium for John Jacob Astor."[^25] By the time Ammidon left the firm, the nomination says, his dealings "had made Russell & Company one of the most important American sellers of the opium in Canton, second or third in the trade behind the British firms of Jardine Matheson & Company and Dent & Company."[^19] Forbes wrote that Russell and Company "had for some time done business at Canton previous to Mr. Cushing's leaving, and, in fact, had transacted a part of his business."[^26] + +The Library of Congress finding aid says that the house's correspondence after 1818 "contains much information on the daily operation of the Canton trading company, the Turkish opium trade," and that an account book for 1816 to 1829 carries the manuscript "Notes on the Chinese Method of Preparing Opium for Smoking."[^5] The nomination says that Americans, largely excluded from the Indian and Persian markets, were for a time restricted to Turkish opium, transshipped through American ports, and that the Perkins brothers of Boston, in the Turkish trade since the 1780s, organized a Smyrna house in 1816.[^27] Robert Bennet Forbes wrote that in March 1828 the ship Danube was fitted out at New York by Sturgis and Perkins for Smyrna, with a credit on the Barings of about 60,000 pounds, "the principal object being to procure Turkey opium for China." He wrote that at Gibraltar in 1829 he "waited for sundry shipments of drug" before taking command of the Bashaw.[^28][^29] Hunter, who lived at Canton from 1825, set the agent's commission on opium sales at five, afterward three, per cent.[^30] + +The memorial of the American merchants at Canton, printed as House Document 40 of the 26th Congress, gives sales of opium at Canton by season: 5,822 chests for $7,988,930 in 1822 to 1823, 9,535 chests for $10,425,075 in 1827 to 1828, and 23,670 chests for $15,332,759 in 1832 to 1833. It says that the receiving vessels moved from Whampoa to Lintin about 1821, and that officials took "a fee or duty varying from twenty to seventy dollars per chest."[^31] Forbes wrote that the officials encouraged the drug's introduction "from India and Turkey, not only by levying a duty on it for their own benefit, but by consuming it."[^32] + +After Russell left, the nomination says that the house "continued to prosper as a major marketer of opium," that its Indian trade was at first about half its Turkish trade, and that the firm held its position in the Turkish trade and became the third largest purveyor from India.[^33] At the surrender of the opium at Canton in 1839 Hunter writes that the Americans "had not delivered any American-owned opium, of which we held at the time of surrender about fifty cases of Turkey." He adds that the English "placed theirs in charge of the American houses," and that "A large share of it fell under the control of Russell & Co."[^34] + +The memorial, dated at Canton on May 25, 1839, was signed by Russell Sturgis, A. A. Low, W. Delano, Jr., Edward King, Gideon Nye, Jr., S. B. Rawle, R. B. Forbes and James Ryan. It states, "We have no wish to see a revival of the opium trade," and says that the drug "has been productive of much evil and of scarcely a single good to the Chinese."[^31] Russell left Canton on February 27, 1831, and withdrew from the house in 1836.[^19][^22] + +Forbes wrote that the price of the surrendered drug was disputed, with one side arguing that it had cost $400 or $500 a chest and the other that it had sold for $250 or $300 at the time of seizure. He wrote that "most of the smaller holders of scrip were great losers, and that the large agents, who sold mostly on commission, turned their attention to speculation in scrip and in the drug itself, and made large fortunes."[^35] The firm's handling of Houqua's shipments in 1840 is set out on the Russell and Company page. + +### Return to Middletown and his investments + +The Library of Congress finding aid says that after Russell's return to Middletown in 1831 he founded the Russell Manufacturing Company for the manufacture of elastic webbing, and that as his interests in the China company diminished he "became increasingly active in real estate speculation in Chicago and Milwaukee as well as in Michigan, Ohio, Kentucky, and New Jersey."[^5] The finding aid's subject index adds Wisconsin. + +The National Register nomination for the company's Upper Mill gives a different founding date. It says that the company was "founded in 1834 by Samuel T. Russell and Samuel D. Hubbard." The Library of Congress finding aid credits Samuel Russell of the Canton house with founding the company. The nomination says that the company was incorporated in June 1834, capitalized at $200,000, after a letter of understanding that February.[^12] The company bought the machinery of the defunct Spaulding and Collins factory, took Spaulding in as treasurer, and within two years built a brick mill on a site owned by Hubbard. [[Henry G. Hubbard]], Samuel D. Hubbard's nephew, was brought in as manager.[^12] The nomination says that Russell's China profits went into "Simeon North's fledgling arms factory" and later into land speculation in the West, and it credits him with giving land for the first Roman Catholic church in Middletown.[^12] + +Company records cited in the same nomination show a bank loan of $12,000 from the Middletown Savings Bank in October 1840, "secured by Samuel Russell," at the time the company was preparing to make elastic suspenders.[^12] The National Historic Landmark nomination says that after his 1836 retirement Russell "reinvested his enormous profits in industry, banking, and Western railroad stock."[^2] + +The Library of Congress finding aid says that some letters for 1838 and 1839 concern his "financial support" of the [[American Colonization Society]].[^5] The society's monthly, [[The African Repository]], printed the Middletown contributions for February 25 to March 31, 1839. Richard Hubbard of Middletown is followed by "Samuel Russell, do.," with the same amount.[^36] + +### The Samuel Russell House + +Ithiel Town designed the house, and the New Haven firm of [[Hoadley and Curtis]] built it. Russell wrote from Canton on October 26, 1827, to his friend [[Samuel Hubbard]] in Middletown, who was to buy the lot and supervise construction. The instructions described "a brick house, 44 feet square," with unadorned plaster walls and fireproof construction, and called for a separate bathhouse. The nomination says that Russell "was sure that 'a Mason and Carpenter could build the house for $5000.'"[^37] + +The Canton correspondence confirms that Town's design was complete before [[Alexander Jackson Davis]] became his partner on February 1, 1829. The plans went to Hubbard on June 26, 1828, and Hoadley and Curtis's estimate of $7,000, including $1,000 for the west portico, was recommended in Town's letter of September 1828.[^38] The nomination calls the house "the premier domestic example of the Corinthian Greek Revival style in the Northeast." Painted panels in the parlors frame portraits of Samuel Russell and his wife, Frances, on the chimney breasts.[^39] + +Russell lived in the house until his death in 1862. It passed to his son, Samuel Wadsworth Russell Jr., and remained in the family until 1937, when Thomas MacDonough Russell Jr., his great-grandson, deeded it to Wesleyan University.[^40] The university's finding aid for the Honors College and Russell House records gives the 1828 construction date, the 1937 gift, the Honors College years until 1996, the National Register listing in 1970 and the National Historic Landmark designation in 2001.[^41] + +### Family + +Mary Cotton Osborn died in childbirth soon after Russell first sailed for Canton, leaving two sons in the care of her sister, Frances Ann Osborn.[^18] Russell married Frances Ann Osborn during his visit to Middletown in 1827, and she became the mother of his third son, Samuel Wadsworth Russell Jr.[^18] The Hamlin genealogy lists George Osborn Russell and John Augustus Russell as the children of the first marriage, and Samuel Wadsworth Russell as the child of the second.[^7] + +The Hamlin genealogy records George Osborn Russell as married twice, first to Augusta Harriet Mather and then to her sister Amelia Charlotte Mather. It records John Augustus Russell as the husband of Helena E. Webster and as an officer of the United States Navy.[^42] Samuel Wadsworth Russell Jr. married Clara Alsop Casey, according to the same entry. The entry says he had died some years earlier and that his widow remarried, and it lists three children: William Wadsworth, Mary and Cornelia.[^42] + +The Library of Congress family correspondence includes letters from George O. Russell for 1837 to 1845 and from John A. Russell for 1838 to 1846. A separate group of letters concerns the health of a son named John Russell and illustrates nineteenth-century medical practice in the control of epilepsy.[^5] + +The nomination calls Samuel Wadsworth Russell Jr. his "sole surviving son" and says that the estate went to his widow and to him.[^43] The Hamlin genealogy lists George Osborn and John Augustus among the sons of the first marriage.[^3] + +Frances Ann Russell, the widow, established the Russell Library in Middletown in memory of her husband. The Hamlin genealogy says that she "founded the Russell Library, Middletown."[^3] The library's own history says that she bought the Episcopal Church of the Holy Trinity at the corner of Broad and Court Streets in 1873, remodeled it as a library, and opened it as Middletown's public library on April 5, 1876.[^44] + +### Kinship with William Huntington Russell + +[[William Huntington Russell]], the Yale graduate of 1833 and co-founder of [[Skull and Bones]], was Samuel Russell's second cousin. Their common great-grandfather was the Rev. William Russell (born 1690), eldest child of the Rev. Noadiah Russell and Mary Hamlin. The Hamlin genealogy traces Samuel's line through Capt. John Russell and Capt. Samuel Russell (1727), and William Huntington Russell's through Matthew Talcott Russell and the Rev. Noadiah Russell of Thompson, Connecticut.[^7] John Russell and Matthew Talcott Russell were therefore first cousins, and their sons were second cousins. + +Kris Millegan gives three relationships in his book on the society. The opening article describes "His cousin Samuel Russell's family enterprise." A China-trade passage calls William Huntington Russell "Samuel's cousin," and a later essay gives "Samuel Russell, second cousin to Bones founder William H."[^45] A third passage refers to Samuel Russell as the "uncle" of the society's founder.[^46] The Hamlin genealogy gives the second-cousin relationship. + +### Skull and Bones and the Russell name + +The Connecticut act of 1856 that incorporated the Russell Trust Association, the body through which the society conducts its corporate affairs, names William H. Russell first among its incorporators, followed by [[John S. Beach]], [[Henry B. Harrison]], [[Daniel Coit Gilman|Daniel C. Gilman]], [[Henry T. Blake]] and [[Henry D. White]].[^47] + +In "Reflecting on the Yale Succession," an account of a conversation with his father, Millegan writes that William Huntington Russell "had founded Skull and Bones with drug money provided by his uncle, Samuel Russell."[^48] + +A letter to the Yale Alumni Magazine in 2015 from Bruce L. Reynolds attributed the money for the society's 1856 building to Russell and Company, citing James Bradley's book on the China trade.[^49] + +### Death and estate + +The New York Society Library's City Readers entry gives Samuel Wadsworth Russell's dates as August 25, 1789 to May 5, 1862, and describes him as a Middletown-born trader and the founder of Russell and Company.[^50] The Library of Congress gives his dates as "1789-approximately 1862."[^5] The Hamlin genealogy describes him as a merchant "for many years in the China trade" and member of the firm of Russell and Company who "left a large estate."[^3] The nomination says that at the time of his death in 1862 his estate was valued at $630,000, and that he left it to his widow and his sole surviving son, with large bequests to grandchildren and other relatives. The nomination adds that much of his fortune went to philanthropies during his lifetime.[^43] + +### The papers + +The records of Russell and Company are held by the Library of Congress Manuscript Division as MSS38562, "Russell & Co., Guangzhou, China, Records," with inclusive dates of 1812 to 1894 and bulk dates of 1819 to 1840. The collection occupies 12 containers and 4 oversize boxes, about 3,900 items, and 10 microfilm reels. Thomas Macdonough Russell gave it to the library in 1931, it was processed in 1980, and the finding aid was revised in 2024. The index includes the entry "Russell, Samuel, 1789-approximately 1862. Samuel Russell papers."[^5] + +The finding aid arranges the records in four series: family correspondence (1816 to 1848), general correspondence (1827 to 1881), business records (1812 to 1894), and oversize letterbooks and invoice books (1819 to 1827). The general correspondence includes letters on the construction of the Middletown house from 1827 to 1830 and letters from Ithiel Town. The business records include partnership agreements dated 1813 to 1843 and 1874, and wills of business associates dated 1832 to 1840.[^5] The nomination's author worked from typed transcriptions of the house correspondence held in the Russell Library in Middletown, made from the Library of Congress originals.[^51] The nomination also cites a 1973 Wesleyan honors thesis by Alain Munkittrick, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell (1789-1862): A Study in Ordered Investment," as the basis for its account of the business records.[^52] + +After Russell's departure the house's partners included [[Warren Delano Jr.]], who was admitted for the term beginning in 1840. Hunter says that Delano was formerly of Russell, Sturgis and Company at Canton and Manila.[^11] Members of the [[Forbes family]] were partners in the house in the same decades.[^11] + +### Footnotes + +[^1]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 8. Statement of Significance, calling the firm "the largest and most successful American firm involved in the China trade throughout the nineteenth century." https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text + +[^2]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, pp. 8 and 15. The 1836 retirement from the Canton house and the reinvestment of profits "in industry, banking, and Western railroad stock" (p. 15). The 1831 return is in the Library of Congress finding aid. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text + +[^3]: *The Hamlin Family: A Genealogy of Capt. Giles Hamlin of Middletown, Connecticut, 1654-1900* (1900), entry [302] for Capt. John Russell (pp. 118-119: the marriage to Abigail Warner on June 29, 1788, the children, and Abigail's death on July 11, 1846, at 87) and entry [638] for Samuel Russell, born Middletown August 25, 1789 (p. 166: first marriage to Mary, daughter of David and Polly (Cotton) Osborn, "of Middletown and Stratford, Ct."; second marriage to Frances Ann Osborn; "his widow, Frances, founded the Russell Library, Middletown"; "he left a large estate"). https://archive.org/details/hamlinfamilygene00andr + +[^4]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 9. The father's death in 1801 and insolvency; the boys "orphaned at an early age"; Wadsworth as Commissary General and his death when Samuel was fifteen; apprenticeship to Whittlesley & Alsop; Samuel Wetmore as guardian in 1810; Hull & Griswold and the 1812 supercargo voyage with proceeds in Spanish silver dollars; the first Russell & Company in Middletown. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text + +[^5]: Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, "Russell & Co., Guangzhou, China, Records," MSS38562, finding aid revised February 2024 (collection summary, scope and content note, subject and name index, series and container list). https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms010075 + +[^6]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, pp. 8 to 9. Ancestry from William Russell (1612 to 1664) through the Rev. Noadiah Russell (1659 to 1713) and the Rev. William Russell (born 1690) to Capt. Samuel Russell (born 1727). https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text + +[^7]: *The Hamlin Family: A Genealogy of Capt. Giles Hamlin of Middletown, Connecticut, 1654-1900* (1900), entries [97] (Rev. William Russell), [98] (Capt. Samuel Russell, b. Middletown July 7, 1727, merchant, d. March 14, 1794, p. 88), [99] (Rev. Noadiah Russell, of Thompson), [302] (Capt. John Russell, pp. 118-119), [307] (Matthew Talcott Russell, p. 119) and [638] (Samuel Russell, p. 166). https://archive.org/details/hamlinfamilygene00andr + +[^8]: Franklin Bowditch Dexter, *Biographical Sketches of the Graduates of Yale College*, vol. I (1701-1745), sketch of the Rev. William Russell of Middletown, class of 1709, p. 90. https://archive.org/details/biographicalske01dextuoft + +[^9]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 10. Carrington as American consul at Canton, 1802 to 1804, and his commission business until 1811; the 1815 marriage to Mary Cotton Osborn; the widowed mother's house on High Street; the son of 1816; the Savannah ship recommended by Samuel Wetmore. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text + +[^10]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 12. Terms of the Providence contract of 1819 ($20,000 capital, two percent commission, $500 a year to the family, equal share after five years); the Fame, Gibraltar in late June 1819, Macao in September, Whampoa and the riverboat to the factories. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text + +[^11]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 156-157 (the constitution of Russell & Co. on January 1, 1824, succeeding Samuel Russell & Co., which "had existed from December 26, 1818, to December 26, 1823"; "Kee-Chang-Hong"; "confined itself strictly to agency business"; the sole partners Russell and Ammidon to 1830; Low, Heard, Forbes and Delano admitted; Delano "formerly of the house of Russell, Sturgis, & Co."). https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog + +[^12]: National Register of Historic Places nomination, "Russell Company Upper Mill," Middletown, Connecticut (1986), "History" section. https://www.middletownct.gov/DocumentCenter/View/5448 Cited for the 1818 Canton station ("established his own trading station in Canton in 1818"), the June 1834 incorporation, the October 1840 bank loan, and the Simeon North investment. + +[^13]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 13. The first venture returned about $15,000 to each of five partners in 1823; no evidence of Russell's participation in the opium trade in that venture; Russell's letters to the Providence partners on opium as "the only article" that "of late can be said to have a profit." https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text + +[^14]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 13, notes 16 and 17. The 1821 Emily affair; "Russell & Company to Carrington & Company, June 30, 1821, Russell & Company Collection, Library of Congress." https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text + +[^15]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 13. Cushing as an orphan and cousin of the Perkins brothers; Ammidon as agent for Brown and Ives; Houqua as a lifelong friend. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text + +[^16]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (Boston, 1882), addenda, p. 386 ("which was first formed by Messrs. Samuel Russell and Philip Ammidon, and after a few years was changed to the present firm of Russell & Co."). https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog + +[^17]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, pp. 13 to 14. Cushing's proposal of a partnership with Ammidon and Russell, "one of the best men in the country"; Ammidon's trip to India with letters from Cushing and Houqua; the November 1826 renewal for four years from January 1, 1828, to allow Russell to return home. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text + +[^18]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 14. Russell back at Canton by October 1827; the Manila commission business and the Canton competitors; Ammidon replaced by William H. Low and Augustine Heard, and Ammidon terminated; Cushing's direction of the merger, the storeship business and John Murray Forbes; Forbes's death dated to 1827; Mary Cotton Osborn's death in childbirth and the two sons left with her sister; the 1827 marriage to Frances Ann Osborn; Russell and Cushing's return in March 1831. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text + +[^19]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 15. "Made Russell & Company one of the most important American sellers of the opium in Canton"; Houqua's letter of January 14, 1837, in the Library of Congress, with "during the whole course of its existence" and "sincere wish that you may live long to enjoy the fruit of your industry"; the "competent fortune" and the "China palace"; the 1836 withdrawal and the instruction to invest profits "in teas or bills of exchange on London"; the Canton house's later decades. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text + +[^20]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 118-119 (the death of Thomas T. Forbes and S. H. Monson on August 9, 1829; the sealed letter; Cushing's return in August 1830; "Russell & Co. were officially appointed sole agents for the Boston house", p. 119). https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog + +[^21]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, pp. 14 to 15. Perkins and Company as buyer and shipper; Russell and Company as "exclusively a commission house" that did not necessarily own the goods it handled. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text + +[^22]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 122 (Mr. Russell and Mr. Cushing take their final leave of Canton in the Bashaw on February 27, 1831). https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog + +[^23]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 11. "The Hong merchants of Canton only occasionally enforced the ban on opium." https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text + +[^24]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 13. "Russell was quite conversant with all the details of the opium trade"; "smuggling would have solved his cash problems," with single drug cargoes selling for as much as $50,000. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text + +[^25]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 14. The 1827 visit to Middletown and the solicitation of consignment business "including most notably the sale of opium for John Jacob Astor." https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text + +[^26]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (Boston, 1882), p. 134 (Russell & Co. "had for some time done business at Canton previous to Mr. Cushing's leaving, and, in fact, had transacted a part of his business"). https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog + +[^27]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 12. Americans restricted to Turkish opium; the Perkins brothers' Turkish trade from the 1780s and their Smyrna house of 1816. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text + +[^28]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (Boston, 1882), pp. 123-124 (the Danube voyage to Smyrna; "the principal object being to procure Turkey opium for China"). https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog + +[^29]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (Boston, 1882), pp. 123-126 (the Danube "fitted out at New York, by Messrs. Sturgis & Perkins," destined for Smyrna, March 1828; at Gibraltar "I waited for sundry shipments of drug, and the arrival of the ship Bashaw"). https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog + +[^30]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 65 ("The Canton agent received five, afterwards reduced to three, per cent, commission on sales"). https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog + +[^31]: U.S. House of Representatives, 26th Congress, 1st session, H. Doc. 40, "Merchants of the United States at Canton, China. Memorial of R. B. Forbes and others," January 9, 1840, referred to the Committee on Foreign Affairs (Serial Set vol. 364), pp. 1-4 (dated Canton, May 25, 1839; signatures; sales by season; the Lintin receiving vessels and the fees; "We have no wish to see a revival of the opium trade"). https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/SERIALSET-00364_00_00-030-0040-0000 + +[^32]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (Boston, 1882), p. 144 (the officials' encouragement of opium "from India and Turkey, not only by levying a duty on it for their own benefit, but by consuming it"). https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog + +[^33]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 15. "Russell & Company continued to prosper as a major marketer of opium"; the Indian trade at first about half the Turkish trade; the third largest purveyor of the drug from India. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text + +[^34]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 146 ("about fifty cases of Turkey"; the English "placed theirs in charge of the American houses"; "A large share of it fell under the control of Russell & Co."). https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog + +[^35]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (Boston, 1882), pp. 160-161 (the dispute over the price of the surrendered opium; "most of the smaller holders of scrip were great losers"). https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog + +[^36]: *The African Repository*, vol. XV (Washington, 1839), "Contributions to the American Colonization Society from Feb. 25 to March 31, 1839," Donations, Middletown, Conn. (Richard Hubbard, then "Samuel Russell, do."). https://archive.org/details/africanreposito44socigoog + +[^37]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 16. Russell to Hubbard, October 26, 1827 (Russell House Correspondence); instructions for a brick house 44 feet square; "a Mason and Carpenter could build the house for $5000." https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text + +[^38]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, pp. 17 to 18. Plans transmitted to Hubbard on June 26, 1828; Hoadley and Curtis estimate of $7,000 including $1,000 for the west portico, recommended in Town's letter of September 1828; Davis partner from February 1, 1829. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text + +[^39]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, pp. 6 and 8. Painted panels with portraits of Samuel Russell and his wife Frances (p. 6); "the premier domestic example of the Corinthian Greek Revival style in the Northeast" (p. 8). https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text + +[^40]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 15. The house inherited by Samuel W. Russell Jr., which remained in the family until 1937 and was deeded to Wesleyan University by Thomas MacDonough Russell, Jr., described as the great-grandson. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text + +[^41]: Wesleyan University Honors College and Russell House records, 2000-025, Special Collections and Archives, Wesleyan University, biographical note (house built 1828; given to Wesleyan 1937; Honors College until 1996; National Register 1970; National Historic Landmark 2001). https://archives.wesleyan.edu/repositories/2/resources/205 + +[^42]: *The Hamlin Family: A Genealogy of Capt. Giles Hamlin of Middletown, Connecticut, 1654-1900* (1900), entries [1141] (George Osborn Russell, married first Augusta Harriet Mather and second Amelia Charlotte Mather), [1142] (John Augustus Russell, married Helena E. Webster, "An officer U.S. Navy") and [1143] (Samuel Wadsworth Russell, married Clara Alsop Casey; he died and his widow remarried; children William Wadsworth, Mary and Cornelia). https://archive.org/details/hamlinfamilygene00andr + +[^43]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 8. Estate valued at $630,000 at the time of death in 1862, left to the widow and "sole surviving son Samuel Wadsworth Russell, Jr." https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text + +[^44]: Russell Library, "Russell Library History" (Frances Russell's purchase of the Episcopal Church of the Holy Trinity at Broad and Court Streets in 1873; opening as Middletown's public library on April 5, 1876). https://russelllibrary.org/history/ + +[^45]: Kris Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2003), opening article ("His cousin Samuel Russell's family enterprise"); pp. 151-152 ("Samuel's cousin"); p. 313 ("Samuel Russell, second cousin to Bones founder William H."). https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones + +[^46]: Kris Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2003), p. 52 ("drug money provided by his uncle, Samuel Russell"). https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones + +[^47]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, certified copies (March 28, 2001) of "An Act incorporating Russell Trust Association" (1856). The act names William H. Russell first among the body corporate, with John S. Beach, Henry B. Harrison, Daniel C. Gilman, Henry T. Blake and Henry D. White. + +[^48]: Kris Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2003), "Reflecting on the Yale Succession," p. 52. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones + +[^49]: Bruce L. Reynolds '66, letter, "More secrets of the Tomb," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, responding to the May/June 2015 article, citing James Bradley, *The China Mirage* (Little, Brown, 2015). https://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4127-more-secrets-of-the-tomb + +[^50]: New York Society Library, City Readers, entity record "Samuel Wadsworth Russell" (dates "8/25/1789 - 5/5/1862"; "founder of Russell & Company"). https://cityreaders.nysoclib.org/Detail/entities/1013 + +[^51]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 16. Typed transcriptions in the Russell Library, Middletown, made from the Library of Congress originals, relied on by the nomination's author. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text + +[^52]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 8, note 2. Alain Munkittrick, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell (1789-1862): A Study in Ordered Investment," Wesleyan University honors thesis, 1973, cited as the basis of the nomination's account of the firm's business records. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Stuart Symington.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Stuart Symington.md index 82a2fa35..9cb2032d 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Stuart Symington.md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Stuart Symington.md @@ -1,5 +1,10 @@ --- category: "Political Figure" +relations: + - type: spouse_of + with: "[[Wadsworth family|Evelyn Wadsworth]]" + start: 1924 + fn: 2 tags: - Person - Nuclear @@ -12,8 +17,12 @@ location: "Amherst, Massachusetts" Stuart Symington was a Democratic Senator from [[Missouri]]. He was a strong backer of [[Adlai E. Stevenson]] for the Democratic presidential nomination. Paradoxically, Symington later emerged as an ardent supporter of a nuclear-armed [[Israel]] while also authoring key Senate legislation to limit the spread of such weapons.[^1] +In 1924 Symington married Evelyn Wadsworth (1903-1972), daughter of Senator [[Wadsworth family|James Wolcott Wadsworth Jr.]] of New York and Alice Hay Wadsworth, a daughter of the Secretary of State [[John Hay]]; her brother James Jeremiah Wadsworth was later United States Representative to the United Nations.[^2] + In April 1963, [[Shimon Peres]] discussed nuclear weapons with Senator Symington, who was then a ranking member of the Senate Armed Services Committee. Symington reportedly told Peres, "Don't be a bunch of fools. Don't stop making atomic bombs. And don't listen to the administration. Do whatever you think best."[^1] ### Footnotes -[^1]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991. Chapter 8, 9. \ No newline at end of file +[^1]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991. Chapter 8, 9. + +[^2]: *Who's Who in America*, vol. 14, 1926-1927 (Chicago: A. N. Marquis, 1926), entry "Wadsworth, Alice Hay (Mrs. James Wolcott Wadsworth, Jr.)" (children Evelyn (Mrs. Stuart Symington), James Jeremiah, Reverdy), https://archive.org/details/whoswho141926 ; Livingston County Historian's Office, "Wadsworth Family: A Subject Finding Aid" (2019, rev. 2022), section II (marriage 1924). diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Thomas Nelson Perkins.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Thomas Nelson Perkins.md new file mode 100644 index 00000000..317fe11c --- /dev/null +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Thomas Nelson Perkins.md @@ -0,0 +1,286 @@ +--- +created: 2026-10-26 +updated: 2026-10-26 +aliases: + - Thomas Nelson Perkins + - Thomas N. Perkins + - Thos. N. Perkins + - T. N. Perkins +category: "Business & Finance" +tags: + - Person + - Perkins + - PerkinsFamily + - HarvardUniversity + - RopesGray + - WarIndustriesBoard + - ReparationCommission + - DawesPlan + - YoungPlan + - TribunalOfInterpretation + - BankForInternationalSettlements + - CommercialRadioInternationalCommittee + - BostonAndMaine + - AmericanTelephoneAndTelegraph + - CopperMining + - StoneAndWebster + - Boston +summary: "Boston lawyer and Harvard fellow who sat on the War Industries Board priorities committee, chaired the Dawes Plan tribunal of interpretation, signed the 1929 Young Plan report and directed AT&T and the Boston and Maine." +location: "Boston, Massachusetts" +born: 1870-05-06 +died: 1937-10-07 +relations: + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Edward Cranch Perkins]]" + role: "father" + fn: 4 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Charles Elliott Perkins]]" + role: "paternal uncle" + fn: 5 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[John Murray Forbes]]" + role: "mother's uncle" + fn: 6 + - type: spouse_of + with: "[[Louisa Catherine Adams]]" + start: 1900-06-06 + role: "married at Lincoln, Massachusetts" + fn: 8 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Charles Francis Adams Jr.]]" + role: "father-in-law" + fn: 9 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Harvard University]]" + start: 1905-01-01 + end: 1924-01-01 + role: "Fellow of Harvard College (President and Fellows), first term" + fn: 59 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Harvard University]]" + start: 1926-10-01 + end: 1937-10-07 + role: "Fellow of Harvard College, re-elected October 1926" + fn: 59 + - type: partner_of + with: "[[Ropes, Gray, Boyden & Perkins]]" + start: 1899-01-01 + end: 1937-10-07 + role: "member of Ropes, Gray & Gorham from 1899; later Ropes, Gray, Boyden & Perkins" + fn: 8 + - type: partner_of + with: "[[Roland W. Boyden]]" + start: 1899-01-01 + role: "fellow member of Ropes, Gray & Gorham" + fn: 8 + - type: participant_in + with: "[[War Industries Board]]" + start: 1917-09-01 + end: 1918-12-31 + role: "member of the priorities committee; studies in England and France in fall 1917" + fn: 20 + - type: head_of + with: "[[Commercial Radio International Committee]]" + start: 1922-04-01 + role: "chairman of the nine trustees" + fn: 3 + - type: head_of + with: "[[Arbitral Tribunal of Interpretation]]" + start: 1926-01-01 + role: "president, succeeding Walter P. Cooke; Awards II (1927) and III (1928)" + fn: 27 + - type: participant_in + with: "[[Young Plan]]" + start: 1929-02-09 + end: 1929-06-07 + role: "alternate American expert; chairman of the third subcommittee on deliveries in kind" + fn: 40 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Boston and Maine Railroad]]" + start: 1924-04-09 + end: 1937-10-07 + role: "director; chairman of the executive committee from 1928-03-07; acting president; chairman of the board until 1933-04-25" + fn: 49 + - type: director_of + with: "[[American Telephone and Telegraph Company]]" + start: 1929-01-01 + end: 1936-12-31 + role: "director in the annual reports for 1929 through 1936" + fn: 56 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Puget Sound Power and Light Company]]" + role: "chairman of the executive committee" + fn: 2 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Stone and Webster]]" + role: "executive committee" + fn: 2 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Old Colony Trust Company]]" + role: "executive committee" + fn: 2 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Lee, Higginson Trust Company]]" + role: "executive committee" + fn: 2 + - type: director_of + with: "[[General Foods Corporation]]" + role: "director" + fn: 2 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Walter Baker and Company]]" + start: 1906-01-01 + role: "director" + fn: 53 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Russian Student Fund]]" + start: 1929-01-01 + end: 1931-12-31 + role: "board of directors" + fn: 57 +--- + +Thomas Nelson Perkins (born at [[Milton, Massachusetts]] on May 6, 1870; died October 7, 1937) was a [[Boston]] lawyer in the firm of [[Ropes, Gray, Boyden & Perkins]], a fellow of [[Harvard University]], and a director of railway, utility, copper, banking and telephone companies, among them the [[Boston and Maine Railroad]] and the [[American Telephone and Telegraph Company]].[^1][^2] In 1917 he sat on the priorities committee of the [[War Industries Board]]. In 1922 he was chosen chairman of the [[Commercial Radio International Committee]], the body through which [[Radio Corporation of America]], the English [[Marconi's Wireless Telegraph Company]], the French [[Compagnie Générale de Télégraphie sans Fil]] and the German [[Telefunken]] arranged their South American and trans-Atlantic radio traffic.[^3] From 1926 he presided over the arbitral tribunal of interpretation for the [[Dawes Plan]], and in 1929 he was an American alternate on the Committee of Experts that drafted the [[Young Plan]] for reparations owed by [[Germany]], signing the committee's report at Paris on June 7, 1929. He belonged to the [[Perkins family]] of Boston. + +### Descent and early years + +Perkins was born at Milton, the son of [[Edward Cranch Perkins]] and Jane S. Watson ([[Jane Watson]]).[^4] His father was a son of [[James Handasyd Perkins]] and [[Sarah Elliott Perkins]] of the [[Owls Nest]] house near [[Cincinnati]], and a brother of [[Charles Elliott Perkins]], later president of the [[Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad]].[^5] The 1907 family memoir by [[Edith Perkins Cunningham]] lists four children of Edward Cranch Perkins: Thomas Nelson (1870), Elliott (1873 to 1885), James Handasyd (1876) and John Forbes (1878).[^5] It describes John Forbes, "the President" of the Burlington and Missouri River Railroad, bringing "his niece, Jenny Watson" through Cincinnati in 1858 on a western trip while he was buying the line; this is [[John Murray Forbes]], whom Charles Elliott Perkins succeeded in running the Burlington.[^6] + +Perkins took the A.B. at [[Harvard College]] in 1891, was admitted to the bar in 1893, and took the LL.B. in 1894.[^4] His classmates in 1891 included [[Nicholas Longworth]], then a member of the United States House of Representatives, who married [[Alice Roosevelt Longworth|Alice Roosevelt]] on February 17, 1906. In the class report for that year Perkins wrote that "much the most prominent position that I have filled was that of best man to our classmate Longworth at his recent marriage."[^7] + +On June 6, 1900 he married Louisa Catherine Adams at [[Lincoln, Massachusetts]]; the class report gives her as "daughter of Charles Francis Adams."[^8] She was born on December 28, 1871, a daughter of [[Charles Francis Adams Jr.]] and Mary Hone Ogden ([[Mary Hone Ogden]]), who had married on November 8, 1865.[^9][^4] Adams, a brother of [[Brooks Adams]] and [[Henry Adams]], was a member of the Massachusetts railroad commission from 1869 to 1879, a government director of the [[Union Pacific Railroad]] from 1877 to 1890 and its president from 1884 to 1890.[^4] The 1926 history of Quincy lists the children of Charles Francis Adams as Mary Ogden, Louisa Catherine, Elizabeth Ogden, Henry and John, states that "Louisa married Thomas Nelson Perkins," and dates his death at Washington on March 20, 1915.[^10] Perkins moved to [[Westwood, Massachusetts]] in 1899, and his firm practiced from 60 [[State Street]] in Boston.[^8] + +### Ropes, Gray and the Boston bar + +In October 1894 [[Arthur Dehon Hill]] entered the office of John D. Bryant at 53 State Street, and a year later formed a partnership for the general practice of law with Perkins and [[Lawrence M. Stockton]]. In May 1897 that firm broke up, Perkins joining [[Ropes, Gray & Loring]] and Stockton the firm of [[Lowell, Stimson & Stockton]].[^11] In 1899, after the death of [[John C. Ropes]] and the appointment of [[William Caleb Loring]] to the Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts, the firm became [[Ropes, Gray & Gorham]], whose members were [[John C. Gray]], [[Robert S. Gorham]], [[Roland W. Boyden]] and Perkins. [[Roland Gray]] joined in 1902. Perkins described his practice as "almost entirely an office practice," most of his time "spent on corporation work and the management of trust properties."[^8] Who's Who gives the firm name as Ropes, Gray & Gorham in 1916 and as Ropes, Gray, Boyden & Perkins in 1920, and the 1928 entry gives the office as 50 Federal Street.[^12][^13][^14] The Business Historical Society's obituary dates his partnership from 1899 and describes his work for [[Stone and Webster]]: "He won his spurs in 1899 when, as representative of Stone & Webster, he unraveled the tangled traction problems of Seattle."[^15] + +Roland W. Boyden, his partner, is identified in the Foreign Relations series as American unofficial representative on the [[Reparation Commission]] as of April 30, 1922, and the Congressional Digest of November 1924 introduced him as "Former United States Delegate on the Reparation Commission."[^16][^17] Boyden wrote "The Priority Question" for *Foreign Affairs* in April 1928.[^18] + +### The War Industries Board + +Who's Who lists Perkins during the First World War as a member of the Priorities Committee and chief counsel of the War Industries Board, a member of the American commission to the Inter-Allied War Conference at Paris, an assistant to the Secretary of War and an assistant director of munitions.[^14] The Associated Press obituary of October 7, 1937 repeats these posts, and the Business Historical Society calls him "Assistant Secretary of War in charge of purchase and supply" and a member of "the House Commission to the inter-allied conference in Paris."[^19][^15] + +The Board's report, published in 1921 under [[Bernard Baruch]], records the structure. [[Robert S. Lovett]] was priorities commissioner from the fall of 1917, and [[Edwin B. Parker]] was designated by "Judge Lovett" as chairman of the new priorities committee, taking charge on August 23, 1917 and succeeding Lovett as commissioner on the reorganization of March 4, 1918. The other members of the committee were Charles K. Foster as vice chairman, [[J. B. Aleshire]], [[George Armsby]], [[H. H. Barbour]], [[C. P. Rowland]], [[F. H. Macpherson]], [[N. E. Mason]], [[C. A. McKenney]], [[Everett Morss]], [[Lucius P. Ordway]], Perkins, [[T. C. Powell]] and [[A. V. Zane]]. "During the fall of 1917, studies on behalf of the priorities committee were being made in England and France by Thomas Nelson Perkins, a member of the committee. He observed the various control systems in use there and prepared daily reports and comments for the committee." Priorities Circular No. 1 was issued on September 21, 1917, the day the price of copper was fixed.[^20] + +[[Daniel R. Beaver]], in his study of Secretary of War [[Newton D. Baker]], writes of the arrival in Washington of a report from Perkins as the Board's representative at the Inter-Allied conference.[^21] In the Army's history of its own organization, [[James E. Hewes]] calls Perkins "a Boston corporation lawyer" serving with the Board and "Mr. Baker's nemesis," and writes that the Board "loaned" him to the War Department in April.[^22] The Library of Congress register of the papers of [[Felix Frankfurter]] lists two folders of correspondence with Perkins from 1918 to 1934.[^23] + +### Radio: the Commercial Radio International Committee + +In April 1922 *The Wireless Age* reported that [[Owen D. Young]], vice president of [[General Electric]], was on his way to Cannes with Thomas N. Perkins of Boston "on a mission in connection with the activities of the Radio Corporation of America for the development of trans-Atlantic wireless communications." Young described a meeting he had called at Paris the previous October, at which the English Marconi company, the French Compagnie de Télégraphie sans Fil and the German Telefunken agreed with RCA to build one station in Argentina for all four. Control was placed in nine trustees, two named by each of the four companies and a ninth, "acting as Chairman," appointed by RCA: "Thomas N. Perkins was chosen to fill the post of Chairman."[^3] Who's Who in 1930 gives him as chairman of the board of the Commercial Radio International Committee, and the Boston and New York press of March 1928 gave the same title when he was elected to the Boston and Maine post.[^2][^24] + +### The Reparation Commission and the Dawes tribunal + +Who's Who in 1928 lists him as "U.S. citizen member Reparation Commn. (Paris), 1924-26," and a Reuter dispatch printed in October 1937 calls him "United States citizen member of the Reparation Commission in Paris from 1924 to 1926."[^14][^25] The Reparation Commission's own papers show a narrower record for those years. The Regulations for Deliveries in Kind, drafted in the winter of 1924 to 1925 by a special committee created under the [[London Agreement of 1924]], gave the American Citizen Member of the Reparation Commission the decision on contracts that the Allied and German offices could not agree on, with power to nominate a substitute if prevented from acting. The committee's covering letter of March 9, 1925 reports: "By letter of February 19, 1925 Mr. Thomas N. Perkins has accepted the task which the Committee proposed to entrust to him, under certain reserves which, in the opinion of the Committee, should in no way endanger the proper working of the Regulations."[^26] In the Commission's report for 1926 the American Citizen Member is [[Walter P. Cooke]], who resigned as president of the Arbitral Tribunal "to become the American Citizen Member of the Reparation Commission," with "Mr. Thomas Nelson Perkins" appointed president of the tribunal "in his stead."[^27] A family history of the Cutcheon line records that [[Franklin W. M. Cutcheon]] was appointed United States Citizen Member in December 1927.[^28] The German edition of the tribunal's decisions, published in 1927, calls Perkins Cooke's successor and "früherer Delegierter der Vereinigten Staaten zur Reparationskommission," a former delegate of the United States to the Reparation Commission.[^29] + +The Foreign Relations series names other Americans in the unofficial seat: [[James A. Logan Jr.]] in February 1924 and [[Ralph Waldo Snowden Hill]] in May 1926.[^30][^31] In July 1924, during the London negotiations, Ambassador [[Myron T. Herrick]] reported that the British and French prime ministers had settled that the decision on a German default would be left "to an American, presumably the Agent General, and Owen Young's name was mentioned."[^32] + +The tribunal arose under the agreement between the Reparation Commission and the German government signed at London on August 9, 1924. [[Sir John Fischer Williams]], British legal representative on the Commission, wrote in 1928 that it began with three arbitrators and was enlarged in June 1925, before any sitting, by two neutral members, and that "the chairman or president of the tribunal was to be an American citizen."[^33] Its first award, of March 24, 1926, was signed by Cooke as president, with [[Marcus Wallenberg]], [[A. G. Kröller]], [[Charles Rist]] and [[Albrecht Mendelssohn Bartholdy]] as the other members; the Commission's report records that it decided questions I, III and IV in favor of Germany and VII and VIII in favor of the Commission.[^34][^27] + +Award No. II, delivered at [[The Hague]] on January 29, 1927 with Perkins as president, answered a question submitted by terms of submission dated at Paris on March 25, 1926: whether the annuities payable to the Agent General for Reparation Payments comprised compensation paid by the German Reich to German nationals for the retention, liquidation or transfer of their property, rights and interests. The tribunal found it "impossible to place upon the Experts' Plan a construction according to which the annuities were intended by the Experts to comprise" such compensation. The award is signed "Thomas N. Perkins, President" and "E. N. van Kleffens, Secretary," and its English text is authoritative.[^35] Award No. III, delivered at The Hague on May 29, 1928 after a session of May 7 to 14, concerned three questions on whether the net proceeds of German private property liquidated by the Allied powers under the Treaty of Versailles were to be reckoned against the annuities. The tribunal answered all three in the negative, and the *American Journal of International Law* recorded it as an award "against German contention."[^36][^37] In the summer of 1927 [[Josiah Stamp]], one of the authors of the Dawes Plan, and Mendelssohn Bartholdy were named honorary doctors of laws of Harvard "unter den Auspizien des Präsidenten des Schiedsgerichts," Perkins, according to the German editors' foreword.[^36] + +### The Young Committee, 1929 + +The Reparation Commission, jointly with the German government, appointed Owen D. Young and J. P. Morgan as the American members of the Committee of Experts, each with power to name an alternate. On January 18, 1929 Secretary of State [[Frank B. Kellogg]] telegraphed the American chargé in Paris that the British Ambassador was going to New York "to offer the appointment to Young and Morgan and to Perkins as an alternate," and that the American government had no objection.[^38] On January 19 Herrick reported the Commission's appointment of "Messrs. Young and Morgan as members of the Committee of Experts each with power to appoint his alternate," and that the committee would hold its first meeting at the Bank of France on February 9.[^39] On January 21 the membership was telegraphed in final form: "American Experts: Mr. Owen D. Young, Mr. J. P. Morgan; alternates: Mr. Thos. N. Perkins, Mr. T. W. Lamont."[^40] The member named only as J. P. Morgan is [[J. P. Morgan Jr.]], the son of the elder [[J. P. Morgan]], who died on March 31, 1913; the alternate [[Thomas W. Lamont]] was a partner of the Morgan firm. + +On March 3, 1929 the embassy in Paris cabled Washington a message from Young: "The third subcommittee, of which Perkins is the chairman, is working on deliveries in kind in endeavor to see to what extent they can be used, say over a period of ten years, to facilitate transfers from Germany." For the first year it was thought that deliveries might run as high as 750 million marks, diminishing year by year.[^41] The Communist *Daily Worker* reported on March 2, 1929 that the experts were considering "an international trust, incorporated under the laws of neutral power, to act as a general sales agent for all future deliveries in kind," that "the Thomas N. Perkins Committee on deliveries in kind has evolved the idea at the suggestion of Perkins," and that Perkins "is a director of a dozen chemical, power, traction and machinery companies."[^42] + +[[Denys P. Myers]] wrote in 1930 that Perkins, American, "was the chairman of the Tribunal of Interpretation between the Reparation Commission and the German Government," and that five members of the 1924 committee sat again in 1929.[^43] The report, signed at Paris on June 7, 1929, closes: "We regard our report as an indivisible whole." The signatures include Owen D. Young, J. P. Morgan, Thomas N. Perkins and T. W. Lamont.[^44] An annex prints a letter of June 4, 1929 to Lamont at the [[Hôtel Ritz]], "confirming my conversation of this morning with you and Mr. Perkins."[^45] Annex I of the report recommended that the Interpretation Tribunal "set up under the London Agreement of August 30, 1924" should "be retained in existence" to decide disputes between Germany and the creditor governments or the Bank on the extent of Germany's liabilities or the interpretation of the Plan.[^45] + +### The Young Plan tribunal and the Bank for International Settlements + +The tribunal under the Young Plan was to have five members sitting for five years, the incumbents named in the plan: Perkins as president, Wallenberg and Kröller as neutrals, Rist as creditor member and Mendelssohn Bartholdy as debtor member. Myers added that "Mr. Perkins, however, resigned before the New Plan came into effect."[^46] + +The Young Plan placed the intergovernmental payments in the [[Bank for International Settlements]]. The bank's Organization Committee met at the [[Hotel Stephanie]] in [[Baden-Baden]] from October 3 to November 13, 1929. It had two members appointed by the governors of the central banks of Belgium, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy and Japan, and two American delegates, [[Jackson E. Reynolds]] of the [[First National Bank of New York]] and [[Melvin A. Traylor]] of the [[First National Bank of Chicago]]; it produced the bank's charter, statutes and trust agreement.[^47] The statutes provide that a dispute between the bank and a central bank or shareholder on the interpretation of the statutes go "for final decision to the Tribunal provided for by The Hague Agreement of January, 1930."[^45] + +On April 28, 1930 Representative [[Louis T. McFadden]], chairman of the House Committee on Banking and Currency, told the House that the State Department's statement of May 16, 1929 had turned America's participation in the bank over "to a group of bankers headed and dominated by J. P. Morgan & Company," and added that "closely associated with the dominating influence, Mr. Owen D. Young, in the organization of the Bank for International Settlements, were J. P. Morgan, Thomas W. Lamont and Thomas N. Perkins, who with Mr. Young composed United States representatives of the committee which brought forth the Young plan." *The United States Daily* printed the speech on April 30, 1930.[^48] + +### Boston and Maine + +Perkins was elected a director of the Boston and Maine on April 9, 1924.[^49] On March 7, 1928 he was elected chairman of the executive committee, succeeding Homer Loring; he made it clear that the committee would continue to exercise the same functions as in the past and that President George Hannauer would remain the executive head.[^50][^24] The report for 1929, signed by Perkins as "Acting President" on March 11, 1930, lists him as "Chairman Executive Committee and Acting President."[^51] A newspaper photograph of January 1930 identified him as "Acting president of Boston & Maine," about to address the Traffic Club of New England.[^52] He resigned as chairman of the board on April 25, 1933 and remained a director and member of the executive committee. The directors' minute on his death records that "for the 5 years preceding April 25, 1933 ... he was the dominating influence in your company's policies."[^49] + +### Directorships + +The *Directory of Directors in the City of Boston and Vicinity* shows the accumulation in order. In the 1906 edition Perkins was a member of the board of managers and executive committee of the [[Children's Hospital]], a director of the [[National Bank of Commerce]], vice president and director of the [[Railway and Light Securities Company]], trustee of the [[Seattle Electric Company]], director of the [[State Street Trust Company]], trustee of the [[Suffolk Savings Bank for Seamen and Others]], and a director of [[Walter Baker and Company]].[^53] By 1908 he was also a Fellow of Harvard College and a director of the [[Puget Sound International Railway and Power Company]] and the [[St. Mary's Mineral Land Company]], and he sat on the boards of the [[Houghton County Electric Light Company]], where his co-directors included [[Charles A. Stone]] and [[Edwin S. Webster]] of Stone and Webster, and the Houghton County Street Railway.[^54] The 1911 edition adds the Michigan copper companies [[Ahmeek Mining Company]], [[Allouez Mining Company]], [[La Salle Copper Company]], [[Osceola Consolidated Mining Company]] and [[Tamarack Mining Company]], whose boards included [[Rodolphe L. Agassiz]]; the [[Tacoma Railway and Power Company]]; and the [[Boston Opera Company]].[^55] + +Who's Who in 1916 adds the [[Merrimac Chemical Company]] and the [[Puget Sound Traction, Light and Power Company]], and the 1920 entry adds the [[Sullivan Machinery Company]].[^12][^13] The 1928 entry lists the [[Puget Sound Power and Light Company]], the [[George H. Morrill Company]], the Boston and Maine, the [[Postum Company]] and the [[Champion Copper Company]].[^14] The 1930 entry gives him as chairman of the executive committee of Puget Sound Power and Light and of the Boston and Maine, and as a director of the [[General Foods Corporation]], Champion Copper, the American Telephone and Telegraph Company and the [[Engineers Public Service Company]], with seats on the executive committees of Stone and Webster, the [[Lee, Higginson Trust Company]] and the [[Old Colony Trust Company]].[^2] The Associated Press obituary adds the executive committee of the [[First National Bank of Boston]].[^19] + +The annual reports of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company list Perkins among the directors from the report for 1929 through the report for 1936. The board in the report for 1929 also included [[George F. Baker]] and [[George F. Baker Jr.]], [[John W. Davis]], [[W. Cameron Forbes]], [[Walter S. Gifford]], [[Owen J. Roberts]], [[Myron C. Taylor]] and [[Daniel Willard]]; the report for 1930 added [[Winthrop W. Aldrich]] and [[Hale Holden]].[^56] + +From 1929 to 1931 he sat on the board of directors of the Russian Student Fund, Inc., with [[Norman H. Davis]], [[Frank L. Polk]], [[Ogden L. Mills]], [[John R. Mott]], [[Cornelius W. Wickersham]] and [[Allen Wardwell]].[^57] The Business Historical Society's obituary records that in 1932 he was named to the Boston committee formed to aid the [[Reconstruction Finance Corporation]] and the Federal Reserve System in promoting wider use of credit, and that [[Dartmouth College]] conferred a doctorate of letters on him under President Hopkins.[^15] + +### Harvard Corporation + +Perkins was appointed a Fellow of Harvard College in 1905 "to fill the vacancy caused by the death of the late Samuel Hoar"; the 1915 quinquennial catalogue lists "Thomas Nelson Perkins, (see A.B. 1891); Fellow 1905-" and gives [[Samuel Hoar]]'s service as 1894 to 1904.[^8][^58] *The Christian Science Monitor* wrote in 1926 that at 35 he was "the youngest Fellow ever to be elected."[^59] The same notice records that "in 1924 he resigned, after 19 years of loyal service, in order to serve on the Reparations Commission in Europe," his place taken by [[Charles P. Curtis Jr.]] of the class of 1914, and that in October 1926 he was re-elected to the seat vacated on October 11 by [[James Byrne]] of New York. He had been chosen president of the Harvard Alumni Association and had received the honorary Doctor of Laws from Harvard the previous June. The Corporation then consisted of President [[A. Lawrence Lowell]], Charles F. Adams as treasurer, [[Henry P. Walcott]], Bishop [[William Lawrence]], [[John F. Moors]], Perkins and Curtis.[^59] The Business Historical Society's obituary states that "from the age of 35 until his death" he was a Fellow of the Corporation.[^15] + +[[Henry Aaron Yeomans]]'s biography of Lowell lists Perkins among the Fellows at the time of Lowell's election as president and prints a letter from Lowell to Perkins dated November 1, 1932.[^60] + +### Family, clubs and death + +The class report of 1906 names two sons, born March 16, 1901 and November 17, 1903; the 1907 family memoir lists a third child born in 1907, and the Associated Press obituary names three surviving sons.[^8][^5][^19] His clubs in the 1910 entry were the Somerset, Exchange, Norfolk Hunt (Boston), University and Harvard (New York) clubs; the 1928 entry adds the Knickerbocker and the Metropolitan (Washington).[^4][^14] He is listed at Westwood in the entries of 1910, 1916 and 1928.[^4][^12][^14] + +He died on October 7, 1937. The Associated Press dispatch is datelined Westwood and says he died "after a long illness"; the Sedgwick genealogy and a 1975 genealogy of presidential descendants also place the death at Westwood, and a Reuter dispatch printed in the *North China Daily News* is datelined [[Dedham, Massachusetts]].[^19][^1][^61][^25] The Business Historical Society's bulletin of November 1937 records that he "remained partner until he passed away in October 1937," and the directors of the Boston and Maine recorded his death in their report for 1937.[^15][^49] + +### Footnotes + +[^1]: Hubert M. Sedgwick, *A Sedgwick Genealogy: Descendants of Deacon Benjamin Sedgwick* (New Haven: New Haven Colony Historical Society, 1961), entry for Thomas Nelson Perkins, who "was born May 6, 1870, at Milton, Mass., and died October 7, 1937, at Westwood, Mass." https://archive.org/details/sedgwickgenealog00sedg +[^2]: *Who's Who in America*, 1930-1931, vol. 16, entry for Perkins, Thomas Nelson, lawyer: born Milton, Mass., 1870; A.B. Harvard 1891, LL.B. 1894, LL.D. 1926; member of Ropes, Gray, Boyden & Perkins; vice president of Railway & Light Securities; directorships and executive committee seats; chairman of the board of the Commercial Radio International Committee; president of the Arbitral Tribunal of Interpretation. https://archive.org/details/whos-who-in-america_1930-1931_16 +[^3]: "World Wide Wireless: Big Four-Nation Radio Station," *The Wireless Age*, vol. 9, no. 7 (April 1922), on Owen D. Young's account of the Paris meeting of October 1921, the single South American station, the nine trustees and the election of Thomas N. Perkins as chairman. https://archive.org/details/sim_wireless-age_1922-04_9_7 +[^4]: *Who's Who in America*, 1910-1911, vol. 6, entry for Perkins, Thomas Nelson: born Milton, Mass., 1870, son of Edward C. and Jane S. (Watson) Perkins; A.B. Harvard 1891, LL.B. 1894; admitted to the bar 1893; married Louisa C. Adams of Lincoln, Mass., June 6, 1900; member of Ropes, Gray & Gorham; directorships, trusteeships and clubs; home at Westwood. Also the entry for Adams, Charles Francis, historical writer: married Mary Hone Ogden of Newport, R.I., November 8, 1865; Massachusetts railroad commissioner 1869-79; government director 1877-90 and president 1884-90 of the Union Pacific; brother of Brooks and Henry Adams. https://archive.org/details/whos-who-in-america_1910-1911_6 +[^5]: Edith Perkins Cunningham, *Owls Nest: A Tribute to Sarah Elliott Perkins* (privately printed, 1907), genealogical tables of the children of Charles Elliott Perkins and of Edward Cranch Perkins (Thomas Nelson 1870, Elliott 1873-1885, James Handasyd 1876, John Forbes 1878) and of the children of Thomas N. Perkins (born 1901, 1903 and 1907). https://archive.org/details/owlsnestatribut00famigoog +[^6]: Cunningham, *Owls Nest* (1907), the narrative of the summer of 1858, in which "Uncle John Forbes" brought "his daughter Ellen and his niece, Jenny Watson," through Cincinnati while buying the Burlington and Missouri River line, "of which Uncle John Forbes was the President," and the index entry "Perkins, Mrs. Edward C. (Jane Watson)." https://archive.org/details/owlsnestatribut00famigoog +[^7]: *Harvard College Class of 1891, Secretary's Report, Number IV* (Boston, 1906), entry for Thomas Nelson Perkins (best man to Longworth) and entry for Nicholas Longworth (Ohio legislature 1899 to 1901, Congress from 1902, "married on February 17, 1906, to Miss Alice Roosevelt"). https://archive.org/details/secretarysreport41891harvuoft +[^8]: *Harvard College Class of 1891, Secretary's Report, Number IV* (Boston, 1906), entry for Thomas Nelson Perkins: the firms Ropes, Gray & Loring and Ropes, Gray & Gorham, the admission of Roland Gray in 1902, the office at 60 State Street, the marriage at Lincoln on June 6, 1900 to Louisa Catherine Adams, "daughter of Charles Francis Adams," the sons born March 16, 1901 and November 17, 1903, the move to Westwood in 1899, and the appointment as Fellow of Harvard College "to fill the vacancy caused by the death of the late Samuel Hoar." https://archive.org/details/secretarysreport41891harvuoft +[^9]: Frederick Wallace Pyne, *Descendants of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence* (Camden, Me.: Picton Press, 1997), entries for the children of Charles Francis Adams and Mary Hone Ogden (Louisa Catherine Adams, born December 28, 1871) and for the children of Louisa Catherine Adams and Thomas Nelson Perkins. https://archive.org/details/descendantsofsig0003pyne +[^10]: Daniel Munro Wilson, *Three Hundred Years of Quincy, 1625-1925* (Quincy, 1926), chapter "Right Sons of the Great Ambassador," pp. 202 to 207, on Charles Francis Adams (death at Washington March 20, 1915; rode "over to Lincoln" in November 1893; "Mrs. Adams continues to reside at Lincoln"; children Mary Ogden, Louisa Catherine, Elizabeth Ogden, Henry and John; "Louisa married Thomas Nelson Perkins"). https://archive.org/details/threehundredyear00wils +[^11]: *Harvard College Class of 1891, Secretary's Report, Number IV* (Boston, 1906), entry for Arthur Dehon Hill, on his partnership with Thomas Nelson Perkins and Lawrence M. Stockton, formed in 1895 and broken up in May 1897 when Perkins joined Ropes, Gray & Loring and Stockton joined Lowell, Stimson & Stockton. https://archive.org/details/secretarysreport41891harvuoft +[^12]: *Who's Who in America*, 1916-1917, vol. 9, entry for Perkins, Thomas Nelson: member of Ropes, Gray & Gorham; directors of Merrimac Chemical, State Street Trust, Puget Sound International Railway & Power, Walter Baker, St. Mary's Mineral Land, Houghton County Electric Light, Houghton County Traction, Ahmeek, Allouez, La Salle Copper, Tacoma Railway & Power and Puget Sound Traction, Light & Power; home at Westwood. https://archive.org/details/whos-who-in-america_1916-1917_9 +[^13]: *Who's Who in America*, 1920-1921, vol. 11, entry for Perkins, Thomas Nelson: member of Ropes, Gray, Boyden & Perkins; director of Sullivan Machinery Company among others. https://archive.org/details/whos-who-in-america_1920-1921_11 +[^14]: *Who's Who in America*, 1928-1929, vol. 15, entry for Perkins, Thomas Nelson: Priorities Committee, chief counsel War Industries Board, member American commission to the Inter-Allied War Conference (Paris), assistant to the Secretary of War and assistant director of munitions; "U.S. citizen member Reparation Commn. (Paris), 1924-26"; directorships including Puget Sound Power & Light, Sullivan Machinery, George H. Morrill Company, Boston & Maine (executive committee), Postum Company and Champion Copper; clubs; office at 50 Federal Street. https://archive.org/details/whos-who-in-america_1928-1929_15 +[^15]: "Obituary: Thomas Nelson Perkins," *Bulletin of the Business Historical Society*, vol. 11, no. 5 (November 1937), on his partnership from 1899, the Stone & Webster work in Seattle, the Boston and Maine, the Harvard Corporation, the War Industries Board, the Reparations Commission, the Commercial Radio committee, the 1932 Boston credit committee and the Dartmouth degree. https://archive.org/details/sim_business-history-review_1937-11_11_5 +[^16]: U.S. Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1923*, vol. II, note identifying Roland W. Boyden as American unofficial representative on the Reparation Commission as of April 30, 1922. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1923v02 +[^17]: *The Congressional Digest*, vol. 4, no. 2 (November 1924), author line for Roland W. Boyden, "Former United States Delegate on the Reparation Commission." https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-digest_1924-11_4_2 +[^18]: *Foreign Affairs*, vol. 6, no. 3 (April 1928), table of contents, Roland W. Boyden, "The Priority Question," p. 368. https://archive.org/details/sim_foreign-affairs_1928-04_6_3 +[^19]: "Thomas Nelson Perkins, War Industries Counsel, Dies," Associated Press dispatch dated Westwood, Mass., October 7, 1937, *St. Louis Post-Dispatch*, October 7, 1937, p. 4A: former member of the Reparations Commission and of the American commission to the Inter-Allied War Conference, chief counsel of the War Industries Board, chairman of the Commercial Radio International Committee, executive committees of Lee Higginson Trust, Old Colony Trust and First National Bank of Boston; the widow and three sons survive. https://archive.org/details/per_st-louis-post-dispatch_1937-10-07_90_32 +[^20]: Bernard M. Baruch, *American Industry in the War: A Report of the War Industries Board* (Washington, 1921), pp. 47 to 49, on Robert S. Lovett as priorities commissioner, Edwin B. Parker's designation as chairman of the priorities committee on August 23, 1917, the reorganization of March 4, 1918, the members of the committee including Thomas Nelson Perkins, his studies in England and France in the fall of 1917, and Priorities Circular No. 1 of September 21, 1917. https://archive.org/details/americanindustry00unit +[^21]: Daniel R. Beaver, *Newton D. Baker and the American War Effort, 1917-1919* (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1966), on the arrival in Washington from abroad of a report from Thomas N. Perkins, representative of the War Industries Board at the Inter-Allied conference. https://archive.org/details/bwb_S0-BAD-357 +[^22]: James E. Hewes Jr., *From Root to McNamara: Army Organization and Administration, 1900-1963* (Washington: Center of Military History, U.S. Army, 1975), on Thomas N. Perkins, "a Boston corporation lawyer serving with" the War Industries Board, "Mr. Baker's nemesis," whom the Board "loaned" to the War Department in April. https://archive.org/details/fromroottomcnama0000hewe +[^23]: *Felix Frankfurter: A Register of His Papers in the Library of Congress* (Washington: Library of Congress, 1984), listing "Perkins, Thomas Nelson, 1918-34 (2 folders)." https://archive.org/details/felixfrankfurter0000libr +[^24]: "Perkins B. & M. Board Head," *The New York Times*, March 8, 1928 (Boston, March 7): elected chairman of the executive committee of the Boston & Maine, succeeding Homer Loring; president of the interpretations tribunal of the Reparation Commission; chairman of the Commercial Radio International Committee. https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_the-new-york-times_1928-03-08_77_25611 +[^25]: "Mr. Thomas Nelson Perkins," Reuter obituary dated Dedham, Mass., October 7, *North China Daily News*, October 11, 1937: "United States citizen member of the Reparation Commission in Paris from 1924 to 1926." https://archive.org/details/unl_ncdn_1937101101 +[^26]: Reparation Commission, *Official Documents*, volume for 1925, Annex 2385, Regulations for Deliveries in Kind and the covering letter of March 9, 1925 from the chairman of the Special Committee created under the London Agreement, paragraphs 8 and following (the role of the American Citizen Member of the Reparation Commission; the acceptance by letter of February 19, 1925 of Thomas N. Perkins). https://archive.org/details/per_reparation-papers-reparation-commission_official-documents_1925_0 +[^27]: Reparation Commission, *Official Documents*, volume for 1926, report on the Arbitral Tribunal: the award of March 24, 1926 (questions I, III and IV decided in favor of Germany; VII and VIII in favor of the Reparation Commission) and the statement that "Mr. Walter P. Cooke having resigned as President, to become the American Citizen Member of the Reparation Commission. Mr. Thomas Nelson Perkins was appointed as President of the Tribunal in his stead." https://archive.org/details/per_reparation-papers-reparation-commission_official-documents_1926_1 +[^28]: Florence McCutcheon McKee, *The McCutcheon (Cutcheon) Family Records* (1931), entry for Franklin Warner M. Cutcheon, p. 114: appointed United States Citizen Member of the Reparation Commission in December 1927 and remaining until the Hague Protocol of 1929. https://archive.org/details/mccutcheoncutche00mcke_0 +[^29]: *Die Entscheidungen des Internationalen Schiedsgerichts zur Auslegung des Dawes-plans, Zweite Session* (Hamburg), the introduction on the composition of the tribunal: "An die Stelle des Vorsitzenden der ersten Session Mr. Walter P. Cooke ist Mr. Thomas N. Perkins, früherer Delegierter der Vereinigten Staaten zur Reparationskommission, getreten." https://archive.org/details/dieentscheidunge02arbi +[^30]: U.S. Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1924*, vol. II, telegram of February 23, 1924 to James A. Logan Jr., identifying him as American unofficial representative on the Reparation Commission. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1924v02 +[^31]: U.S. Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1926*, vol. II, telegram of May 12, 1926 identifying Ralph Waldo Snowden Hill as American unofficial representative on the Reparation Commission. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1926v02 +[^32]: U.S. Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1924*, vol. II, telegram no. 336 of July 9, 1924 from Ambassador Herrick (file 462.00 R 296/410): "Finally settled that they would leave it to an American, presumably the Agent General, and Owen Young's name was mentioned." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1924v02 +[^33]: Sir John Fischer Williams, "The Tribunal for the Interpretation of the Dawes Plan," *American Journal of International Law*, vol. 22, no. 4 (October 1928), pp. 797 to 801, on the agreement of August 9, 1924, the enlargement of June 1925, and the succession of Perkins to Cooke. https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-international-law_1928-10_22_4 +[^34]: *Die Entscheidungen des Internationalen Schiedsgerichts zur Auslegung des Dawes-plans, Erste Session* (Heft I), Award No. I of March 24, 1926, signed "Walter P. Cooke, President," with Marc Wallenberg, A. G. Kröller, Charles Rist and A. Mendelssohn Bartholdy. https://archive.org/details/dieentscheidunge01arbi +[^35]: *Die Entscheidungen des Internationalen Schiedsgerichts zur Auslegung des Dawes-plans, Zweite Session*, Award No. II ("Schiedsspruch Nr. II"), delivered January 29, 1927, in English, French and German, with the terms of submission of March 25, 1926 and the signatures "Thomas N. Perkins, President" and "E. N. van Kleffens, Secretary." https://archive.org/details/dieentscheidunge02arbi +[^36]: *Die Entscheidungen des Internationalen Schiedsgerichts zur Auslegung des Dawes-plans, Dritte Session* (Politische Wissenschaft, Heft 9), the foreword on the third session of May 7 to 14, 1928, Award No. III of May 29, 1928, the terms of submission of September 1927, the three questions on net proceeds of liquidated German property, the signature of Perkins as president, and the editors' reference to the 1927 Harvard honorary degrees of Josiah Stamp and Mendelssohn Bartholdy. https://archive.org/details/dieentscheidunge00arbi +[^37]: *American Journal of International Law*, vol. 22, no. 4 (October 1928), chronicle of international events, entry "Arbitral Tribunal of Interpretation of the Dawes Plan," delivered "award against German contention that net proceeds of German private property, rights and interests should be included as part of Dawes annuities." https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-international-law_1928-10_22_4 +[^38]: U.S. Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1929*, vol. II, document 1039, telegram of January 18, 1929 from the Secretary of State to the chargé in France (file 462.00R296/2622). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1929v02 +[^39]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1929*, vol. II, document 1040, telegram of January 19, 1929 from Ambassador Herrick (file 462.00R296/2630). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1929v02 +[^40]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1929*, vol. II, document 1041, telegram of January 21, 1929 from the Secretary of State to Herrick (file 462.00R296/2630), with the bracketed membership of the Committee of Experts. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1929v02 +[^41]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1929*, vol. II, document 1043, telegram of March 3, 1929 from Herrick (file 462.00R296/2768), paraphrasing Owen D. Young's message. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1929v02 +[^42]: "Perkins Plans German Sales Trust," *Daily Worker*, March 2, 1929, p. 1. https://archive.org/details/per_daily-worker_daily-worker_1929-03-02_5_363 +[^43]: Denys P. Myers, *The Reparation Settlement, 1930* (Boston: World Peace Foundation, 1930), on the Committee of Experts of 1929, naming Thomas N. Perkins, American, as chairman of the Tribunal of Interpretation, and the list of experts and alternates. https://archive.org/details/reparationsettle0000deny +[^44]: *International Conciliation*, no. 253 (October 1929), Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, report of the Committee of Experts, closing paragraph and signature page, p. 56. https://archive.org/details/sim_international-conciliation_1929-10_253 +[^45]: *Bank for International Settlements: Documents*, introductory note and an address by Melvin A. Traylor (Chicago: First National Bank of Chicago and First Union Trust and Savings Bank, 1930), the Young Plan report with the list of experts and alternates, Annex I on the Interpretation Tribunal, the letter of June 4, 1929 to Thomas W. Lamont, and Article 59 of the Statutes on the Tribunal "provided for by The Hague Agreement of January, 1930." https://archive.org/details/bankforinteratio0000tray +[^46]: Myers, *The Reparation Settlement, 1930*, footnote on the Young Plan tribunal: for five years, the incumbents being Perkins as president, Wallenberg and Kröller as neutrals, Rist as creditor member and Mendelssohn Bartholdy as debtor member; "Mr. Perkins, however, resigned before the New Plan came into" effect. https://archive.org/details/reparationsettle0000deny +[^47]: Myers, *The Reparation Settlement, 1930*, on the Organization Committee of the Bank for International Settlements at Baden-Baden, October 3 to November 13, 1929, its American delegates, and the Committee on delivery in kind. https://archive.org/details/reparationsettle0000deny +[^48]: "Federal Reserve Bank of New York Accused of Part in World Bank," *The United States Daily*, April 30, 1930, reporting Representative McFadden's speech in the House of April 28, 1930. https://archive.org/details/sim_united-states-daily_1930-04-30_5_50 +[^49]: Boston and Maine Railroad, *Annual Report* for 1937 (March 1, 1938), directors' minute on the death on October 7, 1937 of Thomas Nelson Perkins, "elected to the Board on April 9, 1924," and his resignation as Chairman of the Board on April 25, 1933. https://archive.org/details/bostonandmainerailroadannualreports +[^50]: "Perkins Heads B. & M. Board," *Boston American*, March 7, 1928, p. 1. https://archive.org/details/bostonamerican19280307 +[^51]: Boston and Maine Railroad, *Annual Report* for 1929, list of officers ("Chairman Executive Committee and Acting President . Thomas N. Perkins") and the report signed "Thomas N. Perkins, March 11, 1930, Acting President." https://archive.org/details/bostonandmainerailroadannualreports +[^52]: *Boston American*, January 18, 1930, photograph captioned "Speaker Thomas N. Perkins, Acting president of Boston & Maine, who will speak Tuesday before the Traffic Club of New England." https://archive.org/details/bostonamerican19300118 +[^53]: *The Directory of Directors in the City of Boston and Vicinity* (Boston: Bankers' Service Company, 1906, second edition), entry for Perkins, Thomas Nelson. https://archive.org/details/directorydirect01unkngoog +[^54]: *The Directory of Directors in the City of Boston and Vicinity* (Boston: Ernest S. Woodaman, 1908, fourth annual edition), entry for Perkins, Thomas Nelson, and the entries for the Houghton County Electric Light Company, the Houghton County Street Railway and the Puget Sound International Railway & Power Company. https://archive.org/details/directorydirect02unkngoog +[^55]: *The Directory of Directors in the City of Boston and Vicinity* (Boston: Ernest S. Woodaman, 1911, seventh annual edition), entry for Perkins, Thomas Nelson, attorney-at-law, 60 State Street. https://archive.org/details/directorydirect03unkngoog +[^56]: American Telephone and Telegraph Company, *Annual Report* for 1928 (no Perkins), 1929, 1930 and 1936, lists of directors. https://archive.org/details/americantelephoneandtelegraphannualreports +[^57]: *The Russian Student*, vol. 5 (January 1929), masthead, Russian Student Fund, Inc., Board of Directors. https://archive.org/details/the-russian-student-v.-5.5-7.8-1929-1931 +[^58]: *Quinquennial Catalogue of the Officers and Graduates of Harvard University, 1636-1915* (Cambridge, 1915), list of the Fellows of Harvard College, "Thomas Nelson Perkins, (see A.B. 1891); Fellow 1905-," and Samuel Hoar, 1894 to 1904. https://archive.org/details/quinquennialcat00univgoog +[^59]: "Thomas N. Perkins a Harvard Fellow," *The Christian Science Monitor*, October 26, 1926. https://archive.org/details/per_christian-science-monitor_1926-10-26_18_281 +[^60]: Henry Aaron Yeomans, *Abbott Lawrence Lowell, 1856-1943* (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1948), on the members of the Corporation, with the Treasurer Charles Francis Adams, and the letter "To Thomas Nelson Perkins, November 1, 1932." https://archive.org/details/abbottlawrencelo0000yeom +[^61]: Robert Whitney Tucker, *The Descendants of the Presidents* (1975), entry for Louisa Catherine Adams: "Married, June 6, 1900, Thomas Nelson Perkins (born in Milton, Mass., May 6, 1870; died at Westwood, Mass." https://archive.org/details/descendantsofpre0000robe diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/William Huntington Russell.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/William Huntington Russell.md index 01ca631b..336f04ab 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/William Huntington Russell.md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/William Huntington Russell.md @@ -36,7 +36,7 @@ relations: with: "[[Skull and Bones]]" role: "president of the Russell Trust Association" start: 1856 - fn: 23 + fn: 24 - type: founded with: "[[Collegiate and Commercial Institute]]" role: "family school for boys in New Haven, later the Collegiate and Commercial Institute" @@ -47,7 +47,7 @@ relations: role: "head of the school until his death" start: 1836 end: 1885-05-19 - fn: 53 + fn: 57 - type: member_of with: "[[Phi Beta Kappa]]" role: "Yale chapter (Connecticut Alpha), class of 1833; corresponding secretary 1837-1838" @@ -59,13 +59,13 @@ relations: role: "representative for New Haven" start: 1846 end: 1847 - fn: 31 + fn: 32 - type: appointed with: "[[William A. Buckingham]]" role: "major general of the Connecticut militia, commissioned July 31, 1862" start: 1862-07-31 end: 1870 - fn: 33 + fn: 34 - type: employed_by with: "[[Princeton University]]" role: "taught at Princeton, New Jersey" @@ -82,17 +82,17 @@ relations: with: "[[Internal Revenue Service]]" role: "collector of internal revenue, Connecticut, second district" start: 1868-12 - fn: 38 + fn: 39 - type: participant_in with: "[[National Kansas Committee]]" role: "listed member of the committee" start: 1857 - fn: 39 + fn: 40 - type: participant_in with: "[[John Brown]]" role: "named trustee of the Kansas Free-State funds under Brown's will of April 13, 1857" start: 1857-04-13 - fn: 41 + fn: 42 - type: relative_of with: "[[Matthew Talcott Russell]]" role: "father" @@ -109,7 +109,7 @@ relations: - type: relative_of with: "[[Samuel Russell]]" role: "second cousin (Hamlin genealogy); Millegan calls him cousin, second cousin and uncle in different essays" - fn: 48 + fn: 49 --- William Huntington Russell (August 12, 1809 to May 19, 1885) was a [[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]] schoolmaster, a member of the [[Connecticut General Assembly]], a major general of the Connecticut militia and a collector of internal revenue. [[Lyman Bagg]] wrote in 1871 that the [[Yale University]] senior society [[Skull and Bones]] was "originated in 1832" and that "General Russell, the valedictorian of that class, is its reputed founder"; later accounts name him as its co-founder with [[Alphonso Taft]], and the 1856 act that incorporated the society's trust names him first among the incorporators.[^1][^2][^3] He founded the [[Collegiate and Commercial Institute]] in New Haven and headed it until his death.[^4] @@ -144,63 +144,65 @@ Bagg described the hall, erected in 1856, as "a grim-looking, windowless, tomb-l ### The 1856 Charter -The society held its property through a corporation chartered by the Connecticut General Assembly at its May 1856 session. The act, a certified copy of which the [[Connecticut Secretary of the State]] issued on March 28, 2001, resolved that William H. Russell, [[John S. Beach]], [[Henry B. Harrison]], [[Daniel C. Gilman]], [[Henry T. Blake]] and [[Henry D. White]] were constituted a body corporate under the name of the Russell Trust Association "for the purpose of the intellectual and moral improvement of its members, and for that only." It capped the real and personal estate the association could hold at fifteen thousand dollars and fixed the first meeting at New Haven for the last Wednesday in July 1856.[^3] Bagg listed the same names with their class years ("William H. Russell of '33, John S. Beach of '39, Henry B. Harrison of '46, Henry T. Blake of '48, Henry D. White of '51, and Daniel C. Gilman of '52") and wrote that "the first of whom has since acted as president, the one next to the last as treasurer, of the association."[^1] The member named next to last is White, while Sutton wrote that "Gilman became Treasurer and William H. Russell, the cofounder, was President."[^23] Millegan gives the same arrangement: Gilman "incorporated Skull and Bones as the Russell Trust in 1856, with himself as Treasurer and William H. Russell as President."[^24] In the same passage Millegan places Gilman with [[Timothy Dwight]] and [[Andrew Dickinson White]] in a group of three Bonesmen who "formed a troika which still influences American life today."[^24] +The society held its property through a corporation chartered by the Connecticut General Assembly at its May 1856 session. The act, a certified copy of which the [[Connecticut Secretary of the State]] issued on March 28, 2001, resolved that William H. Russell, [[John S. Beach]], [[Henry B. Harrison]], [[Daniel C. Gilman]], [[Henry T. Blake]] and [[Henry D. White]] were constituted a body corporate under the name of the Russell Trust Association "for the purpose of the intellectual and moral improvement of its members, and for that only." It capped the real and personal estate the association could hold at fifteen thousand dollars and fixed the first meeting at New Haven for the last Wednesday in July 1856.[^3] Gilman's papers at Yale University, catalogued as MS 582, include correspondence from Russell dated 1855, a year before the act.[^23] Bagg listed the same names with their class years ("William H. Russell of '33, John S. Beach of '39, Henry B. Harrison of '46, Henry T. Blake of '48, Henry D. White of '51, and Daniel C. Gilman of '52") and wrote that "the first of whom has since acted as president, the one next the last as treasurer, of the association."[^1] In Bagg's list the name next to the last is Henry D. White ('51), while Sutton wrote that "Gilman became Treasurer and William H. Russell, the cofounder, was President."[^24] Millegan gives the same arrangement: Gilman "incorporated Skull and Bones as the Russell Trust in 1856, with himself as Treasurer and William H. Russell as President."[^25] In the same passage Millegan places Gilman with [[Timothy Dwight]] and [[Andrew Dickinson White]] in a group of three Bonesmen who "formed a troika which still influences American life today."[^25] -Sutton wrote that "the Russell Trust Association is run entirely by Patriarchs," and that the organization of the Order, as the association and as the Deer Iland Corporation, "is essentially geared towards the post graduation world."[^25] +Sutton wrote that "the Russell Trust Association is run entirely by Patriarchs," and that the organization of the Order, as the association and as the Deer Iland Corporation, "is essentially geared towards the post graduation world."[^26] -A resolution of July 1870 raised the ceiling on the association's property to three hundred and fifty thousand dollars. A resolution approved on March 24, 1887 validated a meeting held in November 1885 and the by-laws adopted there, six months after Russell's death. An act approved on July 9, 1943 raised the ceiling to seven hundred thousand dollars, and the members accepted it at New Haven on November 12, 1943, with [[Morris Hadley]] sworn as president.[^26] +A resolution of July 1870 raised the ceiling on the association's property to three hundred and fifty thousand dollars. A resolution approved on March 24, 1887 validated a meeting held in November 1885 and the by-laws adopted there, six months after Russell's death. An act approved on July 9, 1943 raised the ceiling to seven hundred thousand dollars, and the members accepted it at New Haven on November 12, 1943, with [[Morris Hadley]] sworn as president.[^27] ### The Collegiate and Commercial Institute Russell opened a family school for boys in New Haven in 1836. The school, in the words of Yale's obituary notice, "developed into 'The Collegiate and Commercial Institute,' having at times as many as 160 pupils, and educating in the aggregate some four thousand young men." The notice adds that "As early as 1853, it assumed the character of a military school," and that during the Civil War the school "was able ... to furnish about three hundred officers to the Union army, as well as many drill-masters to the volunteer companies in southern Connecticut."[^4] -Bagg's glossary of Yale slang defines a "Russellite" as "a member of Gen. Russell's military school."[^27] Yale graduates taught at the school after college, and the Yale obituary records for 1870 to 1890 carry their entries. One taught there for a year before beginning theological study, another was "fitted for college" there, and a third taught in the school until he entered a tutorship in the college in January 1865.[^28] +Bagg's glossary of Yale slang defines a "Russellite" as "a member of Gen. Russell's military school."[^28] Yale graduates taught at the school after college, and the Yale obituary records for 1870 to 1890 carry their entries. One taught there for a year before beginning theological study, another was "fitted for college" there, and a third taught in the school until he entered a tutorship in the college in January 1865.[^29] -The state armed the school. The Quartermaster General's report of April 1, 1862 lists among the property issued to militia organizations "Wm. H. Russell's Military School, New Haven": one 6-pounder rifled bronze gun, its carriage and implements, and a caisson.[^29] The state's return of arms issued for 1871 lists "William H. Russell, New Haven Military School" with 107 cadet muskets and bayonets and 150 cavalry cartridge boxes and plates.[^30] +The state armed the school. The Quartermaster General's report of April 1, 1862 lists among the property issued to militia organizations "Wm. H. Russell's Military School, New Haven": one 6-pounder rifled bronze gun, its carriage and implements, and a caisson.[^30] The state's return of arms issued for 1871 lists "William H. Russell, New Haven Military School" with 107 cadet muskets and bayonets and 150 cavalry cartridge boxes and plates.[^31] ### Connecticut General Assembly and Militia -He "represented the town in the State Legislature" in 1846 and 1847.[^5] The [[Connecticut Register]] for 1847 lists the New Haven representatives as "William W. Boardman, William H. Russell," and lists a "Russell of New Haven" on the joint standing committee on education.[^31] The same register lists "Ebenezer Jackson, Samuel Russell" as the representatives for Middletown, the town to which [[Samuel Russell]] of [[Russell and Company]] had returned in 1831.[^31][^32] +He "represented the town in the State Legislature" in 1846 and 1847.[^5] The [[Connecticut Register]] for 1847 lists the New Haven representatives as "William W. Boardman, William H. Russell," and lists a "Russell of New Haven" on the joint standing committee on education.[^32] The same register lists "Ebenezer Jackson, Samuel Russell" as the representatives for Middletown, the town to which [[Samuel Russell]] of [[Russell and Company]] had returned in 1831.[^32][^33] -Sutton wrote that "William Russell was a member of the Connecticut State Legislature in 1846-47, a General in the Connecticut National Guard from 1862-70, and founded the Collegiate and Commercial Institute in New Haven, Connecticut."[^19] Yale's obituary notice states that "Gov. Buckingham appointed him in 1862 Major-General of the Militia of the State, and this position he held for eight years."[^5] The governor was [[William A. Buckingham]]. The Adjutant-General's reports list "William H. Russell, New Haven" as major general commanding the division of the Connecticut National Guard, commissioned July 31, 1862, with Lieutenant Colonel Francis Wayland of New Haven (commissioned July 30, 1864) as assistant adjutant general of the division and Lieutenant Colonel [[F. St. John Lockwood]] of [[Norwalk, Connecticut|Norwalk]] (commissioned September 16, 1862) as division inspector.[^33][^34] The report for the year ending March 1869 prints the commission date as July 31, 1866 and corrects it in its errata to July 31, 1862.[^35] +Sutton wrote that "William Russell was a member of the Connecticut State Legislature in 1846-47, a General in the Connecticut National Guard from 1862-70, and founded the Collegiate and Commercial Institute in New Haven, Connecticut."[^19] Yale's obituary notice states that "Gov. Buckingham appointed him in 1862 Major-General of the Militia of the State, and this position he held for eight years."[^5] The governor was [[William A. Buckingham]]. The Adjutant-General's reports list "William H. Russell, New Haven" as major general commanding the division of the Connecticut National Guard, commissioned July 31, 1862, with Lieutenant Colonel Francis Wayland of New Haven (commissioned July 30, 1864) as assistant adjutant general of the division and Lieutenant Colonel [[F. St. John Lockwood]] of [[Norwalk, Connecticut|Norwalk]] (commissioned September 16, 1862) as division inspector.[^34][^35] The report for the year ending March 1869 prints the commission date as July 31, 1866 and corrects it in its errata to July 31, 1862.[^36] -On September 12, 1866 Russell's headquarters at [[Hartford, Connecticut|Hartford]] issued the special order, signed by Major [[Edward W. Bacon]] as acting assistant adjutant general, directing Lockwood to make "a minute inspection" of the First Brigade, Brig. Gen. Prentice commanding, at the camp near Hartford on September 13 and 14; Lockwood reported to Russell on October 6, 1866 and to the Adjutant General, [[Charles T. Stanton Jr.]], on March 4, 1867.[^33] At the annual state military institute held near Hartford, where militia officers below the rank of colonel were instructed for five days, an educational visitor found Russell in charge: "General Russell, who has charge of the Institute, and commands the militia of the State."[^36] Adjutant General [[Colin M. Ingersoll]] quoted Russell's report to the governor of the previous year in his own report for the year ending March 31, 1871: "Our system is certainly the best we know of."[^37] +On September 12, 1866 Russell's headquarters at [[Hartford, Connecticut|Hartford]] issued the special order, signed by Major [[Edward W. Bacon]] as acting assistant adjutant general, directing Lockwood to make "a minute inspection" of the First Brigade, Brig. Gen. Prentice commanding, at the camp near Hartford on September 13 and 14; Lockwood reported to Russell on October 6, 1866 and to the Adjutant General, [[Charles T. Stanton Jr.]], on March 4, 1867.[^34] At the annual state military institute held near Hartford, where militia officers below the rank of colonel were instructed for five days, an educational visitor found Russell in charge: "General Russell, who has charge of the Institute, and commands the militia of the State."[^37] Adjutant General [[Colin M. Ingersoll]] quoted Russell's report to the governor of the previous year in his own report for the year ending March 31, 1871: "Our system is certainly the best we know of."[^38] ### Collector of Internal Revenue -Russell "held the office of Collector of Internal Revenue for five years from December, 1868."[^5] The [[Official Register of the United States]] for September 30, 1869 lists "William H. Russell" of New Haven as collector for the second district of Connecticut.[^38] +Russell "held the office of Collector of Internal Revenue for five years from December, 1868."[^5] The [[Official Register of the United States]] for September 30, 1869 lists "William H. Russell" of New Haven as collector for the second district of Connecticut.[^39] ### Kansas and John Brown -The [[National Kansas Committee]] reported on January 25, 1857, through its assistant secretary [[Horace White]]. The report counted about two thousand emigrants forwarded to [[Kansas]] by the land route through Iowa and Nebraska, and money receipts by state, with $3,182.13 from Connecticut. [[Franklin Benjamin Sanborn]] printed the committee's membership in *The Life and Letters of John Brown* (1885). The list includes "W. H. Russell, New Haven, Conn." beside [[Samuel Cabot Jr.]], [[Thaddeus Hyatt]] and [[W. W. Hoppin]].[^39] When the [[United States Senate]] select committee on the [[Harpers Ferry]] raid examined [[William F. M. Arny]] on January 16, 1860 and asked who sat on the committee for Connecticut, the answer was "W. H. Russell, of New Haven."[^40] +The [[National Kansas Committee]] reported on January 25, 1857, through its assistant secretary [[Horace White]]. The report counted about two thousand emigrants forwarded to [[Kansas]] by the land route through Iowa and Nebraska, and money receipts by state, with $3,182.13 from Connecticut. [[Franklin Benjamin Sanborn]] printed the committee's membership in *The Life and Letters of John Brown* (1885). The list includes "W. H. Russell, New Haven, Conn." beside [[Samuel Cabot Jr.]], [[Thaddeus Hyatt]] and [[W. W. Hoppin]].[^40] When the [[United States Senate]] select committee on the [[Harpers Ferry]] raid examined [[William F. M. Arny]] on January 16, 1860 and asked who sat on the committee for Connecticut, the answer was "W. H. Russell, of New Haven."[^41] -On April 13, 1857, at [[Boston]], [[John Brown]] signed a will that gave "all trust funds and personal property for the aid of the Free-State cause in Kansas" to [[George L. Stearns]], Samuel Cabot Jr. and "William H. Russell, of New Haven, Conn.," in trust, "to them and the survivor or survivors and their assigns forever." The trustees were to administer the funds "entirely at their discretion."[^41] +On April 13, 1857, at [[Boston]], [[John Brown]] signed a will that gave "all trust funds and personal property for the aid of the Free-State cause in Kansas" to [[George L. Stearns]], Samuel Cabot Jr. and "William H. Russell, of New Haven, Conn.," in trust, "to them and the survivor or survivors and their assigns forever." The trustees were to administer the funds "entirely at their discretion."[^42] -On March 18, 1858, [[John Brown Jr.]] met his father at [[Philadelphia]], with [[Frederick Douglass]] and other men, and the two went on to New York and to New Haven, "where they called (March 18) at the house of Mr. W. H. Russell," before traveling on to [[North Elba]].[^42] +On March 18, 1858, [[John Brown Jr.]] met his father at [[Philadelphia]], with [[Frederick Douglass]] and other men, and the two went on to New York and to New Haven, "where they called (March 18) at the house of Mr. W. H. Russell," before traveling on to [[North Elba]].[^43] -In a letter written on the Missouri line on the Kansas side, dated July 20, 1858, and addressed to Sanborn and friends at Boston and Worcester, Brown wrote: "Mr. Russell and other friends at New Haven assured me before I left, that if the Lecompton abomination should pass through Congress something could be done there to relieve me from a difficulty I am in, and which they understand." In a footnote, Sanborn explains the difficulty. Brown had contracted with [[Charles Blair]] to make a thousand pikes, had not completed the payment for lack of money, and feared the contract would be forfeited. "He therefore communicated the facts to Mr. Russell, who was then the head of a military school at New Haven, and had some assurance from him of money to be raised in Connecticut to meet this contract."[^43] +In a letter written on the Missouri line on the Kansas side, dated July 20, 1858, and addressed to Sanborn and friends at Boston and Worcester, Brown wrote: "Mr. Russell and other friends at New Haven assured me before I left, that if the Lecompton abomination should pass through Congress something could be done there to relieve me from a difficulty I am in, and which they understand." In a footnote, Sanborn explains the difficulty. Brown had contracted with [[Charles Blair]] to make a thousand pikes, had not completed the payment for lack of money, and feared the contract would be forfeited. "He therefore communicated the facts to Mr. Russell, who was then the head of a military school at New Haven, and had some assurance from him of money to be raised in Connecticut to meet this contract."[^44] -Blair, a blacksmith of [[Collinsville, Connecticut|Collinsville]], testified before the Senate committee in 1860 about the contract. Asked whether the whole weapon, including the screw that connects the handle and the blade, was furnished by the handle maker or by himself, he answered: "We furnished them all, although the ferules and the screw were made at New Haven. The malleable iron was made by a firm in New Haven."[^44] +Blair, a blacksmith of [[Collinsville, Connecticut|Collinsville]], testified before the Senate committee in 1860 about the contract. Asked whether the whole weapon, including the screw that connects the handle and the blade, was furnished by the handle maker or by himself, he answered: "We furnished them all, although the ferules and the screw were made at New Haven. The malleable iron was made by a firm in New Haven."[^45] -Other Russells appear in the same records. Sanborn places Brown at the house of "Judge Russell" in Boston in 1859, a judge whom the same volume names as the Hon. Thomas Russell, and Thomas Russell witnessed Brown's will of 1857.[^45] Dr. [[Samuel Gridley Howe]] told the Senate committee that George R. Russell of Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts, was "one of our wealthy, liberal men."[^46] The committee's narrative of the raid names Israel Russell, a justice of the peace at Harpers Ferry taken hostage by Brown's party, and Major Russell of the [[United States Marine Corps]], who reached the town with the marine detachment.[^47] These are different men from William H. Russell of New Haven. +Other Russells appear in the same records. Sanborn places Brown at the house of "Judge Russell" in Boston in 1859, a judge whom the same volume names as the Hon. Thomas Russell, and Thomas Russell witnessed Brown's will of 1857.[^46] Dr. [[Samuel Gridley Howe]] told the Senate committee that George R. Russell of Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts, was "one of our wealthy, liberal men."[^47] The committee's narrative of the raid names Israel Russell, a justice of the peace at Harpers Ferry taken hostage by Brown's party, and Major Russell of the [[United States Marine Corps]], who reached the town with the marine detachment.[^48] These are different men from William H. Russell of New Haven. ### The Russell Family and Samuel Russell -Samuel Russell, born at Middletown on August 25, 1789, was the son of Capt. John Russell (born August 19, 1765; married Abigail Warner at Middletown on June 29, 1788; died there December 7, 1801), who was the son of Capt. Samuel Russell, the Middletown merchant who was a brother of the Rev. Noadiah Russell (Yale 1750). John Russell and Matthew Talcott Russell were therefore first cousins, and their sons Samuel Russell and William Huntington Russell were second cousins, with William Russell, the son of the Yale founder, as their common great-grandfather.[^9][^48] Samuel Russell married first Mary Osborn and then her sister Frances Ann Osborn; he was a merchant "for many years in the China trade" and a member of the firm of Russell and Company; his children were George Osborn, John Augustus and Samuel Wadsworth Russell, and his widow Frances founded the [[Russell Library]] in Middletown.[^48] +Samuel Russell, born at Middletown on August 25, 1789, was the son of Capt. John Russell (born August 19, 1765; married Abigail Warner at Middletown on June 29, 1788; died there December 7, 1801), who was the son of Capt. Samuel Russell, the Middletown merchant who was a brother of the Rev. Noadiah Russell (Yale 1750). John Russell and Matthew Talcott Russell were therefore first cousins, and their sons Samuel Russell and William Huntington Russell were second cousins, with William Russell, the son of the Yale founder, as their common great-grandfather.[^9][^49] Samuel Russell married first Mary Osborn and then her sister Frances Ann Osborn; he was a merchant "for many years in the China trade" and a member of the firm of Russell and Company; his children were George Osborn, John Augustus and Samuel Wadsworth Russell, and his widow Frances founded the [[Russell Library]] in Middletown.[^49] -Samuel Russell lived from 1789 to about 1862. The [[Library of Congress]] holds the firm's papers, which date Russell and Company from 1819 at [[Canton]]. After his return to Middletown in 1831 he founded the Russell Manufacturing Company for elastic webbing and speculated in real estate at Chicago and Milwaukee and in Michigan, Ohio, Kentucky and New Jersey; the papers include correspondence on the Turkish opium trade.[^32] +Samuel Russell lived from 1789 to about 1862. The [[Library of Congress]] holds the firm's papers, which date Russell and Company from 1819 at [[Canton]]. After his return to Middletown in 1831 he founded the Russell Manufacturing Company for elastic webbing and speculated in real estate at Chicago and Milwaukee and in Michigan, Ohio, Kentucky and New Jersey; the papers include correspondence on the Turkish opium trade.[^33] -Millegan describes the firm's origins. He wrote that "In 1823, Samuel Russell established Russell and Company for the purpose of acquiring opium in Turkey and smuggling it to China," and that the firm "merged with the Perkins (Boston) syndicate in 1830 and became the primary American opium smuggler." He named [[Warren Delano Jr.]] as one of the firm's chief operators at Canton, "grandfather of Franklin D. Roosevelt."[^49] Millegan also listed other partners of the firm. In his account they included "John Cleve Green (who financed Princeton), Abiel Low (who financed construction of Columbia), Joseph Coolidge and the Perkins, Sturgis and Forbes families."[^49] +Millegan describes the firm's origins. He wrote that "In 1823, Samuel Russell established Russell and Company for the purpose of acquiring opium in Turkey and smuggling it to China," and that the firm "merged with the Perkins (Boston) syndicate in 1830 and became the primary American opium smuggler." He named [[Warren Delano Jr.]] as one of the firm's chief operators at Canton, "grandfather of Franklin D. Roosevelt."[^50] Millegan also listed other partners of the firm. In his account they included "John Cleve Green (who financed Princeton), Abiel Low (who financed construction of Columbia), Joseph Coolidge and the Perkins, Sturgis and Forbes families."[^50] -Millegan states the relationship three ways in the same book. The opening article refers to "His cousin Samuel Russell's family enterprise," and the China-trade passage reads "William Huntington Russell (S&B 1833), Samuel's cousin, studied in Germany from 1831-32." An essay on the Connecticut families reads "Samuel Russell, second cousin to Bones founder William H., established Russell and Company in 1823." In "Reflecting on the Yale Succession," written as an account of a conversation with his father, he writes that Russell, "valedictorian of the Yale class of 1832," "had founded Skull and Bones with drug money provided by his uncle, Samuel Russell."[^12][^50][^51] A chart in the book describes Samuel Russell as "undisputed king of Middletown" during the formative years of Skull and Bones and names Governor Henry W. Edwards as "Protector of Samuel Russell's opium-financed enterprises, patron of William Huntington Russell's new secret society Skull and Bones."[^52] The essay on the Connecticut families lists the Russell, Pierpont, Edwards, Burr, Griswold, Day, Alsop and Hubbard families as the "multiply-intermarried grouping of families then ruling Connecticut."[^50] +The Canton records date the arrangement with the [[Perkins family]] of Boston by events. After Thomas T. Forbes, agent of Perkins & Co., drowned at Canton on August 9, 1829, Russell & Co. took charge of his business, and in August 1830 they "were officially appointed sole agents for the Boston house, that of Perkins & Co. being wound up."[^51] The Library of Congress finding aid dates the merger of John P. Cushing's operations with Russell & Company to 1831.[^52] An advertisement of the Canton house signed by [[Philip Ammidon]] and Samuel Russell on November 23, 1823 names Perkins & Co. at Canton and J. and T. H. Perkins & Sons and S. G. Perkins & Co. of Boston as its references.[^53] + +Millegan states the relationship three ways in the same book. The opening article refers to "His cousin Samuel Russell's family enterprise," and the China-trade passage reads "William Huntington Russell (S&B 1833), Samuel's cousin, studied in Germany from 1831-32." An essay on the Connecticut families reads "Samuel Russell, second cousin to Bones founder William H., established Russell and Company in 1823." In "Reflecting on the Yale Succession," written as an account of a conversation with his father, he writes that Russell, "valedictorian of the Yale class of 1832," "had founded Skull and Bones with drug money provided by his uncle, Samuel Russell."[^12][^54][^55] A chart in the book describes Samuel Russell as "undisputed king of Middletown" during the formative years of Skull and Bones and names Governor Henry W. Edwards as "Protector of Samuel Russell's opium-financed enterprises, patron of William Huntington Russell's new secret society Skull and Bones."[^56] The essay on the Connecticut families lists the Russell, Pierpont, Edwards, Burr, Griswold, Day, Alsop and Hubbard families as the "multiply-intermarried grouping of families then ruling Connecticut."[^54] The Hamlin genealogy gives the relationship as second cousin: Samuel Russell was a grandson of Capt. Samuel Russell (born 1727), a son of the Rev. William Russell (born 1690), and William Huntington Russell a grandson of the Rev. Noadiah Russell of Thompson, also a son of the Rev. William Russell, so that their fathers, Capt. John Russell and Matthew Talcott Russell, were first cousins.[^6][^9][^49] ### Death -Russell was stricken by apoplexy at New Haven on May 10, 1885, and the stroke "proved fatal on the 19th of the same month." "General Russell retained his place at the head of his school, and his powers remained almost untouched by age, until his last brief illness." His wife survived him, "with six of their ten children, two daughters and four sons," and the sons were all graduates of Yale.[^53] +Russell was stricken by apoplexy at New Haven on May 10, 1885, and the stroke "proved fatal on the 19th of the same month." "General Russell retained his place at the head of his school, and his powers remained almost untouched by age, until his last brief illness." His wife survived him, "with six of their ten children, two daughters and four sons," and the sons were all graduates of Yale.[^57] ### Later Members -Sutton places Taft's later offices beside Russell's career. He lists Taft as Secretary of War in 1876, Attorney General in 1876 to 1877, minister to Austria from 1882 to 1884 and ambassador to Russia in 1884 to 1885.[^19] Later members of the society include [[Henry L. Stimson]] (class of 1888), [[W. Averell Harriman]] (class of 1913) and [[Prescott Bush]] (class of 1917).[^54][^55] +Sutton places Taft's later offices beside Russell's career. He lists Taft as Secretary of War in 1876, Attorney General in 1876 to 1877, minister to Austria from 1882 to 1884 and ambassador to Russia in 1884 to 1885.[^19] Later members of the society include [[Henry L. Stimson]] (class of 1888), [[W. Averell Harriman]] (class of 1913) and [[Prescott Bush]] (class of 1917).[^58][^59] ### Footnotes @@ -226,36 +228,40 @@ Sutton places Taft's later offices beside Russell's career. He lists Taft as Sec [^20]: Anonymous pamphlet on the 1876 break-in at the society's hall, as quoted in Sutton (1983), Memorandum Two, including "General R[...] (Russell), its founder, was in Germany before Senior Year," and Sutton's comment that Skull & Bones "is not American at all. It is a branch of a FOREIGN secret society." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones [^21]: Millegan (2003), reprint of the 1876 pamphlet on the break-in at the hall. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones [^22]: Bagg (1871), p. 145, description of the hall erected in 1856 "on High street, near the corner of Chapel." https://archive.org/details/fouryearsatyale00baggrich -[^23]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chapter on Daniel C. Gilman, stating that "The Order was incorporated as The Russell Trust in 1856" and that "Gilman became Treasurer and William H. Russell, the cofounder, was President." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^24]: Millegan (2003), chapter on Daniel Coit Gilman, passage reading "with himself as Treasurer and William H. Russell as President." https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones -[^25]: Sutton (1983), passages on the Russell Trust Association, "the Russell Trust Association is run entirely by Patriarchs," and the organization of the Order "essentially geared towards the post graduation world." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^26]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, certified copies (March 28, 2001) of the resolution amending the charter (July 1870), the resolution confirming the by-laws (approved March 24, 1887), the act of July 9, 1943 and the certificate of acceptance of November 12, 1943, as reprinted in Millegan (2003), pp. 694 to 695. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones -[^27]: Bagg (1871), p. 47, glossary entry for "Russellite." https://archive.org/details/fouryearsatyale00baggrich -[^28]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale College, deceased from June, 1870, to June, 1880*, entries on pp. 270 and 369, and *Obituary Record* for 1880 to 1890, p. 524. https://archive.org/details/1870t80obituary00yaleuoft ; https://archive.org/details/1880t90obituary00yaleuoft -[^29]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1862, report of the Quartermaster General (John M. Hatheway), April 1, 1862, statement [I], p. 58. https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso1862conn -[^30]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1871, statement [G] of arms and equipment issued ("William H. Russell, New Haven Military School"). https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso18711conn -[^31]: *The Connecticut Register and Official State Calendar for 1847* (Hartford, 1847), House of Representatives by town (New Haven and Middletown) and the joint standing committee on education ("Russell of New Haven"). https://archive.org/details/connecticutregis1847hart -[^32]: Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, "Russell & Co., Guangzhou, China, Records," finding aid (MSS38562), on Samuel Russell (1789 to about 1862), the firm, his return to Middletown in 1831, the Russell Manufacturing Company, his real estate holdings and the Turkish opium correspondence. https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms010075 -[^33]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1867, Adjutant-General's report of April 1, 1867, p. 16 (staff of the division: "William H. Russell, New Haven, Commissioned July 31, 1862"; Francis Wayland, assistant adjutant general; F. St. John Lockwood, division inspector) and pp. 39 to 40 (special order of September 12, 1866 and the inspection of the First Brigade). https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso18671conn -[^34]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1870, Adjutant-General's report, p. 9, division staff ("William H. Russell, New Haven, Commissioned July 31, 1862"). https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso18701conn -[^35]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1869, Adjutant-General's report for the year ending March 31, 1869 and errata ("Page 8. Maj. Gen. William H. Russell, commissioned July 31, 1866, read July 31, 1862"). https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso1869conn -[^36]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1869, educational report, passage on a visit to the state military institute at Hartford and a conversation with General Russell. https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso1869conn -[^37]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1871, Adjutant-General's report for the year ending March 31, 1871 (Colin M. Ingersoll), p. 6, quoting Russell's report to the governor of the previous year. https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso18711conn -[^38]: *Official Register of the United States*, September 30, 1869, list of collectors of internal revenue, Connecticut, second district: William H. Russell, New Haven. https://archive.org/details/sim_united-states-official-register-of-the-united-states_1869-09-30 -[^39]: Franklin Benjamin Sanborn, *The Life and Letters of John Brown: Liberator of Kansas, and Martyr of Virginia* (Boston: Roberts Brothers, 1885), p. 352, the report of the National Kansas Committee dated January 25, 1857, its receipts by state and its list of members. https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofjoh00sanb -[^40]: United States Senate, *Report of the Select Committee of the Senate Appointed to Inquire into the Late Invasion and Seizure of the Public Property at Harper's Ferry*, 36th Cong., 1st Sess., S. Rep. No. 278 (June 15, 1860), testimony of William F. M. Arny, January 16, 1860, p. 76. https://archive.org/details/reportselectcommi00unit -[^41]: Sanborn (1885), pp. 385 to 386, text of John Brown's will dated Boston, April 13, 1857. https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofjoh00sanb -[^42]: Sanborn (1885), p. 451, account of the travels of John Brown Jr. and his father, March 1858. https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofjoh00sanb -[^43]: Sanborn (1885), pp. 475 to 476, letter of John Brown to F. B. Sanborn, Missouri line, July 20, 1858, and Sanborn's footnote on the contract with Charles Blair. https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofjoh00sanb -[^44]: S. Rep. No. 278 (1860), testimony of Charles Blair, p. 127. https://archive.org/details/reportselectcommi00unit -[^45]: Sanborn (1885), pp. 385 to 386 (witnesses to the will of April 13, 1857, including Thomas Russell) and p. 508 (Brown at "Judge Russell's house" in Boston in 1859, and "the Hon. Thomas Russell's address"). https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofjoh00sanb -[^46]: S. Rep. No. 278 (1860), testimony of Samuel G. Howe, pp. 166 to 167, on the direction to the house of George R. Russell at Jamaica Plain. https://archive.org/details/reportselectcommi00unit -[^47]: S. Rep. No. 278 (1860), report of the committee, narrative of the invasion, on the hostages (Israel Russell, justice of the peace) and the marine detachment accompanied by "Major Russell, of that corps." https://archive.org/details/reportselectcommi00unit -[^48]: *The Hamlin Family* (1900), entry [302] for Capt. John Russell (son of Samuel, William, Mary Hamlin, Giles), pp. 118 to 119, and entry [638] for Samuel Russell, born at Middletown August 25, 1789, "for many years in the China trade" and member of the firm of Russell & Co., p. 166. https://archive.org/details/hamlinfamilygene00andr -[^49]: Millegan (2003), passages on Russell and Company, its 1823 founding for the opium trade, its 1830 merger with the Perkins syndicate and Warren Delano Jr. at Canton. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones -[^50]: Millegan (2003), essay on the Connecticut families and the origins of the Order, pp. 313 to 314 ("Samuel Russell, second cousin to Bones founder William H.") and pp. 151 to 152 ("General William Huntington Russell, Samuel Russell's cousin"). https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones -[^51]: Millegan, "Reflecting on the Yale Succession," *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), p. 52, passage recounting the author's conversation with his father and the words "had founded Skull and Bones with drug money provided by his uncle, Samuel Russell." https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones -[^52]: Millegan (2003), chart and notes on the Russell family of Middletown and the Connecticut families, pp. 321 to 325 (notes 10, 14 and 15). https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones -[^53]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University, deceased from June, 1880, to June, 1890*, entry for William Huntington Russell, pp. 241 to 242, on his place at the head of his school, the stroke of May 10, 1885, his death on May 19 and his survivors. https://archive.org/details/1880t90obituary00yaleuoft -[^54]: Sutton (1983), index of members by class year: class of 1888 (Stimson, Henry Lewis) and class of 1913 (Harriman, William Averell). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^55]: George Mosher Murray and others, *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. 1 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1917), biographical entries including Prescott Sheldon Bush, pp. 105 to 106. https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr +[^23]: Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, Guide to the Daniel Coit Gilman Papers, MS 582, compiled by Ann Ronberg (February 1971), Series I, box 2, folder 123 ("Russell, William H., 1855"). https://ead-pdfs.library.yale.edu/4054.pdf +[^24]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chapter on Daniel C. Gilman, stating that "The Order was incorporated as The Russell Trust in 1856" and that "Gilman became Treasurer and William H. Russell, the cofounder, was President." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^25]: Millegan (2003), chapter on Daniel Coit Gilman, passage reading "with himself as Treasurer and William H. Russell as President." https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones +[^26]: Sutton (1983), passages on the Russell Trust Association, "the Russell Trust Association is run entirely by Patriarchs," and the organization of the Order "essentially geared towards the post graduation world." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^27]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, certified copies (March 28, 2001) of the resolution amending the charter (July 1870), the resolution confirming the by-laws (approved March 24, 1887), the act of July 9, 1943 and the certificate of acceptance of November 12, 1943, as reprinted in Millegan (2003), pp. 694 to 695. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones +[^28]: Bagg (1871), p. 47, glossary entry for "Russellite." https://archive.org/details/fouryearsatyale00baggrich +[^29]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale College, deceased from June, 1870, to June, 1880*, entries on pp. 270 and 369, and *Obituary Record* for 1880 to 1890, p. 524. https://archive.org/details/1870t80obituary00yaleuoft ; https://archive.org/details/1880t90obituary00yaleuoft +[^30]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1862, report of the Quartermaster General (John M. Hatheway), April 1, 1862, statement [I], p. 58. https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso1862conn +[^31]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1871, statement [G] of arms and equipment issued ("William H. Russell, New Haven Military School"). https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso18711conn +[^32]: *The Connecticut Register and Official State Calendar for 1847* (Hartford, 1847), House of Representatives by town (New Haven and Middletown) and the joint standing committee on education ("Russell of New Haven"). https://archive.org/details/connecticutregis1847hart +[^33]: Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, "Russell & Co., Guangzhou, China, Records," finding aid (MSS38562), on Samuel Russell (1789 to about 1862), the firm, his return to Middletown in 1831, the Russell Manufacturing Company, his real estate holdings and the Turkish opium correspondence. https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms010075 +[^34]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1867, Adjutant-General's report of April 1, 1867, p. 16 (staff of the division: "William H. Russell, New Haven, Commissioned July 31, 1862"; Francis Wayland, assistant adjutant general; F. St. John Lockwood, division inspector) and pp. 39 to 40 (special order of September 12, 1866 and the inspection of the First Brigade). https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso18671conn +[^35]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1870, Adjutant-General's report, p. 9, division staff ("William H. Russell, New Haven, Commissioned July 31, 1862"). https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso18701conn +[^36]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1869, Adjutant-General's report for the year ending March 31, 1869 and errata ("Page 8. Maj. Gen. William H. Russell, commissioned July 31, 1866, read July 31, 1862"). https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso1869conn +[^37]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1869, educational report, passage on a visit to the state military institute at Hartford and a conversation with General Russell. https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso1869conn +[^38]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1871, Adjutant-General's report for the year ending March 31, 1871 (Colin M. Ingersoll), p. 6, quoting Russell's report to the governor of the previous year. https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso18711conn +[^39]: *Official Register of the United States*, September 30, 1869, list of collectors of internal revenue, Connecticut, second district: William H. Russell, New Haven. https://archive.org/details/sim_united-states-official-register-of-the-united-states_1869-09-30 +[^40]: Franklin Benjamin Sanborn, *The Life and Letters of John Brown: Liberator of Kansas, and Martyr of Virginia* (Boston: Roberts Brothers, 1885), p. 352, the report of the National Kansas Committee dated January 25, 1857, its receipts by state and its list of members. https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofjoh00sanb +[^41]: United States Senate, *Report of the Select Committee of the Senate Appointed to Inquire into the Late Invasion and Seizure of the Public Property at Harper's Ferry*, 36th Cong., 1st Sess., S. Rep. No. 278 (June 15, 1860), testimony of William F. M. Arny, January 16, 1860, p. 76. https://archive.org/details/reportselectcommi00unit +[^42]: Sanborn (1885), pp. 385 to 386, text of John Brown's will dated Boston, April 13, 1857. https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofjoh00sanb +[^43]: Sanborn (1885), p. 451, account of the travels of John Brown Jr. and his father, March 1858. https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofjoh00sanb +[^44]: Sanborn (1885), pp. 475 to 476, letter of John Brown to F. B. Sanborn, Missouri line, July 20, 1858, and Sanborn's footnote on the contract with Charles Blair. https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofjoh00sanb +[^45]: S. Rep. No. 278 (1860), testimony of Charles Blair, p. 127. https://archive.org/details/reportselectcommi00unit +[^46]: Sanborn (1885), pp. 385 to 386 (witnesses to the will of April 13, 1857, including Thomas Russell) and p. 508 (Brown at "Judge Russell's house" in Boston in 1859, and "the Hon. Thomas Russell's address"). https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofjoh00sanb +[^47]: S. Rep. No. 278 (1860), testimony of Samuel G. Howe, pp. 166 to 167, on the direction to the house of George R. Russell at Jamaica Plain. https://archive.org/details/reportselectcommi00unit +[^48]: S. Rep. No. 278 (1860), report of the committee, narrative of the invasion, on the hostages (Israel Russell, justice of the peace) and the marine detachment accompanied by "Major Russell, of that corps." https://archive.org/details/reportselectcommi00unit +[^49]: *The Hamlin Family* (1900), entry [302] for Capt. John Russell (son of Samuel, William, Mary Hamlin, Giles), pp. 118 to 119, and entry [638] for Samuel Russell, born at Middletown August 25, 1789, "for many years in the China trade" and member of the firm of Russell & Co., p. 166. https://archive.org/details/hamlinfamilygene00andr +[^50]: Millegan (2003), passages on Russell and Company, its 1823 founding for the opium trade, its 1830 merger with the Perkins syndicate and Warren Delano Jr. at Canton. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones +[^51]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 118 to 119. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog +[^52]: Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, "Russell & Co., Guangzhou, China, Records," MSS38562. https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms010075 +[^53]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (Boston, 1882), addenda, pp. 333 to 336. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog +[^54]: Millegan (2003), essay on the Connecticut families and the origins of the Order, pp. 313 to 314 ("Samuel Russell, second cousin to Bones founder William H.") and pp. 151 to 152 ("General William Huntington Russell, Samuel Russell's cousin"). https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones +[^55]: Millegan, "Reflecting on the Yale Succession," *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), p. 52, passage recounting the author's conversation with his father and the words "had founded Skull and Bones with drug money provided by his uncle, Samuel Russell." https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones +[^56]: Millegan (2003), chart and notes on the Russell family of Middletown and the Connecticut families, pp. 321 to 325 (notes 10, 14 and 15). https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones +[^57]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University, deceased from June, 1880, to June, 1890*, entry for William Huntington Russell, pp. 241 to 242, on his place at the head of his school, the stroke of May 10, 1885, his death on May 19 and his survivors. https://archive.org/details/1880t90obituary00yaleuoft +[^58]: Sutton (1983), index of members by class year: class of 1888 (Stimson, Henry Lewis) and class of 1913 (Harriman, William Averell). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^59]: George Mosher Murray and others, *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. 1 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1917), biographical entries including Prescott Sheldon Bush, pp. 105 to 106. https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Alphonso Taft.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Alphonso Taft.md new file mode 100644 index 00000000..ee8d8388 --- /dev/null +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Alphonso Taft.md @@ -0,0 +1,314 @@ +--- +aliases: + - Alphonso Taft + - Alphonzo Taft + - Judge Alphonso Taft + - Judge Alphonzo Taft + - Alonzo Taft +category: "Political Figure" +tags: + - Person + - SkullAndBones + - YaleUniversity + - PhiBetaKappa + - Cincinnati + - BibleInSchools + - GrantAdministration + - SecretaryOfWar + - AttorneyGeneral + - ElectoralCount1877 + - Belknap + - PosseComitatus + - EadsJetties + - AustriaHungary + - RussianEmpire + - TaftFamily + - Antioch + - Sutton +summary: "Alphonso Taft, Yale 1833 and named co-founder of Skull and Bones, Cincinnati judge whose Bible dissent figured in his 1875 defeat for the Ohio governorship nomination, and Grant's Secretary of War and Attorney General." +born: 1810-11-05 +died: 1891-05-21 +location: "Cincinnati, Ohio" +created: 2026-10-26 +updated: 2026-10-26 +relations: + - type: founded + with: "[[Skull and Bones]]" + start: 1832 + role: "named co-founder with William Huntington Russell; Bagg dates the founding to 1832, Sutton to 1833" + fn: 3 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Phi Beta Kappa]]" + role: "member, Connecticut Alpha chapter, listed in the August 1838 catalogue" + fn: 8 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Yale University]]" + start: 1835 + end: 1837 + role: "tutor" + fn: 1 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Yale University]]" + start: 1872 + end: 1882 + role: "member of the Yale Corporation, elected by the alumni" + fn: 1 + - type: head_of + with: "[[Department of War]]" + start: 1876-03-11 + end: 1876-05 + role: "Secretary of War" + fn: 26 + - type: head_of + with: "[[Department of Justice]]" + start: 1876-05 + end: 1877-03 + role: "Attorney General of the United States" + fn: 39 + - type: appointed + with: "[[Ulysses S. Grant]]" + start: 1876-03 + end: 1877-03 + role: "Secretary of War, then Attorney General" + fn: 39 + - type: appointed + with: "[[Chester A. Arthur]]" + start: 1882-04-26 + end: 1884-08-25 + role: "Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to Austria-Hungary" + fn: 60 + - type: appointed + with: "[[Chester A. Arthur]]" + start: 1884-07-04 + end: 1885-07-31 + role: "Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to Russia" + fn: 60 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Antioch College]]" + role: "trustee, per G. Stanley Hall's memoir" + fn: 74 + - type: partner_of + with: "[[Charles Phelps Taft]]" + start: 1871 + end: 1879 + role: "partner, firm of A. Taft & Sons, Cincinnati, with his sons Charles and Peter Rawson Taft" + fn: 2 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[William Howard Taft]]" + role: "son (second marriage)" + fn: 2 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Charles Phelps Taft]]" + role: "son (first marriage)" + fn: 2 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Peter Rawson Taft]]" + role: "son (first marriage)" + fn: 72 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Horace Dutton Taft]]" + role: "son (second marriage)" + fn: 73 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Henry Waters Taft]]" + role: "son (second marriage)" + fn: 73 +--- + +Alphonso Taft (November 5, 1810 to May 21, 1891) was a tutor at [[Yale University]], a judge of the [[Superior Court of Cincinnati]], Secretary of War and then Attorney General under President [[Ulysses S. Grant]], and United States minister to [[Austria-Hungary]] and to [[Russia]]. He is named as a co-founder of [[Skull and Bones]] with [[William Huntington Russell]], and he was the father of [[William Howard Taft]]. + +### Early life and Yale + +Taft was born in [[Townshend, Vermont]] on November 5, 1810, the only child of [[Peter Rawson Taft (Vermont)|Peter Rawson Taft]] and [[Sylvia Howard Taft|Sylvia (Howard) Taft]], both natives of [[Worcester County, Massachusetts]].[^1] The Yale record for William Howard Taft describes the father as a judge of [[Windham County, Vermont|Windham County]].[^2] Taft graduated from Yale in 1833 and then taught for two years at the high school in [[Ellington, Connecticut]]. He was a tutor at Yale for an equal period, and while a tutor and for a year afterward he gave his leisure to the study of law.[^1] Yale conferred the degree of Doctor of Laws on him in 1867.[^1] + +### Skull and Bones + +Three accounts of the founding of Skull and Bones name Taft, and they differ on the year. + +[[Lyman Bagg]] wrote in 1871 that "The society was originated in 1832 by fifteen members of the class which graduated the following year. General Russell, the valedictorian of that class, is its reputed founder, and the best known of his associates is Judge Alphonso Taft of Cincinnati."[^3] Bagg wrote that the founder was then serving as a tutor, and that "Some injustice in the conferring of [[Phi Beta Kappa]] elections seems to have led to its establishment."[^3] He added that the "popular college tradition, that it was transplanted from a German university, is scouted by old neutral graduates as absurd."[^4] + +[[David A. Richards]] wrote in the [[Yale Alumni Magazine]] in 2015 that "The society had been founded in 1832." He wrote that "The conception seems to have been that of the 1833 valedictorian, class orator, and secretary of Phi Beta Kappa, William Huntington Russell," and that "He was joined as a founder by Alphonso Taft, future father of US president William Howard Taft, Class of 1878."[^5] Richards also reported that the members first called themselves the [[Eulogian Club]].[^5] + +[[Antony C. Sutton]] dated the founding to 1833. He wrote that "The American chapter of this German order was founded in 1833 at Yale University by General William Huntington Russell and Alphonso Taft who, in 1876, became Secretary of War in the Grant Administration."[^6] He also wrote that "the two founding members, William Huntington Russell and Alphonso Taft, went far," and that Taft "was Secretary of War in 1876 - the first of several members of The Order to hold this post down into the 1950s."[^7] + +The [[Connecticut Alpha]] catalogue of Phi Beta Kappa for August 1838 lists "Alphonso Taft, Esq., C.A.S., Tut. Y. C." and "William Huntington Russell, M.D., C.A.S., Tut. Y. C.," so both men are listed as tutors of Yale College.[^8] + +### Bar and Cincinnati practice + +Taft was admitted to the bar at [[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]] in August 1838. In January 1840 he settled in Cincinnati, [[Ohio]], where his obituary record says he "gained eventually an extensive practice."[^1] He served on the Cincinnati [[Common Council]] from 1847 to 1849 and for twenty-five years on the city's [[Board of Education]].[^1] + +Taft was the Republican candidate for Congress in 1856. He ran against [[George H. Pendleton]] and lost.[^1] He joined the [[Yale Corporation]] in 1872, the year members of that body were for the first time elected by the alumni, and held the seat until he declined to stand again in 1882.[^1] + +### Superior Court judge and the Bible case + +In 1865 Taft was appointed to a vacancy on the Superior Court of Cincinnati, and he was twice elected to the same seat, the second time by a unanimous vote of both parties, according to his obituary record.[^1] He resigned in 1871 to return to private practice with two of his sons.[^1] [[Rutherford B. Hayes]], then governor of Ohio, received requests for a candidate for the seat that November. Hayes wrote on November 10, 1871 that the letter was "the fourth or fifth letter naming a candidate for Taft's place," and that he would try to select "the choice of the bar."[^9] + +The Cincinnati Board of Education adopted two resolutions on November 1, 1869. The first read: "Resolved, That religious instruction and the reading of religious books, including the Holy Bible, are prohibited in the common schools of Cincinnati, it being the true object and interest of this rule, to allow the children of the parents of all sects and opinions, in matters of faith and worship, to enjoy alike the benefit of the common school fund." The second repealed the rule requiring the opening exercises in every department to begin with a reading from the Bible and appropriate singing.[^10] Taxpayers of the city, with John D. Minor first among the plaintiffs, sued in the Superior Court of Cincinnati to enjoin both resolutions. The General Term heard the case on November 30, 1869, with Judges Storer, Taft and Hagans on the bench.[^11] + +Judge Hagans delivered the first opinion for the injunction and closed it with the words "THE INJUNCTION MUST BE PERPETUAL."[^12] Judge Storer, whose opinion followed, wrote that "the resolutions prohibiting the Bible and all religious instruction are ultra vires, and therefore void," and that "A majority of the Court are of this opinion, and a perpetual injunction will be therefore decreed, as prayed for in the petition."[^13] The judgment was entered on February 18, 1870.[^14] + +Taft dissented in an opinion that runs from page 390 to page 418 of the printed record. He opened with "I regret to find myself in a minority on this question. Nothing but a sense of duty has induced me to prepare a dissenting opinion."[^10] He read the first resolution as the Board's statement that its object was "to allow the children of parents of all sects and opinions in matters of faith and worship, to enjoy alike the benefit of the common school fund," and wrote that the proceeding "evinces no hostility on the part of the Board of Education to the Bible, to religion, or religious teaching, but rather a neutrality toward all the sects, which could not be otherwise maintained, and which had become essential to religious peace."[^15] + +The plaintiffs relied on the clause of the Ohio Bill of Rights that makes it the duty of the General Assembly "to pass suitable laws, to protect every religious denomination in the peaceable enjoyment of its own mode of worship, and to encourage schools and the means of instruction." Taft noted that "It is not claimed that the General Assembly has passed any law requiring religious teaching in the common schools."[^16] He wrote that the clause did not designate common schools, that the sixth article of the 1852 constitution barred any sect from "any exclusive right to, or control of, any part of the school fund," and that "The religion of the Bill of Rights, is not sectarian religion."[^17] He quoted [[Thomas M. Cooley]]'s *Constitutional Limitations* for the propositions that "It is not toleration which is established in our system, but religious equality" and that "all support of religious instruction must be entirely voluntary."[^18] + +His conclusion read: "The Bible is not banished, nor is religion degraded or abused. The Board have simply aimed to free the common schools from any just conscientious objections, by confining them to secular instruction, and moral and intellectual training." He held that the Board "had the power to pass both the first and the second of these Resolutions," and that "this Court has no lawful authority to restrain it from acting under either of them."[^18] + +The case went to the [[Supreme Court of Ohio]]. In December 1872 the court reversed the Superior Court judgment. Judge Welch wrote that "We are not called upon as a court, nor are we authorized to say whether the Christian religion is the best and only true religion." He wrote that counsel had "elaborately discussed questions of state policy, morality, and religion, which, in our judgment, do not belong to the case."[^19] The opinion concluded that "It follows that the judgment of the Superior Court will be reversed, and the original petition dismissed."[^19] + +The obituary record attributes Taft's failure to win the 1875 Republican nomination for governor of Ohio to the opinion, which he had delivered "while on the bench on the question of the Bible in the schools."[^1] Hayes wrote in his diary in early June 1875 that "Judge Taft, of Cincinnati, is an able and good man. But he had such a record on the Bible question in the schools that his nomination was impossible."[^20] He reported the convention vote as "396 for me, 151 for Taft," and wrote that the nomination was made unanimous "on motion of a friend of Taft, Major Bickham."[^21] Hayes wrote that a dispatch from the secretary of the convention stated that, "on behalf of his father, Charles P. Taft had moved my nomination by acclamation."[^21] Hayes had sent a dispatch to Richard Smith, "a leader in the struggle for Judge Taft," saying: "I cannot allow my name to be used in opposition to Judge Taft. He became a candidate after I declined. He is an able and pure man and a sound Republican. I would not accept a nomination obtained by a contest with him."[^21] On June 5, 1875 Hayes wrote to Alphonso Taft: "I write to thank you in the sincerest and heartiest way for your action on my nomination."[^22] Hayes's diary entry of the same days sets out the campaign as he saw it: "I think the interesting point is to rebuke the Democracy by a defeat for subserviency to Roman Catholic demands," and his notes for the canvass list "The Bible in the Public Schools" as a topic.[^23] + +### Secretary of War, March to May 1876 + +The House committee on expenditures in the [[Department of War]], chaired by [[Hiester Clymer]], reported on March 2, 1876 that it had found "at the very threshold of their investigation" evidence of malfeasance by [[William W. Belknap]], then Secretary of War. The report stated that the President's letter accepting Belknap's resignation reached the committee at eleven o'clock that morning, and that the President had told the committee the resignation was accepted about twenty minutes past ten.[^24] The House voted unanimously that day to impeach him.[^24] The articles were exhibited to the Senate on April 4, 1876. Article I charged that on October 8, 1870 Belknap had promised the post-tradership at [[Fort Sill]] to [[Caleb P. Marsh]], and that Marsh and the post-trader [[John S. Evans]] then agreed in writing that Evans would pay Marsh $12,000 a year, "payable quarterly in advance," for as long as Marsh controlled the appointment.[^25] + +Taft entered the department as Belknap's successor. The Army and Navy Journal reported that he called on the President on Saturday, March 11, 1876, in company with Secretaries Robeson and Chandler, and that Chief Justice [[Morrison R. Waite]] administered the oath of office there, after which the new Secretary "proceeded to the War Department and began the duties of his office."[^26] A written argument printed in the Senate trial record states that "the President has nominated and the Senate confirmed Mr. Taft as successor to an office rendered vacant by Belknap's resignation."[^27] Belknap's own plea in the trial states that he resigned at "ten o' clock and twenty minutes in the forenoon" of March 2.[^28] The Adjutant General, [[Edward D. Townsend]], later testified in the trial that he had served under Secretaries Stanton, Rawlins, Grant, Schofield, Belknap, Taft and Cameron.[^29] + +On April 6, 1876 the department issued General Orders No. 28 over the signature of the Adjutant General "By order of the Secretary of War": "The Headquarters of the Army are hereby re-established at Washington City, and all orders and instructions relative to military operations, or affecting the military control and discipline of the Army, issued by the President through the Secretary of War, shall be promulgated through the General of the Army, and the Departments of the Adjutant-General and the Inspector-General shall report to him and be under his control in all matters relating thereto." Press dispatches of April 5 printed the order over Taft's name.[^30] + +[[George A. Custer]], lieutenant colonel of the 7th Cavalry, appeared before the Clymer committee on March 29, 1876. The Army and Navy Journal's summary of his testimony states that he said it was the common belief among Army officers who had served on the Missouri that Belknap was a silent partner of the traders, that the post trader at Fort Abraham Lincoln told him of annual payments to named generals, and that when [[Orvil Grant]] and a man named Bonnafon went up the Missouri to arrange a transfer of Indian posts, Custer furnished them with transportation.[^31] On May 13 the journal printed papers that General Townsend had transmitted to Belknap "in accordance with the instructions of the Secretary of War" concerning the corn transaction at Fort Abraham Lincoln that Custer had mentioned in his testimony, together with a letter of May 2 from Lieutenant General [[Philip H. Sheridan]] to Belknap on the transfer of the Sixth Infantry.[^32] The May 27 issue printed an account, attributed to a New York Tribune correspondent, of Custer's release from the Dakota expedition. It states that Custer, "fearing that the Court of Impeachment would detain him," had sought to be excused from attendance, and that the President "gave his disapproval to it, ordering that another officer be detailed to command the expedition."[^33] + +In the House debate on the Army appropriation bill in June 1876, members said that the original estimates drawn under Belknap had been revised by Taft, who "reduced the amount $5,604,000."[^34] + +On May 9, 1876 the engineer [[James B. Eads]], then building the jetties at the South Pass of the [[Mississippi River]], telegraphed Taft from New Orleans: "Please instruct Gen. C. B. Comstock, now at Port Eads, to sound channel between jetties with me," adding that Major Howell of the Engineers "has published a misstatement affecting public confidence in my work." Eads recorded that a dispatch from the Secretary of War four days later said General [[Cyrus B. Comstock]] "had previously received authority and instructions for a complete survey of the jetty channel."[^35] On May 23 Eads wrote to Taft that the Chief of Engineers, General [[Andrew A. Humphreys]], and Major [[Charles W. Howell]] had urged the Fort St. Philip canal against the jetty plan before Congress.[^36] + +On May 18, 1876, still as Secretary of War, Taft wrote to Hayes about Hayes's prospects for the Republican presidential nomination: "it really seems to me that your chances are stronger than those of any other man."[^37] [[J. Donald Cameron]] succeeded him as Secretary of War.[^38] + +### Attorney General: opinions + +Taft held the Attorney Generalship from May 1876 until the end of the administration in March 1877.[^39] His opinions are printed in volume 15 of the *Official Opinions of the Attorneys General*, between those of [[Edwards Pierrepont]] and [[Charles Devens]].[^40] His opinion of July 5, 1876 on the claim of [[John D. Sanborn]] held that the Treasury circulars offering "a reward for taxes recovered by reason of information furnished by the claimant" were authorized by statute, but that the Commissioner of Internal Revenue's rate of compensation in each case needed the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, and he wrote that on that point he agreed with the opinion of his predecessor Pierrepont dated March 27, 1876.[^41] On July 7, 1876 he declined to give an official opinion on a fee claimed by Vann and Adair from the Osage Indians at the request of a congressional committee, writing that "the Attorney-General has no warrant to act outside of the statutes which define his office."[^42] His opinion of September 1, 1876 held that the two-year limitation of the 103rd Article of War applies to desertion.[^43] On June 2, 1876 he had held, on a call from the Secretary of War dated May 5, that a quartermaster's clerk is amenable to a court-martial under the 60th Article of War.[^44] + +On January 17, 1877, in an opinion to Cameron, he held that the first $500,000 installment to Eads and his associates under the act of March 3, 1875 was payable when the channel at the mouth of the South Pass was 20 feet deep and 200 feet wide, although the same depth had not been obtained through the shoal at the head of the pass, and he relied on a report of Army engineers to the Secretary of War dated November 19, 1876 that the channel through the shoal "is a part of that pass."[^45] + +### The election of 1876 + +A circular of instructions from Taft to United States marshals, printed by the New York Times on September 5, 1876, stated that in elections at which members of the House are chosen, "the United States secure voters against whatever in general hinders or presents them from a free exercise of the elective franchise," and told each marshal that "you will be held responsible for all breaches of the peace of the United States which diligence on your part might have prevented." It advised that the marshal and each deputy had the right to summon "every person in the district above fifteen years of age," including "the military of all denominations," meaning militia, soldiers and marines, who are "alike bound to obey you," and that "They are still the posse comitatus."[^46] In a speech reported by the Times on October 26, 1876, Taft said the order "relates to the election of Federal officers only" and that, as to the recent Supreme Court decision, "there was no conflict."[^47] + +Correspondence to Taft in the Senate's South Carolina compilation shows the information reaching him. The United States marshal for South Carolina, [[R. M. Wallace]], wrote on July 17, 1876, after the killings of members of a Black militia company at [[Hamburg, South Carolina|Hamburg]], that a detachment of United States soldiers under an officer of known Republican sentiments should be stationed there, and that to insure a peaceful election soldiers would be needed at the court-houses of Edgefield, Laurens, Spartanburg and Union.[^48] The district attorney, [[D. T. Corbin]], asked on August 21 that an experienced detective be sent to South Carolina to investigate conspiracies against Black citizens in several counties.[^49] Wallace wrote on August 25 that rifle and saber clubs "openly declare that they intend to carry the coming election" and that "a liberal supply of United States troops can alone prevent mobocracy and bloodshed."[^50] On October 11 Governor [[Daniel H. Chamberlain]] applied for national aid on the ground of "insurrection and domestic violence" in Aiken, Barnwell and Edgefield counties.[^51] Grant issued his proclamation on South Carolina on October 17, 1876, and the War Department, under Cameron, ordered General Sherman to concentrate available troops under General [[Thomas H. Ruger]] at Columbia.[^52] + +After the election, in early December 1876, Taft telegraphed Chamberlain, as Attorney General: "The President thinks that you should exercise your own resources as governor in behalf of the legislature which you have recognized by assisting it to purge itself of unauthorized persons. If you are resisted in this, General Ruger has been instructed to enforce your authority."[^53] A dispatch from Grant to General Ruger in the same days said: "To be plain, I want to avoid anything like an unlawful use of the military."[^53] + +On December 6, 1876 Hayes telegraphed Taft, as Attorney General, that "The whole story referred to in your letter is a fabrication. Nothing of the sort occurred. Assure my friends of this." Taft's letter had reported that the [[Cincinnati Enquirer]] was circulating "An absurd story" that Hayes had committed himself at an interview with a man "who was acting for Southern Democracy," and that the story had been "so represented to the President by some person as to annoy him a little." Taft added: "By the way, I think it possible, that that story as to the interview with you, was intended to cool off the zeal of the President in maintaining the cause of the party in the South."[^54] + +On December 22, 1876 [[John Sherman]] wrote to Hayes that he had "joined with [[Oliver P. Morton|Morton]] in a written request that Judge Taft would stop and speak to you fully the strong feeling of the President in regard to a gentleman high in position in this country, and he has agreed to do so."[^55] Hayes replied to Sherman on December 25 that he had "met Judge Taft and Governor [[William Dennison]]" and that "There will not be the slightest difficulty growing out of the matter you refer to."[^56] On December 29 Hayes wrote to [[Samuel Shellabarger]]: "in case our adversaries go to law with us, I shall want you to assist the Attorney-General."[^57] + +The [[Electoral Commission]] was created by act of Congress approved January 29, 1877.[^58] In the Commission's [[Louisiana]] argument, the Louisiana jurist [[John A. Campbell]], one of the counsel in support of the objection to the first and third certificates, said that "under the opinion of the Attorney-General of the United States, large detachments of the Army were placed in various parts of the States, so that they might be 'bystanders,' I think was the language of the opinion, to serve as a sort of posse comitatus in the event that the marshal should find any use for that sort of assistance." In the same speech he said that the marshal of the district "appointed eight hundred deputies for [[New Orleans]] and fifteen hundred deputies for the country, to attend the polls in the country."[^59] + +### Minister to Austria-Hungary + +President [[Chester A. Arthur]] appointed Taft minister to Austria on April 26, 1882. Taft presented his credentials at [[Vienna]] on June 30, 1882, and left the post on August 25, 1884.[^60] + +His despatches from Vienna concern naturalized Americans. In a despatch of November 20, 1882, Taft reported that persons residing in the Empire were claiming protection as naturalized citizens of the United States.[^61] The [[Department of State]] replied on January 18, 1883.[^62] + +A second cluster concerned American meat. On November 28, 1882, Taft reported a proposal in the Vienna press to extend the prohibition of pork to all kinds of American meats.[^61] The Department replied on January 19, 1883 that "The existence of trichinae in beef has never before been suggested."[^62] + +In 1884 Taft reported cases of naturalized Americans called up for military service in [[Hungary]]. In March 1884 he reported another such case.[^63] In May 1884 he reported that a man named in the despatch had been released from military service on his application, and wrote that this was "the first case which has arisen where the facts directly involved the point and were acted upon."[^63] + +In an August 12, 1884 despatch Taft reported that [[Count Gustav Kálnoky]], the foreign minister, had said that "the laws of the Empire prohibit the going round of agents for the purpose of proselyting to Mormonism and leading people away under that pretext."[^64] + +### Minister to Russia + +Arthur appointed Taft minister to Russia on July 4, 1884. His credentials were presented at [[Saint Petersburg]] on September 3, 1884, and he presented his recall on July 31, 1885.[^60] The obituary record gives August 1885 as the end of the mission.[^39] + +The Russian despatches concern the treatment of foreign Jews. On December 18, 1884, Secretary of State [[Frederick T. Frelinghuysen]] wrote that [[S. S. Cox]], a member of the House, had addressed the Department on a report that the Russian minister of the interior had ordered the expulsion of foreign Hebrews holding passports from [[Odessa]] and other cities, unless they also held residence permits.[^65] Taft replied on January 17, 1885 that "There is undoubtedly such an order as you describe in force; but it is not limited to Jews."[^66] He wrote that "The difficulty is that the Government, in granting permits and licenses, discriminates against foreign Jews," and that the foreign ministry held that under Article I of the 1832 treaty American citizens had protection only on the "condition that they submit to the laws and ordinances established there."[^66] + +On March 18, 1885 Taft forwarded the foreign ministry's answer to Secretary of State [[Thomas F. Bayard]].[^67] On March 30, 1885 Bayard wrote about the testimonials Congress had voted to those who had succored the survivors of the [[Jeannette Expedition]].[^68] On May 25, 1885 Bayard wrote about the arrest in Russia of an American citizen.[^69] + +### The Taft family + +He delivered a "Historical Address" at the Taft family meeting at [[Uxbridge, Massachusetts]] on August 12, 1874.[^70] He said that "The first of our progenitors in this country was [[Robert Taft (Braintree)|Robert Taft]]," and that "His first appearance in America, as far as we have been able to trace him, was in connection with his house and lot in [[Braintree, Massachusetts|Braintree]], which we find him owning in 1678." He went on to say that "In the year 1679, he made arrangements to move to [[Mendon, Massachusetts|Mendon]]." Robert Taft died in February 1725, at an age that Taft thought was "not less than eighty-five years."[^70] + +Sutton's chart places "TAFT FAMILY (1679, Braintree, Mass.)" among the old-line families of "THE ORDER."[^71] Taft's address dates the Braintree holding to 1678 and the move to Mendon to 1679.[^70] + +Taft's first wife was [[Fanny Phelps Taft|Fanny (Phelps) Taft]], the daughter of [[Charles Phelps (Townshend)|Charles Phelps]] of Townshend, Vermont.[^2] They married on August 29, 1841, and she died on June 2, 1852.[^39] Their sons included [[Peter Rawson Taft]], Yale 1867, born in Cincinnati and died at his father's residence on June 3, 1889.[^72] Their surviving son Charles Phelps Taft, Yale 1864, was born in Cincinnati on December 21, 1843 and died there on December 31, 1929. He practiced in the firm of [[A. Taft & Sons]] with his father and his brother Peter from 1871 to 1879, then edited the Cincinnati Times, which became the [[Cincinnati Times-Star]], and served in Congress from 1895 to 1897.[^2] + +Taft married [[Louisa Maria Torrey]], the daughter of Samuel D. Torrey of [[Millbury, Massachusetts]], on December 26, 1853.[^39] Their children included William Howard Taft, born in Cincinnati on September 15, 1857 and Yale 1878, who died March 8, 1930.[^2] [[Henry Waters Taft]], Yale 1880, was living in [[New York City]] in 1943.[^73] [[Horace Dutton Taft]] was born in Cincinnati on December 28, 1861 and graduated from Yale in 1883. His obituary record lists Skull and Bones among his Yale societies and says that he studied in Vienna in 1883 and 1884, the years his father was minister to Austria-Hungary.[^73] Horace founded the [[Taft School]] in 1890 and was its headmaster until 1936. He died in [[Watertown, Connecticut]] on January 28, 1943.[^73] A daughter by the second marriage was living in [[El Cajon, California]] in 1943.[^73] + +### Antioch College + +[[G. Stanley Hall]], the psychologist, wrote of his years teaching at Antioch that he sometimes had to preach in the Unitarian church in Cincinnati, where he met Dr. Mayo, Dr. Vickers and Judge Stallo, and "occasionally spent a Sunday with the Tafts." He wrote that "Ex-President Taft was then a boy and his father, Judge Alonzo Taft, was a trustee of [[Antioch College]]."[^74] + +Antony C. Sutton wrote that [[Horace Mann]] was the first president of Antioch, from 1853 to 1860, and that "The most prominent trustee of Antioch College was none other than the co-founder of The Order, Alphonso Taft."[^75] He also wrote that "the Tafts (The Order) were the most powerful trustees of Antioch."[^76] In his discussion of Mann's promotion of the look-say method of reading, Sutton offered two possible reasons and gave the first as Mann's 1853 appointment to Antioch, adding that "The most influential Trustee of Antioch College was the co-founder of The Order," and naming Alphonso Taft.[^77] Hall's name for the judge is "Alonzo," which Sutton quotes with "(sic)."[^74][^75] + +### Death + +Taft spent the last months of his life in [[San Diego, California]], where he died on May 21, 1891, in his eighty-first year.[^39] His obituary record states that "The integrity and purity of his character were universally acknowledged in all his connection with the public service" and describes his reputation at the bar and on the bench as that of "a sound, learned, and upright lawyer."[^39] + +### Footnotes + +[^1]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1890-91* (New Haven: Yale University, 1891), entry for Alphonso Taft, class of 1833, p. 18 (birth at Townshend and parents; Ellington high school and tutorship; admission to the bar at New Haven in August 1838; Cincinnati from January 1840; the 1856 candidacy against Pendleton; Common Council 1847 to 1849; Board of Education for twenty-five years; Superior Court from 1865; resignation in 1871; Yale Corporation from 1872; LL.D. 1867; the 1875 nomination and the Bible opinion). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1859_1924/1890-91.pdf +[^2]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930* (New Haven: Yale University, 1930), entry for Charles Phelps Taft, B.A. 1864 (mother Fanny Phelps Taft, daughter of Judge Charles Phelps of Townshend, Vermont; firm of A. Taft & Sons; Cincinnati Times-Star; Congress 1895 to 1897), and entry for William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878 (father described as a judge of Windham County, Vermont; born September 15, 1857), pp. 69 to 72. https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf +[^3]: Lyman Bagg, *Four Years at Yale* (New Haven: Henry Holt, 1871), p. 146 (founding in 1832; Russell as reputed founder; Taft as best known associate; founder then serving as tutor; the Phi Beta Kappa election dispute). https://archive.org/details/fouryearsatyale00baggrich +[^4]: Bagg, *Four Years at Yale*, p. 146 (the college tradition of a German university origin "scouted by old neutral graduates as absurd"). https://archive.org/details/fouryearsatyale00baggrich +[^5]: David A. Richards, "The origins of the tomb," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, 2015, on the founding in 1832, the conception attributed to Russell, Taft as cofounder, and the Eulogian Club. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4072-the-origins-of-the-tomb +[^6]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull and Bones* (1983), passage on the 1833 founding by Russell and Taft. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^7]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment*, passage beginning "By contrast, the two founding members, William Huntington Russell and Alphonso Taft, went far," on Taft's offices as Secretary of War 1876, Attorney General 1876 to 1877, minister to Austria 1882 to 1884 and to Russia 1884 to 1885. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^8]: *Catalogue of the Connecticut Alpha of the Phi Beta Kappa* (August 1838), list of members, entries for Alphonso Taft and William Huntington Russell, each listed as "Tut. Y. C." https://archive.org/details/catalogueofconne00phib +[^9]: Rutherford B. Hayes, *Diary and Letters of Rutherford Birchard Hayes*, vol. 3 (Columbus: Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Society, 1922), letter of November 10, 1871 (Columbus), pp. 172 to 173. https://archive.org/details/rutherfordbirch03hayerich +[^10]: *The Bible in the Public Schools. Arguments in the case of John D. Minor et al. versus the Board of Education of the City of Cincinnati et al., with the opinions and decision of the court* (Cincinnati: Robert Clarke & Co., 1870), "Opinion of Judge Taft," p. 390 (opening sentences; the text of both resolutions of November 1, 1869). https://archive.org/details/caseofjdminor00minorich +[^11]: *The Bible in the Public Schools* (1870), orders setting the case for the General Term on Monday, November 30, 1869, "Judges Storer, Taft, and Hagans upon the bench." https://archive.org/details/caseofjdminor00minorich +[^12]: *The Bible in the Public Schools* (1870), "Opinion of Judge Hagans," pp. 351 to 372, ending "THE INJUNCTION MUST BE PERPETUAL." https://archive.org/details/caseofjdminor00minorich +[^13]: *The Bible in the Public Schools* (1870), "Opinion of Judge Storer," pp. 373 to 389 (the passages quoted are on p. 389). https://archive.org/details/caseofjdminor00minorich +[^14]: *The Bible in the Public Schools* (1870), p. 418, judgment of February 18, 1870 finding the resolutions of November 1, 1869 "passed without warrant or authority in law." https://archive.org/details/caseofjdminor00minorich +[^15]: *The Bible in the Public Schools* (1870), "Opinion of Judge Taft," pp. 390 to 392. https://archive.org/details/caseofjdminor00minorich +[^16]: *The Bible in the Public Schools* (1870), "Opinion of Judge Taft," p. 393 (the Bill of Rights clause relied on by the plaintiffs and the absence of a statute requiring religious teaching). https://archive.org/details/caseofjdminor00minorich +[^17]: *The Bible in the Public Schools* (1870), "Opinion of Judge Taft," pp. 394 to 395 ("The religion of the Bill of Rights, is not sectarian religion," p. 395). https://archive.org/details/caseofjdminor00minorich +[^18]: *The Bible in the Public Schools* (1870), "Opinion of Judge Taft," pp. 416 to 418 (Cooley passages, pp. 416 to 417; "The Bible is not banished" and the conclusions, p. 417). https://archive.org/details/caseofjdminor00minorich +[^19]: *Board of Education of the City of Cincinnati v. Minor*, 23 Ohio St. 211 (1872), decided December 1872; opinion by Welch, J., reversing the Superior Court judgment and dismissing the original petition. Harvard Caselaw Access Project: https://static.case.law/ohio-st/23/cases/0211-01.json +[^20]: Hayes, *Diary and Letters*, vol. 3, diary entry for early June 1875 after the Columbus convention, p. 273. https://archive.org/details/rutherfordbirch03hayerich +[^21]: Hayes, *Diary and Letters*, vol. 3, pp. 273 to 274 (dispatch to Richard Smith; the vote "396 for me, 151 for Taft"; Major Bickham's motion; the secretary's dispatch on Charles P. Taft's motion). https://archive.org/details/rutherfordbirch03hayerich +[^22]: Hayes, *Diary and Letters*, vol. 3, letter of June 5, 1875 (Fremont, Ohio) to "Honorable A. Taft, Cincinnati," p. 275. https://archive.org/details/rutherfordbirch03hayerich +[^23]: Hayes, *Diary and Letters*, vol. 3, p. 274 (the entry of acceptance and the "Roman Catholic demands" sentence; notes for June 4, 1875 on "The Bible in the Public Schools"). https://archive.org/details/rutherfordbirch03hayerich +[^24]: *Proceedings of the Senate sitting for the trial of William W. Belknap, late secretary of war, on the articles of impeachment* (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1876), pp. 1 to 2 (report of the Committee on Expenditures in the War Department, March 2, 1876, Mr. Clymer, chairman; unanimous adoption of the impeachment resolutions). https://archive.org/details/proceedingssena00housgoog +[^25]: *Proceedings of the Senate sitting for the trial of William W. Belknap* (1876), pp. 8 to 10 (articles exhibited Tuesday, April 4, 1876; Article I and the agreement of October 8, 1870 between Marsh and Evans). https://archive.org/details/proceedingssena00housgoog +[^26]: *Army and Navy Journal* 13, no. 32 (March 18, 1876), news item on the oath of office taken by "Judge Taft" on Saturday, March 11. https://archive.org/details/sim_armed-forces-journal_1876-03-18_13_32 +[^27]: *Proceedings of the Senate sitting for the trial of William W. Belknap* (1876), p. 141 (written argument on jurisdiction). https://archive.org/details/proceedingssena00housgoog +[^28]: *Proceedings of the Senate sitting for the trial of William W. Belknap* (1876), p. 30 (the pleading stating that Belknap resigned "at ten o' clock and twenty minutes in the forenoon" of March 2, 1876). https://archive.org/details/proceedingssena00housgoog +[^29]: *Proceedings of the Senate sitting for the trial of William W. Belknap* (1876), p. 663 (examination of General Townsend on the Secretaries of War under whom he had acted as Adjutant General). https://archive.org/details/proceedingssena00housgoog +[^30]: *Army and Navy Journal* 13, no. 36 (April 15, 1876), p. 576, General Orders No. 28, War Department, Adjutant-General's Office, April 6, 1876. https://archive.org/details/sim_armed-forces-journal_1876-04-15_13_36 ; Atlanta *Constitution*, April 6, 1876, dispatch from Washington dated April 5, "signed Alphonso Taft, secretary of war." https://archive.org/details/per_atlanta-constitution_1876-04-06_8_250 +[^31]: *Army and Navy Journal* 13, no. 34 (April 1, 1876), summary of Custer's testimony before the committee on expenditures in the War Department. https://archive.org/details/sim_armed-forces-journal_1876-04-01_13_34 +[^32]: *Army and Navy Journal* 13, no. 40 (May 13, 1876), papers on the Fort Abraham Lincoln corn transaction and the transfer of the Sixth Infantry, including Sheridan's letter of May 2, 1876. https://archive.org/details/sim_armed-forces-journal_1876-05-13_13_40 +[^33]: *Army and Navy Journal* 13, no. 42 (May 27, 1876), "General Custer's Rank and Command." https://archive.org/details/sim_armed-forces-journal_1876-05-27_13_42 +[^34]: *Army and Navy Journal* 13, no. 46 (June 24, 1876), report of the House debate on the Army appropriation bill. https://archive.org/details/sim_armed-forces-journal_1876-06-24_13_46 +[^35]: Elmer L. Corthell, *A History of the Jetties at the Mouth of the Mississippi River* (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1880), pp. 100 to 101 (Eads to Taft, New Orleans, May 9, 1876, and the reply four days later). https://archive.org/details/ahistoryjetties03cortgoog +[^36]: Corthell, *A History of the Jetties* (1880), Appendix VIII, "Letter from Jas. B. Eads to the Secretary of War," New Orleans, May 23, 1876, pp. 278 to 279. https://archive.org/details/ahistoryjetties03cortgoog +[^37]: Hayes, *Diary and Letters*, vol. 3, entry for May 21, 1876, quoting Taft's note of May 18, 1876 as Secretary of War, pp. 320 to 321. https://archive.org/details/rutherfordbirch03hayerich +[^38]: *Army and Navy Journal* 13, no. 46 (June 24, 1876), masthead listing "J. Donald Cameron, Secretary of War." https://archive.org/details/sim_armed-forces-journal_1876-06-24_13_46 +[^39]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1890-91*, entry for Alphonso Taft, pp. 18 to 19 (Secretary of War in March 1876, Attorney General two months later to March 1877; ministries to Austria and Russia to August 1885; "integrity and purity" and "sound, learned, and upright lawyer"; San Diego; death May 21, 1891; marriages of August 29, 1841 and December 26, 1853, with Louisa M. Torrey, daughter of Samuel D. Torrey of Millbury). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1859_1924/1890-91.pdf +[^40]: *Official Opinions of the Attorneys General of the United States*, ed. A. J. Bentley, vol. 15 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1880), title page and contents (opinions of Pierrepont, Taft and Devens). https://archive.org/details/officialopinion10justgoog +[^41]: *Official Opinions of the Attorneys General*, vol. 15, "Sanborn Contract," 15 Op. Att'y Gen. 133 to 138, July 5, 1876. https://archive.org/details/officialopinion10justgoog +[^42]: *Official Opinions of the Attorneys General*, vol. 15, "Duty of Attorney-General," 15 Op. Att'y Gen. 138 to 139, July 7, 1876. https://archive.org/details/officialopinion10justgoog +[^43]: *Official Opinions of the Attorneys General*, vol. 15, "Desertion, Limitation for Offense of," 15 Op. Att'y Gen. 152, September 1, 1876. https://archive.org/details/officialopinion10justgoog +[^44]: *Official Opinions of the Attorneys General*, vol. 16, opinion of Attorney General Devens reciting Taft's opinion of June 2, 1876 on the call of the Secretary of War dated May 5, 1876. https://archive.org/details/officialopinion02justgoog +[^45]: *Official Opinions of the Attorneys General*, vol. 15, "Improvement of South Pass of the Mississippi," 15 Op. Att'y Gen. 183 to 185, January 17, 1877. https://archive.org/details/officialopinion10justgoog +[^46]: "The Southern Elections," *New York Times*, September 5, 1876, Taft's letter of instructions to United States marshals, as excerpted in Howard Gillman, Mark A. Graber and Keith E. Whittington, *American Constitutionalism*, vol. 2, supplementary material for chapter 7 (Oxford University Press, 2013). https://learninglink.oup.com/protected/files/content/file/1623305781305-attorney.pdf +[^47]: "Speech of Hon. Alphonso Taft," *New York Times*, October 26, 1876, pp. 1 to 2, as excerpted in Gillman, Graber and Whittington, *American Constitutionalism*, vol. 2, supplementary material for chapter 7. https://learninglink.oup.com/protected/files/content/file/1623305781305-attorney.pdf +[^48]: "South Carolina in 1876," Part IV, "Letters and reports to the government, July 17 to November 29, 1876," in *Senate Miscellaneous Documents*, 44th Congress, 2d session (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1877), pp. 89 to 90, letter of Marshal Wallace to Attorney General Taft, Charleston, July 17, 1876. https://archive.org/details/11361771bsb +[^49]: "South Carolina in 1876," Part IV, pp. 89 to 91, letter of District Attorney D. T. Corbin to Taft, Greenville, August 21, 1876. https://archive.org/details/11361771bsb +[^50]: "South Carolina in 1876," Part IV, p. 91, letter of Marshal Wallace to Taft, Chester, August 25, 1876. https://archive.org/details/11361771bsb +[^51]: "South Carolina in 1876," Part IV, letter of Governor Chamberlain, Columbia, October 11, 1876, "Gov. Chamberlain's call for national aid," p. 95. https://archive.org/details/11361771bsb +[^52]: *Federal Aid in Domestic Disturbances, 1787-1903*, Senate Document 209, 57th Congress, 2d session (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1903), pp. 183 to 184 (proclamation of October 17, 1876; Cameron to Sherman, War Department, October 17, 1876). https://archive.org/details/federalaidindom00offigoog +[^53]: *Federal Aid in Domestic Disturbances, 1787-1903*, pp. 185 to 186 (Taft's telegram to Chamberlain, the second dispatch of Grant to General Ruger, December 1876). https://archive.org/details/federalaidindom00offigoog +[^54]: Hayes, *Diary and Letters*, vol. 3, Hayes's telegram to Taft as Attorney General, dated December 6, 1876, with Taft's letter quoted in the footnote, pp. 386 to 387. https://archive.org/details/rutherfordbirch03hayerich +[^55]: Hayes, *Diary and Letters*, vol. 3, letter of John Sherman to Hayes, Senate Chamber, December 22, 1876, pp. 394 to 395. https://archive.org/details/rutherfordbirch03hayerich +[^56]: Hayes, *Diary and Letters*, vol. 3, Hayes to Sherman, Columbus, December 25, 1876, p. 393. https://archive.org/details/rutherfordbirch03hayerich +[^57]: Hayes, *Diary and Letters*, vol. 3, Hayes to Shellabarger, Columbus, December 29, 1876, p. 395. https://archive.org/details/rutherfordbirch03hayerich +[^58]: *Proceedings of the Electoral Commission appointed under the act of Congress approved January 29, 1877* (Washington, 1877). https://archive.org/details/electoralcommission00presrich +[^59]: *Electoral Count of 1877: Proceedings of the Electoral Commission and of the two Houses of Congress* (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1877), argument of Hon. John A. Campbell on the Louisiana returns, p. 402. https://archive.org/details/electoralcount00washrich +[^60]: Office of the Historian, United States Department of State, "Alphonso Taft (1810-1891)," Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, Austria (appointed April 26, 1882; credentials presented June 30, 1882; left post August 25, 1884) and Russia (appointed July 4, 1884; credentials presented September 3, 1884; recall presented July 31, 1885). https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/taft-alphonso +[^61]: Taft to Frelinghuysen, Vienna, November 20, 1882 (No. 5) and November 28, 1882 (No. 6), *Foreign Relations of the United States* 1883. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1883/d5 and https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1883/d6 +[^62]: Department of State to Taft, January 18, 1883 (No. 7) and January 19, 1883 (No. 8), *Foreign Relations of the United States* 1883. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1883/d7 and https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1883/d8 +[^63]: Taft to Frelinghuysen, Vienna, March 17, 1884 (No. 7) and May 13, 1884 (No. 8), *Foreign Relations of the United States* 1884. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1884/d7 and https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1884/d8 +[^64]: Taft to Frelinghuysen, Vienna, August 12, 1884 (No. 10), *Foreign Relations of the United States* 1884. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1884/d10 +[^65]: Frelinghuysen to Taft, Washington, December 18, 1884 (No. 496), *Foreign Relations of the United States* 1885. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1885/d496 +[^66]: Taft to Frelinghuysen, St. Petersburg, January 17, 1885 (No. 497), *Foreign Relations of the United States* 1885. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1885/d497 +[^67]: Taft to Bayard, St. Petersburg, March 18, 1885 (No. 498), enclosing the foreign ministry's answer, *Foreign Relations of the United States* 1885. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1885/d498 +[^68]: Bayard to Taft, Washington, March 30, 1885 (No. 499), with the sundry civil act of March 3, 1885 on testimonials to Russian aid to the survivors of the Jeannette expedition, *Foreign Relations of the United States* 1885. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1885/d499 +[^69]: Bayard to Taft, Washington, May 25, 1885 (No. 500), with the enclosed correspondence on the arrest, *Foreign Relations of the United States* 1885. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1885/d500 +[^70]: *Taft Family Gathering. Proceedings of the Meeting of the Taft Family, at Uxbridge, Mass., August 12, 1874*, "Historical Address" by Judge Alphonso Taft of Cincinnati, Ohio, pp. 14 to 15. https://archive.org/details/taftfamilygather00uxbr +[^71]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment*, chart "Hypothesis Number One," entry "TAFT FAMILY (1679, Braintree, Mass.)." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^72]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University, deceased from June, 1880, to June, 1890* (New Haven: Yale University, 1890), entry for Peter Rawson Taft, class of 1867, p. 616 (born in Cincinnati; died at his father's residence on June 3, 1889). https://archive.org/details/1880t90obituary00yaleuoft +[^73]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1942-1943* (New Haven: Yale University, 1943), entry for Horace Dutton Taft, B.A. 1883, pp. 14 to 15 (born December 28, 1861 in Cincinnati; Skull and Bones; studied in Vienna 1883 to 1884; founder of the Taft School 1890; died January 28, 1943 in Watertown, Connecticut; surviving brother Henry W. Taft, '80, of New York City; surviving sister in El Cajon, California). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1942-43.pdf +[^74]: G. Stanley Hall, *Life and Confessions of a Psychologist* (New York: D. Appleton, 1923), p. 200, chapter "Germany, Antioch College" (the Unitarian church in Cincinnati; the Sundays with the Tafts; Judge Taft as a trustee of Antioch). https://archive.org/details/lifeconfessionso0000gsta +[^75]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment*, passage on Antioch College: Horace Mann as first president (1853 to 1860), "The most prominent trustee of Antioch College was none other than the co-founder of The Order, Alphonso Taft," with Hall quoted from *Confessions*, p. 201 in Sutton's citation. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^76]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment*, passage on the Tafts as trustees of Antioch ("the Tafts (The Order) were the most powerful trustees of Antioch"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^77]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment*, memorandum on Horace Mann and the look-say method of reading ("First, in 1853 Mann was appointed President of Antioch College. The most influential Trustee of Antioch College was the co-founder of The Order"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Cyrus Vance.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Cyrus Vance.md index 5581b58d..438b612f 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Cyrus Vance.md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Cyrus Vance.md @@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ born: 1917-03-27 died: 2002-01 location: "New York, New York" created: 2026-10-09 -updated: 2026-10-09 +updated: 2026-10-26 relations: - type: employed_by with: "[[Department of Defense]]" @@ -106,13 +106,13 @@ relations: role: "trustee; chairman of the board 1975 to 1977" start: 1970 end: 1977 - fn: 24 + fn: 25 - type: director_of with: "[[Rockefeller Foundation]]" role: "trustee again until retirement on June 30, 1982" start: 1980 end: 1982-06-30 - fn: 24 + fn: 25 - type: appointed with: "[[Jimmy Carter]]" reverse: true @@ -130,12 +130,12 @@ relations: role: "head of the expert group" start: 1978-09-05 end: 1978-09-17 - fn: 19 + fn: 20 - type: director_of with: "[[Federal Reserve Bank of New York]]" role: "Class C director; chairman of the board and Federal Reserve agent for 1989 to 1991" start: 1989-01 - fn: 25 + fn: 26 - type: head_of with: "[[Financial Services Volunteer Corps]]" role: "cochairman" @@ -144,27 +144,27 @@ relations: - type: director_of with: "[[Council on Foreign Relations]]" role: "director, term expiring 1987 per the 1984-1985 annual report; member of the Executive Committee" - fn: 27 + fn: 28 - type: funded with: "[[Council on Foreign Relations]]" role: "individual donor of 10,000 dollars or more to the council campaign, 1984-1985" start: 1984 end: 1985 - fn: 27 + fn: 28 - type: appointed with: "[[United Nations]]" reverse: true role: "Personal Envoy for Yugoslavia" start: 1991-10-08 end: 1993-05 - fn: 28 + fn: 29 - type: appointed with: "[[United Nations]]" reverse: true role: "good offices on the differences between Greece and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia" start: 1993-07 end: 1999-12 - fn: 32 + fn: 33 --- Cyrus Roberts Vance (1917 to 2002) was an American lawyer who served as general counsel of the [[Department of Defense]], Secretary of the Army, and Deputy Secretary of Defense, and then as [[Secretary of State]] under [[Jimmy Carter]] from 1977 to 1980. He resigned in April 1980 over the rescue attempt in Iran during the [[Iran hostage crisis]]. Between 1991 and 1999 he served as a [[United Nations]] envoy on the Yugoslav wars and on the dispute between [[Greece]] and the [[Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia]].[^1] @@ -211,47 +211,55 @@ Among the witnesses was [[Edward Korry]], the former ambassador to [[Chile]]. Ko The Office of the Historian records that Carter appointed Vance on January 21, 1977, that he entered the office on January 23, and that his appointment terminated on April 28, 1980.[^1] He emphasized negotiation over military confrontation. Over the following two years Vance helped negotiate the [[Panama Canal Treaty]], an Israel-Egypt peace treaty, the restoration of full diplomatic relations with China and a settlement in [[Zimbabwe]].[^1] His resignation letter lists, among the administration's achievements, the Panama Canal Treaty, the Camp David Accords, the Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty, normalization with China, the [[SALT II]] negotiations and the Zimbabwe settlement.[^18] +### Drill bit export, 1978" in chronological order. The live page does not mention Dresser. Footnote D1. + +Insert-ready section: + +### Drill bit export, 1978 + +On August 17, 1978 Cyrus Vance met representatives of the National Conference on Soviet Jewry at the Department of State. [[Eugene Gold]], the conference's chairman, questioned "whether enough spade work had been done before the Dresser (drill bit) plant decision had been taken," and Vance told him that the letter authorizing [[Dresser Industries]] to sell the equipment to the Soviets had already been transmitted. When [[Yehuda Hellman]] later asked whether trade might be a better carrot in dealings with the Soviets, Vance replied, according to the memorandum of conversation drafted the next day, that "the problem was that other countries had the same carrot. In the case of the Dresser license, for example, some thought that Dresser was the sole source of (drill bit) technology, but that was simply not true. Others could sell this (drill bit) technology to the Soviets as well."[^19] + ### Camp David -At the [[Camp David summit]] in September 1978 the American delegation worked in two groups. The political group included Vance, Carter, [[Zbigniew Brzezinski]], [[Jody Powell]], [[Hamilton Jordan]] and, occasionally, [[Walter Mondale]] and [[Harold Brown]]. The team of experts "met under Vance's direction" and was composed of [[Harold H. Saunders]], [[Alfred L. Atherton Jr.|Alfred L. Atherton]], [[Hermann F. Eilts]], [[Samuel W. Lewis]] and [[William B. Quandt]].[^19] Vance wrote in his memoir that "Not since Theodore Roosevelt mediated the treaty negotiated in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, that ended the Russo-Japanese War had an American president even approached what Jimmy Carter was about to attempt," and that the two American groups "worked in the closest harmony."[^19] +At the [[Camp David summit]] in September 1978 the American delegation worked in two groups. The political group included Vance, Carter, [[Zbigniew Brzezinski]], [[Jody Powell]], [[Hamilton Jordan]] and, occasionally, [[Walter Mondale]] and [[Harold Brown]]. The team of experts "met under Vance's direction" and was composed of [[Harold H. Saunders]], [[Alfred L. Atherton Jr.|Alfred L. Atherton]], [[Hermann F. Eilts]], [[Samuel W. Lewis]] and [[William B. Quandt]].[^20] Vance wrote in his memoir that "Not since Theodore Roosevelt mediated the treaty negotiated in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, that ended the Russo-Japanese War had an American president even approached what Jimmy Carter was about to attempt," and that the two American groups "worked in the closest harmony."[^20] ### Vela, 1979 -A [[VELA Satellite|VELA]] satellite recorded a double flash on September 22, 1979. A September 25, 1979 memorandum for the record by [[Richard M. Moose]] records that Vance would raise the matter at a scheduled dinner of the Quadripartite Group of the United States, United Kingdom, France and West Germany.[^20] Ambassador [[Thomas Watson]] in [[Moscow]] sent a restricted "Nodis Cherokee" message on October 26, 1979, "meant for Secretary Vance and his close associates only," recommending discussions with the Soviet Union about the Vela incident.[^20] A later Department reply, which Vance instructed, stated that Washington had delayed because the "initial information was highly inconclusive" and that U.S. "allies were concerned that precipitate action might complicate other important issues."[^20] A November 19, 1979 briefing paper prepared for either Vance or President Carter summarized a New Zealand message expressing "considerable doubts" about the rainwater.[^20] +A [[VELA Satellite|VELA]] satellite recorded a double flash on September 22, 1979. A September 25, 1979 memorandum for the record by [[Richard M. Moose]] records that Vance would raise the matter at a scheduled dinner of the Quadripartite Group of the United States, United Kingdom, France and West Germany.[^21] Ambassador [[Thomas Watson]] in [[Moscow]] sent a restricted "Nodis Cherokee" message on October 26, 1979, "meant for Secretary Vance and his close associates only," recommending discussions with the Soviet Union about the Vela incident.[^21] A later Department reply, which Vance instructed, stated that Washington had delayed because the "initial information was highly inconclusive" and that U.S. "allies were concerned that precipitate action might complicate other important issues."[^21] A November 19, 1979 briefing paper prepared for either Vance or President Carter summarized a New Zealand message expressing "considerable doubts" about the rainwater.[^21] -On January 9, 1980 Vance's special assistant told the staff of [[Gerard C. Smith]] that the secretary agreed the conclusions of the panel report on the event should be made public, and Vance supported "some kind of UN sanctions if there is no progress with South Africa on the nuclear issue." On January 12, 1980 Vance sent the embassy in [[South Africa]] the panel's conclusions together with instructions to resume nuclear talks, stating that "we have decided to make another attempt to reach a nuclear settlement with South Africa."[^20] +On January 9, 1980 Vance's special assistant told the staff of [[Gerard C. Smith]] that the secretary agreed the conclusions of the panel report on the event should be made public, and Vance supported "some kind of UN sanctions if there is no progress with South Africa on the nuclear issue." On January 12, 1980 Vance sent the embassy in [[South Africa]] the panel's conclusions together with instructions to resume nuclear talks, stating that "we have decided to make another attempt to reach a nuclear settlement with South Africa."[^21] ### Iran and the Resignation -Iranian students and militants seized the American embassy in [[Tehran]] on November 4, 1979 and took 52 Americans hostage. By spring 1980 the negotiations for their release had failed, and Carter decided on a rescue mission. Vance was the only adviser to Carter who opposed that rescue mission.[^21] +Iranian students and militants seized the American embassy in [[Tehran]] on November 4, 1979 and took 52 Americans hostage. By spring 1980 the negotiations for their release had failed, and Carter decided on a rescue mission. Vance was the only adviser to Carter who opposed that rescue mission.[^22] -The National Security Council was convened on Friday, April 11, 1980 while Vance was on vacation in [[Florida]]. Warren Christopher, the deputy secretary of state, attended and objected to the use of force, and the members decided to attempt the rescue.[^21][^22] Vance wrote in his memoir, "When I returned to Washington late Monday afternoon, Christopher informed me of the meeting. Stunned and angry that such a momentous decision had been made in my absence, I went to see the president very early the next morning and spelled out my strong objections to the rescue mission."[^21] According to his later recollection he objected to Carter again before the National Security Council met on April 15, and the President's Daily Diary records a meeting between the two men from 12:10 to 12:47 p.m. that day.[^22] Vance wrote that on Thursday, April 17 he told Carter he would have to resign if the mission went forward.[^21] +The National Security Council was convened on Friday, April 11, 1980 while Vance was on vacation in [[Florida]]. Warren Christopher, the deputy secretary of state, attended and objected to the use of force, and the members decided to attempt the rescue.[^22][^23] Vance wrote in his memoir, "When I returned to Washington late Monday afternoon, Christopher informed me of the meeting. Stunned and angry that such a momentous decision had been made in my absence, I went to see the president very early the next morning and spelled out my strong objections to the rescue mission."[^22] According to his later recollection he objected to Carter again before the National Security Council met on April 15, and the President's Daily Diary records a meeting between the two men from 12:10 to 12:47 p.m. that day.[^23] Vance wrote that on Thursday, April 17 he told Carter he would have to resign if the mission went forward.[^22] -Vance dated his resignation letter, handwritten, April 21, 1980, and wrote that he delivered it to the President in the map room of the White House that afternoon. It begins, "I have the greatest respect and admiration for you and it is with a heavy heart that I submit my resignation," and continues, "I wish I could support you in it. But for the reasons we have discussed I cannot."[^18][^21] Carter accepted the resignation on April 28, writing: "Because you could not support my decision regarding the rescue operation in Iran, you have made the correct decision to resign."[^23] Carter wrote in his diary for April 27 that Harold Brown and Brzezinski "did not know about it ahead of time in any specific terms, although they both had suspected it was coming."[^21] The rescue mission was scheduled for April 24 and failed; the hostages were released on January 20, 1981 after 444 days in captivity.[^21] The Senate confirmed [[Edmund Muskie]] as his successor on May 7, 1980 by a vote of 94 to 2.[^16] The Office of the Historian states that Vance resigned because he believed a military operation would be in vain and would damage the negotiations for the hostages' release.[^1] +Vance dated his resignation letter, handwritten, April 21, 1980, and wrote that he delivered it to the President in the map room of the White House that afternoon. It begins, "I have the greatest respect and admiration for you and it is with a heavy heart that I submit my resignation," and continues, "I wish I could support you in it. But for the reasons we have discussed I cannot."[^18][^22] Carter accepted the resignation on April 28, writing: "Because you could not support my decision regarding the rescue operation in Iran, you have made the correct decision to resign."[^24] Carter wrote in his diary for April 27 that Harold Brown and Brzezinski "did not know about it ahead of time in any specific terms, although they both had suspected it was coming."[^22] The rescue mission was scheduled for April 24 and failed; the hostages were released on January 20, 1981 after 444 days in captivity.[^22] The Senate confirmed [[Edmund Muskie]] as his successor on May 7, 1980 by a vote of 94 to 2.[^16] The Office of the Historian states that Vance resigned because he believed a military operation would be in vain and would damage the negotiations for the hostages' release.[^1] ### Return to Private Practice and Later Boards -Vance resumed the practice of law with Simpson Thacher & Bartlett in 1980.[^2] He had been a trustee of the Rockefeller Foundation from 1970 until he became Secretary of State, and chairman of its board of trustees from 1975 to 1977. The board listing for December 31, 1976 shows him as chairman and a member of the Executive Committee, with [[John D. Rockefeller III|John D. Rockefeller 3rd]] as honorary chairman and, among the trustees, [[W. Michael Blumenthal]], [[Theodore Hesburgh]], [[Vernon Jordan]], [[Paul Volcker]], [[Lane Kirkland]] and [[Bill Moyers]]. The president's report for 1976 states that Vance became the third trustee in the Foundation's history to be named Secretary of State, "the others being John Foster Dulles and Dean Rusk."[^15] He rejoined the board in 1980 and retired effective June 30, 1982, having also served on its Executive and Finance Committees.[^24] +Vance resumed the practice of law with Simpson Thacher & Bartlett in 1980.[^2] He had been a trustee of the Rockefeller Foundation from 1970 until he became Secretary of State, and chairman of its board of trustees from 1975 to 1977. The board listing for December 31, 1976 shows him as chairman and a member of the Executive Committee, with [[John D. Rockefeller III|John D. Rockefeller 3rd]] as honorary chairman and, among the trustees, [[W. Michael Blumenthal]], [[Theodore Hesburgh]], [[Vernon Jordan]], [[Paul Volcker]], [[Lane Kirkland]] and [[Bill Moyers]]. The president's report for 1976 states that Vance became the third trustee in the Foundation's history to be named Secretary of State, "the others being John Foster Dulles and Dean Rusk."[^15] He rejoined the board in 1980 and retired effective June 30, 1982, having also served on its Executive and Finance Committees.[^25] -Vance was a Class C director of the [[Federal Reserve Bank of New York]] from January 1989. A circular of December 28, 1989 states that the Board of Governors reappointed him effective January 1, 1990 and redesignated him chairman of the board and Federal Reserve agent for 1990, and describes him as presiding partner of Simpson Thacher & Bartlett.[^25] He served as chairman for 1989 through 1991, and the Board of Governors reappointed him a Class C director for the term beginning January 1, 1993.[^26] In 1990 he was cochairman of the [[Financial Services Volunteer Corps]], a project of the State Department and the [[Agency for International Development]].[^2] +Vance was a Class C director of the [[Federal Reserve Bank of New York]] from January 1989. A circular of December 28, 1989 states that the Board of Governors reappointed him effective January 1, 1990 and redesignated him chairman of the board and Federal Reserve agent for 1990, and describes him as presiding partner of Simpson Thacher & Bartlett.[^26] He served as chairman for 1989 through 1991, and the Board of Governors reappointed him a Class C director for the term beginning January 1, 1993.[^27] In 1990 he was cochairman of the [[Financial Services Volunteer Corps]], a project of the State Department and the [[Agency for International Development]].[^2] -The [[Council on Foreign Relations]] annual report for July 1, 1984 to June 30, 1985 lists Vance among the directors with a term expiring in 1987, on the Executive Committee chaired by [[David Rockefeller]], on the Campaign Executive Committee, among the Vice Chairmen of the Board in the report's historical roll of officers, and among the individual donors of 10,000 dollars or more to the council's campaign. He chaired the advisory group of the council's European-American Project, presided over a September 13, 1984 conference held with the Dayan Center of [[Tel Aviv University]] and wrote the foreword to its transcript, and chaired a March 1985 conference on "Central America as a European-American Issue."[^27] +The [[Council on Foreign Relations]] annual report for July 1, 1984 to June 30, 1985 lists Vance among the directors with a term expiring in 1987, on the Executive Committee chaired by [[David Rockefeller]], on the Campaign Executive Committee, among the Vice Chairmen of the Board in the report's historical roll of officers, and among the individual donors of 10,000 dollars or more to the council's campaign. He chaired the advisory group of the council's European-American Project, presided over a September 13, 1984 conference held with the Dayan Center of [[Tel Aviv University]] and wrote the foreword to its transcript, and chaired a March 1985 conference on "Central America as a European-American Issue."[^28] ### United Nations Envoy on Yugoslavia -On October 8, 1991 Secretary-General [[Javier Pérez de Cuéllar]] appointed Vance as his Personal Envoy for Yugoslavia.[^28] The Security Council's resolution 721 of November 27, 1991 refers to the Secretary-General's letter of November 24 on the mission of his Personal Envoy and to the agreement signed in Geneva on November 23, 1991.[^29] Vance and [[David Owen|Lord Owen]] served as co-chairmen of the Steering Committee of the [[International Conference on the Former Yugoslavia]]. In November 1992 they recommended a United Nations observer deployment in Macedonia.[^28] +On October 8, 1991 Secretary-General [[Javier Pérez de Cuéllar]] appointed Vance as his Personal Envoy for Yugoslavia.[^29] The Security Council's resolution 721 of November 27, 1991 refers to the Secretary-General's letter of November 24 on the mission of his Personal Envoy and to the agreement signed in Geneva on November 23, 1991.[^30] Vance and [[David Owen|Lord Owen]] served as co-chairmen of the Steering Committee of the [[International Conference on the Former Yugoslavia]]. In November 1992 they recommended a United Nations observer deployment in Macedonia.[^29] -Talks were held in Geneva from January 2 to 5, 1993. The texts of the Vance-Owen agreements on constitutional principles and on a cessation of hostilities, signed by [[Alija Izetbegović]], [[Radovan Karadžić]] and [[Mate Boban]] and witnessed by Vance and Owen, bear the date Geneva, January 30, 1993; a further text on interim arrangements, witnessed by Vance and Owen, bears the date New York, March 25, 1993.[^30] Successive Bosnian blueprints, including the Vance-Owen plan, were "repudiated by one side or the other."[^28] In May 1993 [[Thorvald Stoltenberg]] replaced Vance as Personal Envoy.[^28] +Talks were held in Geneva from January 2 to 5, 1993. The texts of the Vance-Owen agreements on constitutional principles and on a cessation of hostilities, signed by [[Alija Izetbegović]], [[Radovan Karadžić]] and [[Mate Boban]] and witnessed by Vance and Owen, bear the date Geneva, January 30, 1993; a further text on interim arrangements, witnessed by Vance and Owen, bears the date New York, March 25, 1993.[^31] Successive Bosnian blueprints, including the Vance-Owen plan, were "repudiated by one side or the other."[^29] In May 1993 [[Thorvald Stoltenberg]] replaced Vance as Personal Envoy.[^29] ### Nagorno-Karabakh, 1992 -On March 20, 1992 Vance spent about half a day in [[Stepanakert]] as an envoy of the UN Secretary-General, after stops in [[Baku]] and [[Yerevan]] on March 18 and 19. According to a 2017 account by Emil Sanamyan, a recording of the visit captures Vance saying, "It is time to try to find a way to peace," shortly before his delegation boarded the cars of Karabakh officials.[^31] +On March 20, 1992 Vance spent about half a day in [[Stepanakert]] as an envoy of the UN Secretary-General, after stops in [[Baku]] and [[Yerevan]] on March 18 and 19. According to a 2017 account by Emil Sanamyan, a recording of the visit captures Vance saying, "It is time to try to find a way to peace," shortly before his delegation boarded the cars of Karabakh officials.[^32] ### Greece and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia -In July 1993 Secretary-General [[Boutros Boutros-Ghali]] appointed Vance to carry out his good offices on the differences between the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Greece. Vance held numerous talks in that post until he resigned in December 1999, for personal reasons.[^32] The Secretary-General's appeal to the two governments to resume negotiations refers to "his Special Representative, Mr. Cyrus Vance."[^28] +In July 1993 Secretary-General [[Boutros Boutros-Ghali]] appointed Vance to carry out his good offices on the differences between the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Greece. Vance held numerous talks in that post until he resigned in December 1999, for personal reasons.[^33] The Secretary-General's appeal to the two governments to resume negotiations refers to "his Special Representative, Mr. Cyrus Vance."[^29] -Vance died in January 2002. Secretary-General [[Kofi Annan]] issued a statement on Sunday, published by the United Nations on January 14, 2002, saying that Vance "undertook many important missions for the United Nations, notably in the former Yugoslavia," and called him "a great servant of his country, of the United Nations and of humanity."[^32] +Vance died in January 2002. Secretary-General [[Kofi Annan]] issued a statement on Sunday, published by the United Nations on January 14, 2002, saying that Vance "undertook many important missions for the United Nations, notably in the former Yugoslavia," and called him "a great servant of his country, of the United Nations and of humanity."[^33] ### Footnotes @@ -273,17 +281,18 @@ Vance died in January 2002. Secretary-General [[Kofi Annan]] issued a statement [^16]: U.S. Senate, "Jimmy Carter Cabinet Nominations" (table of announcement, hearing, receipt and confirmation dates and votes). https://www.senate.gov/legislative/nominations/Carter_cabinet.htm [^17]: Vance Nomination (1977), statement and prepared statement of Edward M. Korry, and the exchange with Senator Church, pp. 56-61. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-95shrg81894/pdf/CHRG-95shrg81894.pdf [^18]: Letter, Secretary of State Cyrus Vance to President Carter, Washington, April 21, 1980, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980, vol. XXVIII, document 22. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v28/d22 -[^19]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980, vol. IX, Arab-Israeli Dispute, document 26, editorial note on the U.S. delegation at Camp David, quoting Cyrus R. Vance, Hard Choices, pp. 218-219. https://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1977-80v09/pdf/frus1977-80v09.pdf -[^20]: National Security Archive, "The Vela Incident: South Atlantic Mystery Flash in September 1979 Raised Questions about Nuclear Test," posted December 6, 2016, documents 6, 19, 22, 27, 30 and 31. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/nuclear-vault/2016-12-06/vela-incident-south-atlantic-mystery-flash-september-1979 -[^21]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980, vol. XXVIII, document 21, editorial note, quoting Cyrus R. Vance, Hard Choices, pp. 409-411, and Jimmy Carter, White House Diary, p. 423. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v28/d21 -[^22]: Minutes of National Security Council meetings, April 11, 1980 (document 250) and April 15, 1980 (document 254), Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980, vol. XI, part 1. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v11p1/d250 and https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v11p1/d254 -[^23]: Letter, President Carter to Secretary of State Vance, Washington, April 28, 1980, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980, vol. XXVIII, document 23. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v28/d23 -[^24]: Rockefeller Foundation, Annual Report 1982, report on the Board of Trustees. https://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/Annual-Report-1982-1.pdf -[^25]: Federal Reserve Bank of New York, Circular No. 10327, December 28, 1989, "Election and Appointment of Directors of this Bank." https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/files/docs/historical/ny%20circulars/nycirc_1989_10327.pdf -[^26]: Federal Reserve Bank of New York, Circular No. 10614, January 12, 1993, "Appointment of Director." https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/files/docs/historical/ny%20circulars/nycirc_1993_10614.pdf -[^27]: Council on Foreign Relations, Annual Report, July 1, 1984 to June 30, 1985 (New York, 1985): Officers and Directors; Executive Committee; Campaign Executive Committee and the partial list of individual donors of 10,000 dollars or more (Development Activities); European-American Project advisory group; meetings list; publications list. CIA reading room scan at https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000100210066-5 -[^28]: United Nations Department of Public Information, "Former Yugoslavia: UNPROFOR" (background), as of 1996. https://peacekeeping.un.org/mission/past/unprof_b.htm -[^29]: United Nations Security Council, resolution 721 (1991), November 27, 1991. https://docs.un.org/en/S/RES/721(1991) -[^30]: "The Vance-Owen Plan," Agreement relating to Bosnia and Herzegovina; Agreement for peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina; and agreement on interim arrangements (texts dated Geneva, January 30, 1993 and New York, March 25, 1993), PA-X Peace Agreements Database, University of Edinburgh, agreement 606. https://pax.peaceagreements.org/media/documents/ag606_57b49610b7498.pdf -[^31]: Emil Sanamyan, "From the Archives: Ex-Secretary of State Cyrus Vance in Karabakh," Dornsife Armenian Studies, University of Southern California, October 23, 2017. https://dornsife.usc.edu/armenian/?p=926 -[^32]: United Nations, "Annan pays tribute to memory of 'great servant' Cyrus Vance," UN News, January 14, 2002. https://news.un.org/en/node/24942 +[^19]: Department of State, Memorandum of Conversation, Washington, August 17, 1978, 3:30 p.m., drafted by Robert W. Farrand on August 18, 1978, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980*, vol. VI, document 140. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v06/d140 +[^20]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980, vol. IX, Arab-Israeli Dispute, document 26, editorial note on the U.S. delegation at Camp David, quoting Cyrus R. Vance, Hard Choices, pp. 218-219. https://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1977-80v09/pdf/frus1977-80v09.pdf +[^21]: National Security Archive, "The Vela Incident: South Atlantic Mystery Flash in September 1979 Raised Questions about Nuclear Test," posted December 6, 2016, documents 6, 19, 22, 27, 30 and 31. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/nuclear-vault/2016-12-06/vela-incident-south-atlantic-mystery-flash-september-1979 +[^22]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980, vol. XXVIII, document 21, editorial note, quoting Cyrus R. Vance, Hard Choices, pp. 409-411, and Jimmy Carter, White House Diary, p. 423. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v28/d21 +[^23]: Minutes of National Security Council meetings, April 11, 1980 (document 250) and April 15, 1980 (document 254), Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980, vol. XI, part 1. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v11p1/d250 and https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v11p1/d254 +[^24]: Letter, President Carter to Secretary of State Vance, Washington, April 28, 1980, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980, vol. XXVIII, document 23. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v28/d23 +[^25]: Rockefeller Foundation, Annual Report 1982, report on the Board of Trustees. https://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/Annual-Report-1982-1.pdf +[^26]: Federal Reserve Bank of New York, Circular No. 10327, December 28, 1989, "Election and Appointment of Directors of this Bank." https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/files/docs/historical/ny%20circulars/nycirc_1989_10327.pdf +[^27]: Federal Reserve Bank of New York, Circular No. 10614, January 12, 1993, "Appointment of Director." https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/files/docs/historical/ny%20circulars/nycirc_1993_10614.pdf +[^28]: Council on Foreign Relations, Annual Report, July 1, 1984 to June 30, 1985 (New York, 1985): Officers and Directors; Executive Committee; Campaign Executive Committee and the partial list of individual donors of 10,000 dollars or more (Development Activities); European-American Project advisory group; meetings list; publications list. CIA reading room scan at https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000100210066-5 +[^29]: United Nations Department of Public Information, "Former Yugoslavia: UNPROFOR" (background), as of 1996. https://peacekeeping.un.org/mission/past/unprof_b.htm +[^30]: United Nations Security Council, resolution 721 (1991), November 27, 1991. https://docs.un.org/en/S/RES/721(1991) +[^31]: "The Vance-Owen Plan," Agreement relating to Bosnia and Herzegovina; Agreement for peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina; and agreement on interim arrangements (texts dated Geneva, January 30, 1993 and New York, March 25, 1993), PA-X Peace Agreements Database, University of Edinburgh, agreement 606. https://pax.peaceagreements.org/media/documents/ag606_57b49610b7498.pdf +[^32]: Emil Sanamyan, "From the Archives: Ex-Secretary of State Cyrus Vance in Karabakh," Dornsife Armenian Studies, University of Southern California, October 23, 2017. https://dornsife.usc.edu/armenian/?p=926 +[^33]: United Nations, "Annan pays tribute to memory of 'great servant' Cyrus Vance," UN News, January 14, 2002. https://news.un.org/en/node/24942 diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Dorothy Payne Whitney.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Dorothy Payne Whitney.md index 95b506af..f3a8367f 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Dorothy Payne Whitney.md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Dorothy Payne Whitney.md @@ -63,14 +63,14 @@ relations: with: "[[New School for Social Research]]" end: 1930 role: board of directors - fn: 14 + fn: 16 - type: owned with: "[[Dartington Hall]]" start: 1925 fn: 2 - type: founded with: "[[William C. Whitney Foundation]]" - fn: 16 + fn: 18 --- Dorothy Payne Whitney (1887 to 1968) was an heiress of the [[Whitney family]] who helped found [[The New Republic]] with her first husband, [[Willard Straight]], in 1914, and who was among the principal donors to the [[New School for Social Research]] in its first decade. With her second husband, [[Leonard Knight Elmhirst]], she developed [[Dartington Hall]] in [[Devon]] as a progressive experiment that she continued to support until her death.[^1] @@ -81,39 +81,41 @@ She was the youngest child of Flora Payne and [[William C. Whitney]], a financie The Yale Obituary Record entry for her brother [[Payne Whitney]], who died in 1927, lists his surviving siblings as [[Harry Payne Whitney]], Yale 1894, and a sister, the wife of Leonard Knight Elmhirst of Yorkshire, England. The same entry names [[Oliver Hazard Payne]], Yale 1863, as an uncle of Payne Whitney.[^4] +Henry H. Klein's *Dynastic America and Those Who Own It* (1921) gives William C. Whitney's estate as $23,000,000 at his death in 1904. Klein lists the shares of the children as $2,049,743 to Payne Whitney, $10,248,717 to Harry Payne Whitney and $6,149,230 to Dorothy Payne Whitney, and gives the principal holdings as including Standard Oil stocks valued at $7,078,400.[^5] The New York Times listed Payne Whitney's sisters at his death in 1927 as "Mrs. Leonard K. Elmhirst, nee Dorothy Whitney, whose first husband was the late Willard Straight," and Mrs. Almeric H. Paget.[^6] + Her papers at [[Cornell University]] (collection #3725, 10 cubic feet, dates 1887 to 1978, most of the material from 1887 to 1926) include notebooks from her school days, guardianship papers, newspaper clippings on her father's death, an inventory of the house at 1130 Fifth Avenue, and correspondence with Willard Straight on their courtship and on his service in France in 1917 and 1918. The finding aid lists her involvement with the New York State Food Commission, the Women's Liberty Loan Committee, the Social Unit Plan, the Junior League, the War Camp Service Committee, the Women's Emergency Committee of the European Relief Council, the New School for Social Research, the Tuberculosis Preventorium for Children, the Pueblos Defense Committee and the Mayor's Committee of Women on National Defense, and states that she supported students at the Bordentown Military Academy and Hobart College.[^2] ### The New Republic -After reading [[Herbert Croly]]'s *[[The Promise of American Life]]* aloud during their honeymoon, the couple invited Croly to lunch. In the fall of 1914 the Straights and Croly founded The New Republic.[^1] [[Alvin Johnson]] wrote that when Croly wanted a weekly, "I will find it," Dorothy Straight said simply.[^5] The Cornell finding aid lists correspondence and statements concerning The New Republic and *Asia* magazines among her papers.[^2] +After reading [[Herbert Croly]]'s *[[The Promise of American Life]]* aloud during their honeymoon, the couple invited Croly to lunch. In the fall of 1914 the Straights and Croly founded The New Republic.[^1] [[Alvin Johnson]] wrote that when Croly wanted a weekly, "I will find it," Dorothy Straight said simply.[^7] The Cornell finding aid lists correspondence and statements concerning The New Republic and *Asia* magazines among her papers.[^2] -In 1922 the magazine was short of money, and its owners wanted the New School terminated so that Straight would provide the magazine with more support.[^6] A New Republic publisher interviewed by the FBI in 1969 said that her family's fund had founded the magazine in 1914 and had been used for its operation until 1954, when [[Gilbert A. Harrison]] bought a controlling interest; the editor of *Antiques*, a magazine owned by the Straight family since about 1930, said that it and The New Republic had shared the same office space in New York.[^7] Her son "enlisted new patrons" after "his mother's withdrawal of support of the magazine."[^3] +In 1922 the magazine was short of money, and its owners wanted the New School terminated so that Straight would provide the magazine with more support.[^8] A New Republic publisher interviewed by the FBI in 1969 said that her family's fund had founded the magazine in 1914 and had been used for its operation until 1954, when [[Gilbert A. Harrison]] bought a controlling interest; the editor of *Antiques*, a magazine owned by the Straight family since about 1930, said that it and The New Republic had shared the same office space in New York.[^9] Her son "enlisted new patrons" after "his mother's withdrawal of support of the magazine."[^3] ### The New School Pledges -As early as 1916 Dorothy Straight and Croly had discussed with [[Charles Austin Beard]] and [[James Harvey Robinson]] the possibility of an independent social science institute. When Beard and Robinson resigned from [[Columbia University]] in 1917, these discussions took on new meaning. Willard Straight, then serving in Europe, warned her away from the two men: "I'm getting a little restive and uncertain about some of these forward looking people."[^1] Beard and Robinson "found sympathetic and resourceful patrons" in Croly and Dorothy Straight, and the "Heir to the Whitney fortune" saw in their school an opportunity.[^8] +As early as 1916 Dorothy Straight and Croly had discussed with [[Charles Austin Beard]] and [[James Harvey Robinson]] the possibility of an independent social science institute. When Beard and Robinson resigned from [[Columbia University]] in 1917, these discussions took on new meaning. Willard Straight, then serving in Europe, warned her away from the two men: "I'm getting a little restive and uncertain about some of these forward looking people."[^1] Beard and Robinson "found sympathetic and resourceful patrons" in Croly and Dorothy Straight, and the "Heir to the Whitney fortune" saw in their school an opportunity.[^10] -She did not heed the warning. She turned the school from a subject of discussion into a realizable dream "by pledging $10,000 a year to the project for ten years."[^1] The school's early pledges were "ten-year pledges of support amounting to nearly $300,000, much of it from Dorothy Straight," and the townhouse the school renovated was "paid for largely by Dorothy Straight."[^9] In Alvin Johnson's *Pioneer's Progress* the founding circle consisted of Robinson, Beard, Thorstein Veblen, Croly, "Mrs. Willard Straight, Mrs. George Bacon, and other liberals," and a women's committee met at the apartment of Caroline Bacon: Mrs. Willard Straight, Mrs. George Haven Putnam, Mrs. Learned Hand, Mrs. Victor Sorchan, and "later Mrs. Thomas W. Lamont."[^10] Johnson wrote of her as "the most generous, Mrs. Straight," who "would leave us if the threatened secession from the board took place" in the crisis of 1922.[^11] +She did not heed the warning. She turned the school from a subject of discussion into a realizable dream "by pledging $10,000 a year to the project for ten years."[^1] The school's early pledges were "ten-year pledges of support amounting to nearly $300,000, much of it from Dorothy Straight," and the townhouse the school renovated was "paid for largely by Dorothy Straight."[^11] In Alvin Johnson's *Pioneer's Progress* the founding circle consisted of Robinson, Beard, Thorstein Veblen, Croly, "Mrs. Willard Straight, Mrs. George Bacon, and other liberals," and a women's committee met at the apartment of Caroline Bacon: Mrs. Willard Straight, Mrs. George Haven Putnam, Mrs. Learned Hand, Mrs. Victor Sorchan, and "later Mrs. Thomas W. Lamont."[^12] Johnson wrote of her as "the most generous, Mrs. Straight," who "would leave us if the threatened secession from the board took place" in the crisis of 1922.[^13] -When Johnson took over as director in April 1922 he wrote to her of the change, in a letter that includes the words "To put it baldly, I have usurped the"; the board members who stayed were Croly, [[Wesley Clair Mitchell]], Caroline Bacon, Dorothy Straight and Emily Putnam.[^12][^13] She sat on the Board of Directors until 1930, after 1925 as Mrs. Leonard Elmhirst.[^14] +When Johnson took over as director in April 1922 he wrote to her of the change, in a letter that includes the words "To put it baldly, I have usurped the"; the board members who stayed were Croly, [[Wesley Clair Mitchell]], Caroline Bacon, Dorothy Straight and Emily Putnam.[^14][^15] She sat on the Board of Directors until 1930, after 1925 as Mrs. Leonard Elmhirst.[^16] -[[Judith Friedlander]] uses a 1952 letter by Johnson to characterize Dorothy and other founders, including [[Learned Hand]] and [[Mary Harriman]], as antisemites. Mastrelli, reviewing the book, writes: "For the record, I am not sure what kind of antisemite Dorothy would have been," and notes "accounts that she aided Johnson in the University in Exile."[^14] The records of the Emergency Committee in Aid of Displaced Foreign Scholars include, in their philanthropic file series, a file titled "Elmhirst Fund 1934-1935."[^15] The Cornell finding aid for her papers states that the New School was "begun with the backing of the Whitney Estate in 1919."[^2] +[[Judith Friedlander]] uses a 1952 letter by Johnson to characterize Dorothy and other founders, including [[Learned Hand]] and [[Mary Harriman]], as antisemites. Mastrelli, reviewing the book, writes: "For the record, I am not sure what kind of antisemite Dorothy would have been," and notes "accounts that she aided Johnson in the University in Exile."[^16] The records of the Emergency Committee in Aid of Displaced Foreign Scholars include, in their philanthropic file series, a file titled "Elmhirst Fund 1934-1935."[^17] The Cornell finding aid for her papers states that the New School was "begun with the backing of the Whitney Estate in 1919."[^2] ### William C. Whitney Foundation -After 1929 she continued to support the school for several years through the [[William C. Whitney Foundation]]; Mastrelli attributes this to the Dartington Hall Trust archives.[^14] In 1969 [[Milton C. Rose]], senior partner of [[Mudge, Rose, Guthrie and Alexander]], told the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] that the foundation was "created by Mr. Straight's parents in memory of his grandfather" and that her son Michael had been its president "since its inception in 1937."[^16] The FBI's summary describes it as a charitable organization that "concerns itself with the arts, having made many grants in the fields of music, dance, theater, and painting." [[Harriett K. Evison]], who had been her social secretary, became assistant secretary-treasurer of the foundation.[^16] A December 1952 newspaper report on testimony before a House committee on tax-exempt foundations records that her son, as president, was questioned on $19,000 in grants.[^17] +After 1929 she continued to support the school for several years through the [[William C. Whitney Foundation]]; Mastrelli attributes this to the Dartington Hall Trust archives.[^16] In 1969 [[Milton C. Rose]], senior partner of [[Mudge, Rose, Guthrie and Alexander]], told the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] that the foundation was "created by Mr. Straight's parents in memory of his grandfather" and that her son Michael had been its president "since its inception in 1937."[^18] The FBI's summary describes it as a charitable organization that "concerns itself with the arts, having made many grants in the fields of music, dance, theater, and painting." [[Harriett K. Evison]], who had been her social secretary, became assistant secretary-treasurer of the foundation.[^18] A December 1952 newspaper report on testimony before a House committee on tax-exempt foundations records that her son, as president, was questioned on $19,000 in grants.[^19] ### Dartington Hall -She married Leonard Knight Elmhirst in 1925.[^3] She met Elmhirst while working on the [[Willard Straight Hall]] project at Cornell, and the couple moved to [[Totnes]] in Devon, bought and restored a medieval property, and set about developing Dartington Hall as a laboratory of experiment for a "many sided life."[^1] She and Elmhirst purchased Dartington Hall, reconstructed the fourteenth-century manor and founded a school on the property.[^2] A second set of her papers from Dartington Hall (collection #3782, 4 cubic feet, 1890 to 1976) includes correspondence on Willard Straight Hall (1920 to 1967), lecture notes, diaries and travel journals, and an inventory of the records room at Dartington Hall.[^18] Her son Michael was educated at Dartington Hall.[^3] +She married Leonard Knight Elmhirst in 1925.[^3] She met Elmhirst while working on the [[Willard Straight Hall]] project at Cornell, and the couple moved to [[Totnes]] in Devon, bought and restored a medieval property, and set about developing Dartington Hall as a laboratory of experiment for a "many sided life."[^1] She and Elmhirst purchased Dartington Hall, reconstructed the fourteenth-century manor and founded a school on the property.[^2] A second set of her papers from Dartington Hall (collection #3782, 4 cubic feet, 1890 to 1976) includes correspondence on Willard Straight Hall (1920 to 1967), lecture notes, diaries and travel journals, and an inventory of the records room at Dartington Hall.[^20] Her son Michael was educated at Dartington Hall.[^3] ### Willard Straight Hall -Willard Straight died of septic pneumonia while serving with the [[American Expeditionary Forces]] in France in 1918, before the school opened.[^3] In his will he asked that Dorothy make Cornell a "more human place." She built Willard Straight Hall, one of the first models of a student union in the [[United States]].[^1] The Cornell finding aid for her papers gives his death as 1919; the finding aid for the Dartington Hall papers and the New York Times give 1918.[^2][^18] +Willard Straight died of septic pneumonia while serving with the [[American Expeditionary Forces]] in France in 1918, before the school opened.[^3] In his will he asked that Dorothy make Cornell a "more human place." She built Willard Straight Hall, one of the first models of a student union in the [[United States]].[^1] The Cornell finding aid for her papers gives his death as 1919; the finding aid for the Dartington Hall papers and the New York Times give 1918.[^2][^20] ### Death -She died in 1968.[^1] The FBI's 1969 summary of her son's background lists her as deceased.[^16] +She died in 1968.[^1] The FBI's 1969 summary of her son's background lists her as deceased.[^18] ### Footnotes @@ -121,17 +123,19 @@ She died in 1968.[^1] The FBI's 1969 summary of her son's background lists her a [^2]: Cornell University Library, Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, "Dorothy Whitney Straight Elmhirst papers," #3725, https://archives.library.cornell.edu/repositories/2/resources/1281. [^3]: Christopher Lehmann-Haupt, "Michael Straight, Who Wrote of Connection to Spy Ring, Is Dead at 87," *The New York Times*, January 5, 2004 (Internet Archive copy, https://web.archive.org/web/2016id_/https://www.nytimes.com/2004/01/05/nyregion/michael-straight-who-wrote-of-connection-to-spy-ring-is-dead-at-87.html). [^4]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased During the Year Ending July 1, 1927*, entry for Payne Whitney, B.A. 1898, pp. 171 to 172. https://archive.org/details/obituaryrecordof00yale_4 -[^5]: Alvin Johnson, *Pioneer's Progress* (New York: Viking, 1952; Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1960), p. 233. -[^6]: Peter M. Rutkoff and William B. Scott, *New School: A History of The New School for Social Research* (New York: Free Press, 1986), p. 28. -[^7]: Federal Bureau of Investigation, "Straight, Michael W., HQ-1" (FOI/PA 1179375-1), https://archive.org/details/StraightMichaelW.HQ1, special inquiry reports of September 1969 on the interviews with the publisher of The New Republic and with Alice Winchester, editor of *Antiques*. -[^8]: Rutkoff and Scott, *New School*, pp. 10 and 11. -[^9]: Rutkoff and Scott, *New School*, pp. 19 and 21. -[^10]: Alvin Johnson, *Pioneer's Progress*, pp. 167 and 273. -[^11]: Alvin Johnson, *Pioneer's Progress*, p. 280. -[^12]: Rutkoff and Scott, *New School*, p. 30, Johnson's letter of April 1922 to Dorothy Straight. -[^13]: Rutkoff and Scott, *New School*, p. 35. -[^14]: Tara Mastrelli, "'In the Name of Freedom': a Review of Judith Friedlander's *A Light in Dark Times* (2018, Columbia University Press)," *International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society* 34 (2021), pp. 125-135, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10767-019-09344-5, notes citing the New School Archives and Special Collections and the Dartington Hall Trust Archives; the board tenure, the post-1929 foundation support and the Dartington Hall attribution come from these notes. The characterization of founders by Judith Friedlander, *A Light in Dark Times* (Columbia University Press, 2018), p. 307, which quotes in full a 1952 letter by Johnson, is reported through Mastrelli's review. -[^15]: New York Public Library, Manuscripts and Archives Division, Emergency Committee in Aid of Displaced Foreign Scholars records (MssCol 922), Series IV, box 171, folder 15, "Elmhirst Fund 1934-1935," https://archives.nypl.org/mss/922. -[^16]: FBI, summary memorandum of September 10, 1969 and teletypes of September 1969 on interviews with Milton C. Rose and Harriett K. Evison, in "Straight, Michael W., HQ-1" (FOI/PA 1179375-1), https://archive.org/details/StraightMichaelW.HQ1. -[^17]: FBI, summary memorandum of September 10, 1969 ("Miscellaneous Information"), citing the Washington Times-Herald of December 6, 1952, in "Straight, Michael W., HQ-1." -[^18]: Cornell University Library, Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, "Dorothy Whitney Straight Elmhirst papers from Dartington Hall," #3782, https://archives.library.cornell.edu/repositories/2/resources/1289. +[^5]: Henry H. Klein, *Dynastic America and Those Who Own It* (New York, 1921), section on the Whitney estate. https://archive.org/details/dynasticamericaa00kleirich. +[^6]: "Payne Whitney Dies Suddenly at Home," *The New York Times*, May 26, 1927, p. 25. https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_the-new-york-times_1927-05-26_76_25324. +[^7]: Alvin Johnson, *Pioneer's Progress* (New York: Viking, 1952; Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1960), p. 233. +[^8]: Peter M. Rutkoff and William B. Scott, *New School: A History of The New School for Social Research* (New York: Free Press, 1986), p. 28. +[^9]: Federal Bureau of Investigation, "Straight, Michael W., HQ-1" (FOI/PA 1179375-1), https://archive.org/details/StraightMichaelW.HQ1, special inquiry reports of September 1969 on the interviews with the publisher of The New Republic and with Alice Winchester, editor of *Antiques*. +[^10]: Rutkoff and Scott, *New School*, pp. 10 and 11. +[^11]: Rutkoff and Scott, *New School*, pp. 19 and 21. +[^12]: Alvin Johnson, *Pioneer's Progress*, pp. 167 and 273. +[^13]: Alvin Johnson, *Pioneer's Progress*, p. 280. +[^14]: Rutkoff and Scott, *New School*, p. 30, Johnson's letter of April 1922 to Dorothy Straight. +[^15]: Rutkoff and Scott, *New School*, p. 35. +[^16]: Tara Mastrelli, "'In the Name of Freedom': a Review of Judith Friedlander's *A Light in Dark Times* (2018, Columbia University Press)," *International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society* 34 (2021), pp. 125-135, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10767-019-09344-5, notes citing the New School Archives and Special Collections and the Dartington Hall Trust Archives; the board tenure, the post-1929 foundation support and the Dartington Hall attribution come from these notes. The characterization of founders by Judith Friedlander, *A Light in Dark Times* (Columbia University Press, 2018), p. 307, which quotes in full a 1952 letter by Johnson, is reported through Mastrelli's review. +[^17]: New York Public Library, Manuscripts and Archives Division, Emergency Committee in Aid of Displaced Foreign Scholars records (MssCol 922), Series IV, box 171, folder 15, "Elmhirst Fund 1934-1935," https://archives.nypl.org/mss/922. +[^18]: FBI, summary memorandum of September 10, 1969 and teletypes of September 1969 on interviews with Milton C. Rose and Harriett K. Evison, in "Straight, Michael W., HQ-1" (FOI/PA 1179375-1), https://archive.org/details/StraightMichaelW.HQ1. +[^19]: FBI, summary memorandum of September 10, 1969 ("Miscellaneous Information"), citing the Washington Times-Herald of December 6, 1952, in "Straight, Michael W., HQ-1." +[^20]: Cornell University Library, Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, "Dorothy Whitney Straight Elmhirst papers from Dartington Hall," #3782, https://archives.library.cornell.edu/repositories/2/resources/1289. diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/John Hay Whitney.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/John Hay Whitney.md new file mode 100644 index 00000000..8e996c49 --- /dev/null +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/John Hay Whitney.md @@ -0,0 +1,367 @@ +--- +category: "Business & Finance" +aliases: + - "Jock Whitney" + - "John Hay Whitney" +tags: + - Person + - Whitney + - Payne + - Yale + - Hollywood + - MuseumOfModernArt + - Ciaa + - CiaFoundations + - Qkopera + - HeraldTribune + - ForumWorldFeatures + - VentureCapital + - Ambassador + - Philanthropy +summary: "Financier, film producer, publisher and ambassador, founder of J. H. Whitney and Company; his charitable trust took Granary Fund money and appears in a 1968 CIA memorandum as a QKOPERA funding conduit." +location: "New York City" +relations: + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Payne Whitney]]" + role: "son" + start: 1904 + fn: 2 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Helen Hay Whitney]]" + role: "son" + start: 1904 + fn: 4 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Joan Whitney Payson]]" + role: "brother" + fn: 8 + - type: spouse_of + with: "[[Mary Elizabeth Altemus]]" + start: 1927 + end: 1940 + fn: 2 + - type: spouse_of + with: "[[Betsey Cushing Roosevelt]]" + start: 1942 + end: 1982 + fn: 2 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Scroll and Key]]" + start: 1925 + role: "elected as a member of the Yale class of 1926 after declining Skull and Bones" + fn: 6 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Yale Corporation]]" + start: 1955 + end: 1973 + role: "fellow 1955 to 1970, senior fellow 1970 to 1973" + fn: 2 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Museum of Modern Art]]" + start: 1930 + role: "trustee from 1930, president 1941, chairman 1946 to 1956; president of the Film Library, 1935" + fn: 9 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Selznick International Pictures]]" + start: 1935 + fn: 2 + - type: funded + with: "[[Pioneer Pictures]]" + fn: 2 + - type: head_of + with: "[[CIAA]]" + start: 1942 + end: 1942 + role: "director of the motion picture division" + fn: 14 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[United States Army Air Forces]]" + start: 1942 + end: 1945 + role: "captain, later colonel; staff officer, Mediterranean Allied Air Forces" + fn: 15 + - type: founded + with: "[[J. H. Whitney and Company]]" + start: 1946 + role: "senior partner" + fn: 21 + - type: partner_of + with: "[[William Harding Jackson]]" + start: 1946 + end: 1950 + role: "Jackson was managing director of J. H. Whitney and Company until appointed Deputy Director of Central Intelligence" + fn: 34 + - type: head_of + with: "[[United Republican Finance Committee of New York]]" + start: 1956 + role: "chairman" + fn: 38 + - type: appointed + with: "[[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]" + reverse: true + start: 1957-02-11 + end: 1961-01-14 + role: "ambassador to the United Kingdom" + fn: 40 + - type: owned + with: "[[New York Herald Tribune]]" + start: 1958 + end: 1966 + role: "owner and publisher" + fn: 41 + - type: head_of + with: "[[Whitney Communications]]" + role: "chairman of the board, 1966" + fn: 41 + - type: founded + with: "[[John Hay Whitney Trust for Charitable Purposes]]" + start: 1958-12-29 + fn: 42 + - type: funded + with: "[[Granary Fund]]" + reverse: true + start: 1964 + end: 1965 + role: "gave $225,000 in 1964 and $100,000 in 1965 to the trust" + fn: 42 + - type: owned + with: "[[Forum World Features]]" + start: 1966 + end: 1973 + role: "owner of record, according to officials quoted in 1975" + fn: 43 +created: 2026-10-26 +updated: 2026-10-26 +--- + +John Hay Whitney (August 17, 1904 to February 8, 1982), called Jock, was an American financier, film producer and newspaper publisher, the son of [[Payne Whitney]] and [[Helen Hay Whitney|Helen Hay]] and a member of the [[Whitney family]]. He founded the investment firm [[J. H. Whitney and Company]] in 1946, owned and published the [[New York Herald Tribune]] from 1958 until its New York edition closed in 1966, and was United States ambassador to the [[United Kingdom]] from 1957 to 1961.[^1][^2] + +### Yale and Oxford + +The Yale obituary record for Payne Whitney, who died in 1927, lists the children of his marriage as Joan, the wife of [[Charles S. Payson]] of the class of 1921, and "John Hay, '26, now a student at Oxford University."[^4] The [[The New York Times|New York Times]] obituary of May 26, 1927 places him in another country: "John Hay Whitney, generally known as Jack, is now in Spain playing polo. He is a student at Cambridge University, England."[^5] The Yale record names [[University of Oxford]] and the newspaper names [[University of Cambridge]]. The 1982 obituary in the International Herald Tribune gives New College, Oxford, and the State Department's magazine summarizes his schooling as [[Groton School]], [[Yale University]] and Oxford.[^2][^3] + +The New York Times of May 15, 1925 reported the senior society elections at Yale. Four members of the class of 1926 refused elections to [[Skull and Bones]], "the oldest society": E. P. Cottle of Buffalo, J. H. Whitney of New York, Arthur Milliken and G. G. Mason Jr. Cottle and Whitney accepted elections to [[Scroll and Key]]. The paper added that Whitney had been stroke of the second varsity crew and had been ill that spring.[^6] + +[[Antony C. Sutton]] wrote that eight Whitneys had been members of Skull and Bones, and his list of them runs from [[Emerson Cogswell Whitney]] (1851) through [[Edward Payson Whitney]] (1854), [[James Lyman Whitney]] (1856), [[William Collins Whitney]] (1863), [[Edward Baldwin Whitney]] (1878), [[Joseph Ernest Whitney]] (1882), Payne Whitney (1894) and [[Harry Payne Whitney]] (1898).[^7] + +### Inheritance + +Payne Whitney died at [[Manhasset, New York]] on May 25, 1927. The obituary said that he had been active in aiding Mrs. Whitney in managing the [[Greentree Stables]], and that the couple's liking for sport had apparently descended to their son.[^5] According to the International Herald Tribune obituary, John Hay Whitney took charge of the family's affairs in 1927.[^2] + +The will, as reported by the New York Times on November 23, 1928, left Helen Hay Whitney a life interest in ninety-six parts of the residue, worth $54,202,694, which was to pass to the children on her death. John Hay Whitney received a life interest in forty-eight parts of the residue, valued at $27,191,347, until he reached the age of forty. His sister, Joan Whitney Payson, received the same interest.[^8] + +### Museum of Modern Art and the Film Library + +The [[Museum of Modern Art]] created its Film Library in 1935. The Museum's bulletin for November 1935 credits "the lively interest of [[Abby Aldrich Rockefeller|Mrs. John D. Rockefeller, Jr.]], Mr. John Hay Whitney and Mr. [[Edward M. M. Warburg]]" with bringing about the project, and it lists the officers: "President, John Hay Whitney; Vice-President and General Manager, [[John E. Abbott]]; Treasurer, Edward M. M. Warburg." [[Iris Barry]] was appointed curator.[^9] The plan had been submitted to the [[Rockefeller Foundation]] in April 1935, and the foundation's trustees approved a conditional grant in May. Private subscriptions, according to the bulletin, came from three anonymous donors. The Film Library was announced publicly on June 25, 1935, and its first acquisitions, including [[The Great Train Robbery]] (1903), were announced on July 10.[^9] + +The bulletin for December 1935 prints the Museum's list of trustees. Mrs. John D. Rockefeller, Jr., is named first vice-president of the board. John Hay Whitney appears among the trustees, and Mrs. Charles S. Payson is in the same list.[^10] The 1982 obituary dates his service on the Museum's board from 1930, as president in 1941 and as chairman from 1946 to 1956, and says he became a trustee of the [[National Gallery of Art]] in 1961.[^2] + +### Pioneer Pictures, Selznick International and Gone with the Wind + +The International Herald Tribune obituary says that Whitney backed [[Pioneer Pictures]], the producer of "La Cucaracha," and that he joined [[Selznick International Pictures]] in 1935. It gives the profit of [[Gone with the Wind]] to the investors as $1.1 million.[^2] + +Earlier reports, summarized by the trade press in October 1942, had [[David O. Selznick]] selling his interest in the film to Whitney. Attorneys for Whitney denied that Selznick was selling that interest. They attributed the reports to negotiations for the liquidation of Selznick International Pictures, which had begun some months earlier when Selznick formed his own company, [[David O. Selznick Productions]].[^11] + +### Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs + +In January 1942 the trade weekly [[Motion Picture Herald]] reported that [[Nelson Rockefeller]] and Whitney had selected [[Walt Disney]] as the first [[Hollywood]] producer of films meant to carry a message of goodwill to [[South America]], with South American cartoons to be produced at cost.[^12] A July 1942 issue described the film activities "launched by John Hay Whitney" within Rockefeller's agency, and named [[Francis Alstock]], "formerly Mr. Whitney's aide," as director of the film program.[^13] The issue of October 3, 1942 reported that Alstock "succeeded John Hay Whitney as director of the motion picture division" of Rockefeller's office, which the paper called the Office of Inter-American Affairs. That office was the [[CIAA]].[^14] + +### Army Air Forces, capture and escape + +Whitney joined the Eighth Air Force as a captain in October 1942, according to Newsweek, and from September 1943 served in the Mediterranean on the staff of Lieutenant General [[Ira Eaker|Ira C. Eaker]]. The Record of the [[New York Hospital]] dates his commission to 1942 and his discharge as a colonel to December 1945, with service in the [[United States Army Air Forces|Eighth Air Force]] and later the Mediterranean Allied Air Forces in Italy.[^15][^21] + +On August 21, 1944, four days after his fortieth birthday, Colonel Whitney and four companions were in a jeep in southern France when a hidden German tank opened fire. They dived into a ditch, crawled to a farmhouse and surrendered when the tank shelled it. The Germans put the party on a train that, in Newsweek's phrase, "crept but 100 miles in eleven days," and Whitney and another officer "jumped from the moving train."[^15] The trade weekly Film Daily of August 30, 1944 carried the report of his capture, noting that the War Department had not yet confirmed it.[^16] The Rome headquarters of the Mediterranean Air Forces announced that he had been "captured by the German army in southern France on August 21." The Blood-Horse reported that the train was dive-bombed, shelled by French artillery and attacked by the French underground, and that he escaped while it was moving.[^17] The same weekly's issue of September 30 noted that he had "escaped from German captors on a troop train under fire" in the week that his mother, Helen Hay Whitney, died on September 24, 1944.[^18] The International Herald Tribune obituary describes a midnight escape from a moving troop train under air attack.[^2] A society column in the [[Washington Post]] of October 8, 1944 referred instead to his "escape from a German prison camp."[^19] + +By October 1944 he was on temporary duty at the Pentagon, according to the Motion Picture Herald.[^20] The Legion of Merit, the Bronze Star, the Order of the British Empire and the Legion of Honor (as chevalier) are among his decorations listed by the State Department's magazine.[^3] The State Department announced on October 15, 1945 that Whitney and [[Ralph McGill]] had been appointed special advisers and consultants; Whitney was to work with Assistant Secretary [[William Benton]] and [[Ferdinand Kuhn]] and to advise on relations with the motion-picture industry.[^22] + +### J. H. Whitney and Company + +The Record of the New York Hospital for June 1946 calls J. H. Whitney and Company a "recently formed investment firm" and records that Whitney, a director of [[Freeport Sulphur Company]] and chairman of the board of the Museum of Modern Art, had been elected vice-president of the Hospital Society, with [[William Harding Jackson]] as its president.[^21] A Newton, Massachusetts newspaper of February 1947 stated that the firm "was established early in 1946."[^23] The International Herald Tribune obituary gives the year as 1946, and State magazine says that in 1946 Whitney founded the firm and the [[John Hay Whitney Foundation]]; the obituary dates the foundation to 1949.[^2][^3] + +The trade press recorded the firm's first investments. In June 1946 a "substantial private investment by J. H. Whitney & Company" in [[Spencer Chemical Company]] was reported in a farm-trade journal.[^24] The Commercial and Financial Chronicle of September 1, 1947 reported that an interest in the convertible preferred stock of [[Vacuum Foods Corporation]] had been acquired by the firm, "founded by John Hay Whitney to make equity investments in various ventures," that the [[National Research Corporation]] of Boston, in which the firm also had an interest, held practically all the common stock, and that [[Alexander Standish]], a partner of the firm, and others had been elected directors.[^25] Variety reported in September 1948 that [[Bing Crosby]] had been elected a director of Vacuum Foods, whose product was Minute Maid frozen orange juice, and that the contract arrangements involved [[Philco]] and J. H. Whitney and Company.[^26] Nation's Business of November 1949 described a "$10,000,000 concern established by Jock Whitney, who took in six young associates," which in two years had invested about $4,000,000 in ten concerns, "ranging from highly successful Vacuum Foods."[^27] The biographer [[E. J. Kahn]] named [[Benno Schmidt]] and Jackson among the firm's partners and called Jackson "Whitney's close associate and personal lawyer."[^28] [[Frances Stonor Saunders]] quotes the firm's description of itself as "a partnership dedicated to the propagation of the free-enterprise system."[^29] + +In the security-holder statement that the magazine [[United Nations World]] filed on October 1, 1947, the holders include "Nelson A. Rockefeller," "J. H. Whitney, 630 Fifth Ave.," "[[Max Ascoli]]" and Editorial Publications, Inc.; the owner was United Nations World, Inc., and [[Beatrice Dolivet]].[^30] + +### William H. Jackson and the Central Intelligence Agency + +On May 29, 1947, Jackson wrote on the firm's letterhead at 630 Fifth Avenue to Rear Admiral [[Roscoe H. Hillenkoetter]], then [[Central Intelligence Agency|Director of Central Intelligence]]: "You need only call upon me and I shall do anything within my power to be of assistance." He offered to come to [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] "whenever you request it regardless of other appointments."[^31] A letter of July 30, 1948 to Jackson at the firm came from [[Robert Blum]].[^32] On September 8, 1950 Jackson, writing to Hillenkoetter, proposed to arrive on Tuesday, September 26, to work alongside him before the arrival of General [[Walter Bedell Smith]]; Hillenkoetter's reply of September 11 was addressed to Jackson in care of J. H. Whitney and Company and said that Smith had informed him that Jackson had consented to serve as his deputy.[^33] The employee bulletin of the New York Hospital described Jackson in October 1950 as having been managing director of J. H. Whitney and Company until his call to Washington as the new Deputy Director of the CIA, and recorded that Whitney had succeeded him as president of the Hospital Society in June 1949.[^34] + +A letter of April 25, 1951, on the firm's letterhead, introduced a man who wanted to meet Jackson and had "some idea he wants to discuss." Jackson's reply of April 30 to a member of the firm said he would be glad to see the man if he called.[^35] The [[Eisenhower Library]]'s historical note on the President's Committee on International Information Activities calls Jackson "a managing partner in the investment firm J.H. Whitney and Company, and a former Deputy Director of the Central Intelligence Agency" when it names him chairman of that committee.[^36] + +The CIA's official history of the Walter Bedell Smith years says that when Smith and Jackson could not recruit "men of great prestige with practical experience" for the [[Board of National Estimates]], they created a group of outside advisers who met in [[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]], known as "the Princeton Consultants." The first three members were [[Vannevar Bush]], [[George Kennan]] and [[Hamilton Fish Armstrong]]. The other original members, the history says, were "Alexander Standish, a partner in J. H. Whitney & Company, Barklie Henry, a director of various corporations, and Burton Fahs, director of humanities for the Rockefeller Foundation."[^37] The Eisenhower Library note lists [[Barklie McKee Henry]] among the members of the [[Jackson Committee]].[^36] + +### Republican finance and the 1952 and 1956 campaigns + +The International Herald Tribune obituary calls Whitney an early supporter of [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] in 1952 and a frequent bridge partner of the President, and says he took the London post at Eisenhower's personal insistence. It lists his service on the President's Commission on Foreign Economic Policy and, in 1954 and 1955, as vice chairman of the Secretary of State's Public Committee on Personnel.[^2] + +On September 10, 1956 Whitney testified before the Subcommittee on Privileges and Elections of the Senate Committee on Rules and Administration as chairman of the United Republican Finance Committee of New York, accompanied by [[Walter N. Thayer]]. The committee covered eight counties of the metropolitan area. Its bank balance on September 1, 1956 was $90,544.26, and it had raised $683,559.50 against a goal of between $1.5 million and $1.75 million. It had given $104,688.80 to the Republican National Senatorial Committee, $21,355.46 to the Republican National Congressional Committee, $75,000 to the New York Republican State Committee and $20,044.26 to the Republican National Finance Committee. Whitney said that J. H. Whitney and Company, of which he was senior partner, owned television stations outside New York State, and the subcommittee's record lists a contribution of $1,500 on July 12, 1956 from A. S. Onassis, whom Whitney believed not to be a United States citizen.[^38] + +### The London embassy + +Eisenhower's nomination of Whitney to be Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary to Great Britain, "vice Winthrop W. Aldrich, resigned," was received by the Senate on January 29, 1957, and the Senate Foreign Relations calendar for the hearings records "Feb. 11, confirmed."[^39][^40] The State Department gives his appointment as February 11, 1957, the presentation of his credentials as February 28, 1957, and his departure from the post as January 14, 1961.[^1] + +### New York Herald Tribune + +According to the International Herald Tribune obituary, Whitney Communications lent the paper $1.2 million in 1957, Whitney bought control in 1958 and spent about $40 million before the paper closed on August 15, 1966.[^2] The trade weekly [[Editor & Publisher]] printed a historical note on the paper in August 1966. It records that the Herald and the Tribune were merged in 1924 under Mr. and Mrs. [[Ogden Mills Reid|Ogden M. Reid]], and that the paper, "then in failing financial health, was taken over by John Hay Whitney in 1958."[^41] The same issue prints the statement that Whitney, as chairman of the board of [[Whitney Communications]], read to reporters on August 15, 1966. In it he wrote: "For the years of my ownership, despite the hopes, the talents and the enormous effort that were put into it, the paper was never quite able to stand on its own."[^41] + +The statement attributed the closing to strikes. It said that the three newspapers in the merger "were never able to recover fully from the 114-day strike that ended in 1963," and that the strike of 1966 was more serious still. It said that the [[World Journal Tribune]] had decided not to resume publication of the New York Herald Tribune, and that "the Herald Tribune in New York will not appear again."[^41] Whitney wrote: "I shall continue as publisher of the Herald Tribune in Paris."[^41] The Paris edition was renamed the International Herald Tribune in May 1967, with the Washington Post and then the New York Times as partners.[^2] + +The [[San Francisco Chronicle]] reported in February 1967 that Whitney was the former owner, publisher and editor in chief of the New York Herald Tribune, that he was a one-third partner in its successor, the World Journal Tribune, and that he was a member of that paper's three-man executive board.[^42] + +### Forum World Features + +[[Bernard D. Nossiter]] reported in the Washington Post of July 3, 1975 on the news service [[Forum World Features]], based in [[London]]. "When it began selling articles in 1966, the service's owner of record, according to the officials, was John Hay Whitney," the article states, and "Early in 1973, Whitney was replaced by [[Richard Mellon Scaife]]." The officials were quoted as saying that the service was financed by the CIA. A spokesman for Whitney said he had "no comment on the subject." The article also quotes an apparent internal CIA memorandum of about 1968, published by the magazine Time Out, which described the service as "located in London and incorporated in Delaware" and as begun as a commercial entity in January 1966 from the residue of Forum Service, an activity of the [[Congress for Cultural Freedom]] from which the CIA withdrew its support in 1966. [[Brian Crozier]], the service's president, denied a CIA link.[^43] + +Crozier replied in the Guardian of December 1, 1976 and printed correspondence. He wrote that in the spring of 1965 [[John Hunt]] told him that Whitney had agreed to take over the services. A letter from Hunt of June 10, 1965 gave a starting date of July 1, 1965 and said that Whitney "tentatively plans to put about $100,000 a year into Forum Features," with Crozier as president. A letter of January 24, 1973 from [[Samuel C. Park]] to Crozier recorded Scaife's election as director of Kern House Enterprises Ltd to succeed Whitney. On September 23, 1969 Whitney wrote to Crozier declining an investment in the Current Affairs Research Services Centre. Crozier wrote that Whitney gave his library to the [[Institute for the Study of Conflict]]. The Guardian's accompanying glossary describes Park as "Financial aide to Whitney, and a trustee of his Charitable Trust."[^44] + +Saunders wrote that Forum World Features "was a classic CIA undercover operation, with John Hay Whitney once again acting as a front, registering the company under his name as a Delaware corporation with offices in London."[^45] + +### The Granary Fund and the John Hay Whitney Trust + +The San Francisco Chronicle of February 25, 1967 carried the headline "CIA Link to Charity Funds," over the kicker "Whitney Trust," and began: "A charitable trust established by John Hay Whitney received $325,000 in 1964 and 1965 from the Granary Fund of Boston, used by the Central Intelligence Agency to channel money from front organizations to various organizations here and abroad."[^42] The report described a schedule of contributions that the [[Granary Fund]] filed with the Massachusetts attorney general. The schedule showed that the fund received $300,000 in 1964 from the [[John G. Thornton Trust]], $150,000 from the [[James Carlisle Trust]], and $500 in miscellaneous contributions. Officials who asked not to be named called the Thornton and Carlisle trusts "CIA fronts."[^42] + +The same reports showed that the Granary Fund gave the John Hay Whitney Trust for Charitable Purposes $225,000 in 1964 and $100,000 in 1965. Walter N. Thayer, head of the Whitney communications corporation, stated on Whitney's behalf: "The trust which I established Dec. 29, 1958, for charitable purposes has operated since that date. In accordance with the terms of the trust, several pledges and contributions, all of which have been properly reported, have been made to a number of tax-exempt organizations in which I have been interested."[^42] + +The [[Los Angeles Times]] reported on February 26, 1967 that the [[Internal Revenue Service]] had not produced records for the Granary Fund, the Warden Trust and others, and that the American Newspaper Guild "received $200,000 in 1960-63 from the granary funds." The report said that the CIA had passed about $4 million over fifteen years to the [[National Student Association]]. [[Wright Patman]], chairman of the [[House Committee on Small Business]], had named the [[Edsel Fund|Edsel]], [[Beacon Fund|Beacon]], [[Michigan Fund|Michigan]], [[Price Fund|Price]], [[Kentfield Fund|Kentfield]] and [[Andrew Hamilton Fund|Andrew Hamilton]] funds, the [[Borden Trust]] and the [[Gotham Foundation]] as contributors to the [[J. M. Kaplan Fund]], which he said served as a conduit for CIA money.[^46] + +A Washington Post report of February 21, 1967 by [[Andrew J. Glass]] listed ten foundations without tax reports on file (the Appalachian Fund, Broad-High, Chesapeake, the Foundation for Youth and Student Affairs, Gotham, the Granary Fund of Boston, the Andrew Hamilton Fund, Jones-O'Donnell, the Michigan Fund and the San Jacinto Fund) that "have been named by Government officials, by the head of the CIA-financed National Student Association or in the press as connected to the Government's secret intelligence arm. None of them have chosen to deny these allegations."[^47] + +Time of March 3, 1967 listed the recipients of "CIA-suspect largesse" as "an encyclopedic grab bag of organizations ranging from the now defunct Institute of International Labor Research Inc. ... to the Billy Graham Spanish-American crusade, from the North American Secretariat of Pax Romana and the John Hay Whitney Trust for Charitable Purposes to the International Food and Drink Workers Federation and the Friends of India Committee."[^48] In their book of 1967, [[David Wise]] and [[Thomas B. Ross]] wrote: "John Hay Whitney, former ambassador to Great Britain and owner of the New York Herald Tribune, was founder of the Whitney Trust, a philanthropic organization financed in part by the Granary Fund, the CIA conduit."[^49] The anthropologist [[David H. Price]] lists the trust in his table of foundations named in 1967 as CIA conduits, citing the press reports of that year.[^50] + +The CIA's own paper on the subject is a memorandum of November 1968 from [[Charles Katek]], Chief of the Central Cover Staff, to the Deputy Director for Plans, on the scope and possible damage of new allegations by [[Ramparts]] magazine. It records that early in April 1968 the Office of the General Counsel gave the Central Cover Staff a copy of an April 5, 1968 letter to the Internal Revenue Service from Ramparts, with a list of 145 tax-exempt organizations that the magazine said were suspected of having been funded by or of having cooperated with the CIA. The memorandum's annex of terminated covert funding conduits and project organizations that the press had named lists the Granary Fund of Boston as a Central Cover Staff proprietary (designator LPSIPHON/7), and lists the Whitney Trust for Charitable Purposes, John Hay, as a "Funding conduit under Project QKOPERA (LPCORSET/68)." It gives two entries for the trust, under the Ramparts list numbers 141 and 142, with the instrument dated December 29, 1959 in one and December 29, 1958 in the other. QKOPERA is the project designation the same memorandum gives for the Congress for Cultural Freedom, and the [[Farfield Foundation]] appears in the annex as a "Funding conduit for CCF." Another entry, on the [[Institute of International Education]], records that the Institute received legitimate grants from six foundations that the CIA used as cooperating covert funding mechanisms, among them the McGregor Fund, the John Hay Whitney Charitable Trust (items 141 and 142), the Aaron Norman Fund, the Cleveland Dodge Foundation, the William Benton Foundation and the Brown Foundation of Houston.[^51] + +The CIA answered a Freedom of Information Act request of January 11, 1980 for information on "the John Hay Whitney Trust for Charitable Purposes and the Granary Fund" with a letter of May 28, 1985. The Agency located two responsive documents, dated December 10, 1968 and January 23, 1969, and withheld both in their entirety under exemptions (b)(1) and (b)(3) of the Act.[^52] + +The [[Church Committee]] stated in its final report that "Until 1967 the Agency also maintained covert ties to American foundations in order to pass funds secretly to private groups whose work the CIA supported." It added that most of the funds for the youth and student programs and for labor in fiscal year 1967 "were transmitted through legitimate or 'devised' foundations, that is, fictitious entities established by the CIA," and that, excluding grants from Ford, Rockefeller and Carnegie, "of the 700 grants over $10,000 given by 164 other foundations during the period 1963-1966, at least 108 involved partial or complete CIA funding."[^53] + +Saunders lists "the Whitney Trust" among the conduits of the period and writes that "as a trustee, Cornelius allowed the Whitney Trust to be used as a CIA conduit," in a passage on [[Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney]].[^54] + +### The Katzenbach Committee + +The [[Katzenbach Committee]] received the CIA paper of February 23, 1967 on "Coordination and Policy Approval of Covert Operations."[^55] A CIA memorandum of June 9, 1967 concerns the administrative plans for "Projects Affected by the Katzenbach Report."[^56] + +### Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board + +On March 26, 1969, [[Henry A. Kissinger]] wrote to [[Peter Flanigan]] about Whitney's interest in the [[President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board|Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board]]. The memorandum reads: "You should know that this has twice been raised with the President and rejected both times."[^57] + +### Later years and death + +Whitney was a director of [[Dun and Bradstreet]] from 1971 to 1975. He served as a fellow of the [[Yale Corporation]] from 1955 to 1970 and as senior fellow from 1970 to 1973. He married Mary Elizabeth Altemus in 1927 (divorced in 1940) and, in 1942, Betsey Cushing Roosevelt.[^2] + +He died on Monday, February 8, 1982, at North Shore Hospital in Manhasset, New York, of heart failure according to the International Herald Tribune, which put his age at 77 and named a funeral at Christ Episcopal Church, Manhasset, on the Friday. The State Department's magazine, in March 1982, gave the cause as "a heart ailment."[^2][^3] + +### Footnotes + +[^1]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, "John Hay Whitney (1904-1982)," Principal Officers and Chiefs of Mission, United Kingdom (appointed February 11, 1957; credentials February 28, 1957; left post January 14, 1961). https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/whitney-john-hay. + +[^2]: "John Hay Whitney Is Dead; Publisher, Financier Was 77" and obituary, *International Herald Tribune*, February 9, 1982, p. 1 and p. 5 (born Ellsworth, Maine, August 17, 1904; died Monday at North Shore Hospital, Manhasset, of heart failure; funeral at Christ Episcopal Church, Manhasset; New College, Oxford; family affairs from 1927; Pioneer Pictures; Selznick International 1935; J. H. Whitney and Company 1946; Eisenhower 1952; Herald Tribune loan of $1.2 million in 1957 and control in 1958; Dun and Bradstreet 1971 to 1975; Museum of Modern Art; Yale Corporation; marriages). https://archive.org/details/InternationalHeraldTribune1982FranceEnglish. + +[^3]: *State* magazine, March 1982, obituary of John Hay Whitney (died of a heart ailment at North Shore Hospital, Manhasset, on February 8; "Educated at Groton, Yale and Oxford"; Legion of Merit, Bronze Star, Order of the British Empire, chevalier of the Legion of Honor; founded J. H. Whitney and Company and the John Hay Whitney Foundation in 1946). https://archive.org/details/sim_state-magazine_1982-03_243. + +[^4]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased During the Year Ending July 1, 1927*, entry for Payne Whitney, B.A. 1898, p. 172 (children: "Joan, the wife of Charles S. Payson, '21, and John Hay, '26, now a student at Oxford University"). https://archive.org/details/obituaryrecordof00yale_4. + +[^5]: "Payne Whitney Dies Suddenly at Home," *The New York Times*, May 26, 1927, p. 1, continued p. 25 (death at Manhasset; "John Hay Whitney, generally known as Jack, is now in Spain playing polo. He is a student at Cambridge University, England"; Mrs. Whitney and the Greentree Stables). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_the-new-york-times_1927-05-26_76_25324. + +[^6]: Report on Yale senior society elections, *The New York Times*, May 15, 1925 (four members of the class of 1926 refused elections to Skull and Bones; Cottle and Whitney accepted elections to Scroll and Key). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_the-new-york-times_1925-05-15_74_24583. + +[^7]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), Whitney family section ("Eight Whitneys have been members of The Order") and the index of members by class year. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones. + +[^8]: "$178,893,655 Estate, Record for America," *The New York Times*, November 23, 1928, section "Bequests to His Family" (Helen Hay Whitney: life interest in ninety-six parts of the residue, $54,202,694; John Hay Whitney: life interest in forty-eight parts, $27,191,347, until age forty; Joan Whitney Payson: the same interest). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1928-11-23_78_25871. + +[^9]: "The Film Library," *The Bulletin of The Museum of Modern Art*, vol. 3, no. 2 (November 1935) (lively interest of Mrs. John D. Rockefeller, Jr., John Hay Whitney and Edward M. M. Warburg; officers; Rockefeller Foundation conditional grant; announcement June 25, 1935; first acquisitions July 10). https://archive.org/details/sim_museum-of-modern-art-bulletin_1935-11_3_2. + +[^10]: *The Bulletin of The Museum of Modern Art*, vol. 3, no. 3 (December 1935), list of Trustees (Mrs. John D. Rockefeller, Jr., first vice-president; John Hay Whitney; Mrs. Charles S. Payson). https://archive.org/details/sim_museum-of-modern-art-bulletin_1935-12_3_3. + +[^11]: "Selznick Decides," *Motion Picture Herald*, October 10, 1942 (earlier reports had Selznick selling his interest in "Gone With the Wind" to Mr. Whitney; attorneys for Whitney denied it; liquidation of Selznick International; David O. Selznick Productions). https://archive.org/details/motionpictureher1481unse. + +[^12]: "Rockefeller and Whitney Hire Disney to Make Goodwill Films," *Motion Picture Herald*, January 10, 1942 (selection of Walt Disney by Nelson Rockefeller and John Hay Whitney; South American cartoons to be produced at cost). https://archive.org/details/motionpictureher146unse. + +[^13]: *Motion Picture Herald*, July 4, 1942, report on the Office of Inter-American Affairs film appropriation ("the film activities launched by John Hay Whitney"; "Francis Alstock, formerly Mr. Whitney's aide, is now director of the film program"). https://archive.org/details/motionpictureher148unse. + +[^14]: *Motion Picture Herald*, October 3, 1942, notes on staff changes in the motion picture staff of Nelson Rockefeller's Office of Inter-American Affairs ("Francis Alstock, who succeeded John Hay Whitney as director of the motion picture division"). https://archive.org/details/motionpictureher1481unse. + +[^15]: "Jock's Escape," *Newsweek*, September 25, 1944 (Eighth Air Force captain, October 1942; Mediterranean staff of Lt. Gen. Ira C. Eaker from September 1943; capture on August 21, 1944; train "crept but 100 miles in eleven days"; jumped from the moving train). https://archive.org/details/sim_newsweek-us_1944-09-25_24_13. + +[^16]: "Col. John Hay Whitney Reported Captured By Nazis While Serving With AAF In France," *Film Daily*, vol. 86, no. 42, August 30, 1944. https://archive.org/details/filmdaily86wids. + +[^17]: "Jock Whitney's Narrow Escape," *The Blood-Horse*, September 23, 1944 (announcement from the Rome headquarters of the Mediterranean Air Forces; train bombed, shelled and attacked by the French underground). https://archive.org/details/sim_blood-horse_1944-09-23_42_13. + +[^18]: *The Blood-Horse*, September 30, 1944 (escape "from German captors on a troop train under fire"; death of Helen Hay Whitney, September 24, 1944). https://archive.org/details/sim_blood-horse_1944-09-30_42_14. + +[^19]: *The Washington Post*, October 8, 1944, society column ("escape from a German prison camp"). https://archive.org/details/per_washington-post_1944-10-08_24951. + +[^20]: *Motion Picture Herald*, October 7, 1944 (temporary duty at the Pentagon). https://archive.org/details/motionpictureher1561unse. + +[^21]: "Board Elects New President and Vice-President," *Record of The New York Hospital*, June 1946 (Jackson president; Whitney vice-president, succeeding G. Beekman Hoppin; "recently formed investment firm of J. H. Whitney & Co."; Whitney commissioned a captain in 1942, colonel by discharge in December 1945; director of Freeport Sulphur; chairman of the Museum of Modern Art board). https://archive.org/details/record1946newy. + +[^22]: U.S. Department of State, *Department of State Bulletin*, vol. 13, no. 330 (October 21, 1945) (announcement of October 15 appointing Ralph McGill and Col. John Hay Whitney special advisers and consultants). https://archive.org/details/dsb1945. + +[^23]: *The Newton Graphic*, February 1947, announcement of an appointment to J. H. Whitney and Company ("was established early in 1946"). https://archive.org/details/NewtonGraphicFeb_1947. + +[^24]: *Croplife*, June 15, 1946, report of a "substantial private investment by J. H. Whitney & Company" in Spencer Chemical Company. https://archive.org/details/sim_croplife_1946-06-15_104_12. + +[^25]: *The Commercial and Financial Chronicle*, September 1, 1947, vol. 166, entry for Vacuum Foods Corp. ("founded by John Hay Whitney to make equity investments in various ventures"). https://archive.org/details/sim_commercial-and-financial-chronicle_1947-09-01_166_18. + +[^26]: *Variety*, September 15, 1948 (Bing Crosby elected a director of Vacuum Foods; Minute Maid; Philco and J. H. Whitney and Company). https://archive.org/details/sim_variety_1948-09-15_172_2. + +[^27]: *Nation's Business*, November 1949 (J. H. Whitney and Company, "a $10,000,000 concern established by Jock Whitney, who took in six young associates"; about $4,000,000 in ten concerns). https://archive.org/details/Nations-Business-1949-11. + +[^28]: E. J. Kahn Jr., *Jock: The Life and Times of John Hay Whitney* (Doubleday, 1981) (Benno Schmidt and William H. Jackson of J. H. Whitney and Company; "Whitney's close associate and personal lawyer Bill Jackson"). https://archive.org/details/jocklifetimes00kahn. + +[^29]: Frances Stonor Saunders, *Who Paid the Piper? The CIA and the Cultural Cold War* (Granta, 1999), account of Whitney and the firm ("a partnership dedicated to the propagation of the free-enterprise system"). + +[^30]: *United Nations World*, December 1947 (Vol. 1, No. 10), statement of ownership, management and circulation for October 1, 1947. https://archive.org/details/united-nations-world_1947-12_1_10. + +[^31]: William H. Jackson to Rear Admiral R. H. Hillenkoetter, letter of May 29, 1947, on J. H. Whitney & Co. letterhead, 630 Fifth Avenue (CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP80B01676R004000040034-9). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r004000040034-9. + +[^32]: Robert Blum to William H. Jackson, letter of July 30, 1948, at J. H. Whitney and Co. (CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP86B00269R000500050033-5). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP86B00269R000500050033-5. + +[^33]: Jackson to Hillenkoetter, September 8, 1950, and Hillenkoetter to Jackson, September 11, 1950 (CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP80R01731R000500470011-8). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R000500470011-8. + +[^34]: *The Pulse*, October 15, 1950, notice of the appointment of William H. Jackson as Deputy Director (employee bulletin of The New York Hospital). https://archive.org/details/pulse1519newy_6. + +[^35]: J. H. Whitney & Co. letter of April 25, 1951 to William H. Jackson, and Jackson's reply of April 30, 1951 to a member of the firm (CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP80R01731R003000220018-0). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003000220018-0. + +[^36]: Dwight D. Eisenhower Library, *U.S. President's Committee on International Information Activities (Jackson Committee): Records, 1950-53*, finding aid, historical note (Jackson as chairman, "a managing partner in the investment firm J.H. Whitney and Company, and a former Deputy Director of the Central Intelligence Agency"; members including Barklie McKee Henry; report presented June 30, 1953). https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/finding-aids/pdf/us-presidents-committee-on-international-information-activities.pdf. + +[^37]: Central Intelligence Agency, "General Walter Bedell Smith as Director of Central Intelligence, October 1950 to February 1953," vol. III (CREST document 00669377), passage on the Board of National Estimates and the Princeton Consultants. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-00669377. + +[^38]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Rules and Administration, Subcommittee on Privileges and Elections, hearings of September 10 and 11, 1956, testimony of John Hay Whitney, from p. 38. https://archive.org/details/sim_united-states-congress-hearings-prints-and-reports_september-10-and-11-1956. + +[^39]: *Congressional Record*, Senate, January 29, 1957 (nomination of John Hay Whitney "to be Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of the United States of America to Great Britain, vice Winthrop W. Aldrich, resigned"). + +[^40]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, hearings print for 1957, calendar of nominations ("Feb. 11, confirmed"). https://archive.org/details/sim_united-states-congress-hearings-prints-and-reports_1957_11. + +[^41]: "Herald Tribune" historical note and text of John Hay Whitney's statement of August 15, 1966 ("chairman of the board of Whitney Communications Inc."; "the Herald Tribune in New York will not appear again"), *Editor & Publisher*, vol. 99, no. 34 (August 20, 1966), pp. 11 to 12. https://archive.org/details/sim_editor-publisher_1966-08-20_99_34. + +[^42]: "CIA Link to Charity Funds," *San Francisco Chronicle*, February 25, 1967 (Granary Fund schedule with the Thornton and Carlisle trusts; the John Hay Whitney Trust for Charitable Purposes receiving $225,000 in 1964 and $100,000 in 1965; statement of Walter N. Thayer; Whitney as former owner of the Herald Tribune and one-third partner in the World Journal Tribune; CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP75-00149R000800060024-5). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00149r000800060024-5. + +[^43]: Bernard D. Nossiter, "CIA News Service," *The Washington Post*, July 3, 1975, p. A26. https://archive.org/details/nsia-CIAForumWorldFeatures. + +[^44]: Brian Crozier, reply to the *Guardian*, December 1, 1976, with printed correspondence of John Hunt (June 10, 1965), Samuel C. Park (January 24, 1973) and John Hay Whitney (September 23, 1969), and glossary. https://archive.org/details/crozier-replies-to-gaurdian-by-peter-chippendale-martin-walker-the-gaurdian-december-1-1976-pp.-1-9. + +[^45]: Frances Stonor Saunders, *Who Paid the Piper?* (1999), pp. 311 to 312, on Forum World Features. + +[^46]: Don Irwin and Vincent J. Burke, "21 Foundations, Union Got Money From CIA," *Los Angeles Times*, February 26, 1967 (Granary Fund to the American Newspaper Guild; National Student Association; Patman's list; CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP75-00149R000600210002-4). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00149r000600210002-4. + +[^47]: Andrew J. Glass, "Foundations Fail to File Tax Report," *The Washington Post*, February 21, 1967 (CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP73-00475R000101290002-3). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp73-00475r000101290002-3. + +[^48]: "Pandora's Cashbox," *Time*, March 3, 1967 (CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP70B00338R000200230042-5). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp70b00338r000200230042-5. + +[^49]: David Wise and Thomas B. Ross, *The Espionage Establishment* (Random House, 1967), p. 144. + +[^50]: David H. Price, *Cold War Anthropology* (Duke University Press, 2016), Table 7.3, p. 172, citing Kenworthy 1967 and *Time* 1967. + +[^51]: Charles Katek, Chief, Central Cover Staff, memorandum for the Deputy Director for Plans, "Indications of the Scope and Possible Damage of New Allegations by Ramparts Magazine," November 1968, with annexes (JFK Assassination Records, 2025 release, 104-10059-10026). https://archive.org/details/JFK-Assassination-Records-2025-Batch01-02. + +[^52]: Central Intelligence Agency, Information and Privacy Coordinator, letter of May 28, 1985 responding to the Freedom of Information Act request of January 11, 1980 (CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP87B00858R000500640014-6). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP87B00858R000500640014-6. + +[^53]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Final Report*, Book I, S. Rept. 94-755 (1976), pp. 182 to 183. https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel01unit. + +[^54]: Frances Stonor Saunders, *Who Paid the Piper?* (1999), pp. 134 to 135 (conduits) and p. 285 (Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney). + +[^55]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum for the record, March 1, 1967, covering "23 February 1967 Paper for the Katzenbach Committee Entitled 'Coordination and Policy Approval of Covert Operations'" (CIA reading room, CIA-RDP82R00025R000800020009-7). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp82r00025r000800020009-7. + +[^56]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum of June 9, 1967, "Projects Affected by the Katzenbach Report" (CIA reading room, CIA-RDP84-00780R001900020012-9). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84-00780r001900020012-9. + +[^57]: Henry A. Kissinger to Peter Flanigan, memorandum of March 26, 1969, "Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board, John Hay Whitney" (CIA reading room copy, LOC-HAK-1-2-69-2). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-loc-hak-1-2-69-2. diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Payne Whitney.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Payne Whitney.md new file mode 100644 index 00000000..26075e39 --- /dev/null +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Payne Whitney.md @@ -0,0 +1,342 @@ +--- +category: "Business & Finance" +aliases: + - "Payne Whitney" + - "William Payne Whitney" + - "W. Payne Whitney" +tags: + - Person + - Whitney + - Payne + - Yale + - SkullAndBones + - StandardOil + - Philanthropy + - NewYorkHospital + - CornellMedical + - Thoroughbred + - Greentree + - GreatNorthernPaper + - NorthernFinance + - NewYorkHeraldTribune +summary: "Yale 1898 and Skull and Bones member, financier, and nephew and heir of Oliver Hazard Payne, whose estate, appraised in 1928 at $178,893,655 net, was the largest reported in the United States." +born: 1876-03-20 +died: 1927-05-25 +location: "New York City; Manhasset, New York" +relations: + - type: member_of + with: "[[Skull and Bones]]" + start: 1898 + role: "member, per the Yale Obituary Record for 1927" + fn: 3 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Jockey Club]]" + role: "member and steward" + fn: 16 + - type: founded + with: "[[Yale Aviation Corps]]" + start: 1916 + role: "formed in June 1916" + fn: 24 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Great Northern Paper Company]]" + start: 1903 + end: 1927 + role: "director and member of the executive board" + fn: 14 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Northern Finance Corporation]]" + start: 1911 + end: 1927 + role: "director and vice president" + fn: 14 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Whitney Realty Company]]" + start: 1910 + end: 1927 + fn: 14 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Knickerbocker Trust Company]]" + start: 1907 + role: "director in 1907 per a company advertisement" + fn: 12 + - type: director_of + with: "[[United States Trust Company]]" + start: 1905 + role: "trustee" + fn: 16 + - type: director_of + with: "[[First National Bank of New York]]" + start: 1924 + fn: 16 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Westchester Racing Association]]" + start: 1925 + fn: 16 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Vanadium Corporation of America]]" + start: 1923 + role: "chairman of the executive committee and director" + fn: 16 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]" + start: 1922 + end: 1927 + role: "trustee" + fn: 16 + - type: director_of + with: "[[New York Public Library]]" + start: 1915 + end: 1927 + role: "trustee" + fn: 16 + - type: director_of + with: "[[New York Hospital]]" + start: 1912 + end: 1927 + role: "board of governors; vice president from 1919" + fn: 16 + - type: owned + with: "[[Northern Finance Corporation]]" + end: 1927 + role: "half interest, 50,000 shares, appraised at $125,521,612" + fn: 30 + - type: owned + with: "[[Great Northern Paper Company]]" + end: 1927 + role: "160,032 shares appraised at $10,242,048 at death" + fn: 35 + - type: funded + with: "[[New York Public Library]]" + start: 1923 + role: "gift of $2,000,000" + fn: 16 + - type: funded + with: "[[New York Hospital]]" + start: 1927 + role: "bequest of thirty-three parts of the residue, $18,632,176 as appraised" + fn: 40 + - type: funded + with: "[[Payne Whitney Psychiatric Clinic]]" + start: 1927 + role: "bequest by will, per the Weill Cornell history" + fn: 39 + - type: funded + with: "[[Cornell University Medical College]]" + start: 1927 + role: "bequest by will, per the Weill Cornell history" + fn: 39 + - type: spouse_of + with: "[[Helen Hay Whitney]]" + start: 1902 + end: 1927 + role: "married February 6, 1902, in Washington" + fn: 20 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[William Collins Whitney]]" + role: "son" + fn: 1 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Flora Payne]]" + role: "son" + fn: 1 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Oliver Hazard Payne]]" + role: "nephew" + fn: 4 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Harry Payne Whitney]]" + role: "brother" + fn: 49 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Dorothy Payne Whitney]]" + role: "brother" + fn: 63 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Pauline Whitney Paget]]" + role: "brother" + fn: 63 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[John Hay Whitney]]" + role: "father" + fn: 20 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Joan Whitney Payson]]" + role: "father" + fn: 20 +created: 2026-10-26 +updated: 2026-10-26 +--- +William Payne Whitney (March 20, 1876 to May 25, 1927) was a New York financier and sportsman, son of [[William Collins Whitney]] and [[Flora Payne]] of the [[Whitney family]], a member of the [[Yale University]] class of 1898 and of [[Skull and Bones]], and, with his sister [[Pauline Whitney Paget]] and four other nephews and nieces, a beneficiary of the holding company that his uncle [[Oliver Hazard Payne]] of [[Standard Oil]] set aside for the family. His brother was [[Harry Payne Whitney]].[^1] His estate, appraised in November 1928 at $194,328,514 gross and $178,893,655 net, was described as the largest ever appraised in the United States.[^2] + +### Family and Yale + +Whitney was born in New York City, the second son of William C. Whitney, and attended Harrington's School at Westminster, Massachusetts, and [[Groton School]] before Yale. At Yale he rowed on the Freshman, Sophomore and Junior crews, substituted for the University Crew in his Sophomore year and captained the Senior crew at the bow. The Yale record lists him as a member of "Hé Boulé, Delta Kappa Epsilon, and Skull and Bones." Its list of Yale relatives names Henry F. Dimock (1863), Oliver Hazard Payne (1863), Henry W. Payne (1867) and Charles W. Bingham (1868) as uncles, [[Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney]] (1922) as a nephew and Harry Payne Bingham (1910) as a cousin.[^3] Oliver Payne's own record gives Henry W. Payne's death as 1878 and names the three nephews who attended Yale: Harry Payne Whitney (1894), Payne Whitney (1898) and Harry Payne Bingham (1910).[^4] + +He served about fifteen years on the Yale Graduate Crew Committee, retiring in 1923, and sat on the committee for the Bob Cook Memorial Boat House.[^5] A New Haven dispatch of May 25, 1927 recorded that he rowed in the Yale crews of 1897 and 1898 against Harvard and Cornell, in the first year at Poughkeepsie and in the second on the Thames, went to the Henley regatta in 1896 as a substitute with the crew that [[Robert J. Cook]] took to England, and presented to Yale the dormitory for the varsity oarsmen at the rowing camp at Gales Ferry. His yacht was at the oarsmen's service each year during their stay there, and the Yale crew coach Ed Leader, the dispatch said, had come east from the West largely through Whitney's influence.[^6] The same newspaper's obituary said that he was known to have made many gifts to Yale, always anonymously, and to have aided classmates in finishing their courses.[^7] + +### Skull and Bones and Sutton's account + +[[Antony C. Sutton]] wrote that the two sons of William Collins Whitney, "Harry Payne ('94) and Payne Whitney ('98)," "went to Yale and became members of The Order."[^8] Sutton's index of members by class year prints "1894 Payne Whitney, Finance: Knickerbocker Trust Co." and "1898 Harry Payne Whitney, Finance: Guaranty Trust and Guggenheim Exploration Co.," reversing the class years that his own text gives; the Yale record gives Payne Whitney's class as 1898.[^9] Sutton's chart "Hypothesis Number One" places the Whitney family, dated to 1635 at Watertown, Massachusetts, among the old-line families and the Payne family under Standard Oil among the new-wealth families.[^10] He wrote that Harry Payne Whitney "inherited two Standard Oil fortunes from the Payne and the Whitney families," and that the original capital of the [[Guaranty Trust Company]] "came from the Whitney, Rockefeller, Harriman and Vanderbilt families, all represented in The Order."[^11] + +A 1907 advertisement of the [[Knickerbocker Trust Company]] lists among its directors Charles T. Barney, A. H. Barney, Henry F. Dimock and Payne Whitney.[^12] [[Charles Tracy Barney]], the company's deposed president, shot himself at his home on November 14, 1907, in the panic of that year. He had married Lilly Whitney, a sister of William C. Whitney, and the Yale record lists Dimock as Payne Whitney's uncle.[^3][^13] + +### Harvard Law and the business appointments + +Whitney took an LL.B. at [[Harvard Law School]] in 1901. The Yale record says he was admitted to the New York bar and shortly afterwards became engaged in business. From 1903 to 1927 he was a director and member of the executive board of the [[Great Northern Paper Company]]; he was director and vice president of the [[Northern Finance Corporation]] from 1911 and a director of the [[Whitney Realty Company]] from 1910.[^14] A New York directory of 1916 lists the Great Northern Paper directors as Garret Schenck (president), Frank S. Rollins, William A. Whitcomb, Edward H. Haskell, Lewis C. Ledyard Jr., William C. Powers, [[Lewis Cass Ledyard]], Payne Whitney and Eugene Hale Jr., and lists the Northern Finance Corporation with Lewis Cass Ledyard as president and Payne Whitney as vice president.[^15] + +The Yale record further lists a trusteeship of the [[United States Trust Company]] from June 6, 1905, a directorship of the [[First National Bank of New York]] from January 8, 1924, a directorship of the [[Westchester Racing Association]] from January 8, 1925, and the chairmanship of the executive committee and a directorship of the [[Vanadium Corporation of America]] from September 1923. He was a former director of the [[Northern Pacific Railroad]] and a member of the Board of Stewards of the [[Jockey Club]].[^16] A biographical directory of 1926 gives the same boards in short form: director of Great Northern Paper and of the First National Bank, vice president of the Whitney Realty Company and of the Northern Finance Corporation, trustee of the United States Trust Company, vice president of the Society of the New York Hospital, and trustee of the New York Public Library and of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, with an office at 14 Wall Street.[^17] The June 1907 list of trustees of the United States Trust Company, which had Edward W. Sheldon as president, includes Lewis Cass Ledyard, D. O. Mills, William Rockefeller, John S. Kennedy and Payne Whitney.[^18] + +The New York Times named the Great Northern Paper Company, the First National Bank of New York, the Whitney Realty Company and the Northern Finance Company as the larger businesses with which he was prominently identified. It reported that Wall Street put his wealth at more than $100,000,000 on the basis of his income tax: in 1924 he paid $2,041,951, the third largest individual payment in the country behind Henry Ford and John D. Rockefeller Jr., and in 1925 he paid $1,676,626, the fifth largest, behind Rockefeller, Ford, Edsel Ford and Secretary of the Treasury Andrew W. Mellon.[^19] + +### Marriage to Helen Hay + +On February 6, 1902, in [[Washington, D.C.]], Whitney married [[Helen Hay Whitney]], daughter of [[John Hay]], then Secretary of State, and of Clara Louise Stone Hay, sister of his Yale classmate Adelbert S. Hay.[^20] The Chicago Daily Tribune reported on November 29, 1901 that Whitney, "whose engagement to the daughter of Secretary Hay has just been announced," had attended Mr. Clews as best man at a wedding.[^21] The Times recorded that President and Mrs. Roosevelt attended the Washington wedding and that a house at 972 Fifth Avenue was among the wedding gifts.[^22] + +The Yale record names their children as Joan, the wife of [[Charles S. Payson]] of the Yale class of 1921, and [[John Hay Whitney]], of the class of 1926, then a student at the [[University of Oxford]].[^20] The Times placed him in May 1927 at Cambridge University, in Spain playing polo when his father died.[^23] + +### The Yale Aviation Corps + +In June 1916 Whitney formed the [[Yale Aviation Corps]]. The Yale Obituary Record entry for [[Albert Dillon Sturtevant]], Ph.B. 1916, says that Sturtevant enrolled in the corps "formed by Payne Whitney, '98, in June, 1916," trained on Long Island and later on government machines at Governors Island, and in the fall of 1916 enrolled in Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 1, organized by [[F. Trubee Davison]] of the class of 1918 and afterward known as the Huntington Unit. He was commissioned an ensign in the Naval Reserve Flying Corps on March 26, 1917.[^24] + +### The inheritance from Oliver Hazard Payne + +The Yale record gives Oliver Hazard Payne's career as follows: he entered the Cleveland oil refining business with [[James B. Clark]], [[John Huntington]] later became a partner, the business was absorbed by Standard Oil, and Payne was its treasurer until 1884, when he moved to New York City and thereafter sat on its board. He died at his New York home on June 27, 1917, after an illness of eight months, and was buried in [[Cleveland, Ohio|Cleveland]].[^25] + +His will, reported in July 1917, left cash bequests of more than $7,000,000 to charitable and educational institutions, with $1,000,000 each to [[Lakeside Hospital]] in Cleveland, Yale and the New York Public Library and a permanent endowment of $500,000 for [[Cornell University Medical College]]. Payne Whitney received most of the household and personal effects, the yacht [[Aphrodite]], then in commission for the federal government, the [[Greenwood Plantation]] at [[Thomasville, Georgia]], and all real estate except a country place in [[Ulster County, New York]], which went with a legacy of $2,000,000 to another nephew, [[Harry Payne Bingham]]. Harry Payne Whitney received a painting of Mr. Payne.[^26] The Evening World's headline was "Payne Whitney and Harry Payne Bingham Favored Over Other Direct Heirs"; the residue went in equal shares to the nephews and nieces, Payne Whitney, Pauline Whitney Paget, Harry Payne Bingham, William Bingham 2d, Elizabeth R. Blossom and [[Frances Payne Bolton]].[^27] + +Payne Whitney's share of his father's estate had come earlier. [[Henry H. Klein]] gave William C. Whitney's estate as $23,000,000 at his death in 1904, with $2,049,743 to Payne Whitney, $10,248,717 to Harry Payne Whitney and $6,149,230 to [[Dorothy Payne Whitney]], and Standard Oil stocks among the holdings valued at $7,078,400.[^28] The Times wrote in 1927 that about one fifth of the elder Whitney's fortune went to Payne, who then inherited several millions from his uncle Colonel Payne, a founder of Standard Oil and a heavy stockholder in the Singer Sewing Machine Company and the American Tobacco Company.[^29] + +### Northern Finance Corporation + +The Northern Finance Corporation was a holding company for securities. The New York Times reported on November 23, 1928 that it grew from a fund of many millions set aside some years earlier for Payne Whitney and others by his uncle Colonel Oliver H. Payne, "long a director of the Standard Oil Company of New Jersey," when he wished to be relieved of the care of Standard Oil subsidiaries and other stocks, with the stock of the holding company going to Payne Whitney and, in trusteeship, to five other nephews and nieces. The stock, of a par value of only $5,000,000, had risen continually in value. Whitney's half interest, 50,000 shares, was appraised at $125,521,612; the corporation's total assets were $266,536,458, reduced to a net of $251,043,224 by a bond issue of $15,000,000 and an allowance for the New York franchise tax.[^30] + +The corporation's holdings, as the appraisal listed them, included British-American Tobacco ($23,961,575), Liggett and Myers ($14,889,056), R. J. Reynolds ($13,734,000) and Imperial Tobacco ($8,211,346); among oils, Standard Oil of New Jersey ($34,533,358), Standard Oil of New York ($13,956,037) and Vacuum Oil ($11,590,000), together with 333,924 shares of Great Northern Paper valued at $21,371,136.[^31][^32] The Paper Trade Journal described the company as "created by the late Col. Oliver H. Payne, as an incorporated trust fund."[^32] Financial World wrote in December 1928 that the holding company was "devised by the late Colonel Oliver H. Payne, Whitney's uncle, and left to him and five other nephews and nieces," and put the market value of the estate at $217,700,000.[^33] The Washington Daily News printed the United Press account, which said that the larger part of the estate was the half interest in the Northern Finance Corporation, a fund set aside by "his uncle, Col. Oliver H. Payne."[^34] + +Whitney's individual holdings, as appraised, included 160,032 shares of Great Northern Paper ($10,242,048), 141,600 shares of the Vanadium Corporation ($6,513,600), 25,000 shares of Corn Products Refining ($1,450,000), R. J. Reynolds Class B stock ($5,109,574) and 832 shares of the Westchester Racing Association ($83,200).[^35] + +### The Metropolitan Museum, the Munsey estate and the Herald Tribune + +Whitney was a trustee of the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] from January 16, 1922 until his death.[^16] [[Ferdinand Lundberg]] wrote in 1937 that the trustees of the museum at the time [[Frank A. Munsey]] willed his newspapers to it "included Payne Whitney, Elihu Root, Edward S. Harkness, Arthur Curtiss James, Charles W. Gould, George F. Baker, George D. Pratt, George Blumenthal (Lazard Frères)," and that Munsey in 1924 sold the Herald to the Reid-Mills family for $5,000,000, part cash.[^36] Lundberg added that the Reids gave Munsey their personal note for an undisclosed large sum, which on his death came into the possession of the Metropolitan Museum and was still outstanding in 1937, and that on coming due in 1933 it placed the Herald Tribune under direct obligation to the museum's financial guardian, J. P. Morgan and Company.[^37] + +The Editor and Publisher gave the paper's history in 1966: the Herald was founded in 1835 by James Gordon Bennett and the Tribune in 1841 by Horace Greeley, and the two "were merged in 1924 under the direction of Mr. and Mrs. [[Ogden Mills Reid|Ogden M. Reid]]." The [[New York Herald Tribune]], "then in failing financial health, was taken over by John Hay Whitney in 1958," and "His ancestor, John Hay, was once the editor of the Tribune."[^38] + +### Medical benefactions + +Whitney was on the board of governors of the Society of the New York Hospital from 1912 and its vice president from 1919, and made large gifts to the [[New York Hospital]] and to Bloomingdale Asylum.[^16] The [[Weill Cornell Medicine]] history records that he was a member of Subcommittee C of the Development Committee of the Board of Governors, formed on March 26, 1920 to outline a plan for a medical center, whose members included [[Edward Sheldon]], and that by 1924 he "had begun secretly to purchase property in the area of East 68th-70th Streets and Avenue A (York Avenue) for $2,750,000." Before his death he had made provisions in his will for $12,400,000 for the hospital, $6,200,000 for the [[Payne Whitney Psychiatric Clinic]], which the will specified as either a neurological or a psychiatric clinic, and $2,800,000 for the medical college. The same history credits Oliver Payne with a $4,000,000 gift to the college. The New York Hospital-Cornell Medical Center opened in September 1932, and the clinic had its own building.[^39] + +The residue of the estate was divided into 300 parts. The appraisal report gave the hospital thirty-three parts ($18,632,176) and noted gifts to it of $1,367,056 in the last two years of Whitney's life. Forty-six parts ($25,972,124) went to trustees, the elder and younger Ledyard and Edward W. Sheldon, president of the United States Trust Company, to apply to charitable, hospital, educational, literary, library or research purposes in their absolute discretion; the will suggested that it "would be agreeable" to him if they favored purposes that had interested him. The trustees later decided to distribute the capital among the New York Hospital, Cornell University for the support of the medical college, the New York Public Library (the Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations), Groton School, Yale University and Nassau Hospital. The Times put the public bequests at nearly $60,000,000.[^40] In 1923 he had given $2,000,000 to the New York Public Library, of which he was a trustee from 1915.[^16] Lundberg wrote that in 1933 the New York Hospital-Cornell center reported three Payne Whitney endowment funds of slightly more than $17,000,000.[^41] + +The medical college's psychiatry and neurology staff included [[Harold Wolff]] and [[Lawrence Hinkle]], who carried out the government study of communist brainwashing techniques for the [[CIA]].[^42] + +### Greentree and the turf + +The Manhasset estate, [[Greentree Stable|Greentree]], gave the racing stable its name. The Times reported in 1927 that the stable was managed by Mrs. Whitney, that Payne Whitney had "not an active racing stable" of his own and had recently taken up the breeding of thoroughbreds, and that he had bought the English horse St. Germaine from Lord Astor a little over a year earlier and, at the Newmarket sales the previous autumn, several mares, including Crispina at about $40,000. He had been a member of the Jockey Club for many years and had consented only recently to election to its Board of Stewards. He owned the Greenwood Plantation at Thomasville, Georgia, and large acreage in Kentucky, where with Joseph E. Widener he had acquired the old Colonel John T. Hughes estate the year before.[^43] The Greentree Stable was already racing steeplechasers in December 1913, when the Daily Racing Form reported that its trainer James Owens had seven at [[Belmont Park]] and that one horse had been turned out at "Mrs. Payne Whitney's Manhasset estate."[^44] + +The Times reported a conversation a few days before his death in which Whitney said "that if anything should happen to me the horses will continue to run under the stable name and under our colors," and the Greentree horses ran under their colors after his death.[^45] The Blood-Horse of June 3, 1933 still listed the stable as "the Greentree Stable by Mrs. Payne Whitney," and reported that the nine-year-old Bangle, "owned by Mrs. Payne Whitney's Greentree Stable," had taken the lead late in the International Steeplechase Handicap at Belmont Park on May 27.[^46] The 1928 appraisal valued the Manhasset property at 587 acres with buildings, appraised at $2,185,756, and the Fifth Avenue residence at $625,000.[^47] + +### Political contributions + +Lundberg listed Payne Whitney among the donors who each gave $15,000 to the Republican campaign collections of 1924, which he said J. P. Morgan and Company took the lead in raising.[^48] + +### Death and funeral + +Whitney died near the indoor tennis court at his Manhasset home at 1:10 p.m. on Wednesday, May 25, 1927. The Times gave the cause as acute indigestion and reported that the physician who responded found the heart badly dilated and that death came within twenty-five minutes. Mrs. Whitney, at a luncheon at the Colony Club in New York, drove to Manhasset in a little over thirty minutes with a police escort and arrived after he died. The flags at Belmont Park were lowered to half staff and the Whitney entries were scratched, including Whiskery, the winner of the Derby.[^19] The Yale record gives the cause as acute indigestion and says he was buried in the cemetery of Christ Church, Manhasset; it lists as survivors his wife, a daughter, a son, two grandchildren, his brother Harry Payne Whitney and a sister, Mrs. Leonard K. Elmhirst of Yorkshire, England.[^49] The Weill Cornell history says that he "died suddenly of a heart attack in May 1927."[^39] + +The funeral was held at Christ Church on May 27, with the rector, Charles H. Ricker, assisted by [[Endicott Peabody]], headmaster of Groton School. Mrs. Whitney came with her brother [[Clarence Hay]], and the rear of the church was filled with employees of Greentree and the Greentree Stable. The Jockey Club adopted a resolution on his "noble, useful career."[^50] The reading of the will awaited John Hay Whitney's return from England, and the Vanadium Corporation closed its Bridgeville and Niagara Falls plants for half an hour during the funeral.[^45] + +A Reuters item in the Hong Kong Telegraph of May 27, 1927, printed under the heading "Harry Payne Whitney," reported the sudden death of "the well known American banker Mr. Harry Payne Whitney" while playing tennis at his country home on Long Island and put his fortune at between thirty and forty million dollars; the birth in April 1872 and the marriage in 1896 that it gave are those of his brother.[^51] Harry Payne Whitney had died by the time of the 1931 accounting.[^52] + +### The 1928 appraisal + +The appraisal was made public on November 22, 1928 by Deputy Tax Commissioner Maurice Stephenson. The Times reported a gross estate of $194,328,514 and a net of $178,893,655, nearly twice the highest previous record and well above that of Mrs. Stephen V. Harkness. Stocks were appraised at $158,773,997, bonds at $23,254,282, New York real estate at $3,149,361 and cash at $1,773,551. The estate would pay the largest death tax ever collected, $20,000,000, of which $15,600,000 would go to New York State, $400,000 to other states and $4,000,000 to the federal government.[^2] The United Press dispatch used the words "the largest estate ever appraised in this country."[^53] The following day the Times reported that the rise in stock prices since his death had added about $35,700,000 to the value of the holdings and that the executors' and trustees' commissions would total $17,697,643.[^54] Lundberg wrote that Payne Whitney "died in 1927 worth $186,000,000," the largest individual estate appraised in New York, and put his share of a joint fortune of four Whitneys at about $220,000,000, computed from a tax payment of $1,676,626.[^55] + +The family bequests, as the appraisal reported them, gave Helen Hay Whitney personal effects of $669,747, New York real estate of $750,000, Nassau County real estate of $2,273,961 and a life interest in ninety-six parts of the residue worth $54,202,694, to pass to her children on her death. John Hay Whitney received a life interest in forty-eight parts, $27,191,347, until he was forty years old, and Joan Whitney Payson the same interest. The Times also listed legacies to relatives and employees.[^56] + +### The 1931 accounting + +An accounting filed in the Surrogate's Court in August 1931 was reported in the Chicago Daily Tribune on September 1, 1931. The executors were Lewis Cass Ledyard, the United States Trust Company and Lewis Cass Ledyard Jr. The accounting gives a net estate of $200,973,154.41 and a total distributed by the executors of $239,301,017.04. Helen Hay Whitney received tangible personal property valued at $811,282.16 and, from the residuary estate of $197,681,235.19, $63,102,816; Joan Whitney Payson and John Hay Whitney received equal shares. Harry Payne Whitney, "a brother. Who since has died," was left racehorses valued at $41,000. Principal securities held at death included 5,500 shares of Standard Oil Company (Indiana) at $365,062.50, 25,000 shares of Corn Products Refining common at $1,450,000 and 141,600 shares of the Vanadium Corporation at $6,513,600.[^57] + +### The Payne Whitney Gymnasium + +The Athletic Journal reported in June 1931 that the Payne Whitney Gymnasium "has been given to Yale University in memory of Payne Whitney by Mrs. Whitney and the children" and was being built at a cost of at least $5,000,000.[^58] The Scholastic Coach of November 1931 called it Yale's "new Payne Whitney Memorial Gymnasium," with twenty squash courts.[^59] The Architectural Record of February 1933 published the Payne Whitney Gymnasium on Tower Parkway in [[New Haven, Connecticut]] as designed by [[John Russell Pope]], with a front of 310 feet on Tower Parkway and a tower 200 feet high, and beside it the Ray Tompkins House.[^60] Lundberg wrote that the contributors to the new Yale buildings included "the heirs of the late Payne Whitney."[^61] + +### The New Republic and the Straight line + +Sutton wrote that the "left" press, including The Nation and [[The New Republic]], "were financed by Willard Straight, using Payne Whitney (The Order) funds."[^62] Payne Whitney's sister Dorothy had been the wife of [[Willard Straight]], and the Times named her in 1927 as "Mrs. Leonard K. Elmhirst, nee Dorothy Whitney, whose first husband was the late Willard Straight," beside his other sister, Mrs. Almeric H. Paget.[^63] A summary memorandum of September 10, 1969 in the FBI file on the Straights' son [[Michael Whitney Straight]] records a New Republic executive as stating that the parents "set up a fund that founded the 'New Republic' in 1914, and this fund was utilized for its operation until 1954," when [[Gilbert A. Harrison]] bought a controlling interest.[^64] Klein's figures give Dorothy Payne Whitney's share of her father's estate as $6,149,230.[^65] + +### Children + +John Hay Whitney, called Jock, of the Yale class of 1926, was appointed ambassador to the United Kingdom on February 11, 1957 and left the post on January 14, 1961.[^66] + +[[Joan Whitney Payson]], the daughter, is described in a Metropolitan Museum of Art guide as "a longtime patron of the arts and a frequent and generous lender to special exhibitions at the Metropolitan," and as co-owner of Greentree, "an important racing stable." The guide says that "as an enthusiastic baseball fan, she acquired the New York Mets in 1961."[^67] She married Charles S. Payson of the Yale class of 1921, and the Times placed her in 1927 as living on Long Island.[^20][^23] + +### Footnotes + +[^1]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased During the Year Ending July 1, 1927*, entry for Payne Whitney, B.A. 1898, pp. 171 to 172 (born March 20, 1876, New York City; died May 25, 1927, Manhasset; parents William Collins Whitney and Flora (Payne) Whitney). https://archive.org/details/obituaryrecordof00yale_4. +[^2]: "$178,893,655 Estate, Record for America," *The New York Times*, November 23, 1928, p. 1 (gross $194,328,514; net $178,893,655; "the largest estate ever appraised in this country, the appraisal being nearly twice that of the highest previously recorded"). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1928-11-23_78_25871. +[^3]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased During the Year Ending July 1, 1927*, entry for Payne Whitney, B.A. 1898, p. 171 (Harrington's School and Groton School; crews; "member Hé Boulé, Delta Kappa Epsilon, and Skull and Bones"; Yale relatives: Henry F. Dimock '63, Oliver H. Payne '63, Henry W. Payne '67 and Charles W. Bingham '68 (uncles), Cornelius V. Whitney '22 (nephew), Harry Payne Bingham '10 (cousin)). https://archive.org/details/obituaryrecordof00yale_4. +[^4]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, B.A. 1863 (brother Henry W. Payne, class of 1867, died 1878; nephews Harry Payne Whitney, Payne Whitney and Harry Payne Bingham, classes of 1894, 1898 and 1910; a niece the wife of Dudley S. Blossom). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft. +[^5]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased During the Year Ending July 1, 1927*, entry for Payne Whitney, B.A. 1898, p. 172 (Yale Graduate Crew Committee for about fifteen years, retiring in 1923; committee in charge of the Bob Cook Memorial Boat House; "a generous benefactor of the University"). https://archive.org/details/obituaryrecordof00yale_4. +[^6]: "Noted in Rowing at Yale," special dispatch from New Haven, May 25, in *The New York Times*, May 26, 1927, p. 25 (varsity oarsman 1897 and 1898; captain 1898; substitute with the Yale crew taken to Henley in 1896 by Robert J. Cook; presented the dormitory for varsity oarsmen at Gales Ferry; Graduate Rowing Committee; yacht; crew coach Ed Leader). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_the-new-york-times_1927-05-26_76_25324. +[^7]: "Payne Whitney Dies Suddenly at Home," *The New York Times*, May 26, 1927, p. 1, continued p. 25 ("Yale, his alma mater, loses a great benefactor in Mr. Whitney, for he is known to have made many substantial gifts to the university, always, however, anonymously"; aid to classmates). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_the-new-york-times_1927-05-26_76_25324. +[^8]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), Whitney family section ("Their two sons, Harry Payne ('94) and Payne Whitney ('98), went to Yale and became members of The Order"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones. +[^9]: Sutton (1983), index of members by class year, entries "1894 Payne Whitney, Finance: Knickerbocker Trust Co. (son of W.C. Whitney)" and "1898 Harry Payne Whitney, Finance: Guaranty Trust and Guggenheim Exploration Co. (son of W.C. Whitney)"; the Yale class year of Payne Whitney, 1898, from the Yale record, p. 171. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones. +[^10]: Sutton (1983), chart "Hypothesis Number One: A Secret Society Dominated By Old Line American Families And New Wealth Has Existed From 1833 To The Present Day," spokes WHITNEY FAMILY (1635, Watertown, Mass.) and PAYNE FAMILY (Standard Oil). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones. +[^11]: Sutton (1983), section on Guaranty Trust ("Harry Payne Whitney (The Order'94) inherited two Standard Oil fortunes from the Payne and the Whitney families"; "The original capital for Guaranty Trust came from the Whitney, Rockefeller, Harriman and Vanderbilt families, all represented in The Order"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones. +[^12]: Advertisement of the Knickerbocker Trust Co., *Trusts and Estates*, vol. 4, no. 6 (June 1907) (directors including Charles T. Barney, A. H. Barney, Henry F. Dimock and Payne Whitney). https://archive.org/details/sim_trusts-estates_1907-06_4_6. +[^13]: "Charles Tracy Barney, Deposed President of Knickerbocker Trust Co., Unbalanced by His Misfortunes," *The Morning Star* (New York), November 15, 1907, p. 1 (shot himself at his home November 14; "married Miss Lilly Whitney sister of William C. Whitney"). https://archive.org/details/per_star-news_the-morning-star_1907-11-15_81_46. +[^14]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased During the Year Ending July 1, 1927*, entry for Payne Whitney, B.A. 1898, pp. 171 to 172 (LL.B. Harvard 1901; "admitted to New York Bar, but shortly afterwards became engaged in business"; director and member of the executive board of Great Northern Paper Company 1903 to 1927; director and vice-president of Northern Finance Corporation 1911 to 1927 and of Whitney Realty Company 1910 to 1927). https://archive.org/details/obituaryrecordof00yale_4. +[^15]: R. L. Polk & Co.'s 1916 *Trow New York Copartnership and Corporation Directory*, entries for Great Northern Paper Co. (Me.) (president Garret Schenck; capital $6,000,000; directors) and Northern Finance Corporation (N.Y.) (Lewis Cass Ledyard, president; Payne Whitney, vice president). https://archive.org/details/bwb_T3-CBT-962_64. +[^16]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased During the Year Ending July 1, 1927*, entry for Payne Whitney, B.A. 1898, p. 172 (trustee of United States Trust Company since June 6, 1905, and of Metropolitan Museum of Art since January 16, 1922; director of First National Bank of New York from January 8, 1924 and of Westchester Racing Association from January 8, 1925; chairman of executive committee and director of Vanadium Corporation of America since September 1923; former director of Northern Pacific Railroad; board of governors of the Society of New York Hospitals since 1912 and vice-president since 1919; gifts to the New York Hospital and Bloomingdale Asylum; $2,000,000 to the New York Public Library in 1923 and trustee from 1915; Board of Stewards of the Jockey Club). https://archive.org/details/obituaryrecordof00yale_4. +[^17]: *Who's Who in America*, vol. 14 (1926 to 1927), entry for "Whitney, Payne, capitalist" ("Dir. Gt. Northern Paper Co., First Nat. Bank (New York); v.p. Whitney Realty Co., Northern Finance Corpn.; trustee U.S. Trust Co. V.p. Society of N.Y. Hosp.; trustee New York Pub. Library, Met. Mus. of Art"; office 14 Wall St.). https://archive.org/details/whoswho141926. +[^18]: Advertisement of the United States Trust Company of New York, *Trusts and Estates*, vol. 4, no. 6 (June 1907) (president Edward W. Sheldon; trustees including Lewis Cass Ledyard, D. O. Mills, John S. Kennedy, William Rockefeller and Payne Whitney). https://archive.org/details/sim_trusts-estates_1907-06_4_6. +[^19]: "Payne Whitney Dies Suddenly at Home," *The New York Times*, May 26, 1927, p. 1, continued p. 25 (died 1:10 p.m. near the tennis court at Manhasset of acute indigestion; heart badly dilated; Mrs. Whitney at the Colony Club; flags at Belmont Park; larger businesses; income tax of $2,041,951 in 1924 and $1,676,626 in 1925). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_the-new-york-times_1927-05-26_76_25324. +[^20]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased During the Year Ending July 1, 1927*, entry for Payne Whitney, B.A. 1898, p. 172 ("Married February 6, 1902, in Washington, D. C., Helen, daughter of John Hay ... then Secretary of State, and Clara Louise (Stone) Hay, sister of his classmate, Adelbert S. Hay"; "Children: Joan, the wife of Charles S. Payson, '21, and John Hay, '26, now a student at Oxford University"). https://archive.org/details/obituaryrecordof00yale_4. +[^21]: "Payne Whitney Is Best Man," *Chicago Daily Tribune*, November 29, 1901 ("Payne Whitney, whose engagement to the daughter of Secretary Hay has just been announced, attended Mr. Clews as best man"). https://archive.org/details/per_chicago-daily-tribune_1901-11-29_60_332. +[^22]: "Payne Whitney Dies Suddenly at Home," *The New York Times*, May 26, 1927, p. 1 (wedding in Washington "attended by President and Mrs. Roosevelt"; "Among the wedding gifts was the house at 972 Fifth Avenue"). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_the-new-york-times_1927-05-26_76_25324. +[^23]: "Payne Whitney Dies Suddenly at Home," *The New York Times*, May 26, 1927, p. 25 (John Hay Whitney "now in Spain playing polo" and "a student at Cambridge University, England"; daughter Joan, Mrs. Charles Shipman Payson, understood to be living on Long Island). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_the-new-york-times_1927-05-26_76_25324. +[^24]: Yale University, *Obituary Record ... Deceased 1915 to 1920*, entry for Albert Dillon Sturtevant, Ph.B. 1916 ("the Yale Aviation Corps formed by Payne Whitney, '98, in June, 1916"; training on Long Island and at Governor's Island; Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 1, organized by F. Trubee Davison, afterwards the Huntington Unit; ensign, Naval Reserve Flying Corps, March 26, 1917). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft. +[^25]: Yale University, *Obituary Record ... Deceased 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, B.A. 1863, pp. 295 to 296 (Cleveland refining business with James B. Clark; John Huntington a partner; treasurer of Standard Oil until 1884; death at his New York home June 27, 1917, after an illness of eight months; interment in Cleveland). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft. +[^26]: "Col. Payne Left $7,000,000 in Gifts," *Brattleboro Daily Reformer* (Brattleboro, Vt.), July 7, 1917, p. 1 (cash bequests of more than $7,000,000; $1,000,000 each to Lakeside Hospital, Yale and the New York Public Library; $500,000 permanent endowment for Cornell University Medical College; household effects; yacht Aphrodite "now in commission for the federal government"; Greenwood plantation at Thomasville, Ga.; Ulster County place to Harry Payne Bingham with $2,000,000; painting of Mr. Payne to Harry Payne Whitney). https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn86071593/1917-07-07/ed-1/?sp=1. +[^27]: "Col. Payne Left Public Bequests," *The Evening World* (New York), July 7, 1917, p. 2 ("Payne Whitney and Harry Payne Bingham Favored Over Other Direct Heirs"; residue "equally to nephew and nieces," naming the six). https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn83030193/1917-07-07/ed-1/?sp=2. +[^28]: Henry H. Klein, *Dynastic America and Those Who Own It* (New York, 1921), section on the Whitney estate (William C. Whitney's estate of $23,000,000 at his death in 1904; Payne Whitney $2,049,743; Harry Payne Whitney $10,248,717; Dorothy Payne Whitney $6,149,230; Standard Oil stocks valued at $7,078,400). https://archive.org/details/dynasticamericaa00kleirich. +[^29]: "Payne Whitney Dies Suddenly at Home," *The New York Times*, May 26, 1927, p. 1 ("When William C. Whitney died he left the bulk of his fortune to his eldest son, Harry Payne Whitney, about one-fifth going to Payne Whitney. The latter, however, inherited several millions from his uncle, Colonel Oliver Payne, a founder of the Standard Oil Company, who when he died was also a heavy stockholder in the Singer Sewing Machine Company and the American Tobacco Company"). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_the-new-york-times_1927-05-26_76_25324. +[^30]: "$178,893,655 Estate, Record for America," *The New York Times*, November 23, 1928, p. 1, continued p. 12, section "Interest in Holding Company" (half interest, 50,000 shares, in the Northern Finance Corporation appraised at $125,521,612; total assets $266,536,458; net $251,043,224 after a $15,000,000 bond issue; fund set aside by Colonel Oliver H. Payne "when he desired to be relieved of the care of" Standard Oil subsidiaries and other stocks; par value of $5,000,000). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1928-11-23_78_25871. +[^31]: "$178,893,655 Estate, Record for America," *The New York Times*, November 23, 1928, section on Northern Finance Corporation holdings (British-American Tobacco $23,961,575; Liggett & Myers $14,889,056; R. J. Reynolds; Imperial Tobacco $8,211,346; Standard Oil of New Jersey $34,533,358; Standard Oil of New York $13,956,037; Vacuum Oil $11,590,000). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1928-11-23_78_25871. +[^32]: "Payne Whitney Estate Appraised," *Paper Trade Journal*, vol. 87, no. 22 (November 29, 1928), Weekly Business Review (gross $194,328,514 and net $178,893,655; Northern Finance Corporation "created by the late Col. Oliver H. Payne, as an incorporated trust fund"; 333,924 shares of Great Northern Paper Company appraised at $21,371,136 among the holdings). https://archive.org/details/sim_paper-trade-journal_1928-11-29_87_22. +[^33]: *Financial World*, vol. 50, no. 24 (December 12, 1928), editorial on the securities of the Payne Whitney estate (market value $217,700,000; Northern Finance Corporation "devised by the late Colonel Oliver H. Payne, Whitney's uncle, and left to him and five other nephews and nieces"). https://archive.org/details/sim_financial-world_1928-12-12_50_24. +[^34]: "Payne Whitney Left Biggest Estate Ever Appraised in U.S.," United Press, *Washington Daily News*, November 23, 1928, p. 6 (larger portion of the estate a half interest in the Northern Finance Corporation; the fund set aside by "his uncle, Col. Oliver H. Payne"; death tax of about $20,000,000, of which $15,600,000 to New York State). https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn82016181/1928-11-23/ed-1/?sp=6. +[^35]: "$178,893,655 Estate, Record for America," *The New York Times*, November 23, 1928, list of Mr. Whitney's individual stock holdings (160,032 shares Great Northern Paper Company, $10,242,048; 141,600 Vanadium Corporation, $6,513,600; 25,000 Corn Products common, $1,450,000; Reynolds Tobacco Class B $5,109,574; 832 Westchester Racing Association, $83,200). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1928-11-23_78_25871. +[^36]: Ferdinand Lundberg, *America's 60 Families* (New York: Vanguard Press, 1937), p. 254 (Metropolitan Museum trustees at the time of Munsey's will; Munsey's 1924 sale of the Herald to "the Reid-Mills family for $5,000,000, part cash"). https://archive.org/details/lundberg-ferdinand-americas-60-families-1937. +[^37]: Lundberg, *America's 60 Families* (1937), pp. 269 to 270, section "Mills-Reids" ("the Reids gave Munsey their personal note for an undisclosed large sum, and upon Munsey's death this note came into the possession of the Metropolitan Museum of Art"; the note due in 1933; "J. P. Morgan and Company"). https://archive.org/details/lundberg-ferdinand-americas-60-families-1937. +[^38]: Editor and Publisher, vol. 99, no. 34 (August 20, 1966), historical note on the *New York Herald Tribune* (Herald founded 1835 by James Gordon Bennett; Tribune founded 1841 by Horace Greeley; the two "were merged in 1924 under the direction of Mr. and Mrs. Ogden M. Reid"; "then in failing financial health, was taken over by John Hay Whitney in 1958"; "His ancestor, John Hay, was once the editor of the Tribune"). https://archive.org/details/sim_editor-publisher_1966-08-20_99_34. +[^39]: Weill Cornell Medicine Library, "History of the Medical Center" (undated PDF) (Subcommittee C of March 26, 1920 including Edward Sheldon; the property purchase "for $2,750,000"; "Payne Whitney died suddenly of a heart attack in May 1927"; will provisions of $12,400,000 for the hospital, $6,200,000 for the Payne Whitney Psychiatric Clinic, "either a neurological or psychiatric clinic," and $2,800,000 for the medical college; the $4,000,000 gift of Oliver Hazard Payne; opening in September 1932). https://library.weill.cornell.edu/sites/default/files/history_of_the_medical_center.pdf. +[^40]: "$178,893,655 Estate, Record for America," *The New York Times*, November 23, 1928, section "Public Beneficiaries" (nearly $60,000,000 to charities; New York Hospital thirty-three parts of 300, $18,632,176, and gifts of $1,367,056 in his last two years; forty-six parts, $25,972,124, to the Ledyards and Edward W. Sheldon; trustees' decision to distribute among the New York Hospital, Cornell University, the Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations, Groton School, Yale University and Nassau Hospital). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1928-11-23_78_25871. +[^41]: Lundberg, *America's 60 Families* (1937), pp. 342 to 343 (1933 report of the New York Hospital-Cornell Medical College center: "Three Payne Whitney endowment funds aggregated slightly more than $17,000,000"). https://archive.org/details/lundberg-ferdinand-americas-60-families-1937. +[^42]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate* (1979), chapters 8 and 9, as cited on the Lawrence Hinkle page of this vault. +[^43]: "Payne Whitney Dies Suddenly at Home," *The New York Times*, May 26, 1927, p. 25 (Greentree stables managed by Mrs. Whitney; "he had not an active racing stable"; purchase of St. Germaine from Lord Astor and of mares at Newmarket; Jockey Club and Board of Stewards; Greenwood Plantation; Kentucky acreage with Joseph E. Widener; the Manhasset estate valued at about $3,000,000). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_the-new-york-times_1927-05-26_76_25324. +[^44]: "Greentree Stable's Promising Material," *Daily Racing Form*, December 16, 1913 (trainer James Owens; seven at Belmont Park; a horse "turned out at Mrs. Payne Whitney's Manhasset estate"). https://archive.org/details/drf1913121601. +[^45]: "Many Mourn Whitney; Funeral to Be Held Today," *The New York Times*, May 27, 1927 ("It is my wish ... that if anything should happen to me the horses will continue to run under the stable name and under our colors"; reading of the will to await his son; Vanadium Corporation plants closed during the funeral). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_the-new-york-times_1927-05-27_76_25325. +[^46]: Race report, *The Blood-Horse*, vol. 19, no. 22 (June 3, 1933) ("the Greentree Stable by Mrs. Payne Whitney"; Bangle, "owned by Mrs. Payne Whitney's Greentree Stable," in the International Steeplechase Handicap at Belmont Park, May 27). https://archive.org/details/sim_blood-horse_1933-06-03_19_22. +[^47]: "$178,893,655 Estate, Record for America," *The New York Times*, November 23, 1928, section "Realty and Personalty" (587 acres with buildings at Manhasset, assessed at $767,000 and appraised at $2,185,756; 972 Fifth Avenue, $625,000). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1928-11-23_78_25871. +[^48]: Lundberg, *America's 60 Families* (1937), p. 172 (J. P. Morgan and Company "took the lead in scaring up Republican contributions" in 1924; "Payne Whitney each gave $15,000"). https://archive.org/details/lundberg-ferdinand-americas-60-families-1937. +[^49]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased During the Year Ending July 1, 1927*, entry for Payne Whitney, B.A. 1898, p. 172 ("Death due to acute indigestion. Buried in the cemetery of Christ Church, Manhasset. Survived by wife, daughter, son, two grandchildren, a brother, Harry Payne Whitney, '94, and a sister, Mrs. Leonard K. Elmhirst, of Yorkshire, England"). https://archive.org/details/obituaryrecordof00yale_4. +[^50]: "Simple Rites Held for Payne Whitney," *The New York Times*, May 28, 1927 (funeral at Christ Church, Manhasset, May 27; the Rev. Charles H. Ricker assisted by the Rev. Endicott Peabody; Clarence Hay; employees of Greentree and the Greentree Stable; Jockey Club resolution on "a noble, useful career"). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_the-new-york-times_1927-05-28_76_25326. +[^51]: Reuters item headed "Harry Payne Whitney," *Hong Kong Telegraph*, May 27, 1927, p. 1 ("the well known American banker Mr. Harry Payne Whitney"; death "while playing tennis at his country home in Long Island"; fortune "between thirty and forty million dollars"; born April 1872, married 1896). https://archive.org/details/NPTG19270527. +[^52]: "200 Millions to Legatees of Payne Whitney," *Chicago Daily Tribune*, September 1, 1931 ("Harry Payne Whitney, a brother. Who since has died"). https://archive.org/details/per_chicago-daily-tribune_1931-09-01_90_209. +[^53]: "Payne Whitney Left Biggest Estate Ever Appraised in U.S.," United Press, *Brainerd Daily Dispatch* (Brainerd, Minn.), November 23, 1928, p. 1 (net value $178,893,655; "the largest estate ever appraised in this country"). https://archive.org/details/brainerd-daily-dispatch-1928-11-23. +[^54]: *The New York Times*, November 24, 1928, report on the market value of the Payne Whitney estate (increase of about $35,700,000 since his death; executors' and trustees' commissions of $17,697,643). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1928-11-24_78_25872. +[^55]: Lundberg, *America's 60 Families* (1937), pp. 29 to 30 ("The largest individual estate ever appraised in New York was that of Payne Whitney, who died in 1927 worth $186,000,000"; "Payne Whitney's share in the group of four, on the basis of a tax payment of $1,676,626, is computed at approximately $220,000,000"). https://archive.org/details/lundberg-ferdinand-americas-60-families-1937. +[^56]: "$178,893,655 Estate, Record for America," *The New York Times*, November 23, 1928, section "Bequests to His Family" (Helen Hay Whitney: personal effects $669,747, New York realty $750,000, Nassau County realty $2,273,961, life interest in ninety-six parts of the residue worth $54,202,694; John Hay Whitney: life interest in forty-eight parts, $27,191,347, until he is forty; Joan Whitney Payson the same interest). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1928-11-23_78_25871. +[^57]: "200 Millions to Legatees of Payne Whitney," *Chicago Daily Tribune*, September 1, 1931 (accounting filed in the Surrogate's Court; executors Lewis Cass Ledyard, the United States Trust Company and Lewis Cass Ledyard Jr.; total distributed $239,301,017.04; net estate $200,973,154.41; Helen Hay Whitney, widow, tangible personal property $811,282.16; residuary estate $197,681,235.19; $63,102,816 to Mrs. Whitney from the residue; equal shares to Joan Whitney Payson and John Hay Whitney; racehorses valued at $41,000; 5,500 shares of Standard Oil Company (Ind.) at $365,062.50; 25,000 shares of Corn Products Refining Company common at $1,450,000; 141,600 shares of Vanadium Corporation at $6,513,600). https://archive.org/details/per_chicago-daily-tribune_1931-09-01_90_209. +[^58]: John L. Griffith, "Review of the Year in Athletics," *Athletic Journal*, vol. 11, no. 10 (June 1931) ("The Payne Whitney Gymnasium, which has been given to Yale University in memory of Payne Whitney by Mrs. Whitney and the children, is being built at a cost of at least five million dollars"). https://archive.org/details/sim_athletic-journal_1931-06_11_10. +[^59]: *Scholastic Coach*, vol. 1, no. 3 (November 1931), article on squash racquets ("Yale's new Payne Whitney Memorial Gymnasium will house twenty courts"). https://archive.org/details/sim_scholastic-coach_1931-11_1_3. +[^60]: "The Payne Whitney Gymnasium and Ray Tompkins House at Yale University," *The Architectural Record*, vol. 73, no. 2 (February 1933) (John Russell Pope, architect; front of 310 feet on Tower Parkway; tower 200 feet high). https://archive.org/details/sim_architectural-record_1933-02_73_2. +[^61]: Lundberg, *America's 60 Families* (1937), pp. 402 to 403 ("The contributors included Edward S. Harkness, the heirs of the late Payne Whitney, and John W. Sterling"; the new Payne Whitney Gymnasium). https://archive.org/details/lundberg-ferdinand-americas-60-families-1937. +[^62]: Sutton (1983), section on the press ("both Nation and New Republic on the 'left' were financed by Willard Straight, using Payne Whitney (The Order) funds"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones. +[^63]: "Payne Whitney Dies Suddenly at Home," *The New York Times*, May 26, 1927, p. 25 ("Mr. Whitney's sisters are Mrs. Leonard K. Elmhirst, nee Dorothy Whitney, whose first husband was the late Willard Straight, and Mrs. Almeric H. Paget"). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_the-new-york-times_1927-05-26_76_25324. +[^64]: FBI, summary memorandum of September 10, 1969 and teletypes of September 1969 in "Straight, Michael W., HQ-1" (interview of the publisher of The New Republic: "His parents set up a fund that founded the 'New Republic' in 1914, and this fund was utilized for its operation until 1954"; Gilbert A. Harrison bought a controlling interest in 1954). https://archive.org/details/StraightMichaelW.HQ1. +[^65]: Klein, *Dynastic America* (1921), section on the Whitney estate ($6,149,230 to Dorothy Payne Whitney). https://archive.org/details/dynasticamericaa00kleirich. +[^66]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, "John Hay Whitney (1904-1982)," Principal Officers and Chiefs of Mission (Ambassador to the United Kingdom; appointed February 11, 1957; left post January 14, 1961). https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/whitney-john-hay. +[^67]: Gary Tinterow, *The New Nineteenth-Century European Paintings and Sculpture Galleries* (Metropolitan Museum of Art guide), entry on Joan Whitney Payson ("a longtime patron of the arts and a frequent and generous lender to special exhibitions at the Metropolitan"; "She was co-owner of Greentree, an important racing stable, and as an enthusiastic baseball fan, she acquired the New York Mets in 1961"). https://archive.org/details/TheNewNineteenthCenturyEuropeanPaintingsandSculptureGalleries. diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/R. Gordon Wasson.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/R. Gordon Wasson.md index 82e6fed5..f0fa387c 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/R. Gordon Wasson.md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/R. Gordon Wasson.md @@ -14,24 +14,27 @@ location: "Great Falls, Montana" R. Gordon Wasson was an American ethnomycologist and vice president at J.P. Morgan & Company bank, known for his pioneering research into the use of psychedelic mushrooms in shamanistic rituals. His work became central to the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]'s [[Project MKUltra|MKULTRA Subproject 58]]'s quest for the *teonanáctl* (God's flesh) mushroom[^1]. +Wasson wrote a study of the 1861 Hall carbine transaction in which [[J. P. Morgan]] had lent [[Simon Stevens]] $20,000 on the arms, *The Hall Carbine Affair: A Study in Contemporary Folklore*, printed in 1941 in an edition of 100 copies and revised in 1948 in an edition of 750.[^2] + Wasson and his wife, Valentina, a pediatrician, had been investigating a mushroom cult in Mexico. He had traveled to Mexico twice and was planning a third expedition when he was contacted by [[Andrija Puharich]] and [[Alice Astor Bouverie]]. Wasson explained that the Mexicans believed the mushroom was a pathway to the supernatural and possessed divinatory powers, allowing human consciousness to separate from the physical body[^1]. In August 1954, Wasson shared his information with Puharich, who then briefed his Army superiors on the *teonanáctl* mushroom. The CIA, however, chose to bypass Puharich and approached Wasson directly through their chemist, [[James Moore]], who posed as a professor[^1]. In June 1955, Wasson, accompanied by photographer Allan Richardson, arrived in Huautla de Jiménez, Oaxaca, and became the first white men in recorded history to eat the divine mushrooms. Wasson reported intense hallucinations but no divinatory powers. Upon his return, he sent a cache of mushrooms to Puharich for chemical analysis[^1]. -Wasson's work gained widespread public attention when he struck a publishing deal with *Life* magazine and authored an account of his experience titled "Seeking the Magic Mushroom," published on pages 100 to 102 and 109 to 120 of the May 13, 1957 issue.[^2] While he omitted any mention of the CIA's involvement, he highlighted the mushroom's alleged ability to access and enhance [[Extrasensory Perception|ESP]]. The article caused a sensation, effectively undermining the CIA's desire to keep the drug a secret psychic weapon under military intelligence control, as pleasure seekers flocked to Mexico to consume *God's flesh*[^1]. +Wasson's work gained widespread public attention when he struck a publishing deal with *Life* magazine and authored an account of his experience titled "Seeking the Magic Mushroom," published on pages 100 to 102 and 109 to 120 of the May 13, 1957 issue.[^3] While he omitted any mention of the CIA's involvement, he highlighted the mushroom's alleged ability to access and enhance [[Extrasensory Perception|ESP]]. The article caused a sensation, effectively undermining the CIA's desire to keep the drug a secret psychic weapon under military intelligence control, as pleasure seekers flocked to Mexico to consume *God's flesh*[^1]. ### Mushrooms, Russia and History -Decades before the Mexican expeditions, Wasson and Valentina had become fascinated by how different societies treat mushrooms, finding whole nationalities (Russians, Catalans) to be mycophiles and others (Anglo-Saxons) mycophobes; their limited-edition *Mushrooms, Russia and History* (1957, $125 new) catalogued the legends and photographs of nearly every known species.[^3] +Decades before the Mexican expeditions, Wasson and Valentina had become fascinated by how different societies treat mushrooms, finding whole nationalities (Russians, Catalans) to be mycophiles and others (Anglo-Saxons) mycophobes; their limited-edition *Mushrooms, Russia and History* (1957, $125 new) catalogued the legends and photographs of nearly every known species.[^4] ### The 1955 Velada and the 1956 Expedition -On June 29, 1955 Wasson and photographer Allan Richardson reached the town hall at Huautla de Jiménez and were led to [[Maria Sabina|María Sabina]], a curandera Wasson called a *señora sin mancha*; that night the two men each ate twelve mushrooms, and Wasson recorded "a fission of the spirit, a split in the person." On the 1956 return trip, joined by James Moore and the French mycologist [[Roger Heim]] with a $2,000 contribution from the [[Geschickter Fund for Medical Research|Geschickter Fund]], Heim later grew the mushrooms from spore prints in [[Paris]] and sent samples to [[Albert Hofmann]] at [[Sandoz]], who isolated the active compound and named it [[Psilocybin]], beating the CIA to "God's flesh." Wasson's 1957 *Life* account ran 17 pages and lured waves of Americans to Mexico, among them a young Harvard psychologist named [[Timothy Leary]], who ate his first mushrooms in 1959.[^3] +On June 29, 1955 Wasson and photographer Allan Richardson reached the town hall at Huautla de Jiménez and were led to [[Maria Sabina|María Sabina]], a curandera Wasson called a *señora sin mancha*; that night the two men each ate twelve mushrooms, and Wasson recorded "a fission of the spirit, a split in the person." On the 1956 return trip, joined by James Moore and the French mycologist [[Roger Heim]] with a $2,000 contribution from the [[Geschickter Fund for Medical Research|Geschickter Fund]], Heim later grew the mushrooms from spore prints in [[Paris]] and sent samples to [[Albert Hofmann]] at [[Sandoz]], who isolated the active compound and named it [[Psilocybin]], beating the CIA to "God's flesh." Wasson's 1957 *Life* account ran 17 pages and lured waves of Americans to Mexico, among them a young Harvard psychologist named [[Timothy Leary]], who ate his first mushrooms in 1959.[^4] ### Footnotes [^1]: Jacobsen, Annie. *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis*. Little, Brown and Company, 2017. -[^2]: Wasson, R. Gordon. "Seeking the Magic Mushroom," *Life*, vol. 42, no. 19, May 13, 1957, pp. 100-102, 109-120. https://archive.org/details/Life-1957-05-13-Vol-42-No-19 -[^3]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*, Chapter 7. +[^2]: R. Gordon Wasson, *The Hall Carbine Affair: A Study in Contemporary Folklore* (revised edition, 1948), title page, copyright page and preface. https://archive.org/details/hallcarbineaffai012466mbp ; U.S. House of Representatives, 37th Cong., 2d sess., House Report No. 2, "Government Contracts," p. 43 ("The arms were placed under the control of J. Pierpont Morgan to secure him the payment of $20,000 he had advanced to Stevens"). https://archive.org/details/governmentcontra00unit_1 +[^3]: Wasson, R. Gordon. "Seeking the Magic Mushroom," *Life*, vol. 42, no. 19, May 13, 1957, pp. 100-102, 109-120. https://archive.org/details/Life-1957-05-13-Vol-42-No-19 +[^4]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*, Chapter 7. diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Wadsworth family.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Wadsworth family.md new file mode 100644 index 00000000..f2b8e0d6 --- /dev/null +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Wadsworth family.md @@ -0,0 +1,319 @@ +--- +created: 2026-10-26 +updated: 2026-10-26 +aliases: + - "Wadsworth family" + - "The Wadsworths" + - "Wadsworth family of Geneseo" + - "Wadsworths of Geneseo" +tags: + - Person + - Family + - Wadsworth + - Geneseo + - Hartford + - SkullAndBones + - Yale + - Hay + - Whitney + - Symington + - UnitedNations + - ArmsControl + - CivilDefense + - Congress + - PoliticalDynasty + - PeaceResearch +category: "Political Figure" +summary: "Connecticut family that settled Geneseo, New York, in 1790 as land agents for Jeremiah Wadsworth and produced a Civil War general, a senator, and a United Nations ambassador who headed the Peace Research Institute." +location: "Geneseo, New York" +relations: + - type: appointed + with: "[[Continental Congress]]" + start: 1778-04-09 + role: "Jeremiah Wadsworth, elected Commissary General of Purchases" + fn: 10 + - type: founded + with: "[[Hartford Bank]]" + start: 1792 + role: "Jeremiah Wadsworth, first-named director; chosen president June 16, 1792 and declined" + fn: 13 + - type: founded + with: "[[Bank of North America]]" + start: 1781 + role: "Jeremiah Wadsworth, described as a founder in the Dictionary of American Biography and as an original subscriber of 104 shares by Burpee" + fn: 8 + - type: participant_in + with: "[[Treaty of Big Tree]]" + start: 1797 + role: "Jeremiah Wadsworth, appointed to superintend the treaty for the United States" + fn: 17 + - type: founded + with: "[[Wadsworth Atheneum]]" + start: 1842 + role: "Daniel Wadsworth, son of Jeremiah Wadsworth, who gave the money and the land" + fn: 62 + - type: appointed + with: "[[District of Columbia]]" + start: 1862-03-08 + end: 1862-12 + role: "James Samuel Wadsworth, military governor, by President's General War Order No. 2" + fn: 24 + - type: participant_in + with: "[[Battle of the Wilderness]]" + start: 1864-05-06 + role: "James Samuel Wadsworth, mortally wounded; died May 8, 1864" + fn: 28 + - type: member_of + with: "[[United States House of Representatives]]" + start: 1881-11-08 + end: 1907-03-03 + role: "James Wolcott Wadsworth (1846-1926), chairman of the Committee on Agriculture" + fn: 29 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Skull and Bones]]" + start: 1898 + role: "James Wolcott Wadsworth Jr., Yale class of 1898" + fn: 31 + - type: member_of + with: "[[United States Senate]]" + start: 1915-03-04 + end: 1927-03-03 + role: "James Wolcott Wadsworth Jr., senator from New York" + fn: 32 + - type: head_of + with: "[[United States Senate Committee on Military Affairs]]" + start: 1919 + end: 1927 + role: "James Wolcott Wadsworth Jr., chairman (Sixty-sixth through Sixty-ninth Congresses)" + fn: 32 + - type: member_of + with: "[[United States House of Representatives]]" + start: 1933-03-04 + end: 1951-01-03 + role: "James Wolcott Wadsworth Jr." + fn: 32 + - type: appointed + with: "[[National Security Training Commission]]" + start: 1951 + end: 1952-06-21 + role: "James Wolcott Wadsworth Jr., chairman, appointed by President Truman" + fn: 32 + - type: spouse_of + with: "[[Alice Hay Wadsworth]]" + start: 1902-09-30 + role: "James Wolcott Wadsworth Jr., married at Newbury, New Hampshire" + fn: 33 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[John Hay]]" + role: "father-in-law of James Wolcott Wadsworth Jr. and maternal grandfather of James Jeremiah Wadsworth" + fn: 33 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Helen Hay Whitney]]" + role: "sister of Alice Hay Wadsworth, wife of James Wolcott Wadsworth Jr." + fn: 35 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[John Hay Whitney]]" + role: "nephew of Alice Hay Wadsworth; son of Payne Whitney and Helen Hay" + fn: 35 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Stuart Symington|W. Stuart Symington]]" + start: 1924 + role: "married Evelyn Wadsworth (1903-1972), daughter of James Wolcott Wadsworth Jr." + fn: 4 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Perkins family]]" + start: 1901 + role: "William Austin Wadsworth married Elizabeth Greene Perkins" + fn: 4 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Skull and Bones]]" + start: 1927 + role: "James Jeremiah Wadsworth, Yale class of 1927" + fn: 42 + - type: member_of + with: "[[New York State Assembly]]" + start: 1931 + end: 1941 + role: "James Jeremiah Wadsworth" + fn: 43 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Curtiss-Wright]]" + role: "James Jeremiah Wadsworth, assistant industrial relations manager of the airplane division during World War II" + fn: 43 + - type: participant_in + with: "[[Conference on the Discontinuance of Nuclear Weapon Tests]]" + start: 1958 + end: 1960-08-31 + role: "James Jeremiah Wadsworth, United States Representative" + fn: 45 + - type: appointed + with: "[[United Nations]]" + start: 1960-08-27 + end: 1961-01-21 + role: "James Jeremiah Wadsworth, Representative of the U.S.A. to the United Nations" + fn: 48 + - type: founded + with: "[[Peace Research Institute]]" + start: 1961 + role: "James Jeremiah Wadsworth, first president; Antony C. Sutton dated its founding to 1960" + fn: 54 + - type: head_of + with: "[[Citizens Committee for a Nuclear Test Ban]]" + start: 1963 + role: "James Jeremiah Wadsworth, chairman" + fn: 51 + - type: appointed + with: "[[Federal Communications Commission]]" + start: 1965 + end: 1969 + role: "James Jeremiah Wadsworth, appointed by President Johnson" + fn: 41 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Freedom House]]" + role: "James Jeremiah Wadsworth, chairman of the board of directors, per the Bowdoin citation" + fn: 50 +--- + +The Wadsworth family is a Connecticut line that settled at [[Hartford, Connecticut|Hartford]] in the 1630s and, through two brothers who went to the Genesee country in 1790 as land agents for their kinsman Jeremiah Wadsworth, founded [[Geneseo, New York|Geneseo]]. Its members include a Continental Army commissary general, a Union brigadier general killed at the [[Battle of the Wilderness]], a speaker of the New York Assembly who sat in the [[United States Senate|Senate]] and the [[United States House of Representatives|House]], and a United States representative to the [[United Nations]]. [[Antony C. Sutton]] places the Wadsworth family (1632, Newtown, Massachusetts) among the old-line families on his chart headed "Hypothesis Number One," and his membership index lists two Wadsworths in [[Skull and Bones]].[^1][^2] + +### From the ship Lion to Hartford + +William Wadsworth is recorded as the progenitor of the family in America. He arrived at Boston on the ship Lion on September 16, 1632 with a household of four, settled at Newtown (now Cambridge, Massachusetts), became a freeman on November 6, 1632, served as a selectman there in 1634 and 1635, and removed to Hartford with the Rev. Thomas Hooker's company. He was collector in 1637, a Hartford selectman from 1642 to 1647, and died in 1675.[^3] The Livingston County Historian gives his dates as 1594 to 1675.[^4] His son Sergeant John Wadsworth settled at Farmington, Connecticut, and John's brother Joseph Wadsworth is the man the genealogy credits with seizing the colonial charter and hiding it in the oak.[^3] Captain James Wadsworth (1677-1756), a lawyer, took up land at Durham, Connecticut, under the patent of 1708.[^5] His descendants there included Brigadier General and later Major General James Wadsworth (1730-1817) of the Connecticut militia, a member of the Continental Congress in 1784 who opposed ratification of the Constitution in the Connecticut convention of 1788, and John Noyes Wadsworth, the father of the Geneseo brothers.[^6][^5] A separate branch of the name had landed at Duxbury, Massachusetts, in 1632 under Christopher Wadsworth, and later produced the Revolutionary general and Federalist congressman Peleg Wadsworth.[^3][^7] + +### Jeremiah Wadsworth + +Jeremiah Wadsworth was born in Hartford on July 12, 1743, the son of the Rev. Daniel Wadsworth and Abigail Talcott, a daughter of Governor Joseph Talcott. He went to sea at eighteen and rose to captain, married Mehitable Russell of Middletown on September 29, 1767, and in April 1775 was appointed by the Connecticut legislature as commissary to the colony's forces.[^8][^9] On April 9, 1778 the Continental Congress "proceeded to the election of a commissary general of purchases, and, the ballots being taken, Jeremiah Wadsworth, Esq. was unanimously elected."[^10] [[George Washington]] wrote to the President of Congress on August 3, 1778 that Wadsworth "has been indefatigable in his exertions to provide for the Army, and since his appointment our supplies of provisions have been good and ample."[^11] He held the post until his resignation at the end of 1779 and at the request of the Comte de [[Rochambeau]] served as commissary to the French army in America until the war ended.[^8][^11] Washington and Rochambeau conferred under his roof at Hartford in 1780; in 1783 he went to Paris to settle his accounts with the French government and received one of the gold medals struck for the peace.[^11] + +His business interests outlasted the war. The Dictionary of American Biography describes him as a founder of the [[Bank of North America]] in Philadelphia and of the Hartford Bank, a director of the first Bank of the United States, and one of the promoters of the Hartford Manufacturing Company (1788), a woolen mill, and records that he began the first insurance partnership in Connecticut in 1794.[^8] Charles W. Burpee wrote that he was an original subscriber to the Bank of North America in 1781 with 104 shares at $400, that he became president of the Bank of New York in 1785 at the request of [[Alexander Hamilton]], and that the Hartford Bank, chartered in 1792, was largely his project in consultation with Hamilton.[^12] At the organizing meeting of the Hartford Bank on June 14, 1792, with [[Oliver Ellsworth]] presiding, Wadsworth was the first-named of nine directors; on June 16 the directors chose him president, he declined, and John Caldwell was elected in his place.[^13] He headed the individual subscribers to the new Connecticut State House the same year with $500.[^14] He sat in the Connecticut ratification convention of 1788, in the Continental Congress that year, and in the first three Congresses of the United States (1789-1795), then in the state house and the state executive council until 1801, and died at Hartford on April 30, 1804.[^9] The Livingston County finding aid gives his birth year as 1745; the Biographical Directory of the Congress and the Dictionary of American Biography give 1743.[^4][^9][^8] + +### The Genesee lands and the Treaty of Big Tree + +Jeremiah Wadsworth held shares in the [[Phelps and Gorham Purchase]] in western New York. Henry Greenleaf Pearson wrote that he was probably drawn to it through [[Oliver Phelps]], whom he knew from the commissary department of Washington's army, and that his own purchase was about 25,000 acres, township 6 in range 7 on the Genesee River.[^15] In late 1789 his young kinsman James Wadsworth of Durham, a Yale graduate of 1787 and a son of John Noyes Wadsworth, was in his house at Hartford. Pearson wrote that Jeremiah proposed to furnish the money for James to buy land and settle in western New York; Lockwood Doty wrote that Jeremiah offered James and his brother William half of his interest at cost and the agency for the other half if they would remove to the Genesee.[^15][^16] The brothers left Durham in the spring of 1790. William went overland with the cattle, hired men and Jenny, an enslaved person of the family; James bought supplies in New York and shared a sloop to Albany with [[John Jacob Astor]], then on his first fur-buying journey. They built at the place then called Big Tree, now Geneseo.[^16][^4] The Livingston County finding aid calls Jeremiah their cousin; Doty calls him their uncle and Pearson a cousin of James.[^4][^16][^15] + +In September 1797 Jeremiah Wadsworth was the United States commissioner at the treaty held at Big Tree. [[Robert Morris]] had contracted with the Holland Land Company to extinguish the native title at his own expense. Doty recorded that the commissioner first named, Isaac Smith of New Jersey, was prevented by judicial duties, and that "Col. Jeremiah Wadsworth of Connecticut was appointed to superintend the treaty in conformity with law," with General William Shepard representing Massachusetts. At the opening Wadsworth delivered a speech assuring the [[Seneca]] that he would watch the proceedings in their interest, and at a private conference Morris offered them $100,000 for their lands.[^17] + +### James Wadsworth and William Wadsworth at Geneseo + +James Wadsworth (1768-1844) and William Wadsworth (1761-1833) took up 2,000 acres at Geneseo at a cost Doty gave as $160, and Cuyler Reynolds's genealogy records that they became the largest sheep and wool producers in the United States.[^16][^18] William, a major general of militia, was captured at Queenston in 1812 and held on parole at Geneseo until exchanged; he never married.[^19][^4] The brothers gave about four and a quarter acres in Geneseo for the Livingston County courthouse and jail, and William was one of the commissioners who superintended the building.[^20] James promoted education at his own expense, procured the school library law of 1838, and founded a library and lecture institution at Geneseo with a $10,000 endowment.[^18] He married Naomi Wolcott in 1804; their children were Harriet (1805-1833), who married Martin Brimmer of Boston, James Samuel, William Wolcott, Cornelia (1812-1831), and Elizabeth (1815-1851), who married Charles Augustus Murray.[^4][^18] + +### James Samuel Wadsworth + +James Samuel Wadsworth was born at Geneseo on October 30, 1807, studied at Hamilton College and Harvard, read law at Yale and in the office of Daniel Webster, and was admitted to the bar in 1833. He inherited his uncle William's lands the same year.[^21][^18] He took part in the Free-Soil movement of 1848, was a Republican elector in 1856 and 1860, and was one of eleven New York commissioners to the Peace Conference at Washington in February 1861, where, Pearson wrote, he took no part in the speech-making.[^18][^22] He served as a volunteer aide at Bull Run and was commissioned a brigadier general in the summer of 1861.[^23] + +On March 8, 1862 President [[Abraham Lincoln]]'s General War Order No. 2 directed that the forces left for the defence of Washington "will be placed in command of Brig.-General James Wadsworth, who shall also be Military Governor of the District of Columbia."[^24] A War Department order of March 15 directed the provost marshal of the Army of the Potomac to turn over to Wadsworth "all the military prisons and prisoners within the District of Columbia and all contrabands now in custody."[^25] Pearson wrote that Wadsworth quartered the fugitives from Virginia in Duff Green's Row east of the Capitol, assigned them a superintendent and employed many of the men at forty cents a day, and that a congressional committee investigating the District jail under United States Marshal Ward H. Lamon found that Lamon made nearly a hundred percent profit on the allowance for each prisoner.[^26] Wadsworth held the governorship for nine months and at his own request was ordered to the field in December 1862.[^23] + +The Union convention nominated him for governor of New York in September 1862, on the first ballot, 234 votes to 110 for John A. Dix, within days of Lincoln's announcement of the Emancipation Proclamation. [[Thurlow Weed]], whose first choice had been Dix, had sounded him through Secretary of the Treasury Salmon P. Chase, and Chase recorded Wadsworth's answer in his diary. [[Horatio Seymour]] won the election, 307,063 votes to 296,492, as reported in the New York Tribune of November 24, 1862.[^27] Wadsworth commanded a division at Gettysburg and, in May 1864, the Fourth Division of the Fifth Corps in the Wilderness. Struck on May 6 while trying to hold his line, he lay behind Confederate lines and died on May 8; Pearson prints the account of Confederate Colonel Charles Marshall of Lee's staff, who found him unconscious beneath a shelter tent. The body was brought through the lines under flag of truce on May 17 and buried at Geneseo.[^28][^23] He was brevetted a major general of volunteers for gallantry at Gettysburg and the Wilderness, with rank from May 6, 1864.[^28] He built the Hartford House at the north end of Geneseo and in 1834 married Mary Craig Wharton (1812-1874).[^4] + +### James Wolcott Wadsworth, The Boss + +James Wolcott Wadsworth (1846-1926), son of the general, was born in Philadelphia on October 12, 1846 and served on the staff of General Gouverneur K. Warren in the Civil War. The Biographical Directory of the Congress records that he was a member of the New York Assembly in 1878 and 1879 and State comptroller in 1880 and 1881; a Republican member of the House from November 8, 1881 to March 3, 1885 and again from March 4, 1891 to March 3, 1907, chairman of the Committee on Agriculture from the Fifty-fourth through the Fifty-ninth Congresses; president of the board of managers of the National Home for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers; and president of the Genesee Valley National Bank. He died in Washington on December 24, 1926.[^29] The county finding aid calls him "The Boss" and records his marriage in 1876 to Maria Louisa Travers (1848-1931); Reynolds gives the place as Newport, Rhode Island, and identifies her as a daughter of William R. Travers and a granddaughter of Reverdy Johnson of Maryland.[^4][^30] + +### James Wolcott Wadsworth Jr., Yale, Skull and Bones and the Senate + +James Wolcott Wadsworth Jr. ("Young Jim") was born at Geneseo on August 12, 1877, attended [[St. Mark's School]], and graduated from [[Yale University|Yale]] in 1898. The 1914 genealogy states that at Yale he "was a member of the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity in his junior year, and was chosen by the Skull and Bones Society," and that he played on the university baseball team; Sutton's membership index lists him in the class of 1898.[^31][^2] He served as a private in the Puerto Rican campaign of 1898, sailed with three classmates to the Philippines in early 1899, and returned to scientific farming near Mount Morris.[^32][^30] The Biographical Directory of the Congress records his service in the New York Assembly from 1905 to 1910 (Speaker, 1906 to 1910); his election to the Senate in 1914 and re-election in 1920; service from March 4, 1915 to March 3, 1927; defeat in 1926; the chairmanship of the Committee on Military Affairs from the Sixty-sixth through the Sixty-ninth Congresses; and election to the House for the Seventy-third and eight succeeding Congresses, March 4, 1933 to January 3, 1951.[^32] Reynolds adds that in the summer of 1908 he was suggested in various parts of the state for the Republican nomination for governor, which went to Charles E. Hughes, and that he was a trustee of Cornell University and a commissioner of the State Land Office.[^30] Who's Who in America lists his clubs as the Metropolitan Club of Washington, the Racquet and Tennis, Yale and Union League clubs of New York and the Fort Orange Club of Albany, and records that he managed a large ranch at Palo Duro, Texas, in 1911-13.[^33] His aunt Cornelia Wadsworth, the general's daughter, married John Adair of the JA Ranch at Palo Duro, Texas.[^4] + +On September 30, 1902 he married Alice Hay at Newbury, New Hampshire. She was born at Cleveland on January 6, 1880, a daughter of John Hay, Lincoln's private secretary and later Secretary of State, and Clara Louise Stone Hay.[^33][^34] Her sister [[Helen Hay Whitney|Helen Hay]] married [[Payne Whitney]], and their son [[John Hay Whitney]] was therefore a nephew of Alice Hay Wadsworth.[^35] Alice Hay Wadsworth was president of the National Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage from 1917 to 1919, was elected honorary president for life, and was national president of the American Women's Legion from 1921 to 1923.[^33] Their children were Evelyn (1903-1972), James Jeremiah (1905-1984) and Reverdy.[^33][^34] Evelyn Wadsworth married W. Stuart Symington, later a senator from Missouri, in 1924.[^4] + +Senator [[Edward R. Burke]] introduced S. 4164 on June 20, 1940, "a system of selective compulsory military training and service," and Wadsworth introduced the same bill in the House as H.R. 10132.[^36] It was enacted as the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940, chapter 720 of the 76th Congress, approved September 16, 1940, and is catalogued under the popular name Burke-Wadsworth Act.[^37][^38] A 1943 publication of the National Service Board for Religious Objectors states that "A New York attorney, [[Grenville Clark]], wrote what was to become the final Selective Training and Service Act of 1940, elaborated and introduced by Senator Burke and Representative Wadsworth," and quotes a House hearing exchange in which a speaker said that Clark "in his first day's testimony said he wrote it."[^39] The Rev. John Haynes Holmes said in a sermon of September 29, 1940, printed in the Appendix to the Congressional Record at the request of Senator Rush D. Holt, that the bill "was not written by Senator BURKE and Representative WADSWORTH, whose names it bore," and that "the measure prepared, here in New York, by not more than a half-dozen men, meeting at the Harvard Club on West Forty-fourth Street."[^40] The same 1943 publication adds that a later labor-draft proposal "was again outlined by Grenville Clark and again introduced by Representative Wadsworth, teamed this time with Senator Austin."[^39] President [[Harry S. Truman]] appointed Wadsworth chairman of the National Security Training Commission in 1951, and he served until his death in Washington on June 21, 1952.[^32] + +### James Jeremiah Wadsworth + +James Jeremiah Wadsworth, called Jerry, was born in Groveland, Livingston County, on June 12, 1905. He attended Fay School and St. Mark's School and then Yale, where the county finding aid records that he played football and baseball, ran track, and was a member of Skull and Bones; Sutton's index lists him in the class of 1927.[^41][^42] The 1984 obituary in the New York Times says he played varsity football and baseball at Yale and graduated in 1927; the finding aid records his marriage that year to Harty Griggs Tilton of New York City and the birth of their only child, Alice Ann, in 1928.[^43][^41] He was elected to the New York Assembly in 1931, served for a decade, and headed a legislative committee on the problems of unemployed men over forty. In 1938 he was the Republican nominee for lieutenant governor and lost.[^43][^41] The obituary states that he was rejected for military service in World War II because of a bad leg and worked as assistant manager of industrial relations at the [[Curtiss-Wright]] plant in Buffalo.[^43] + +After the war he directed the Public Interest Division of the [[War Assets Administration]], and in 1948 became special assistant to [[Paul G. Hoffman]] in the [[Economic Cooperation Administration]]. In 1950 he became deputy administrator of the Civil Defense Office of the [[National Security Resources Board]] under Paul J. Larsen, and the finding aid records that President Truman then appointed him deputy administrator of the [[Federal Civil Defense Administration]].[^41][^43] The finding aid records that President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] appointed him deputy chief representative to the United Nations in 1953; the New York Times obituary says he served seven years as deputy chief of the delegation under [[Henry Cabot Lodge]] Jr., "often a trouble-shooter in negotiations with the Russians."[^41][^43] + +On February 27, 1958 the State Department announced that the Secretary of State had designated Ambassador James J. Wadsworth to act as United States representative in future negotiations for an agreement on the limitation of armament, while he kept his post as Deputy Representative to the United Nations. The same release says the Secretary had asked four private citizens to advise him informally on the broad policies for limiting armament: [[Alfred M. Gruenther]], [[Robert A. Lovett]], [[John J. McCloy]] and [[Walter Bedell Smith]].[^44] The Foreign Relations of the United States lists him as the U.S. Representative to the Geneva Conference on the Discontinuance of Nuclear Weapon Tests until August 31, 1960 and Permanent Representative to the United Nations from September 8, 1960.[^45] At the National Security Council meeting of December 23, 1958 he reported that the Conference had agreed on the first four articles of a proposed treaty and that the Soviet idea of control would put 150 Russians and one or two Westerners at a Soviet control post.[^46] In a telegram from Geneva to [[Christian A. Herter|Christian Herter]] on February 16, 1959 he wrote: "I have a tremendous emotional desire to make a success of these talks. However, I have reluctantly come to believe that it would be wiser for us to find some way of stopping these negotiations now for some time at least."[^47] + +The State Department record gives his appointment as Representative of the United States to the United Nations on August 27, 1960, presentation of credentials on September 8, 1960, and the end of the mission on January 21, 1961.[^48] On October 11, 1960, when [[Nikita Khrushchev]] spoke for taking disarmament into plenary debate, Wadsworth stated: "We do this because we think that disarmament is a complex subject requiring serious consideration, and not a subject to be exploited for propaganda purposes."[^49] The New York Times obituary says that Wadsworth rose to criticize Khrushchev's attack on Secretary General [[Dag Hammarskjold]], and that he called the proposal to replace the office with a three-member committee "ludicrous."[^43] The Bowdoin College citation credits him with representing the American position on disarmament and atomic control, "uncompromising on the necessity of inspection as prerequisite to effectiveness," and notes his service as chairman of the board of directors of [[Freedom House]].[^50] + +After he left the United Nations he chaired the Citizens Committee for a Nuclear Test Ban. On August 7, 1963 a delegation with Wadsworth as principal spokesman, joined by Marion Folsom, William Clayton, Walter Reuther and Norman Cousins, met President [[John F. Kennedy]] to pledge support for the treaty signed in Moscow the day before; Senator [[Hubert Humphrey]] told the Senate that Wadsworth had been "one of the pioneers in fashioning many of the provisions of the treaty."[^51] The finding aid adds a 1955 trip to London for the United Nations Disarmament Commission sub-committee, the 1957 conference of the International Atomic Energy Agency at Vienna, and two novels of the 1960s, The Price of Peace and The Glass House.[^41] + +President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] appointed him to the [[Federal Communications Commission]] in 1965, where he served until 1969. The obituary quotes an earlier Times article calling him "an unpredictable maverick" on the Commission and says he cast the key vote in the first case in which the commission denied renewal to a major television licensee. In 1970 he joined the American team negotiating the charter of the International Telecommunications Satellite Consortium, [[Intelsat]], and then returned to the family farm of about 3,000 acres at Geneseo. His autobiography, The Silver Spoon, was published at his own expense in 1980; its introduction calls the title "a somewhat wry admission that I have been considered all my life as a rich person descended from rich people." He died in Rochester on March 13, 1984.[^43][^41] The Bowdoin citation describes the record of the preceding three generations of his family as "a United States Senator, two United States Congressmen, a Brigadier General, an Ambassador to Great Britain, and a Secretary of State."[^50] + +### The Peace Research Institute + +Antony C. Sutton wrote in the section of his book on think tanks that "In 1960, James Jeremiah Wadsworth ('27) set up the Peace Research Institute. In 1963 this was merged to become the Institute for Policy Studies, along with Marcus Rashkin, who had been National Security Council Aide (1961-3) to McGeorge Bundy ('40)."[^52] Elsewhere in the same book he wrote that the Rubin Foundation, a client of the New York law firm of Lord, Day and Lord, "is one of the financial angels for the Institute for Policy Studies in Washington, D.C."[^53] + +The press and congressional record places the Institute's beginning in 1961. [[Arthur Larson]], director of the Rule of Law Research Center at [[Duke University]] and former director of the United States Information Agency, said in a Utah State University commencement address of June 3, 1967 that after the Duke center was started in 1958, "several of us formed a Peace Research Committee," and that "The Committee then led to the Peace Research Institute, Inc., with Ambassador James J. Wadsworth as its first president."[^54] A newspaper editorial reprinted in the Senate on July 26, 1963 referred to "the foundation-financed Peace Research Institute founded in 1961 by former Ambassador James J. Wadsworth."[^55] Shirley Scheibla wrote in Barron's of October 6, 1969 that the Institute for Policy Studies "had its genesis in the Peace Research Institute, which began operations in Washington on April 5, 1961," with an announcement that it would be a private agency for research in "all fields relevant to peace, security, disarmament and international order," and that it shortly obtained a $20,000 contract for a study for the [[Arms Control and Disarmament Agency]]; Senator Paul J. Fannin had the article printed in the Congressional Record.[^56] The agency's second annual report, printed in the Record on February 11, 1963, lists the grant: a study of the factors pertinent to the political control of an international police force, awarded on June 19, 1962 to the Peace Research Institute of Washington, D.C., in the amount of $20,000.[^57] Scheibla wrote that the study was signed by Arthur I. Waskow and called for an international police force.[^56] Donald Michael was the Institute's director.[^58] + +Scheibla wrote that the Peace Research Institute "merged with the Institute for Policy Studies, which had just been founded by Marcus Raskin and Richard Barnet" late in 1963, and that Waskow then went to work for the Institute for Policy Studies as senior fellow. She listed its financing as the [[Ford Foundation]], the Edgar Stern Family Fund, the Samuel Rubin Foundation, Irving Lauck, the Institute for International Order, the Milbank Foundation, a gift of the Fontaney Corporation "through the generosity of James P. Warburg," the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues, the National Board of Missions of the Presbyterian Church, the Field Foundation, the Cudahy Fund, the Edwin Janss Foundation, Jennifer Cafritz, Walter E. Meyer and Michel Gellert, on an annual budget of $400,000.[^56] [[Marcus Raskin]] and [[Richard Barnet]] are the Institute for Policy Studies founders named in the article.[^56] + +### William Austin Wadsworth and the other branches + +William Austin Wadsworth (1847-1918), a son of William Wolcott Wadsworth and Emmeline Austin, established the Genesee Valley Hunt Club and in 1901 married Elizabeth Greene [[Perkins family|Perkins]] (1869-1943), who founded the Wadsworth Nursing Home in Geneseo.[^4] The general's daughter Cornelia (1839-1921) married first Montgomery Ritchie and then John Adair, his daughter Nancy (born 1843) married Edward M. Rogers, and Elizabeth (1848-1930) married first Arthur Post and then Arthur Smith Barry, Lord Barrymore.[^23][^4] Craig Wharton Wadsworth (1841-1872), who served for a time on his father's staff, married Evelyn W. Peters; their sons were James Samuel "Jim Sam" Wadsworth (1870-1930), the father of James Livingston Wadsworth (1897-1918), listed in the finding aid as the first World War I casualty of Troop M, and Craig Wharton Wadsworth Jr. (1872-1960), a Spanish-American War veteran and Rough Rider.[^23][^4] Harriet Travers Wadsworth (1881-1975), sister of Wadsworth Jr., married Fletcher Harper.[^4] + +### George Wadsworth II + +A different man of the same surname held a diplomatic post in the same years. George Wadsworth II (1893-1958), a career Foreign Service officer, was appointed ambassador to Saudi Arabia on October 21, 1953, presented credentials on January 9, 1954, and left the post on January 1, 1958.[^59] His telegram of February 6, 1954 from Saudi Arabia, signed "the Ambassador in Saudi Arabia (Wadsworth)," concerns the agreement between the Saudi government and the Onassis company and is cited in the biography of [[Robert Maheu]].[^60] + +### The Wadsworth Atheneum and the Morgan Memorial + +Jeremiah Wadsworth's only son Daniel Wadsworth inherited his Hartford house, which stood on the site of the later museum.[^61] The National Register of Historic Places lists the Wadsworth Atheneum, a Gothic Revival building of cream granite, as built in 1842 to the design of Ithiel Town, and states that Daniel Wadsworth gave Hartford the money for it and donated the land.[^62] Hartford's Library Company, a forerunner, was incorporated in 1799 "largely at the instance of Colonel Jeremiah Wadsworth."[^63] Before 1910 the Colt Wing and the Morgan Memorial had been added to the original building.[^64] The will of [[J. P. Morgan]], published in April 1913, refers to "The Morgan Memorial" of the Wadsworth Athenaeum in its article on the art collections.[^65] + +### Footnotes + +[^1]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chart "Hypothesis Number One: A Secret Society Dominated By Old Line American Families And New Wealth Has Existed From 1833 To The Present Day" (Wadsworth Family, 1632 Newtown, Mass.) and the text on old-line families. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^2]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), membership index, class of 1898 ("Wadsworth, James Wolcott Jr.") and class of 1927 ("Wadsworth, James Jeremiah"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^3]: Cuyler Reynolds, ed., *Genealogical and Family History of Southern New York and the Hudson River Valley*, vol. 2 (New York, 1914), Wadsworth family, p. 850 (William Wadsworth and the ship Lion, Sept. 16, 1632; Newtown; Hartford; Sergeant John Wadsworth; Joseph Wadsworth and the charter; Christopher Wadsworth at Duxbury). https://archive.org/details/genealogicalfami02reyn +[^4]: Livingston County Historian's Office, "Wadsworth Family: A Subject Finding Aid" (April 2019, revised 2022), section II and the family tree, with bibliography. https://livingstoncountyny.gov/DocumentCenter/View/11709 +[^5]: Reynolds, *Genealogical and Family History of Southern New York*, vol. 2, p. 851 (Captain James Wadsworth of Durham; Hon. James Wadsworth; John Noyes Wadsworth, who married Esther Parsons in 1757). https://archive.org/details/genealogicalfami02reyn +[^6]: *Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, 1774-2005*, H. Doc. 108-222 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 2005), p. 2098, "Wadsworth, James" (born Durham, Conn., July 8, 1730; major general of Connecticut militia 1777-1779; Continental Congress 1784; opposed ratification in 1788; died September 22, 1817). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CDOC-108hdoc222/pdf/GPO-CDOC-108hdoc222.pdf +[^7]: *Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, 1774-2005*, p. 2099, "Wadsworth, Peleg" (born Duxbury, Mass., May 6, 1748; Representative from Massachusetts, 1793-1807). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CDOC-108hdoc222/pdf/GPO-CDOC-108hdoc222.pdf +[^8]: *Dictionary of American Biography*, vol. 19 (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1936), s.v. "Wadsworth, Jeremiah," pp. 308-309 (birth July 12, 1743; commissary to Connecticut forces April 1775; commissary general April 1778 to resignation December 4, 1779; commissary to the French troops at Rochambeau's request; founder of the Bank of North America and the Hartford Bank; Hartford Manufacturing Company; insurance partnership of 1794). https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofamer19amer +[^9]: *Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, 1774-2005*, p. 2099, "Wadsworth, Jeremiah" (born Hartford, July 12, 1743; went to sea 1761; Continental Congress 1788; First through Third Congresses; state executive council 1795-1801; died April 30, 1804). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CDOC-108hdoc222/pdf/GPO-CDOC-108hdoc222.pdf +[^10]: *Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774-1789*, vol. 10, ed. Worthington C. Ford (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1908), p. 328, Thursday, April 9, 1778. https://archive.org/details/us_congress_continental +[^11]: Henry Greenleaf Pearson, *James S. Wadsworth of Geneseo, Brevet Major-General of United States Volunteers* (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1913), pp. 4-5 (Jeremiah Wadsworth; Washington to the President of Congress, August 3, 1778, citing Ford's *Writings of George Washington*, vol. 7, p. 141; Rochambeau; the gold medal; commissary general elected April 9, 1778 and held until January 1, 1780). https://archive.org/details/cu31924032774220 +[^12]: Charles W. Burpee, *The Story of Connecticut*, vol. 2 (New York: American Historical Company, 1939), chapter on Hartford and its banks. https://archive.org/details/burpeesstoryofco02burp +[^13]: John Alden Brett, ed., *Connecticut Yesterday and Today, 1635-1935* (Hartford, 1935), Hartford National Bank and Trust Company section (articles of association; meeting of June 14, 1792 with Oliver Ellsworth presiding; directors; election of Wadsworth as president on June 16, 1792, his declination, and the election of John Caldwell). https://archive.org/details/connecticutyeste00bret +[^14]: Burpee, *The Story of Connecticut*, vol. 2 (1939) (State House of 1792; subscribers headed by Colonel Jeremiah Wadsworth with $500). https://archive.org/details/burpeesstoryofco02burp +[^15]: Pearson, *James S. Wadsworth of Geneseo* (1913), pp. 5-8 (Jeremiah's purchase of township 6, range 7; James Wadsworth's graduation from Yale in 1787 and stay at Jeremiah's Hartford house; the Phelps and Gorham purchase; Oliver Phelps; the brothers' departure in spring 1790). https://archive.org/details/cu31924032774220 +[^16]: Lockwood L. Doty, *A History of Livingston County, New York* (Geneseo: Edward E. Doty, 1876), pp. 240-241 (James Wadsworth and Colonel Jeremiah Wadsworth's offer; the 2,000 acres at Geneseo for $160; William, "Jenny" and the ox cart; James and John Jacob Astor on the sloop to Albany). https://archive.org/details/historyoflivings00doty +[^17]: Doty, *A History of Livingston County* (1876), pp. 223-228 (the treaty of 1797; Robert Morris and the Holland Company; Isaac Smith; "Col. Jeremiah Wadsworth of Connecticut was appointed to superintend the treaty in conformity with law"; Wadsworth's speech; the offer of $100,000). https://archive.org/details/historyoflivings00doty +[^18]: Reynolds, *Genealogical and Family History of Southern New York*, vol. 2, pp. 851-853 (James Wadsworth: sheep and wool; the school library law of 1838; the $10,000 library; his children; General James Samuel Wadsworth's education, 1833 bar admission, the lands inherited from William Wadsworth, the Free-Soil movement of 1848, elector in 1856 and 1860, Peace Conference delegate). https://archive.org/details/genealogicalfami02reyn +[^19]: Doty, *A History of Livingston County* (1876), pp. 306-310 (General William Wadsworth at Queenston; prisoner and on parole at Geneseo). https://archive.org/details/historyoflivings00doty +[^20]: Doty, *A History of Livingston County* (1876), pp. 351-352 (act appointing General William Wadsworth, Daniel H. Fitzhugh and William Markham to superintend the public buildings; land given by William and James Wadsworth). https://archive.org/details/historyoflivings00doty +[^21]: Pearson, *James S. Wadsworth of Geneseo* (1913), pp. 22-23 (born October 30, 1807). https://archive.org/details/cu31924032774220 +[^22]: Pearson, *James S. Wadsworth of Geneseo* (1913), pp. 51-52 (election to the Peace Conference in February 1861; "took no part in the speech-making"). https://archive.org/details/cu31924032774220 +[^23]: Reynolds, *Genealogical and Family History of Southern New York*, vol. 2, pp. 852-853 (Bull Run; brigadier general, July 1861; military governor from March 1862 for nine months; division command; the Wilderness; children of General Wadsworth). https://archive.org/details/genealogicalfami02reyn +[^24]: Frank Moore, ed., *The Rebellion Record*, vol. 4 (New York, 1862), Documents, "President's General War Order, No. 2," Executive Mansion, Washington, March 8, 1862, art. III. https://archive.org/details/rebellionrecordd04moor +[^25]: *The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies*, Series II, vol. 3 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1898), General Orders No. 25, War Department, Adjutant General's Office, March 15, 1862, p. 378. https://archive.org/details/warofrebellion0203rootrich +[^26]: Pearson, *James S. Wadsworth of Geneseo* (1913), pp. 131-133 (the District jail and Marshal Lamon's profit, citing the New York Tribune, July 2, 1862; the contrabands at Duff Green's Row). https://archive.org/details/cu31924032774220 +[^27]: Pearson, *James S. Wadsworth of Geneseo* (1913), pp. 154-156, 164-165 (nomination of September 1862; vote of 234 to 110; Weed and Chase; Seymour, 307,063; Wadsworth, 296,492, citing the New York Tribune, November 24, 1862). https://archive.org/details/cu31924032774220 +[^28]: Pearson, *James S. Wadsworth of Geneseo* (1913), pp. 272-289 (the Wilderness, May 5-8, 1864; Colonel Marshall's account; death on May 8; return of the body on May 17; brevet commission dated May 6, 1864). https://archive.org/details/cu31924032774220 +[^29]: *Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, 1774-2005*, p. 2098, "Wadsworth, James Wolcott" (born Philadelphia, October 12, 1846; Assembly 1878-1879; comptroller 1880-1881; House 1881-1885 and 1891-1907; died December 24, 1926). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CDOC-108hdoc222/pdf/GPO-CDOC-108hdoc222.pdf +[^30]: Reynolds, *Genealogical and Family History of Southern New York*, vol. 2, pp. 853-855 (James W. Wadsworth Sr.; marriage of 1876 at Newport; James W. Wadsworth Jr.: St. Mark's, Yale 1894-1898, Delta Kappa Epsilon, Skull and Bones, Spanish-American War, Philippines in 1899, Assembly 1904-1910, the 1908 gubernatorial talk, trustee of Cornell; marriage of September 30, 1902 to Alice Hay). https://archive.org/details/genealogicalfami02reyn +[^31]: Reynolds, *Genealogical and Family History of Southern New York*, vol. 2, p. 854 ("was chosen by the Skull and Bones Society"). https://archive.org/details/genealogicalfami02reyn +[^32]: *Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, 1774-2005*, pp. 2098-2099, "Wadsworth, James Wolcott, Jr." (born Geneseo, August 12, 1877; Yale 1898; Assembly 1905-1910, Speaker 1906-1910; Senate March 4, 1915 to March 3, 1927; chairman, Committee on Military Affairs; House March 4, 1933 to January 3, 1951; chairman, National Security Training Commission, 1951; died June 21, 1952). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CDOC-108hdoc222/pdf/GPO-CDOC-108hdoc222.pdf +[^33]: *Who's Who in America*, vol. 14, 1926-1927 (Chicago: A. N. Marquis, 1926), entries "Wadsworth, Alice Hay (Mrs. James Wolcott Wadsworth, Jr.)" and "Wadsworth, James Wolcott, Jr." (marriage at Newbury, N.H., Sept. 30, 1902; children Evelyn (Mrs. Stuart Symington), James Jeremiah, Reverdy; National Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage 1917-1919; ranch at Paloduro, Texas, 1911-1913; clubs). https://archive.org/details/whoswho141926 +[^34]: Reynolds, *Genealogical and Family History of Southern New York*, vol. 2, p. 855 (Alice Hay, born Cleveland, January 6, 1880, daughter of John Hay and Clara Stone Hay; children Evelyn, born July 7, 1903, and James Jeremiah, born June 8, 1905, at Mount Morris). https://archive.org/details/genealogicalfami02reyn +[^35]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased During the Year Ending July 1, 1927*, entry for Payne Whitney, B.A. 1898, pp. 171 to 172 (marriage to Helen Hay; the son John Hay Whitney). https://archive.org/details/obituaryrecordof00yale_4 ; Reynolds, *Genealogical and Family History of Southern New York*, vol. 2, p. 855 (Alice Hay, daughter of John Hay). https://archive.org/details/genealogicalfami02reyn +[^36]: *Congressional Record*, 76th Cong., 3d sess., vol. 86: Senate, June 20, 1940, p. 8680 (S. 4164, introduced by Mr. Burke); House, p. 8907 (H.R. 10132, introduced by Mr. Wadsworth). https://archive.org/details/us_congress_76 +[^37]: Selective Training and Service Act of 1940, ch. 720, S. 4164, approved September 16, 1940, 54 Stat. 885. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-54/pdf/STATUTE-54-Pg885.pdf +[^38]: Yale Law Library, Database of Federal Statute Popular Names, entry "Burke-Wadsworth Act (see Selective Training and Service Act of 1940)." https://documents.law.yale.edu/node/48446 +[^39]: National Service Board for Religious Objectors, *Congress Looks at the Conscientious Objector* (Washington, 1943), narrative of the Selective Training and Service Act, the House hearing exchange, and the later national service proposal. https://archive.org/details/congresslooksatc00nati +[^40]: *Congressional Record*, Appendix, October 2, 1940, vol. 86, pp. 6059-6060 (extension of remarks of Senator Rush D. Holt printing the sermon "As We Move Toward War" by the Rev. John Haynes Holmes). https://archive.org/details/us_congress_76 +[^41]: Livingston County Historian's Office, "James Jeremiah Wadsworth (1905-1984) Collection," finding aid C169 (August 2022), section II, Biographical Information. https://livingstoncountyny.gov/DocumentCenter/View/15946 +[^42]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), membership index, class of 1927 ("Wadsworth, James Jeremiah"); Livingston County Historian's Office, finding aid C169 (2022), section II. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^43]: *Congressional Record*, Senate, June 20, 1984, "A Tribute to James J. Wadsworth," remarks of Senator Daniel P. Moynihan printing Joseph B. Treaster, "James J. Wadsworth Dies at 78; Headed U.S. Delegation to U.N.," *New York Times*, March 15, 1984. https://archive.org/details/us_congress_98 +[^44]: U.S. Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1958-1960*, vol. III, Microfiche Supplement, National Security Policy; Arms Control and Disarmament, doc. 294, press release, Washington, February 27, 1958. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1958-60v03mSupp/d294 +[^45]: U.S. Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1958-1960*, vol. III, National Security Policy; Arms Control and Disarmament, list of persons ("Wadsworth, James J., U.S. Representative to the Geneva Conference on the Discontinuance of Nuclear Weapon Tests until August 31, 1960; Permanent Representative to the United Nations from September 8, 1960"). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1958-60v03 +[^46]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1958-1960*, vol. III, doc. 189, memorandum of discussion at the 392d meeting of the National Security Council, Washington, December 23, 1958. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1958-60v03/d189 +[^47]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1958-1960*, vol. III, doc. 200, telegram from the Delegation to the Conference on the Discontinuance of Nuclear Tests to the Department of State, Geneva, February 16, 1959. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1958-60v03/d200 +[^48]: Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State, "James Jeremiah Wadsworth," People, Department History (appointment August 27, 1960; credentials September 8, 1960; termination January 21, 1961). https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/wadsworth-james-jeremiah +[^49]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1958-1960*, vol. II, doc. 227, editorial note on the General Assembly debate of October 11, 1960. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1958-60v02/d227 +[^50]: Bowdoin College, honorary Doctor of Laws citation for James Jeremiah Wadsworth. https://library.bowdoin.edu/arch/college-history-and-archives/honors/Wadsworth61.pdf +[^51]: *Congressional Record*, Senate, August 8, 1963, "Citizen Support for Test Ban Treaty," remarks of Senator Hubert Humphrey with the statement to President Kennedy and the press release of August 7, 1963, vol. 109, pp. 14536-14538. https://archive.org/details/us_congress_88 +[^52]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), text on think tanks. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^53]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), text on the Lord family and Lord, Day and Lord. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^54]: *Congressional Record*, Senate, June 27, 1967, vol. 113, pp. 17415-17418 (remarks of Senator Frank Moss printing the commencement address of Arthur Larson, "Can Knowledge Bring Peace?", Utah State University, June 3, 1967). https://archive.org/details/us_congress_90 +[^55]: *Congressional Record*, Senate, July 26, 1963, vol. 109, p. 14024, editorial "Purely a Matter of Economics," Bloomington (Ind.) *Telephone*, July 25, 1963. https://archive.org/details/us_congress_88 +[^56]: Shirley Scheibla, "The Institute for Policy Studies Aims To Disarm the United States," *Barron's*, October 6, 1969, printed in the *Congressional Record*, Senate, October 6, 1969, vol. 115, pp. 28750-28751, at the request of Senator Paul J. Fannin. https://archive.org/details/us_congress_91 +[^57]: *Congressional Record*, Senate, February 11, 1963, vol. 109, p. 2149 (second annual report of the U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, "Grants," item 1). https://archive.org/details/us_congress_88 +[^58]: *Congressional Record*, Appendix, April 30, 1963 (extension of remarks of Representative Robert W. Kastenmeier printing Donald Michael, "Peace and Politics: Aspirations and Limits," address of November 5, 1961, *Adult Leadership*, February 1963; Michael identified as director of the Peace Research Institute, Washington, D.C.). https://archive.org/details/us_congress_88 +[^59]: Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State, "George Wadsworth II," People, Department History (career Foreign Service officer; ambassador to Saudi Arabia, appointed October 21, 1953, credentials January 9, 1954, left post January 1, 1958). https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/wadsworth-george +[^60]: U.S. Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, vol. IX, *The Near and Middle East*, part 1, doc. 329, telegram from the Ambassador in Saudi Arabia (Wadsworth), February 6, 1954, pp. 786-787. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v09p1/d329 +[^61]: Burpee, *The Story of Connecticut*, vol. 2 (1939) (Jeremiah Wadsworth's large property left to his only son Daniel, including his residence on the site of the Wadsworth Atheneum). https://archive.org/details/burpeesstoryofco02burp +[^62]: National Park Service, *The National Register of Historic Places 1972* (Washington, 1972), Connecticut, Hartford County, "Wadsworth Atheneum, 25 Atheneum Square, North, 1842, Ithiel Town." https://archive.org/details/nationalregister001972 +[^63]: Burpee, *The Story of Connecticut*, vol. 2 (1939) (the Library Company incorporated 1799). https://archive.org/details/burpeesstoryofco02burp +[^64]: Brett, *Connecticut Yesterday and Today* (1935), section on Samuel P. Avery and the Morgan Memorial (the Colt Wing and the Morgan Memorial added to the original Wadsworth Atheneum before 1910). https://archive.org/details/connecticutyeste00bret +[^65]: *New-York Tribune*, April 20, 1913 (full text of the will, Article XXXII, art collections and "The Morgan Memorial" of the Wadsworth Athenaeum). https://www.loc.gov/item/sn83030214/1913-04-20/ed-1/ diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Weyerhaeuser family.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Weyerhaeuser family.md new file mode 100644 index 00000000..35f38f9f --- /dev/null +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Weyerhaeuser family.md @@ -0,0 +1,246 @@ +--- +created: 2026-10-26 +updated: 2026-10-26 +aliases: + - "Weyerhaeuser family" + - "Weyerhaeuser" + - "Weyerhaeuser clan" + - "Frederick Weyerhaeuser family" +tags: + - Person + - Family + - Weyerhaeuser + - Lumber + - NorthernPacific + - JamesJHill + - BureauOfCorporations + - LandGrants + - SkullAndBones + - Yale + - TrilateralCommission + - KidnappingCase + - Foundations +category: "Business & Finance" +summary: "Lumber family whose Weyerhaeuser Timber Company bought 900,000 acres of Northern Pacific grant timber in 1900, with members on Yale and Skull and Bones rosters." +location: "Rock Island, Illinois; St. Paul, Minnesota; Tacoma, Washington" +relations: + - type: partner_of + with: "[[Frederick Denkmann]]" + start: 1860 + role: "bought a failing lumber mill at Rock Island, Illinois" + fn: 2 + - type: head_of + with: "[[Mississippi River Logging Company]]" + start: 1872 + role: "Frederick Weyerhaeuser, named president by 1872" + fn: 7 + - type: founded + with: "[[Weyerhaeuser Timber Company]]" + start: 1900 + role: "incorporated January 18, 1900, after the purchase of Northern Pacific grant timberland" + fn: 15 + - type: investigated + with: "[[Bureau of Corporations]]" + reverse: true + start: 1913 + role: "lumber industry reports, Part I of January 20, 1913 and Parts II and III of July 13, 1914" + fn: 21 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Skull and Bones]]" + start: 1896 + role: "Frederick E. Weyerhaeuser, class of 1896, recorded as 'Bones' in the class's decennial record" + fn: 38 + - type: member_of + with: "[[National Lumber Manufacturers Association]]" + start: 1905 + role: "Frederick E. Weyerhaeuser, chairman of the committee to endow a chair at the Yale Forest School" + fn: 42 + - type: investigated + with: "[[Federal Trade Commission]]" + reverse: true + start: 1949 + role: "Weyerhaeuser Sales Co. a respondent in the Douglas Fir Plywood Association proceeding, 47 F.T.C. 420" + fn: 47 + - type: investigated + with: "[[Federal Bureau of Investigation]]" + reverse: true + start: 1935 + role: "kidnapping of George Weyerhaeuser, age 9, from Tacoma" + fn: 53 + - type: funded + with: "[[Trilateral Commission]]" + start: 1973 + end: 1980 + role: "Weyerhaeuser Company listed among corporate financial supporters as of March 31, 1980" + fn: 52 + - type: head_of + with: "[[Weyerhaeuser Company]]" + start: 1966 + end: 1991 + role: "George H. Weyerhaeuser, president and chief executive officer" + fn: 57 +--- + +The Weyerhaeuser family is a lumber family whose founder, [[Frederick Weyerhaeuser]] (1834 to 1914), built a timber business from a sawmill in [[Rock Island, Illinois]] and then from land in [[Washington (state)|Washington State]].[^1] Members of the family appear on [[Yale University]] class lists and on the [[Skull and Bones]] roster, and the family's company appears in federal court records, Bureau of Corporations reports, Federal Trade Commission orders and congressional records of timber ownership. + +### Rock Island and the Mississippi + +Frederick Weyerhaeuser was born on November 21, 1834, in Niedersaulheim, Germany, arrived in Rock Island in 1856, and in 1860 joined his brother-in-law [[Frederick Denkmann]] in buying a bankrupt lumber mill there.[^2] The city's historic structures page describes the mill as failing and states that "From that time on, the firm cut and rafted logs down the Mississippi River."[^3] It gives the deaths of Denkmann in 1905 and Weyerhaeuser in 1914 and states that both are buried at [[Chippiannock Cemetery]] in Rock Island.[^4] Weyerhaeuser moved his family and offices to [[Saint Paul, Minnesota|Saint Paul]] in 1891.[^2] + +The Yale record of his son's class gives the parents' marriage as October 11, 1857, at Rock Island, between Frederick Weyerhaeuser and Elizabeth Sarah Bladel, with seven children, four boys and three girls.[^5] The [[Forest History Society]] names the children as John Philip, Elise, Margaret, Apollonia, Charles, Rudolph and Frederick Edward, the last being the youngest.[^6] + +### Mississippi River Logging Company and the Chippewa pool + +The [[Minnesota Historical Society]]'s biographical entry states that Weyerhaeuser was named president of the [[Mississippi River Logging Company]] by 1872.[^7] Walter A. Blair's history of upper Mississippi rafting records that the Beef Slough Boom and Improvement Company was organized in 1867 and chartered by Wisconsin to catch, sort, raft and scale all logs coming down the [[Chippewa River]], and that the Mississippi River Logging Company took it over in 1873.[^8] + +The boom drew federal litigation. In February 1879 the Circuit Court for the Western District of Wisconsin heard the government's bill to abate the works of the Beef Slough company and to stop the driving of logs in the Chippewa; the court held that without specific legislation by Congress the regulation of a navigable stream was left to the state, and sustained the demurrer.[^9] In a separate suit, [[Heerman v. Beef Slough Manufacturing Company]], a steamboat proprietor asked the same court to abate the company's piers and booms as a nuisance; Judge Bunn held that a court of equity would not abate piers and booms built under the authority of the Wisconsin legislature, at the instance of a private individual.[^10] + +A later contract case shows the company's structure. In Robson v. Mississippi River Logging Company (Circuit Court, Northern District of Iowa, April 2, 1894), the court found that the defendant was an Iowa corporation that drove logs and timber down the Flambeau and Chippewa rivers, and that the Chippewa Lumber and Boom Company was "under the control and management of the defendant."[^11] The contract in suit, dated August 23, 1882, recited differences between a Minnesota timber owner, the logging company and the Chippewa Lumber and Boom Company, and bound the logging company to drive, boom and deliver his logs at boom charges not to exceed 60 cents per thousand feet. When floods filled Beef Slough, the court held that the company could not excuse nonperformance, because it had built a boom in another slough on the west bank of the Mississippi.[^12] + +### The Northern Pacific purchase + +On January 3, 1900, [[James J. Hill]] sold about 900,000 acres (1,406 square miles) of Washington State timberland to Frederick Weyerhaeuser, according to a [[HistoryLink]] essay on the transaction.[^13] The land had been held by the [[Northern Pacific Railway]], and Hill had gained controlling interest in that railroad.[^13] The price was $6 an acre, or $5,400,000, with $3,000,000 paid down and eight semiannual payments of $300,000 plus interest.[^14] The [[Weyerhaeuser Timber Company]] was incorporated on January 18, 1900.[^15] A second HistoryLink essay states that Hill and Weyerhaeuser had been neighbors in Saint Paul since 1891, that the buyers were Weyerhaeuser and 11 investors, and that the company eventually bought 3 million acres from Hill.[^16] + +The [[Bureau of Corporations]] later gave the same transaction in its own words. The report states that "Eighty per cent of the Weyerhaeuser Timber Co.'s holding was originally part of the Northern Pacific grant. In 1900 it purchased 900,000 acres from the Northern Pacific Railway Co., and subsequent purchases brought the amount acquired from the Northern Pacific up to 1,525,000 acres."[^17] + +The bureau's 1913 volume on standing timber describes the purchase as "one of the most spectacular events in the timber history of the country" and states that "The Weyerhaeuser company was organized for the very purpose of holding timber for the speculative profit to be gotten out of it." It adds that the price understood to have been paid was equivalent to about 10 cents a thousand feet for the lumber the holding would produce.[^18] The volume quotes the St. Paul timberman F. B. Lynch, who told the House Ways and Means Committee on November 20, 1908: "we put in a bid for it and the Weyerhaeuser people got it, and the price of that timber, on the Northern Pacific estimates, was less than 20 cents per thousand."[^19] The bureau adds that "It is universally agreed that the Weyerhaeuser purchase was followed by a marked increase of timber prices."[^20] + +### The Bureau of Corporations reports + +The bureau published Part I of its lumber study, titled Standing Timber, on January 20, 1913, and Parts II and III on July 13, 1914. Part II is headed "Concentration of Timber Ownership in Important Selected Regions" and Part III "Land Holdings of Large Timber Owners," both under Commissioner Joseph E. Davies.[^21] + +Part I records the company's response to the inquiry. The Weyerhaeuser Timber Company "furnished a satisfactory statement of the acreage and location of its land," but for its timber "gave mostly old estimates made by the Northern Pacific from the eighties to 1900, before the purchase," and the bureau did not use them.[^22] The company supplied a list of its officers and directors but "refused to furnish a list of its stockholders and the amount of stock owned by each." Frederick Weyerhaeuser "furnished informally a list of companies in which he is interested," which the bureau did not verify, and the report states that "in lumber circles he is usually credited with being the most influential person in the timber and lumber companies in which he is interested."[^23] + +The report sorts the companies identified with him into the Weyerhaeuser Timber Co., a Group A of other companies in which he owned stock, a Group B of companies in which other known stockholders of the Weyerhaeuser Timber Co. were interested, and a Group C of companies in which his associates in Group A were interested. Its table gives the timber of Group A as 49.5 billion board feet, Group B as 65.1 billion and Group C as 81.6 billion, and the total as 291.9 billion, of which 228.5 billion lay in the Pacific Northwest, 48.7 billion in the Southern Pine Region and 14.7 billion in the Lake States.[^24] Weyerhaeuser owned from 10 to 60 per cent of the stock in each Group A company, according to his informal statement.[^25] + +The bureau then wrote: "there is a remarkable interweaving of interests among the various companies. As a whole they are controlled by a comparatively small number of persons closely united in subgroups through long business connection and often through family relationship." It added that "An extensive consolidation among these interests may easily be brought about at any time when circumstances favor it." Combined with the Southern Pacific (106 billion feet), the Northern Pacific (36 billion) and five holders discussed in the report (102 billion), the groups made "a total of 536 billion feet, or 31 per cent of all the privately owned timber in the investigation area, in the hands of a few interests."[^26] + +Part II treats the company's own holding. "The three largest holdings of timber in the entire United States, those of the Southern Pacific Co., the Weyerhaeuser Timber Co., and the Northern Pacific Railway Co., were obtained altogether, or in very large degree, through railroad land grants."[^27] The second largest holding in the country was the Weyerhaeuser Timber Co.'s: 1,515,932 acres in Washington (76.9 billion feet), 380,599 acres in Oregon (18.7 billion) and 4,905 acres in California (0.1 billion), a total of 1,901,436 acres and 95.7 billion feet.[^28] A footnote to the table states that it is "the total of the Weyerhaeuser Timber Co. and the companies controlled by it. It does not include the further very extensive interests of members of the Weyerhaeuser family nor of their close associates."[^29] + +### Hill interests and the Oregon grants + +Part II's discussion of southern Oregon records that the Weyerhaeuser Timber Co. had made practically no addition to its western Oregon holding since its early purchases from the Northern Pacific, but was buying from small holders in Klamath and Lake counties, where the Booth-Kelly Lumber Co., in which associates of Weyerhaeuser were stockholders, also held timber. The report notes that the new Oregon Trunk Railway, controlled jointly by the Northern Pacific and the [[Great Northern Railway]], in both of which "the Hill interests are important stockholders," was building up the Deschutes Valley, and that the holding of the Willamette Valley and Cascade Mountain Wagon Road grant, over 700,000 acres previously owned by Charles Altschul as trustee for [[Lazard Freres]], had been bought in 1910 by the Oregon and Western Colonization Co., whose president was a director in one of the Hill banks. It continues: "These facts, together with the apparent harmony between the Hill interests and the Weyerhaeuser interests, possibly indicate a plan to secure a dominating position in this timber region."[^30] + +The same part states that the Weyerhaeuser Timber Co.'s Oregon acreage included about 50,000 acres under contract from the Northern Pacific that the railway had sold but not yet deeded, that approximately 46 per cent of its Oregon timbered acreage came from the Northern Pacific through lieu selections, and that its subsidiary, the Pokegama Sugar Pine Lumber Co., had purchased a tract of 13,223 acres from the Oregon and California Railroad Co., as shown by the report's list of suits against purchasers.[^31] + +### Land grant forfeiture in Oregon + +Immediately before its discussion of the Weyerhaeuser holding, the report records a forfeiture case against the [[Southern Pacific Company]]. "On April 29, 1913, the United States district court decided in favor of the Government in its case against the company for the forfeiture of its entire present holding in Oregon on the ground of alleged violation of the conditions of its grants; and on July 1, 1913, the decree was entered adjudging the lands to be forfeited to, and the title to them to be revested in, the United States of America. The case is now pending on appeal."[^32] The report's index carries a separate entry for the Oregon and California Railroad land grant and a list of suits against purchasers of land from that railroad.[^32] + +### Weyerhaeuser v. Hoyt + +The Supreme Court decided [[Weyerhaeuser v. Hoyt]] on February 20, 1911, as 219 U.S. 380. The dispute concerned 40 acres in Minnesota; Hoyt claimed through an alleged purchase under the timber and stone act, and the appellants through a patent issued under the Northern Pacific land grant, the railway having made an indemnity selection of the tract and conveyed it "to Weyerhaeuser and Humbird, the present appellants."[^33] Hoyt had sued in a Minnesota state court to compel a conveyance and to restrain cutting; the case was removed to a federal circuit court, where "a decree was entered dismissing the bill," and the Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit reversed and directed a decree for Hoyt.[^34] The Supreme Court, in an opinion by Chief Justice White, reversed the Court of Appeals and affirmed the circuit court; Justices Harlan and Day dissented, and the dissent records that the patent to the railway company issued in October 1905.[^35] + +### Yale and Skull and Bones + +The class of 1917 book at Yale lists the Yale relatives of Frederick King Weyerhaeuser as "two uncles ; Rudolph M., '91 S., and Frederick E. Weyerhaeuser, '96." It gives his father as John Phillip Weyerhaeuser, born November 11, 1858, in Cold Valley, Illinois, and president of the firm of Weyerhaeuser & Company.[^36] The [[Yale Banner]] lists Rudolph M. Weyerhaeuser in the [[Sheffield Scientific School]] class of 1891.[^37] + +The Decennial Record of the Class of 1896 (1907) carries the entry "F. E. Weyerhaeuser," giving his birth at Rock Island on November 4, 1872, as the son of Frederick Weyerhaeuser and Elizabeth Sarah Bladel and the brother of Rudolph M. Weyerhaeuser, '91 S. It records that he prepared for Yale at Andover, was chairman of the Alumni Weekly Board in senior year, received a High Oration at the Junior Exhibition and at Commencement and was a Phi Beta Kappa; the entry's list of his societies reads: "He Boule. D. K. E. Bones."[^38] The same entry lists his business as lumber, at the National German-American Bank Building in Saint Paul, and the class secretary writes that he "seems to be a Big Gun in the lumber business."[^38] The class's 1912 quindecennial record lists him as of Weyerhaeuser & Company, lumber dealers, Saint Paul.[^39] + +[[Antony C. Sutton]] reproduced a membership list by class year in his 1983 book; the class of 1896 in it includes "Weyerhaeuser, Frederick E." among fifteen names.[^40] The same name appears in the list of Skull and Bones members that [[Kris Millegan]] printed in 2003, where the entry reads "Frederick E. Weyerhaeuser (S&B 1896)."[^41] Millegan's book also describes Frederick E. Weyerhaeuser as a follower of the forestry movement of [[Gifford Pinchot]], and says the family had ties to [[Cecil Rhodes]].[^41] + +### The Yale Forest School chair and the lumber association + +The Decennial Record prints a letter of 1905 in which F. E. Weyerhaeuser describes how a meeting of the [[National Lumber Manufacturers Association]] at Chicago on May 10 was addressed by Gifford Pinchot on forestry. His brother R. M. Weyerhaeuser was appointed to a committee that proposed raising an endowment for a chair of Applied Forestry and Practical Lumbering at the [[Yale Forest School]]. The association's president, N. W. McLeod, appointed a committee with F. E. Weyerhaeuser as chairman; its other members included Everett G. Griggs, '90 S., of Tacoma. The goal was $150,000, and the class secretary states that Weyerhaeuser had raised something over $50,000 for Yale in the year of the report.[^42] + +The Bureau's Part IV (April 21, 1914) reports other roles of the family in the lumber trade organizations. At a meeting at St. Louis on July 8, 1908, of lumbermen from the Yellow Pine Manufacturers' Association and the National Lumber Manufacturers' Association, a permanent committee "with F. E. Weyerhaeuser, of St. Paul, as chairman" was appointed to organize a company, proposed capitalization $300,000,000, with properties in Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi and Alabama. The proposal drew attacks in the press as a trust, attorneys general of several states moved to enjoin it, and the project was dropped.[^43] In the 1909 tariff fight the bureau quotes letters from J. E. Rhodes to F. E. Weyerhaeuser, including one of March 9, 1909, that spoke of an Associated Press representative as "our man," and one of April 19, 1909, reviewing the House vote on a separate vote on lumber. Rhodes, then a lumber association secretary, entered the employ of the Weyerhaeuser interests in Saint Paul after leaving his association post at a meeting of August 17, 1909.[^44] The same part quotes "President Griggs" of the national association's Board of Governors on January 8, 1912, on the association's publicity against the "lumber trust."[^45] + +Part IV also records the Columbia River Loggers Association meeting of June 1907, "presided over by Mr. Clair, the Weyerhaeuser representative, and manager of their logging business on the Columbia," at which the Weyerhaeusers, "the heaviest loggers on the river," joined about twenty-five of the heaviest loggers in agreeing to shut down until surplus stock was used up.[^46] + +### Federal Trade Commission proceedings + +The Weyerhaeuser Sales Co., a Washington corporation with executive offices in Saint Paul, was a respondent in the [[Federal Trade Commission]]'s proceeding against the [[Douglas Fir Plywood Association]]. The amended complaint of May 19, 1949, alleged a combination between May 1935 and August 1, 1941 to fix uniform prices, discounts and terms and to curtail plywood production; it described the Sales Co. as a distributor that was neither a member of nor a subscriber to the association but cooperated with it.[^47] Most respondents admitted the allegations; Weyerhaeuser Sales Co. admitted them only in part and only for a substantial portion of that period. The Commission found the respondents, except one dismissed company, to have violated the Federal Trade Commission Act, and its cease and desist order named Weyerhaeuser Sales Co. among the corporate respondents.[^48] The complaint's specific charges against the Sales Co. were that it adopted a uniform basic price list and a functional discount plan, kept lists of buyers entitled to a jobbers' discount, and shipped to East Coast and Gulf points only on a delivered basis.[^49] + +### Sutton's chart and text + +Sutton's 1983 chart "Hypothesis Number One" places the families in two tiers. Its new-wealth tier lists "Weyerhaeuser (lumber)" with the [[Rockefeller family]] and Payne families ([[Standard Oil]]), the [[Harriman family]] (railroads), the Davison family ([[J. P. Morgan & Co.|J. P. Morgan]]), the [[Pillsbury family]] (flour milling) and the [[Sloane family]] (retail).[^50] Sutton's text on the Trilateral Commission states: "lumber industrialist Frederick Weyerhaeuser was in The Order, but his son is in the Trilateral Commission and not The Order."[^51] Sutton's text uses the name without a middle initial; the Yale class record and the Skull and Bones lists give the member as Frederick E., a son of the founder. + +### Trilateral Commission + +The Trilateral Commission's list of "Current and Former Major Financial Supporters in the United States," dated March 31, 1980, lists "Weyerhaeuser Company" among its corporate supporters, alongside [[Boeing]], [[Cargill]], [[IBM]] and [[Xerox]].[^52] The list is one of the documents reprinted in a [[Congressional Research Service]] issue packet on the commission (IP0092).[^52] + +### The 1935 kidnapping + +The [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] records that on May 24, 1935, George Weyerhaeuser, the 9-year-old son of lumberman J. P. Weyerhaeuser of [[Tacoma, Washington|Tacoma]], disappeared on his way home from school. A letter that evening demanded $200,000 in unmarked $20, $10 and $5 bills, and an advertisement signed "Percy Minnie" was placed in the Seattle Post-Intelligencer to signal compliance. The boy was released at a shack near [[Issaquah, Washington|Issaquah]] on the morning of June 1, 1935.[^53] + +The FBI traced the ransom bills to Harmon Metz Waley, who was arrested on June 8, 1935, in Salt Lake City, and agents recovered $90,790 of the money on June 11. On June 19, 1935, a federal grand jury at Tacoma indicted William Dainard, Harmon Waley and Margaret E. Waley. Harmon Waley pleaded guilty on June 21 and received 45 years; Margaret Waley was tried beginning July 5 and sentenced four days later to two concurrent 20-year terms; Dainard was arrested in Los Angeles on May 7, 1936, with $37,374.47 in ransom money.[^54] + +HistoryLink identifies the boy as George H. Weyerhaeuser (1926 to 2022) in an essay by Daryl C. McClary.[^55] + +### Weyerhaeuser Company after 1966 + +HistoryLink's account of the company states that George H. Weyerhaeuser, the founder's great-grandson, became president in 1966 and that the company had acquired a transportation subsidiary, Weyerhaeuser Steamship Company, in 1923.[^56] The company's own release of June 14, 2022 states that George H. Weyerhaeuser "served as president and CEO from 1966 to 1991 and continued to serve as Board chairman through 1999," and that he was 95 when he died.[^57] + +The [[Securities and Exchange Commission]]'s EDGAR index lists Weyerhaeuser Co, registered in Washington State under CIK 0000106535, with annual reports on Form 10-K and proxy statements on Form DEF 14A filed in each year from 2015 through 2026.[^58] + +### Family foundations + +[[ProPublica]]'s Nonprofit Explorer lists the Weyerhaeuser Family Foundation, Inc., of Saint Paul, Minnesota, with employer identification number 41-6012062 and a ruling date of March 1, 1951. Its return for 2023 reports total revenue of $1,730,712, expenses of $1,627,046 and year-end assets of $26,374,760.[^59] Its return for 2021 reports total revenue of $3,557,848.[^60] + +ProPublica lists related family foundations in Saint Paul. The Frederick & Margaret Weyerhaeuser Foundation (EIN 41-6029036, ruling date August 1, 1964) reports 2023 total revenue of $184,898 and year-end assets of $6,300,887.[^61] The Charles A Weyerhaeuser Memorial Foundation (EIN 41-6012063, ruling date June 1, 1960) reports 2023 total revenue of $210,615 and year-end assets of $8,945,631.[^62] The F T Weyerhaeuser Family Fund (EIN 83-2053033, ruling date March 1, 2019) reports 2023 total revenue of $318,502 and year-end assets of $6,188,358.[^63] + +### Footnotes + +[^1]: James J. Hill sold 900,000 acres of Washington timberland to Frederick Weyerhaeuser on January 3, 1900. Greg Lange, "Frederick Weyerhaeuser makes one of the largest land purchases in United States history on January 3, 1900," HistoryLink.org Essay 5241 (posted February 19, 2003; expanded January 20, 2006), which gives the lifespan "Frederick Weyerhaeuser (1834-1914)." https://www.historylink.org/file/5241 +[^2]: Courtney Gregar, "Weyerhaeuser, Frederick (1834-1914)," MNopedia, Minnesota Historical Society (born November 21, 1834, in Niedersaulheim; arrived in Rock Island in 1856; in 1860 partnered with his brother-in-law Frederick Carl Augustus Denkmann to purchase a bankrupt mill; moved to Saint Paul in 1891). https://www.mnhs.org/mnopedia/search/index/person/weyerhaeuser-frederick-1834-1914 +[^3]: "Weyerhaeuser and Denkmann bought a failing lumber mill in 1860" and "From that time on, the firm cut and rafted logs down the Mississippi River." Weyerhaeuser House, Historic Structures, City of Rock Island, section "Weyerhaeuser and Denkmann Lumber Company." https://rigov.org/1098 +[^4]: "Denkmann died in 1905 and Weyerhaeuser in 1914; both are buried at Chippiannock Cemetery." City of Rock Island, Weyerhaeuser House page. https://rigov.org/1098 +[^5]: Decennial Record of the Class of 1896, Yale College (1907), Biographies, entry "F. E. Weyerhaeuser," pp. 638 to 639 (marriage of October 11, 1857, at Rock Island; "altogether seven children, four boys (including Rudolph M. Weyerhaeuser, '91 S.) and three girls"). https://archive.org/details/decennialrecordo00yalerich +[^6]: Charles E. Twining, "For the Sake of History: The Weyerhaeuser Family and the Origins of the Forest History Society," Forest History Society (the seven children John Philip, Elise, Margaret, Apollonia, Charles, Rudolph and Frederick Edward, "youngest of the seven"). https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/History_Twining_For-the-Sake-of-History.pdf +[^7]: Gregar, MNopedia entry: "By 1872, he was named president of the Mississippi River Logging Company." https://www.mnhs.org/mnopedia/search/index/person/weyerhaeuser-frederick-1834-1914 +[^8]: Walter A. Blair, A Raft Pilot's Log: A History of the Great Rafting Industry on the Upper Mississippi, 1840-1915, chapter "Beef Slough," p. 47 (Beef Slough Boom and Improvement Company organized 1867; "taken over by the Mississippi River Logging Company, in 1873"), as reproduced by IAGenWeb. https://ns2.iagenweb.org/history/rivers/scott_rivmen/beefslough.html +[^9]: United States v. Beef Slough Manufacturing, Booming, Log-Driving and Transportation Co. et al., Case No. 14,559, 8 Biss. 421, Federal Cases (Circuit Court, W.D. Wisconsin, February 1879), opinion of Drummond, Circuit Judge. https://law.resource.org/pub/us/case/reporter/F.Cas/0024.f.cas/0024.f.cas.1064.pdf +[^10]: Heerman v. Beef Slough Manufacturing, etc., Co. and others, 1 Federal Reporter 145 (Circuit Court, W.D. Wisconsin), opinion of Bunn, J. https://law.resource.org/pub/us/case/reporter/F/0001/0001.f.0145.pdf +[^11]: Robson v. Mississippi River Logging Co., 61 Federal Reporter 893, 893 to 894 (Circuit Court, N.D. Iowa, April 2, 1894), findings of fact (2) and (3). https://law.resource.org/pub/us/case/reporter/F/0061/0061.f1.0893.pdf +[^12]: Robson v. Mississippi River Logging Co., 61 F. 893, headnotes 2 and 3 and finding of fact (5), articles of agreement of August 23, 1882. https://law.resource.org/pub/us/case/reporter/F/0061/0061.f1.0893.pdf +[^13]: Lange, HistoryLink Essay 5241, on the sale of "900,000 acres (1,406 square miles) of Washington state timberlands" and on the land having been held by the Northern Pacific Railroad, "which Hill had gained controlling interest in." https://www.historylink.org/file/5241 +[^14]: Lange, HistoryLink Essay 5241, on the price "$6 an acre ($5,400,000)," the $3,000,000 down payment and "eight semiannual payments of $300,000 plus interest." https://www.historylink.org/file/5241 +[^15]: Lange, HistoryLink Essay 5241, stating the Weyerhaeuser Timber Company was "incorporated on January 18, 1900," shortly after the purchase. https://www.historylink.org/file/5241 +[^16]: James R. Warren, "Weyerhaeuser Company," HistoryLink.org Essay 1675 (posted September 17, 1999): in 1891 Weyerhaeuser "became a neighbor and friend of railway magnate James J. Hill"; Hill sold the land "to Weyerhaeuser and 11 investors"; "eventually purchasing 3 million acres from Hill alone." https://www.historylink.org/file/1675 +[^17]: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Corporations, The Lumber Industry, Part II, Concentration of Timber Ownership in Important Selected Regions, and Part III, Land Holdings of Large Timber Owners (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1914), Part II, p. 7 and index entry "Weyerhaeuser Timber Co. holding, proportion acquired from Northern Pacific, 4, 7." https://archive.org/details/lumberindustry00smitgoog +[^18]: Bureau of Corporations, The Lumber Industry, Part I, Standing Timber (January 20, 1913), p. 208, section "The great Weyerhaeuser purchase." https://archive.org/details/lumberindustry01smitgoog +[^19]: Bureau of Corporations, The Lumber Industry, Part I, pp. 208 to 209, quoting Tariff Hearings, 60th Congress, p. 863 (statement of F. B. Lynch, November 20, 1908). https://archive.org/details/lumberindustry01smitgoog +[^20]: Bureau of Corporations, The Lumber Industry, Part I, p. 208. https://archive.org/details/lumberindustry01smitgoog +[^21]: Bureau of Corporations, The Lumber Industry, Part I (January 20, 1913) title page; Parts II and III, title page and letter of transmittal dated July 13, 1914, under Commissioner Joseph E. Davies. https://archive.org/details/lumberindustry00smitgoog +[^22]: Bureau of Corporations, The Lumber Industry, Part I, p. 59, section "Attitude of three largest holders toward Bureau's inquiry." https://archive.org/details/lumberindustry01smitgoog +[^23]: Bureau of Corporations, The Lumber Industry, Part I, p. 101, section "Interrelations of Mr. Frederick Weyerhaeuser and other large timber holders." https://archive.org/details/lumberindustry01smitgoog +[^24]: Bureau of Corporations, The Lumber Industry, Part I, pp. 101 to 103 (table of billions of board feet by group and region; Group A 49.5, Group B 65.1, Group C 81.6, total 291.9). https://archive.org/details/lumberindustry01smitgoog +[^25]: Bureau of Corporations, The Lumber Industry, Part I, p. 102 ("owns from 10 to 60 per cent of the stock in each company included in group A"). https://archive.org/details/lumberindustry01smitgoog +[^26]: Bureau of Corporations, The Lumber Industry, Part I, pp. 103 to 104. https://archive.org/details/lumberindustry01smitgoog +[^27]: Bureau of Corporations, The Lumber Industry, Part II, p. 4, section 2, "General conditions resulting in concentration of timber ownership." https://archive.org/details/lumberindustry00smitgoog +[^28]: Bureau of Corporations, The Lumber Industry, Part II, p. 6, "Holding of Weyerhaeuser Timber Co." and Table 2, "Timber holding of Weyerhaeuser Timber Co., by States." https://archive.org/details/lumberindustry00smitgoog +[^29]: Bureau of Corporations, The Lumber Industry, Part II, footnote to Table 2 and the footnote on the 291.9 billion feet, pp. 6 to 7. https://archive.org/details/lumberindustry00smitgoog +[^30]: Bureau of Corporations, The Lumber Industry, Part II, p. 56, and index entry "Weyerhaeuser interests, harmony with, 56." https://archive.org/details/lumberindustry00smitgoog +[^31]: Bureau of Corporations, The Lumber Industry, Part II, pp. 55 to 56, discussion of the Weyerhaeuser Timber Co. holding on the Oregon map. https://archive.org/details/lumberindustry00smitgoog +[^32]: Bureau of Corporations, The Lumber Industry, Part II, text on Southern Pacific holdings in Oregon, pp. 5 to 6, and the index entries "Suits against purchasers of land from Oregon & California R. R. Co." (p. 54) and "Oregon & California R. R. Co. land grant" (p. 75). https://archive.org/details/lumberindustry00smitgoog +[^33]: Weyerhaeuser v. Hoyt, 219 U.S. 380 (1911), decided February 20, 1911, opinion text on Cornell Legal Information Institute (the railway conveyed the tract "to Weyerhaeuser and Humbird, the present appellants"). https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/219/380 +[^34]: Weyerhaeuser v. Hoyt, 219 U.S. 380, statement of the case: the suit removed to a circuit court of the United States, where "a decree was entered dismissing the bill," and the Circuit Court of Appeals, 161 Fed. 324, reversed. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/219/380 +[^35]: Weyerhaeuser v. Hoyt, 219 U.S. 380, opinion of White, C.J. ("the decree of the Court of Appeals must be reversed, and that of the Circuit Court affirmed"), and the dissent of Harlan, J., with whom Day, J., concurred. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/219/380 +[^36]: Yale University, class of 1917 class book, entry for Frederick King Weyerhaeuser, "His Yale relatives are two uncles ; Rudolph M., '91 S., and Frederick E. Weyerhaeuser, '96," giving the father as John Phillip Weyerhaeuser, born November 11, 1858, in Cold Valley, Illinois, "president of the firm of Weyerhaeuser & Company." +[^37]: Yale Banner, archive.org identifier yalebanner02univgoog, student list entry "Weyerhaeuser, Rudolph M., '91 S." https://archive.org/details/yalebanner02univgoog +[^38]: Decennial Record of the Class of 1896, Yale College (1907), Biographies, "F. E. Weyerhaeuser," pp. 638 to 640 (born Rock Island, November 4, 1872; prepared at Andover; chairman of the Alumni Weekly Board; Phi Beta Kappa; "He Boule. D. K. E. Bones."; business address National German-American Bank Building, Saint Paul; "seems to be a Big Gun in the lumber business"). https://archive.org/details/decennialrecordo00yalerich +[^39]: A Record of the Quindecennial Reunion of the Class of 1896, Yale College (1912), Roll of the Class, "Frederick Edward Weyerhaeuser, Of Weyerhaeuser & Company, lumber dealers, National German American Bank Building, St. Paul, Minn." https://archive.org/details/recordofquindece00yalerich +[^40]: Antony C. Sutton, America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones (1983), membership list by class year reproduced from the catalogue, class of 1896 ("Weyerhaeuser, Frederick E."). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^41]: Kris Millegan (ed.), Fleshing Out Skull & Bones (2003), list of notable members including "Frederick E. Weyerhaeuser (S&B 1896)," and the passage describing Pinchot and Cecil Rhodes, as Millegan wrote it. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones +[^42]: Decennial Record of the Class of 1896, Yale College (1907), p. 640, letter of 1905 from F. E. Weyerhaeuser to the class secretary on the committee of the National Lumber Manufacturers' Association for a chair of Applied Forestry and Practical Lumbering at the Yale Forest School (committee members including Everett G. Griggs, '90 S., Tacoma; goal of $150,000; "Weyerhaeuser has raised something over $50,000 for Yale this last year"). https://archive.org/details/decennialrecordo00yalerich +[^43]: Bureau of Corporations, The Lumber Industry, Part IV, Conditions in Production and Wholesale Distribution Including Wholesale Prices (April 21, 1914), pp. 74 to 75, on the attempted yellow-pine merger of 1908. https://archive.org/details/cu31924092561038 +[^44]: Bureau of Corporations, The Lumber Industry, Part IV, pp. 60 to 62 (letters of March 9 and April 19, 1909, from J. E. Rhodes to F. E. Weyerhaeuser) and p. 535 note (Rhodes entering the employ of the Weyerhaeuser interests, with Edward Hines's letter of June 29, 1909). https://archive.org/details/cu31924092561038 +[^45]: Bureau of Corporations, The Lumber Industry, Part IV, p. 59, quoting the Board of Governors meeting of January 8, 1912 ("President Griggs"). https://archive.org/details/cu31924092561038 +[^46]: Bureau of Corporations, The Lumber Industry, Part IV, pp. 365 to 366, letter of July 1, 1907, on the Columbia River Loggers Association meeting of June 1907. https://archive.org/details/cu31924092561038 +[^47]: Federal Trade Commission, Douglas Fir Plywood Association et al., 47 F.T.C. 420 (amended complaint of May 19, 1949), paragraph 4(2) and 4(3) (Weyerhaeuser Sales Co., executive offices at Saint Paul, "neither members of nor subscribers to respondent association"). https://www.ftc.gov/system/files/documents/commission_decision_volumes/volume-47/vol47pg420-525.pdf +[^48]: Federal Trade Commission, Douglas Fir Plywood Association et al., 47 F.T.C. 420, Report, Findings as to the Facts, and Order (answers of June 8, 1949; findings of violation of section 5; order to cease and desist naming "Weyerhaeuser Sales Co."). https://www.ftc.gov/system/files/documents/commission_decision_volumes/volume-47/vol47pg420-525.pdf +[^49]: Federal Trade Commission, Douglas Fir Plywood Association et al., 47 F.T.C. 420, Findings, paragraph on the acts of Weyerhaeuser Sales Co. (uniform basic price list, lists of buyers entitled to a 5 percent jobbers' discount, functional compensation plan, C.I.F. shipments to East Coast and Gulf points). https://www.ftc.gov/system/files/documents/commission_decision_volumes/volume-47/vol47pg420-525.pdf +[^50]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), chart "Hypothesis Number One: A Secret Society Dominated By Old Line American Families And New Wealth Has Existed From 1833 To The Present Day," new-wealth families list. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^51]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), passage on the Trilateral Commission: "lumber industrialist Frederick Weyerhaeuser was in The Order, but his son is in the Trilateral Commission and not The Order." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^52]: Trilateral Commission, "Current and Former Major Financial Supporters in the United States (since the founding of The Trilateral Commission in 1973)," as of March 31, 1980, listing "Weyerhaeuser Company" among corporations; reprinted in Congressional Research Service, The Trilateral Commission, Issue Packet IP0092. +[^53]: Federal Bureau of Investigation, "Weyerhaeuser Kidnapping," FBI History, Cases and Criminals (May 24, 1935 disappearance of the 9-year-old son of J.P. Weyerhaeuser of Tacoma; the $200,000 demand in $20, $10 and $5 bills; the "Percy Minnie" advertisement; release "at a shack near Issaquah, Washington on the morning of June 1, 1935"). https://www.fbi.gov/history/famous-cases/weyerhaeuser-kidnapping +[^54]: FBI, "Weyerhaeuser Kidnapping," sections "Investigative Success" and "Fitting Conclusion" (Harmon Metz Waley, Margaret E. Waley, William Dainard; indictment of June 19, 1935; Waley's plea of June 21 and 45-year term; Margaret Waley's trial from July 5 and two concurrent 20-year terms; Dainard's arrest of May 7, 1936). https://www.fbi.gov/history/famous-cases/weyerhaeuser-kidnapping +[^55]: Daryl C. McClary, "George H. Weyerhaeuser is kidnapped in Tacoma and held for ransom on May 24, 1935," HistoryLink.org Essay 7724 (posted April 3, 2006), giving "George H. Weyerhaeuser (1926-2022), age 9." https://www.historylink.org/File/7724 +[^56]: Warren, HistoryLink Essay 1675 (Weyerhaeuser Steamship Company added in 1923; "Under George H. Weyerhaeuser (Frederick's great-grandson), who became company president in 1966"). https://www.historylink.org/file/1675 +[^57]: Weyerhaeuser Company, "Weyerhaeuser Mourns the Passing of George H. Weyerhaeuser Sr." (Seattle, June 14, 2022): "served as president and CEO from 1966 to 1991 and continued to serve as Board chairman through 1999," and "He was 95." https://investor.weyerhaeuser.com/2022-06-14-Weyerhaeuser-Mourns-the-Passing-of-George-H-Weyerhaeuser-Sr +[^58]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, EDGAR submissions index for Weyerhaeuser Co (CIK 0000106535), state of incorporation Washington, annual Form 10-K and Form DEF 14A filings listed from 2015 through 2026. https://data.sec.gov/submissions/CIK0000106535.json +[^59]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer, Weyerhaeuser Family Foundation Inc, EIN 41-6012062 (ruling date March 1, 1951), filing data for tax year 2023: total revenue $1,730,712, expenses $1,627,046, year-end total assets $26,374,760. https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/416012062 +[^60]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer, Weyerhaeuser Family Foundation Inc (EIN 41-6012062), filing data for tax year 2021: total revenue $3,557,848. https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/416012062 +[^61]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer, Frederick & Margaret Weyerhaeuser Foundation, EIN 41-6029036 (ruling date August 1, 1964), filing data for tax year 2023. https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/416029036 +[^62]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer, Charles A Weyerhaeuser Memorial Foundation, EIN 41-6012063 (ruling date June 1, 1960), filing data for tax year 2023. https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/416012063 +[^63]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer, F T Weyerhaeuser Family Fund, EIN 83-2053033 (ruling date March 1, 2019), filing data for tax year 2023. https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/832053033 diff --git a/10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Whitney family.md b/10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Whitney family.md index cbf5dc90..702c62bc 100644 --- a/10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Whitney family.md +++ b/10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Whitney family.md @@ -24,26 +24,28 @@ relations: with: "[[Skull and Bones]]" start: 1851 role: "eight Whitneys in Sutton's index, from Emerson Cogswell Whitney to Payne Whitney" - fn: 13 + fn: 14 - type: founded with: "[[Yale Aviation Corps]]" start: 1916 role: "Payne Whitney, B.A. 1898" - fn: 16 + fn: 21 - type: founded with: "[[Whitney Museum of American Art]]" start: 1930 role: "Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney" - fn: 20 + fn: 28 - type: owned with: "[[New York Herald Tribune]]" - role: "John Hay Whitney, former owner and publisher, per the 1967 Chronicle report" - fn: 31 + start: 1958 + end: 1966 + role: "John Hay Whitney, owner and publisher; former owner per the 1967 Chronicle report" + fn: 40 - type: relative_of with: "[[Oliver Hazard Payne]]" start: 1869 role: "brother of Flora Payne Whitney, uncle of Harry Payne Whitney and Payne Whitney" - fn: 9 + fn: 10 - type: relative_of with: "[[Dorothy Payne Whitney]]" role: "daughter of William Collins Whitney" @@ -51,7 +53,12 @@ relations: - type: relative_of with: "[[Michael Whitney Straight]]" role: "grandson of William Collins Whitney" - fn: 47 + fn: 67 + - type: relative_of + with: "[[Wadsworth family]]" + start: 1902-09-30 + role: "Alice Hay (1880-1960), sister of Helen Hay Whitney, married James Wolcott Wadsworth Jr. in 1902" + fn: 19 created: 2026-10-26 updated: 2026-10-26 --- @@ -78,21 +85,25 @@ The railway system went into receivership three and a half years after his death On October 13, 1869, Whitney married Flora Payne, daughter of [[Henry B. Payne]], a United States senator from Ohio, and sister of his classmate Oliver Hazard Payne. They had two sons, who graduated from Yale in 1894 and 1898, and three daughters.[^3] +The Supreme Court's 1911 opinion in the government's suit against the American Tobacco Company states that before the merger the Consolidated Tobacco Company had a share capital of $40,000,000, a majority of which was "held by J. B. Duke, Thomas F. Ryan, William C. Whitney, Anthony N. Brady, Peter A. B. Widener, and Oliver H. Payne."[^9] + ### Oliver Hazard Payne and the Standard Oil treasurership -Oliver Hazard Payne was born in [[Cleveland, Ohio|Cleveland]] on July 21, 1839, the son of Henry B. Payne, who served in the Ohio Senate, in the [[United States Congress]] and as a United States senator from 1885 to 1891. He left the Yale class of 1863 in October 1861 to accept a commission in the [[124th Ohio Infantry]], rose to colonel and was brevetted brigadier general on March 13, 1865. The Yale Corporation voted him a B.A. in 1878, and he was enrolled in the class of 1863 from that date. After the war he entered the oil refining business in Cleveland with [[James B. Clark]] and [[John Huntington]]. The business was absorbed by the Standard Oil Company, and Payne served as its treasurer until 1884, when he moved to New York City and joined its board.[^9] +Oliver Hazard Payne was born in [[Cleveland, Ohio|Cleveland]] on July 21, 1839, the son of Henry B. Payne, who served in the Ohio Senate, in the [[United States Congress]] and as a United States senator from 1885 to 1891. He left the Yale class of 1863 in October 1861 to accept a commission in the [[124th Ohio Infantry]], rose to colonel and was brevetted brigadier general on March 13, 1865. The Yale Corporation voted him a B.A. in 1878, and he was enrolled in the class of 1863 from that date. After the war he entered the oil refining business in Cleveland with [[James B. Clark]] and [[John Huntington]]. The business was absorbed by the Standard Oil Company, and Payne served as its treasurer until 1884, when he moved to New York City and joined its board.[^10] -The decree in the government's suit, as set out in the Supreme Court's 1911 opinion, names "Oliver H. Payne" among the seven individual defendants who joined the combination, together with [[John D. Rockefeller]], [[William Rockefeller]], [[Henry H. Rogers]], [[Henry M. Flagler]], [[John D. Archbold]] and [[Charles M. Pratt]].[^10] The opinion places the trust agreement of 1882, which vested the stock of forty corporations in nine trustees, in the second of three periods of the alleged combination, and it lists "O. H. Payne" among the individual holders of stock exchanged into the Standard Oil Company of New Jersey in 1899.[^11] +The decree in the government's suit, as set out in the Supreme Court's 1911 opinion, names "Oliver H. Payne" among the seven individual defendants who joined the combination, together with [[John D. Rockefeller]], [[William Rockefeller]], [[Henry H. Rogers]], [[Henry M. Flagler]], [[John D. Archbold]] and [[Charles M. Pratt]].[^11] The opinion places the trust agreement of 1882, which vested the stock of forty corporations in nine trustees, in the second of three periods of the alleged combination, and it lists "O. H. Payne" among the individual holders of stock exchanged into the Standard Oil Company of New Jersey in 1899.[^12] -His directorships included the [[American Tobacco Company]], the Virginia and Southeastern Railway Company, the Coal Creek Mining and Manufacturing Company and the [[Tennessee Coal and Iron Company]]. His largest gifts went to the Cornell Medical School, and in 1887 he endowed the Loomis Laboratory. Payne's will left one million dollars each to Yale, the [[New York Public Library]] and [[Lakeside Hospital]] in Cleveland. He spent each summer from 1898 to 1914 in Europe on his steam yacht Aphrodite, and he died in New York City on June 27, 1917. The Yale record names his nephews as [[Harry Payne Whitney]], Payne Whitney and [[Henry Payne Bingham]].[^9] +His directorships included the [[American Tobacco Company]], the Virginia and Southeastern Railway Company, the Coal Creek Mining and Manufacturing Company and the [[Tennessee Coal and Iron Company]]. His largest gifts went to the Cornell Medical School, and in 1887 he endowed the Loomis Laboratory. Payne's will left one million dollars each to Yale, the [[New York Public Library]] and [[Lakeside Hospital]] in Cleveland. He spent each summer from 1898 to 1914 in Europe on his steam yacht Aphrodite, and he died in New York City on June 27, 1917. The Yale record names his nephews as [[Harry Payne Whitney]], Payne Whitney and [[Henry Payne Bingham]].[^10] -Sutton wrote that "The Paynes are not in The Order," and that adding the Payne piece of the Standard Oil fortune made Whitney's fortune "that much larger."[^12] +Sutton wrote that "The Paynes are not in The Order," and that adding the Payne piece of the Standard Oil fortune made Whitney's fortune "that much larger."[^13] ### Skull and Bones membership -Sutton's index of the Order by class year lists eight Whitneys: [[Emerson Cogswell Whitney]] (1851), [[Edward Payson Whitney]] (1854), [[James Lyman Whitney]] (1855), William Collins Whitney (1863), [[Edward Baldwin Whitney]] (1878), [[Joseph Ernest Whitney]] (1882), Harry Payne Whitney (1894) and Payne Whitney (1898).[^13] Sutton's text names W.C. Whitney and his two sons as "the core of Whitney influence" in the society, and he ties that influence to the Harriman family and to intermarriage with the Paynes and the Vanderbilts.[^14] +Sutton's index of the Order by class year lists eight Whitneys: [[Emerson Cogswell Whitney]] (1851), [[Edward Payson Whitney]] (1854), [[James Lyman Whitney]] (1855), William Collins Whitney (1863), [[Edward Baldwin Whitney]] (1878), [[Joseph Ernest Whitney]] (1882), Payne Whitney (1894) and Harry Payne Whitney (1898), the years in reverse of those in Sutton's text and in the Yale records.[^14] Sutton's text names W.C. Whitney and his two sons as "the core of Whitney influence" in the society, and he ties that influence to the Harriman family and to intermarriage with the Paynes and the Vanderbilts.[^15] -Sutton's chart table prints the two sons' years in reverse, giving Payne Whitney as 1894 and Harry Payne Whitney as 1898, while his text and index give Harry Payne Whitney as 1894 and Payne Whitney as 1898. The Yale records give the same graduating years as Sutton's text and index.[^15][^3] The Yale Obituary Record for Payne Whitney lists "Skull and Bones" among his undergraduate activities.[^2] +Sutton's chart table and his index of members by class year both print Payne Whitney as 1894 and Harry Payne Whitney as 1898, reversing the years given in his text and in the Yale records. His text gives Harry Payne ('94) and Payne Whitney ('98), which matches the Yale records.[^3][^16] The Yale Obituary Record for Payne Whitney lists "Skull and Bones" among his undergraduate activities.[^2] + +A June 1907 advertisement of the [[Knickerbocker Trust Company]] lists Charles T. Barney, A. H. Barney, Henry F. Dimock and Payne Whitney among its directors.[^17] [[Charles Tracy Barney]], the company's deposed president, shot himself at his home on November 14, 1907; he had married Lilly Whitney, a sister of William C. Whitney.[^18] ### Payne Whitney @@ -100,106 +111,218 @@ Payne Whitney was born in New York City on March 20, 1876. He rowed on the Yale On February 6, 1902, in Washington, he married [[Helen Hay Whitney|Helen Hay]], daughter of [[John Hay]], then Secretary of State. Their children were Joan, who married [[Charles S. Payson]] of the Yale class of 1921, and [[John Hay Whitney]], of the class of 1926, then a student at the [[University of Oxford]]. Payne Whitney died in [[Manhasset, New York]], on May 25, 1927. The Yale record lists his surviving siblings as Harry Payne Whitney and a sister, the wife of [[Leonard Knight Elmhirst]] of [[Yorkshire]], England.[^2] -In June 1916 Payne Whitney formed the [[Yale Aviation Corps]]. A Yale Obituary Record entry for a member of the corps says it was "formed by Payne Whitney, '98, in June, 1916," and that [[Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 1]] was organized by [[F. Trubee Davison]] of the class of 1918, a unit afterward known as the Huntington Unit.[^16] +Helen Hay's sister Alice Hay (1880-1960), also a daughter of John Hay, married [[Wadsworth family|James Wolcott Wadsworth Jr.]] at Newbury, New Hampshire, on September 30, 1902. Their daughter Evelyn Wadsworth (1903-1972) married the Missouri politician [[Stuart Symington|W. Stuart Symington]] in 1924, and their son James Jeremiah Wadsworth (1905-1984) served as United States Representative to the United Nations.[^19] -The New York appraisal of his estate was reported in November 1928. The Washington Daily News headed its account "Payne Whitney Left Biggest Estate Ever Appraised in U.S.," gave the appraised net value as more than $175,000,000 and the expected death tax as about $20,000,000, of which about $15,600,000 would go to New York State. The larger part of the estate was a half interest in the Northern Finance Corporation, a holding company for securities, which the paper said grew from a fund set aside by his uncle, Colonel Oliver H. Payne, who established it to be relieved of the care of large blocks of Standard Oil and subsidiary stocks and tobacco shares.[^17] +The Weill Cornell Medicine history of the medical center states that Payne Whitney's will provided $12,400,000 for the New York Hospital, $6,200,000 for the Payne Whitney Psychiatric Clinic and $2,800,000 for the medical college, which was then [[Cornell University Medical College]]. The same history records that the college's earlier benefactor was his uncle, Oliver Hazard Payne, who donated $4,000,000 to the college.[^20] + +In June 1916 Payne Whitney formed the [[Yale Aviation Corps]]. A Yale Obituary Record entry for a member of the corps says it was "formed by Payne Whitney, '98, in June, 1916," and that [[Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 1]] was organized by [[F. Trubee Davison]] of the class of 1918, a unit afterward known as the Huntington Unit.[^21] + +Payne Whitney died on May 25, 1927 near the indoor tennis court at his Manhasset home. The Yale record gives the cause as acute indigestion, and the New York Times of May 26, 1927 gave the same cause and added that the physician found the heart badly dilated; the Weill Cornell Medicine history says he "died suddenly of a heart attack in May 1927."[^22] The Times reported that the Greentree Stable was managed by Mrs. Whitney, that he had recently taken up breeding and had been elected to the Board of Stewards of the [[Jockey Club]], and that in 1924 and 1925 his income tax payments of $2,041,951 and $1,676,626 made him the third and fifth largest individual taxpayers in the country.[^22] + +The New York appraisal of his estate was reported in November 1928. The Washington Daily News headed its account "Payne Whitney Left Biggest Estate Ever Appraised in U.S.," gave the appraised net value as $178,893,655 and the expected death tax as about $20,000,000, of which about $15,600,000 would go to New York State. The larger part of the estate was a half interest in the Northern Finance Corporation, a holding company for securities, which the paper said grew from a fund set aside by "his uncle, Col. Oliver H. Payne."[^23] The New York Times of the same date wrote that the fund of many millions was set aside for Payne Whitney and others by Colonel Payne, "long a director of the Standard Oil Company of New Jersey," when he wished to be relieved of the care of Standard Oil subsidiaries and other stocks, that Whitney's half interest of 50,000 shares was appraised at $125,521,612, and that the corporation's holdings included $34,533,358 of Standard Oil of New Jersey and $23,961,575 of British-American Tobacco.[^24] + +The Times gave the gross estate as $194,328,514 and called it "the largest estate ever appraised in this country, the appraisal being nearly twice that of the highest previously recorded."[^24] An accounting filed in the Surrogate's Court in August 1931 gave a net estate of $200,973,154.41 and a total distributed to legatees of $239,301,017.04. Of the residuary estate of $197,681,235.19, Helen Hay Whitney received $63,102,816, and Joan Whitney Payson and John Hay Whitney received equal shares.[^25] ### Harry Payne Whitney, Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney and the Whitney Museum -Harry Payne Whitney, Yale 1894, was born in New York on April 29, 1872. He married the sculptor [[Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney]] in 1896, according to Sutton, who wrote that the Whitney-Payne fortune then "joined some Vanderbilt money," which he says was channeled into the [[Guaranty Trust Company]] and the [[J. P. Morgan & Company|J. P. Morgan]] and Guggenheim interests.[^18] He kept a racing stable whose horses won the Preakness and the Kentucky Derby and were the leading money winners of 1924, and he was a member of the American polo team that brought the international cup back from England in 1909. He died of pneumonia at his Fifth Avenue home on October 26, 1930, at 58. The United Press reported that he was the son of the Secretary of the Navy in Cleveland's cabinet and that he had inherited from his father a fortune estimated at $200,000,000.[^19] +Harry Payne Whitney, Yale 1894, was born in New York on April 29, 1872. He married the sculptor [[Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney]] in 1896, according to Sutton, who wrote that the Whitney-Payne fortune then "joined some Vanderbilt money," which he says was channeled into the [[Guaranty Trust Company]] and the [[J. P. Morgan & Co.|J. P. Morgan]] and Guggenheim interests.[^26] He kept a racing stable whose horses won the Preakness and the Kentucky Derby and were the leading money winners of 1924, and he was a member of the American polo team that brought the international cup back from England in 1909. He died of pneumonia at his Fifth Avenue home on October 26, 1930, at 58. The United Press reported that he was the son of the Secretary of the Navy in Cleveland's cabinet and that he had inherited from his father a fortune estimated at $200,000,000.[^27] -Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney became the leading patron of American art from 1907 until her death in 1942, established the [[Whitney Studio Club]] in Greenwich Village in 1914, and founded the [[Whitney Museum of American Art]] in 1930, after the Metropolitan Museum of Art declined the gift of her collection of more than five hundred works. The museum opened in 1931 on West Eighth Street.[^20] +Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney became the leading patron of American art from 1907 until her death in 1942, established the [[Whitney Studio Club]] in Greenwich Village in 1914, and founded the [[Whitney Museum of American Art]] in 1930, after the Metropolitan Museum of Art declined the gift of her collection of more than five hundred works. The museum opened in 1931 on West Eighth Street.[^28] -Their son [[Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney]], Yale 1922, is listed in the 1927 Yale record as a nephew of Payne Whitney.[^2] Sutton writes that Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney married Marie Norton, and that after their divorce she married [[W. Averell Harriman]].[^18] The Library of Congress finding aid for the Harriman papers lists the marriage in 1930 to Marie Norton Whitney, who died in 1970.[^21] +Their son [[Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney]], Yale 1922, is listed in the 1927 Yale record as a nephew of Payne Whitney.[^2] Sutton writes that Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney married Marie Norton, and that after their divorce she married [[W. Averell Harriman]].[^26] The Library of Congress finding aid for the Harriman papers lists the marriage in 1930 to Marie Norton Whitney, who died in 1970.[^29] ### Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney in the Truman administration -The [[Harry S. Truman Library]] photograph record for a meeting of the [[National Security Council]] on August 19, 1948 names Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney, Assistant Secretary of the Air Force, among those at the table: he sits with Secretary of the Army [[Kenneth Royall]], Executive Secretary [[Sidney Souers]], National Security Resources Board Chairman [[Arthur M. Hill]], Director of Central Intelligence Roscoe Hillenkoetter, Secretary of Defense [[James Forrestal]], Secretary of State [[George Marshall|George C. Marshall]], President Truman and Under Secretary of the Navy [[W. John Kenney]].[^22] The State Department's volume of Foreign Relations documents on intelligence for 1945 to 1950 lists "Whitney, C. V., Assistant Secretary of the Air Force."[^23] A second Truman Library record, dated March 5, 1950, captions him as Acting Secretary of Commerce at the swearing-in of the director of the Census Bureau, and the library's other photographs describe him as Under Secretary of Commerce.[^24] +The [[Harry S. Truman Library]] photograph record for a meeting of the [[National Security Council]] on August 19, 1948 names Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney, Assistant Secretary of the Air Force, among those at the table: he sits with Secretary of the Army [[Kenneth Royall]], Executive Secretary [[Sidney Souers]], National Security Resources Board Chairman [[Arthur M. Hill]], Director of Central Intelligence Roscoe Hillenkoetter, Secretary of Defense [[James Forrestal]], Secretary of State [[George Marshall|George C. Marshall]], President Truman and Under Secretary of the Navy [[W. John Kenney]].[^30] The State Department's volume of Foreign Relations documents on intelligence for 1945 to 1950 lists "Whitney, C. V., Assistant Secretary of the Air Force."[^31] A second Truman Library record, dated March 5, 1950, captions him as Acting Secretary of Commerce at the swearing-in of the director of the Census Bureau, and the library's other photographs describe him as Under Secretary of Commerce.[^32] + +Frances Stonor Saunders wrote in *Who Paid the Piper?* that "as a trustee, Cornelius allowed the Whitney Trust to be used as a CIA conduit."[^33] ### Dorothy Payne Whitney and the Straight line -The 1927 Yale record for Payne Whitney lists a sister, the wife of Leonard K. Elmhirst, and that sister is [[Dorothy Payne Whitney]].[^2] She had married [[Willard Straight]] in 1911, and the couple founded [[The New Republic]] in 1914 with [[Herbert Croly]].[^25] Sutton wrote that [[The Nation]] and the New Republic on the left "were financed by Willard Straight, using Payne Whitney (The Order) funds."[^26] An [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] summary of a 1969 interview with the magazine's publisher, as cited on the Dorothy Payne Whitney page, records that her family's fund had founded the magazine and had been used for its operation until 1954.[^27] +The 1927 Yale record for Payne Whitney lists a sister, the wife of Leonard K. Elmhirst, and that sister is [[Dorothy Payne Whitney]].[^2] She had married [[Willard Straight]] in 1911, and the couple founded [[The New Republic]] in 1914 with [[Herbert Croly]].[^34] Sutton wrote that [[The Nation]] and the New Republic on the left "were financed by Willard Straight, using Payne Whitney (The Order) funds."[^35] An [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] summary of a 1969 interview with the magazine's publisher, as cited on the Dorothy Payne Whitney page, records that her family's fund had founded the magazine and had been used for its operation until 1954.[^36] -The [[William C. Whitney Foundation]] appears in the FBI file on Michael Straight. Milton C. Rose, senior partner of [[Mudge, Rose, Guthrie and Alexander]], told the FBI that the foundation was "created by Mr. Straight's parents in memory of his grandfather" and that Michael Whitney Straight had been its president "since its inception in 1937." The same summary records that Straight was questioned before a special House committee investigating tax-exempt foundations, as reported by the [[Washington Times-Herald]] on December 6, 1952, about $19,000 in grants the foundation had made to organizations "cited as subversive or communist fronts."[^28] +The [[William C. Whitney Foundation]] appears in the FBI file on Michael Straight. Milton C. Rose, senior partner of [[Mudge, Rose, Guthrie and Alexander]], told the FBI that the foundation was "created by Mr. Straight's parents in memory of his grandfather" and that Michael Whitney Straight had been its president "since its inception in 1937." The same summary records that Straight was questioned before a special House committee investigating tax-exempt foundations, as reported by the [[Washington Times-Herald]] on December 6, 1952, about $19,000 in grants the foundation had made to organizations "cited as subversive or communist fronts."[^37] ### Michael Whitney Straight -[[Michael Whitney Straight]], Dorothy Payne Whitney's son, was a grandson of William Collins Whitney and the president of the William C. Whitney Foundation according to the FBI summary cited above.[^28] In June 1963 he told FBI agents that [[Anthony Blunt]] had recruited him for Soviet intelligence while he was at Cambridge, and that account was followed by Blunt's confession in 1964. The Soviet file, the British and American responses and the rest of the record are on his page.[^29] +[[Michael Whitney Straight]], Dorothy Payne Whitney's son, was a grandson of William Collins Whitney and the president of the William C. Whitney Foundation according to the FBI summary cited above.[^37] In June 1963 he told FBI agents that [[Anthony Blunt]] had recruited him for Soviet intelligence while he was at Cambridge, and that account was followed by Blunt's confession in 1964. The Soviet file, the British and American responses and the rest of the record are on his page.[^38] ### John Hay Whitney, the embassy and the Herald Tribune -John Hay Whitney, called Jock, was the son of Payne Whitney and Helen Hay and a member of the Yale class of 1926.[^2] The Department of State's Office of the Historian records his appointment as ambassador to the [[United Kingdom]] on February 11, 1957, with credentials presented on February 28, 1957, and his departure from the post on January 14, 1961.[^30] +John Hay Whitney, called Jock, was the son of Payne Whitney and Helen Hay and a member of the Yale class of 1926.[^2] The Department of State's Office of the Historian records his appointment as ambassador to the [[United Kingdom]] on February 11, 1957, with credentials presented on February 28, 1957, and his departure from the post on January 14, 1961.[^39] -The [[San Francisco Chronicle]] reported on February 25, 1967 that Whitney was the former owner, publisher and editor of the [[New York Herald Tribune]], and that he was a one-third partner in its successor, the [[World Journal Tribune]], and a member of that paper's three-man executive board.[^31] A statement of ownership for [[United Nations World]] dated October 1, 1947 lists "J. H. Whitney, 630 Fifth Ave., New York, N. Y." among the holders of one percent or more of the magazine's securities, beside [[Nelson Rockefeller]] and [[Max Ascoli]].[^32] +The [[San Francisco Chronicle]] reported on February 25, 1967 that Whitney was the former owner, publisher and editor of the [[New York Herald Tribune]], and that he was a one-third partner in its successor, the [[World Journal Tribune]], and a member of that paper's three-man executive board.[^40] A statement of ownership for [[United Nations World]] dated October 1, 1947 lists "J. H. Whitney, 630 Fifth Ave., New York, N. Y." among the holders of one percent or more of the magazine's securities, beside [[Nelson Rockefeller]] and [[Max Ascoli]].[^41] -On March 26, 1969 [[Henry A. Kissinger]] wrote to [[Peter Flanigan]] about Whitney's interest in the [[President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board|Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board]]. Kissinger's memorandum reads: "You should know that this has twice been raised with the President and rejected both times."[^33] +The Editor and Publisher wrote in 1966 that the Herald, founded in 1835 by James Gordon Bennett, and the Tribune, founded in 1841 by Horace Greeley, "were merged in 1924 under the direction of Mr. and Mrs. Ogden M. Reid," and that the paper "then in failing financial health, was taken over by John Hay Whitney in 1958."[^42] [[Ferdinand Lundberg]] wrote in 1937 that Munsey sold the Herald to the Reid-Mills family in 1924 for $5,000,000, part cash, that the Reids gave Munsey a personal note which passed on his death to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and that the trustees of the museum when Munsey willed his newspapers to it included Payne Whitney.[^43] + +Whitney's ownership ended in 1966. His statement of August 15, 1966, read to reporters as chairman of the board of [[Whitney Communications]] Inc., said: "For the years of my ownership, despite the hopes, the talents and the enormous effort that were put into it, the paper was never quite able to stand on its own." He added: "I shall continue as publisher of the Herald Tribune in Paris."[^44] + +On March 26, 1969 [[Henry A. Kissinger]] wrote to [[Peter Flanigan]] about Whitney's interest in the [[President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board|Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board]]. Kissinger's memorandum reads: "You should know that this has twice been raised with the President and rejected both times."[^45] ### J. H. Whitney and Company, William H. Jackson and the CIA -The investment firm [[J. H. Whitney and Company]] had its offices at 630 Fifth Avenue in New York, the address given in the 1947 ownership statement.[^32] A letter of May 29, 1947, on the firm's letterhead and signed "W. H. Jackson," came from [[William Harding Jackson|William H. Jackson]] and was addressed to Rear Admiral [[Roscoe H. Hillenkoetter]], then Director of Central Intelligence. It reads: "You need only call upon me and I shall do anything within my power to be of assistance," and it offers to come to Washington "whenever you request it regardless of other appointments."[^34] +The investment firm [[J. H. Whitney and Company]] had its offices at 630 Fifth Avenue in New York, the address given in the 1947 ownership statement.[^41] A letter of May 29, 1947, on the firm's letterhead and signed "W. H. Jackson," came from [[William Harding Jackson|William H. Jackson]] and was addressed to Rear Admiral [[Roscoe H. Hillenkoetter]], then Director of Central Intelligence. It reads: "You need only call upon me and I shall do anything within my power to be of assistance," and it offers to come to Washington "whenever you request it regardless of other appointments."[^46] -The writer of that letter is William Harding Jackson (1901 to 1971), the later Deputy Director of Central Intelligence. He was born in [[Nashville, Tennessee]], took a B.A. at [[Princeton University]] in 1924 and an LL.B. at Harvard in 1928, worked as a lawyer and investment banker in New York, served in the Army from 1942 to 1945 and in 1944 sat on General [[Omar Bradley]]'s intelligence staff.[^35] A member of the three-man board that reported to the National Security Council on the national intelligence system in January 1949, he was named Deputy Director of Central Intelligence by [[Walter Bedell Smith]] and served from October 1950 until August 3, 1951; the CIA's announcement of his resignation that month calls him William H. Jackson "of Princeton, New Jersey" and says he resigned "due to the pressure of private business."[^36][^37] The Eisenhower Library's description of the President's Committee on International Information Activities identifies its chairman, William H. Jackson, as "a managing partner in the investment firm J.H. Whitney and Company, and a former Deputy Director of the Central Intelligence Agency."[^38] From August 1951 to February 1956 he was a part-time assistant and senior consultant to the Director of Central Intelligence.[^35] +The writer of that letter is William Harding Jackson (1901 to 1971), the later Deputy Director of Central Intelligence. He was born in [[Nashville, Tennessee]], took a B.A. at [[Princeton University]] in 1924 and an LL.B. at Harvard in 1928, worked as a lawyer and investment banker in New York, served in the Army from 1942 to 1945 and in 1944 sat on General [[Omar Bradley]]'s intelligence staff.[^47] A member of the three-man board that reported to the National Security Council on the national intelligence system in January 1949, he was named Deputy Director of Central Intelligence by [[Walter Bedell Smith]] and served from October 1950 until August 3, 1951; the CIA's announcement of his resignation that month calls him William H. Jackson "of Princeton, New Jersey" and says he resigned "due to the pressure of private business."[^48][^49] The Eisenhower Library's description of the President's Committee on International Information Activities identifies its chairman, William H. Jackson, as "a managing partner in the investment firm J.H. Whitney and Company, and a former Deputy Director of the Central Intelligence Agency."[^50] From August 1951 to February 1956 he was a part-time assistant and senior consultant to the Director of Central Intelligence.[^47] -The CIA's official history of the Walter Bedell Smith years says that when Smith and Jackson could not recruit "men of great prestige with practical experience" for the [[Board of National Estimates]], they created a group of outside advisers who met in Princeton, known as "the Princeton Consultants." The history lists among the group's original members [[Vannevar Bush]], [[George Kennan]], [[Hamilton Fish Armstrong]], [[Alexander Standish]], "a partner in J. H. Whitney & Company," [[Barklie McKee Henry]] and [[Burton Fahs]].[^39] Barklie McKee Henry was later a member of the Jackson Committee, appointed by President Eisenhower in January 1953 with Jackson as chairman; its other members were [[Robert Cutler]], [[C. D. Jackson]], [[Roger Kyes]], [[Sigurd Larmon]], [[Gordon Gray]] and [[John C. Hughes]], and its report went to the President on June 30, 1953.[^38] +The CIA's official history of the Walter Bedell Smith years says that when Smith and Jackson could not recruit "men of great prestige with practical experience" for the [[Board of National Estimates]], they created a group of outside advisers who met in Princeton, known as "the Princeton Consultants." The history lists among the group's original members [[Vannevar Bush]], [[George Kennan]] and [[Hamilton Fish Armstrong]], and then [[Alexander Standish]], "a partner in J. H. Whitney & Company," [[Barklie McKee Henry]], "a director of various corporations," and [[Burton Fahs]], "director of humanities for the [[Rockefeller Foundation]]."[^51] Barklie McKee Henry was later a member of the Jackson Committee, appointed by President Eisenhower in January 1953 with Jackson as chairman; its other members were [[Robert Cutler]], [[C. D. Jackson]], [[Roger Kyes]], [[Sigurd Larmon]], [[Gordon Gray]] and [[John C. Hughes]], and its report went to the President on June 30, 1953.[^50] -A second letter, of October 3, 1952, on the same letterhead and signed by William H. Jackson, was sent to the Central Intelligence Agency about a correspondent who had to interview "a great number of people." Jackson wrote that "if he wants to see Secretary Lovett, General Smith is the person to arrange it."[^40] The letter refers to [[Robert A. Lovett]] and to Smith, then the Director of Central Intelligence. +A second letter, of October 3, 1952, on the same letterhead and signed by William H. Jackson, was sent to the Central Intelligence Agency about a correspondent who had to interview "a great number of people." Jackson wrote that "if he wants to see Secretary Lovett, General Smith is the person to arrange it."[^52] The letter refers to [[Robert A. Lovett]] and to Smith, then the Director of Central Intelligence. -Hillenkoetter, the addressee of the 1947 letter, was at the same National Security Council table as Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney on August 19, 1948.[^22] +Hillenkoetter, the addressee of the 1947 letter, was at the same National Security Council table as Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney on August 19, 1948.[^30] ### The Granary Fund and the John Hay Whitney Trust -On February 25, 1967 the San Francisco Chronicle reported from a schedule of contributions filed with the Massachusetts attorney general that the [[Granary Fund]] of [[Boston]] received $300,000 in 1964 from the [[John G. Thornton Trust]], $150,000 from the [[James Carlisle Trust]] and $500 in miscellaneous contributions. Officials who asked not to be named called the Thornton and Carlisle trusts CIA fronts, and the paper described the Granary Fund as a fund used by the CIA to channel money to organizations at home and abroad.[^31] The same report says the Granary Fund gave a John Hay Whitney Trust for Charitable Purposes $225,000 in 1964 and $100,000 in 1965.[^31] +On February 25, 1967 the San Francisco Chronicle reported from a schedule of contributions filed with the Massachusetts attorney general that the [[Granary Fund]] of [[Boston]] received $300,000 in 1964 from the [[John G. Thornton Trust]], $150,000 from the [[James Carlisle Trust]] and $500 in miscellaneous contributions. Officials who asked not to be named called the Thornton and Carlisle trusts CIA fronts, and the paper described the Granary Fund as a fund used by the CIA to channel money to organizations at home and abroad.[^40] The same report says the Granary Fund gave a John Hay Whitney Trust for Charitable Purposes $225,000 in 1964 and $100,000 in 1965.[^40] -The Chronicle reported that the Whitney trust was a charitable trust established by Whitney on December 29, 1958, during his term as ambassador to the United Kingdom. [[Walter N. Thayer]], head of the Whitney communications corporation, made a statement on Whitney's behalf that the trust had operated since that date and that its pledges and contributions to tax-exempt organizations had all been properly reported.[^31][^30] A [[Los Angeles Times]] report of February 26, 1967 said that Representative [[Wright Patman]] had named eight funds in 1964 in connection with the [[J. M. Kaplan Fund]], among them the [[Gotham Foundation]], and that the Internal Revenue Service had not yet produced records for four more, among them the Granary Fund.[^41] A February 21, 1967 newspaper item in the CIA reading room, "Foundations Fail to File Tax Report," also lists the Granary Fund, Boston, among foundations under question.[^42] +The Chronicle reported that the Whitney trust was a charitable trust established by Whitney on December 29, 1958, during his term as ambassador to the United Kingdom. [[Walter N. Thayer]], head of the Whitney communications corporation, made a statement on Whitney's behalf that the trust had operated since that date and that its pledges and contributions to tax-exempt organizations had all been properly reported.[^39][^40] A [[Los Angeles Times]] report of February 26, 1967 said that Representative [[Wright Patman]] had named eight funds in 1964 in connection with the [[J. M. Kaplan Fund]], among them the [[Gotham Foundation]], and that the Internal Revenue Service had not yet produced records for four more, among them the Granary Fund.[^53] A February 21, 1967 newspaper item in the CIA reading room, "Foundations Fail to File Tax Report," also lists the Granary Fund, Boston, among foundations under question.[^54] -The 1967 reports followed the disclosure of CIA funding for the [[National Student Association]]. The [[Ramparts]] article by [[Sol Stern]] on the association and the CIA appeared in March 1967, and the [[The New York Times|New York Times]] reported the magazine's account on February 16, 1967.[^43][^44] The [[Church Committee]]'s 1976 report on foreign and military intelligence states: "Until 1967 the Agency also maintained covert ties to American foundations in order to pass funds secretly to private groups whose work the CIA supported."[^45] The report says that most of those funds "were transmitted through legitimate or 'devised' foundations, that is, fictitious entities established by the CIA," and that at least 108 of the 700 grants over $10,000 made by 164 foundations other than the Ford, Rockefeller and Carnegie foundations in 1963 to 1966 involved partial or complete CIA funding.[^46] +The 1967 reports followed the disclosure of CIA funding for the [[National Student Association]]. The [[Ramparts]] article by [[Sol Stern]] on the association and the CIA appeared in March 1967, and the [[The New York Times|New York Times]] reported the magazine's account on February 16, 1967.[^55][^56] The [[Church Committee]]'s 1976 report on foreign and military intelligence states: "Until 1967 the Agency also maintained covert ties to American foundations in order to pass funds secretly to private groups whose work the CIA supported."[^57] The report says that most of the fiscal 1967 funds for youth and student programs and for labor "were transmitted through legitimate or 'devised' foundations, that is, fictitious entities established by the CIA," and that at least 108 of the 700 grants over $10,000 made by 164 foundations other than the Ford, Rockefeller and Carnegie foundations in 1963 to 1966 involved partial or complete CIA funding.[^58] + +Time of March 3, 1967 listed the recipients of "CIA-suspect largesse" as "an encyclopedic grab bag of organizations ranging from the now defunct Institute of International Labor Research Inc. ... to the Billy Graham Spanish-American crusade, from the North American Secretariat of Pax Romana and the John Hay Whitney Trust for Charitable Purposes to the International Food and Drink Workers Federation and the Friends of India Committee."[^59] In their book of 1967, [[David Wise]] and [[Thomas B. Ross]] wrote: "John Hay Whitney, former ambassador to Great Britain and owner of the New York Herald Tribune, was founder of the Whitney Trust, a philanthropic organization financed in part by the Granary Fund, the CIA conduit."[^60] The anthropologist [[David H. Price]] lists the trust in his table of foundations named in 1967 as CIA conduits, citing the press reports of that year.[^61] + +The CIA's own paper on the subject is a memorandum of November 1968 from [[Charles Katek]], Chief of the Central Cover Staff, to the Deputy Director for Plans, on the scope and possible damage of new allegations by Ramparts magazine. It records that early in April 1968 the Office of the General Counsel gave the Central Cover Staff a copy of an April 5, 1968 letter to the Internal Revenue Service from Ramparts, with a list of 145 tax-exempt organizations that the magazine said were suspected of having been funded by or of having cooperated with the CIA. The memorandum's annex of terminated covert funding conduits and project organizations that the press had named lists the Granary Fund of Boston as a Central Cover Staff proprietary (designator LPSIPHON/7), and lists the Whitney Trust for Charitable Purposes, John Hay, as a "Funding conduit under Project QKOPERA (LPCORSET/68)." It gives two entries for the trust, under the Ramparts list numbers 141 and 142, with the instrument dated December 29, 1959 in one and December 29, 1958 in the other. QKOPERA is the project designation the same memorandum gives for the Congress for Cultural Freedom, and the [[Farfield Foundation]] appears in the annex as a "Funding conduit for CCF." Another entry, on the [[Institute of International Education]], records that the Institute received legitimate grants from six foundations that the CIA used as cooperating covert funding mechanisms, among them the McGregor Fund, the John Hay Whitney Charitable Trust (items 141 and 142), the Aaron Norman Fund, the Cleveland Dodge Foundation, the William Benton Foundation and the Brown Foundation of Houston.[^62] + +The CIA answered a Freedom of Information Act request of January 11, 1980 for information on "the John Hay Whitney Trust for Charitable Purposes and the Granary Fund" with a letter of May 28, 1985. The Agency located two responsive documents, dated December 10, 1968 and January 23, 1969, and withheld both in their entirety under exemptions (b)(1) and (b)(3) of the Act.[^63] + +[[Bernard D. Nossiter]] reported in the Washington Post of July 3, 1975 on the news service [[Forum World Features]], based in [[London]]. "When it began selling articles in 1966, the service's owner of record, according to the officials, was John Hay Whitney," the article states, and "Early in 1973, Whitney was replaced by [[Richard Mellon Scaife]]." The officials were quoted as saying that the service was financed by the CIA. A spokesman for Whitney said he had "no comment on the subject." The article also quotes an apparent internal CIA memorandum of about 1968, published by the magazine Time Out, which described the service as "located in London and incorporated in Delaware" and as begun as a commercial entity in January 1966 from the residue of Forum Service, an activity of the [[Congress for Cultural Freedom]] from which the CIA withdrew its support in 1966. [[Brian Crozier]], the service's president, denied a CIA link.[^64] + +Crozier replied in the Guardian of December 1, 1976 and printed correspondence. He wrote that in the spring of 1965 [[John Hunt]] told him that Whitney had agreed to take over the services. A letter from Hunt of June 10, 1965 gave a starting date of July 1, 1965 and said that Whitney "tentatively plans to put about $100,000 a year into Forum Features," with Crozier as president. A letter of January 24, 1973 from [[Samuel C. Park]] to Crozier recorded Scaife's election as director of Kern House Enterprises Ltd to succeed Whitney. On September 23, 1969 Whitney wrote to Crozier declining an investment in the Current Affairs Research Services Centre. Crozier wrote that Whitney gave his library to the [[Institute for the Study of Conflict]]. The Guardian's accompanying glossary describes Park as "Financial aide to Whitney, and a trustee of his Charitable Trust."[^65] + +Saunders wrote that Forum World Features "was a classic CIA undercover operation, with John Hay Whitney once again acting as a front, registering the company under his name as a Delaware corporation with offices in London."[^66] ### Footnotes [^1]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chart "Hypothesis Number One: A Secret Society Dominated By Old Line American Families And New Wealth Has Existed From 1833 To The Present Day," with the spokes WHITNEY FAMILY (1635, Watertown, Mass.) and PAYNE FAMILY (Standard Oil). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones. + [^2]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased During the Year Ending July 1, 1927*, entry for Payne Whitney, B.A. 1898, pp. 171 to 172 (birth, death, descent from John Whitney of Watertown, Yale relatives, crews, the listing "member Hé Boulé, Delta Kappa Epsilon, and Skull and Bones," directorships, gifts, marriage to Helen Hay, children and survivors). https://archive.org/details/obituaryrecordof00yale_4. + [^3]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased 1900 to 1910*, entry for William Collins Whitney, class of 1863, pp. 350 to 352. https://archive.org/details/1900t10obituary00yaleuoft. + [^4]: William C. Whitney, *Report of the Secretary of the Navy*, December 1885, in *Annual Reports of the Navy Department* (Government Printing Office, 1885), pp. xxxviii to xli (the Secretary's staff, the rebuilding of the Omaha at $572,000, the proposed advisory board and Assistant Secretary). https://archive.org/details/annualreportsna00deptgoog. + [^5]: William C. Whitney, *Report of the Secretary of the Navy*, Navy Department, Washington, December 6, 1887, in *Annual Reports of the Navy Department* (Government Printing Office, 1887), passages on the armor, gun-steel and secondary-battery factories and the Bethlehem Iron Company contract. https://archive.org/details/annualreportsna06deptgoog. + [^6]: *Report of the Secretary of the Navy* for 1888, in *Annual Reports of the Navy Department* (Government Printing Office, 1888), passage on the contracts of June 1, 1887 with the Bethlehem Iron Company and the department's 1886 report on armor and gun production. https://archive.org/details/annualreportsna02deptgoog. + [^7]: Sutton (1983), section "The Whitney Family" and the Whitney table, passage on "the Whitney Group" and the New York street railway franchises. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones. + [^8]: *New-York Tribune*, September 26, 1907, p. 1 (Joline and Robinson as receivers of the New York City Railway Company; the guaranteed dividend; "friendly proceeding"; the Ryan-Belmont control; Judge Lacombe and William C. Whitney as Corporation Counsel). https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn83030214/1907-09-26/ed-1/?sp=1. -[^9]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, B.A. 1863, pp. 295 to 296. https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft. -[^10]: *Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States*, 221 U.S. 1 (1911), Section 2 of the decree as set out in the opinion, naming "the seven individual defendants" and including "Oliver H. Payne." https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/221/1. -[^11]: *Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States*, 221 U.S. 1 (1911), the opinion's description of the trust agreement of 1882 and its nine trustees, and the list of individual stockholders including "O. H. Payne." https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/221/1. -[^12]: Sutton (1983), the passage on the Paynes and Standard Oil. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones. -[^13]: Sutton (1983), index of members by class year: the Whitney entries under 1851, 1854, 1855, 1863, 1878, 1882, 1894 and 1898, and the list for the class of 1863, which does not include Payne. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones. -[^14]: Sutton (1983), the section "The Whitney-Stimson-Bundy-Acheson Chain of Influence," point 1 ("the core of Whitney influence"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones. -[^15]: Sutton (1983), Whitney table, which prints "1894 Payne Whitney" and "1898 Harry Payne Whitney"; text, which gives "Harry Payne ('94) and Payne Whitney ('98)." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones. -[^16]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased 1915 to 1920*, entry for Albert Dillon Sturtevant, Ph.B. 1916, Sheffield Scientific School, stating that the Yale Aviation Corps was "formed by Payne Whitney, '98, in June, 1916," and that Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 1 was organized by F. Trubee Davison (B.A. 1918). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft. -[^17]: "Payne Whitney Left Biggest Estate Ever Appraised in U.S.," *Washington Daily News*, November 23, 1928, p. 6. https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn82016181/1928-11-23/ed-1/?sp=6. -[^18]: Sutton (1983), the passage on the Harriman family, the Whitney-Payne fortune and the Vanderbilt marriage, and the account of Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney's marriage to Marie Norton. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones. -[^19]: "Harry Payne Whitney, Multi-Millionaire, Is Dead," United Press, *The Indianapolis Times*, October 27, 1930, p. 2. https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn82015313/1930-10-27/ed-1/?sp=2. -[^20]: Whitney Museum of American Art, "Whitney History: Founding." https://whitney.org/about/history. -[^21]: Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, *W. Averell Harriman Papers: A Finding Aid to the Collection in the Library of Congress* (2016), chronology entry "1930 Married Marie Norton Whitney (died 1970)." https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003012.pdf. -[^22]: Harry S. Truman Library, photograph 73-2702, "Truman with National Security Council," August 19, 1948 (identification of Assistant Secretary of the Air Force Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney and Director of Central Intelligence Roscoe Hillenkoetter at the table). https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/photograph-records/73-2702. -[^23]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945-1950, Emergence of the Intelligence Establishment*, "Persons," entry "Whitney, C. V., Assistant Secretary of the Air Force." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945-50Intel/persons. -[^24]: Harry S. Truman Library, photograph 2017-286, swearing-in of Roy V. Peel as Director of the Bureau of the Census, March 5, 1950 (caption: "Mr. C. V. Whitney, Acting Secretary of Commerce"), and the library's index entry for "Whitney, C. V. (Cornelius Vanderbilt), 1899-1992." https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/photograph-records/2017-286. -[^25]: Tara Mastrelli, "Dorothy Payne Whitney Straight Elmhirst," Histories of The New School, May 25, 2018 (founding of The New Republic with Willard Straight and Herbert Croly; the 1911 marriage), as cited on the Dorothy Payne Whitney page. https://histories.newschool.edu/people/dorothy-payne-whitney-straight-elmhirst. -[^26]: Sutton (1983), the section on the press (the Nation and New Republic passage). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones. -[^27]: FBI, "Straight, Michael W., HQ-1" (FOI/PA 1179375-1), special inquiry report of September 1969, interview with the publisher of *The New Republic*, as cited on the Dorothy Payne Whitney page. https://archive.org/details/StraightMichaelW.HQ1. -[^28]: FBI, "Straight, Michael W., HQ-1," summary memorandum of September 10, 1969, interviews with Milton C. Rose and Harriett K. Evison, the William C. Whitney Foundation passage, the summary of the Washington Times-Herald article of December 6, 1952, and the statement that Straight was president of the foundation, as cited on the Michael Whitney Straight page. https://archive.org/details/StraightMichaelW.HQ1. -[^29]: FBI, "Straight, Michael W., HQ-1," memorandum of June 25, 1963 on the interview of June 18, 1963, as cited on the Michael Whitney Straight page. https://archive.org/details/StraightMichaelW.HQ1. -[^30]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, "John Hay Whitney (1904-1982)," Principal Officers and Chiefs of Mission, United Kingdom. https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/whitney-john-hay. -[^31]: San Francisco Chronicle, "CIA Link to Charity Funds," February 25, 1967 (CIA reading room copy). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00149r000800060024-5. -[^32]: *United Nations World*, December 1947 (Vol. 1, No. 10), statement of ownership, management and circulation for October 1, 1947. https://archive.org/details/united-nations-world_1947-12_1_10. -[^33]: Henry A. Kissinger to Peter Flanigan, memorandum, March 26, 1969, on the Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board and John Hay Whitney (CIA reading room copy, document LOC-HAK-1-2-69-2). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-loc-hak-1-2-69-2. -[^34]: William H. Jackson to Rear Admiral R. H. Hillenkoetter, letter of May 29, 1947, on J. H. Whitney & Co. letterhead, 630 Fifth Avenue (CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP80B01676R004000040034-9). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r004000040034-9. -[^35]: Georgetown University Library, *William Harding Jackson Papers* (GTM-101014), biographical note (born March 25, 1901, Nashville; B.A. Princeton 1924; LL.B. Harvard 1928; lawyer and investment banker in New York; Army 1942 to 1945; Bradley's intelligence staff 1944; Deputy Director of the CIA from August 18, 1950 to August 3, 1951; part-time assistant and senior consultant to the CIA director, August 1951 to February 1956; died September 28, 1971). https://findingaids.library.georgetown.edu/repositories/15/resources/10428. -[^36]: Central Intelligence Agency, press release of August 23, 1951 announcing Allen W. Dulles as Deputy Director of Central Intelligence to succeed William H. Jackson, "of Princeton, New Jersey," who "resigned that post due to the pressure of private business," and noting that both men were members of the three-man board that reported to the National Security Council in January 1949 (CIA reading room, CIA-RDP57-00384R000100150018-8). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp57-00384r000100150018-8. -[^37]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, "Persons," entry "Jackson, William H.," member of the National Security Council Survey Committee in 1948 and Deputy Director of Central Intelligence from October 7, 1950. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/persons. -[^38]: Dwight D. Eisenhower Library, *U.S. President's Committee on International Information Activities (Jackson Committee): Records, 1950-53*, finding aid, historical note (appointment of William H. Jackson, "a managing partner in the investment firm J.H. Whitney and Company, and a former Deputy Director of the Central Intelligence Agency," as chairman; members; report of June 30, 1953). https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/finding-aids/pdf/us-presidents-committee-on-international-information-activities.pdf. -[^39]: Central Intelligence Agency, "General Walter Bedell Smith as Director of Central Intelligence, October 1950 to February 1953," vol. III (CREST document 00669377), passages on the Board of National Estimates, the Princeton Consultants and their original members, and the references to William Jackson as deputy director. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-00669377. -[^40]: William H. Jackson to the Central Intelligence Agency, letter of October 3, 1952, on J. H. Whitney & Co. letterhead (CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP80R01731R000500470007-3). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r000500470007-3. -[^41]: Don Irwin and Vincent J. Burke, "21 Foundations, Union Got Money From CIA," *Los Angeles Times*, February 26, 1967 (CIA reading room copy). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00149r000600210002-4. -[^42]: "Foundations Fail to File Tax Report," February 21, 1967 (CIA reading room copy), list including the Granary Fund, Boston. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp73-00475r000101290002-3. -[^43]: Sol Stern, "A Short Account of International Student Politics and the Cold War with Particular Reference to the NSA, CIA, Etc.," *Ramparts*, March 1967. https://archive.org/details/nsa-and-the-cia. -[^44]: "Ramparts Says C.I.A. Received Student Report," *New York Times*, February 16, 1967 (CIA reading room copy), as cited on the Michael Josselson page. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00149r000800100021-3. -[^45]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Foreign and Military Intelligence*, Book I, S. Rept. 94-755 (1976), p. 182. https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel01unit. -[^46]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Foreign and Military Intelligence*, Book I, S. Rept. 94-755 (1976), p. 183 (devised foundations; 108 of 700 grants). https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel01unit. -[^47]: FBI, "Straight, Michael W., HQ-1," summary memorandum of September 10, 1969 (Straight as grandson of William C. Whitney), as cited on the Michael Whitney Straight page. https://archive.org/details/StraightMichaelW.HQ1. + +[^9]: *United States v. American Tobacco Co.*, 221 U.S. 106 (1911), opinion of White, C.J., statement of the Consolidated Tobacco Company's share holdings before the merger. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/221/106 + +[^10]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, B.A. 1863, pp. 295 to 296. https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft. + +[^11]: *Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States*, 221 U.S. 1 (1911), Section 2 of the decree as set out in the opinion, naming "the seven individual defendants" and including "Oliver H. Payne." https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/221/1. + +[^12]: *Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States*, 221 U.S. 1 (1911), the opinion's description of the trust agreement of 1882 and its nine trustees, and the list of individual stockholders including "O. H. Payne." https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/221/1. + +[^13]: Sutton (1983), the passage on the Paynes and Standard Oil. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones. + +[^14]: Sutton (1983), index of members by class year: the Whitney entries under 1851, 1854, 1855, 1863, 1878, 1882, 1894 and 1898, and the list for the class of 1863, which does not include Payne. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones. + +[^15]: Sutton (1983), the section "The Whitney-Stimson-Bundy-Acheson Chain of Influence," point 1 ("the core of Whitney influence"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones. + +[^16]: Sutton (1983), Whitney table and index of members by class year, which print "1894 Payne Whitney" and "1898 Harry Payne Whitney"; text, which gives "Harry Payne ('94) and Payne Whitney ('98)." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones. + +[^17]: Advertisement of the Knickerbocker Trust Co., *Trusts and Estates*, vol. 4, no. 6 (June 1907). https://archive.org/details/sim_trusts-estates_1907-06_4_6 + +[^18]: "Charles Tracy Barney, Deposed President of Knickerbocker Trust Co., Unbalanced by His Misfortunes," *The Morning Star* (New York), November 15, 1907, p. 1. https://archive.org/details/per_star-news_the-morning-star_1907-11-15_81_46 + +[^19]: Cuyler Reynolds, ed., *Genealogical and Family History of Southern New York and the Hudson River Valley*, vol. 2 (New York, 1914), p. 855 (Alice Hay, born Cleveland, January 6, 1880, daughter of John Hay; marriage of September 30, 1902), https://archive.org/details/genealogicalfami02reyn ; *Who's Who in America*, vol. 14, 1926-1927, entry "Wadsworth, Alice Hay" (children Evelyn (Mrs. Stuart Symington), James Jeremiah, Reverdy), https://archive.org/details/whoswho141926 ; Livingston County Historian's Office, "Wadsworth Family: A Subject Finding Aid" (2019, rev. 2022), section II. + +[^20]: Weill Cornell Medicine, "History of the Medical Center" (undated PDF), passages on the will of Payne Whitney and on the gift of Oliver Hazard Payne. https://library.weill.cornell.edu/sites/default/files/history_of_the_medical_center.pdf + +[^21]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased 1915 to 1920*, entry for Albert Dillon Sturtevant, Ph.B. 1916, Sheffield Scientific School, stating that the Yale Aviation Corps was "formed by Payne Whitney, '98, in June, 1916," and that Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 1 was organized by F. Trubee Davison (B.A. 1918). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft. + +[^22]: "Payne Whitney Dies Suddenly at Home," *The New York Times*, May 26, 1927, p. 1, continued p. 25. https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_the-new-york-times_1927-05-26_76_25324. Yale University, *Obituary Record ... Deceased During the Year Ending July 1, 1927*, p. 172. https://archive.org/details/obituaryrecordof00yale_4. Weill Cornell Medicine Library, "History of the Medical Center." https://library.weill.cornell.edu/sites/default/files/history_of_the_medical_center.pdf + +[^23]: "Payne Whitney Left Biggest Estate Ever Appraised in U.S.," *Washington Daily News*, November 23, 1928, p. 6. https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn82016181/1928-11-23/ed-1/?sp=6. + +[^24]: "$178,893,655 Estate, Record for America," *The New York Times*, November 23, 1928, p. 1, continued p. 12. https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1928-11-23_78_25871. Also "Payne Whitney Left Biggest Estate Ever Appraised in U.S.," United Press, *Brainerd Daily Dispatch*, November 23, 1928, p. 1. https://archive.org/details/brainerd-daily-dispatch-1928-11-23. Also "Payne Whitney Estate Appraised," *Paper Trade Journal*, vol. 87, no. 22, November 29, 1928. https://archive.org/details/sim_paper-trade-journal_1928-11-29_87_22 + +[^25]: "200 Millions to Legatees of Payne Whitney," *Chicago Daily Tribune*, September 1, 1931. https://archive.org/details/per_chicago-daily-tribune_1931-09-01_90_209 + +[^26]: Sutton (1983), the passage on the Harriman family, the Whitney-Payne fortune and the Vanderbilt marriage, and the account of Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney's marriage to Marie Norton. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones. + +[^27]: "Harry Payne Whitney, Multi-Millionaire, Is Dead," United Press, *The Indianapolis Times*, October 27, 1930, p. 2. https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn82015313/1930-10-27/ed-1/?sp=2. + +[^28]: Whitney Museum of American Art, "Whitney History: Founding." https://whitney.org/about/history. + +[^29]: Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, *W. Averell Harriman Papers: A Finding Aid to the Collection in the Library of Congress* (2016), chronology entry "1930 Married Marie Norton Whitney (died 1970)." https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003012.pdf. + +[^30]: Harry S. Truman Library, photograph 73-2702, "Truman with National Security Council," August 19, 1948 (identification of Assistant Secretary of the Air Force Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney and Director of Central Intelligence Roscoe Hillenkoetter at the table). https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/photograph-records/73-2702. + +[^31]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945-1950, Emergence of the Intelligence Establishment*, "Persons," entry "Whitney, C. V., Assistant Secretary of the Air Force." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945-50Intel/persons. + +[^32]: Harry S. Truman Library, photograph 2017-286, swearing-in of Roy V. Peel as Director of the Bureau of the Census, March 5, 1950 (caption: "Mr. C. V. Whitney, Acting Secretary of Commerce"), and the library's index entry for "Whitney, C. V. (Cornelius Vanderbilt), 1899-1992." https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/photograph-records/2017-286. + +[^33]: Frances Stonor Saunders, *Who Paid the Piper?* (1999), pp. 134 to 135 (conduits) and p. 285 (Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney). + +[^34]: Tara Mastrelli, "Dorothy Payne Whitney Straight Elmhirst," Histories of The New School, May 25, 2018 (founding of The New Republic with Willard Straight and Herbert Croly; the 1911 marriage), as cited on the Dorothy Payne Whitney page. https://histories.newschool.edu/people/dorothy-payne-whitney-straight-elmhirst. + +[^35]: Sutton (1983), the section on the press (the Nation and New Republic passage). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones. + +[^36]: FBI, "Straight, Michael W., HQ-1" (FOI/PA 1179375-1), special inquiry report of September 1969, interview with the publisher of *The New Republic*, as cited on the Dorothy Payne Whitney page. https://archive.org/details/StraightMichaelW.HQ1. + +[^37]: FBI, "Straight, Michael W., HQ-1," summary memorandum of September 10, 1969, interviews with Milton C. Rose and Harriett K. Evison, the William C. Whitney Foundation passage, the summary of the Washington Times-Herald article of December 6, 1952, and the statement that Straight was president of the foundation, as cited on the Michael Whitney Straight page. https://archive.org/details/StraightMichaelW.HQ1. + +[^38]: FBI, "Straight, Michael W., HQ-1," memorandum of June 25, 1963 on the interview of June 18, 1963, as cited on the Michael Whitney Straight page. https://archive.org/details/StraightMichaelW.HQ1. + +[^39]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, "John Hay Whitney (1904-1982)," Principal Officers and Chiefs of Mission, United Kingdom. https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/whitney-john-hay. + +[^40]: San Francisco Chronicle, "CIA Link to Charity Funds," February 25, 1967 (CIA reading room copy). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00149r000800060024-5. + +[^41]: *United Nations World*, December 1947 (Vol. 1, No. 10), statement of ownership, management and circulation for October 1, 1947. https://archive.org/details/united-nations-world_1947-12_1_10. + +[^42]: *Editor and Publisher*, vol. 99, no. 34 (August 20, 1966), historical note on the *New York Herald Tribune*. https://archive.org/details/sim_editor-publisher_1966-08-20_99_34 + +[^43]: Ferdinand Lundberg, *America's 60 Families* (New York: Vanguard Press, 1937), pp. 254 and 269 to 270. https://archive.org/details/lundberg-ferdinand-americas-60-families-1937 + +[^44]: "Herald Tribune" historical note and text of John Hay Whitney's statement of August 15, 1966, *Editor & Publisher*, vol. 99, no. 34 (August 20, 1966), pp. 11 to 12. https://archive.org/details/sim_editor-publisher_1966-08-20_99_34 + +[^45]: Henry A. Kissinger to Peter Flanigan, memorandum, March 26, 1969, on the Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board and John Hay Whitney (CIA reading room copy, document LOC-HAK-1-2-69-2). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-loc-hak-1-2-69-2. + +[^46]: William H. Jackson to Rear Admiral R. H. Hillenkoetter, letter of May 29, 1947, on J. H. Whitney & Co. letterhead, 630 Fifth Avenue (CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP80B01676R004000040034-9). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r004000040034-9. + +[^47]: Georgetown University Library, *William Harding Jackson Papers* (GTM-101014), biographical note (born March 25, 1901, Nashville; B.A. Princeton 1924; LL.B. Harvard 1928; lawyer and investment banker in New York; Army 1942 to 1945; Bradley's intelligence staff 1944; Deputy Director of the CIA from August 18, 1950 to August 3, 1951; part-time assistant and senior consultant to the CIA director, August 1951 to February 1956; died September 28, 1971). https://findingaids.library.georgetown.edu/repositories/15/resources/10428. + +[^48]: Central Intelligence Agency, press release of August 23, 1951 announcing Allen W. Dulles as Deputy Director of Central Intelligence to succeed William H. Jackson, "of Princeton, New Jersey," who "resigned that post due to the pressure of private business," and noting that both men were members of the three-man board that reported to the National Security Council in January 1949 (CIA reading room, CIA-RDP57-00384R000100150018-8). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp57-00384r000100150018-8. + +[^49]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, "Persons," entry "Jackson, William H.," member of the National Security Council Survey Committee in 1948 and Deputy Director of Central Intelligence from October 7, 1950. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/persons. + +[^50]: Dwight D. Eisenhower Library, *U.S. President's Committee on International Information Activities (Jackson Committee): Records, 1950-53*, finding aid, historical note (appointment of William H. Jackson, "a managing partner in the investment firm J.H. Whitney and Company, and a former Deputy Director of the Central Intelligence Agency," as chairman; members; report of June 30, 1953). https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/finding-aids/pdf/us-presidents-committee-on-international-information-activities.pdf. + +[^51]: Central Intelligence Agency, "General Walter Bedell Smith as Director of Central Intelligence, October 1950 to February 1953," vol. III (CREST document 00669377), passages on the Board of National Estimates, the Princeton Consultants and their original members, and the references to William Jackson as deputy director. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-00669377. + +[^52]: William H. Jackson to the Central Intelligence Agency, letter of October 3, 1952, on J. H. Whitney & Co. letterhead (CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP80R01731R000500470007-3). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r000500470007-3. + +[^53]: Don Irwin and Vincent J. Burke, "21 Foundations, Union Got Money From CIA," *Los Angeles Times*, February 26, 1967 (CIA reading room copy). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00149r000600210002-4. + +[^54]: "Foundations Fail to File Tax Report," February 21, 1967 (CIA reading room copy), list including the Granary Fund, Boston. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp73-00475r000101290002-3. + +[^55]: Sol Stern, "A Short Account of International Student Politics and the Cold War with Particular Reference to the NSA, CIA, Etc.," *Ramparts*, March 1967. https://archive.org/details/nsa-and-the-cia. + +[^56]: "Ramparts Says C.I.A. Received Student Report," *New York Times*, February 16, 1967 (CIA reading room copy), as cited on the Michael Josselson page. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00149r000800100021-3. + +[^57]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Foreign and Military Intelligence*, Book I, S. Rept. 94-755 (1976), p. 182. https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel01unit. + +[^58]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Foreign and Military Intelligence*, Book I, S. Rept. 94-755 (1976), p. 183 (devised foundations; 108 of 700 grants). https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel01unit. + +[^59]: "Pandora's Cashbox," *Time*, March 3, 1967 (CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP70B00338R000200230042-5). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp70b00338r000200230042-5. + +[^60]: David Wise and Thomas B. Ross, *The Espionage Establishment* (Random House, 1967), p. 144. + +[^61]: David H. Price, *Cold War Anthropology* (Duke University Press, 2016), Table 7.3, p. 172, citing Kenworthy 1967 and *Time* 1967. + +[^62]: Charles Katek, Chief, Central Cover Staff, memorandum for the Deputy Director for Plans, "Indications of the Scope and Possible Damage of New Allegations by Ramparts Magazine," November 1968, with annexes (JFK Assassination Records, 2025 release, 104-10059-10026). https://archive.org/details/JFK-Assassination-Records-2025-Batch01-02. + +[^63]: Central Intelligence Agency, Information and Privacy Coordinator, letter of May 28, 1985 responding to the Freedom of Information Act request of January 11, 1980 (CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP87B00858R000500640014-6). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP87B00858R000500640014-6. + +[^64]: Bernard D. Nossiter, "CIA News Service," *The Washington Post*, July 3, 1975, p. A26. https://archive.org/details/nsia-CIAForumWorldFeatures. + +[^65]: Brian Crozier, reply to the *Guardian*, December 1, 1976, with printed correspondence of John Hunt (June 10, 1965), Samuel C. Park (January 24, 1973) and John Hay Whitney (September 23, 1969), and glossary. https://archive.org/details/crozier-replies-to-gaurdian-by-peter-chippendale-martin-walker-the-gaurdian-december-1-1976-pp.-1-9. + +[^66]: Frances Stonor Saunders, *Who Paid the Piper?* (1999), pp. 311 to 312, on Forum World Features. + +[^67]: FBI, "Straight, Michael W., HQ-1," summary memorandum of September 10, 1969 (Straight as grandson of William C. Whitney), as cited on the Michael Whitney Straight page. https://archive.org/details/StraightMichaelW.HQ1. diff --git a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/Federal Reserve Board.md b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/Federal Reserve Board.md index f62dc406..e5751250 100644 --- a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/Federal Reserve Board.md +++ b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/Federal Reserve Board.md @@ -11,22 +11,26 @@ tags: - Intelligence summary: "Governing body of the U.S. central banking system, which approved the BCCI-backed takeover of Financial General Bankshares in 1981 on false assurances and fined BCCI 200 million dollars in July 1991." created: 2026-05-15 -updated: 2026-09-23 +updated: 2026-10-26 location: "Washington, D.C." relations: - type: investigated with: "[[Bank of Credit and Commerce International]]" start: 1991-01-03 - fn: 3 + fn: 6 --- The Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System (Federal Reserve Board) is the governing body of the [[United States]] central banking system, established by the Federal Reserve Act of 1913 and headquartered in [[Washington, D.C.]] The Board consists of seven members appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate, serving 14-year terms. The Federal Reserve is responsible for U.S. monetary policy, banking supervision and regulation, and maintenance of the financial system's stability. As a bank regulator, the Federal Reserve holds primary supervisory authority over bank holding companies - a jurisdiction directly relevant to the [[BCCI]] scandal.[^1] +### Origins + +[[Frank A. Vanderlip]] wrote of the meeting at the [[Jekyll Island]] Club, Georgia, in late 1910 that "I do not feel it is any exaggeration to speak of our secret expedition to Jekyl Island as the occasion of the actual conception of what eventually became the Federal Reserve System."[^2] The group went to help [[Nelson W. Aldrich]] prepare the report and banking bill of the [[National Monetary Commission]]. Vanderlip wrote that the men asked to go were "Henry Davison, Paul Warburg, Ben Strong, and myself," with [[A. Piatt Andrew]] coming from Washington, and that "We were told to leave our last names behind us."[^3] The [[Pritzker Military Museum & Library]] finding aid for the Davison family states: "Many believe this meeting led to the creation of the Federal Reserve."[^4] + ### BCCI and First American Bankshares The Federal Reserve Board is prominently implicated in the BCCI scandal through its regulatory approval of the acquisition of [[First American Bankshares]], the largest bank holding company in the Washington, D.C. area. In 1981-1982, a group of Middle Eastern investors fronted by [[Clark Clifford]] - the Washington super-lawyer and former Secretary of Defense - and his law partner [[Robert Altman]] sought [[Federal Reserve]] approval to purchase First American (then called Financial General Bankshares). The investors represented themselves as independent Arab investors with no connection to BCCI. -The Federal Reserve approved the acquisition. In reality, BCCI secretly controlled the purchase: the nominally independent Arab investors were BCCI nominees whose shares were financed by BCCI, and BCCI chairman [[Agha Hasan Abedi]] made the key decisions about First American's management. Clifford and Altman maintained publicly - and in sworn testimony to the Federal Reserve - that BCCI did not control First American, which congressional investigators and prosecutors subsequently concluded was false. Clifford and Altman were indicted in 1992 for fraud in connection with the deception of the Federal Reserve; Clifford was ultimately not tried due to ill health, while Altman was acquitted.[^2] +The Federal Reserve approved the acquisition. In reality, BCCI secretly controlled the purchase: the nominally independent Arab investors were BCCI nominees whose shares were financed by BCCI, and BCCI chairman [[Agha Hasan Abedi]] made the key decisions about First American's management. Clifford and Altman maintained publicly - and in sworn testimony to the Federal Reserve - that BCCI did not control First American, which congressional investigators and prosecutors subsequently concluded was false. Clifford and Altman were indicted in 1992 for fraud in connection with the deception of the Federal Reserve; Clifford was ultimately not tried due to ill health, while Altman was acquitted.[^5] The Federal Reserve's failure to detect BCCI's secret ownership of First American - despite BCCI's known reputation in the international banking community as an institution with irregular practices - was identified by the [[Kerry-Brown Senate Report|Kerry Committee investigation]] and the [[Bank of England]]'s [[Bingham Report]] as reflecting significant regulatory failure. The Federal Reserve paid insufficiently close attention to the backgrounds of investors seeking approval, relied on representations without adequate independent investigation, and permitted BCCI principals to escape detection for nearly a decade. @@ -36,18 +40,21 @@ Following the July 1991 closure of BCCI by international regulators, the Federal ### Iran-Contra Financial Flows -The Federal Reserve System's broader role in the [[Iran-Contra Affair]] was as the institutional infrastructure through which the financial flows of the "Enterprise" - [[Oliver North]]'s off-books covert operations fund - moved through the banking system. Accounts at major U.S. banks, Swiss numbered accounts, and the network of front companies managed by [[Richard Secord]] and [[Albert Hakim]] all operated through correspondent banking relationships that passed through the Federal Reserve's payment system. The Federal Reserve itself was not involved in or aware of these operations, but its payment infrastructure was the medium through which the illegal financial transactions moved.[^2] +The Federal Reserve System's broader role in the [[Iran-Contra Affair]] was as the institutional infrastructure through which the financial flows of the "Enterprise" - [[Oliver North]]'s off-books covert operations fund - moved through the banking system. Accounts at major U.S. banks, Swiss numbered accounts, and the network of front companies managed by [[Richard Secord]] and [[Albert Hakim]] all operated through correspondent banking relationships that passed through the Federal Reserve's payment system. The Federal Reserve itself was not involved in or aware of these operations, but its payment infrastructure was the medium through which the illegal financial transactions moved.[^5] ### The Kerry-Brown Findings -The [[BCCI Kerry-Brown Senate Report|Kerry-Brown Senate Report]] found that when the Board approved the takeover of [[Financial General Bankshares]] by [[Credit and Commerce American Holdings]] in 1981 "it had substantial circumstantial evidence before it to suggest that BCCI was behind the bank's purchase," and that it "would not have approved the CCAH application but for the false statements made to it." It relied on representations from the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], the [[United States Department of State|State Department]] and other agencies that they had no objections, and on the reputation of BCCI's lawyers, Clark Clifford and the former Federal Reserve counsel Baldwin Tuttle. Paul Volcker, who signed the approval, testified in 1991 that he "wasn't aware" of [[Kamal Adham]]'s intelligence background. The Treasury failed to pass on what the CIA told it in 1985 and 1986 about BCCI's ownership of [[First American Bank|First American]], although "[[Internal Revenue Service|IRS]] agents did provide important information to the Federal Reserve on this issue in early 1989, which the Federal Reserve failed adequately to investigate at the time." The purchase of the [[National Bank of Georgia]] in 1986 was an obvious warning sign not investigated until late 1990.[^3][^4] +The [[BCCI Kerry-Brown Senate Report|Kerry-Brown Senate Report]] found that when the Board approved the takeover of [[Financial General Bankshares]] by [[Credit and Commerce American Holdings]] in 1981 "it had substantial circumstantial evidence before it to suggest that BCCI was behind the bank's purchase," and that it "would not have approved the CCAH application but for the false statements made to it." It relied on representations from the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], the [[United States Department of State|State Department]] and other agencies that they had no objections, and on the reputation of BCCI's lawyers, Clark Clifford and the former Federal Reserve counsel Baldwin Tuttle. Paul Volcker, who signed the approval, testified in 1991 that he "wasn't aware" of [[Kamal Adham]]'s intelligence background. The Treasury failed to pass on what the CIA told it in 1985 and 1986 about BCCI's ownership of [[First American Bank|First American]], although "[[Internal Revenue Service|IRS]] agents did provide important information to the Federal Reserve on this issue in early 1989, which the Federal Reserve failed adequately to investigate at the time." The purchase of the [[National Bank of Georgia]] in 1986 was an obvious warning sign not investigated until late 1990.[^6][^7] -The Board opened a formal investigation on January 3, 1991, which the report called "aggressive and diligent." In mid-March 1991 it sent two investigators, Richard Small and Thomas Baxter, to [[Abu Dhabi]], where they were refused direct access to BCCI's files. On July 29, 1991, the day of the New York County indictments, it assessed a fine of 200 million dollars against BCCI, one of 37 million dollars against [[Ghaith R. Pharaon|Ghaith Pharaon]] and one of 20 million dollars against the BCCI official Kemal Shoaib; with the [[United States Department of Justice|Justice Department]] and District Attorney [[Robert Morgenthau]] it reached a plea agreement on December 17, 1991, under which BCCI's liquidators forfeited about 500 million dollars of BCCI's American assets. The report said that the Board's cooperation with the subcommittee "was unique among federal agencies."[^3] The [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]]'s head of the Criminal Division, [[Robert Mueller]], told the subcommittee that the information on BCCI's secret ownership "was passed on to the Federal Reserve after the October 1988 takedown," quoting the Board's general counsel, Virgil Mattingly, that it was "the kind of allegation [that] they had heard before."[^5] +The Board opened a formal investigation on January 3, 1991, which the report called "aggressive and diligent." In mid-March 1991 it sent two investigators, Richard Small and Thomas Baxter, to [[Abu Dhabi]], where they were refused direct access to BCCI's files. On July 29, 1991, the day of the New York County indictments, it assessed a fine of 200 million dollars against BCCI, one of 37 million dollars against [[Ghaith R. Pharaon|Ghaith Pharaon]] and one of 20 million dollars against the BCCI official Kemal Shoaib; with the [[United States Department of Justice|Justice Department]] and District Attorney [[Robert Morgenthau]] it reached a plea agreement on December 17, 1991, under which BCCI's liquidators forfeited about 500 million dollars of BCCI's American assets. The report said that the Board's cooperation with the subcommittee "was unique among federal agencies."[^6] The [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]]'s head of the Criminal Division, [[Robert Mueller]], told the subcommittee that the information on BCCI's secret ownership "was passed on to the Federal Reserve after the October 1988 takedown," quoting the Board's general counsel, Virgil Mattingly, that it was "the kind of allegation [that] they had heard before."[^8] ### Footnotes [^1]: Kerry, John and Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992. -[^2]: Beaty, Jonathan and S.C. Gwynne. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI.* Random House, 1993. -[^3]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 12, "The Regulators." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/12reg.htm -[^4]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 11, "BCCI, the CIA and Foreign Intelligence." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm -[^5]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 8, "BCCI and Law Enforcement: The Justice Department and the U.S. Customs Service." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/08just.htm +[^2]: Frank A. Vanderlip, *From Farm Boy to Financier* (New York: D. Appleton-Century, 1935), p. 210. https://archive.org/details/from-farm-boy-to-financier-by-frank-vanderlip +[^3]: Frank A. Vanderlip, *From Farm Boy to Financier* (New York: D. Appleton-Century, 1935), pp. 213 to 214. https://archive.org/details/from-farm-boy-to-financier-by-frank-vanderlip +[^4]: Pritzker Military Museum & Library, Davison Family Collection, biographical note on Henry Pomeroy Davison. https://www.pritzkermilitary.org/sites/default/files/files/Davison_Finding_Aid_Feb_2018.pdf +[^5]: Beaty, Jonathan and S.C. Gwynne. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI.* Random House, 1993. +[^6]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 12, "The Regulators." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/12reg.htm +[^7]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 11, "BCCI, the CIA and Foreign Intelligence." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm +[^8]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 8, "BCCI and Law Enforcement: The Justice Department and the U.S. Customs Service." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/08just.htm diff --git a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/CIAA.md b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/CIAA.md index 3b5b86e8..e4e40c54 100644 --- a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/CIAA.md +++ b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/CIAA.md @@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ tags: summary: "Roosevelt's wartime Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs, headed by Nelson Rockefeller, the first official US government propaganda operation, which built economic, media and political infrastructure in Latin America." location: Washington, DC created: 2026-06-05 -updated: 2026-10-09 +updated: 2026-10-26 --- The Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs (CIAA) was a wartime US government agency created on August 16, 1940, by order of the [[Council of National Defense]] and placed under the direction of [[Nelson Rockefeller]]. Its official mandate was to promote hemispheric solidarity and counter Axis influence in [[Latin America]]; in practice it functioned as the first official US propaganda operation, a vehicle for expanding American corporate dominance in the hemisphere, and a testing ground for the psychological warfare and covert operations techniques that would be institutionalized in the postwar [[CIA]].[^1] @@ -35,55 +35,55 @@ The CIAA's Inter-American Affairs Committee, as established under Executive Orde ### Personnel and Corporate Character -The CIAA's top positions were filled with corporate executives. [[John Hay Whitney]], financier and film producer, led the Motion Picture Division. [[Will Clayton]], chairman of [[Anderson, Clayton and Company]] and at one time the world's largest cotton trader, served as deputy coordinator with responsibility for commodity and raw materials programs. [[Percy Douglas]] of [[Otis Elevator]] oversaw exports management. [[Paul Nitze]], investment banker, served as finance director from 1942, then moved to the Metals and Minerals Branch of the [[Board of Economic Warfare]] in 1943, before becoming director of the Foreign Procurement and Development Branch of the [[Foreign Economic Administration]]. Wallace Harrison, the architect who had worked on [[Rockefeller Center]], was appointed director of the renamed OIAA in March 1945 at an annual salary of $10,000 per Executive Order 9532.[^8] +The CIAA's top positions were filled with corporate executives. [[John Hay Whitney]], financier and film producer, directed the Motion Picture Division in 1942 (a July 1942 issue of the trade weekly credits him with launching its film activities),[^8] working with Nelson Rockefeller on the film program; in January 1942 the trade weekly reported that the two had selected [[Walt Disney]] to make goodwill films for South America.[^9] By October 1942 [[Francis Alstock]] had succeeded him as director of the division.[^10] [[Will Clayton]], chairman of [[Anderson, Clayton and Company]] and at one time the world's largest cotton trader, served as deputy coordinator with responsibility for commodity and raw materials programs. [[Percy Douglas]] of [[Otis Elevator]] oversaw exports management. [[Paul Nitze]], investment banker, served as finance director from 1942, then moved to the Metals and Minerals Branch of the [[Board of Economic Warfare]] in 1943, before becoming director of the Foreign Procurement and Development Branch of the [[Foreign Economic Administration]]. Wallace Harrison, the architect who had worked on [[Rockefeller Center]], was appointed director of the renamed OIAA in March 1945 at an annual salary of $10,000 per Executive Order 9532.[^11] -Nelson Rockefeller's own fraternal network ran the operation: brother [[Laurance Rockefeller]]'s aviation investments and Eastern Airlines directorship dovetailed with the CIAA's aviation dominance program. The family's [[Standard Oil]] subsidiaries benefited directly from CIAA-built infrastructure (roads, airfields, rubber programs) across the hemisphere.[^9] +Nelson Rockefeller's own fraternal network ran the operation: brother [[Laurance Rockefeller]]'s aviation investments and Eastern Airlines directorship dovetailed with the CIAA's aviation dominance program. The family's [[Standard Oil]] subsidiaries benefited directly from CIAA-built infrastructure (roads, airfields, rubber programs) across the hemisphere.[^12] -Staff critics complained that CIAA coordinating committees in Brazil and elsewhere were composed of "the biggest businessmen" with "the most reactionary" policy views. [[Josephus Daniels]], the liberal former ambassador, warned Roosevelt that the war would see "the forces of privilege" return to control of government, "with monopoly strongly entrenched in business, manufacturing, finance and government."[^10] +Staff critics complained that CIAA coordinating committees in Brazil and elsewhere were composed of "the biggest businessmen" with "the most reactionary" policy views. [[Josephus Daniels]], the liberal former ambassador, warned Roosevelt that the war would see "the forces of privilege" return to control of government, "with monopoly strongly entrenched in business, manufacturing, finance and government."[^13] -The CIAA was penetrated by Soviet intelligence during the war. Venona project decrypts identified six American employees who engaged in espionage on behalf of the Soviet Union; the agency's code name in Soviet intelligence communications was "Cabaret."[^11] +The CIAA was penetrated by Soviet intelligence during the war. Venona project decrypts identified six American employees who engaged in espionage on behalf of the Soviet Union; the agency's code name in Soviet intelligence communications was "Cabaret."[^14] ### Propaganda Operations -The CIAA built or subsidized shortwave broadcasting infrastructure reaching every country in the hemisphere. Its flagship radio operation was [[La Cadena de las Américas]], founded in 1941 as a joint project with the [[Columbia Broadcasting System]] (CBS) under CBS president [[William S. Paley]] and journalists [[Paul White]] and [[Edmund Chester]]. The network consisted of 64 stations across 18 countries and broadcast in Spanish and English; after the war its supervision was gradually transferred to the State Department's [[Voice of America]]. The CIAA also produced the CBS *Viva América* program.[^12] +The CIAA built or subsidized shortwave broadcasting infrastructure reaching every country in the hemisphere. Its flagship radio operation was [[La Cadena de las Américas]], founded in 1941 as a joint project with the [[Columbia Broadcasting System]] (CBS) under CBS president [[William S. Paley]] and journalists [[Paul White]] and [[Edmund Chester]]. The network consisted of 64 stations across 18 countries and broadcast in Spanish and English; after the war its supervision was gradually transferred to the State Department's [[Voice of America]]. The CIAA also produced the CBS *Viva América* program.[^15] -The CIAA controlled Latin American press access to newsprint, a critical wartime scarcity, conditioning that access on editorial cooperation. It compiled a "Proclaimed List" of Axis-owned or Axis-sympathizing newspapers and radio stations across the hemisphere, circulated beginning July 1941 under the informal Latin American name "La Lista Negra." Some 1,800 firms and individuals were publicly declared Axis-affiliated and frozen out of US goods and credit. During the first half of 1941 alone, US exporters dropped more than 1,000 South American accounts under CIAA pressure.[^13] +The CIAA controlled Latin American press access to newsprint, a critical wartime scarcity, conditioning that access on editorial cooperation. It compiled a "Proclaimed List" of Axis-owned or Axis-sympathizing newspapers and radio stations across the hemisphere, circulated beginning July 1941 under the informal Latin American name "La Lista Negra." Some 1,800 firms and individuals were publicly declared Axis-affiliated and frozen out of US goods and credit. During the first half of 1941 alone, US exporters dropped more than 1,000 South American accounts under CIAA pressure.[^16] -Hollywood studios were pressured to deny films to theaters showing German or Italian content, and the CIAA filled the vacuum with its own newsreels and political films. In early 1941 the CIAA reached out to [[Walt Disney]], whose studio had been facing financial difficulty; Nelson Rockefeller arranged a government-underwritten goodwill tour of South America for Disney and roughly twenty composers, artists, and technicians. The tour produced *Saludos Amigos*, which premiered in Rio de Janeiro on August 24, 1942, and opened in the United States on February 6, 1943, and *The Three Caballeros* (1944). Both films were shown throughout Latin America using CIAA mobile projectors. The CIAA sponsored goodwill tours by [[Orson Welles]], [[Bing Crosby]], [[George Balanchine]], and [[John Ford]] in 1941-1943.[^14] +Hollywood studios were pressured to deny films to theaters showing German or Italian content, and the CIAA filled the vacuum with its own newsreels and political films. In early 1941 the CIAA reached out to Walt Disney, whose studio had been facing financial difficulty; Nelson Rockefeller arranged a government-underwritten goodwill tour of South America for Disney and roughly twenty composers, artists, and technicians. The tour produced *Saludos Amigos*, which premiered in Rio de Janeiro on August 24, 1942, and opened in the United States on February 6, 1943, and *The Three Caballeros* (1944). Both films were shown throughout Latin America using CIAA mobile projectors. The CIAA sponsored goodwill tours by [[Orson Welles]], [[Bing Crosby]], [[George Balanchine]], and [[John Ford]] in 1941-1943.[^17] -The CIAA's Publications and Information Division, run by [[Francis Jamieson]] (a [[Pulitzer Prize]]-winning reporter and future Rockefeller campaign manager), produced the magazine *En Guardia* (registered with the US Postal Office on April 8, 1941, with the first issue in summer 1941 and the third issue circulating in October). Circulation reached 750,000 copies per issue by peak production, distributed free to politicians, journalists, and business executives. Propaganda posters and editorial cartoons were produced through contractors coordinated by Jamieson's New York office; these materials are documented in NARA Record Group 229, series "Propaganda Materials, 1941-1945" (NAID 540082) and "Status of Projects Reports, 1942-1945" (NAID 2067594).[^15] +The CIAA's Publications and Information Division, run by [[Francis Jamieson]] (a [[Pulitzer Prize]]-winning reporter and future Rockefeller campaign manager), produced the magazine *En Guardia* (registered with the US Postal Office on April 8, 1941, with the first issue in summer 1941 and the third issue circulating in October). Circulation reached 750,000 copies per issue by peak production, distributed free to politicians, journalists, and business executives. Propaganda posters and editorial cartoons were produced through contractors coordinated by Jamieson's New York office; these materials are documented in NARA Record Group 229, series "Propaganda Materials, 1941-1945" (NAID 540082) and "Status of Projects Reports, 1942-1945" (NAID 2067594).[^18] -The CIAA was one of the heaviest users of the [[Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service]]. On March 5, 1942 Nelson Rockefeller wrote to FCC chairman [[James L. Fly]] to thank the commission for the "invaluable aid" the service supplied to his organization. On July 29, 1942 he reported that the CIAA daily news roundup on Latin American affairs included 400 to 500 words a day drawn from the Kingsville transcripts.[^16] On July 7, 1942 [[Goodwin Watson]] wrote to Rockefeller about an offer the CIAA had made to the service's analyst John W. Gardner, and proposed that officials of the two offices settle the matter together.[^17] On January 2, 1943 [[Robert D. Leigh]] wrote to Rockefeller suggesting that the CIAA set up a system like the service's for releasing information about Latin America.[^17] +The CIAA was one of the heaviest users of the [[Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service]]. On March 5, 1942 Nelson Rockefeller wrote to FCC chairman [[James L. Fly]] to thank the commission for the "invaluable aid" the service supplied to his organization. On July 29, 1942 he reported that the CIAA daily news roundup on Latin American affairs included 400 to 500 words a day drawn from the Kingsville transcripts.[^19] On July 7, 1942 [[Goodwin Watson]] wrote to Rockefeller about an offer the CIAA had made to the service's analyst John W. Gardner, and proposed that officials of the two offices settle the matter together.[^20] On January 2, 1943 [[Robert D. Leigh]] wrote to Rockefeller suggesting that the CIAA set up a system like the service's for releasing information about Latin America.[^20] ### Aviation and Infrastructure -The CIAA funded and coordinated displacement of Axis-affiliated airlines from South American routes and integrated Latin American air forces into a US-led hemispheric defense system. The Panair do Brazil operations in northeastern Brazil (a Pan American subsidiary) received War Department financing to build airfields beginning in June 1941; the Natal airbase was built in 1942. CIAA-funded airfields and trans-Andean highways served the immediate war effort while creating the infrastructure for postwar corporate penetration of the interior.[^18] +The CIAA funded and coordinated displacement of Axis-affiliated airlines from South American routes and integrated Latin American air forces into a US-led hemispheric defense system. The Panair do Brazil operations in northeastern Brazil (a Pan American subsidiary) received War Department financing to build airfields beginning in June 1941; the Natal airbase was built in 1942. CIAA-funded airfields and trans-Andean highways served the immediate war effort while creating the infrastructure for postwar corporate penetration of the interior.[^21] -The trans-Andean highway to [[Pucallpa]], Peru, funded by the CIAA, passed within fifteen miles of the [[Ganso Azul]] oil field, the Amazon basin's only proven petroleum source at the time. This highway also enabled the [[Summer Institute of Linguistics]] to establish its Amazonian base at [[Yarinacocha]] adjacent to the road.[^19] +The trans-Andean highway to [[Pucallpa]], Peru, funded by the CIAA, passed within fifteen miles of the [[Ganso Azul]] oil field, the Amazon basin's only proven petroleum source at the time. This highway also enabled the [[Summer Institute of Linguistics]] to establish its Amazonian base at [[Yarinacocha]] adjacent to the road.[^22] -Record Group 229 at NARA includes a [[Department of Transportation]] series totaling 129 linear feet, documenting CIAA aviation, ocean shipping, railway, and highway programs across the hemisphere.[^20] +Record Group 229 at NARA includes a [[Department of Transportation]] series totaling 129 linear feet, documenting CIAA aviation, ocean shipping, railway, and highway programs across the hemisphere.[^23] ### Rubber Program and the Amazon -The CIAA was assigned the task of reviving Amazon rubber production after Japanese forces overran British Far East plantations in 1942, eliminating 92 percent of the US rubber supply. The US and Brazil entered a formal rubber agreement in March 1942 under which the US committed a $5 million fund to improve raw rubber production in the Amazon and guaranteed purchase of all Brazilian exportable rubber through 1946 at fixed prices. The US paid the Brazilian government $100 for each worker delivered to the Amazon as a "rubber soldier."[^21] +The CIAA was assigned the task of reviving Amazon rubber production after Japanese forces overran British Far East plantations in 1942, eliminating 92 percent of the US rubber supply. The US and Brazil entered a formal rubber agreement in March 1942 under which the US committed a $5 million fund to improve raw rubber production in the Amazon and guaranteed purchase of all Brazilian exportable rubber through 1946 at fixed prices. The US paid the Brazilian government $100 for each worker delivered to the Amazon as a "rubber soldier."[^24] -The rubber program was administered through a network of agencies: the [[Rubber Reserve Company]] (incorporated June 28, 1940, as an RFC subsidiary), which controlled stockpiling and disposal; the [[Rubber Development Corporation]], which managed Amazon operations and was financed through special funds established under the Washington Accords governing Brazil's wartime cooperation; the Brazilian [[SEMTA]] (Serviço Especial de Mobilização de Trabalhadores para a Amazônia), which recruited labor; [[SAVA]] for labor placement; the [[Banco de Credito da Borracha]] for production financing; and the [[SESP]] health and sanitation service.[^22] +The rubber program was administered through a network of agencies: the [[Rubber Reserve Company]] (incorporated June 28, 1940, as an RFC subsidiary), which controlled stockpiling and disposal; the [[Rubber Development Corporation]], which managed Amazon operations and was financed through special funds established under the Washington Accords governing Brazil's wartime cooperation; the Brazilian [[SEMTA]] (Serviço Especial de Mobilização de Trabalhadores para a Amazônia), which recruited labor; [[SAVA]] for labor placement; the [[Banco de Credito da Borracha]] for production financing; and the [[SESP]] health and sanitation service.[^25] -Between 1943 and 1945 approximately 60,000 people were recruited to work as rubber tappers in the Amazon interior. The results were catastrophic for the workers: roughly one-third died within the first year of the program, a ratio that climbed toward one-half before the war ended. Survivors were indentured to seringal operators through permanent debts inherited across generations. CIAA-administered health and sanitation programs for rubber workers, documented in NARA Record Group 229, included the Servicio Especial de Saude Publica, with quarterly reports from 1944 and 1946-1950, and architectural and engineering plans for water supply, drainage, and sewer systems from 1937-1951.[^23] +Between 1943 and 1945 approximately 60,000 people were recruited to work as rubber tappers in the Amazon interior. The results were catastrophic for the workers: roughly one-third died within the first year of the program, a ratio that climbed toward one-half before the war ended. Survivors were indentured to seringal operators through permanent debts inherited across generations. CIAA-administered health and sanitation programs for rubber workers, documented in NARA Record Group 229, included the Servicio Especial de Saude Publica, with quarterly reports from 1944 and 1946-1950, and architectural and engineering plans for water supply, drainage, and sewer systems from 1937-1951.[^26] -The CIAA also oversaw the [[Metals Reserve Company]] (incorporated June 28, 1940, as an RFC subsidiary), which procured approximately 50 kinds of strategic metals and minerals from 51 countries; Bolivia's tin and tungsten, Chile's copper and nitrates, Colombia's platinum and mercury, and Venezuela's oil were among the primary Latin American targets of preclusive buying. By January 1941 the CIAA had been assigned the specific task of assembling data on Axis purchases of strategic materials in Latin America to support preclusive buying recommendations.[^24] +The CIAA also oversaw the [[Metals Reserve Company]] (incorporated June 28, 1940, as an RFC subsidiary), which procured approximately 50 kinds of strategic metals and minerals from 51 countries; Bolivia's tin and tungsten, Chile's copper and nitrates, Colombia's platinum and mercury, and Venezuela's oil were among the primary Latin American targets of preclusive buying. By January 1941 the CIAA had been assigned the specific task of assembling data on Axis purchases of strategic materials in Latin America to support preclusive buying recommendations.[^27] ### Health and Sanitation Programs -Beginning in spring 1942 the CIAA developed a major health and sanitation program for Latin America, operating through the [[Institute of Inter-American Affairs]] (IIAA), incorporated as a US government corporation in 1942. The IIAA established joint US-Latin American "Servicios" organizations across the hemisphere, each representing cooperative programs in public health, sanitation, agriculture, and education. Coordinating committee records for Brazil and Peru, covering 1941-1946, are held in Record Group 229; they include architectural and engineering plans for 660 health and sanitation infrastructure projects across the hemisphere.[^25] +Beginning in spring 1942 the CIAA developed a major health and sanitation program for Latin America, operating through the [[Institute of Inter-American Affairs]] (IIAA), incorporated as a US government corporation in 1942. The IIAA established joint US-Latin American "Servicios" organizations across the hemisphere, each representing cooperative programs in public health, sanitation, agriculture, and education. Coordinating committee records for Brazil and Peru, covering 1941-1946, are held in Record Group 229; they include architectural and engineering plans for 660 health and sanitation infrastructure projects across the hemisphere.[^28] ### Dissolution and Succession -Rockefeller was appointed Assistant Secretary of State for American Republic Affairs at the State Department's general reorganization on December 20, 1944, when the position was formally created. He served under both Roosevelt and Truman through 1945.[^26] +Rockefeller was appointed Assistant Secretary of State for American Republic Affairs at the State Department's general reorganization on December 20, 1944, when the position was formally created. He served under both Roosevelt and Truman through 1945.[^29] -After Rockefeller's departure, Wallace Harrison became director of the renamed Office of Inter-American Affairs under Executive Order 9532 (March 23, 1945). Executive Order 9608 (August 31, 1945) transferred OIAA informational activities to the State Department after the end of the war. Executive Order 9710 (April 10, 1946, effective May 20, 1946), signed by President [[Harry S. Truman]], abolished the office entirely; the Secretary of State received control over five subsidiary corporations: the Institute of Inter-American Affairs, the [[Inter-American Educational Foundation]], the [[Institute of Inter-American Transportation]], the [[Inter-American Navigation Corporation]], and [[Prencin-radio]], along with all records, property, funds, and remaining personnel.[^27] +After Rockefeller's departure, Wallace Harrison became director of the renamed Office of Inter-American Affairs under Executive Order 9532 (March 23, 1945). Executive Order 9608 (August 31, 1945) transferred OIAA informational activities to the State Department after the end of the war. Executive Order 9710 (April 10, 1946, effective May 20, 1946), signed by President [[Harry S. Truman]], abolished the office entirely; the Secretary of State received control over five subsidiary corporations: the Institute of Inter-American Affairs, the [[Inter-American Educational Foundation]], the [[Institute of Inter-American Transportation]], the [[Inter-American Navigation Corporation]], and [[Prencin-radio]], along with all records, property, funds, and remaining personnel.[^30] -The CIAA's personnel, techniques, and institutional relationships migrated into the State Department, the new CIA, and Rockefeller's private instruments, the [[IBEC]] and [[AIA]]. The FBI's Special Intelligence Service transferred its Latin American networks, communications systems, and personnel to the CIA during the same period. The CIAA's methods, particularly press control, radio operations, controlled newsprint, and the use of private business executives for public policy, became templates for CIA covert operations in the subsequent decade.[^28] +The CIAA's personnel, techniques, and institutional relationships migrated into the State Department, the new CIA, and Rockefeller's private instruments, the [[IBEC]] and [[AIA]]. The FBI's Special Intelligence Service transferred its Latin American networks, communications systems, and personnel to the CIA during the same period. The CIAA's methods, particularly press control, radio operations, controlled newsprint, and the use of private business executives for public policy, became templates for CIA covert operations in the subsequent decade.[^31] ### Archival Holdings @@ -98,7 +98,7 @@ Records of the Office of Inter-American Affairs are held at NARA as Record Group - Division of Agriculture (1 linear foot) - Department of Special Services (1 linear foot) -Audiovisual materials include 45 reels of motion picture film documenting Latin American activities and dignitaries' visits (1940-1945), 24 sound recordings of Spanish and English radio broadcasts (1941-1947), 3,386 still photographs including the Rockefeller Collection, 79 posters and drawings (1941-1945), 55 maps of South American locations, and 660 architectural and engineering plans for health and sanitation infrastructure. Records of subsidiary corporations and minutes of their meetings cover 1942-1949.[^29] +Audiovisual materials include 45 reels of motion picture film documenting Latin American activities and dignitaries' visits (1940-1945), 24 sound recordings of Spanish and English radio broadcasts (1941-1947), 3,386 still photographs including the Rockefeller Collection, 79 posters and drawings (1941-1945), 55 maps of South American locations, and 660 architectural and engineering plans for health and sanitation infrastructure. Records of subsidiary corporations and minutes of their meetings cover 1942-1949.[^32] ### Footnotes @@ -109,25 +109,28 @@ Audiovisual materials include 45 reels of motion picture film documenting Latin [^5]: SCADTA German employee dismissals June 8, 1940; airline reorganized as Avianca June 14, 1940: Pan American Historical Foundation, panam.org; Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8. [^6]: FBI Special Intelligence Service founding, June 24, 1940: FBI, "A Brief History of the FBI," fbi.gov/history/brief-history; FBI, "Special Intelligence Service," fbi.gov/history/brief-history/special-intelligence-service. OSS Western Hemisphere exclusion: CIA, "The Office of Strategic Services: America's First Intelligence Agency." Hoover/Rockefeller coordination: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("Nelson's Grand Alliance"). [^7]: Executive Order 8840, July 30, 1941; Export-Import Bank lending authority increase: "History of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs," 1947. -[^8]: Paul Nitze as finance director, 1942: Truman Library, Oral History Interviews with Paul H. Nitze, August 1975. Will Clayton as deputy coordinator: Texas State Historical Association, "William Lockhart Clayton." Wallace Harrison salary: Executive Order 9532, March 23, 1945. Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("The Business Imperative"). -[^9]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("The Secret War for the Skies"). -[^10]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("The Business Imperative"). -[^11]: Venona project, "Cabaret" code name and six identified CIAA employees: CIA, "Venona: Soviet Espionage and The American Response, 1939-1957"; NSA, "Venona: The Spy Messages," nsa.gov/Portals/70/documents/news-features/declassified-documents/venona/releases/1944_usciaa.pdf. -[^12]: La Cadena de las Américas, founded 1941, 64 stations in 18 countries: "History of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs," 1947; Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8. -[^13]: Proclaimed List, July 1941, 1,800 firms: TIME, "War Front: Blacklist"; FRUS 1941 Vol. VI, Document 313 (history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1941v06/d313). Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("Nelson's Grand Alliance"). -[^14]: *Saludos Amigos* premiere Rio de Janeiro August 24, 1942; US release February 6, 1943; Disney goodwill tour facilitated by CIAA: Dale Adams, "Saludos Amigos: Hollywood and FDR's Good Neighbor Policy," *Quarterly Review of Film and Video* 24, no. 3 (2007); Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8. -[^15]: *En Guardia* registered April 8, 1941; first issue summer 1941; circulation 750,000: research paper, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, scholarworks.utrgv.edu/art_fac/3/. NARA RG 229, "Propaganda Materials, 1941-1945" (NAID 540082); "Status of Projects Reports, 1942-1945" (NAID 2067594): NARA blog, text-message.blogs.archives.gov, September 26, 2017. Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 and Ch. 13 ("The Junta Regroups"). -[^16]: Joseph E. Roop, "Foreign Broadcast Information Service. History. Part I: 1941-1947" (CIA, approved April 1969), pp. 158-159, on the letters of March 5, 1942 and July 29, 1942. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis, 1941-1945," note 24, gives the July 29, 1942 letter with the Kingsville passage. https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol45no5/html/v45i5a04p.htm. -[^17]: Roop, Part I, pp. 218-219, on Watson's letter of July 7, 1942, and pp. 101-102, on Leigh's letter of January 2, 1943. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. -[^18]: Panair do Brazil airfield agreement June 1941; Natal airbase 1942: The Pan Am Historical Foundation, panam.org. Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("The Secret War for the Skies"). -[^19]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("Wings over the Amazon"). -[^20]: NARA RG 229 Department of Transportation series, 129 linear feet: archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/229.html. -[^21]: US-Brazil rubber agreement, March 1942; $5 million fund; $100 per worker; guaranteed purchase through 1946: Americas Quarterly, "The Amazon's Greatest Generation?"; Quintus Curtius, "Brazil's Rubber Soldiers." -[^22]: Rubber Reserve Company incorporated June 28, 1940 as RFC subsidiary: Jesse H. Jones, *Fifty Billion Dollars: My Thirteen Years with the RFC* (Macmillan, 1951), pp. 406-415. Rubber Development Corporation, SEMTA, Washington Accords: ResearchGate, "Os Soldados da Borracha." FRUS 1943, Vol. V, Document 627 (September 9, 1943, McAshan to Ambassador Caffery): history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1943v05/d627. Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 and Ch. 12. -[^23]: 60,000 rubber workers recruited 1943-1945; mortality estimates: Americas Quarterly, "The Amazon's Greatest Generation?"; Quintus Curtius, "Brazil's Rubber Soldiers." SESP records and health infrastructure plans: NARA RG 229; "History of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs," 1947. Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 and Ch. 12. -[^24]: Metals Reserve Company incorporated June 28, 1940 as RFC subsidiary (alongside Rubber Reserve Company and Defense Plant Corporation, all created the same day): Jesse H. Jones, *Fifty Billion Dollars*, pp. 389-405. Preclusive buying data assembly by January 1941: "History of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs," 1947. Strategic materials by country: Foreign Affairs, "Our Economic Warfare," April 1942. -[^25]: Institute of Inter-American Affairs incorporated 1942: NARA, "Records of the Office of Inter-American Affairs." Servicios programs and 660 infrastructure plans: NARA RG 229; "History of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs," 1947. Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8. -[^26]: Rockefeller appointed Assistant Secretary of State for American Republic Affairs, entry on duty December 20, 1944: State Department Historical Office, "List of Assistant Secretaries of State for Western Hemisphere Affairs," history.state.gov; Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 and Ch. 12-13. -[^27]: Executive Order 9532, March 23, 1945; Executive Order 9608, August 31, 1945; Executive Order 9710, April 10, 1946, effective May 20, 1946; five subsidiary corporations transferred to Secretary of State: American Presidency Project. -[^28]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8, Ch. 12-13. SIS networks transferred to CIA at CIA's founding in 1947: CIA, "The Office of Strategic Services: America's First Intelligence Agency," cia.gov/stories/story/the-office-of-strategic-services-americas-first-intelligence-agency/. -[^29]: NARA RG 229 full description: archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/229.html; "History of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs," 1947. +[^8]: *Motion Picture Herald*, July 4, 1942 (film activities "launched by John Hay Whitney"; Alstock "formerly Mr. Whitney's aide"). https://archive.org/details/motionpictureher148unse +[^9]: "Rockefeller and Whitney Hire Disney to Make Goodwill Films," *Motion Picture Herald*, January 10, 1942 (selection of Walt Disney by Nelson Rockefeller and John Hay Whitney as first Hollywood producer of films for the goodwill program; South American cartoons to be produced at cost). https://archive.org/details/motionpictureher146unse +[^10]: *Motion Picture Herald*, October 3, 1942 (staff changes at Nelson Rockefeller's Office of Inter-American Affairs: "Francis Alstock, who succeeded John Hay Whitney as director of the motion picture division"). https://archive.org/details/motionpictureher1481unse +[^11]: Paul Nitze as finance director, 1942: Truman Library, Oral History Interviews with Paul H. Nitze, August 1975. Will Clayton as deputy coordinator: Texas State Historical Association, "William Lockhart Clayton." Wallace Harrison salary: Executive Order 9532, March 23, 1945. Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("The Business Imperative"). +[^12]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("The Secret War for the Skies"). +[^13]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("The Business Imperative"). +[^14]: Venona project, "Cabaret" code name and six identified CIAA employees: CIA, "Venona: Soviet Espionage and The American Response, 1939-1957"; NSA, "Venona: The Spy Messages," nsa.gov/Portals/70/documents/news-features/declassified-documents/venona/releases/1944_usciaa.pdf. +[^15]: La Cadena de las Américas, founded 1941, 64 stations in 18 countries: "History of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs," 1947; Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8. +[^16]: Proclaimed List, July 1941, 1,800 firms: TIME, "War Front: Blacklist"; FRUS 1941 Vol. VI, Document 313 (history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1941v06/d313). Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("Nelson's Grand Alliance"). +[^17]: *Saludos Amigos* premiere Rio de Janeiro August 24, 1942; US release February 6, 1943; Disney goodwill tour facilitated by CIAA: Dale Adams, "Saludos Amigos: Hollywood and FDR's Good Neighbor Policy," *Quarterly Review of Film and Video* 24, no. 3 (2007); Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8. +[^18]: *En Guardia* registered April 8, 1941; first issue summer 1941; circulation 750,000: research paper, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, scholarworks.utrgv.edu/art_fac/3/. NARA RG 229, "Propaganda Materials, 1941-1945" (NAID 540082); "Status of Projects Reports, 1942-1945" (NAID 2067594): NARA blog, text-message.blogs.archives.gov, September 26, 2017. Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 and Ch. 13 ("The Junta Regroups"). +[^19]: Joseph E. Roop, "Foreign Broadcast Information Service. History. Part I: 1941-1947" (CIA, approved April 1969), pp. 158-159, on the letters of March 5, 1942 and July 29, 1942. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis, 1941-1945," note 24, gives the July 29, 1942 letter with the Kingsville passage. https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol45no5/html/v45i5a04p.htm. +[^20]: Roop, Part I, pp. 218-219, on Watson's letter of July 7, 1942, and pp. 101-102, on Leigh's letter of January 2, 1943. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. +[^21]: Panair do Brazil airfield agreement June 1941; Natal airbase 1942: The Pan Am Historical Foundation, panam.org. Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("The Secret War for the Skies"). +[^22]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 ("Wings over the Amazon"). +[^23]: NARA RG 229 Department of Transportation series, 129 linear feet: archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/229.html. +[^24]: US-Brazil rubber agreement, March 1942; $5 million fund; $100 per worker; guaranteed purchase through 1946: Americas Quarterly, "The Amazon's Greatest Generation?"; Quintus Curtius, "Brazil's Rubber Soldiers." +[^25]: Rubber Reserve Company incorporated June 28, 1940 as RFC subsidiary: Jesse H. Jones, *Fifty Billion Dollars: My Thirteen Years with the RFC* (Macmillan, 1951), pp. 406-415. Rubber Development Corporation, SEMTA, Washington Accords: ResearchGate, "Os Soldados da Borracha." FRUS 1943, Vol. V, Document 627 (September 9, 1943, McAshan to Ambassador Caffery): history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1943v05/d627. Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 and Ch. 12. +[^26]: 60,000 rubber workers recruited 1943-1945; mortality estimates: Americas Quarterly, "The Amazon's Greatest Generation?"; Quintus Curtius, "Brazil's Rubber Soldiers." SESP records and health infrastructure plans: NARA RG 229; "History of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs," 1947. Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 and Ch. 12. +[^27]: Metals Reserve Company incorporated June 28, 1940 as RFC subsidiary (alongside Rubber Reserve Company and Defense Plant Corporation, all created the same day): Jesse H. Jones, *Fifty Billion Dollars*, pp. 389-405. Preclusive buying data assembly by January 1941: "History of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs," 1947. Strategic materials by country: Foreign Affairs, "Our Economic Warfare," April 1942. +[^28]: Institute of Inter-American Affairs incorporated 1942: NARA, "Records of the Office of Inter-American Affairs." Servicios programs and 660 infrastructure plans: NARA RG 229; "History of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs," 1947. Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8. +[^29]: Rockefeller appointed Assistant Secretary of State for American Republic Affairs, entry on duty December 20, 1944: State Department Historical Office, "List of Assistant Secretaries of State for Western Hemisphere Affairs," history.state.gov; Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8 and Ch. 12-13. +[^30]: Executive Order 9532, March 23, 1945; Executive Order 9608, August 31, 1945; Executive Order 9710, April 10, 1946, effective May 20, 1946; five subsidiary corporations transferred to Secretary of State: American Presidency Project. +[^31]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 8, Ch. 12-13. SIS networks transferred to CIA at CIA's founding in 1947: CIA, "The Office of Strategic Services: America's First Intelligence Agency," cia.gov/stories/story/the-office-of-strategic-services-americas-first-intelligence-agency/. +[^32]: NARA RG 229 full description: archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/229.html; "History of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs," 1947. diff --git a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Central Intelligence Agency.md b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Central Intelligence Agency.md index 3fefffc8..3ed1bf18 100644 --- a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Central Intelligence Agency.md +++ b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Central Intelligence Agency.md @@ -22,31 +22,31 @@ relations: role: "Office of Security release of police techniques through LEAA" start: 1970 end: 1973 - fn: 14 + fn: 18 - type: employed_by with: "[[Bobby Ray Inman]]" reverse: true role: "deputy director" start: 1981-02 end: 1982-04 - fn: 41 + fn: 45 - type: participant_in with: "[[Psychological Strategy Board]]" role: "Member agency; the Director of Central Intelligence chaired meeting M-8" start: 1952-01-10 - fn: 68 + fn: 72 - type: employed_by with: "[[Max Millikan]]" reverse: true role: "Assistant Director, Research and Reports (1951); Special Consultant (1952)" start: 1951-01 end: 1952-03 - fn: 69 + fn: 73 - type: funded with: "[[Center for International Studies]]" role: "agency money reported to have set up the center in 1951; $300,000 reported in 1967" start: 1951 - fn: 76 + fn: 80 - type: employed_by with: "[[F. Trubee Davison]]" reverse: true @@ -59,7 +59,14 @@ relations: reverse: true start: 1995 role: "analyst; described as a CIA scientist (Farley, 1995) and CIA analyst (Cox Committee, 1999)" - fn: 53 + fn: 57 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[William Sloane Coffin]]" + reverse: true + start: 1950 + end: 1953 + role: "served abroad during the Korean War; three years as an agent by his own account" + fn: 14 --- The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) is a primary intelligence-gathering organization of the United States government. In the context of psychic research, the CIA played a significant, albeit often covert, role in funding and overseeing programs aimed at exploring and utilizing psychic phenomena for intelligence purposes.[^1] @@ -69,35 +76,37 @@ The CIA, particularly through its Photographic Intelligence Division, was instru In July 1951 an [[Associated Press]] item reported that [[F. Trubee Davison]], formerly Assistant Secretary of War for Air and president of the [[American Museum of Natural History]], would join the Agency on July 16 as a principal assistant to [[Walter Bedell Smith]], and that he probably would do personnel work.[^3] A memorandum from Davison dated September 11, 1951 appears on a CIA routing slip addressed to the Assistant Director (Personnel).[^4] A Springfield (Ohio) Sun editorial of July 1951 reported that Davison had "been appointed director of personnel and assistant to Lieut. General Walter Bedell Smith, chief of the Central Intelligence Agency," and that the Agency "has been rather unfortunate in its chiefs."[^5] A memorandum of September 10, 1951 from [[Allen Dulles|Allen W. Dulles]], then Deputy Director of Central Intelligence, is addressed to "Trubee Davison, Esq. (Asst. Director, Personnel)."[^6] Davison chaired the Agency's Career Service Committee: the minutes of its second meeting (October 1, 1951) record that the committee separated a Trainee Program from a Career Service Program, that "the establishment of a Career Corps, as such, had been disapproved by the DCI," and that of the first class of nineteen trainees sixteen had graduated and fourteen been placed; the minutes of its fourteenth meeting (January 1952) list him with Matthew Baird, Director of Training, and [[Sherman Kent]], Assistant Director for National Estimates.[^7] The New York Times reported in 1974 that he left the post in April 1952, "when it was announced that he had completed his mission of organizing the C.I.A.'s personnel."[^8] CIA documents of 1968, 1969 and 1972 name [[Hugh T. Cunningham]] as the Agency's Director of Training.[^9] The Covert Action Information Bulletin reported in 1990 that Cunningham served in the Agency from 1947 to 1973 and that Davison, Cunningham, [[William P. Bundy]] and [[Dino Pionzio]] (deputy chief of station in [[Santiago]] in 1970) were members of the Yale society [[Skull and Bones]].[^10] [[Antony C. Sutton]]'s index of members lists Davison under the class of 1918, Cunningham (Hugh Terry) under 1934, Bundy under 1939 and Pionzio under 1950.[^11] +[[William Sloane Coffin]], a Yale chaplain from 1958, served with the agency from 1950 to 1953, and [[Tim Weiner]] places him in Munich as a new recruit assigned to the Russian émigré program of [[Frank Wisner]]'s Eastern Europe operations, recruited by his brother-in-law [[Frank Lindsay]].[^12] In Weiner's account the program, run with the Solidarists, moved from leaflets and balloons to four-man parachute missions into the Soviet Union, and Coffin later called it "a fundamentally bad idea."[^12] A retrospective in a December 12, 1969 memorandum for the 303 Committee states that "assistance to the émigrés for the eventuality of war with or revolution within the USSR was unrealistic."[^13] In a 1967 television interview Coffin said he had been "three years an agent for the CIA."[^14] A 1987 speech by [[Robert M. Gates]], then the agency's deputy director for intelligence, lists Coffin among academics who joined the agency and says he left the [[Union Theological Seminary]] to join it for the duration of the Korean War, before becoming chaplain at Yale.[^15] + ### Early Involvement in Psi Research The CIA's interest in psi research dates back to the early 1970s, partly in response to rumors of extensive Soviet psi research. Following a number of scandals in the mid-1970s, including revelations of domestic spying, the CIA came under unprecedented scrutiny from Congress. This led to a preference for "clean" spying methods, making psychic intelligence an appealing, low-profile alternative to traditional human intelligence (HUMINT).[^1] -In 1972, the CIA, through officials like [[Kenneth A. Kress|Ken Kress]] from the Technical Services Division (TSD) (later the Office of Technical Service, OTS), provided the initial funding for [[Hal Puthoff]]'s psi research program at [[Stanford Research Institute]] (SRI). This funding, initially $50,000 for eight months, was contingent on the researchers demonstrating a repeatable psi phenomenon. The Office of Research and Development (ORD) also jointly managed the funding and contract.[^1] In the late 1960s, the CIA had approached Hal Puthoff and Russell Targ at Stanford University to develop a program to counter a similar effort in the Soviet Union, which led to the creation of the [[Stargate Project]], a program that trained individuals in [[Remote Viewing]] to spy on foreign targets. The program was reportedly highly successful, and Puthoff reported directly to the Director of the CIA and the [[White House]].[^12] +In 1972, the CIA, through officials like [[Kenneth A. Kress|Ken Kress]] from the Technical Services Division (TSD) (later the Office of Technical Service, OTS), provided the initial funding for [[Hal Puthoff]]'s psi research program at [[Stanford Research Institute]] (SRI). This funding, initially $50,000 for eight months, was contingent on the researchers demonstrating a repeatable psi phenomenon. The Office of Research and Development (ORD) also jointly managed the funding and contract.[^1] In the late 1960s, the CIA had approached Hal Puthoff and Russell Targ at Stanford University to develop a program to counter a similar effort in the Soviet Union, which led to the creation of the [[Stargate Project]], a program that trained individuals in [[Remote Viewing]] to spy on foreign targets. The program was reportedly highly successful, and Puthoff reported directly to the Director of the CIA and the [[White House]].[^16] ### The Search for Behavioral Control -Since [[World War II]] the CIA searched secretly for ways to control human behavior, an effort that extended the wartime [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]] quest for a truth drug and echoed both the Nazi experiments at [[Dachau]] and [[Albert Hofmann]]'s discovery of [[LSD]]. The programs were triggered by the 1949 show trial of [[Josef Cardinal Mindszenty]] in [[Hungary]], whose glazed confession convinced Agency officials the Communists had developed a technique to render defendants zombielike; what began as defensive research quickly turned offensive, with documents stressing the goal of "controlling an individual to the point where he will do our bidding against his will and even against such fundamental laws of nature as self-preservation." The effort passed through [[Project Bluebird and Project Artichoke|Project BLUEBIRD]] (1950), ARTICHOKE (1952), and finally [[Project MKUltra|MKULTRA]] under the [[Office of Technical Service|Technical Services Staff]], with [[Richard Helms]] its most important sponsor and his protégé [[Sidney Gottlieb]] running it day to day. The research systematically violated the will of subjects drawn from groups officials considered expendable, mental patients, prostitutes, foreigners, drug addicts, and prisoners; as one Agency psychologist put it, operators lacked "a universal concept of mankind" and were willing to do things to foreigners they would not try on Americans. "It was strictly a patriotic vision," he said.[^13] +Since [[World War II]] the CIA searched secretly for ways to control human behavior, an effort that extended the wartime [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]] quest for a truth drug and echoed both the Nazi experiments at [[Dachau]] and [[Albert Hofmann]]'s discovery of [[LSD]]. The programs were triggered by the 1949 show trial of [[Josef Cardinal Mindszenty]] in [[Hungary]], whose glazed confession convinced Agency officials the Communists had developed a technique to render defendants zombielike; what began as defensive research quickly turned offensive, with documents stressing the goal of "controlling an individual to the point where he will do our bidding against his will and even against such fundamental laws of nature as self-preservation." The effort passed through [[Project Bluebird and Project Artichoke|Project BLUEBIRD]] (1950), ARTICHOKE (1952), and finally [[Project MKUltra|MKULTRA]] under the [[Office of Technical Service|Technical Services Staff]], with [[Richard Helms]] its most important sponsor and his protégé [[Sidney Gottlieb]] running it day to day. The research systematically violated the will of subjects drawn from groups officials considered expendable, mental patients, prostitutes, foreigners, drug addicts, and prisoners; as one Agency psychologist put it, operators lacked "a universal concept of mankind" and were willing to do things to foreigners they would not try on Americans. "It was strictly a patriotic vision," he said.[^17] ### Police Technique Program Through LEAA -From 1970 the Office of Security used the [[LEAA|Law Enforcement Assistance Administration]] as its channel for releasing agency techniques to police. A June 10, 1970 memorandum to the Director of Central Intelligence recommended LEAA as "the best vehicle to expand dissemination of this technique to all public law enforcement officials in the United States" for the Trace Metal Detection Technique, which the Director had declassified.[^14] The memorandum carried the concurrence of the Deputy Director for Plans, [[Thomas Karamessines]]. It stated that the only stipulation placed on recipients was that there be "no public connection between the technique and this Agency."[^14] +From 1970 the Office of Security used the [[LEAA|Law Enforcement Assistance Administration]] as its channel for releasing agency techniques to police. A June 10, 1970 memorandum to the Director of Central Intelligence recommended LEAA as "the best vehicle to expand dissemination of this technique to all public law enforcement officials in the United States" for the Trace Metal Detection Technique, which the Director had declassified.[^18] The memorandum carried the concurrence of the Deputy Director for Plans, [[Thomas Karamessines]]. It stated that the only stipulation placed on recipients was that there be "no public connection between the technique and this Agency."[^18] -Between June 1970 and December 1971 Office of Security representatives demonstrated the technique to approximately 35 police departments, three professional police associations and representatives of 83 other state and local departments. Outside the Washington area they appeared as "consultants" to LEAA, and "no mention was made of the Agency."[^15] The office provided six men to LEAA in 1970 for the same briefings.[^16] +Between June 1970 and December 1971 Office of Security representatives demonstrated the technique to approximately 35 police departments, three professional police associations and representatives of 83 other state and local departments. Outside the Washington area they appeared as "consultants" to LEAA, and "no mention was made of the Agency."[^19] The office provided six men to LEAA in 1970 for the same briefings.[^20] -The Explosive Residue Detection Technique was declassified in March 1971, and the Security Office recommended dissemination through LEAA or the LEAA-funded National Bomb Data Center.[^15] On November 10, 1971 agency officers demonstrated it to LEAA staff and then met [[Lester Shubin]] and [[Marc Nerenstone]], whom the memorandum describes as "both witting of the Agency's role in the development of the technique."[^17] +The Explosive Residue Detection Technique was declassified in March 1971, and the Security Office recommended dissemination through LEAA or the LEAA-funded National Bomb Data Center.[^19] On November 10, 1971 agency officers demonstrated it to LEAA staff and then met [[Lester Shubin]] and [[Marc Nerenstone]], whom the memorandum describes as "both witting of the Agency's role in the development of the technique."[^21] -A February 16, 1972 Office of Security memorandum records that LEAA never reimbursed the agency's travel costs "because of their desire to avoid unclassified (i.e. public) reimbursement of the money to CIA" and that "LEAA indicated it did not wish to be publicly affiliated with CIA."[^18] A May 9, 1973 survey of the Office of Research and Development recorded that an adhesive restraint, a non-lethal incapacitation system, had been made available to LEAA in August 1972. It said that "if they developed the system, it would be used for civilian crowd and riot control."[^19] On June 18, 1973 the House adopted by voice vote the Holtzman amendment to H.R. 8152, which the Office of Legislative Counsel summarized as prohibiting LEAA from using the agency's services, equipment, personnel and facilities.[^20] +A February 16, 1972 Office of Security memorandum records that LEAA never reimbursed the agency's travel costs "because of their desire to avoid unclassified (i.e. public) reimbursement of the money to CIA" and that "LEAA indicated it did not wish to be publicly affiliated with CIA."[^22] A May 9, 1973 survey of the Office of Research and Development recorded that an adhesive restraint, a non-lethal incapacitation system, had been made available to LEAA in August 1972. It said that "if they developed the system, it would be used for civilian crowd and riot control."[^23] On June 18, 1973 the House adopted by voice vote the Holtzman amendment to H.R. 8152, which the Office of Legislative Counsel summarized as prohibiting LEAA from using the agency's services, equipment, personnel and facilities.[^24] -Section 508 of the Crime Control Act of 1973 authorized LEAA to use federal agency services "(not including the Central Intelligence Agency)," a restriction absent from the 1968 statute.[^21] An Office of General Counsel memorandum of October 15, 1973 concluded that the agency was not required to reject all LEAA requests and would decide each one case by case.[^22] In July 1978 the Office of Legislative Counsel reviewed reauthorization language that would bar any use of CIA services by LEAA, and reported that the agency did not endorse the provision but had no formal objection to it.[^23] On November 14, 1975 an agency officer briefed two staff members of a House select committee on the LEAA liaison. The memorandum records that the agency discontinued liaison with LEAA in 1973 as a result of the Kennedy-Holtzman amendment, and that one staff member asked where the agency fit into the operation of the Law Enforcement Intelligence Unit, described as "a communications network between police intelligence agencies"; the officer answered that he knew of no such nationwide network in which the agency had taken part.[^24] +Section 508 of the Crime Control Act of 1973 authorized LEAA to use federal agency services "(not including the Central Intelligence Agency)," a restriction absent from the 1968 statute.[^25] An Office of General Counsel memorandum of October 15, 1973 concluded that the agency was not required to reject all LEAA requests and would decide each one case by case.[^26] In July 1978 the Office of Legislative Counsel reviewed reauthorization language that would bar any use of CIA services by LEAA, and reported that the agency did not endorse the provision but had no formal objection to it.[^27] On November 14, 1975 an agency officer briefed two staff members of a House select committee on the LEAA liaison. The memorandum records that the agency discontinued liaison with LEAA in 1973 as a result of the Kennedy-Holtzman amendment, and that one staff member asked where the agency fit into the operation of the Law Enforcement Intelligence Unit, described as "a communications network between police intelligence agencies"; the officer answered that he knew of no such nationwide network in which the agency had taken part.[^28] ### The 1977 Notifications to Institutions -In the summer of 1977 the agency located MKULTRA documents it had believed destroyed in 1973, and notified the institutions named in them. Director of Central Intelligence [[Stansfield Turner]] wrote to Senator [[Daniel K. Inouye]] on August 2, 1977 that the agency now held "the names of 185 non-government researchers and assistants" and the names of 80 institutions where the work was done or with which the researchers were affiliated. He listed them as 44 colleges or universities, 15 research foundations or chemical or pharmaceutical companies and the like, 12 hospitals or clinics, and 3 penal institutions. The names went to the Senate committee on a classified basis, and the Director wrote that he had "a legal obligation under the Privacy Act not to publicly disclose the names of the individual researchers without their consent."[^25] +In the summer of 1977 the agency located MKULTRA documents it had believed destroyed in 1973, and notified the institutions named in them. Director of Central Intelligence [[Stansfield Turner]] wrote to Senator [[Daniel K. Inouye]] on August 2, 1977 that the agency now held "the names of 185 non-government researchers and assistants" and the names of 80 institutions where the work was done or with which the researchers were affiliated. He listed them as 44 colleges or universities, 15 research foundations or chemical or pharmaceutical companies and the like, 12 hospitals or clinics, and 3 penal institutions. The names went to the Senate committee on a classified basis, and the Director wrote that he had "a legal obligation under the Privacy Act not to publicly disclose the names of the individual researchers without their consent."[^29] -General Counsel [[Anthony A. Lapham]] wrote to each institution in August 1977. The letter stated that the institution "is included among the institutions at which some portion of this CIA-sponsored research appears to have been performed or with which one or more individuals performing some aspect of this research were affiliated," and that the agency "does not intend to reveal to the public the identities of any institutions that knowingly or unknowingly were involved in MKULTRA activities, or the names of individual researchers."[^26] On September 7, 1977 A. R. Cinquegrana of the Office of General Counsel sent the president of the [[New School for Social Research]], [[John R. Everett]], copies of the two MKULTRA subproject files relating to the school, with a letter stating that "the name of the School has been reinserted wherever it appears in the original documents."[^27] Lapham's letter of November 7, 1977 asked whether each institution had itself made its correspondence public, and wrote that "Where an institution has itself made public these relationships, there would seem to be little point in our continued refusal to confirm these facts."[^28] On March 17, 1978 Assistant General Counsel Cinquegrana wrote that the agency would presume an institution wished its identity protected if it did not respond by April 15, 1978.[^29] +General Counsel [[Anthony A. Lapham]] wrote to each institution in August 1977. The letter stated that the institution "is included among the institutions at which some portion of this CIA-sponsored research appears to have been performed or with which one or more individuals performing some aspect of this research were affiliated," and that the agency "does not intend to reveal to the public the identities of any institutions that knowingly or unknowingly were involved in MKULTRA activities, or the names of individual researchers."[^30] On September 7, 1977 A. R. Cinquegrana of the Office of General Counsel sent the president of the [[New School for Social Research]], [[John R. Everett]], copies of the two MKULTRA subproject files relating to the school, with a letter stating that "the name of the School has been reinserted wherever it appears in the original documents."[^31] Lapham's letter of November 7, 1977 asked whether each institution had itself made its correspondence public, and wrote that "Where an institution has itself made public these relationships, there would seem to be little point in our continued refusal to confirm these facts."[^32] On March 17, 1978 Assistant General Counsel Cinquegrana wrote that the agency would presume an institution wished its identity protected if it did not respond by April 15, 1978.[^33] -The Senate Health Subcommittee invited the presidents of 20 institutions to testify on September 20 and 21, 1977. Only one accepted, and that president was not scheduled to testify because the others declined.[^30] +The Senate Health Subcommittee invited the presidents of 20 institutions to testify on September 20 and 21, 1977. Only one accepted, and that president was not scheduled to testify because the others declined.[^34] ### Notable Operations and Impact @@ -119,103 +128,103 @@ Following the Israeli bombing of the Iraqi nuclear reactor at [[Osirak bombing]] ### Involvement with BCCI -The CIA used the [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International|BCCI]] extensively, particularly in connection with covert U.S. operations in [[Central America]].[^31] Even before [[Oliver North]] established his network for illegal payments to the [[Contras]], the [[National Security Council]] used BCCI to channel money to them through [[Saudi Arabia]].[^31] The CIA maintained accounts in BCCI for covert operations.[^32] +The CIA used the [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International|BCCI]] extensively, particularly in connection with covert U.S. operations in [[Central America]].[^35] Even before [[Oliver North]] established his network for illegal payments to the [[Contras]], the [[National Security Council]] used BCCI to channel money to them through [[Saudi Arabia]].[^35] The CIA maintained accounts in BCCI for covert operations.[^36] -In 1986, the CIA issued a report stating that BCCI had owned [[First American Bank]] since 1982.[^33] In 1991, Acting CIA Director [[Richard J. Kerr]] confirmed that the agency had used BCCI to move money around the world.[^34] The CIA also maintained slush funds at BCCI branches, which were used for payoffs of Pakistani military officers and Afghan rebel leaders.[^35] +In 1986, the CIA issued a report stating that BCCI had owned [[First American Bank]] since 1982.[^37] In 1991, Acting CIA Director [[Richard J. Kerr]] confirmed that the agency had used BCCI to move money around the world.[^38] The CIA also maintained slush funds at BCCI branches, which were used for payoffs of Pakistani military officers and Afghan rebel leaders.[^39] -William J. Casey, former CIA Director, met secretly with [[Agha Hasan Abedi]] over a three-year period, discussing U.S. arms deals with Iran and the arming of Afghan resistance forces.[^36] The CIA began using BCCI in the bank's earliest days, as it was establishing itself in countries where American intelligence had few assets.[^36] +William J. Casey, former CIA Director, met secretly with [[Agha Hasan Abedi]] over a three-year period, discussing U.S. arms deals with Iran and the arming of Afghan resistance forces.[^40] The CIA began using BCCI in the bank's earliest days, as it was establishing itself in countries where American intelligence had few assets.[^40] -The [[BCCI Kerry-Brown Senate Report|Kerry-Brown Senate Report]] recorded that the agency produced several hundred reports on BCCI between 1979 and 1991, including special analyses in 1985, 1986 and 1989. The 1985 report, delivered in January 1985 to the Treasury's intelligence liaison, [[Douglas Mulholland]], who called it "dynamite," stated that BCCI secretly owned First American Bank; the 1986 report went to the [[State Department]], the Defense Intelligence Agency, the [[National Security Agency]], the National Security Council, Commerce and the Treasury, except for "the two agencies which would have had a statutory responsibility to begin investigations in response," the [[Federal Reserve Board|Federal Reserve]] and the [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]]. Acting Director Richard J. Kerr testified on October 25, 1991, that the agency's own use of BCCI had been "limited and routine," and acknowledged "extensive use of First American" for ordinary accounts. The agency denied any relationship between William J. Casey and Agha Hasan Abedi; the report recorded a contrary account from a BCCI official of meetings at the [[Madison Hotel]] in Washington, and the view of the agency's legal department that any such activity by Casey would have been undertaken "in his position as an advisor to the President, rather than in his position as Director of Central Intelligence," outside the agency's records.[^37] +The [[BCCI Kerry-Brown Senate Report|Kerry-Brown Senate Report]] recorded that the agency produced several hundred reports on BCCI between 1979 and 1991, including special analyses in 1985, 1986 and 1989. The 1985 report, delivered in January 1985 to the Treasury's intelligence liaison, [[Douglas Mulholland]], who called it "dynamite," stated that BCCI secretly owned First American Bank; the 1986 report went to the [[State Department]], the Defense Intelligence Agency, the [[National Security Agency]], the National Security Council, Commerce and the Treasury, except for "the two agencies which would have had a statutory responsibility to begin investigations in response," the [[Federal Reserve Board|Federal Reserve]] and the [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]]. Acting Director Richard J. Kerr testified on October 25, 1991, that the agency's own use of BCCI had been "limited and routine," and acknowledged "extensive use of First American" for ordinary accounts. The agency denied any relationship between William J. Casey and Agha Hasan Abedi; the report recorded a contrary account from a BCCI official of meetings at the [[Madison Hotel]] in Washington, and the view of the agency's legal department that any such activity by Casey would have been undertaken "in his position as an advisor to the President, rather than in his position as Director of Central Intelligence," outside the agency's records.[^41] ### Operations and Activities -The CIA sent the [[Inter-Services Intelligence|Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI)]] agency enormous quantities of cash to keep things moving through [[Pakistan]] during the [[Soviet-Afghan War]].[^38] The CIA was responsible for obtaining arms and ammunition for the [[Mujahideen]], but once delivered to [[Karachi]], the ISI was responsible for moving the equipment.[^38] +The CIA sent the [[Inter-Services Intelligence|Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI)]] agency enormous quantities of cash to keep things moving through [[Pakistan]] during the [[Soviet-Afghan War]].[^42] The CIA was responsible for obtaining arms and ammunition for the [[Mujahideen]], but once delivered to [[Karachi]], the ISI was responsible for moving the equipment.[^42] -In 1980, Jimmy Carter signed a presidential "finding" authorizing the CIA to aid the Afghan rebels in "harassment" of the Soviet occupying forces through secret supplies of light weapons and limited funds.[^39] This became the largest covert-action program since [[World War Two]].[^39] +In 1980, Jimmy Carter signed a presidential "finding" authorizing the CIA to aid the Afghan rebels in "harassment" of the Soviet occupying forces through secret supplies of light weapons and limited funds.[^43] This became the largest covert-action program since [[World War Two]].[^43] ### Deputy Director Bobby Ray Inman, 1981 to 1982 -President Ronald Reagan nominated [[Bobby Ray Inman]], then director of the [[NSA]], as deputy director of Central Intelligence in 1981.[^40] The White House announced his resignation on April 21, 1982.[^41] The White House biography gives March 1982 as the date he resigned.[^40] +President Ronald Reagan nominated [[Bobby Ray Inman]], then director of the [[NSA]], as deputy director of Central Intelligence in 1981.[^44] The White House announced his resignation on April 21, 1982.[^45] The White House biography gives March 1982 as the date he resigned.[^44] -The [[Philadelphia Inquirer]] reported that Inman had submitted his resignation during a "heated internal debate" over a secret counterintelligence study, and that he and other intelligence officials had since narrowed the study's scope. Its sources said two topics that Inman, Casey and FBI Director William Webster had feared might be included, the organization of U.S. counterintelligence agencies and deceptive Soviet missile telemetry, were not on the agenda approved by an interagency working group chaired by John Kohler of the intelligence community staff.[^42] A CBS radio commentary of April 22, 1982 described William J. Casey, the director, as "a professional politician."[^43] +The [[Philadelphia Inquirer]] reported that Inman had submitted his resignation during a "heated internal debate" over a secret counterintelligence study, and that he and other intelligence officials had since narrowed the study's scope. Its sources said two topics that Inman, Casey and FBI Director William Webster had feared might be included, the organization of U.S. counterintelligence agencies and deceptive Soviet missile telemetry, were not on the agenda approved by an interagency working group chaired by John Kohler of the intelligence community staff.[^46] A CBS radio commentary of April 22, 1982 described William J. Casey, the director, as "a professional politician."[^47] ### Senior Review Panel -The Senior Review Panel was an advisory body within the Director's area that reviewed draft national intelligence estimates and commented on them to the Director of Central Intelligence, the Chairman of the National Intelligence Council and the relevant National Intelligence Officer. In a 1991 letter printed in the Senate report on the nomination of [[Robert Gates]], Gates wrote that "The SRP's sole function was to review draft national estimates and offer comments as a group to the DCI, the Chairman/NIC and the relevant NIO."[^44] The Senate report records that [[James D. Theberge]] served on the panel from January 1986 until his death in January 1988, and that he had been hired on a three-days-per-week basis.[^44] Panel memoranda in the CIA reading room carry his name among the signers of comments dated September 1, September 8, September 24, October 22 and December 1, 1987, alongside [[William Leonhart]], B. McPherson and, on some, [[Richard L. Walker]] or [[Courtland D. Perkins]].[^45] +The Senior Review Panel was an advisory body within the Director's area that reviewed draft national intelligence estimates and commented on them to the Director of Central Intelligence, the Chairman of the National Intelligence Council and the relevant National Intelligence Officer. In a 1991 letter printed in the Senate report on the nomination of [[Robert Gates]], Gates wrote that "The SRP's sole function was to review draft national estimates and offer comments as a group to the DCI, the Chairman/NIC and the relevant NIO."[^48] The Senate report records that [[James D. Theberge]] served on the panel from January 1986 until his death in January 1988, and that he had been hired on a three-days-per-week basis.[^48] Panel memoranda in the CIA reading room carry his name among the signers of comments dated September 1, September 8, September 24, October 22 and December 1, 1987, alongside [[William Leonhart]], B. McPherson and, on some, [[Richard L. Walker]] or [[Courtland D. Perkins]].[^49] ### UAP Research and Secrecy -The CIA has a long and complex history with the [[Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena]] (UAP) issue. The agency has been a key player in the government's long-standing policy of secrecy and denial on the UAP topic. The Robertson Panel, a CIA-sponsored committee in 1953, recommended a policy of debunking UAP reports and using the mass media to ridicule the topic. This policy was highly effective in creating the stigma that has surrounded the UAP issue for decades.[^12] +The CIA has a long and complex history with the [[Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena]] (UAP) issue. The agency has been a key player in the government's long-standing policy of secrecy and denial on the UAP topic. The Robertson Panel, a CIA-sponsored committee in 1953, recommended a policy of debunking UAP reports and using the mass media to ridicule the topic. This policy was highly effective in creating the stigma that has surrounded the UAP issue for decades.[^16] -The CIA is also said to have operated a little-known "weird desk," which was responsible for investigating unusual medical issues, implants, and abductions related to UAP encounters. [[Dr. William Livingston]], who served as a medical advisor to the [[Advanced Aerospace Threat Identification Program]] (AATIP), is described as having presided over this desk.[^12] +The CIA is also said to have operated a little-known "weird desk," which was responsible for investigating unusual medical issues, implants, and abductions related to UAP encounters. [[Dr. William Livingston]], who served as a medical advisor to the [[Advanced Aerospace Threat Identification Program]] (AATIP), is described as having presided over this desk.[^16] -In recent years, the CIA has been more involved in the official UAP investigation. The agency was a participant in the [[UAP Task Force]] and is a member of the current [[All-domain Anomaly Resolution Office]] (AARO). However, the agency's long history of secrecy and obfuscation on the UAP topic has led to a great deal of skepticism about its willingness to be fully transparent.[^12] +In recent years, the CIA has been more involved in the official UAP investigation. The agency was a participant in the [[UAP Task Force]] and is a member of the current [[All-domain Anomaly Resolution Office]] (AARO). However, the agency's long history of secrecy and obfuscation on the UAP topic has led to a great deal of skepticism about its willingness to be fully transparent.[^16] ### Dark Alliance Investigation -The CIA's covert action division, the Directorate of Operations, created and managed the Contra project during the 1980s, with its Latin American Division headed by [[Dewey Clarridge]] from 1981 to 1984. The agency recruited Contra leaders including [[Enrique Bermudez|Enrique Bermúdez]] in 1980 and [[Eden Pastora]] in 1981. The CIA maintained station chiefs in [[Costa Rica]], notably [[Joseph Fernandez|Joseph Fernández]] from 1984 to 1986, who were integral to Oliver North's illegal Contra resupply operation.[^46] +The CIA's covert action division, the Directorate of Operations, created and managed the Contra project during the 1980s, with its Latin American Division headed by [[Dewey Clarridge]] from 1981 to 1984. The agency recruited Contra leaders including [[Enrique Bermudez|Enrique Bermúdez]] in 1980 and [[Eden Pastora]] in 1981. The CIA maintained station chiefs in [[Costa Rica]], notably [[Joseph Fernandez|Joseph Fernández]] from 1984 to 1986, who were integral to Oliver North's illegal Contra resupply operation.[^50] ### Contra Drug Trafficking and the Frogman Case -Federal law enforcement records and congressional testimony established that the CIA had reports of [[Cocaine]] being transshipped through Contra-linked facilities, including [[Ilopango Airbase]] in [[El Salvador]]. When defense attorneys in the [[Frogman Case]] obtained letters from CIA assets claiming seized drug money belonged to the Contras, the CIA's Costa Rican station cabled Langley that both men were assets of an organization that had "unwittingly received CIA support." CIA lawyer Lee Strickland flew to [[San Francisco]] and asked the prosecutor to ensure depositions did not go forward. The government returned $36,020 in seized drug money and a CIA cable declared: "CIA equities are fully protected."[^47] +Federal law enforcement records and congressional testimony established that the CIA had reports of [[Cocaine]] being transshipped through Contra-linked facilities, including [[Ilopango Airbase]] in [[El Salvador]]. When defense attorneys in the [[Frogman Case]] obtained letters from CIA assets claiming seized drug money belonged to the Contras, the CIA's Costa Rican station cabled Langley that both men were assets of an organization that had "unwittingly received CIA support." CIA lawyer Lee Strickland flew to [[San Francisco]] and asked the prosecutor to ensure depositions did not go forward. The government returned $36,020 in seized drug money and a CIA cable declared: "CIA equities are fully protected."[^51] -Webb wrote that the pseudonymous agent [[Ivan Gomez|Iván Gómez]], assigned to Costa Rica in 1982 as the CIA's liaison to the Contra armies, admitted during polygraph tests that he had laundered drug money, and that he was fired in 1989 for repeated polygraph failures concerning drug dealing.[^47] The CIA Inspector General's 1998 report stated that CIA records show a CIA independent contractor used the alias "Ivan Gomez" in Costa Rica in the 1980s, that CIA records place the contractor in the United States during April and May 1982, and that he denied meeting Carlos Cabezas.[^48] +Webb wrote that the pseudonymous agent [[Ivan Gomez|Iván Gómez]], assigned to Costa Rica in 1982 as the CIA's liaison to the Contra armies, admitted during polygraph tests that he had laundered drug money, and that he was fired in 1989 for repeated polygraph failures concerning drug dealing.[^51] The CIA Inspector General's 1998 report stated that CIA records show a CIA independent contractor used the alias "Ivan Gomez" in Costa Rica in the 1980s, that CIA records place the contractor in the United States during April and May 1982, and that he denied meeting Carlos Cabezas.[^52] ### The Secret 1982 Agreement with the Justice Department -In early 1982, CIA director William J. Casey and Attorney General [[William French Smith]] signed a formal Memorandum of Understanding that exempted the CIA from reporting drug crimes committed by its non-employees - a category including agents, assets, and non-staff employees. Drug offenses were specifically removed from the list of crimes the CIA was required to report. The agreement remained in effect from 1982 to 1995.[^49] +In early 1982, CIA director William J. Casey and Attorney General [[William French Smith]] signed a formal Memorandum of Understanding that exempted the CIA from reporting drug crimes committed by its non-employees - a category including agents, assets, and non-staff employees. Drug offenses were specifically removed from the list of crimes the CIA was required to report. The agreement remained in effect from 1982 to 1995.[^53] ### Ilopango Obstruction -When [[DEA]] agent [[Celerino Castillo]] began investigating Contra drug trafficking at Ilopango, the CIA intervened directly.[^50] On April 25, 1986 the El Salvador station replied to a Costa Rica station cable of April 23 about Carlos Amador. The reply asked: "Based on that information, [El Salvador] Station would appreciate [Costa Rica] Station advising [DEA] not to make any inquiries to anyone re: hangar no. 4 at Ilopango since only legitimate [CIA] supported operations were conducted from this facility." The same cable stated that station air operations had moved from Hangar 4 into Hangar 5, which the station still occupied.[^51] +When [[DEA]] agent [[Celerino Castillo]] began investigating Contra drug trafficking at Ilopango, the CIA intervened directly.[^54] On April 25, 1986 the El Salvador station replied to a Costa Rica station cable of April 23 about Carlos Amador. The reply asked: "Based on that information, [El Salvador] Station would appreciate [Costa Rica] Station advising [DEA] not to make any inquiries to anyone re: hangar no. 4 at Ilopango since only legitimate [CIA] supported operations were conducted from this facility." The same cable stated that station air operations had moved from Hangar 4 into Hangar 5, which the station still occupied.[^55] ### Inspector General Investigation -CIA Inspector General [[Fred Hitz]] testified before the [[House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence|House Intelligence Committee]] in March 1998 that the CIA "did not, in an expeditious or consistent fashion, cut off relationships with individuals supporting the Contra program who were alleged to have engaged in drug trafficking activity," including trafficking within the United States. His 400-page report documented CIA relationships with more than 50 suspected drug traffickers during the Contra war.[^49] +CIA Inspector General [[Fred Hitz]] testified before the [[House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence|House Intelligence Committee]] in March 1998 that the CIA "did not, in an expeditious or consistent fashion, cut off relationships with individuals supporting the Contra program who were alleged to have engaged in drug trafficking activity," including trafficking within the United States. His 400-page report documented CIA relationships with more than 50 suspected drug traffickers during the Contra war.[^53] ### Hughes Electronics and the Pandolfi Estimate, 1995 to 1998 -On July 19, 1995 an analyst from the agency's Directorate of Intelligence visited the Hughes facility in El Segundo, California, while researching a draft National Intelligence Estimate on the effect of technology transfers on China's military capabilities. The analyst was [[Ronald Pandolfi]].[^52] The analyst alleged that during a visit to the plant he came across information indicating that technical data had been improperly passed by Hughes to the PRC in connection with the 1995 failure investigation of a Long March 2E, and that the agency ignored his request for a formal report to headquarters.[^53] The Congressional Research Service reports that in April 1996 Pandolfi had reportedly prepared an estimate on how Hughes may have helped improve China's missile capabilities, and that the agency did not approve it.[^54] The New York Times reported that agency officials said the estimate was "not 'rigorous' enough" and that it was not distributed to other government officials.[^52] +On July 19, 1995 an analyst from the agency's Directorate of Intelligence visited the Hughes facility in El Segundo, California, while researching a draft National Intelligence Estimate on the effect of technology transfers on China's military capabilities. The analyst was [[Ronald Pandolfi]].[^56] The analyst alleged that during a visit to the plant he came across information indicating that technical data had been improperly passed by Hughes to the PRC in connection with the 1995 failure investigation of a Long March 2E, and that the agency ignored his request for a formal report to headquarters.[^57] The Congressional Research Service reports that in April 1996 Pandolfi had reportedly prepared an estimate on how Hughes may have helped improve China's missile capabilities, and that the agency did not approve it.[^58] The New York Times reported that agency officials said the estimate was "not 'rigorous' enough" and that it was not distributed to other government officials.[^56] -In September 1998 the agency told Hughes about Pandolfi's briefing to the Senate Intelligence Committee, according to an internal cable of September 23, 1998. The Cox Committee judged that the agency's notification was "ill-advised and an impediment" to the committee's investigation, and the agency said it had notified Hughes "as a courtesy."[^53] Bill Harlow, an agency spokesman, declined in December 1998 to discuss Pandolfi's experiences or the 1996 estimate "because of the investigations."[^52] The Congressional Research Service reports that Senator Richard Shelby said in September 2000 that the Justice Department had decided not to charge an unnamed CIA official with obstructing a Senate investigation.[^54] +In September 1998 the agency told Hughes about Pandolfi's briefing to the Senate Intelligence Committee, according to an internal cable of September 23, 1998. The Cox Committee judged that the agency's notification was "ill-advised and an impediment" to the committee's investigation, and the agency said it had notified Hughes "as a courtesy."[^57] Bill Harlow, an agency spokesman, declined in December 1998 to discuss Pandolfi's experiences or the 1996 estimate "because of the investigations."[^56] The Congressional Research Service reports that Senator Richard Shelby said in September 2000 that the Justice Department had decided not to charge an unnamed CIA official with obstructing a Senate investigation.[^58] ### Iran-Contra Indictments -Multiple CIA officials were indicted during the Iran-Contra investigation. Clarridge was indicted on seven counts of perjury. Fernández was indicted on four counts. [[Alan Fiers]] pleaded guilty to withholding information from Congress. All were pardoned by former CIA director [[George H.W. Bush]].[^46] +Multiple CIA officials were indicted during the Iran-Contra investigation. Clarridge was indicted on seven counts of perjury. Fernández was indicted on four counts. [[Alan Fiers]] pleaded guilty to withholding information from Congress. All were pardoned by former CIA director [[George H.W. Bush]].[^50] ### Interrogation videotapes and the 2004 to 2006 directorship -[[Porter Goss]], a former House intelligence chairman, was confirmed by the Senate 77 to 17 on September 22, 2004, was sworn in at the White House on September 24, 2004, and announced his resignation on May 5, 2006.[^55] His executive director, [[Kyle Foggo]], the agency's No. 3 official, resigned in May 2006 while the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] was examining whether he had improperly helped the defense contractor [[Brent Wilkes]] obtain large CIA contracts.[^56] Foggo pleaded guilty in 2008 to one count of defrauding the government and was sentenced on February 26, 2009 to 37 months.[^57] +[[Porter Goss]], a former House intelligence chairman, was confirmed by the Senate 77 to 17 on September 22, 2004, was sworn in at the White House on September 24, 2004, and announced his resignation on May 5, 2006.[^59] His executive director, [[Kyle Foggo]], the agency's No. 3 official, resigned in May 2006 while the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] was examining whether he had improperly helped the defense contractor [[Brent Wilkes]] obtain large CIA contracts.[^60] Foggo pleaded guilty in 2008 to one count of defrauding the government and was sentenced on February 26, 2009 to 37 months.[^61] -The [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]]'s 2014 study of the detention and interrogation program records that the CIA destroyed videotapes of the interrogations of [[Abu Zubaydah]] and [[Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri]] on November 9, 2005, the day after the Senate's November 8 vote against an amendment to establish an independent commission on detainee treatment.[^58] In an October 31, 2005 email, the CIA attorney [[John Rizzo]] wrote that he needed "to be the skunk at the party again."[^58] +The [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]]'s 2014 study of the detention and interrogation program records that the CIA destroyed videotapes of the interrogations of [[Abu Zubaydah]] and [[Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri]] on November 9, 2005, the day after the Senate's November 8 vote against an amendment to establish an independent commission on detainee treatment.[^62] In an October 31, 2005 email, the CIA attorney [[John Rizzo]] wrote that he needed "to be the skunk at the party again."[^62] -Emails released by the [[United States Department of Justice|Justice Department]] in April 2010, under a Freedom of Information Act request by the [[American Civil Liberties Union]], state that in November 2005 [[Jose A. Rodriguez Jr.|Jose Rodriguez]] told Goss and others he "felt it was extremely important to destroy the tapes and that if there was any heat, he would take it," and that Goss "laughed and said he'd be the one to take the heat." The same email states: "PG, however, agreed with the decision." NBC News reported that the email is an after-the-fact summary that does not prove Goss approved the destruction, that current and former intelligence officials have said he did not and was angry to find out, and that Rodriguez's lawyer disputed that.[^59] On November 9, 2010, the Justice Department said special prosecutor [[John Durham]] would not bring criminal charges over the destruction.[^60] +Emails released by the [[United States Department of Justice|Justice Department]] in April 2010, under a Freedom of Information Act request by the [[American Civil Liberties Union]], state that in November 2005 [[Jose A. Rodriguez Jr.|Jose Rodriguez]] told Goss and others he "felt it was extremely important to destroy the tapes and that if there was any heat, he would take it," and that Goss "laughed and said he'd be the one to take the heat." The same email states: "PG, however, agreed with the decision." NBC News reported that the email is an after-the-fact summary that does not prove Goss approved the destruction, that current and former intelligence officials have said he did not and was angry to find out, and that Rodriguez's lawyer disputed that.[^63] On November 9, 2010, the Justice Department said special prosecutor [[John Durham]] would not bring criminal charges over the destruction.[^64] ### Foreign Broadcast Information Service -The [[Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service]] became a unit of the agency in 1947. The [[War Department]] had sponsored the service from January 2, 1946, and the [[Director of Central Intelligence]] assumed control of it on July 31, 1946, before the [[National Security Act of 1947]] replaced the [[Central Intelligence Group]] with the agency.[^61] The administrative history of the service's record group lists the successor as "Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Central Intelligence Agency, 1947-."[^62] The service's 1969 history says it came to the agency "almost mature, trained and disciplined, and ready to plunge immediately into the tasks outlined for it."[^63] +The [[Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service]] became a unit of the agency in 1947. The [[War Department]] had sponsored the service from January 2, 1946, and the [[Director of Central Intelligence]] assumed control of it on July 31, 1946, before the [[National Security Act of 1947]] replaced the [[Central Intelligence Group]] with the agency.[^65] The administrative history of the service's record group lists the successor as "Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Central Intelligence Agency, 1947-."[^66] The service's 1969 history says it came to the agency "almost mature, trained and disciplined, and ready to plunge immediately into the tasks outlined for it."[^67] -Within the agency the service sat under the [[Assistant Director for Operations]]. In January 1947 the Assistant Director presented a propaganda analysis program to the PRC, approving the proposed program but excluding "interpretative analysis" from its scope, and the requested staff was twelve at $61,000 a year. [[Lawrence K. White]] was announced as deputy chief of the service on January 9, 1947.[^64] +Within the agency the service sat under the [[Assistant Director for Operations]]. In January 1947 the Assistant Director presented a propaganda analysis program to the PRC, approving the proposed program but excluding "interpretative analysis" from its scope, and the requested staff was twelve at $61,000 a year. [[Lawrence K. White]] was announced as deputy chief of the service on January 9, 1947.[^68] -The service's functions were folded into the [[Open Source Center]] in November 2005. The release announcing the center said the Director of the CIA would administer it on behalf of the DNI.[^65] +The service's functions were folded into the [[Open Source Center]] in November 2005. The release announcing the center said the Director of the CIA would administer it on behalf of the DNI.[^69] ### Psychological warfare liaison, 1946 to 1952 -In July 1946 the Central Intelligence Group's Central Planning Staff closed out its liaison with the Security Advisory Board of the [[Office of War Information]]. The memorandum designated a liaison officer to the Director, charged him with recommending when appropriate whether the board should be placed under the [[National Intelligence Authority]], and recorded that no further action by the Security Branch was required. The board was being replaced by a new Security Advisory Board under the [[State-War-Navy Coordinating Committee]].[^66] +In July 1946 the Central Intelligence Group's Central Planning Staff closed out its liaison with the Security Advisory Board of the [[Office of War Information]]. The memorandum designated a liaison officer to the Director, charged him with recommending when appropriate whether the board should be placed under the [[National Intelligence Authority]], and recorded that no further action by the Security Branch was required. The board was being replaced by a new Security Advisory Board under the [[State-War-Navy Coordinating Committee]].[^70] -In July 1947 the Assistant Director of the Office of Research and Evaluation complained to the chief of the Group's Interdepartmental Coordinating and Planning Staff that the arrangement for the Group's seat on the coordinating committee's subcommittee for psychological warfare was "not operable." The principal member came from the [[Office of Special Operations]] and the alternate from the Office of Research and Evaluation, and the memorandum was addressed to the Executive Director.[^67] +In July 1947 the Assistant Director of the Office of Research and Evaluation complained to the chief of the Group's Interdepartmental Coordinating and Planning Staff that the arrangement for the Group's seat on the coordinating committee's subcommittee for psychological warfare was "not operable." The principal member came from the [[Office of Special Operations]] and the alternate from the Office of Research and Evaluation, and the memorandum was addressed to the Executive Director.[^71] -On January 10, 1952 the eighth meeting of the [[Psychological Strategy Board]] was chaired by Walter Bedell Smith, the Director of Central Intelligence. Its members were the Deputy Secretary of Defense, William C. Foster, and the Under Secretary of State, James E. Webb. [[Edward W. Barrett]], Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs, attended as a participant from the Department of State.[^68] +On January 10, 1952 the eighth meeting of the [[Psychological Strategy Board]] was chaired by Walter Bedell Smith, the Director of Central Intelligence. Its members were the Deputy Secretary of Defense, William C. Foster, and the Under Secretary of State, James E. Webb. [[Edward W. Barrett]], Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs, attended as a participant from the Department of State.[^72] -In a letter stamped January 30, 1951, [[Max Millikan]] wrote that he had "gone on leave from MIT to head up the Office of Research and Reports in this Agency."[^69] On October 29, 1951 he wrote to a prospective recruit that for "the last nine or ten months" he had been "trying to put together for General Smith an organization to do economic research."[^70] A memorandum of conversation dated January 22, 1951 lists "Dr. Max Millikan, Central Intelligence Agency" among the participants in a discussion with State Department officers of psychological intelligence, and records his concern that splitting that work among several organizations would produce the shortcomings of decentralization.[^71] A memorandum of March 6, 1951, addressed to the intelligence chiefs of the State Department, the Army, the Navy and the Air Force, was issued "For the Director of Central Intelligence" over Millikan's typed name as Assistant Director, Research and Reports.[^72] A letter he signed as Assistant Director on November 26, 1951 says that "Walt Rostow at the Center for International Studies has sought my assistance in finding him someone to help out with some research."[^73] A letter of March 3, 1952 addresses him as Special Consultant, Central Intelligence Agency.[^74] In an interview note of March 5, 1952 titled "Origin of PSB," a CIA historian recorded that Millikan "participated in a 'contract study,' State and MIT," which the note identifies as the "Troy Project," and that its study "had considerable to do with the creation of the PSB."[^75] +In a letter stamped January 30, 1951, [[Max Millikan]] wrote that he had "gone on leave from MIT to head up the Office of Research and Reports in this Agency."[^73] On October 29, 1951 he wrote to a prospective recruit that for "the last nine or ten months" he had been "trying to put together for General Smith an organization to do economic research."[^74] A memorandum of conversation dated January 22, 1951 lists "Dr. Max Millikan, Central Intelligence Agency" among the participants in a discussion with State Department officers of psychological intelligence, and records his concern that splitting that work among several organizations would produce the shortcomings of decentralization.[^75] A memorandum of March 6, 1951, addressed to the intelligence chiefs of the State Department, the Army, the Navy and the Air Force, was issued "For the Director of Central Intelligence" over Millikan's typed name as Assistant Director, Research and Reports.[^76] A letter he signed as Assistant Director on November 26, 1951 says that "Walt Rostow at the Center for International Studies has sought my assistance in finding him someone to help out with some research."[^77] A letter of March 3, 1952 addresses him as Special Consultant, Central Intelligence Agency.[^78] In an interview note of March 5, 1952 titled "Origin of PSB," a CIA historian recorded that Millikan "participated in a 'contract study,' State and MIT," which the note identifies as the "Troy Project," and that its study "had considerable to do with the creation of the PSB."[^79] -The agency's financing of the [[Center for International Studies]] at MIT is recorded in several places. [[Patrick Oster]] reported in the Washington Post of September 11, 1977 that the agency "secretly financed a research project at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in order to gain data on how to turn Russian scientists into CIA agents," as part of "Project MK-ULTRA," with a foundation as a "front," and that the researcher was affiliated with MIT's Center for International Studies, "which was set up in 1951 with CIA money and had as its first director Max F. Millikan, a former assistant director of the agency."[^76] Time reported on February 24, 1967 "directly and without masquerade" "$300,000 to finance M.I.T.'s topflight Center for International Studies," and that MIT then "terminated the contract 'for practical, not moral reasons.'"[^77] [[Andreas Lowenfeld]], of the State Department's Office of Legal Adviser, testifying before the Senate Judiciary Committee's Internal Security Subcommittee, said of the center in 1951 and 1952: "they had some kind of contract with the CIA," and, asked whether he knew it was a CIA operation, "I was never formally told, but it became apparent."[^78] +The agency's financing of the [[Center for International Studies]] at MIT is recorded in several places. [[Patrick Oster]] reported in the Washington Post of September 11, 1977 that the agency "secretly financed a research project at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in order to gain data on how to turn Russian scientists into CIA agents," as part of "Project MK-ULTRA," with a foundation as a "front," and that the researcher was affiliated with MIT's Center for International Studies, "which was set up in 1951 with CIA money and had as its first director Max F. Millikan, a former assistant director of the agency."[^80] Time reported on February 24, 1967 "directly and without masquerade" "$300,000 to finance M.I.T.'s topflight Center for International Studies," and that MIT then "terminated the contract 'for practical, not moral reasons.'"[^81] [[Andreas Lowenfeld]], of the State Department's Office of Legal Adviser, testifying before the Senate Judiciary Committee's Internal Security Subcommittee, said of the center in 1951 and 1952: "they had some kind of contract with the CIA," and, asked whether he knew it was a CIA operation, "I was never formally told, but it became apparent."[^82] -The third progress report on NSC 59/1 records that the CIA had been assigned a continuing study of balloons as propaganda carriers and "instructed to stockpile one thousand large-sized propaganda balloons of the best type presently available."[^79] The [[Project Troy]] report had placed balloon work inside political warfare, stating that "The balloon problem is a part of political warfare. It cannot be handled by a separate balloon shop."[^80] +The third progress report on NSC 59/1 records that the CIA had been assigned a continuing study of balloons as propaganda carriers and "instructed to stockpile one thousand large-sized propaganda balloons of the best type presently available."[^83] The [[Project Troy]] report had placed balloon work inside political warfare, stating that "The balloon problem is a part of political warfare. It cannot be handled by a separate balloon shop."[^84] -In February 1961 Allen W. Dulles wrote to Millikan, then director of the center, that he was "very deeply interested in the proposal in your letter of January 23," and expected to attend at least part of the meetings of May 18 to 21, 1961, at which the center would review its first ten years.[^81] +In February 1961 Allen W. Dulles wrote to Millikan, then director of the center, that he was "very deeply interested in the proposal in your letter of January 23," and expected to attend at least part of the meetings of May 18 to 21, 1961, at which the center would review its first ten years.[^85] -A CIA document titled "Principles Governing Budgetary Relationships Between CENIS and CIA" describes an annual contract under which research projects were "mutually agreed upon case by case" between the agency and the Center for International Studies, within an annual authorization of $500,000. The document is undated.[^82] A CIA list of recipients of Office of Research and Reports unclassified studies names Max Millikan, [[Walt Rostow]], [[Wilfred Malenbaum]], [[Everett Hagen]], [[Evsey Domar]] and [[Thomas Schelling]], each listed under the Center for International Studies.[^83] A CIA memorandum dated February 16, 1959, forwarding a [[National Review]] Bulletin item, carries the item's text stating that [[Richard Bissell]] and [[Robert Amory]] "lean ideologically on CIA's outriding auxiliary at MIT, the Center for International Studies," and that they have been influenced by the theories of "W. W. Rostow, director of the Center."[^84] The MIT President's report for 1962 to 1963 refers to "Max F. Millikan, Director of the Center for International Studies."[^85] A CIA Office of Legislative Counsel journal entry of March 3, 1967 records that "the Agency has Senator Fulbright's letter concerning a Center for International Studies, MIT, and is preparing a response."[^86] +A CIA document titled "Principles Governing Budgetary Relationships Between CENIS and CIA" describes an annual contract under which research projects were "mutually agreed upon case by case" between the agency and the Center for International Studies, within an annual authorization of $500,000. The document is undated.[^86] A CIA list of recipients of Office of Research and Reports unclassified studies names Max Millikan, [[Walt Rostow]], [[Wilfred Malenbaum]], [[Everett Hagen]], [[Evsey Domar]] and [[Thomas Schelling]], each listed under the Center for International Studies.[^87] A CIA memorandum dated February 16, 1959, forwarding a [[National Review]] Bulletin item, carries the item's text stating that [[Richard Bissell]] and [[Robert Amory]] "lean ideologically on CIA's outriding auxiliary at MIT, the Center for International Studies," and that they have been influenced by the theories of "W. W. Rostow, director of the Center."[^88] The MIT President's report for 1962 to 1963 refers to "Max F. Millikan, Director of the Center for International Studies."[^89] A CIA Office of Legislative Counsel journal entry of March 3, 1967 records that "the Agency has Senator Fulbright's letter concerning a Center for International Studies, MIT, and is preparing a response."[^90] ### Footnotes @@ -230,78 +239,82 @@ A CIA document titled "Principles Governing Budgetary Relationships Between CENI [^9]: CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP84-00780R003200020017-9 (May 15, 1969), CIA-RDP84-00780R003200020006-1 (1968) and CIA-RDP80-00536A000300070001-5 (Midcareer Course No. 32, 1972). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-00536a000300070001-5 [^10]: "Bush's Boy's Club: Skull and Bones," *Covert Action Information Bulletin*, no. 33 (Winter 1990), pp. 20 to 22. https://archive.org/details/CAIB33 [^11]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^12]: Elizondo, Luis. *Imminent*. William Morrow, 2024. -[^13]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979, Chapters 1-2. -[^14]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum to the Director of Central Intelligence, "Release of Trace Metal Detection Technique to Law Enforcement Officials," June 10, 1970, CIA-RDP83B00823R000600150029-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00823r000600150029-5 -[^15]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security, memorandum on the relationship with LEAA, CIA CREST document C01435053. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01435053 -[^16]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security, "Relationship with Police," CIA CREST document C01435041. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01435041 -[^17]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security memorandum, "Technology Transfer of ERDT to LEAA," November 10, 1971, CIA-RDP83B00823R000600150007-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00823r000600150007-9 -[^18]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security, memorandum for the Deputy Director of Security, "LEAA Request for Agency Support, Where's What," February 16, 1972, CIA-RDP83B00823R000200060130-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00823r000200060130-3 -[^19]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Research and Development, "Survey of ORD for Non-Foreign Intelligence Activities," May 9, 1973, CIA CREST document 01430445, entry on LEAA. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01430445 -[^20]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Legislative Counsel, summary of the Holtzman Amendment, CIA-RDP76M00527R000700190003-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp76m00527r000700190003-1 -[^21]: Crime Control Act of 1973, Pub. L. 93-83, sec. 508, 87 Stat. 211 (August 6, 1973). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-87/pdf/STATUTE-87-Pg197.pdf -[^22]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of General Counsel, memorandum for the record, "CIA Action on LEAA Requests," OGC 73-1954, October 15, 1973, CIA-RDP75-00793R000300160026-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00793r000300160026-2 -[^23]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Legislative Counsel memorandum, "Law Enforcement Assistance Administration Reauthorization Legislation," July 12, 1978, CIA-RDP81M00980R001800050017-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp81m00980r001800050017-0 -[^24]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum for the Review Staff, "Briefing of House Select Committee Staff re LEAA Relationships," November 14, 1975, CIA-RDP89B00552R000100110024-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp89b00552r000100110024-1 -[^25]: Turner, Stansfield, Director of Central Intelligence, letter to Senator Daniel K. Inouye, chairman, Select Committee on Intelligence, August 2, 1977, in New School digital object NS010102_000027, PDF pp. 96-103 (figures at p. 101; Privacy Act at p. 102). https://digital.archives.newschool.edu/index.php/Detail/objects/NS010102_000027 -[^26]: Lapham, Anthony A., General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, August 1977 (stamped August 15, 1977), in NS010102_000027, PDF pp. 94-95. -[^27]: Cinquegrana, A. R., Office of General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, September 7, 1977, in NS010102_000027, PDF p. 7. https://digital.archives.newschool.edu/index.php/Detail/objects/NS010102_000027 -[^28]: Lapham, Anthony A., General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, November 7, 1977, in NS010102_000027, PDF p. 3. -[^29]: Cinquegrana, A. R., Assistant General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, March 17, 1978, in NS010102_000027, PDF p. 1. -[^30]: Thomas, Jo, "Extent of University Work for C.I.A. Is Hard to Pin Down," New York Times, October 9, 1977, CIA reading room clipping CIA-RDP88-01315R000300390007-3. -[^31]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 126. -[^32]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 147. -[^33]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 12. -[^34]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 9. -[^35]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 149. -[^36]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 347. -[^37]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 11, "BCCI, the CIA and Foreign Intelligence." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm -[^38]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 334. -[^39]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 341. -[^40]: White House, Office of the Press Secretary, "Biography of Bobby Ray Inman," December 16, 1993. https://clintonwhitehouse6.archives.gov/1993/12/1993-12-16-biography-of-bobby-ray-inman.html -[^41]: George C. Wilson and George Gardner Jr., "Leaving for Private Industry: Inman Quitting," *The Washington Post*, April 22, 1982, CIA CREST copy CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230020-3. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230020-3 -[^42]: Michael J. Sniffen, *Philadelphia Inquirer*, April 1982, CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230017-7. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230017-7 -[^43]: CBS Radio network commentary, April 22, 1982, "Admiral Inman Resigns," CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230019-5. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230019-5 -[^44]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Intelligence, *Nomination of Robert M. Gates to be Director of Central Intelligence*, S. Exec. Rept. 102-19, 102d Cong., 1st sess., October 24, 1991, section 5, PDF pages 186 to 188. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/sites-default-filesations-10219.pdf -[^45]: CREST Senior Review Panel memoranda CIA-RDP93T00837R000400110005-3 (NIC-03024-87, September 1, 1987), CIA-RDP93T01222R000100010013-9 (NIC-03595-87, September 8, 1987), CIA-RDP92T00306R000300090020-0 (September 24, 1987), CIA-RDP93T00451R000300080006-5 (NIC-04228-87, October 22, 1987) and CIA-RDP93T00451R000400110014-1 (December 1, 1987). https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t00837r000400110005-3, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t01222r000100010013-9, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp92t00306r000300090020-0, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t00451r000300080006-5, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t00451r000400110014-1 -[^46]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Prologue and Chapter 5: "God, Fatherland and Freedom" -[^47]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Chapter 5: "God, Fatherland and Freedom" -[^48]: CIA Office of Inspector General, Report of Investigation Concerning Allegations of Connections Between CIA and the Contras in Cocaine Trafficking to the United States, Volume I, January 29, 1998, findings on Carlos Cabezas and "Ivan Gomez." https://irp.fas.org/cia/product/cocaine/findings2.html -[^49]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Epilogue: "The damage that has been done" -[^50]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Chapter 13: "The wrong kind of friends" -[^51]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Inspector General, Chapter X, part 2, section C.2 (Carlos Amador: CIA cables of April 23 and April 25, 1986). https://oig.justice.gov/special/9712/ch10p2.htm -[^52]: Gerth, Jeff, "Old Concerns Over Data Transfer to China Get New Attention," *The New York Times,* December 7, 1998, section A, p. 20, archived copy at https://web.archive.org/web/20201101033224/https://www.nytimes.com/1998/12/07/us/old-concerns-over-data-transfer-to-china-get-new-attention.html -[^53]: U.S. House of Representatives, Select Committee on U.S. National Security and Military/Commercial Concerns with the People's Republic of China, Report (Cox Report), H. Rept. 105-851, vol. II, ch. 5, pp. 55-57, and Appendix A, pp. 208-209, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CRPT-105hrpt851/pdf/CRPT-105hrpt851.pdf -[^54]: Congressional Research Service, "China: Possible Missile Technology Transfers under U.S. Satellite Export Policy: Actions and Chronology," report 98-485 F, entries for April 1996 and September 1998, with notes 76 and 77, https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/98-485F.html -[^55]: Congressional Record, Senate, September 22, 2004, Rollcall Vote No. 187 (yeas 77, nays 17). https://irp.fas.org/congress/2004_cr/goss092204.html ; "Porter Goss Sworn in As New CIA Director," PBS NewsHour, September 24, 2004 (sworn in by Andrew Card in the Oval Office). https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/government_programs-july-dec04-cia_09-24 ; Norris, "Goss Is Latest to Leave Bush Administration," NPR transcript, May 5, 2006. https://www.npr.org/transcripts/5387220 -[^56]: JURIST, "FBI probes CIA defense contracts after top official resigns," May 2006 (FBI probe of Foggo's possible help to ADCS). https://www.jurist.org/news/2006/05/fbi-probes-cia-defense-contracts-after ; Paul Blumenthal, "MSNBC: Foggo Gone," Sunlight Foundation, May 8, 2006 (resignation reported Monday). https://sunlightfoundation.com/2006/05/08/msnbc-foggo-gone/ -[^57]: NBC News, "Ex-CIA executive gets 37 months in prison," February 26, 2009 (one count of fraud, 27 counts dropped, Judge James Cacheris, 37 months as requested). https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna29413971 ; Associated Press, "CIA officer gets jail time for fraud," Philadelphia Inquirer, February 27, 2009. https://www.inquirer.com/philly/news/nation_world/20090227_CIA_officer_gets_jail_time_for_fraud.html -[^58]: Select Committee on Intelligence, United States Senate, Committee Study of the Central Intelligence Agency's Detention and Interrogation Program, S. Rept. 113-288 (December 2014), executive summary and findings, sections on the 2005 videotapes ("The CIA destroyed the CIA interrogation videotapes the following day"; Rizzo's October 31, 2005 email). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/CRPT-113srpt288.pdf -[^59]: NBC News, "Ex-CIA chief agreed with tape destruction," April 2010 (e-mails released by the Justice Department under an ACLU FOIA request; "PG, however, agreed with the decision"; the disputed account). https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna36589750 -[^60]: JURIST, "No charges to be filed in CIA videotape destruction case: DOJ," November 2010 (spokesman Matthew Miller on Durham's decision; Durham appointed 2008 by Attorney General Michael Mukasey). https://www.jurist.org/news/2010/11/no-charges-to-be-filed-in-cia-videotape-destruction-case/ -[^61]: Joseph E. Roop, "Foreign Broadcast Information Service. History. Part I: 1941-1947" (Central Intelligence Agency, approved for release April 1969), pp. 279, 299-300 and 303. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. -[^62]: National Archives and Records Administration, Guide to Federal Records, Record Group 262, administrative history. https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/262.html. -[^63]: Roop, Part I, p. 2. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. -[^64]: Roop, Part II (CIA Directorate of Intelligence, August 1970), pp. 2 and 151-152. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690. -[^65]: Office of the Director of National Intelligence, "ODNI Announces Establishment of Open Source Center," News Release No. 6-05, November 8, 2005. https://irp.fas.org/news/2005/11/odni110805.html. -[^66]: Central Intelligence Group, Central Planning Staff, memorandum "Liquidation of Security Advisory Board, OWI (C.I.G. Liaison with New Security Advisory Board under SWNCC)," July 22, 1946. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP78-04007A000300040024-9. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp78-04007a000300040024-9 -[^67]: Central Intelligence Group, Chief, ICAPS, to the Executive Director, memorandum "CIG Membership on SWNCC Subcommittee for Psychological Warfare," July 21, 1947. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP84-00022R000400100046-0. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp84-00022r000400100046-0 -[^68]: Central Intelligence Agency, Minutes of the Eighth Meeting of the Psychological Strategy Board (PSB M-8), January 10, 1952, membership and other participants. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP80-01065A000500100033-6. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp80-01065a000500100033-6 -[^69]: Max F. Millikan, letter stamped January 30, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003100150032-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003100150032-1 -[^70]: Max F. Millikan, letter of October 29, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP79-01157A000200020002-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp79-01157a000200020002-2 -[^71]: CIA, memorandum of conversation, "Psychological Intelligence," January 22, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003500180026-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003500180026-1 -[^72]: CIA, "Report of Intelligence Project Initiations, February 1951," memorandum of March 6, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP60-00213A000200030008-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp60-00213a000200030008-3 -[^73]: Max F. Millikan, letter of November 26, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003000200096-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003000200096-6 -[^74]: Stuart A. Rice, Assistant Director for Statistical Standards, Bureau of the Budget, letter to Max F. Millikan, March 3, 1952, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00662R000300120004-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00662r000300120004-5 -[^75]: A. B. Darling, note of interview with Max Millikan, "Origin of PSB," March 5, 1952, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP83-00036R000400050039-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83-00036r000400050039-0 -[^76]: Patrick Oster, "CIA Envisioned Soviet Scientists as U.S. Agents," Chicago Sun-Times, reprinted in the Washington Post, September 11, 1977, p. A-9, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP88-01315R000400460003-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01315r000400460003-8 -[^77]: Time, February 24, 1967, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP84-00161R000400210135-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84-00161r000400210135-8 -[^78]: U.S. Senate, Committee on the Judiciary, Internal Security Subcommittee, extracts from hearings (Part 3) on State Department security and passport regulations, testimony of Andreas F. Lowenfeld, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00149R000400560007-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00149r000400560007-3 -[^79]: FRUS, The Intelligence Community, 1950-1955, Document 57 (third progress report on NSC 59/1), paragraph 12. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d57 -[^80]: CIA reading room document CIA-RDP79S01011A000900030019-8, excerpt of the Project Troy report to the Secretary of State, February 1, 1951 (balloon chapter). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP79S01011A000900030019-8 -[^81]: Allen W. Dulles, letter to Max F. Millikan, February 27, 1961, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80B01676R003500160028-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003500160028-9 -[^82]: CIA, "Principles Governing Budgetary Relationships Between CENIS and CIA" (undated; released 2000), CIA reading room document CIA-RDP67-00059A000200090016-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp67-00059a000200090016-2 -[^83]: CIA, "Recipients for ORR Unclassified Studies" (undated list), CIA reading room document CIA-RDP63-00314R000100180007-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp63-00314r000100180007-7 -[^84]: CIA memorandum from the Assistant to the Director, February 16, 1959, forwarding a National Review Bulletin item, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00001R000100260064-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000100260064-9 -[^85]: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, President's Report Issue for the year ending July 1, 1963, p. 165, MIT Libraries, DSpace. https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/160055 -[^86]: CIA Office of Legislative Counsel, journal entry, "Friday, 3 March 1967," CIA reading room document CIA-RDP69B00369R000200020044-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp69b00369r000200020044-4 +[^12]: Tim Weiner, *Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA* (Doubleday, 2007), chapter 5, section "A Fundamentally Bad Idea." https://archive.org/details/legacy-of-ashes-the-history-of-the-cia-tim-weiner +[^13]: Memorandum for the 303 Committee, "U.S. Policy on Support for Covert Action Involving Emigres Directed at the Soviet Union," December 12, 1969, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XII, document 106, p. 322. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v12/d106 +[^14]: Radio TV Reports, Inc., transcript of "Rev. Coffin Interviewed," *The Today Show*, WRC-TV, July 25, 1967, CIA-RDP75-00001R000300020003-0. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp75-00001r000300020003-0 +[^15]: Robert M. Gates, "CIA and the University," address to the Association of Former Intelligence Officers, October 10, 1987, CIA-RDP89G00720R000500070019-9. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp89g00720r000500070019-9 +[^16]: Elizondo, Luis. *Imminent*. William Morrow, 2024. +[^17]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979, Chapters 1-2. +[^18]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum to the Director of Central Intelligence, "Release of Trace Metal Detection Technique to Law Enforcement Officials," June 10, 1970, CIA-RDP83B00823R000600150029-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00823r000600150029-5 +[^19]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security, memorandum on the relationship with LEAA, CIA CREST document C01435053. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01435053 +[^20]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security, "Relationship with Police," CIA CREST document C01435041. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01435041 +[^21]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security memorandum, "Technology Transfer of ERDT to LEAA," November 10, 1971, CIA-RDP83B00823R000600150007-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00823r000600150007-9 +[^22]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security, memorandum for the Deputy Director of Security, "LEAA Request for Agency Support, Where's What," February 16, 1972, CIA-RDP83B00823R000200060130-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00823r000200060130-3 +[^23]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Research and Development, "Survey of ORD for Non-Foreign Intelligence Activities," May 9, 1973, CIA CREST document 01430445, entry on LEAA. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01430445 +[^24]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Legislative Counsel, summary of the Holtzman Amendment, CIA-RDP76M00527R000700190003-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp76m00527r000700190003-1 +[^25]: Crime Control Act of 1973, Pub. L. 93-83, sec. 508, 87 Stat. 211 (August 6, 1973). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-87/pdf/STATUTE-87-Pg197.pdf +[^26]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of General Counsel, memorandum for the record, "CIA Action on LEAA Requests," OGC 73-1954, October 15, 1973, CIA-RDP75-00793R000300160026-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00793r000300160026-2 +[^27]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Legislative Counsel memorandum, "Law Enforcement Assistance Administration Reauthorization Legislation," July 12, 1978, CIA-RDP81M00980R001800050017-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp81m00980r001800050017-0 +[^28]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum for the Review Staff, "Briefing of House Select Committee Staff re LEAA Relationships," November 14, 1975, CIA-RDP89B00552R000100110024-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp89b00552r000100110024-1 +[^29]: Turner, Stansfield, Director of Central Intelligence, letter to Senator Daniel K. Inouye, chairman, Select Committee on Intelligence, August 2, 1977, in New School digital object NS010102_000027, PDF pp. 96-103 (figures at p. 101; Privacy Act at p. 102). https://digital.archives.newschool.edu/index.php/Detail/objects/NS010102_000027 +[^30]: Lapham, Anthony A., General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, August 1977 (stamped August 15, 1977), in NS010102_000027, PDF pp. 94-95. +[^31]: Cinquegrana, A. R., Office of General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, September 7, 1977, in NS010102_000027, PDF p. 7. https://digital.archives.newschool.edu/index.php/Detail/objects/NS010102_000027 +[^32]: Lapham, Anthony A., General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, November 7, 1977, in NS010102_000027, PDF p. 3. +[^33]: Cinquegrana, A. R., Assistant General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, March 17, 1978, in NS010102_000027, PDF p. 1. +[^34]: Thomas, Jo, "Extent of University Work for C.I.A. Is Hard to Pin Down," New York Times, October 9, 1977, CIA reading room clipping CIA-RDP88-01315R000300390007-3. +[^35]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 126. +[^36]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 147. +[^37]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 12. +[^38]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 9. +[^39]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 149. +[^40]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 347. +[^41]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 11, "BCCI, the CIA and Foreign Intelligence." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm +[^42]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 334. +[^43]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 341. +[^44]: White House, Office of the Press Secretary, "Biography of Bobby Ray Inman," December 16, 1993. https://clintonwhitehouse6.archives.gov/1993/12/1993-12-16-biography-of-bobby-ray-inman.html +[^45]: George C. Wilson and George Gardner Jr., "Leaving for Private Industry: Inman Quitting," *The Washington Post*, April 22, 1982, CIA CREST copy CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230020-3. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230020-3 +[^46]: Michael J. Sniffen, *Philadelphia Inquirer*, April 1982, CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230017-7. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230017-7 +[^47]: CBS Radio network commentary, April 22, 1982, "Admiral Inman Resigns," CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230019-5. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230019-5 +[^48]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Intelligence, *Nomination of Robert M. Gates to be Director of Central Intelligence*, S. Exec. Rept. 102-19, 102d Cong., 1st sess., October 24, 1991, section 5, PDF pages 186 to 188. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/sites-default-filesations-10219.pdf +[^49]: CREST Senior Review Panel memoranda CIA-RDP93T00837R000400110005-3 (NIC-03024-87, September 1, 1987), CIA-RDP93T01222R000100010013-9 (NIC-03595-87, September 8, 1987), CIA-RDP92T00306R000300090020-0 (September 24, 1987), CIA-RDP93T00451R000300080006-5 (NIC-04228-87, October 22, 1987) and CIA-RDP93T00451R000400110014-1 (December 1, 1987). https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t00837r000400110005-3, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t01222r000100010013-9, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp92t00306r000300090020-0, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t00451r000300080006-5, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t00451r000400110014-1 +[^50]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Prologue and Chapter 5: "God, Fatherland and Freedom" +[^51]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Chapter 5: "God, Fatherland and Freedom" +[^52]: CIA Office of Inspector General, Report of Investigation Concerning Allegations of Connections Between CIA and the Contras in Cocaine Trafficking to the United States, Volume I, January 29, 1998, findings on Carlos Cabezas and "Ivan Gomez." https://irp.fas.org/cia/product/cocaine/findings2.html +[^53]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Epilogue: "The damage that has been done" +[^54]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Chapter 13: "The wrong kind of friends" +[^55]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Inspector General, Chapter X, part 2, section C.2 (Carlos Amador: CIA cables of April 23 and April 25, 1986). https://oig.justice.gov/special/9712/ch10p2.htm +[^56]: Gerth, Jeff, "Old Concerns Over Data Transfer to China Get New Attention," *The New York Times,* December 7, 1998, section A, p. 20, archived copy at https://web.archive.org/web/20201101033224/https://www.nytimes.com/1998/12/07/us/old-concerns-over-data-transfer-to-china-get-new-attention.html +[^57]: U.S. House of Representatives, Select Committee on U.S. National Security and Military/Commercial Concerns with the People's Republic of China, Report (Cox Report), H. Rept. 105-851, vol. II, ch. 5, pp. 55-57, and Appendix A, pp. 208-209, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CRPT-105hrpt851/pdf/CRPT-105hrpt851.pdf +[^58]: Congressional Research Service, "China: Possible Missile Technology Transfers under U.S. Satellite Export Policy: Actions and Chronology," report 98-485 F, entries for April 1996 and September 1998, with notes 76 and 77, https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/98-485F.html +[^59]: Congressional Record, Senate, September 22, 2004, Rollcall Vote No. 187 (yeas 77, nays 17). https://irp.fas.org/congress/2004_cr/goss092204.html ; "Porter Goss Sworn in As New CIA Director," PBS NewsHour, September 24, 2004 (sworn in by Andrew Card in the Oval Office). https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/government_programs-july-dec04-cia_09-24 ; Norris, "Goss Is Latest to Leave Bush Administration," NPR transcript, May 5, 2006. https://www.npr.org/transcripts/5387220 +[^60]: JURIST, "FBI probes CIA defense contracts after top official resigns," May 2006 (FBI probe of Foggo's possible help to ADCS). https://www.jurist.org/news/2006/05/fbi-probes-cia-defense-contracts-after ; Paul Blumenthal, "MSNBC: Foggo Gone," Sunlight Foundation, May 8, 2006 (resignation reported Monday). https://sunlightfoundation.com/2006/05/08/msnbc-foggo-gone/ +[^61]: NBC News, "Ex-CIA executive gets 37 months in prison," February 26, 2009 (one count of fraud, 27 counts dropped, Judge James Cacheris, 37 months as requested). https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna29413971 ; Associated Press, "CIA officer gets jail time for fraud," Philadelphia Inquirer, February 27, 2009. https://www.inquirer.com/philly/news/nation_world/20090227_CIA_officer_gets_jail_time_for_fraud.html +[^62]: Select Committee on Intelligence, United States Senate, Committee Study of the Central Intelligence Agency's Detention and Interrogation Program, S. Rept. 113-288 (December 2014), executive summary and findings, sections on the 2005 videotapes ("The CIA destroyed the CIA interrogation videotapes the following day"; Rizzo's October 31, 2005 email). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/CRPT-113srpt288.pdf +[^63]: NBC News, "Ex-CIA chief agreed with tape destruction," April 2010 (e-mails released by the Justice Department under an ACLU FOIA request; "PG, however, agreed with the decision"; the disputed account). https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna36589750 +[^64]: JURIST, "No charges to be filed in CIA videotape destruction case: DOJ," November 2010 (spokesman Matthew Miller on Durham's decision; Durham appointed 2008 by Attorney General Michael Mukasey). https://www.jurist.org/news/2010/11/no-charges-to-be-filed-in-cia-videotape-destruction-case/ +[^65]: Joseph E. Roop, "Foreign Broadcast Information Service. History. Part I: 1941-1947" (Central Intelligence Agency, approved for release April 1969), pp. 279, 299-300 and 303. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. +[^66]: National Archives and Records Administration, Guide to Federal Records, Record Group 262, administrative history. https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/262.html. +[^67]: Roop, Part I, p. 2. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947. +[^68]: Roop, Part II (CIA Directorate of Intelligence, August 1970), pp. 2 and 151-152. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690. +[^69]: Office of the Director of National Intelligence, "ODNI Announces Establishment of Open Source Center," News Release No. 6-05, November 8, 2005. https://irp.fas.org/news/2005/11/odni110805.html. +[^70]: Central Intelligence Group, Central Planning Staff, memorandum "Liquidation of Security Advisory Board, OWI (C.I.G. Liaison with New Security Advisory Board under SWNCC)," July 22, 1946. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP78-04007A000300040024-9. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp78-04007a000300040024-9 +[^71]: Central Intelligence Group, Chief, ICAPS, to the Executive Director, memorandum "CIG Membership on SWNCC Subcommittee for Psychological Warfare," July 21, 1947. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP84-00022R000400100046-0. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp84-00022r000400100046-0 +[^72]: Central Intelligence Agency, Minutes of the Eighth Meeting of the Psychological Strategy Board (PSB M-8), January 10, 1952, membership and other participants. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP80-01065A000500100033-6. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp80-01065a000500100033-6 +[^73]: Max F. Millikan, letter stamped January 30, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003100150032-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003100150032-1 +[^74]: Max F. Millikan, letter of October 29, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP79-01157A000200020002-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp79-01157a000200020002-2 +[^75]: CIA, memorandum of conversation, "Psychological Intelligence," January 22, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003500180026-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003500180026-1 +[^76]: CIA, "Report of Intelligence Project Initiations, February 1951," memorandum of March 6, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP60-00213A000200030008-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp60-00213a000200030008-3 +[^77]: Max F. Millikan, letter of November 26, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003000200096-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003000200096-6 +[^78]: Stuart A. Rice, Assistant Director for Statistical Standards, Bureau of the Budget, letter to Max F. Millikan, March 3, 1952, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00662R000300120004-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00662r000300120004-5 +[^79]: A. B. Darling, note of interview with Max Millikan, "Origin of PSB," March 5, 1952, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP83-00036R000400050039-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83-00036r000400050039-0 +[^80]: Patrick Oster, "CIA Envisioned Soviet Scientists as U.S. Agents," Chicago Sun-Times, reprinted in the Washington Post, September 11, 1977, p. A-9, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP88-01315R000400460003-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01315r000400460003-8 +[^81]: Time, February 24, 1967, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP84-00161R000400210135-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84-00161r000400210135-8 +[^82]: U.S. Senate, Committee on the Judiciary, Internal Security Subcommittee, extracts from hearings (Part 3) on State Department security and passport regulations, testimony of Andreas F. Lowenfeld, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00149R000400560007-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00149r000400560007-3 +[^83]: FRUS, The Intelligence Community, 1950-1955, Document 57 (third progress report on NSC 59/1), paragraph 12. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d57 +[^84]: CIA reading room document CIA-RDP79S01011A000900030019-8, excerpt of the Project Troy report to the Secretary of State, February 1, 1951 (balloon chapter). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP79S01011A000900030019-8 +[^85]: Allen W. Dulles, letter to Max F. Millikan, February 27, 1961, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80B01676R003500160028-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003500160028-9 +[^86]: CIA, "Principles Governing Budgetary Relationships Between CENIS and CIA" (undated; released 2000), CIA reading room document CIA-RDP67-00059A000200090016-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp67-00059a000200090016-2 +[^87]: CIA, "Recipients for ORR Unclassified Studies" (undated list), CIA reading room document CIA-RDP63-00314R000100180007-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp63-00314r000100180007-7 +[^88]: CIA memorandum from the Assistant to the Director, February 16, 1959, forwarding a National Review Bulletin item, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00001R000100260064-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000100260064-9 +[^89]: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, President's Report Issue for the year ending July 1, 1963, p. 165, MIT Libraries, DSpace. https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/160055 +[^90]: CIA Office of Legislative Counsel, journal entry, "Friday, 3 March 1967," CIA reading room document CIA-RDP69B00369R000200020044-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp69b00369r000200020044-4 diff --git a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.md b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.md index 77d9bcf6..f0db9eb0 100644 --- a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.md +++ b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.md @@ -33,14 +33,39 @@ relations: reverse: true role: "597,717 dollars over two years for AI governance research led by Matt Sheehan" start: 2022-03 - fn: 6 + fn: 15 - type: employed_by with: "[[Matt Sheehan]]" reverse: true role: "senior fellow, Asia Program; co-director, China AI Initiative" - fn: 7 + fn: 16 + - type: head_of + with: "[[Alger Hiss]]" + reverse: true + start: 1947-02-01 + end: 1949-05 + role: "president; elected December 1946, in office from February 1, 1947; on leave from December 1948, until the annual meeting of May 5, 1949" + fn: 9 + - type: head_of + with: "[[Harvey H. Bundy]]" + reverse: true + start: 1952-12-08 + role: "chairman of the board of trustees; vice chairman by December 1951" + fn: 13 + - type: head_of + with: "[[John Foster Dulles]]" + reverse: true + end: 1952-12-08 + role: "chairman of the board of trustees until his designation as Secretary of State" + fn: 13 + - type: head_of + with: "[[Joseph E. Johnson]]" + reverse: true + start: 1950-07-01 + role: "president; elected May 11, 1950, in office from July 1, 1950" + fn: 11 created: 2026-09-23 -updated: 2026-09-23 +updated: 2026-10-26 --- The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace is a foreign-policy research institution headquartered at 1779 Massachusetts Avenue NW in [[Washington, D.C.]], which describes itself as the oldest international-affairs think tank in the [[United States]].[^1][^2] It was founded in 1910 with a gift of 10 million dollars from [[Andrew Carnegie]], then, in its words, "one of the richest people in the world after the sale of Carnegie Steel to J.P. Morgan," who sought to "hasten the abolition of war, the foulest blot upon our civilization."[^1] @@ -55,19 +80,50 @@ Besides its Washington and California offices it runs centers in Asia, [[Beirut] [[William Burns]], who had retired from the Foreign Service in 2014 after serving as deputy secretary of state, was president from 2015 to 2021.[^2] [[Mariano-Florentino Cuéllar]], a former justice of the [[Supreme Court of California]] who had served on the [[President's Intelligence Advisory Board]], was president from November 2021 to June 2026. His Carnegie biography lists him as a director of [[Inflection AI]], [[Harvard University]] and [[LawZero]] and as a trustee of [[Anthropic]]'s [[Long-Term Benefit Trust]], which he joined in January 2026 while still president. On August 4, 2026, Anthropic announced that he would join it as its first chief global affairs officer.[^3][^4][^5] +[[Alger Hiss]] became the endowment's president. He testified before the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]] in 1948 that the board had elected him in December 1946 and that he assumed office on February 1, 1947; asked whether John Foster Dulles, chairman of the board of trustees, was the first to approach him, he answered "He first approached me."[^6] Hiss was at the same time a trustee of the [[World Peace Foundation]], whose president was [[Harvey H. Bundy]].[^7] The Cox Committee report on tax-exempt foundations stated that Hiss's "nomination and election came about through the efforts of men of proven loyalty and broad experience in public affairs" and that "during his term as president of the Carnegie Endowment, Hiss took no official action to further the Communist cause."[^8] + +After [[Whittaker Chambers]]'s August 1948 testimony Hiss offered his resignation. The trustees, meeting on December 12 and 13, 1948 under [[John W. Davis]] (Dulles was abroad), tabled it and granted a leave of absence at full pay, which the executive committee extended on February 17, 1949 to the annual meeting of May 5, 1949. James T. Shotwell acted as president from September 1948. According to Shotwell, [[William C. Bullitt]] asked Hiss at the December dinner whether he had checked with [[James F. Byrnes]] before taking the post.[^9] + +In 1950 a nominating committee of Dulles (chairman), Bundy, [[David Rockefeller]], Earl Harrison and James T. Shotwell chose [[Joseph E. Johnson]], who was elected president on May 11, 1950; Shotwell told Federal Bureau of Investigation agents in 1951 that Johnson "was backed by Harvey H. Bundy" and that Bundy "was able to influence Dulles."[^10][^11] Bundy was vice chairman of the board by December 1951. On December 8, 1952, after Dulles resigned the chairmanship on his designation as Secretary of State, the board elected Bundy chairman to fill the unexpired term; he was elected chairman again on May 7, 1953 and May 6, 1954, and the rosters printed in *International Conciliation* list him as chairman in November 1957. By March 1961 he is listed among the honorary trustees and [[Whitney North Seymour]] as chairman.[^12][^13][^14] + ### AI Governance -In March 2022 [[Open Philanthropy]] recommended 597,717 dollars over two years to the endowment "to support a research project on international AI governance led by Matt Sheehan," under its focus area "Potential Risks from Advanced AI." The same grant page listed another Open Philanthropy grant of 613,380 dollars over three years to the endowment for a project on "Chinese and Indian Perspectives on Biotech Security Risks."[^6] [[Matt Sheehan]], a senior fellow in the Asia Program and co-director of the China AI Initiative, lived and worked in China from 2010 to 2016 and was previously a fellow at MacroPolo, the think tank of the [[Paulson Institute]].[^7] +In March 2022 [[Open Philanthropy]] recommended 597,717 dollars over two years to the endowment "to support a research project on international AI governance led by Matt Sheehan," under its focus area "Potential Risks from Advanced AI." The same grant page listed another Open Philanthropy grant of 613,380 dollars over three years to the endowment for a project on "Chinese and Indian Perspectives on Biotech Security Risks."[^15] [[Matt Sheehan]], a senior fellow in the Asia Program and co-director of the China AI Initiative, lived and worked in China from 2010 to 2016 and was previously a fellow at MacroPolo, the think tank of the [[Paulson Institute]].[^16] -On April 29, 2024, [[Holden Karnofsky]] announced that he had left Open Philanthropy to join Carnegie as a visiting scholar and would "analyze and write about topics relevant to AI risk reduction," while continuing to serve on Open Philanthropy's board. He wrote that Cuéllar "has been an advocate for taking (what I see as) the biggest risks from AI seriously," that "Carnegie is looking to increase its attention to AI risk," and that its scholars on the subject included Sheehan, "who specializes in China's AI ecosystem." He cited among his reasons for leaving Open Philanthropy "the fact that I'm married to the President of a major AI company," [[Daniela Amodei]] of Anthropic.[^4] He joined Anthropic in January 2025.[^8] +On April 29, 2024, [[Holden Karnofsky]] announced that he had left Open Philanthropy to join Carnegie as a visiting scholar and would "analyze and write about topics relevant to AI risk reduction," while continuing to serve on Open Philanthropy's board. He wrote that Cuéllar "has been an advocate for taking (what I see as) the biggest risks from AI seriously," that "Carnegie is looking to increase its attention to AI risk," and that its scholars on the subject included Sheehan, "who specializes in China's AI ecosystem." He cited among his reasons for leaving Open Philanthropy "the fact that I'm married to the President of a major AI company," [[Daniela Amodei]] of Anthropic.[^4] He joined Anthropic in January 2025.[^17] ### Footnotes [^1]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, "Our Story," retrieved September 23, 2026. https://carnegieendowment.org/our-story + [^2]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, "William J. Burns," former president (2015 to 2021), biography, retrieved September 23, 2026. https://carnegieendowment.org/people/william-j-burns + [^3]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, "Mariano-Florentino (Tino) Cuéllar," former president (2021 to 2026), biography, retrieved September 23, 2026. https://carnegieendowment.org/people/mariano-florentino-tino-cuellar + [^4]: Karnofsky, Holden. "Joining the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace." EA Forum, April 29, 2024. https://forum.effectivealtruism.org/posts/7gzgwgwefwBku2cnL/joining-the-carnegie-endowment-for-international-peace ; Anthropic, "The Long-Term Benefit Trust," September 19, 2023, with later updates. https://www.anthropic.com/news/the-long-term-benefit-trust + [^5]: Anthropic, "Mariano-Florentino (Tino) Cuéllar to join Anthropic as Chief Global Affairs Officer," August 4, 2026. https://www.anthropic.com/news/tino-cuellar -[^6]: Open Philanthropy, "Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, AI Governance Research," March 2022, archived July 8, 2022. http://web.archive.org/web/20220708131413/https://www.openphilanthropy.org/grants/carnegie-endowment-for-international-peace-ai-governance-research/ -[^7]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, "Matt Sheehan," biography, retrieved September 23, 2026. https://carnegieendowment.org/people/matt-sheehan -[^8]: Mathews, Jessica. "Anthropic hired president Daniela Amodei's husband to work on the company's AI safety strategy." *Fortune,* February 13, 2025. https://fortune.com/2025/02/13/anthropic-hired-president-daniela-amodei-husband-ai-safety-responsible-scaling/ + +[^6]: *Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage in the United States Government*, House Committee on Un-American Activities, 80th Congress, 2d session, 1948, testimony of Alger Hiss, pp. 645-646, https://archive.org/details/hearingsregardin1948unit + +[^7]: *American Foundations and Their Fields*, vol. 6 (1948), entry "World Peace Foundation," https://archive.org/details/americanfoundati0000wilm + +[^8]: Report of the Select Committee to Investigate Foundations and Other Comparable Organizations, as filed in the Edward R. Murrow Papers, vol. 46, https://archive.org/details/per_edward-r-murrow-papers_edward-r-murrow-papers_1927-1973_46 + +[^9]: *United States of America against Alger Hiss: Transcript of Record*, second trial, vol. V, testimony of James T. Shotwell, trial transcript pp. 4100-4114, and of John Foster Dulles, pp. 4474-4493. https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesofam05hiss + +[^10]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, answers to the questionnaire of the Select Committee to Investigate Tax-Exempt Foundations, 1952, Edward R. Murrow Papers, vol. 42, https://archive.org/details/per_edward-r-murrow-papers_edward-r-murrow-papers_1927-1973_42 + +[^11]: Federal Bureau of Investigation, Joseph Esrey Johnson file, New York memorandum of October 30, 1951, FOIA release 1368175-0, https://archive.org/details/JosephEsreyJohnson + +[^12]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Board of Trustees minutes of December 10, 1951, and annual meeting of May 8, 1952 (Vice-Chairman Bundy presiding), Edward R. Murrow Papers, vol. 46, https://archive.org/details/per_edward-r-murrow-papers_edward-r-murrow-papers_1927-1973_46 + +[^13]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Board of Trustees minutes of December 8, 1952, Edward R. Murrow Papers, vol. 42, https://archive.org/details/per_edward-r-murrow-papers_edward-r-murrow-papers_1927-1973_42 + +[^14]: *International Conciliation*, no. 515 (November 1957) and no. 532 (March 1961), https://archive.org/details/sim_international-conciliation_1957-11_515 and https://archive.org/details/sim_international-conciliation_1961-03_532 + +[^15]: Open Philanthropy, "Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, AI Governance Research," March 2022, archived July 8, 2022. http://web.archive.org/web/20220708131413/https://www.openphilanthropy.org/grants/carnegie-endowment-for-international-peace-ai-governance-research/ + +[^16]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, "Matt Sheehan," biography, retrieved September 23, 2026. https://carnegieendowment.org/people/matt-sheehan + +[^17]: Mathews, Jessica. "Anthropic hired president Daniela Amodei's husband to work on the company's AI safety strategy." *Fortune,* February 13, 2025. https://fortune.com/2025/02/13/anthropic-hired-president-daniela-amodei-husband-ai-safety-responsible-scaling/ diff --git a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Council on Foreign Relations.md b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Council on Foreign Relations.md index d4b6bbce..964189e4 100644 --- a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Council on Foreign Relations.md +++ b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Council on Foreign Relations.md @@ -86,37 +86,37 @@ relations: reverse: true end: 2023-06-30 role: "president, 1,868,393 dollars reportable compensation in the return for the year to June 2023" - fn: 35 + fn: 36 - type: head_of with: "[[David Rubenstein]]" reverse: true role: "chairman in the return for the year to June 2023" - fn: 35 + fn: 36 - type: funded with: "[[Bernard L. Schwartz]]" reverse: true start: 2002 role: "Bernard L. Schwartz Senior Fellowship in Business and Foreign Policy, first holder Bennett Freeman" - fn: 29 + fn: 30 - type: director_of with: "[[Cyrus Vance]]" reverse: true role: "director, term expiring 1987; Executive Committee; Vice Chairman of the Board" - fn: 28 + fn: 29 - type: director_of with: "[[William P. Bundy]]" reverse: true start: 1964 end: 1972 role: "board of directors" - fn: 33 + fn: 34 - type: employed_by with: "[[William P. Bundy]]" reverse: true start: 1972 end: 1984 role: "editor of Foreign Affairs" - fn: 34 + fn: 35 created: 2026-10-01 updated: 2026-10-26 --- @@ -191,6 +191,8 @@ A memorandum of July 26, 1976 from the National Intelligence Officer for China, The annual report for July 1, 1984 to June 30, 1985 records 2,376 members, of whom 38 percent lived in the New York area, 24 percent in the Washington area and 6 percent in the Boston area. By profession 27 percent were business executives, 21 percent scholars or academic administrators, 15 percent administrators of nonprofit institutions, 11 percent government officials, 11 percent journalists and communications executives and 10 percent lawyers; women, admitted from 1970, numbered 250. Members are elected by the Board of Directors on nomination of the Membership Committee, and by tradition participants do not attribute statements made at meetings to speakers in public media.[^1] +[[Winston Lord]], of the [[Lord family]], was president of the Council from 1977 to 1985. The annual report lists "Winston Lord, President, 1977-1985" on its staff page and records that he left the presidency on June 30, 1985.[^28] In a letter dated August 19, 1985, David Rockefeller wished "Winston and Bette well as they embark on their challenging new career," and linked that career to Lord's role as "the President's emissary to the People's Republic of China."[^28] + The report's membership roster, which includes people invited at the Board's June 1985 meeting who had accepted by press time, lists among the names Richard M. Bissell Jr., [[William J. Casey]], [[William Colby]], [[Richard Helms]], Stansfield Turner, [[Robert M. Gates]], [[R. James Woolsey]], [[John Deutch]], [[Ray S. Cline]], [[Cord Meyer]], [[Frank G. Wisner II]], William J. Barnds and Rolland Bushner, together with [[Katharine Graham]], [[Hedley Donovan]], [[Dan Rather]], [[Jim Lehrer]], [[Flora Lewis]], [[James Reston]], William S. Paley and [[Roone Arledge]].[^1] Corporate Program subscriptions exceeded one million dollars for the fourth consecutive year, at 1,060,800 dollars net, and Foreign Affairs income was 2,095,300. Subscribers were offered a black-tie dinner for chairmen and presidents with an address by a prominent statesman, seminars, executive luncheons, a library of about 40,000 volumes with a clipping service, and the chance to nominate young executives for the International Affairs Fellowship.[^1] The Board approved a 14.5 million dollar Campaign for the Council in February 1983, with David Rockefeller and C. Douglas Dillon as co-chairmen and [[C. Peter McColough]] of [[Xerox]] as campaign chairman; in early August 1985, 14.1 million dollars in gifts and pledges had been received. The report's partial list of donors of 10,000 dollars or more to the Campaign names these corporations: Agip Petroleum, American Can, [[American Express]], the Arabian American Oil Company, AT&T, Atlantic Richfield, [[Bankers Trust]], Barclays Bank, the [[Bechtel Group]], Bristol-Myers, CBS, [[Chase Manhattan Bank]], Chemical Bank, [[Citibank]], Dillon Read, Dow Chemical, Dow Jones, Du Pont, [[Exxon]], Ford Motor, General Electric, General Motors, [[Goldman Sachs]], IBM, [[Lazard Freres]], [[Manufacturers Hanover]], [[Mobil]], [[Morgan Guaranty Trust]], Morgan Stanley, [[Northrop]], PaineWebber, Peat Marwick Mitchell, PepsiCo, [[Price Waterhouse]], Procter and Gamble, RCA, the Rockefeller Group, [[Salomon Brothers]], United Technologies and Xerox, among others. Foundation donors included the Ford Foundation, the German Marshall Fund, the Rockefeller Foundation, the [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund]], the [[Andrew W. Mellon Foundation]], the Starr Foundation and the Schlumberger Foundation.[^1] @@ -201,69 +203,108 @@ General fund expenditures were 6,778,300 dollars against total funding of 6,718, The report lists as directors, at press time, Harold Brown, Stanley Hoffmann, Nicholas Katzenbach, Lane Kirkland, Juanita Kreps, Robert Scalapino, [[Brent Scowcroft]], Stephen Stamas, Philip Geyelin, McColough, Donald McHenry, Peterson, William D. Rogers, Vance, Marina Whitman, Walter Wriston, Graham Allison, Warren Christopher, Richard Gelb, Alan Greenspan, [[Bobby Ray Inman]], Jeane Kirkpatrick, Lewis Preston and Clifton Wharton. Of these twenty-four, Brown, Allison, Christopher, Kirkland, Greenspan, Kreps and Whitman appear in the Trilateral Commission's North American roster of July 1981.[^1][^25] A letter from McCloy dated June 27, 1985, printed in the report, refers to David Rockefeller's "44 years of close and active association with the Council" and to his "relinquishment of his leadership on the Board."[^1] -In the report's Officers and Directors table Cyrus Vance appears in the column of directors with terms expiring in 1987. He is listed on the Executive Committee chaired by David Rockefeller (with Warren Christopher, [[Theodore Hesburgh]], Lane Kirkland, McColough, Peterson and [[Lewis T. Preston]]), among the members of the Campaign Executive Committee, and, in the report's historical roll of officers, among the Vice Chairmen of the Board with Grayson Kirk. He chaired the advisory group of the Studies Program's European-American Project ([[Robert D. Hormats]], vice chairman), presided over a September 13, 1984 conference held with the Dayan Center of [[Tel Aviv University]] and wrote the foreword to its printed transcript, and chaired a March 1985 conference on "Central America as a European-American Issue."[^28] +In the report's Officers and Directors table Cyrus Vance appears in the column of directors with terms expiring in 1987. He is listed on the Executive Committee chaired by David Rockefeller (with Warren Christopher, [[Theodore Hesburgh]], Lane Kirkland, McColough, Peterson and [[Lewis T. Preston]]), among the members of the Campaign Executive Committee, and, in the report's historical roll of officers, among the Vice Chairmen of the Board with Grayson Kirk. He chaired the advisory group of the Studies Program's European-American Project ([[Robert D. Hormats]], vice chairman), presided over a September 13, 1984 conference held with the Dayan Center of [[Tel Aviv University]] and wrote the foreword to its printed transcript, and chaired a March 1985 conference on "Central America as a European-American Issue."[^29] ### The Bernard L. Schwartz fellowship and the Greenberg Center, 2002 -On March 20, 2002, the council announced that [[Bennett Freeman]] had been named the first Bernard L. Schwartz Fellow in Business and Foreign Policy. The fellowship was placed in the council's new [[Maurice R. Greenberg Center for Geoeconomic Studies]]. The release states: "This fellowship is funded by Bernard L. Schwartz, Chairman and CEO of Loral Space & Communications Ltd."[^29] +On March 20, 2002, the council announced that [[Bennett Freeman]] had been named the first Bernard L. Schwartz Fellow in Business and Foreign Policy. The fellowship was placed in the council's new [[Maurice R. Greenberg Center for Geoeconomic Studies]]. The release states: "This fellowship is funded by Bernard L. Schwartz, Chairman and CEO of Loral Space & Communications Ltd."[^30] -Two months earlier, on January 9, 2002, [[Space Systems/Loral]] had signed a consent agreement with the State Department's Office of Defense Trade Controls. The agreement set a civil penalty of $20,000,000, of which $14,000,000 was payable and $6,000,000 was suspended, and recorded that the company neither admitted nor denied the allegations in a draft charging letter.[^30] The draft charging letter, addressed to the president of Loral Space & Communications, alleged "Sixty-four (64) violations" in connection with the aftermath of the February 1996 Long March 3B failure.[^31] +Two months earlier, on January 9, 2002, [[Space Systems/Loral]] had signed a consent agreement with the State Department's Office of Defense Trade Controls. The agreement set a civil penalty of $20,000,000, of which $14,000,000 was payable and $6,000,000 was suspended, and recorded that the company neither admitted nor denied the allegations in a draft charging letter.[^31] The draft charging letter, addressed to the president of Loral Space & Communications, alleged "Sixty-four (64) violations" in connection with the aftermath of the February 1996 Long March 3B failure.[^32] ### Foreign Affairs -Foreign Affairs published "The Sources of Soviet Conduct" in July 1947 over the signature "X," credited by the journal to George F. Kennan; the article called for "a long-term, patient but firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies."[^32] +Foreign Affairs published "The Sources of Soviet Conduct" in July 1947 over the signature "X," credited by the journal to George F. Kennan; the article called for "a long-term, patient but firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies."[^33] -William P. Bundy served on the Council's board of directors from 1964 to 1972.[^33] A 1972 press item reported that he would succeed Hamilton Fish Armstrong, who had edited the quarterly for 43 years, as editor of Foreign Affairs in the fall of 1972.[^34] The Princeton finding aid gives his editorship as 1972 to 1984.[^33] He also served as a trustee of the [[American Assembly]] from 1964 to 1984.[^33] +William P. Bundy served on the Council's board of directors from 1964 to 1972.[^34] A 1972 press item reported that he would succeed Hamilton Fish Armstrong, who had edited the quarterly for 43 years, as editor of Foreign Affairs in the fall of 1972.[^35] The Princeton finding aid gives his editorship as 1972 to 1984.[^34] He also served as a trustee of the [[American Assembly]] from 1964 to 1984.[^34] ### Recent filings -The Council's Form 990 for the year ended June 30, 2023 reports revenue of 106,930,600 dollars, expenses of 83,166,400 dollars and year-end assets of 719,707,600 dollars; the same series of returns on the [[ProPublica]] Nonprofit Explorer shows revenue of 59,633,100 dollars and assets of 438,237,900 dollars for the year to June 2011.[^2] The 2023 return lists contributions of 63,113,857 dollars, Foreign Affairs revenue of 11,709,500, individual membership revenue of 9,036,200 and corporate membership revenue of 1,103,843, with 711 employees and 34 voting members of the governing body. It describes the membership as "over 5,000," states that the members elect all voting directors, and gives the year of founding as 1921.[^35] +The Council's Form 990 for the year ended June 30, 2023 reports revenue of 106,930,600 dollars, expenses of 83,166,400 dollars and year-end assets of 719,707,600 dollars; the same series of returns on the [[ProPublica]] Nonprofit Explorer shows revenue of 59,633,100 dollars and assets of 438,237,900 dollars for the year to June 2011.[^2] The 2023 return lists contributions of 63,113,857 dollars, Foreign Affairs revenue of 11,709,500, individual membership revenue of 9,036,200 and corporate membership revenue of 1,103,843, with 711 employees and 34 voting members of the governing body. It describes the membership as "over 5,000," states that the members elect all voting directors, and gives the year of founding as 1921.[^36] -[[Richard Haass]] is shown as president through June 30, 2023 with reportable compensation of 1,868,393 dollars and 59,851 dollars of other compensation; [[Michael Froman]] is named as principal officer. Other reported compensation includes 524,534 dollars to the chief investment officer, [[Giovanna Ban]], 519,740 to the executive vice president and chief financial officer, Keith Olson, 459,793 to the director of studies, [[James M. Lindsay]], 330,419 to the editor of Foreign Affairs, [[Daniel Kurtz-Phelan]], and 280,205 to the distinguished fellow [[Martin Indyk]]. [[David Rubenstein]] is chairman, [[Blair Effron]] and [[Jami Miscik]] vice-chairmen, and the directors include [[Thad Allen]], [[Ashton B. Carter]] (through October 2022), [[Kenneth I. Chenault]], [[Laurence D. Fink]] (through June 30, 2023), [[Timothy F. Geithner]] (through June 30, 2023), [[James P. Gorman]], [[Stephen J. Hadley]], [[Jeh Johnson]], [[William H. McRaven]], [[Janet Napolitano]], [[Meghan O'Sullivan]], [[Ruth Porat]], [[Laurene Powell Jobs]], [[Frances F. Townsend]], [[Daniel H. Yergin]] and [[Fareed Zakaria]]. Schedule O reports business relationships between Haass and directors Effron, [[Stephen C. Freidheim]] and [[Nicholas Beim]]; between Rubenstein and Carter and Yergin; between Miscik and Gorman; and between directors [[James Manyika]] and Porat. Schedule I lists fellowship payments including 596,458 dollars for nine International Affairs Fellows, 288,750 dollars for four fellows in national security, 119,350 dollars for six in Japan, 100,000 dollars for one Edward R. Murrow press fellow and 80,000 dollars for one Stanton nuclear security fellow. The donor schedule is redacted in the public copy.[^35] +[[Richard Haass]] is shown as president through June 30, 2023 with reportable compensation of 1,868,393 dollars and 59,851 dollars of other compensation; [[Michael Froman]] is named as principal officer. Other reported compensation includes 524,534 dollars to the chief investment officer, [[Giovanna Ban]], 519,740 to the executive vice president and chief financial officer, Keith Olson, 459,793 to the director of studies, [[James M. Lindsay]], 330,419 to the editor of Foreign Affairs, [[Daniel Kurtz-Phelan]], and 280,205 to the distinguished fellow [[Martin Indyk]]. [[David Rubenstein]] is chairman, [[Blair Effron]] and [[Jami Miscik]] vice-chairmen, and the directors include [[Thad Allen]], [[Ashton B. Carter]] (through October 2022), [[Kenneth I. Chenault]], [[Laurence D. Fink]] (through June 30, 2023), [[Timothy F. Geithner]] (through June 30, 2023), [[James P. Gorman]], [[Stephen J. Hadley]], [[Jeh Johnson]], [[William H. McRaven]], [[Janet Napolitano]], [[Meghan O'Sullivan]], [[Ruth Porat]], [[Laurene Powell Jobs]], [[Frances F. Townsend]], [[Daniel H. Yergin]] and [[Fareed Zakaria]]. Schedule O reports business relationships between Haass and directors Effron, [[Stephen C. Freidheim]] and [[Nicholas Beim]]; between Rubenstein and Carter and Yergin; between Miscik and Gorman; and between directors [[James Manyika]] and Porat. Schedule I lists fellowship payments including 596,458 dollars for nine International Affairs Fellows, 288,750 dollars for four fellows in national security, 119,350 dollars for six in Japan, 100,000 dollars for one Edward R. Murrow press fellow and 80,000 dollars for one Stanton nuclear security fellow. The donor schedule is redacted in the public copy.[^36] -Five of the directors named in the 2023 return (Rubenstein, Manyika, O'Sullivan, Townsend and Yergin) are members of the North American group in the Trilateral Commission's list of September 6, 2024, on which five Council fellows also appear.[^36] +Five of the directors named in the 2023 return (Rubenstein, Manyika, O'Sullivan, Townsend and Yergin) are members of the North American group in the Trilateral Commission's list of September 6, 2024, on which five Council fellows also appear.[^37] ### Jeffrey Epstein -Two biographical statements in the [[Department of Justice]]'s [[Epstein Files|Epstein Library]], one headed "Biographical Information of Jeffrey E. Epstein" and one "About Jeffrey E. Epstein," neither dated on its face, describe [[Jeffrey Epstein]] as "a former member of the Trilateral Commission and a former member of the Council on Foreign Relations." No Council membership roll appears in the documents examined.[^37] An exchange of November 8 and 15, 2010 between Epstein and the Council's director of events concerns travel and a weekend event.[^38] +Two biographical statements in the [[Department of Justice]]'s [[Epstein Files|Epstein Library]], one headed "Biographical Information of Jeffrey E. Epstein" and one "About Jeffrey E. Epstein," neither dated on its face, describe [[Jeffrey Epstein]] as "a former member of the Trilateral Commission and a former member of the Council on Foreign Relations." No Council membership roll appears in the documents examined.[^38] An exchange of November 8 and 15, 2010 between Epstein and the Council's director of events concerns travel and a weekend event.[^39] ### Footnotes [^1]: Council on Foreign Relations, Annual Report, July 1, 1984 to June 30, 1985 (New York, 1985): Summary Description, pp. 5 to 6; Staff, p. 7; Membership, p. 94; Corporate Program, p. 111; Development Activities, pp. 112 to 124 (The Campaign for the Council, pp. 119 to 123); Finances, pp. 133 to 135; Officers and Directors, pp. 2 and 148; Historical Roster, pp. 150 to 152; Membership Roster, pp. 154 ff.; letter of John J. McCloy, June 27, 1985; Foreign Affairs editors, Council Publications. Sanitized copy released by the Central Intelligence Agency, CIA-RDP90-00806R000100210066-5, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000100210066-5 + [^2]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer, Council on Foreign Relations Inc, EIN 13-1628168, API record of filings for tax years 2011 to 2023 (ruling date 1927-01), https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/131628168 + [^3]: The Rockefeller Foundation, Annual Report 1939 (New York, 1940): Social Sciences, International Relations, pp. 273 to 274, and appropriations table (RF 39110), https://archive.org/details/the-rockefeller-foundation-annual-report-1939 + [^4]: Council on Foreign Relations, Annual Report of the Executive Director, 1951-1952, with list of members and by-laws (New York, 1952): Officers and Standing Committees (front matter); Summary, p. 4; Committees on Foreign Relations, pp. 41 to 43; Foreign Affairs, pp. 42 to 43; Membership, pp. 45 to 46; Financial, pp. 48 to 49. Sanitized copy, CIA-RDP80R01731R001200010036-3, https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R001200010036-3 + [^5]: The Rockefeller Foundation, Annual Report 1943 (New York, 1944): The Social Sciences, International Studies, section Council on Foreign Relations, pp. 178 to 179, https://archive.org/details/the-rockefeller-foundation-annual-report-1943 + [^6]: The Rockefeller Foundation, Annual Report 1945 (New York, 1946): The Social Sciences, section Council on Foreign Relations, pp. 190 to 191, https://archive.org/details/the-rockefeller-foundation-annual-report-1945 + [^7]: The Rockefeller Foundation, Annual Report 1946 (New York, 1947): The Social Sciences, sections Council on Foreign Relations and Council on Foreign Relations, History of World War II, pp. 186 to 189, https://archive.org/details/the-rockefeller-foundation-annual-report-1946 + [^8]: Letter, Council on Foreign Relations (catalogued as from Walter H. Mallory, Executive Director) to Allen W. Dulles, December 17, 1954, CIA-RDP80R01731R001200030019-0, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001200030019-0 + [^9]: Council on Foreign Relations, Receipts (1946-1951), Research Budget, with Contributions of Corporations, Individual Contributions to the 25th Anniversary Fund and Corporations with Officers who are members of the Council on Foreign Relations, November 1951, 8 pages, CIA-RDP80R01731R001100170005-1, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001100170005-1 + [^10]: Ford Foundation, "Annual Report 1965," grant tables, entry for Council on Foreign Relations, $1,000,000, under the heading American education in world affairs. https://www.fordfoundation.org/media/2435/1965-annual-report.pdf + [^11]: John J. McCloy to Allen W. Dulles, April 29, 1953, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP80R01731R001200020045-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001200020045-2 + [^12]: Rockefeller Archive Center, The Trilateral Commission (North America) Records, finding aid by Robert Battaly, April 2011, Institutional History, p. 2, https://dimes.rockarch.org/collections/2KaqPEr3JRZv5WBQsf9mKn (text read from the copy at https://archive.org/download/one-world-order-new-world-order/Trilateral%20Commission%20records%20%28Rockefeller%20Archives%29.pdf) + [^13]: Letter, Hamilton Fish Armstrong to W. Averell Harriman, December 12, 1950, CIA-RDP80R01731R003100010004-7, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003100010004-7 + [^14]: Letter, Alan G. Kirk (Department of State) to Allen W. Dulles, January 2, 1951, with note of January 11, CIA-RDP80R01731R001100170026-8, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001100170026-8 + [^15]: Letter, Allen W. Dulles to Gordon Dean, February 13, 1952, CIA-RDP80R01731R001200010035-4, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001200010035-4 + [^16]: Letters, George S. Franklin Jr. to Allen W. Dulles, November 24, 1952 (CIA-RDP80R01731R001200010002-0), January 27, 1953 (CIA-RDP80R01731R001200020051-5) and June 19, 1953 (CIA-RDP80R01731R001200020027-2), https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001200010002-0, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001200020051-5 and https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001200020027-2 + [^17]: Letter, Allen W. Dulles to the Membership Committee, Council on Foreign Relations, distribution notation 20 Apr 55 (ER 6-9539/A), CIA-RDP80R01731R001200030009-1, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001200030009-1 + [^18]: Letter, Allen W. Dulles to Walter H. Mallory, March 4, 1956 (ER 7-9374/A), with letter of Hamilton Fish Armstrong to Dulles, February 16, 1956, CIA-RDP80B01676R004000060049-1, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r004000060049-1 + [^19]: Letter, Hamilton Fish Armstrong to Allen W. Dulles, April 25, 1958, CIA-RDP80B01676R004000060009-5, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r004000060009-5 + [^20]: Letter, George S. Franklin Jr. to Allen W. Dulles, May 2, 1958, CIA-RDP80B01676R004000060012-1, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r004000060012-1 + [^21]: Letter, Allen W. Dulles to Ferdinand Lathrop Mayer, August 20, 1959, CIA-RDP80R01731R000300010083-1, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r000300010083-1 + [^22]: Letter, George S. Franklin Jr. to Allen W. Dulles, May 6, 1960; reply of Allen W. Dulles to Franklin, May 1960; memorandum for Mr. Dulles, May 16, 1960, CIA-RDP80B01676R004100010066-6, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r004100010066-6 + [^23]: Minutes of the third meeting of the Discussion Group on Intelligence and Foreign Policy, Council on Foreign Relations, Harold Pratt House, January 8, 1968 (reproduced by Public Intelligence as "Minutes of the 1968 Bissell Meeting at the Council on Foreign Relations"), https://info.publicintelligence.net/CFR-BissellMeeting.pdf + [^24]: Victor Marchetti and John D. Marks, The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence (Dell paperback ed., 1975), "Covert-Action Theory," pp. 55 to 56, and "Controlling the CIA," pp. 332 to 333 (note on p. 332), https://archive.org/details/ciacultofintelli00marc_1 + [^25]: The Trilateral Commission, membership list "As of July 1, 1981," reprinted in Congressional Research Service, The Trilateral Commission, Issue Packet IP0092 (Library of Congress, 1981), https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/19810501_IP0092_2d3ea09e2c6068af730f41d315f4ea490bc91878.pdf + [^26]: Memoranda, National Intelligence Officer for China to Deputy Director of Central Intelligence for National Intelligence, July 26, 1976 (NIO 1215-76) and September 7, 1976 (NIO 1426-76), CIA-RDP83B00100R000100130019-2, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00100r000100130019-2 + [^27]: Letter, Stansfield Turner to Alton Frye, Director, International Affairs Fellowships, Council on Foreign Relations, September 12, 1979, CIA-RDP80B01554R003300220008-8, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01554r003300220008-8 -[^28]: Council on Foreign Relations, Annual Report, July 1, 1984 to June 30, 1985 (New York, 1985): Officers and Directors; committee lists; Campaign Executive Committee; historical officers; Studies Program and European-American Project (advisory group list); Meetings; Publications. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000100210066-5 -[^29]: Council on Foreign Relations, "Bennett Freeman Named First Bernard L. Schwartz Senior Fellow in Business and Foreign Policy," press release dated March 20, 2002, https://www.cfr.org/articles/bennett-freeman-named-first-bernard-l-schwartz-senior-fellow-business-and-foreign -[^30]: U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Political-Military Affairs, Office of Defense Trade Controls, consent agreement with Space Systems/Loral, Inc., January 9, 2002, Exhibit 10.1 to Loral Space & Communications Ltd. Form 8-K, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/0001006269/000095012302000193/y56456ex10-1.txt -[^31]: U.S. Department of State, Office of Defense Trade Controls, Draft Charging Letter to Space Systems/Loral, Inc. (undated), https://www.pmddtc.state.gov/sys_attachment.do?sys_id=032ef245db15df00d0a370131f96192b -[^32]: "X" (George F. Kennan), "The Sources of Soviet Conduct," Foreign Affairs, vol. 25, no. 4, July 1947, https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/russian-federation/1947-07-01/sources-soviet-conduct -[^33]: William P. Bundy Papers (MC189), Biography/History, Princeton University Library, https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/PRIN_MUDD_MC189 -[^34]: "William Bundy to Head Foreign Affairs Journal," press item, 1972, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP88-01314R000100540012-3, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01314r000100540012-3 -[^35]: Internal Revenue Service, Form 990 of Council on Foreign Relations Inc for the year ended June 30, 2023 (tax year 2022), Parts I, III, VI, VII, VIII, Schedules B, I and O, IRS e-file XML object 202430169349300598, https://apps.irs.gov/pub/epostcard/990/xml/2024/2024_TEOS_XML_01A.zip (member 2024_TEOS_XML_01A/202430169349300598_public.xml) -[^36]: The Trilateral Commission, membership list "Last updated September 6, 2024," North American Group, https://archive.org/details/tc-membership-list-sept-6-2024-1 -[^37]: Department of Justice, Epstein Library, "Biographical Information of Jeffrey E. Epstein," EFTA00725190, and "About Jeffrey E. Epstein," EFTA00725191, https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00725190.pdf and https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00725191.pdf -[^38]: Department of Justice, Epstein Library, emails of November 8 and 15, 2010 between Jeffrey Epstein and the Council on Foreign Relations director of events, EFTA00751793, https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00751793.pdf + +[^28]: Council on Foreign Relations, *Annual Report, July 1, 1984 to June 30, 1985* (New York, 1985), President's Office staff page; the President's Report (departure on June 30, 1985); the letter of David Rockefeller of August 19, 1985. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000100210066-5 + +[^29]: Council on Foreign Relations, Annual Report, July 1, 1984 to June 30, 1985 (New York, 1985): Officers and Directors; committee lists; Campaign Executive Committee; historical officers; Studies Program and European-American Project (advisory group list); Meetings; Publications. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000100210066-5 + +[^30]: Council on Foreign Relations, "Bennett Freeman Named First Bernard L. Schwartz Senior Fellow in Business and Foreign Policy," press release dated March 20, 2002, https://www.cfr.org/articles/bennett-freeman-named-first-bernard-l-schwartz-senior-fellow-business-and-foreign + +[^31]: U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Political-Military Affairs, Office of Defense Trade Controls, consent agreement with Space Systems/Loral, Inc., January 9, 2002, Exhibit 10.1 to Loral Space & Communications Ltd. Form 8-K, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/0001006269/000095012302000193/y56456ex10-1.txt + +[^32]: U.S. Department of State, Office of Defense Trade Controls, Draft Charging Letter to Space Systems/Loral, Inc. (undated), https://www.pmddtc.state.gov/sys_attachment.do?sys_id=032ef245db15df00d0a370131f96192b + +[^33]: "X" (George F. Kennan), "The Sources of Soviet Conduct," Foreign Affairs, vol. 25, no. 4, July 1947, https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/russian-federation/1947-07-01/sources-soviet-conduct + +[^34]: William P. Bundy Papers (MC189), Biography/History, Princeton University Library, https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/PRIN_MUDD_MC189 + +[^35]: "William Bundy to Head Foreign Affairs Journal," press item, 1972, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP88-01314R000100540012-3, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01314r000100540012-3 + +[^36]: Internal Revenue Service, Form 990 of Council on Foreign Relations Inc for the year ended June 30, 2023 (tax year 2022), Parts I, III, VI, VII, VIII, Schedules B, I and O, IRS e-file XML object 202430169349300598, https://apps.irs.gov/pub/epostcard/990/xml/2024/2024_TEOS_XML_01A.zip (member 2024_TEOS_XML_01A/202430169349300598_public.xml) + +[^37]: The Trilateral Commission, membership list "Last updated September 6, 2024," North American Group, https://archive.org/details/tc-membership-list-sept-6-2024-1 + +[^38]: Department of Justice, Epstein Library, "Biographical Information of Jeffrey E. Epstein," EFTA00725190, and "About Jeffrey E. Epstein," EFTA00725191, https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00725190.pdf and https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00725191.pdf + +[^39]: Department of Justice, Epstein Library, emails of November 8 and 15, 2010 between Jeffrey Epstein and the Council on Foreign Relations director of events, EFTA00751793, https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00751793.pdf diff --git a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Dresser Industries.md b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Dresser Industries.md new file mode 100644 index 00000000..2b8ad220 --- /dev/null +++ b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Dresser Industries.md @@ -0,0 +1,349 @@ +--- +title: Dresser Industries +aliases: + - Dresser Industries + - Dresser Industries, Inc. + - Dresser Industries Inc + - Dresser Industries Inc /DE/ + - S. R. Dresser Manufacturing Company + - S.R. Dresser Manufacturing Company + - S. R. Dresser and Company + - Dresser Manufacturing Company + - DresserIndustries + - DII Industries + - DII Industries, LLC + - Dresser France + - Dresser (France) S.A. +category: "Private Organization" +tags: + - Organization + - Oilfield + - Dallas + - SkullAndBones + - Halliburton + - Harriman + - CentralIntelligenceAgency + - SovietUnion + - AsbestosLitigation + - ColdWarTrade + - ExportControls + - SiberianPipeline + - GeorgeHWBush + - PrescottBush + - NeilMallon + - DickCheney +summary: "Oilfield equipment maker founded in 1880, run by Skull and Bones member Neil Mallon from 1928 to 1962, licensed in 1978 to build a Soviet drill bit plant, and merged into Halliburton in 1998." +start: 1880 +end: 1998 +location: "Dallas, Texas" +created: 2026-10-26 +updated: 2026-10-26 +relations: + - type: founded + with: "[[Solomon R. Dresser]]" + reverse: true + start: 1880 + role: "founder, Bradford, Pennsylvania; patent dated May 11, 1880" + fn: 3 + - type: owned + with: "[[W. A. Harriman & Company]]" + reverse: true + start: 1928 + role: "purchaser of the Dresser family business; intended to make it a public company" + fn: 10 + - type: head_of + with: "[[Neil Mallon]]" + reverse: true + start: 1928 + end: 1962 + role: "president and chief executive officer; later chairman of the board" + fn: 9 + - type: head_of + with: "[[John Lawrence]]" + reverse: true + start: 1962 + end: 1970 + role: "president" + fn: 9 + - type: head_of + with: "[[John V. James]]" + reverse: true + start: 1970 + end: 1982 + role: "president and chief executive officer from 1970; chairman through 1982" + fn: 37 + - type: head_of + with: "[[John J. Murphy]]" + reverse: true + start: 1983 + role: "successor to James as chairman" + fn: 37 + - type: director_of + with: "[[Prescott Bush]]" + reverse: true + role: "director for twenty-two years after the 1928 purchase" + fn: 13 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[George H.W. Bush]]" + reverse: true + start: 1948 + end: 1951 + role: "oil field supply salesman, Midland, Texas" + fn: 31 + - type: contractor_to + with: "[[Manhattan Project]]" + role: "wartime manufacturing assignment" + fn: 18 + - type: owned + with: "[[Lane-Wells]]" + start: 1955 + end: 1958 + role: "sole stockholder from 1955; liquidated into a Dresser division on April 30, 1958" + fn: 21 + - type: owned + with: "[[Harbison-Walker Refractories Company]]" + start: 1967 + end: 1992 + role: "merged into Dresser on October 26, 1967; refractories business spun off to INDRESCO in 1992" + fn: 24 + - type: partner_of + with: "[[Halliburton]]" + start: 1986 + role: "joint venture M-I Drilling Fluids Company" + fn: 37 + - type: investigated + with: "[[Securities and Exchange Commission]]" + reverse: true + start: 1976 + end: 1980 + role: "investigation of questionable foreign payments, parallel to a Department of Justice grand jury" + fn: 39 + - type: subject_of + with: "[[United States Department of Commerce]]" + reverse: true + start: 1978 + role: "export license for a drill bit plant approved in August 1978; temporary denial order against Dresser (France) S.A. on August 26, 1982" + fn: 57 + - type: owned + with: "[[Halliburton]]" + reverse: true + start: 1998 + end: 1998 + role: "merger completed September 29, 1998" + fn: 65 +--- + +Dresser Industries was an oilfield equipment and engineering company that began in 1880 as a rubber packer business in [[Bradford, Pennsylvania]]. It was headquartered in [[Dallas, Texas]] from 1950. From 1928 to 1962 it was run by [[Neil Mallon]], a member of [[Skull and Bones]] in the [[Yale University]] class of 1917, after an investment-banking firm bought the family business. Its subsidiaries supplied the oil industry and wartime production, and its Soviet business appears in [[Central Intelligence Agency]] and [[United States Department of Commerce]] records for 1948, 1959, 1978 and 1982. In 1998 the company merged into [[Halliburton]], then led by [[Dick Cheney]].[^1][^2] + +### Solomon R. Dresser and the Bradford packer, 1880 to 1905 + +[[Solomon R. Dresser]] took out U.S. Patent No. 227,419, "Packing for Artesian Wells," on May 11, 1880. The specification describes a rubber seal that expands against the borehole wall when the tubing is pulled and contracts when it is lowered.[^3] The Handbook of Texas entry describes the product as the Dresser Cap Packer, sold from a frame building in Bradford, in the heart of the oilfields.[^1] The company history gives the same year and says Dresser opened the business in 1880 as S. R. Dresser and Company.[^4] + +The packer was not the product that made the company national. Dresser devised a rubber-sealed pipe coupling in 1885, perfected it two years later, and used it to join gas pipelines so that they would not leak. The company history says that a [[Standard Oil]] superintendent placed an experimental order for nine of Dresser's sleeves in 1894, and that orders from other companies followed.[^5] Dresser incorporated the business in December 1905. The charter financial statement gave company resources of $550,000, of which fourteen patents accounted for almost $180,000.[^6] + +The corporate lineage is recorded differently in later filings. The 1993 annual report to the Securities and Exchange Commission says the company was incorporated in Delaware in 1956 as a successor to a Pennsylvania corporation organized in 1938 by the consolidation of S. R. Dresser Manufacturing Company and Clark Bros. Company, and that both predecessors were "carrying on businesses founded in 1880."[^7] The 1997 annual report repeats the 1956 Delaware date.[^8] The Handbook entry and the 1979 corporate history by [[Darwin Payne]] both date the founding to 1880.[^1][^9] + +### The Harriman purchase and Mallon's presidency, 1928 to 1962 + +In 1928 the Dresser family sold the business to [[W. A. Harriman & Company]], an investment-banking firm that intended to make the company a public corporation with separate ownership and management. The number of shares rose from 5,000 to 300,000. Of these, 100,000 Class A shares were offered at $48 each, and the Class B shares were held back until 1931. The aging [[Fred Miller]], who had run the business, stayed on as chairman of the board in a consultative capacity. Mallon became president at the age of thirty-three.[^10] The Handbook entry states that Mallon "was selected as president and chief executive officer" and held that position until his retirement in 1962.[^11] + +The dates are not uniform. Payne's 1979 history lists the presidents as Solomon R. Dresser from 1880 to 1911, Fred A. Miller from 1911 to 1929, H. Neil Mallon from 1929 to 1962 and [[John Lawrence]] from 1962 to 1970.[^9] Prescott Bush, quoted by [[Garry Wills]] in 1992, dated the purchase to 1929: "In 1929 we bought Dresser Company of Bradford, Pennsylvania for four million dollars, and we sold securities against that company and refinanced it, you see, so that we retained a substantial measure of control."[^12] The company histories give 1928, and the recollection gives 1929. + +The W. A. Harriman people named in the Dresser histories include [[E. Roland Harriman]], whom Payne describes as a son of the railroad magnate E. H. Harriman, and [[Prescott Bush]]. The Handbook entry says that Bush "had been a W. A. Harriman and Company executive who had been involved in the conversion of Dresser to a public company, and he served on the board of directors for twenty-two years."[^13] Wills quoted Bush's statement that he was "Neil Mallon's chief adviser and consultant in connection with every move that he made with that business during that period of twenty years."[^12] The 1917 Yale class history lists Bush, Mallon, E. Roland Harriman and [[Knight Woolley]] as members of Skull and Bones, and Payne says the same four men had been fellow members of the society.[^14][^15] + +The W. A. Harriman firm had a Soviet connection before it bought Dresser. A manganese concession that the Soviet government granted to a Harriman company in 1925 is documented in the papers of [[W. Averell Harriman]].[^16] + +### Acquisitions and the Liechtenstein subsidiary, 1930 to 1967 + +Dresser expanded after 1930 because welding was threatening its coupling business. The company bought makers of valves, heaters, pumps and engines, opened a Toronto subsidiary in 1931 after Canada limited imports, and acquired [[Bryant Heater Company]] in 1933 for $65,000.[^10][^17] In 1937 it acquired [[Clark Brothers Company]] of [[Olean, New York]], a maker of gas engines and compressors, and the two were consolidated in 1938.[^10][^7] + +Dresser's wartime production included aircraft landing gear, wing flaps and bomb doors, engines for freighters, and pipeline components. The company history says that one of its most urgent assignments was at the [[Manhattan Project]], which was engaged in research to develop the atomic bomb, and that sales for 1944 were just under $55 million.[^18] Payne's history states that [[International Derrick and Equipment Company]] (IDECO), a maker of derricks and drilling rigs, was acquired by Dresser in 1944.[^9] In October 1944 the company changed its name to Dresser Industries, and the headquarters moved to [[Cleveland, Ohio]], where the new offices opened on March 19, 1945.[^9] + +In November 1945 Dresser acquired [[Security Engineering]] of [[Whittier, California]], a maker of drilling bits.[^9] In November 1949 it bought the [[Magnet Cove Barium Corporation]] of [[Houston]] for $2.8 million. The company history says that Magnet Cove was later known as Magcobar.[^19] The headquarters moved to Dallas in 1950, which the company history describes as moving the company to "the epicenter of the U.S. oil business."[^19] + +The company history states that in 1952 Dresser set up a Liechtenstein subsidiary, Dresser Vaduz, charged with executing and monitoring all foreign license agreements, and that the subsidiary "also funneled profits between the different countries, thus saving the parent company huge U.S. taxes by keeping profits overseas."[^20] + +In 1955 Dresser Industries became the owner of all the stock of [[Lane-Wells]] Company, the Los Angeles well-logging and perforating firm, and on April 30, 1958 it liquidated Lane-Wells into a Dresser division, according to the statement of facts in a patent case that reached the Supreme Court.[^21] A Lane-Wells advertisement of July 1955 described the company as "one of the Dresser Industries."[^22] A July 1955 issue of the magazine of the [[Dallas Chamber of Commerce]] counted nine affiliated Dresser companies. Ideco and the Security Engineering Division were in Dallas, and Lane-Wells was among the units named elsewhere, with Clark, Dresser-Ideco, Dresser Manufacturing, Magcobar, Pacific and Roots-Connersville.[^23] + +John Lawrence succeeded Mallon in 1962 and aimed acquisition offers at companies ancillary to the oil and gas supply business. [[Harbison-Walker Refractories Company]], a maker of heat-resistant brick and other materials for industrial furnaces, was merged into Dresser on October 26, 1967; its chairman, A. B. Wilson, was named to that office on that date, according to the annual report of its Canadian affiliate. The company history describes Harbison-Walker as a $125 million company that cost Dresser about $150 million.[^24][^25] The asbestos claims discussed below concern mainly refractory products of that kind. + +### Soviet business, 1948 to 1959 + +The company history credits [[John O'Connor]], an executive vice president of Dresser known throughout the company as "the world's most travelled executive," with persuading the [[Soviet Union]] to build a $6 million natural gas liquefaction plant outside [[Moscow]]. The entry states that the plant was slated for completion in 1949, "fell victim to a Commerce Department trade ban early in 1948," and was unfinished until 1954.[^26] + +A memorandum of January 14, 1959 by [[Lawrence R. Houston]], General Counsel of the Central Intelligence Agency, records a telephone call from a Department of Commerce official about a proposal by an American company to export technical data on petroleum engineering to Russia. Houston wrote that "this is connected with the Dresser Industries matter in which we had been involved about a year ago. Dresser had purchased a number of rotary drills from the Russians and had promised in return to give information or equipment to the Russians if permission to do so were granted. The Department of Commerce refused such permission to Dresser, and we were involved in the consideration of the case." The new application, covering petroleum engineering information including certain drill parts and their manufacture, "was turned down in the first instance on the advice of representatives of the Bureau of Mines and the Gas and Oil Division of Interior." Houston recorded that "the drills obtained from the Russians are now being manufactured by Dresser, and the American Petroleum Industry has benefited considerably thereby," that Dresser was appealing, and that it contended "anyone in the Soviet Bloc could buy their equipment in third countries." Houston arranged for a specialist in the Petroleum Division of the Office of Research and Reports to sit with the Commerce panel. The memorandum carries a copy line to the Director of Central Intelligence.[^27] + +### The Dallas Council on World Affairs, 1951 + +The World Affairs Council of Dallas/Fort Worth states that it was founded in 1951 when Dresser Industries' chairman and president Henry Neil Mallon saw the need for a local institution to encourage citizen understanding of international affairs. Mallon gathered seventeen founders from the corporate and civic communities to create the Dallas Council on World Affairs, which became affiliated with the World Affairs Councils of America, an organization founded in 1918 in conjunction with the [[Foreign Policy Association]].[^28] + +### Anthony Kimery and the CIA cover claim + +The Central Intelligence Agency enters the Dresser record through Mallon's contacts. [[Anthony L. Kimery]] wrote in the CovertAction Information Bulletin in 1992 that Mallon "was a friend to numerous ranking Cold War era intelligence officials, including [[Allen Dulles]]," and that Mallon "steered prospective candidates for spy work to Dulles and often provided cover employment to CIA operatives."[^29] Kimery wrote that Dresser "had routinely served as a CIA cover" and gave as his basis for that statement interviews in 1990 and 1991 with two former Operations Directorate field officers, one of whom claimed to have worked for Dresser as his cover.[^29] He also wrote that [[George H.W. Bush]] began his career as a salesman for IDECO, a Dresser subsidiary.[^29] + +Kimery wrote that Mallon introduced the Russian-born petroleum geologist [[George de Mohrenschildt]] to Bush at about the time Mallon gave Bush responsibility for negotiating deals with East-bloc oil officials, and that when a Yugoslav oil industry official came to the United States in 1948 to talk to Dresser, he went directly to Bush in Midland. Kimery quoted [[Victor Marchetti]], a former CIA officer: "It's inconceivable then that the CIA didn't debrief Bush after each and every meeting [he had with the East's representatives]." A retired CIA operative who said he had worked for Dresser as a cover told Kimery that "Bush had all the characteristics of being a spook."[^30] + +### George H.W. Bush at Ideco, 1948 to 1951 + +A CIA biographical sheet on Bush lists him as an "Oil field supply salesman, Dresser Industries, Midland, Texas, 1948-51," and records that he formed Bush-Overbey Oil Development, Inc., in 1951.[^31] Bush's own account in *All the Best* says that he "accepted the job from Neil Mallon and drove our 1947 Studebaker (a graduation gift from my parents) to Odessa, Texas."[^32] In *Looking Forward*, written with [[Victor Gold]], Bush wrote that Mallon was "a friend and a mentor second only to my father," and that he became "a full-fledged Ideco salesman, selling drilling bits."[^33] An illustration in Payne's company history carries a caption identifying George Bush as an oil-field-supply salesman for Ideco, and Payne's index lists Bush at pages 232 and 233 and Prescott S. Bush at pages 111 to 115.[^34] + +Two 1988 accounts in the CIA file tie the job to Mallon. [[Bob Woodward]] and [[Walter Pincus]] reported that Mallon, "another member" of the society, "gave Bush his first job out of Yale."[^35] [[Randall Rothenberg]] reported that Mallon offered Bush "a bottom-of-the-ladder job in Midland, Tex., at Dresser Industries."[^36] Bush's April 12, 1951 letter to "Mr. H.N. Mallon, Dresser Industries, Dallas, Texas" begins "Dear Neil, This will let you know that we are in business."[^32] The Bushes named their third son for Mallon. [[Neil Bush]] was born in Midland on January 22, 1955.[^32] + +### John V. James and the Dresser leadership, 1967 to 1982 + +[[John V. James]] was an executive vice president of Dresser Industries in Dallas in 1968, when he joined the board of the Canadian affiliate of Harbison-Walker.[^24] Dresser's president and chief executive from 1970 was James. The company history describes him as a man "whose talents lay in planning," who had gained experience in an army intelligence unit during the Second World War.[^37] Under James the company acquired [[Lodge-Cottrell]] in 1972 and [[Jeffrey Galion]] in 1974, and it introduced multiproduct plants.[^37] James was chairman in 1982, the company history says, and was succeeded in 1983 by [[John J. Murphy]]. A 1986 joint venture with Halliburton created M-I Drilling Fluids Company, and in 1987 a 50-50 venture with [[Ingersoll-Rand]] created [[Dresser-Rand]].[^37] + +The Business Council, a Washington association of corporate chief executives, listed "John V. James, Chairman & President, Dresser Industries, Inc." among its members in 1977, on a roster that also named [[Malcolm Baldrige]]. [[Stansfield Turner]], the Director of Central Intelligence, attended the council's session at The Homestead in May 1977, and a council officer invited him back for the session of October 13 to 15, 1977. In a letter of October 18, 1977 Turner thanked a council member for the hospitality and for "the reports on the Soviet and Chinese oil production."[^38] + +### Questionable foreign payments, 1976 to 1980 + +On January 27, 1976 Dresser representatives met the staff of the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] and agreed to conduct an internal inquiry into questionable foreign payments under the Commission's Voluntary Disclosure Program. Dresser filed Forms 8-K reporting one questionable foreign payment on January 28, 1976, the results of its inquiry on November 11, 1976, and a further payment on February 10, 1977.[^39] On July 15, 1977 Dresser refused the SEC staff access to the documents underlying its report, arguing that disclosure could endanger certain of its employees working abroad. The Department of Justice, which had a task force on transnational payments to which two SEC attorneys were assigned, received the SEC files on the roughly 400 participating companies, Dresser among them, in August 1977, and presented Dresser's case to a grand jury in the District of Columbia on January 25, 1978.[^39] + +Dresser sued the SEC and Justice in Houston to stop the investigations. The grand jury subpoenaed its documents on April 21, 1978, the SEC issued a formal order of investigation and a subpoena, and on June 30, 1978 [[Thomas A. Flannery]] of the District Court for the District of Columbia ordered Dresser to comply, in an opinion reported at 453 F. Supp. 573.[^39] The Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, sitting en banc with Chief Judge J. Skelly Wright writing, affirmed on July 16, 1980 in *Securities and Exchange Commission v. Dresser Industries, Inc.*, 628 F.2d 1368, and the Supreme Court denied review. The opinion records that the District Court had rejected an attempt by Edward R. Luter, a senior vice president of Dresser, to intervene on behalf of himself and other employees.[^39][^40] + +A press clipping in a CIA file of September and October 1978 on the Justice Department's overseas-corruption task force reported that Dresser's chairman, John V. James, "resisted testifying before the grand jury on grounds that he was exonerated by a prior agreement with another government agency in regard to a $1.4 million payment to a foreign official to consummate a $40 million deal."[^41] + +### Cold War exports and the 1978 drill bit contract + +In June 1978 Soviet trade organizations awarded Dresser two contracts totaling $180 million. One supplied equipment and technology for manufacturing drill bits for oil and gas wells.[^42] The license was issued on August 9, 1978, according to a dispatch by Bernard Gwertzman in the Washington Star of August 30, 1978, and the Foreign Relations of the United States volume cites a State Department telegram of August 11 reporting that the Carter administration approved the export license in August.[^43][^42] The same volume states that [[Juanita Kreps]], the Secretary of Commerce, approved a $140 million drill bit deal in August, and that [[Zbigniew Brzezinski]] learned of the approval from the newspaper.[^44] + +The Washington Star reported that Dresser issued a statement denying that the $144 million sale of advanced oil drilling technology would enhance Soviet military potential. In it Dresser accused Brzezinski, Energy Secretary [[James R. Schlesinger]] and Senator [[Henry M. Jackson]] of being "willing to go to any lengths to question the president's decision and kill the Dresser transaction as a symbol of their hard line attitude." Dresser called a report by J. Fred Bucy, president of Texas Instruments, prepared for the Pentagon's Science Advisory Board, "pre-ordained," and said the Pentagon had already judged that the drill bits "would not significantly enhance Soviet military capability." The Star reported that Brzezinski had convened a Cabinet-level meeting to seek approval for suspending the license and had failed to win the backing of the State and Commerce representatives.[^43] + +On August 17, 1978, at a meeting of Secretary of State [[Cyrus Vance]] with representatives of the National Conference on Soviet Jewry, Eugene Gold, the conference's chairman, "questioned whether enough spade work had been done before the Dresser (drill bit) plant decision had been taken" and said that "First the President had said the entire license was under review, then 'bang' it was approved." Vance told him that the letter authorizing Dresser to sell the equipment had already been transmitted. Later in the meeting Yehuda Hellman, executive director of the Conference of Presidents, asked whether trade might be used as a better carrot with the Soviets. According to the memorandum of conversation, Vance replied that "the problem was that other countries had the same carrot. In the case of the Dresser license, for example, some thought that Dresser was the sole source of (drill bit) technology, but that was simply not true. Others could sell this (drill bit) technology to the Soviets as well."[^42] + +Brzezinski's memorandum to [[Jimmy Carter]] of August 29, 1978 recommended a suspension of the Dresser licenses rather than revocation. It summarized a [[Defense Science Board]] report that called deep-well drilling technology "a critical technology, which is wholly concentrated in the U.S.," and rock drill bit manufacture critical as well, and it listed tungsten carbide as militarily significant, "easily diverted" and "not foreign-sourced, at this scale of manufacture." Bucy, a board member, wrote in his letter of transmittal that "a decision regarding the export of a turnkey factory for the manufacturing of drill bits for the exploration of oil is one of those" decisions that can change the course of history. Brzezinski wrote that to ignore the report "would be to play into Senator Jackson's hands," and he described the State and Commerce decision as "clearly hasty."[^45] Carter's marginal note beside the first conclusion of the report reads "We knew this."[^46] + +Jackson wanted to prevent the deal by launching an investigation into its military and political ramifications, as [[Rowland Evans]] and [[Robert Novak]] wrote in the [[Washington Post]] of August 16, 1978.[^47] The FRUS editors' note records that Schlesinger opposed the technology deal, believing that national security would be compromised, and that Brzezinski questioned whether it was still appropriate to continue with it.[^44] + +### The Kuybyshev plant and the tungsten carbide assessment, 1982 to 1984 + +The plant was built at Kuybyshev. A research paper of the CIA Directorate of Intelligence dated September 1984 states that it was designed to produce 100,000 bits annually, 86,000 of them with tungsten-carbide inserts and sealed-journal bearings, that production reached an annual rate of 100,000 as of early 1984, and that quality problems persisted, some aspects of which "probably stem from the inability of Dresser to have provided all of the necessary technical training." Bits from the plant lasted 50 to 60 hours, about one-third the life of comparable bits made in the United States.[^48] A CIA table of foreign availability of petroleum equipment states that "the Dresser drill bit plant would substantially improve Soviet bit productivity, which is poor by international standards" and that foreign competitors could not build a plant as quickly as American companies.[^49] + +In February 1982 [[William J. Casey]], the Director of Central Intelligence, wrote to Commerce Secretary Malcolm Baldrige: "As the result of our analysis of recently acquired intelligence information the CIA now believes that the tungsten carbide production technology transferred as part of the Dresser drill bit plant sold to the USSR will be used in improving the armor-penetrating performance of anti-tank ammunition." Casey wrote that the Soviets still desired the hands-on assistance by American technicians called for in the Dresser contract, that denial of it "could stretch out the time required to assimilate the technology to produce improved anti-tank penetrators," and that the attached assessment was sent "because of your current review of this case." The enclosed assessment stated that "we believe this effort derives from Dresser Industries sales to the USSR" and that the know-how "probably was supplied as part of the drill bit turnkey plant built by Dresser Industries in Kuybyshev," adding that the specifications Dresser provided in 1978 and 1979 "included the know-how to vary precisely the composition of tungsten-carbide powders used to make sintered drill bit cones."[^50][^51] + +A CIA memorandum for the record on a meeting of February 11, 1982 with two staff members of the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence states that they "were not impressed with the new information or our analysis commenting that they had come to that conclusion some three years ago," and that the CIA officers "pointed out that we also had hypothesized this conclusion in 1978 but had no intelligence that confirmed the likelihood." One staff member observed that "they perhaps had focused on the wrong questions in 1978," the concern being whether the technology had been transferred to another plant where military production takes place. The memorandum's author wrote that the staffers wanted the new information used "to prove that they (Senator Jackson's Staff) had been right in their earlier assessment," and that he expected "continuing pressure to break out this material for this purpose."[^52] + +The Los Angeles Times reported on May 4, 1982 that a senior military official, speaking on condition of anonymity, said intelligence information showed the Soviets had made at least indirect use of the plant's manufacturing technology, and that the plant had been prepared for conversion to weapons production. The newspaper reported that a Dresser senior vice president for finance said the company had not previously heard the assertion and could not respond to it. The article states that the license was granted for a factory at Kuibyshev, that a Senate investigation of the deal took place in October 1978, and that Army officials had warned in 1978 that the sale would enhance Soviet production of anti-tank weapons.[^53] + +### Siberian pipeline sanctions, 1982 + +The United States imposed controls on oil and gas equipment and technology for the Soviet Union on December 30, 1981 and extended them on June 22, 1982. On August 19, 1982 the General Counsel of the Treasury, [[Peter J. Wallison]], wrote to Secretary [[Donald Regan]] that the State Department had been notified the previous afternoon that the French government was about to order Dresser/France, "a wholly-owned subsidiary of Dresser Industries," to deliver three compressors to a Soviet ship in [[Le Havre]] for use in the Soviet gas pipeline. He wrote that "we may have an opportunity to enjoin Dresser Industries from permitting its subsidiary to violate U.S. export controls" by a temporary restraining order, and that acting against the American parent would answer European concerns about extraterritoriality. He wrote that seeking a restraining order "would send a strong signal that the President intends to enforce the gas pipeline regulations by whatever means available," and that "if there is to be a challenge in the U.S. courts to the validity of the regulations ... the case against Dresser might well be our strongest litigating position."[^54] + +A memorandum of August 23, 1982 to the Senior Interdepartmental Group on International Economic Policy, from the legal offices of the Departments of State, Defense, Treasury, Justice and Commerce and the Trade Representative, described the company: "Dresser/France has a contract to produce over twenty compressors for the pipeline. As a wholly-owned French subsidiary of a U.S. company which has been told by the French Government that the French will take action to force the shipment of the compressors, Dresser/France is in the middle of a difficult French-U.S. jurisdictional tug-of-war." It stated that Dresser Industries "has apparently ordered the subsidiary to obey the export controls and not to ship," that Dresser/France "has reportedly told its freight forwarder not to ship," and that "neither an injunction to force them to do what they have already done nor issuance of a denial order to punish them for what they are trying to prevent appears reasonable." The memorandum continued that "should the French Government seize Dresser/France to force the shipment or should Dresser change its position, consideration should be given to issuing a denial order against Dresser/France."[^55] + +On August 23, 1982 Dresser Industries and its French subsidiary, [[Dresser France]] (Dresser (France) S.A.), sued in the United States District Court for the District of Columbia to restrain Baldrige, the Secretary of Commerce, and other Commerce officials from imposing sanctions on the subsidiary. The court's opinion describes the regulations at issue as prohibiting the export of certain goods and technology to the Soviet Union, particularly goods sought for the construction of the gas pipeline between the Soviet Union and Western Europe, and as promulgated as part of a major foreign policy exercise.[^56] Flannery, who had ordered Dresser to comply with the SEC subpoena in 1978, denied a temporary restraining order on August 24, 1982, with a written order the next day.[^56] + +On August 26, 1982 Commerce Hearing Commissioner Thomas W. Hoya issued an order temporarily denying all export privileges to Dresser (France) S.A., which the Federal Register published on August 30. The order recites the Department's statement that Dresser-France was "almost entirely owned by Dresser A.G. (Vaduz), a Liechtenstein corporation which is a wholly-owned subsidiary of Dresser Industries, a United States corporation," and that its investigation gave it reason to believe that Dresser-France "has manufactured compressors using United States-origin technology for use in, for, or by the Soviet Union" and "has exported, or has placed beyond its control to prevent the export of, these compressors from France to the Soviet Union contrary to the Regulations." The Hearing Commissioner found the order "required in the public interest to facilitate enforcement of the Export Administration Act of 1979" and "to permit completion of the Department's investigation."[^57] A Commerce briefing prepared for Casey's use stated that Dresser (France), of Le Havre, was "a second tier subsidiary of Dresser Industries, Inc. in Dallas, Texas," held through a Liechtenstein parent at Vaduz, that it had received its compressor technology from the Dresser Clark Division in Olean before December 30, 1981, and that it was subcontracted to [[Creusot-Loire]] to provide 21 centrifugal compressor units, against 42 for Creusot-Loire, 57 for Nuovo Pignone and 5 for Demag.[^58] + +Dresser appealed the denial order on September 2. The Hearing Commissioner modified it by an order dated September 7, published September 9, to limit its scope to commodities and technical data relating to oil and gas exploration, production, transmission or refinement.[^59] On September 9 [[Joyce Hens Green]] set a schedule under which discovery requests would be served by September 9, responses would be provided by September 14, and a hearing on the motion to vacate the denial order would be held before the Hearing Commissioner by September 17. She denied the restraining order without prejudice to renewal if that hearing did not take place.[^56] The reported decision is *Dresser Industries, Inc. v. Baldridge*, 549 F. Supp. 108 (D.D.C. 1982).[^60] + +A Commerce memorandum of October 6, 1982 on the sanctions stated that Creusot-Loire "served as the conduit of payment by Machinoimport to Dresser France," and that Creusot "signed a Declaration of Conformity subsequent to the June 22, 1982 U.S. export controls which stated that the Dresser France compressors conformed to the technical specifications of the September 28, 1981 supply contract between Creusot-Loire, Dresser France and Machinoimport."[^61] On November 16, 1982, after the amendment of the regulations to rescind the controls of December 30, 1981 and June 22, 1982, the Hearing Commissioner vacated the order against Dresser (France) on the Department's motion, noting that "the administrative proceeding against Dresser-France was based on the now-rescinded controls" and that the Department "will take no further action to enforce those controls." The order was published on November 22, 1982.[^62] + +### Harbison-Walker and the asbestos claims + +Dresser's annual report for fiscal 1993 states that the company had approximately 42,800 pending asbestos claims, about 12,000 of them filed in 1993. The company states that it "has never been a miner or processor of asbestos," but it produced refractory products that contained some asbestos, and about half the pending claims alleged exposure to those products.[^63] Since 1976 the company had tried, settled or disposed of about 13,000 claims for $29 million including legal fees, with insurance covering 60 to 67 percent of legal fees and settlements. About 80 percent of the settled claims related to refractory products.[^63] + +The refractories business was separated from Dresser in a spin-off to INDRESCO, Inc. Under the agreement made at the spin-off, INDRESCO assumed liability for asbestos claims filed after July 31, 1992 relating to refractory products of the Harbison-Walker Refractories Division. The report for the fiscal year ended October 31, 1995 names the successor as Harbison-Walker Refractories Company, "formerly INDRESCO Inc."[^64] The 1999 report of Halliburton states that Global Industrial Technologies, Inc., formerly INDRESCO, now disputes that it assumed responsibility for any of those claims based on negligence. It also reports that about 183,000 claims had been filed against Dresser and its former divisions over twenty years, with 29,400 new claims in 1998.[^65] + +### Baroid and the 1990s + +In fiscal 1993 Dresser reported consolidated sales and service revenues of $4,216 million, divided into three segments: Oilfield Services, Hydrocarbon Processing Industry and Engineering Services.[^66] The company acquired Bredero Price Holding B.V., a Netherlands pipe-coating business, on February 1, 1993, and TK Valve & Manufacturing, Inc., a Texas maker of ball valves, on April 1, 1993.[^66] The Baroid merger, effective January 21, 1994, combined Dresser with [[Baroid Corporation]], a Houston drilling-fluids and offshore services company. Baroid's shareholders received approximately 37.3 million Dresser shares. The Antitrust Division of the [[Department of Justice]] required Dresser to dispose of either its 64 percent interest in [[M-I Drilling Fluids Company]] or Baroid's drilling fluids business, and to divest the United States diamond drill bit business of DB Stratabit, Inc. The 1993 report names Halliburton as the minority partner in M-I, whose consent the sale of that interest required.[^66] The Handbook of Texas entry states that upon completion of the Baroid merger Dresser became "the third-largest oil-services company in the world."[^67] + +### Halliburton merger, 1998 + +The merger was negotiated between Dick Cheney, then chief executive of Halliburton, and [[William E. Bradford]], chairman and chief executive of Dresser. The registration statement on Form S-4 that Halliburton filed on May 18, 1998 recounts that the two companies' predecessors had discussed a combination in 1994 under a confidentiality agreement, and that those talks ended without agreement on essential terms.[^68] + +According to the S-4, Cheney and Bradford met briefly on August 25, 1997 concerning Halliburton's pending acquisition of [[NUMAR Corporation]], and met again in Dallas on October 2, 1997. On January 17, 1998, during a customer's quail hunt in South Texas, they agreed to discuss the matter further in Dallas.[^69] At the Dallas meeting on January 27, 1998, Bradford "clearly stated that Dresser was not for sale."[^70] Cheney proposed a merger of Dresser into a Halliburton subsidiary with an exchange ratio of 0.95 Halliburton share for each Dresser share. He proposed that Bradford become chairman of the combined company, that [[Donald C. Vaughn]], Dresser's president and chief executive, become vice chairman, and that Cheney and [[David J. Lesar]] keep their Halliburton posts.[^68] Bradford said he would expect an improved ratio. The final exchange ratio was one Halliburton share for each Dresser share.[^68][^71] + +Halliburton had engaged [[SBC Warburg Dillon Read]] and [[Goldman Sachs]] as financial advisers on November 1, 1997. The definitive merger agreement was executed on February 25, 1998.[^71] The merger brought approximately 175 million Halliburton shares to Dresser's holders, and it was completed on September 29, 1998 under pooling of interests accounting.[^65][^71] + +### DII Industries and the Chapter 11 filings, 2002 to 2005 + +In the second quarter of 2002 the former Dresser Industries, Inc. became a limited liability company and was renamed DII Industries, LLC, as part of a reorganization in which Halliburton placed the entities of its Engineering and Construction Group under the former Dresser entity.[^72] A bankruptcy court temporary restraining order entered on February 14, 2002 stayed more than 200,000 pending asbestos claims against DII Industries.[^72] In April 2001 Halliburton had sold the Dresser Equipment Group, which was renamed Dresser, Inc., retaining a 5.1 percent equity interest.[^73] + +Halliburton's 2002 annual report describes a proposed global settlement of up to $2.775 billion in cash, 59.5 million Halliburton shares and notes with a net present value expected to be less than $100 million, payable to a trust for current and future asbestos and silica claimants. DII Industries and [[Kellogg, Brown & Root]] would retain the first $2.3 billion of insurance proceeds, and the settlement was to be implemented through a pre-packaged Chapter 11 filing.[^72] The same report describes the disclosure statement to be mailed to the more than 347,000 current claimants.[^74] + +According to Halliburton's 2003 annual report, DII Industries, Kellogg, Brown & Root and some of their subsidiaries filed Chapter 11 proceedings on December 16, 2003, in bankruptcy court in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.[^75] The order confirming the plan of reorganization became final and nonappealable on December 31, 2004, and the plan became effective in January 2005, when Halliburton contributed approximately $2.345 billion in cash, 59.5 million shares of its common stock and notes to the trusts.[^76] + +If the settlement had failed, Halliburton's 2002 report stated, asbestos claims would have been resolved in the tort system or, for Harbison-Walker claims, possibly through the Harbison-Walker bankruptcy proceedings.[^77] In a statement filed on December 3, 2004, Halliburton said that a Third Circuit decision in the [[Combustion Engineering]] bankruptcy had no impact on the DII and Kellogg, Brown & Root bankruptcy, because in the DII case no asbestos liabilities were channeled to a trust other than liabilities of the debtors.[^78] + +### Footnotes + +[^1]: Darwin Payne, "Dresser Industries: A Legacy in Energy and Natural Resources," *Handbook of Texas Online*, Texas State Historical Association: the Dresser Cap Packer and the May 11, 1880 patent; the 1885 coupling; the 1928 conversion by W. A. Harriman and Company; the move to Dallas in 1950. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/dresser-industries +[^2]: International Directory of Company Histories, "Dresser Industries, Inc." (St. James Press), reproduced on Encyclopedia.com: the 1880 start in Bradford, the 1928 sale to W. A. Harriman and Company, the 1948 trade ban, the move to Dallas in 1950, the 1986 joint venture with Halliburton. https://encyclopedia.com/books/politics-and-business-magazines/dresser-industries-inc +[^3]: Solomon R. Dresser, "Packing for Artesian Wells," U.S. Patent No. 227,419, dated May 11, 1880, Bradford, Pennsylvania. https://patents.google.com/patent/US227419A +[^4]: International Directory of Company Histories, "Dresser Industries, Inc.": Solomon Dresser opened S. R. Dresser and Company in Bradford in 1880 and designed an expanding india-rubber packer. https://encyclopedia.com/books/politics-and-business-magazines/dresser-industries-inc +[^5]: International Directory of Company Histories, "Dresser Industries, Inc.": the leakproof coupling of 1885, perfected two years later, and the experimental order of nine sleeves from a Standard Oil superintendent in 1894. https://encyclopedia.com/books/politics-and-business-magazines/dresser-industries-inc +[^6]: International Directory of Company Histories, "Dresser Industries, Inc.": the charter signed in December 1905, capital stock of $500,000, resources of $550,000 and fourteen patents accounting for almost $180,000. https://encyclopedia.com/books/politics-and-business-magazines/dresser-industries-inc +[^7]: Dresser Industries, Inc., Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended October 31, 1993, filed January 28, 1994 (accession 0000950131-94-000055), Item 1 (incorporation in Delaware in 1956 as successor to the Pennsylvania corporation organized in 1938; businesses founded in 1880). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/30099/0000950131-94-000055.txt +[^8]: Dresser Industries, Inc., Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended October 31, 1997, filed January 27, 1998 (accession 0001047469-98-002199), Item 1. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/30099/0001047469-98-002199.txt +[^9]: Darwin Payne, *Initiative in Energy: Dresser Industries, Inc., 1880-1978* (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979): the list of presidents (Solomon R. Dresser 1880 to 1911; Fred A. Miller 1911 to 1929; H. Neil Mallon 1929 to 1962; John Lawrence 1962 to 1970; John V. James 1970 to the present of publication); the principals of the Harriman firm, among them E. Roland Harriman, described as sons of the railroad magnate E. H. Harriman; the caption "Ideco was acquired by Dresser in 1944"; Security Engineering Company of Whittier, California, joining Dresser on November 1, 1945; the name change of October 1944; the opening of the Cleveland offices on March 19, 1945. https://archive.org/details/initiativeinener00payn_0 +[^10]: International Directory of Company Histories, "Dresser Industries, Inc.": the 1928 share structure, the Class A and Class B shares and Fred Miller's chairmanship; Mallon as president at thirty-three; the Toronto subsidiary of 1931; the Bryant Heater purchase of 1933 for $65,000; the Clark Brothers acquisition of 1937 and merger of 1938. https://encyclopedia.com/books/politics-and-business-magazines/dresser-industries-inc +[^11]: Darwin Payne, "Dresser Industries: A Legacy in Energy and Natural Resources," *Handbook of Texas Online*: Mallon "was selected as president and chief executive officer" and served until his retirement in 1962. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/dresser-industries +[^12]: Garry Wills, "Father Knows Best," *The New York Review of Books*, November 5, 1992: Prescott Bush's recollection of buying Dresser Company of Bradford, Pennsylvania in 1929 for four million dollars; his statement "I was Neil Mallon's chief adviser and consultant in connection with every move that he made with that business during that period of twenty years." https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/ +[^13]: Darwin Payne, "Dresser Industries: A Legacy in Energy and Natural Resources," *Handbook of Texas Online*: Bush "had been a W. A. Harriman and Company executive who had been involved in the conversion of Dresser to a public company, and he served on the board of directors for twenty-two years." https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/dresser-industries +[^14]: George Mosher Murray and others, *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. 1 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1917), entries for Edward Roland Noel Harriman (member of Psi Upsilon and Skull and Bones), Knight Woolley, Prescott Sheldon Bush and Henry Neil Mallon. https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr +[^15]: Payne, *Initiative in Energy* (1979), chapter "New Command in a Troubled Era," on the Harriman firm's purchase and the Skull and Bones membership shared by Harriman, Bush, Woolley and Mallon. https://archive.org/details/initiativeinener00payn_0 +[^16]: W. Averell Harriman Papers finding aid, Special Files: Business, Georgian Manganese Company, 1921 to 1946 (Boxes 694 to 709: Tchemo agreement and syndicate agreement of June 12, 1925; W. A. Harriman and Co. assignment of July 18, 1925). https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt867nf2wp +[^17]: Darwin Payne, "Dresser Industries: A Legacy in Energy and Natural Resources," *Handbook of Texas Online*: the acquisitions between 1930 and the entry of the United States into the war. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/dresser-industries +[^18]: International Directory of Company Histories, "Dresser Industries, Inc.": the wartime production of landing gear, wing flaps, bomb doors and freighter engines; "One of the company's most urgent assignments was at the secret Manhattan Project"; sales for 1944 of just under $55 million. https://encyclopedia.com/books/politics-and-business-magazines/dresser-industries-inc +[^19]: International Directory of Company Histories, "Dresser Industries, Inc.": the Magnet Cove Barium Corporation of Houston, November 1949, $2.8 million, later Magcobar; the move to Dallas in 1950 as "the epicenter of the U.S. oil business." https://encyclopedia.com/books/politics-and-business-magazines/dresser-industries-inc +[^20]: International Directory of Company Histories, "Dresser Industries, Inc.": the Liechtenstein subsidiary Dresser Vaduz set up in 1952 to execute and monitor all foreign license agreements and to funnel profits between countries. https://encyclopedia.com/books/politics-and-business-magazines/dresser-industries-inc +[^21]: Supreme Court of the United States, October Term 1965, No. 366, *McCullough Tool Co. v. Well Surveys, Inc.*, 383 U.S. 933 (petition for certiorari), statement of facts in the appendix: "In the year 1955 Dresser Industries, Inc., became the owner of all of the stock of Lane-Wells Company and of WSI. On April 30, 1958, Dresser Industries, Inc., liquidated Lane-Wells Company." https://archive.org/details/micro_IA40385602_1172 +[^22]: *California Oil World*, vol. 48, no. 14 (July 1955), advertisement of Lane-Wells Co., Los Angeles, "one of the Dresser Industries." https://archive.org/details/sim_pacific-oil-and-gas-world_1955-07_48_14 +[^23]: *Dallas* (magazine of the Dallas Chamber of Commerce), vol. 34, no. 7 (July 1955): the passage naming the nine affiliated Dresser Industries companies, including Lane-Wells, Magcobar and Roots-Connersville, with Ideco and the Security Engineering Division in Dallas. https://archive.org/details/sim_dallas_1955-07_34_7 +[^24]: Canadian Refractories Limited, annual report for the fiscal year ended October 31, 1968: directors elected in fiscal 1968 including "John V. James, Executive Vice President of Dresser Industries, Inc., Dallas, Texas"; A. B. Wilson "named to the position of Chairman on October 26, 1967, upon the merger of Harbison-Walker Refractories Company into Dresser Industries, Inc." https://archive.org/details/Cana2029_1968 +[^25]: International Directory of Company Histories, "Dresser Industries, Inc.": the Lawrence-era acquisitions; Harbison-Walker as a $125 million company that cost Dresser about $150 million. https://encyclopedia.com/books/politics-and-business-magazines/dresser-industries-inc +[^26]: International Directory of Company Histories, "Dresser Industries, Inc.": John O'Connor, "the world's most travelled executive," and the $6 million natural gas liquefaction plant outside Moscow, slated for completion in 1949, which "fell victim to a Commerce Department trade ban early in 1948" and was unfinished until 1954. https://encyclopedia.com/books/politics-and-business-magazines/dresser-industries-inc +[^27]: Central Intelligence Agency, Lawrence R. Houston, General Counsel, memorandum for the record, "Dresser Industries," January 14, 1959, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R000100160032-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r000100160032-3 +[^28]: World Affairs Council of Dallas/Fort Worth, "Our History": founding in 1951 by Dresser Industries' chairman and president Henry Neil Mallon, the seventeen founders, and the affiliation with the World Affairs Councils of America. https://support.dfwworld.org/oldsite/who-we-are/our-history +[^29]: Anthony L. Kimery, "George Bush and the CIA: In the Company of Friends," *CovertAction Information Bulletin*, no. 41 (Summer 1992), p. 61 and notes 8 to 10: the statements on Mallon's contacts with Allen Dulles and on the CIA cover; the note on the interviews in 1990 and 1991 with two former Operations Directorate field officers; the passage on Bush's IDECO job. CIA reading room copy, document CIA-RDP99-01448R000401570011-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401570011-0 +[^30]: Kimery, "George Bush and the CIA: In the Company of Friends," *CovertAction Information Bulletin*, no. 41 (Summer 1992), pp. 61 to 62 and notes 13 to 16: Mallon's introduction of George de Mohrenschildt to Bush; the Yugoslav oil official of 1948; the statement of Victor Marchetti; the statement of the retired operative who said he worked for Dresser as a cover. https://archive.org/details/CovertActionInformationBulletinNo41Summer1992 +[^31]: Central Intelligence Agency, "Biographical Information on George H. W. Bush," undated sheet, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP99-01448R000401590001-9, listing "Oil field supply salesman, Dresser Industries, Midland, Texas, 1948-51" and Bush-Overbey Oil Development, Inc., formed 1951. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401590001-9 +[^32]: George Bush, *All the Best, George Bush: My Life in Letters and Other Writings* (New York: Scribner, 1999): the biographical note on Neil Mallon; the account of accepting the job and driving to Odessa; the letter of April 12, 1951 to H. N. Mallon, Dresser Industries, Dallas; the passage on naming the third son for Neil Mallon; the chronology entry for Neil Mallon Bush. https://archive.org/details/allbestgeorgebus0000bush +[^33]: George Bush with Victor Gold, *Looking Forward* (New York: Doubleday, 1987): "Neil Mallon was a friend and a mentor second only to my father"; "I became a full-fledged Ideco salesman, selling drilling bits." https://archive.org/details/lookingforward00bush +[^34]: Payne, *Initiative in Energy* (1979), illustration caption "George Bush, center, an oil-field-supply salesman for Ideco," and the index entries for Bush, George (232 to 233) and Bush, Prescott S. (111, 113, 114, 115). https://archive.org/details/initiativeinener0000payn +[^35]: Bob Woodward and Walter Pincus, "Bush Opened Up To Secret Yale Society: Turning Points in a Life Built on Alliances," dated August 7, 1988 in the CIA reading room record, CIA-RDP99-01448R000401580058-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401580058-8 +[^36]: Randall Rothenberg, "In Search of George Bush," dated March 6, 1988, newspaper clipping in the CIA file, CIA-RDP99-01448R000401580078-6, quoting Bucky Bush on Neil Mallon's offer of a job in Midland, Texas. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401580078-6 +[^37]: International Directory of Company Histories, "Dresser Industries, Inc.": the 1970 appointment of John V. James as president and chief executive officer, his army intelligence service in the Second World War, the 1972 Lodge-Cottrell acquisition, the 1974 Jeffrey Galion acquisition, James's chairmanship through 1982, the 1983 succession of John J. Murphy, the 1986 M-I joint venture with Halliburton and the 1987 Dresser-Rand venture with Ingersoll-Rand. https://encyclopedia.com/books/politics-and-business-magazines/dresser-industries-inc +[^38]: The Business Council, member rosters and correspondence, October 13 to 15, 1977 and May 13 to 14, 1977 sessions (CIA reading room documents CIA-RDP05S00620R000401140001-1 and CIA-RDP05S00620R000401180002-6): the member lists naming John V. James, Chairman & President, Dresser Industries, Inc., and Malcolm Baldrige; the invitation to Admiral Stansfield Turner; Turner's letter of October 18, 1977. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP05S00620R000401140001-1 +[^39]: *Securities and Exchange Commission v. Dresser Industries, Inc.*, 628 F.2d 1368 (D.C. Cir. 1980) (en banc), Wright, C.J.: Part I.B, "The Dresser Investigations" (Form 8-K filings of January 28, 1976, November 11, 1976 and February 10, 1977; the refusal of July 15, 1977; the Department of Justice task force and the files transmitted in August 1977; the grand jury presentation of January 25, 1978; the subpoenas of April 21, 1978; the order of Judge Flannery of June 30, 1978, 453 F. Supp. 573; the intervention of Edward R. Luter). https://static.case.law/f2d/628/cases/1368-01.json +[^40]: *Dresser Industries, Inc. v. Securities and Exchange Commission*, 449 U.S. 993 (1980) (No. 80-354), order denying certiorari. https://archive.org/details/micro_IA40385007_0373 +[^41]: Newspaper article on the Justice Department task force on overseas corruption, in the CIA press clippings file of September and October 1978, CIA-RDP05S00620R000501250001-8. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP05S00620R000501250001-8 +[^42]: Department of State, Memorandum of Conversation, "Soviet Jewry and Related Events," Washington, August 17, 1978, 3:30 p.m., drafted August 18, 1978, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980*, vol. VI, Soviet Union, document 140, with note 2 (citing "Company Roundup: Soviet Awards Dresser $180 Million Contracts," *The New York Times*, June 2, 1978, p. D5, and Telegram 203480 to Moscow, August 11, 1978, National Archives, RG 59, Central Foreign Policy File, D780329-0069). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v06/d140 +[^43]: Bernard Gwertzman, "Firm Denies Oil Tools Sale Could Aid Soviet Military," *The Washington Star*, August 30, 1978, CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP81M00980R000600060005-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp81m00980r000600060005-5 +[^44]: Brzezinski to Carter, August 29, 1978, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980*, vol. VI, document 141, editors' note 2: Kreps's August approval of the $140 million drill bit deal; Brzezinski's reading of it in the newspaper; Schlesinger's opposition; Brzezinski's question on continuing with the deal; citing Zbigniew Brzezinski, *Power and Principle*, pp. 322 to 325. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v06/d141 +[^45]: Brzezinski to Carter, August 29, 1978, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980*, vol. VI, document 141: the Defense Science Board conclusions; the letter of transmittal by J. Fred Bucy; the recommendation of a suspension on national security and foreign policy grounds. Carter Library, National Security Affairs, Brzezinski Material, Box 89. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v06/d141 +[^46]: Brzezinski to Carter, August 29, 1978, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980*, vol. VI, document 141, editors' note 5, recording Carter's marginal notation in the right-hand margin beside the Defense Science Board's first conclusion. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v06/d141 +[^47]: Rowland Evans and Robert Novak, "Confusing Signals on Trade with Russia," *The Washington Post*, August 16, 1978, p. A15, as cited in the footnote to Brzezinski's memorandum of August 29, 1978, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980*, vol. VI, document 141. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v06/d141 +[^48]: Central Intelligence Agency, Directorate of Intelligence, *The Role of Western Equipment in Soviet Oil and Gas Development*, research paper SOV 84-10153X, September 1984, CIA-RDP85T00313R000300010001-9, on the Dresser drill bit plant at Kuybyshev. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp85t00313r000300010001-9 +[^49]: Central Intelligence Agency, "Foreign Availability of Petroleum Equipment," table of rock bits, CIA-RDP84B00049R000601570019-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84b00049r000601570019-8 +[^50]: William J. Casey, Director of Central Intelligence, letter to Malcolm Baldrige, Secretary of Commerce, February 1982, CIA-RDP83M00914R001200090040-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83m00914r001200090040-0 +[^51]: Central Intelligence Agency, "The Transfer of U.S. Tungsten Carbide Technology to the USSR and its Military Application," enclosure to the letter of February 1982, CIA-RDP83M00914R001200090041-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83m00914r001200090041-9 +[^52]: Central Intelligence Agency, Chief, Technology Transfer Assessment Center, memorandum for the record, "Meeting With Senate Select Committee Staffers on Dresser Drill Bit Case," meeting of February 11, 1982, CIA-RDP83M00914R001200090039-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83m00914r001200090039-2 +[^53]: "Drill-Bit Deal Seen Helping Soviet Arms," *Los Angeles Times*, May 4, 1982, CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP90-00806R000100370022-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000100370022-6 +[^54]: Peter J. Wallison, General Counsel of the Treasury, memorandum to Secretary Regan, "Soviet Gas Pipeline Controls," August 19, 1982, CIA-RDP83M00914R000600030061-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83m00914r000600030061-0 +[^55]: Legal offices of the Departments of State, Defense, Treasury, Justice and Commerce and the Trade Representative, memorandum to the Senior Interdepartmental Group on International Economic Policy (bearing the name of Peter J. Wallison), "Options For Dealing With Imminent Shipments in Violation of Oil and Gas Export Controls," August 23, 1982, section "E. Dresser/France," CIA-RDP83M00914R000600030058-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83m00914r000600030058-4 +[^56]: *Dresser Industries, Inc. and Dresser (France) S.A. v. Baldridge*, 549 F. Supp. 108 (D.D.C. 1982) (Green, J.), order of September 9, 1982, reporting the filing on August 23, the restraining-order denial by Judge Thomas A. Flannery on August 24, the temporary denial order of August 26, the appeal of September 2 and the schedule for the hearing. https://static.case.law/f-supp/549/cases/0108-01.json +[^57]: "Dresser (France) S.A.; Order Temporarily Denying Export Privileges," Case No. 632, order of August 26, 1982 by Hearing Commissioner Thomas W. Hoya, 47 Fed. Reg. 38170 (August 30, 1982). https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-register-find_1982-08-30_47_168 +[^58]: Malcolm Baldrige, note to William Casey with guideline questions and answers on the President's oil and gas sanctions, 1982, answers on Dresser (France) S.A. and the table of compressor orders, CIA-RDP84B00049R000501350004-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84b00049r000501350004-9 +[^59]: "Dresser (France) S.A.; Order Modifying Temporary Denial of Export Privileges," Case No. 632, order of September 7, 1982, 47 Fed. Reg. 39708 (September 9, 1982). https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-register-find_1982-09-09_47_175 +[^60]: *Dresser Industries, Inc. and Dresser (France) S.A. v. Baldridge*, 549 F. Supp. 108 (D.D.C. 1982) (Green, J.), reporter citation and caption, with the date of the order of September 9, 1982. https://static.case.law/f-supp/549/cases/0108-01.json +[^61]: Lionel H. Olmer, Under Secretary of Commerce for International Trade, memorandum "U.S. Sanctions on Creusot-Loire and Mannesmann Anlagenbau," October 6, 1982, with the attached summary of the temporary denial orders, CIA-RDP84T00109R000100100002-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84t00109r000100100002-8 +[^62]: "Dresser (France) S.A.; Order Vacating Temporary Denial of Export Privileges," Case No. 632, order of November 16, 1982 by Hearing Commissioner Thomas W. Hoya, 47 Fed. Reg. (November 22, 1982), FR Doc. 82-31900. https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-register-find_1982-11-22_47_225 +[^63]: Dresser Industries, Inc., Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended October 31, 1993 (accession 0000950131-94-000055), Note L, "Asbestosis Litigation." https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/30099/0000950131-94-000055.txt +[^64]: Dresser Industries, Inc., Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended October 31, 1995, filed January 29, 1996 (accession 0000912057-96-000951), notes on asbestosis litigation (refractory claims after July 31, 1992 are the responsibility of Harbison-Walker Refractories Company, formerly INDRESCO Inc.). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/30099/000091205796000951/0000912057-96-000951.txt +[^65]: Halliburton Company, Form 10-K for fiscal 1998, filed March 23, 1999 (accession 0000045012-99-000005): the note on the Halliburton/Dresser merger (completed September 29, 1998; pooling of interests) and the note on asbestosis litigation (about 183,000 claims over twenty years, 29,400 new claims in 1998, Global Industrial Technologies, formerly INDRESCO, Inc., disputing its assumption of Harbison-Walker Refractories Division claims). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/45012/0000045012-99-000005.txt +[^66]: Dresser Industries, Inc., Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended October 31, 1993, Item 1: fiscal 1993 revenues of $4,216 million and the three segments; the Bredero Price (February 1, 1993) and TK Valve (April 1, 1993) acquisitions; the Baroid merger effective January 21, 1994, with 37,286,662 shares to the Baroid shareholders; the Antitrust Division divestiture requirements covering the 64 percent interest in M-I Drilling Fluids Company and the DB Stratabit diamond drill bit business; the consent of the minority partner, Halliburton Company, to the M-I sale. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/30099/0000950131-94-000055.txt +[^67]: Darwin Payne, "Dresser Industries: A Legacy in Energy and Natural Resources," *Handbook of Texas Online*, section on the Baroid merger and the company's position after it. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/dresser-industries +[^68]: Halliburton Company, Registration Statement on Form S-4, filed May 18, 1998 (accession 0000930661-98-001212), "Background of the Merger": the 1994 discussions; the August 25, 1997 meeting concerning NUMAR; the October 2, 1997 meeting in Dallas; the proposed 0.95 exchange ratio and management roles; the exchange ratio of one share of Halliburton common stock for each Dresser share. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/45012/0000930661-98-001212.txt +[^69]: Halliburton Company, Form S-4, filed May 18, 1998, "Background of the Merger," paragraph on the meeting of January 17, 1998 during a customer's quail hunt in South Texas. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/45012/0000930661-98-001212.txt +[^70]: Halliburton Company, Form S-4, filed May 18, 1998, "Background of the Merger," paragraph on the meeting of January 27, 1998 in Dallas: Bradford's statement that Dresser "was not for sale" and his expectation of an improved exchange ratio. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/45012/0000930661-98-001212.txt +[^71]: Halliburton Company, Form 10-Q for the quarter ended June 30, 1998 (accession 0000045012-98-000034), Note 10, "Halliburton / Dresser Merger" (definitive agreement executed February 25, 1998; one-for-one exchange ratio; approximately 175 million shares of common stock to be issued). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/45012/0000045012-98-000034.txt +[^72]: Halliburton Company, Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2002, filed March 28, 2003 (accession 0000045012-03-000018): the renaming of Dresser Industries, Inc. as DII Industries, LLC in the second quarter of 2002; the temporary restraining order of February 14, 2002; the proposed global settlement of up to $2.775 billion. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/45012/000004501203000018/0000045012-03-000018-index.htm +[^73]: Halliburton Company, Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2002 (accession 0000045012-03-000018), discussion of the sale of the Dresser Equipment Group in April 2001, renamed Dresser, Inc., and the retained 5.1 percent equity interest. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/45012/000004501203000018/0000045012-03-000018-index.htm +[^74]: Halliburton Company, Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2002 (accession 0000045012-03-000018), description of the disclosure statement to be mailed to the more than 347,000 current claimants. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/45012/000004501203000018/0000045012-03-000018-index.htm +[^75]: Halliburton Company, Form 10-K for fiscal 2003, filed March 8, 2004 (accession 0000045012-04-000086): the Chapter 11 proceedings of DII Industries, LLC, Kellogg, Brown & Root and some of their subsidiaries, "Chapter 11 proceedings on December 16, 2003 in bankruptcy court in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania." https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/45012/000004501204000086/ed10k2003.txt +[^76]: Halliburton Company, Form 10-K for fiscal 2004, filed March 1, 2005 (accession 0000045012-05-000055): the order confirming the plan of reorganization, final and nonappealable on December 31, 2004; the plan effective in January 2005; the January 2005 contributions of approximately $2.345 billion in cash, 59.5 million shares and notes to the trusts. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/45012/000004501205000055/ed10k2004_final.htm +[^77]: Halliburton Company, Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2002 (accession 0000045012-03-000018), discussion of the resolution of asbestos claims in the tort system or the Harbison-Walker bankruptcy proceedings if the settlement failed. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/45012/000004501203000018/0000045012-03-000018-index.htm +[^78]: Halliburton Company, Form 8-K dated December 3, 2004 (accession 0000045012-04-000343), "Hal Says Court Order Makes Final Asbestos Settlement Imminent," statement on the Third Circuit decision in the Combustion Engineering bankruptcy and its bearing on the DII and Kellogg, Brown & Root bankruptcy. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/45012/000004501204000343/0000045012-04-000343-index.htm diff --git a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/J. P. Morgan & Co..md b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/J. P. Morgan & Co..md new file mode 100644 index 00000000..a597ae70 --- /dev/null +++ b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/J. P. Morgan & Co..md @@ -0,0 +1,334 @@ +--- +title: J. P. Morgan & Co. +aliases: + - J.P. Morgan & Co. + - J. P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated + - J.P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated + - J.P. Morgan & Company + - JP Morgan & Co. + - Drexel, Morgan & Co. + - House of Morgan +category: "Private Organization" +tags: + - Organization + - Banking + - JPMorgan + - DrexelMorgan + - HouseOfMorgan + - PujoCommittee + - InterlockingDirectorates + - PurchasingAgency + - PecoraHearings + - GlassSteagall + - MorganStanley + - MorganGuaranty + - ForeignLoans + - ChinaConsortium + - NyeCommittee + - WallStreetBombing +summary: "A banking partnership with 63 directorships in 39 corporations in 1912, whose 1933 Senate examination named its 1929 Alleghany allottees and whose investment bankers left in 1935 to form Morgan Stanley." +location: "New York, New York" +created: 2026-10-26 +updated: 2026-10-26 +relations: + - type: head_of + with: "[[J. P. Morgan]]" + reverse: true + start: 1895 + role: "senior member of the New York house; Morgan confirmed the seniority in Pujo testimony of December 1912" + fn: 4 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Charles Steele]]" + reverse: true + role: "partner in the New York house; confirmed in Pujo testimony of December 1912" + fn: 5 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Thomas W. Lamont]]" + reverse: true + start: 1911 + role: "partner; Morgan told the Pujo subcommittee on December 19, 1912 that Lamont was a partner; chairman of the American Group of the China Consortium" + fn: 63 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Henry P. Davison]]" + reverse: true + start: 1909-01-01 + end: 1922 + role: "partner from January 1, 1909, by his own Pujo testimony; his death in 1922 is recorded in the Keyes testimony on partnership accounts" + fn: 7 + - type: member_of + with: "[[George Whitney]]" + reverse: true + start: 1920 + role: "partner; testified before the Senate Banking and Currency Committee in 1933 on the Alleghany stock allotments" + fn: 62 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Dwight W. Morrow]]" + reverse: true + start: 1914 + end: 1927-09-30 + role: "partner until his resignation to become Ambassador to Mexico" + fn: 57 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Russell C. Leffingwell]]" + reverse: true + start: 1923-07 + role: "partner after serving as Assistant Secretary of the Treasury, 1917 to 1920" + fn: 60 + - type: member_of + with: "[[S. Parker Gilbert]]" + reverse: true + start: 1931-01-02 + role: "admitted to the firm on January 2, 1931 after serving as Under Secretary of the Treasury and Agent General for Reparation Payments" + fn: 61 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Edward R. Stettinius Sr.]]" + reverse: true + end: 1925 + role: "partner whose death in 1925 is recorded in the Keyes testimony on partnership accounts" + fn: 11 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Thomas S. Gates Sr.]]" + reverse: true + start: 1921 + end: 1931-12-31 + role: "partner of J. P. Morgan & Co. from 1921 and of Drexel & Co. from 1918; listed as retired in the list of partners read into the Pecora record" + fn: 10 + - type: member_of + with: "[[F. Trubee Davison]]" + reverse: true + start: 1929 + role: "partner from 1929; vice president and director in 1940, per the Davison Family Collection finding aid" + fn: 68 + - type: represented + with: "[[Italian Government]]" + start: 1925-11-18 + role: "contracted a $100,000,000 stabilization loan with the Italian government, executed November 18, 1925" + fn: 38 + - type: represented + with: "[[Imperial Japanese Government]]" + start: 1924-02 + role: "syndicate manager of the $150,000,000 Imperial Japanese Government External Loan of 1924" + fn: 35 + - type: represented + with: "[[British Government]]" + start: 1915 + end: 1917 + role: "purchasing agent in the United States for the British government, per du Pont and Hawkins testimony" + fn: 28 + - type: represented + with: "[[French Government]]" + start: 1915-03 + role: "arranged $50,000,000 of one-year French Treasury notes with the National City Bank and the First National Bank, as reported to the Secretary of State on March 25, 1915" + fn: 24 + - type: owned + with: "[[Morgan Guaranty Trust]]" + start: 1959-04-24 + role: "parent holding company of the bank, which the firm held entirely after the 1959 merger with Guaranty Trust Company of New York" + fn: 73 + - type: investigated + with: "[[Pujo Committee]]" + reverse: true + start: 1912-12 + role: "House subcommittee on the concentration of control of money and credit" + fn: 12 + - type: investigated + with: "[[Senate Banking and Currency Committee]]" + reverse: true + start: 1933 + role: "examined the partners and the firm's stock allotments in the Stock Exchange Practices hearings" + fn: 52 + - type: investigated + with: "[[Special Committee Investigating the Munitions Industry]]" + reverse: true + start: 1934 + role: "examined the firm's agency for the British and French governments in the Munitions Industry hearings" + fn: 28 +--- + +J. P. Morgan & Co. was the New York banking partnership of the [[J. P. Morgan]] family, which underwrote, lent to and advised corporations and governments until it merged into [[Chase Manhattan Corporation]] on December 31, 2000. The name Drexel, Morgan & Co. appears in an 1886 Supreme Court caption for the New York house.[^1] In 1912 Mr. Scudder testified to the House subcommittee that the New York firm was "identical with Drexel & Co., of Philadelphia, in firm members."[^2] [[Antony C. Sutton]]'s 1983 chart of old-line and new-wealth families places [[Henry P. Davison]] among the new-wealth families beside "J. P. Morgan & Co."[^3] + +### Partners and the partnership + +The senior member of the firm was J. P. Morgan. In December 1912 the [[Pujo Committee|Pujo subcommittee]] asked him whether he was the senior member of the partnership, and he answered "I am, sir."[^4] The partners he named included [[Charles Steele]], who confirmed his membership before the subcommittee, and [[Thomas W. Lamont]], whom Morgan identified as a partner.[^5][^6] Davison testified on January 23, 1913 that he had been a member of the firm "Since the 1st of January, 1909."[^7] [[Walter E. Frew]], a director of [[Bankers Trust Company]] from about 1905, was asked in December 1912 whether Davison was a member of J. P. Morgan & Co. Frew answered "Of the First National Bank at that time," and then said that Davison "is now" a member of the firm.[^8] + +The membership was read into the record again in 1933. Before the [[Senate Banking and Currency Committee]], [[J. P. Morgan Jr.]] gave the date on which the firm had been constituted as it then stood as March 31, 1916, and read a list of the partners of J. P. Morgan & Co. at the end of 1931. It opened "Myself, E. T. Stotesbury, Charles Steele, Thomas W. Lamont, Horatio G. Lloyd," and then named Dwight W. Morrow ("no, he retired") and, after [[Thomas Cochran]], Julius S. Morgan and [[George Whitney]], Thomas S. Gates ("no, he has retired"). The list went on with [[Russell C. Leffingwell]], Francis D. Bartow, [[Arthur M. Anderson]], [[William Ewing]], [[Harold Stanley]], H. S. Morgan, Thomas S. Lamont, H. P. Davison, Thomas Newhall, Edward Hopkinson Jr., [[S. Parker Gilbert]] and, from January 2, 1932, [[Charles D. Dickey]].[^9] The Thomas S. Gates of that list is [[Thomas S. Gates Sr.]], listed as president of the [[University of Pennsylvania]] in the 1930 to 1931 Who's Who, whose entry gives "partner Drexel & Co. since 1918, J. P. Morgan & Co. since 1921."[^10] + +Keyes listed separate accounting periods marked by the deaths of partners: [[Arthur E. Newbold]] in 1920, Davison in 1922, Bacon in 1924, [[Edward R. Stettinius Sr.]] in 1925 and Porter in 1926. He also said "We had a change in 1927 by the retirement of the late Mr. Dwight W. Morrow, which occurred in September 1927."[^11] + +### Directorships and the Pujo subcommittee + +The Pujo subcommittee tabulated the directorships of a group of individuals in Exhibit 134-C of December 18, 1912. Its explanation of the table treated 180 individuals who were firm members or directors of eighteen financial institutions, and stated that "In the aggregate they hold 385 directorships in 41 banks and trust companies" and, "in all, 746 directorships in 134 corporations having total resources or capitalization of $25,325,000,000."[^12][^13] + +The exhibit then gave the figures for J. P. Morgan & Co. separately: "J. P. Morgan & Co. of New York (identical with Drexel & Co. of Philadelphia) have 23 directorships in 13 banks and trust companies." Three of those were at the [[Guaranty Trust Company of New York]], the bank whose 1959 merger with the firm produced [[Morgan Guaranty Trust]]; the list also shows three each at the Astor Trust, Bankers Trust and the [[First National Bank of New York]], and one each at the Fourth Street National Bank, the Franklin National Bank, the [[Girard Trust Company]] and the [[Philadelphia National Bank]]. The same section lists 4 directorships in 4 insurance companies and "a controlling stock interest in another, the Equitable Life Assurance Society of New York"; 20 directorships in 12 transportation systems; 12 in 7 producing and trading corporations, among them 4 in the [[United States Steel Corporation]] and 2 each in the General Electric Company and the International Harvester Company; and 4 in 3 public utility corporations. It closes the Morgan summary: "In all, 63 directorships in 39 corporations having total resources or capitalization of $10,036,000,000."[^12] + +The exhibit also records that J. P. Morgan & Co. held "2 of the 3 voting trustees of the Guaranty Trust Co. of New York and 1 of the 3 voting trustees of the Bankers Trust Co. of New York."[^12] A supplemental table in the same exhibit combined the affiliations of J. P. Morgan & Co., the First National Bank, the National City Bank, the Guaranty Trust Company and the Bankers Trust Company. It states that the five together had "118 directorships in 34 banks and trust companies," 30 in 10 insurance companies, 105 in 32 transportation systems, 63 in 24 producing and trading corporations and 25 in 12 public utility corporations: "In all, 341 directorships in 112 corporations having aggregate resources or capitalization of $22,245,000,000."[^14] + +Asked about the control of credit, J. P. Morgan told the subcommittee, "I want to control nothing," and "I do not want any control."[^15] + +### Early transactions, 1861 to 1907 + +In 1861 the House committee on government contracts reported, of the sale of Hall carbines to the government, that the arms "were placed under the control of J. Pierpont Morgan to secure him the payment of $20,000 he had advanced to Stevens."[^16] + +In February 1895 the Treasury's gold contract was taken by a syndicate that the firm managed with [[August Belmont]]. The contract stipulated that the syndicate would "exert all financial influence and will make all legitimate efforts to protect the Treasury of the United States against the withdrawals of gold."[^17] + +The firm was a syndicate manager for the 1901 offering that organized the United States Steel Corporation. The prospectus dated March 2, 1901, issued from the firm's office, described a $200,000,000 syndicate with "Syndicate Managers" named in the text.[^18] In the House inquiry into the steel corporation, [[Andrew Carnegie]] was asked why Morgan had "send word to me that he would like to buy me out."[^19] Treasury Secretary [[George B. Cortelyou]] testified that a conference was held at the [[Hotel Manhattan]] on October 22, 1907, and that members of the firm attended it.[^20] + +### The purchasing agency, 1914 to 1917 + +On August 10, 1914 Secretary of State [[William Jennings Bryan]] wrote to President [[Woodrow Wilson]]: "Morgan Company of New York have asked whether there would be any objection to their making a loan to the French Government and also the Rothschilds." Bryan wrote that he had suggested the Department take the position that it would not approve of any loan to a belligerent nation, and that "Money is the worst of all contrabands because it commands everything else."[^21] On August 21, 1914 J. P. Morgan wrote to Wilson on British objections to the purchase of German ships, quoting cablegrams from "my London firm, which is at the moment in very close touch with the British Government."[^22] + +On January 23, 1915 Davison returned from London and told the press that the firm had been appointed the sole commercial agent for Great Britain in the United States, so that "all purchases in this country for Great Britain would be made through J. P. Morgan & Co."[^23] By March 25, 1915 the firm wrote to the Secretary of State, jointly with the [[National City Bank]] and the First National Bank of New York, that it was arranging to place for the French Government "some $50,000,000. One-Year Treasury Notes, the proceeds of which are to be expended in this country."[^24] + +On September 6, 1915 Secretary of State [[Robert Lansing]] wrote to Wilson on the need for loans to the belligerents. He gave the American export surplus as nearly a billion dollars from December 1, 1914 to June 30, 1915, wrote that if the European countries could not find means to pay "they will have to stop buying and our present export trade will shrink proportionately," and concluded that "there is only one means of avoiding this situation": "the flotation of large bond issues by the belligerent governments."[^25] On September 28, 1915 the Anglo-French financial commission announced a $500,000,000 credit at the [[Hotel Biltmore]], with Davison reading a statement for the firm.[^26] + +On July 3, 1915 Frank Holt, a former instructor in German at Cornell University, shot J. P. Morgan Jr. at his home at Glen Cove, New York. The New York Times reported on July 4 that Holt had confessed to setting the bomb that wrecked the Senate reception room at the Capitol on the night of July 2, and that he described to the police how he had practised for months the making of a bomb; the paper's subheading called the explosion "a protest against shipments of war munitions."[^27] + +After the war began in Europe, J. P. Morgan & Co. was the principal fiscal and purchasing agent in the United States for the British and French governments. The [[Special Committee Investigating the Munitions Industry]] (the [[Nye Committee]]) examined the arrangement in 1934 and 1935. [[Pierre S. du Pont]] testified that "a great many of the contracts were made through Morgan & Co." and that these were "for the British and French Governments." He said the firm had negotiated with the du Pont company "as agents for the British Government."[^28] The du Pont company's letter of December 18, 1934 put the total sales value of its contracts with the two governments at $490,573,806, of which "J. P. Morgan & Co. acted as agent, under sales contracts aggregating $351,259,813.28."[^28] + +Senator Clark asked whether money was owing to the du Pont company "from the allied and associated nations or their fiscal and purchasing agents in this country, such as Morgan."[^29] [[Col. Hawkins|Colonel Hawkins]] testified that the British purchasing commission had worked "in connection with Mr. Stettinius," and that the commission had been organized by J. P. Morgan & Co., "who were the fiscal agents for the British in this country."[^30] Hawkins also said that [[Lt. Col. Black]], who had been connected with that commission before American entry into the war, came to Washington in January 1918 and had since returned to his engineering firm.[^30] + +The Senate report on the government manufacture of munitions (1936) recorded the contracts of the [[United States Steel Products Company]]. It gave the British contracts "through J. P. Morgan & Co., of $62,514,546 from 1915 to 1917" and the French contracts as "$52,781,486."[^31] + +In January 1936 the committee questioned J. P. Morgan Jr., Thomas W. Lamont and George Whitney. The United States News reported that Morgan produced a copy of his 1915 speech to the bond houses that were to sell the Anglo-French loan, in which he said: "this is not a pro-Ally affair or an anti-German affair, or anything else; it is a pro-American affair, and that only." The same report quoted Morgan before the committee: "Increased exports helped this country and I don't think they lead us into war."[^32] + +### Foreign loans, the Consortium and the State Department, 1924 to 1927 + +The firm was the American banker for the French, Italian and Japanese governments in the 1920s, and its partners were in regular contact with the State Department on each issue. On November 11, 1924 Secretary of State [[Charles Evans Hughes]] telegraphed the Ambassador in France that the Department had "just been consulted by J. P. Morgan and Company on the proposed French $100,000,000 loan which the firm is considering bringing out shortly if the Department sees no objection to it," and that the bankers' negotiations "have been awaiting consummation of the German loan." Hughes wrote that he "should certainly oppose flotation of a French loan in the United States were there any doubt of France's support" for the American claim to participate in the Dawes Plan annuities, and authorized the Ambassador to seek French assurances, "for the bankers will await the Department's answer."[^33] The same volume identifies Lamont in an editorial note as "member of the banking firm of J. P. Morgan & Co., New York City."[^34] + +The February 1924 Japanese loan was a Morgan syndicate issue. The advertisement in the Commercial and Financial Chronicle of February 16, 1924 described a $150,000,000 Imperial Japanese Government External Loan of 1924, thirty-year sinking fund 6 1/2 per cent gold bonds due February 1, 1954. It stated that the proceeds were to retire the outstanding 4 1/2 per cent sterling loans and to purchase materials for reconstruction after "the earthquake and fire of September, 1923," and that subscription books would open "at the office of J. P. Morgan & Co." on February 15, 1924. The managers' notice listed J. P. Morgan & Co., Kuhn, Loeb & Co., the Guaranty Company of New York, Harris, Forbes & Co. and Lee, Higginson & Co. among others; a second notice carried the names of the National City Company and the First National Bank. In London the issue of sterling bonds was made by a group that included Morgan Grenfell & Co.[^35] + +The American Group of the China Consortium also operated from the firm. On June 12, 1924 J. P. Morgan & Co. wrote to the Secretary of State "For the American Group," enclosing material for the Consortium Council meeting in London on July 14, which Lamont, "Chairman of the American Group," was to attend, and on July 29 forwarded the minutes of that meeting.[^36] + +The Italian loan of 1925 followed the same pattern. On May 26, 1925 Lamont wrote to the Secretary of State that the [[Bank of Italy]], together with the [[Bank of Naples]] and the [[Bank of Sicily]], was arranging a $50,000,000 banking credit with American correspondents, which the Italian government would guarantee. Lamont wrote that "as explained to you, Mr. Mellon and Mr. Hoover, we regard this as a banking matter and so very different from any foreign government loan issued in this market." [[Andrew W. Mellon]] was then Secretary of the Treasury and [[Herbert Hoover]] was Secretary of Commerce. The Department replied on May 29 that, while it expressed no opinion on the transaction, it could not withhold objection to a public flotation of Italian bonds unless Italy had taken steps toward settling its debt to the United States.[^37] + +The $100,000,000 issue followed. On November 18, 1925 the firm wrote that it had been "carrying on discussions with Count Volpi, the Italian Minister of Finance," on a loan "to be used for stabilization purposes," and that the contract had been executed that day. The firm noted that the Italian debt settlement had been reached at Washington on November 14.[^38] The Department answered on November 23 that it offered "no objection to the flotation of this issue in the American market," and that the Department "does not pass upon the merits of foreign loans as business propositions."[^39] + +Lamont's 1927 trip to Japan was the subject of State Department telegrams. On November 19, 1927 Secretary of State [[Frank B. Kellogg]] telegraphed the Ambassador in Japan that the Department had received "an informal inquiry from Mr. Thomas W. Lamont as to whether any objection would be made to loan by American bankers of $30,000,000 to the South Manchuria Railway, the loan to be guaranteed by the Japanese Government," and that to pass such a loan "would apparently involve reversing previous decisions." The Department thought the Chinese "would very likely conclude" that the American government "has lined up behind Japan in her penetration of South Manchuria." The Ambassador, [[Charles MacVeagh]], answered on November 21 that Lamont's conversations had been "almost all with men who represent important financial interests," that near the end of the visit Lamont and Jeremiah Smith "gave a clear-cut and sweeping criticism of Japanese industrial and financial methods," and that if J. P. Morgan & Company was willing to make the advance and was deterred solely by the Department's attitude, the Japanese would ascribe it to "distrust and suspicion of Japan."[^40] + +On November 19, 1927 the American representative at Peking reported that General Dzau of [[Zhang Zuolin]]'s headquarters had called to learn "whether I knew the object of the recent trip to Japan by Thomas W. Lamont." The representative also relayed a report from the commander of the [[Asiatic Fleet]] that Kuomintang leaders expected such loans to strengthen Japan's position in Manchuria.[^41] On December 9, 1927 the Tokyo mission reported that "J. P. Morgan & Company has refused to make loan to South Manchuria Railway," and that Dr. [[Takuma Dan]], president of the Mitsui company, attributed the refusal to the Department's unwillingness to pass the loan in the face of Chinese protests.[^42] + +The Reparation Commission, jointly with the German government, named [[Owen D. Young]] and J. P. Morgan as the American members of its 1929 committee of experts, each with the right to name an alternate, and [[Thomas Nelson Perkins]] was named as an alternate.[^43] The report of June 7, 1929 carries the signatures of Young, J. P. Morgan, Thomas N. Perkins and T. W. Lamont.[^44] On April 28, 1930 [[Louis T. McFadden]], chairman of the House Committee on Banking and Currency, told the House that the State Department's statement of May 16, 1929 had turned America's participation in the [[Bank for International Settlements]] over to a group of bankers headed and dominated by J. P. Morgan & Co.[^45] + +### The Wall Street explosion of 1920 + +On September 16, 1920 a bomb exploded at noon at Broad and Wall Streets, beside the firm's offices at [[23 Wall Street]]. The [[New York Times]] reported the next day under the headline "Wall Street Explosion: Morgan Office Hit" that the explosion had killed thirty persons and injured probably 300 others.[^46] J. P. Morgan was in England at the time. The paper reported that he had received private reports that were reassuring, and its London dispatch named [[C. F. Whigham]], a director of the affiliated London house of [[Morgan, Grenfell & Co.]].[^46] + +### The Pecora examination, 1933 + +The Senate Banking and Currency Committee, with [[Ferdinand Pecora]] as counsel, examined the firm's partners and the allotments of its securities in 1933. J. P. Morgan Jr. opened his testimony with a statement on private bankers. He said that a private banker, unlike an incorporated bank, "has none of these privileges" of a charter and so "has a somewhat greater freedom of action," that the private banker was one for whom "none of the aids provided by the Government for incorporated banks, such as the Federal Reserve System or the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, are at his disposal," and that in his experience of over forty years "I cannot remember any partner of the house taking a directorship except at the earnest request of the board of directors of the company in question."[^47] + +Pecora later put to him that, when he read the list of corporations on whose boards the partners sat, "I tallied the number and reached the total of 167 directorships; 167 directorships held by members of your firm." Morgan answered, "If that corresponds with the list that is right. I do not know the number."[^48] The partners' directorships read into the record included Lamont's at the United States Steel Corporation and the Northern Pacific Railway, and Whitney's at General Motors, the Kennecott Copper Corporation and the Consolidated Gas Company.[^49] + +Pecora then asked whether the firm had paid income tax. Morgan answered for himself: "My 'No' means that I did not pay any income tax," for 1931 and 1932. Asked whether the aggregate paid by the members of J. P. Morgan & Co. and Drexel & Co. for 1931 "was zero," Morgan answered, "I believe it to be true, but I do not know. I don't see their income-tax returns."[^50] + +An exhibit marked "Committee Exhibit No. 10" listed the distribution of 1,250,000 shares of Alleghany Corporation common stock issued February 15, 1929 at $20 a share, "at a price equivalent to our cost," in the words of George Whitney. The list includes J. P. Morgan (40,000 shares), Lamont (18,000), Leffingwell (13,500), [[Charles E. Mitchell]] (10,000), [[John J. Raskob]] (2,000), [[William Gibbs McAdoo]] (500), [[John J. Pershing]] (500), [[Frank L. Polk]] (800), Owen D. Young, [[Newton D. Baker]], [[John W. Davis]] (400), [[Charles A. Lindbergh]] (500), Harold Stanley, [[Henry S. Morgan]] (2,500), C. F. Whigham and [[William H. Woodin]], and shows 50,000 shares to Drexel & Co. and 175,000 shares to "J. P. Morgan & Co. stock A/C." Whitney testified that the firm had arranged with the Guaranty Company of New York to underwrite the sale of 500,000 of the shares.[^51] + +Pecora asked Whitney whether those named were "persons who also could be characterized as among the close friends of J. P. Morgan & Co." Whitney answered: "I should assume that the great majority; yes." He said of Woodin, identified in the testimony as "Secretary of the Treasury," that "I have already testified that for many years Mr. Woodin has been a personal friend of many of the partners," and said of the $20 price that "we did not desire to make any profit out of the sale."[^52] On the following day, resuming, Whitney was asked whether there was "a standing list or record in the office of J. P. Morgan & Co., or in the possession of any of its partners, which gives or shows the names of the close friends of J. P. Morgan & Co. who were invited from time to time to subscribe." He answered "No, sir."[^53] + +### The Banking Act of 1933 and Morgan Stanley + +The [[Banking Act of 1933]], approved June 16, 1933 as Public No. 66 of the 73d Congress, bears the short title "Banking Act of 1933" and was enacted as an act "to provide for the safer and more effective use of the assets of banks, to regulate interbank control, to prevent the undue diversion of funds into speculative operations."[^54] In the 1953 antitrust opinion of Judge Harold R. Medina, the Act is described as requiring commercial banks and their security affiliates to go out of the investment banking business if the banks wished to continue taking deposits, with a deadline of June 16, 1934.[^55] + +According to that opinion, J. P. Morgan & Co. "elected to cease engaging in the investment banking business, and chose to remain a bank of deposit," and discontinued its investment banking activities on or about June 16, 1933. The opinion finds that the first discussions within the firm about a new investment banking organization took place in June and July 1935, that the final decision to organize [[Morgan Stanley]] & Co. Incorporated was made around the middle or the 20th of August 1935, and that "There was some thought of using the Drexel name, but difficulty arose with the heirs of the Drexel Estate." The corporation was organized on September 6, 1935 under New York law and commenced business on September 16, 1935. Of the then seventeen partners of J. P. Morgan & Co., Harold Stanley, Henry S. Morgan and William Ewing resigned to form it, together with John M. Young, head of the firm's bond department, Allen Northey Jones, head of its statistical department, and Perry E. Hall and Edward H. York Jr., who held the authority of partners in Drexel & Co. Stanley was president, Ewing executive vice president and Henry S. Morgan treasurer and secretary. On September 18, 1935 the corporation issued $7,000,000 of non-voting preferred stock, of which $6,600,000 "was purchased by nine partners of J. P. Morgan & Co." The opinion states that Morgan Stanley "set up an entirely new office at No. 2 Wall Street."[^56] + +### Partners in government + +[[Dwight W. Morrow]] was a lawyer with Simpson, Thacher & Bartlett until 1914 and a member of J. P. Morgan & Co. from 1914 to September 30, 1927, when he resigned to become Ambassador to Mexico. He was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal in 1919 by General Pershing for services in connection with military shipping and the Military Board of Allied Supply, and was adviser to the Allied Maritime Transport Council in 1918.[^57] The Office of the Historian records his appointment as Ambassador to Mexico on September 21, 1927, his presentation of credentials on October 29, 1927 and his departure on September 17, 1930.[^58] The Biographical Directory of the American Congress lists him among the Senators of New Jersey, with the entry for his successor reading "Appointed to fill vacancy caused by death of Dwight W. Morrow" and giving his death as October 5, 1931.[^59] + +Russell C. Leffingwell was a special assistant to the Secretary of the Treasury in the flotation of the Liberty Loan in May 1917 and Assistant Secretary of the Treasury from October 30, 1917 until 1920; he was a member of Cravath, Henderson, Leffingwell & de Gersdorff from October 1920 to July 1923 and a member of J. P. Morgan & Co. from July 1923.[^60] Seymour Parker Gilbert, known as S. Parker Gilbert, was Assistant Secretary of the Treasury in charge of fiscal affairs from June 1920 and Under Secretary from July 1, 1921 to November 17, 1923, and Agent General for Reparation Payments from 1924. Pecora put to Keyes that January 2, 1931 "was advisedly fixed as the date of the admission of Mr. Gilbert into the firm," and Keyes answered "Yes, sir"; the 1931 list of partners names him.[^61] + +George Whitney, who gave the firm's testimony on the Alleghany allotments, was a partner of J. P. Morgan & Co. from 1920 after beginning with Kidder, Peabody & Co. in Boston in 1907, and a director of the Guaranty Trust Company, General Motors and Kennecott Copper among other companies.[^62] Lamont had been a member of the firm since 1911 and a director of the Guaranty Trust Company and United States Steel, and was chairman of the American group of the International Consortium for Assistance of China and chairman of the International Committee of Bankers for the adjustment of the Mexican foreign debt.[^63] + +Edward R. Stettinius Sr. is the partner whose death in 1925 Keyes recorded, and Colonel Hawkins's remark about the purchasing commission names "Mr. Stettinius."[^64] His son, [[Edward R. Stettinius Jr.]], was Director of Lend-Lease and Special Assistant to the President from 1941, Under Secretary of State from October 4, 1943 and Secretary of State from December 1, 1944 to June 27, 1945, according to the Office of the Historian, and the first American Ambassador to the United Nations.[^65] The Historical Dictionary of the New Deal describes Stettinius Sr. as "a business partner of J. P. Morgan."[^66] + +His son, [[Thomas S. Gates Jr.]], born in 1906, began in investment banking with Drexel & Co., where he became a full partner in 1940. He served as Under Secretary of the Navy from 1953, Secretary of the Navy from 1957, Deputy Secretary of Defense and from 1959 Secretary of Defense until January 1961, and then returned to investment banking at the Morgan Guaranty Trust Company; President [[Gerald Ford]] nominated him in 1976 as Chief of the United States Liaison Office in Beijing.[^67] + +[[F. Trubee Davison]], the son of Henry P. Davison, became a partner in 1929 and a vice president and director of the firm in 1940.[^68] + +[[R. Gordon Wasson]], who wrote a study of the 1861 Hall carbine transaction in which J. P. Morgan lent [[Simon Stevens]] $20,000 on the arms, is described by [[Annie Jacobsen]] as a vice president of the firm.[^69][^70] + +### Morgan Guaranty and the 2000 merger + +The 1959 merger of J. P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated and Guaranty Trust Company of New York formed Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York, which the firm held entirely. The Commercial and Financial Chronicle of April 30, 1959 announced that the bank "began operation April 27, 1959 as the banking institution formed by the merger of J. P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated and Guaranty Trust Company of New York," with [[Henry C. Alexander]] as chairman of the board, Thomas S. Lamont as vice chairman and Dale E. Sharp as president.[^71] The International Year Book listed the bank as the result of a merger on 24 April 1959 in its 1974, 1975 and 1983 editions.[^72] + +A Senate staff study of interlocking directorates (January 1978) recorded that J. P. Morgan held 100 percent control of the bank and described it as the parent of the nation's largest institutional investor.[^73] + +On September 13, 2000 Chase and J. P. Morgan announced that they had entered into an Agreement and Plan of Merger dated September 12, 2000, under which "each outstanding share of common stock of J.P. Morgan" would be "converted into 3.7 shares of common stock of Chase," with reciprocal stock options for 19.9 percent of each company.[^74] On December 31, 2000 the firm "merged with and into The Chase Manhattan Corporation," which was renamed J.P. Morgan Chase & Co. A merger charge of $1.25 billion was recorded that day, and the bank was succeeded by [[JPMorgan Chase]] Bank.[^75] + +### Footnotes + +[^1]: *Drexel v. Berney*, No. 305, Supreme Court of the United States, October Term 1886, on appeal from the Circuit Court for the Southern District of New York (appellants Francis A. Drexel, Anthony J. Drexel and others, as the firm of Drexel, Morgan & Co.). https://archive.org/details/per_scotus_1886_305 +[^2]: *Money Trust Investigation: Investigation of Financial and Monetary Conditions in the United States under House Resolutions Nos. 429 and 504*, Subcommittee of the Committee on Banking and Currency, Part 14 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1913), testimony of Mr. Scudder, p. 985 (J. P. Morgan & Co., "who are identical with Drexel & Co., of Philadelphia, in firm members"). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0014.001.umich.edu +[^3]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chart "Hypothesis Number One," new-wealth tier (Davison family beside "J. P. Morgan & Co."). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones +[^4]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 14, p. 1003 (Untermyer: "Are you senior member of the partnership or firm of J. P. Morgan & Co., bankers, of New York City?" Morgan: "I am, sir."). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0014.001.umich.edu +[^5]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 6, testimony of Charles Steele, p. 455 (Untermyer: "You are a partner in the firm of J. P. Morgan & Co., are you not?" Steele: "I am."). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0006.001.umich.edu +[^6]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 15, p. 1044 (Untermyer: "Is Mr. Thomas W. Lamont a partner in your firm?" Morgan: "He is."). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0015.001.umich.edu +[^7]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 25, hearing of January 23, 1913, testimony of Henry P. Davison, pp. 1808 to 1809 ("I am a member of the firm of J. P. Morgan & Co."; "Since the 1st of January, 1909"). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0025.001.umich.edu +[^8]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 8, testimony of Walter E. Frew, December 10, 1912, p. 596 ("Mr. H. P. Davison, of J. P. Morgan & Co.?" "Of the First National Bank at that time."; "He is now; yes, sir."). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0008.001.umich.edu +[^9]: *Stock Exchange Practices*, Hearings before the Senate Committee on Banking and Currency, 73d Cong., 1st sess., on S. Res. 84 and S. Res. 56 (1933), Part 1, testimony of J. P. Morgan, pp. 7 to 9 (the firm constituted "1916, I believe, the 31st of March"; "Myself, E. T. Stotesbury, Charles Steele, Thomas W. Lamont, Horatio G. Lloyd, Dwight W. Morrow, no, he retired. Thomas Cochran, Julius S. Morgan, George Whitney, Thomas S. Gates, no, he has retired. Russell C. Leffingwell, Francis D. Bartow, Arthur M. Anderson, William Ewing, Harold Stanley, H. S. Morgan, Thomas S. Lamont, H. P. Davison, Thomas Newhall, Edward Hopkinson, Jr., S. Parker Gilbert, and Charles D. Dickey"; Dickey became a partner January 2, 1932). https://archive.org/details/stockexchangepra0133unit +[^10]: *Who's Who in America*, vol. 16, 1930 to 1931, entry "Gates, Thomas Sovereign, banker" (born Germantown, Philadelphia, March 21, 1873; "partner Drexel & Co. since 1918, J. P. Morgan & Co. since 1921"; "now pres. U. of Pa."); same entry in vol. 15, 1928 to 1929. https://archive.org/details/whos-who-in-america_1930-1931_16 ; https://archive.org/details/whos-who-in-america_1928-1929_15 +[^11]: *Stock Exchange Practices*, Part 1 (1933), testimony of Keyes on partnership accounting periods, pp. 87 to 89 ("in 1925 by the death of Mr. Stettinius"; "in 1922 by the death of Mr. Davison"; "in 1920 by the death of Mr. Newbold"; "We had a change in 1927 by the retirement of the late Mr. Dwight W. Morrow, which occurred in September 1927"). https://archive.org/details/stockexchangepra0133unit +[^12]: *Money Trust Investigation: Interlocking Directorates* (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1913), Exhibit 134-C, December 18, 1912, "Explanation of Table of Interlocking Directorates," pp. 2 to 7 (the 18 institutions; 180 individuals; 385 directorships in 41 banks and trust companies; 746 directorships in 134 corporations with total resources or capitalization of $25,325,000,000; "J. P. Morgan & Co. of New York (identical with Drexel & Co. of Philadelphia) have 23 directorships in 13 banks and trust companies"; "In all, 63 directorships in 39 corporations having total resources or capitalization of $10,036,000,000"; the voting trustees). https://archive.org/details/moneytrustinves00mcmogoog +[^13]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 14, testimony of Mr. Scudder, pp. 983 to 985 ("The total number of individual names of firm members or directors of the 18 institutions is 180; that is, eliminating all duplications"). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0014.001.umich.edu +[^14]: *Money Trust Investigation: Interlocking Directorates*, Exhibit 134-C, "Explanation of Supplemental Table," pp. 27 to 28 (affiliations of J. P. Morgan & Co., First National Bank, National City Bank, Guaranty Trust Co. and Bankers' Trust Co.: "One hundred and eighteen directorships in 34 banks and trust companies"; "In all, 341 directorships in 112 corporations having aggregate resources or capitalization of $22,245,000,000"). https://archive.org/details/moneytrustinves00mcmogoog +[^15]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 15, pp. 1050 to 1051 (testimony of J. P. Morgan on the control of credit: "I want to control nothing"; "I do not want any control"). https://archive.org/details/aeu8665.0015.001.umich.edu +[^16]: U.S. House of Representatives, 37th Cong., 2d sess., House Report No. 2, "Government Contracts," p. 43 ("The arms were placed under the control of J. Pierpont Morgan to secure him the payment of $20,000 he had advanced to Stevens"). https://archive.org/details/governmentcontra00unit_1 +[^17]: Contract of February 8, 1895 between the Secretary of the Treasury and August Belmont & Co., J. P. Morgan & Co. and associates, as printed in *The Commercial and Financial Chronicle*, vol. 60, no. 1547 (February 16, 1895), p. 283 ("exert all financial influence and will make all legitimate efforts to protect the Treasury of the United States against the withdrawals of gold"); U.S. Department of the Treasury, *Annual Report of the Secretary of the Treasury on the State of the Finances for the Year 1895* (1896), p. lxx. https://archive.org/details/1895bondcontract +[^18]: U.S. Industrial Commission, *Reports of the Industrial Commission*, vol. 13, *Industrial Combinations* (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901), Exhibit 1 (prospectus of March 2, 1901, from the office of J. P. Morgan & Co., "Syndicate Managers"), pp. 475 to 477; testimony of Charles M. Schwab, p. 467. https://archive.org/details/report141commgoog +[^19]: U.S. House of Representatives, *Hearings before the Committee on Investigation of United States Steel Corporation*, vol. 4, testimony of Andrew Carnegie, p. 2513 ("Why did Morgan send word to me that he would like to buy me out?"); pp. 2535 to 2536. +[^20]: *Money Trust Investigation*, Part 6, pp. 430 to 431 (testimony of George B. Cortelyou, Secretary of the Treasury from March 5, 1907 to March 18, 1909, on the conference at the Hotel Manhattan on October 22, 1907). +[^21]: U.S. Department of State, *Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States: The Lansing Papers, 1914–1920*, vol. I (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1939), Secretary Bryan to President Wilson, August 10, 1914, p. 131 ("Morgan Company of New York have asked whether there would be any objection to their making a loan to the French Government and also the Rothschilds"; "Money is the worst of all contrabands because it commands everything else"). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1914-20v01 +[^22]: *The Lansing Papers, 1914–1920*, vol. I, document 90, J. P. Morgan to President Wilson, New York, August 21, 1914, p. 100 (cablegrams from "my London firm, which is at the moment in very close touch with the British Government"). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1914-20v01 +[^23]: *New York Times*, January 24, 1915, "Commercial Agent Only" (Davison "explained that his firm had been appointed the sole commercial agents for Great Britain in the United States"; "all purchases in this country for Great Britain would be made through J. P. Morgan & Co."). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1915-01-24_64_20819 +[^24]: *The Lansing Papers, 1914–1920*, vol. I, document 142, J. P. Morgan and Company, the National City Bank and the First National Bank of New York to the Secretary of State, March 25, 1915, p. 141 (file 851.51/30: "we are arranging to place for them some $50,000,000. One-Year Treasury Notes, the proceeds of which are to be expended in this country"). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1914-20v01 +[^25]: *The Lansing Papers, 1914–1920*, vol. I, Secretary of State Lansing to President Wilson, September 6, 1915, pp. 144 to 147 (file 811.51/2624a: "they will have to stop buying and our present export trade will shrink proportionately"; "there is only one means of avoiding this situation"; "the flotation of large bond issues by the belligerent governments"). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1914-20v01 +[^26]: *New York Times*, September 29, 1915, "Success of Credit Assured" (Anglo-French credit announced at the Hotel Biltmore; $500,000,000 five-year 5 per cent bonds "to be issued to the public at 98"; "Henry P. Davison of J. P. Morgan & Co. read a statement on behalf of that firm"). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1915-09-29_64_21067 +[^27]: *New York Times*, July 4, 1915, p. 1 ("By his own confession, Frank Holt, the former Cornell Instructor in German, who shot J. P. Morgan yesterday, was the man who set the bomb that wrecked the Senate reception room in the Capitol"; the explosion "a protest against shipments of war munitions"). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1915-07-04_64_20980 +[^28]: U.S. Senate, *Munitions Industry: Hearings before the Special Committee Investigating the Munitions Industry*, 73d and 74th Congresses, pursuant to S. Res. 206, testimony of Pierre S. du Pont, Parts 11 to 14, p. 3209 and footnote (the du Pont company's letter of December 18, 1934: contracts with the British and French governments of $490,573,806, of which J. P. Morgan & Co. acted as agent under contracts aggregating $351,259,813.28; "a great many of the contracts were made through Morgan & Co."; "for the British and French Governments"; "as agents for the British Government"). https://archive.org/details/munitionsindustr1114unit +[^29]: *Munitions Industry*, Parts 11 to 14, questions of Senator Clark to Mr. du Pont, p. 2709 ("fiscal and purchasing agents in this country, such as Morgan"). https://archive.org/details/munitionsindustr1114unit +[^30]: *Munitions Industry*, hearings, Parts 15 to 19, testimony of Col. Hawkins ("in connection with Mr. Stettinius"; "who were the fiscal agents for the British in this country"; Lieut. Col. Black "came in in January of 1918"; "He has gone back to his engineering firm"). https://archive.org/details/munitionsindustr1519unit +[^31]: U.S. Senate, Special Committee Investigating the Munitions Industry, *Report on Government Manufacture of Munitions*, S. Rept. 944, 74th Cong., 2d sess. (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1936), section on the United States Steel Products Company. https://archive.org/details/munitionsindustr36unit +[^32]: *The United States News*, January 20, 1936, pp. 8 to 9 (the Munitions Committee's questioning of J. P. Morgan, Thomas W. Lamont and George Whitney; Morgan's 1915 speech to the bond houses: "this is not a pro-Ally affair or an anti-German affair, or anything else; it is a pro-American affair, and that only"; Morgan: "Increased exports helped this country and I don't think they lead us into war"). https://archive.org/details/sim_us-news-weekly-special-issues_the-united-states-news_1936-01-20_4_3 +[^33]: *Foreign Relations of the United States*, 1924, vol. II, telegram no. 386, Secretary of State Hughes to the Ambassador in France (Herrick), Washington, November 11, 1924, 5 p.m., p. 72 (file 462.00 R 296/694a: "The Department has just been consulted by J. P. Morgan and Company on the proposed French $100,000,000 loan"; "have been awaiting consummation of the German loan"; "I should certainly oppose flotation of a French loan in the United States were there any doubt of France's support"; "for the bankers will await the Department's answer"). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1924v02 +[^34]: *Foreign Relations of the United States*, 1924, vol. II, editorial note identifying "Thomas W. Lamont, member of the banking firm of J. P. Morgan & Co., New York City." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1924v02 +[^35]: *The Commercial and Financial Chronicle*, vol. 118, no. 3060 (February 16, 1924), advertisements "$150,000,000 Imperial Japanese Government External Loan of 1924" (statement prepared by Mr. Kengo Mori, Special Finance Delegate of the Imperial Japanese Government; purpose of issue; "Subscription books will be opened at the office of J. P. Morgan & Co."; managers J. P. Morgan & Co., Kuhn, Loeb & Co., Guaranty Company of New York, Harris, Forbes & Co., Lee, Higginson & Co. and others; the National City Company and First National Bank group; the English issue by a group including Morgan Grenfell & Co.). https://archive.org/details/sim_commercial-and-financial-chronicle_1924-02-16_118_3060 +[^36]: *Foreign Relations of the United States*, 1924, vol. I, pp. 544 and 550 (The American Group, by J. P. Morgan & Co., to the Secretary of State, New York, June 12, 1924, file 893.51/4628, on the Consortium Council meeting in London on July 14, "which will be attended by Mr. Lamont, Chairman of the American Group"; the American Group to the Secretary of State, July 29, 1924, file 893.51/4668, enclosing the minutes). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1924v01 +[^37]: *Foreign Relations of the United States*, 1925, vol. II, pp. 358 to 359 (Thomas W. Lamont of J. P. Morgan & Co. to the Secretary of State, New York, May 26, 1925, file 865.51/446; the Secretary of State to Lamont, May 29, 1925). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1925v02 +[^38]: *Foreign Relations of the United States*, 1925, vol. II, p. 362 (J. P. Morgan & Co. to the Secretary of State, New York, November 18, 1925, file 865.51/471: "carrying on discussions with Count Volpi, the Italian Minister of Finance"; "to be used for stabilization purposes"; "The agreement for settlement of the Italian debt was reached at Washington, Nov. 14, 1925"). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1925v02 +[^39]: *Foreign Relations of the United States*, 1925, vol. II, p. 363 (The Secretary of State to J. P. Morgan & Co., Washington, November 23, 1925: "no objection to the flotation of this issue in the American market"; "does not pass upon the merits of foreign loans as business propositions"). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1925v02 +[^40]: *Foreign Relations of the United States*, 1927, vol. II, pp. 483 to 486 (telegram no. 84, Secretary of State Kellogg to the Ambassador in Japan, November 19, 1927, 4 p.m.; telegram no. 128, Ambassador MacVeagh to the Secretary of State, Tokyo, November 21, 1927, 5 p.m., file 894.51 So 8/2). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1927v02 +[^41]: *Foreign Relations of the United States*, 1927, vol. II, telegram no. 1008 from Peking, received November 19, 1927, p. 482 (General Dzau's visit; "whether I knew the object of the recent trip to Japan by Thomas W. Lamont"; the report from the commander in chief of the Asiatic Fleet on Kuomintang expectations). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1927v02 +[^42]: *Foreign Relations of the United States*, 1927, vol. II, telegram no. 132 from Tokyo, December 9, 1927, 5 p.m., file 894.51 So 8/20 ("J. P. Morgan & Company has refused to make loan to South Manchuria Railway"; Dr. Dan, president of the Mitsui Co., on the Department's position). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1927v02 +[^43]: U.S. Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States*, 1929, vol. II, document 1039, telegram of January 18, 1929 from the Secretary of State to the chargé in France (file 462.00R296/2622: the British Ambassador "to offer the appointment to Young and Morgan and to Perkins as an alternate"). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1929v02 +[^44]: *International Conciliation*, no. 253 (October 1929), Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, report of the Committee of Experts, closing paragraph and signature page, p. 56. https://archive.org/details/sim_international-conciliation_1929-10_253 +[^45]: U.S. House of Representatives, *Congressional Record*, 71st Cong., 2d sess., April 28, 1930, remarks of Louis T. McFadden, chairman of the Committee on Banking and Currency, on the State Department statement of May 16, 1929. +[^46]: *New York Times*, September 17, 1920, p. 1 ("Wall Street Explosion: Morgan Office Hit"; the explosion at Broad and Wall Streets at noon on September 16; first reports of thirty killed and about 300 injured; J. P. Morgan in England with reassuring private reports; C. F. Whigham, director of the affiliated Morgan, Grenfell & Co. of London). https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1920-09-17_69_22882 +[^47]: *Stock Exchange Practices*, Part 1 (1933), testimony of J. P. Morgan, pp. 3 to 5 (preliminary statement on private bankers: "has none of these privileges"; "a somewhat greater freedom of action"; "none of the aids provided by the Government for incorporated banks, such as the Federal Reserve System or the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, are at his disposal"; "I cannot remember any partner of the house taking a directorship except at the earnest request of the board of directors of the company in question"). https://archive.org/details/stockexchangepra0133unit +[^48]: *Stock Exchange Practices*, Part 1 (1933), testimony of J. P. Morgan, pp. 52 to 54 (Pecora: "I tallied the number and reached the total of 167 directorships; 167 directorships held by members of your firm"; Morgan: "If that corresponds with the list that is right. I do not know the number."). https://archive.org/details/stockexchangepra0133unit +[^49]: *Stock Exchange Practices*, Part 1 (1933), testimony of J. P. Morgan reading the directorships of the partners, pp. 29 to 30 (Lamont: United States Steel Corporation, Northern Pacific Railway Co.; George Whitney: General Motors Corporation, Kennecott Copper Corporation, Consolidated Gas Co. of New York). https://archive.org/details/stockexchangepra0133unit +[^50]: *Stock Exchange Practices*, Part 1 (1933), testimony of J. P. Morgan, pp. 53 to 54 ("My 'No' means that I did not pay any income tax"; Pecora: "was zero?" Morgan: "I believe it to be true, but I do not know. I don't see their income-tax returns."). https://archive.org/details/stockexchangepra0133unit +[^51]: *Stock Exchange Practices*, Part 1 (1933), testimony of George Whitney, p. 136 ("an arrangement with the Guaranty Co. of New York to underwrite the sale of 500,000 shares of common stock") and "Committee Exhibit No. 10," "Alleghany corporation common stock issued Feb. 15, 1929," pp. 138 to 140 (the list; 1,250,000 shares in all; "At a price equivalent to our cost, namely, $20 a share"). https://archive.org/details/stockexchangepra0133unit +[^52]: *Stock Exchange Practices*, Part 1 (1933), testimony of George Whitney on the letter to Woodin ("Committee Exhibit 11-A," February 25, 1929), p. 146 ("I should assume that the great majority; yes"; "I have already testified that for many years Mr. Woodin has been a personal friend of many of the partners"; "we did not desire to make any profit out of the sale"), and p. 142 (Woodin identified as "Secretary of the Treasury"). https://archive.org/details/stockexchangepra0133unit +[^53]: *Stock Exchange Practices*, Part 1 (1933), testimony of George Whitney, resumed, p. 154 ("Mr. Whitney, is there a standing list or record in the office of J. P. Morgan & Co."; "No, sir"). https://archive.org/details/stockexchangepra0133unit +[^54]: Banking Act of June 16, 1933, ch. 89, 48 Stat. 162 (Public, No. 66, 73d Cong.; short title; "To provide for the safer and more effective use of the assets of banks, to regulate interbank control, to prevent the undue diversion of funds into speculative operations"). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-48/pdf/STATUTE-48-Pg162.pdf +[^55]: *United States v. Henry S. Morgan et al.*, 118 F. Supp. 621 (S.D.N.Y. 1953) (Medina, J.), Part I and Part III, "Further Developments 1933-1949" (the Glass-Steagall Act; "The deadline was June 16, 1934"). https://static.case.law/f-supp/118/cases/0621-01.json +[^56]: *United States v. Henry S. Morgan et al.*, 118 F. Supp. 621 (S.D.N.Y. 1953), findings on J. P. Morgan & Co. and the formation of Morgan Stanley & Co. Incorporated (organized September 6, 1935, commenced business September 16, 1935; resignation of Harold Stanley, Henry S. Morgan and William Ewing from "the then seventeen partners"; John M. Young and Allen Northey Jones; Perry E. Hall and Edward H. York Jr. of Drexel & Co.; preferred stock issued September 18, 1935, $6,600,000 "purchased by nine partners of J. P. Morgan & Co."; "an entirely new office at No. 2 Wall Street"). https://static.case.law/f-supp/118/cases/0621-01.json +[^57]: *Who's Who in America*, vol. 15, 1928 to 1929, entry "Morrow, Dwight Whitney" ("mem. J. P. Morgan & Co., 1914-27: resigned Sept. 30, 1927, to accept apptmt. as A.E. and P. to Mexico"; Distinguished Service Medal, 1919; adviser to the Allied Maritime Transport Council, February to December 1918). https://archive.org/details/whos-who-in-america_1928-1929_15 +[^58]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, "Dwight Whitney Morrow," Principal Officers and Chiefs of Mission (Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary, Mexico; appointed September 21, 1927; presentation of credentials October 29, 1927; left post September 17, 1930). https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/morrow-dwight-whitney +[^59]: *Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, 1774-1989* (Bicentennial Edition, 1989), table of Senators from New Jersey ("Died October 5, 1931"; successor "Appointed to fill vacancy caused by death of Dwight W. Morrow"). https://archive.org/details/micro_IA41152637_0892 +[^60]: *Who's Who in America*, vol. 15, 1928 to 1929, and vol. 11, 1920 to 1921, entries "Leffingwell, Russell Cornell" (special assistant to the Secretary of the Treasury, Liberty Loan, May 1917; assistant secretary of the Treasury since October 30, 1917; "mem. J. P. Morgan & Co., July 1923"). https://archive.org/details/whos-who-in-america_1928-1929_15 ; https://archive.org/details/whos-who-in-america_1920-1921_11 +[^61]: *Who's Who in America*, vol. 16, 1930 to 1931, entry "Gilbert, Seymour Parker" (assistant secretary of the Treasury in charge of fiscal affairs, June 1920 to March 1921; under secretary, July 1, 1921 to November 17, 1923; agent general for reparation payments of Germany since 1924); *Stock Exchange Practices*, Part 1 (1933), testimony of Keyes, pp. 87 to 90 (Pecora: "the date of January 2, 1931, was advisedly fixed as the date of the admission of Mr. Gilbert into the firm"; Keyes: "Yes, sir") and list of partners at the end of 1931. https://archive.org/details/whos-who-in-america_1930-1931_16 ; https://archive.org/details/stockexchangepra0133unit +[^62]: *Who's Who in America*, vol. 15, 1928 to 1929, entry "Whitney, George, banking" (born Boston, October 9, 1885; Harvard 1907; Kidder, Peabody & Co., 1907; "partner J. P. Morgan & Co. since 1920"; director of the Guaranty Trust Co. of New York, General Motors Corporation and Kennecott Copper Corporation). https://archive.org/details/whos-who-in-america_1928-1929_15 +[^63]: *Who's Who in America*, vol. 16, 1930 to 1931, entry "Lamont, Thomas William, banker" ("mem. firm of J. P. Morgan & Co., bankers, since 1911"; chairman of the American group of the International Consortium for Assistance of China; chairman of the International Committee of Bankers for the adjustment of the Mexican foreign debt). https://archive.org/details/whos-who-in-america_1930-1931_16 +[^64]: *Stock Exchange Practices*, Part 1 (1933), testimony of Keyes, pp. 87 to 89 ("in 1925 by the death of Mr. Stettinius"); *Munitions Industry*, Parts 15 to 19, testimony of Col. Hawkins ("in connection with Mr. Stettinius"). https://archive.org/details/stockexchangepra0133unit ; https://archive.org/details/munitionsindustr1519unit +[^65]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, "Edward Reilly Stettinius Jr.," Biographies of the Secretaries of State (Director of Lend-Lease and Special Assistant to the President, 1941; Under Secretary of State from October 4, 1943; Secretary of State from December 1, 1944 until June 27, 1945; first U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations). https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/stettinius-edward-reilly +[^66]: *Historical Dictionary of the New Deal: From Inauguration to Preparation for War* (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1985), entry for Edward R. Stettinius Jr. ("Edward R. Stettinius, Sr., a business partner of J. P. Morgan"). https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000unse_j5g3 +[^67]: University of Pennsylvania, Kislak Center, finding aid for the papers of Thomas Sovereign Gates Jr., biographical note (born April 10, 1906; Drexel and Company, full partner in 1940; Under Secretary of the Navy 1953, Secretary of the Navy 1957 to 1959, Secretary of Defense 1959 to 1961; "returned to investment banking, working for the Morgan Guaranty Trust Company"); Gerald R. Ford Library, nomination of Thomas S. Gates as Chief of the U.S. Liaison Office, Beijing, 1976. https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/legacy/upenn_rbml_PUSpMsColl1135 +[^68]: Pritzker Military Museum & Library, Davison Family Collection, finding aid for Henry Pomeroy Davison and Henry Pomeroy Davison Jr., biographical note on Henry Pomeroy Davison Jr. (partner at J. P. Morgan & Company 1929; vice president and director 1940). +[^69]: Annie Jacobsen, *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis* (Little, Brown and Company, 2017), on R. Gordon Wasson's position at the firm. +[^70]: R. Gordon Wasson, *The Hall Carbine Affair: A Study in Contemporary Folklore* (revised edition, 1948), title page, copyright page and preface. https://archive.org/details/hallcarbineaffai012466mbp +[^71]: *The Commercial and Financial Chronicle*, vol. 189, no. 5842 (April 30, 1959), "Morgan Guaranty Trust Formed by Merger." https://archive.org/details/sim_commercial-and-financial-chronicle-thursday_1959-04-30_189_5842 +[^72]: *The International Year Book and Statesmen's Who's Who* (1974, 1975 and 1983 editions), entry for the bank ("through the merger of J. P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated and Guaranty Trust Company of New York on 24 April 1959"); 1963 edition ("Chairman, Henry C. Alexander"). https://archive.org/details/internationalyea0000john +[^73]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Governmental Affairs, Subcommittee on Reports, Accounting and Management, *Interlocking Directorates Among the Major U.S. Corporations: A Staff Study*, Committee Print, 95th Cong., 2d sess. (January 1978), summary of findings. https://archive.org/details/interlockingdire00unit +[^74]: The Chase Manhattan Corporation, Form 8-K (date of earliest event reported September 12, 2000; filed September 18, 2000), Item 5 (Agreement and Plan of Merger dated as of September 12, 2000; conversion into 3.7 shares; stock option agreements for 19.9 percent of each company's common stock at $208.13 and $56.25 per share). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/19617/000095012300008649/y40434e8-k.txt +[^75]: J.P. Morgan Chase & Co., Form 10-K405 for 2001 (filed March 22, 2002), Item 1, Item 14 Exhibit 4.1, and Management's Discussion (the December 31, 2000 merger with The Chase Manhattan Corporation; merger charge of $1.25 billion). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/19617/000095012302002823/y57010e10-k405.htm diff --git a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Morgan Guaranty Trust.md b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Morgan Guaranty Trust.md index 83a07725..019cd1cd 100644 --- a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Morgan Guaranty Trust.md +++ b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Morgan Guaranty Trust.md @@ -31,11 +31,11 @@ relations: - type: represented with: "[[Wickliffe Draper]]" role: "private banker; executor of his estate after 1972" - fn: 8 + fn: 9 - type: represented with: "[[Pioneer Fund]]" role: "asset manager under the terms of Draper's will for about two decades; account closed after The Bell Curve" - fn: 8 + fn: 9 - type: employed_by with: "[[Thomas S. Gates Jr.]]" reverse: true @@ -46,36 +46,36 @@ relations: reverse: true start: 1990 role: "chairman of the boards of Morgan and the bank from January 1995" - fn: 11 + fn: 12 - type: director_of with: "[[Hanna H. Gray]]" reverse: true start: 1976 role: "director of Morgan; President of the University of Chicago 1978 to 1993" - fn: 11 + fn: 12 - type: director_of with: "[[Lee R. Raymond]]" reverse: true start: 1987 role: "chairman and chief executive of Exxon Mobil Corporation" - fn: 11 + fn: 12 - type: director_of with: "[[Riley P. Bechtel]]" reverse: true start: 1995 role: "chairman and chief executive of Bechtel Group" - fn: 11 + fn: 12 - type: director_of with: "[[Martin Feldstein]]" reverse: true start: 1993 role: "president of the National Bureau of Economic Research; director of American International Group" - fn: 11 + fn: 12 - type: subject_of with: "[[Sumitomo Corporation v. J.P. Morgan & Co.]]" start: 1999-08 role: "defendant with J.P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated and a former employee in a copper trading suit in the Southern District of New York" - fn: 12 + fn: 13 created: 2026-10-01 updated: 2026-10-26 --- @@ -96,25 +96,27 @@ On November 24, 1934 the committee's statement said that it had "no evidence bef According to the international year books, the bank resulted "through the merger of J. P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated and Guaranty Trust Company of New York on 24 April 1959," with [[Henry C. Alexander]] as chairman in the early 1960s. [[Thomas S. Gates Jr.]], [[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]] from 1957 and Deputy Secretary and then Secretary of Defense under [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] until January 1961, "returned to investment banking, working for the Morgan Guaranty Trust Company," before President [[Gerald Ford]] named him in 1976 Chief of the United States Liaison Office in [[Beijing]].[^1][^7] +The Commercial and Financial Chronicle reported on April 30, 1959 that the bank "began operation April 27, 1959 as the banking institution formed by the merger of J. P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated and Guaranty Trust Company of New York," with Henry C. Alexander as chairman of the board, [[Thomas S. Lamont]] as vice chairman and [[Dale E. Sharp]] as president.[^8] + ### Draper's Accounts -[[Wickliffe Draper]] had been a client of Guaranty Trust since the 1930s. In 1940 the [[Pioneer Fund]] offered to establish annuities for the education of any child born that year to an officer of the [[United States Army Air Corps]] who had already fathered at least three children; according to the records of the fund's director [[John Marshall Harlan II]], Draper arranged for an annuity to be established for each of the twelve children at Guaranty Trust.[^8] +[[Wickliffe Draper]] had been a client of Guaranty Trust since the 1930s. In 1940 the [[Pioneer Fund]] offered to establish annuities for the education of any child born that year to an officer of the [[United States Army Air Corps]] who had already fathered at least three children; according to the records of the fund's director [[John Marshall Harlan II]], Draper arranged for an annuity to be established for each of the twelve children at Guaranty Trust.[^9] ### Mississippi, 1963 and 1964 -After President [[John F. Kennedy]]'s civil rights address of June 1963 the lawyer [[John C. Satterfield]] of [[Yazoo City]], a past president of the [[American Bar Association]], organized the [[Coordinating Committee for Fundamental American Freedoms]] in [[Washington, D.C.]]; the [[Mississippi]] State [[Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission|Sovereignty Commission]], according to the state archives, "participated in the national campaign to prevent the passage of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, establishing and providing funds for" it.[^9] On July 22, 1963 Satterfield received the first private contribution, a 10,000 dollar Morgan Guaranty cashier's check drawn on Draper's accounts, which was deposited in a special account in the state treasury and logged in the commission's records as "Morgan Guaranty Trust Co." Contributions from Mississippi residents never exceeded 30,000 dollars. A surviving partner of Satterfield's firm said Satterfield referred obliquely to the source of the large money as "the Wall Street gang."[^8] +After President [[John F. Kennedy]]'s civil rights address of June 1963 the lawyer [[John C. Satterfield]] of [[Yazoo City]], a past president of the [[American Bar Association]], organized the [[Coordinating Committee for Fundamental American Freedoms]] in [[Washington, D.C.]]; the [[Mississippi]] State [[Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission|Sovereignty Commission]], according to the state archives, "participated in the national campaign to prevent the passage of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, establishing and providing funds for" it.[^10] On July 22, 1963 Satterfield received the first private contribution, a 10,000 dollar Morgan Guaranty cashier's check drawn on Draper's accounts, which was deposited in a special account in the state treasury and logged in the commission's records as "Morgan Guaranty Trust Co." Contributions from Mississippi residents never exceeded 30,000 dollars. A surviving partner of Satterfield's firm said Satterfield referred obliquely to the source of the large money as "the Wall Street gang."[^9] -On September 12, 1963 the bank's vice president [[Arthur W. Rossiter Jr.]] telegraphed Governor [[Ross Barnett]] that a client was "setting aside as an anonymous gift" stock valued at 100,000 dollars on the condition that "the fact and amount of the gift to be kept confidential." Barnett agreed the same day. After the shares were sold the gift totaled 98,612 dollars and was entered in the commission's records as "Donation from Morgan Guaranty Trust Company." Four months later Rossiter sent a second telegram announcing an additional 105,000 dollars. The money came from Draper's shares of [[R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company|Reynolds Tobacco]], [[General Motors]], [[Standard Oil|Standard Oil of New Jersey]] and [[Addressograph-Multigraph]]; the bank sold the stock at Draper's direction, collected commissions on the sales and held the proceeds in what it called a temporary Sovereignty Commission account at Morgan Guaranty. In one letter Rossiter wrote: "This represents an anonymous gift to your Commission and the donor has specifically requested that the fact and the amount of the gift be kept strictly confidential."[^8] +On September 12, 1963 the bank's vice president [[Arthur W. Rossiter Jr.]] telegraphed Governor [[Ross Barnett]] that a client was "setting aside as an anonymous gift" stock valued at 100,000 dollars on the condition that "the fact and amount of the gift to be kept confidential." Barnett agreed the same day. After the shares were sold the gift totaled 98,612 dollars and was entered in the commission's records as "Donation from Morgan Guaranty Trust Company." Four months later Rossiter sent a second telegram announcing an additional 105,000 dollars. The money came from Draper's shares of [[R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company|Reynolds Tobacco]], [[General Motors]], [[Standard Oil|Standard Oil of New Jersey]] and [[Addressograph-Multigraph]]; the bank sold the stock at Draper's direction, collected commissions on the sales and held the proceeds in what it called a temporary Sovereignty Commission account at Morgan Guaranty. In one letter Rossiter wrote: "This represents an anonymous gift to your Commission and the donor has specifically requested that the fact and the amount of the gift be kept strictly confidential."[^9] -Nearly 215,000 dollars of the campaign's budget of about 300,000 dollars came through the bank. The committee bought advertisements in 500 daily and weekly newspapers and by April 1964 had distributed 1.4 million pamphlets and mailings. An internal memorandum by Satterfield said Americans had to be shown that the conditions of Black people in the United States resulted from "heredity . . . not discrimination," and named "the intelligence, criminality and immorality of the Negro."[^8] On June 2, 1964 a further 50,000 dollars from Draper arrived through the bank for a proposed permanent national organization. After the murders of [[James Chaney]], [[Andrew Goodman]] and [[Michael Schwerner]] that summer the plan was dropped and the 50,000 dollars was returned to Draper's lawyer [[Harry Weyher]], who deposited it in his firm's escrow account.[^8] +Nearly 215,000 dollars of the campaign's budget of about 300,000 dollars came through the bank. The committee bought advertisements in 500 daily and weekly newspapers and by April 1964 had distributed 1.4 million pamphlets and mailings. An internal memorandum by Satterfield said Americans had to be shown that the conditions of Black people in the United States resulted from "heredity . . . not discrimination," and named "the intelligence, criminality and immorality of the Negro."[^9] On June 2, 1964 a further 50,000 dollars from Draper arrived through the bank for a proposed permanent national organization. After the murders of [[James Chaney]], [[Andrew Goodman]] and [[Michael Schwerner]] that summer the plan was dropped and the 50,000 dollars was returned to Draper's lawyer [[Harry Weyher]], who deposited it in his firm's escrow account.[^9] -The state treasurer at the time, [[William F. Winter]], said that Wall Street firms charged higher interest rates on Mississippi bonds because of the state's reputation, and that a bond issue was canceled in 1965 for lack of bids on Wall Street.[^8] +The state treasurer at the time, [[William F. Winter]], said that Wall Street firms charged higher interest rates on Mississippi bonds because of the state's reputation, and that a bond issue was canceled in 1965 for lack of bids on Wall Street.[^9] ### The Estate and the Pioneer Fund -When Draper died in 1972 the bank continued to manage his holdings while the will was sorted out, and five years later the assets were distributed: about 1 million dollars to family members, 3.3 million dollars to the Pioneer Fund and 1.7 million dollars to the [[Puritan Foundation]], which listed Satterfield's law firm as its address. In 1978 the Puritan Foundation was merged into the [[Council School Foundation]], which supported private schools for white students. In the late 1960s and 1970s Draper had sent dozens of checks to private academies opened for white families after public school integration. His will instructed the fund to use the bank for financial advice, and it did so for two decades. [[Douglas A. Blackmon]] reported in 1999, citing people familiar with the situation, that the bank closed the Pioneer Fund's asset management account after the controversy over *[[The Bell Curve]]* in 1994; the bank would not give details of why.[^8] +When Draper died in 1972 the bank continued to manage his holdings while the will was sorted out, and five years later the assets were distributed: about 1 million dollars to family members, 3.3 million dollars to the Pioneer Fund and 1.7 million dollars to the [[Puritan Foundation]], which listed Satterfield's law firm as its address. In 1978 the Puritan Foundation was merged into the [[Council School Foundation]], which supported private schools for white students. In the late 1960s and 1970s Draper had sent dozens of checks to private academies opened for white families after public school integration. His will instructed the fund to use the bank for financial advice, and it did so for two decades. [[Douglas A. Blackmon]] reported in 1999, citing people familiar with the situation, that the bank closed the Pioneer Fund's asset management account after the controversy over *[[The Bell Curve]]* in 1994; the bank would not give details of why.[^9] -The bank said that "racism is deplorable," that it did not "support institutions that further racist causes," and that it had given more than 3.3 million dollars of its own money to civil rights groups since the late 1960s. Its spokesman [[Joe Evangelisti]] said: "A thousand times a day, somebody sends money to an organization that 30 years later looks really terrible. We can't tell our customers how to spend their money." The managing director [[Hildy J. Simmons]] said: "As long as the receiving party is legal, we have no discretion," and, of Draper: "You can spend your money the way you want to." The files of the commission, sealed by the 1977 abolition act, were opened by a federal court order, most of them becoming available in the state archives' search room on March 17, 1998, and the [[The Wall Street Journal|Wall Street Journal]] reported the transfers on June 11, 1999.[^8][^9] +The bank said that "racism is deplorable," that it did not "support institutions that further racist causes," and that it had given more than 3.3 million dollars of its own money to civil rights groups since the late 1960s. Its spokesman [[Joe Evangelisti]] said: "A thousand times a day, somebody sends money to an organization that 30 years later looks really terrible. We can't tell our customers how to spend their money." The managing director [[Hildy J. Simmons]] said: "As long as the receiving party is legal, we have no discretion," and, of Draper: "You can spend your money the way you want to." The files of the commission, sealed by the 1977 abolition act, were opened by a federal court order, most of them becoming available in the state archives' search room on March 17, 1998, and the [[The Wall Street Journal|Wall Street Journal]] reported the transfers on June 11, 1999.[^9][^10] ### Holdings and Interlocks in 1978 @@ -122,38 +124,58 @@ The Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs staff study, *Interlocking Director ### J.P. Morgan in 1994 -In its annual report for 1994 J.P. Morgan stated that it was "a primary dealer in government securities of the United States and all other [[Group of Seven]] industrial nations," that its sales and trading clients and counterparties included "corporations, central banks, governments and their agencies," and that the assets it managed had grown in 1994 to 150 billion dollars. Its equity portfolio "exceeds $1 billion in value and includes securities of 90 companies"; the largest gain came from [[Columbia/HCA]] stock acquired in 1989 "in connection with our role in the leveraged acquisition of [[Hospital Corporation of America]] by its management."[^10] +In its annual report for 1994 J.P. Morgan stated that it was "a primary dealer in government securities of the United States and all other [[Group of Seven]] industrial nations," that its sales and trading clients and counterparties included "corporations, central banks, governments and their agencies," and that the assets it managed had grown in 1994 to 150 billion dollars. Its equity portfolio "exceeds $1 billion in value and includes securities of 90 companies"; the largest gain came from [[Columbia/HCA]] stock acquired in 1989 "in connection with our role in the leveraged acquisition of [[Hospital Corporation of America]] by its management."[^11] ### The Board in 2000 -The proxy statement for the annual meeting of April 12, 2000 nominated 15 directors of J.P. Morgan & Co., each "also a director of Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York." They included the chairman [[Douglas A. Warner III]], a director of [[General Electric]] and [[Anheuser-Busch]] and a member of the Board of Counselors of [[Bechtel Group]]; [[Riley P. Bechtel]], chairman and chief executive of Bechtel Group and a member of the [[Trilateral Commission]]; [[John A. Krol]], retired chairman of [[E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Company]] and a member of the advisory board of [[Bechtel Corporation]]; [[Lee R. Raymond]], chairman of [[Exxon Mobil Corporation]], a member of the [[Council on Foreign Relations]] and the Trilateral Commission, director since 1987; [[James R. Houghton]] of [[Corning Incorporated|Corning]] and a director of Exxon Mobil and [[Metropolitan Life Insurance Company]]; [[Martin Feldstein]], also a director of Columbia/HCA, and [[Ellen V. Futter]], who with Feldstein sat on the board of [[American International Group]] and was a member of the Council on Foreign Relations; [[Hanna H. Gray]], a director since 1976; and [[Paul A. Allaire]] of [[Xerox]], also a member of the Council on Foreign Relations. The proxy listed Corning, DuPont, Exxon Mobil, [[Honeywell]], [[Maytag]], [[Phelps Dodge]] and Xerox as organizations whose officers sat on the board and with which J.P. Morgan had transactions in the ordinary course.[^11] +The proxy statement for the annual meeting of April 12, 2000 nominated 15 directors of J.P. Morgan & Co., each "also a director of Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York." They included the chairman [[Douglas A. Warner III]], a director of [[General Electric]] and [[Anheuser-Busch]] and a member of the Board of Counselors of [[Bechtel Group]]; [[Riley P. Bechtel]], chairman and chief executive of Bechtel Group and a member of the [[Trilateral Commission]]; [[John A. Krol]], retired chairman of [[E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Company]] and a member of the advisory board of [[Bechtel Corporation]]; [[Lee R. Raymond]], chairman of [[Exxon Mobil Corporation]], a member of the [[Council on Foreign Relations]] and the Trilateral Commission, director since 1987; [[James R. Houghton]] of [[Corning Incorporated|Corning]] and a director of Exxon Mobil and [[Metropolitan Life Insurance Company]]; [[Martin Feldstein]], also a director of Columbia/HCA, and [[Ellen V. Futter]], who with Feldstein sat on the board of [[American International Group]] and was a member of the Council on Foreign Relations; [[Hanna H. Gray]], a director since 1976; and [[Paul A. Allaire]] of [[Xerox]], also a member of the Council on Foreign Relations. The proxy listed Corning, DuPont, Exxon Mobil, [[Honeywell]], [[Maytag]], [[Phelps Dodge]] and Xerox as organizations whose officers sat on the board and with which J.P. Morgan had transactions in the ordinary course.[^12] ### Sumitomo Copper Litigation -In August 1999 [[Sumitomo Corporation]] sued J.P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated, Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York "and a former J.P. Morgan employee" in the [[U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York|Southern District of New York]], alleging that from 1993 to 1996 Morgan had assisted a Sumitomo employee in copper trading.[^12] +In August 1999 [[Sumitomo Corporation]] sued J.P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated, Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York "and a former J.P. Morgan employee" in the [[U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York|Southern District of New York]], alleging that from 1993 to 1996 Morgan had assisted a Sumitomo employee in copper trading.[^13] ### The Chase Merger +On September 13, 2000 [[The Chase Manhattan Corporation]] and J.P. Morgan announced an Agreement and Plan of Merger dated September 12, 2000 under which each share of J.P. Morgan common stock would be converted into 3.7 shares of Chase common stock, with reciprocal stock options for 19.9 percent of each company's common stock, at $208.13 per J.P. Morgan share and $56.25 per Chase share.[^14] + On December 31, 2000 J.P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated "merged with and into The Chase Manhattan Corporation," which was renamed J.P. Morgan Chase & Co.; a merger charge of 1.25 billion dollars was recorded that day. The bank itself was succeeded by JPMorgan Chase Bank.[^3] ### The Financial Trust Company Account -Monthly "Asset Account Portfolio" statements of Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York, 345 Park Avenue, were issued to [[Financial Trust Company]], Inc., the [[United States Virgin Islands]] company of [[Jeffrey Epstein]], addressed "C/O American Yacht Harbor, 6100 Red Hook, Quarters #2, St Thomas." The statements released by the [[United States Department of Justice|Justice Department]] run from August 1999 to October 2001, past the merger; the August 1999 statement carries the legend "Confidential Treatment Requested by JPMorgan" and the production number JPM-SDNY-00036858, marking it as part of the bank's production to the [[U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of New York|Southern District of New York]].[^13][^14][^15] +Monthly "Asset Account Portfolio" statements of Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York, 345 Park Avenue, were issued to [[Financial Trust Company]], Inc., the [[United States Virgin Islands]] company of [[Jeffrey Epstein]], addressed "C/O American Yacht Harbor, 6100 Red Hook, Quarters #2, St Thomas." The statements released by the [[United States Department of Justice|Justice Department]] run from August 1999 to October 2001, past the merger; the August 1999 statement carries the legend "Confidential Treatment Requested by JPMorgan" and the production number JPM-SDNY-00036858, marking it as part of the bank's production to the [[U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of New York|Southern District of New York]].[^15][^16][^17] ### Footnotes [^1]: *The International Year Book and Statesmen's Who's Who* (1974, 1975 and 1983 editions), entry for the bank ("through the merger of J. P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated and Guaranty Trust Company of New York on 24 April 1959"); 1963 edition ("Chairman, Henry C. Alexander"). https://archive.org/details/internationalyea0000john + [^2]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Governmental Affairs, Subcommittee on Reports, Accounting and Management, *Interlocking Directorates Among the Major U.S. Corporations: A Staff Study,* Committee Print, 95th Cong., 2d sess. (January 1978), summary of findings. https://archive.org/details/interlockingdire00unit + [^3]: J.P. Morgan Chase & Co., Form 10-K405 for 2001 (filed March 22, 2002), Item 1, Item 14 Exhibit 4.1, and Management's Discussion. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/19617/000095012302002823/y57010e10-k405.htm + [^4]: *Guaranty Trust Co. of New York v. United States,* 304 U.S. 126 (1938) (No. 566, argued March 28 and 29, decided April 25, 1938; opinion of Stone, J.). https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/304/126 + [^5]: House Special Committee on Un-American Activities (McCormack-Dickstein Committee), *Investigation of Un-American Activities,* statement of November 24, 1934 and testimony of Smedley D. Butler, Paul Comly French and Gerald P. MacGuire, November 20 to 22, 1934, as reproduced in "The Plot to Overthrow FDR." https://archive.org/details/McCormackDicksteinCommittee ; Antony C. Sutton, *Wall Street and FDR* (Arlington House, 1975), ch. 10, "FDR: Man on the White Horse," pp. 145, 147 (Murphy as director; the bank book passage at p. 145). https://archive.org/details/wall-street-and-fdr-1975 + [^6]: *Who's Who in Commerce and Industry* (1936), entry "Murphy, Grayson Mallet-Prevost" ("Senior Vice-Pres., Guaranty Trust Co., 1915-17"; "Resumed position with Guaranty Trust Co., 1919-20"; "Treas., American Liberty League"). https://archive.org/details/whoswhoincommerc00unse_0 + [^7]: University of Pennsylvania, Kislak Center, finding aid for the Thomas Sovereign Gates, Jr. papers, biographical note; Gerald R. Ford Library, nomination of Thomas S. Gates as Chief of the U.S. Liaison Office, Beijing, 1976. https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/legacy/upenn_rbml_PUSpMsColl1135 -[^8]: Douglas A. Blackmon, "Silent Partner: How the South's Fight To Uphold Segregation Was Funded Up North," *The Wall Street Journal,* June 11, 1999, p. A1, reproduced at https://slaverybyanothername.com/other-writings/silent-partner-how-the-souths-fight-to-uphold-segregation-was-funded-up-north/ -[^9]: Mississippi Department of Archives and History, Sovereignty Commission Online, "Agency History." https://da.mdah.ms.gov/sovcom/scagencycasehistory -[^10]: J.P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated, Form 10-K405 for 1994 (filed March 22, 1995), letter to stockholders and "Description of business." https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/68100/0000068100-95-000274.txt -[^11]: J.P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated, definitive proxy statement (Schedule 14A) for the annual meeting of April 12, 2000, filed March 8, 2000, "Item 1: Election of directors," "Transactions with directors and officers." https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/68100/0000891092-00-000171.txt -[^12]: J.P. Morgan Chase & Co., Form 10-K405 for 2001, Item 3, "Legal proceedings" (Sumitomo Corporation v. J.P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated, Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York, S.D.N.Y., filed August 1999). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/19617/000095012302002823/y57010e10-k405.htm -[^13]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01511044, DataSet 10, Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York, Asset Account Portfolio, Financial Trust Company, Inc., August 1 to August 31, 1999, production number JPM-SDNY-00036858. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2010/EFTA01511044.pdf -[^14]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01557200, DataSet 10, Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York, Asset Account Portfolio, Financial Trust Company, Inc., October 1 to October 31, 2000. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2010/EFTA01557200.pdf -[^15]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01557398, DataSet 10, Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York, Asset Account Portfolio, Financial Trust Company, Inc., October 1 to October 31, 2001. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2010/EFTA01557398.pdf + +[^8]: *The Commercial and Financial Chronicle*, vol. 189, no. 5842 (April 30, 1959), "Morgan Guaranty Trust Formed by Merger." https://archive.org/details/sim_commercial-and-financial-chronicle-thursday_1959-04-30_189_5842 + +[^9]: Douglas A. Blackmon, "Silent Partner: How the South's Fight To Uphold Segregation Was Funded Up North," *The Wall Street Journal,* June 11, 1999, p. A1, reproduced at https://slaverybyanothername.com/other-writings/silent-partner-how-the-souths-fight-to-uphold-segregation-was-funded-up-north/ + +[^10]: Mississippi Department of Archives and History, Sovereignty Commission Online, "Agency History." https://da.mdah.ms.gov/sovcom/scagencycasehistory + +[^11]: J.P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated, Form 10-K405 for 1994 (filed March 22, 1995), letter to stockholders and "Description of business." https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/68100/0000068100-95-000274.txt + +[^12]: J.P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated, definitive proxy statement (Schedule 14A) for the annual meeting of April 12, 2000, filed March 8, 2000, "Item 1: Election of directors," "Transactions with directors and officers." https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/68100/0000891092-00-000171.txt + +[^13]: J.P. Morgan Chase & Co., Form 10-K405 for 2001, Item 3, "Legal proceedings" (Sumitomo Corporation v. J.P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated, Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York, S.D.N.Y., filed August 1999). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/19617/000095012302002823/y57010e10-k405.htm + +[^14]: The Chase Manhattan Corporation, Form 8-K (date of earliest event reported September 12, 2000; filed September 18, 2000), Item 5. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/19617/000095012300008649/y40434e8-k.txt + +[^15]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01511044, DataSet 10, Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York, Asset Account Portfolio, Financial Trust Company, Inc., August 1 to August 31, 1999, production number JPM-SDNY-00036858. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2010/EFTA01511044.pdf + +[^16]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01557200, DataSet 10, Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York, Asset Account Portfolio, Financial Trust Company, Inc., October 1 to October 31, 2000. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2010/EFTA01557200.pdf + +[^17]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01557398, DataSet 10, Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York, Asset Account Portfolio, Financial Trust Company, Inc., October 1 to October 31, 2001. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2010/EFTA01557398.pdf diff --git a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/New York Times.md b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/New York Times.md index 14014b1f..8f257364 100644 --- a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/New York Times.md +++ b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/New York Times.md @@ -19,13 +19,13 @@ tags: - AATIP summary: "New York newspaper that CIA files and Carl Bernstein name as a cover provider (1950 to 1966), which published Hersh's 1974 CHAOS story, the 1996 Dark Alliance rebuttals and the 2017 AATIP report." created: 2026-10-05 -updated: 2026-10-05 +updated: 2026-10-26 relations: - type: employed_by with: "[[Seymour Hersh]]" reverse: true role: "reporter" - fn: 12 + fn: 13 - type: head_of with: "[[Arthur Hays Sulzberger]]" reverse: true @@ -35,17 +35,17 @@ relations: with: "[[Project Azorian]]" role: "published the March 19, 1975 account of the Glomar Explorer recovery" start: 1975-03-19 - fn: 14 + fn: 15 - type: participant_in with: "[[Dark Alliance]]" role: "published the October 20 and 21, 1996 rebuttals and the July 17, 1998 report on the CIA Inspector General's second volume" start: 1996-10-20 - fn: 18 + fn: 19 - type: participant_in with: "[[December 2017 New York Times AATIP Report]]" role: "publisher of the article" start: 2017-12-16 - fn: 24 + fn: 25 --- The [[New York Times]] appears in the record of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] in four capacities: as a provider of press credentials to Agency employees abroad between 1950 and 1966, as the paper in which [[Seymour Hersh]] published the first account of [[Operation CHAOS]] on December 22, 1974, as one of the three national papers that answered the [[San Jose Mercury News]] "[[Dark Alliance]]" series in October 1996, and as the publisher of the December 16, 2017 article that disclosed the [[Advanced Aerospace Threat Identification Program]]. @@ -57,66 +57,96 @@ The [[Church Committee]] reported in 1976 that until February 1976 the CIA maint Bernstein reported that Arthur Hays Sulzberger signed a secrecy agreement with the CIA in the 1950s, a fact confirmed by his nephew [[C. L. Sulzberger]], who said it was a pledge not to disclose classified information given to the publisher; other Agency officials, Bernstein wrote, said it covered the Times's dealings with the CIA, including cover. Bernstein described C. L. Sulzberger, then a Times foreign-affairs columnist, as one of a dozen or so "known assets" whose CIA files "contain reports of specific tasks," and quoted a senior CIA official on his access in Europe: "He was very eager, he loved to cooperate." [[Turner Catledge]], managing editor from 1951 to 1964, had written in 1974 to the reporter [[Stuart Loory]] that "the CIA and other hush-hush agencies sought to make arrangements for 'cooperation' even with Times management" and "we always resisted." Bernstein also reported that [[Allen Dulles]] and Sulzberger were close and that the arrangements were left to subordinates so that the principals had "plausible deniability."[^3] -A clipping of a Times article by [[John M. Crewdson]] dated January 30 carried the headline "C.I.A. Tried in 50's to Recruit Times Man." It reported, from CIA documents the Times had obtained, that in 1952 a CIA representative named [[Richard S. Suter]] approached the Times reporter [[Wayne Phillips]], then also a student at the Russian Institute of [[Columbia University]], about serving as an undercover operative abroad; Phillips, who said he never worked for the Agency, said the contact was broken off in the summer of 1953 after he wrote to [[Allen Dulles]] asking about Suter's credentials, and that Suter then told him he had "gone in the front door" by writing to Dulles "when they were trying to get me in the back door." The article also quoted an unnamed former Times correspondent who said he had been advised before going abroad in the late 1940s by Arthur Hays Sulzberger that the CIA might ask him to supply Times credentials to individuals going abroad for other purposes, that he was not "under any obligation" to agree, and that the publisher would be "happier" if he refused; the correspondent said he rebuffed every request.[^4] +A clipping of a Times article by [[John M. Crewdson]] dated January 30 carried the headline "C.I.A. Tried in 50's to Recruit Times Man." It reported, from CIA documents the Times had obtained, that in 1952 a CIA representative named [[Richard S. Suter]] approached the Times reporter [[Wayne Phillips]], then also a student at the Russian Institute of [[Columbia University]], about serving as an undercover operative abroad; Phillips, who said he never worked for the Agency, said the contact was broken off in the summer of 1953 after he wrote to Allen Dulles asking about Suter's credentials, and that Suter then told him he had "gone in the front door" by writing to Dulles "when they were trying to get me in the back door." The article also quoted an unnamed former Times correspondent who said he had been advised before going abroad in the late 1940s by Arthur Hays Sulzberger that the CIA might ask him to supply Times credentials to individuals going abroad for other purposes, that he was not "under any obligation" to agree, and that the publisher would be "happier" if he refused; the correspondent said he rebuffed every request.[^4] On February 10, 1976 the [[Washington Star]] reported that CIA Director [[George H.W. Bush|George Bush]] had met the previous week with Times publisher [[Arthur Ochs Sulzberger]], editorial page editor [[John Oakes]] and vice president [[Sydney Gruson]], and separately with executives of CBS, to ask for support in keeping secret the names of journalists who had worked for the Agency. The Star, citing the [[Washington Post]], reported that officials of both organizations had offered general support; Sulzberger said the subject of disclosing names to the Senate committee "never arose," and managing editor [[A. M. Rosenthal]] said that he and the Times supported "complete disclosure" of the names of any of its own correspondents who had cooperated with the CIA.[^5] After Bernstein's article, the Star reported that the Times said it had "absolutely no information" to add to a statement Arthur Ochs Sulzberger had issued the previous year, in which he said he had never heard of the Times being approached.[^6] The Times published its own survey in December 1977. Crewdson and [[Joseph B. Treaster]], in an article dated December 26, 1977 that the Times called the first of a series, wrote that a three-month inquiry by a team of Times reporters indicated that the CIA had counted a number of American journalists among its paid agents but that, "with a few notable exceptions," they did not appear to have been part of its propaganda campaign, which instead ran through a network of news organizations that the Agency owned, subsidized or influenced, most of them overseas.[^7] Earlier, on May 3, 1966, a CIA memorandum had commented paragraph by paragraph on the articles of April 25 and 26, 1966 in a Times series on the Agency, describing one passage on a 1950s appropriation request as "totally incorrect in its implications."[^8] +### The Pentagon Papers, 1971 + +[[Time]] reported on August 2, 1971 that [[Lord, Day and Lord]], a law firm of the [[Lord family]], had been corporate counsel to the Times for twenty-three years and "played no part" when the paper fought the Pentagon Papers case to the Supreme Court. The firm's partner Louis Loeb had repeatedly advised that publication would be improper and might be illegal; the Times's general counsel [[James Goodale]] disagreed, and when the paper went ahead the firm said it could not act because of a conflict of interest attributed to its partner [[Herbert Brownell]]. The Times gave its litigation to Cahill, Gordon, Sonnett, Reindel and Ohl.[^9] + ### Hersh and the Agency, 1972 to 1975 -CIA records place Hersh in contact with the Agency's congressional liaison two years before the CHAOS story. On July 5, 1972 the [[Senate Armed Services Committee]] staff told the Agency's legislative counsel that Hersh's July 3 Times article confirming cloud seeding over Indochina would draw formal inquiry.[^9] On November 30, 1972 a memorandum recorded that Representative [[Lucien Nedzi]] had told the Agency that Hersh had raised allegations of narcotics moving from Indochina on [[Continental Airlines]] flights and of Agency pressure on an American traveling to China. A second Agency document of the same period, "Comments on Allegations made to Chairman Nedzi," answered Hersh's reported allegation that the CIA conducted surveillance in 35 or 40 cities with the word "Completely false."[^10] +CIA records place Hersh in contact with the Agency's congressional liaison two years before the CHAOS story. On July 5, 1972 the [[Senate Armed Services Committee]] staff told the Agency's legislative counsel that Hersh's July 3 Times article confirming cloud seeding over Indochina would draw formal inquiry.[^10] On November 30, 1972 a memorandum recorded that Representative [[Lucien Nedzi]] had told the Agency that Hersh had raised allegations of narcotics moving from Indochina on [[Continental Airlines]] flights and of Agency pressure on an American traveling to China. A second Agency document of the same period, "Comments on Allegations made to Chairman Nedzi," answered Hersh's reported allegation that the CIA conducted surveillance in 35 or 40 cities with the word "Completely false."[^11] -Minutes of the Director's morning meetings, included among the attachments to the [[CIA Family Jewels]] compilation, record the Agency's handling of Times inquiries that winter. On November 15, 1972 the Deputy Director for Plans reported that a Times reporter named Harper was working on a story linking the Agency to Cuban emigres, the break-in at the [[Chilean Embassy]], action against [[Daniel Ellsberg]] and Watergate, and concluded that such a story "could have no basis in fact" and that it would be inadvisable to try to straighten out the reporter. On December 29, 1972 the minutes record that Hersh, preparing a story on Watergate, had asked whether [[Eugenio Martinez]] had been employed by the Agency, and that the Acting Director recommended that the Agency "not assist Mr. Hersh's efforts." On January 18, 1973 Nedzi briefed Agency officials on his November conversation with Hersh, including allegations "that we are engaged in extensive domestic operations," and the Director said the Agency should assemble a senior team to outline for Nedzi "what we do and do not do in the United States."[^11] +Minutes of the Director's morning meetings, included among the attachments to the [[CIA Family Jewels]] compilation, record the Agency's handling of Times inquiries that winter. On November 15, 1972 the Deputy Director for Plans reported that a Times reporter named Harper was working on a story linking the Agency to Cuban emigres, the break-in at the [[Chilean Embassy]], action against [[Daniel Ellsberg]] and Watergate, and concluded that such a story "could have no basis in fact" and that it would be inadvisable to try to straighten out the reporter. On December 29, 1972 the minutes record that Hersh, preparing a story on Watergate, had asked whether [[Eugenio Martinez]] had been employed by the Agency, and that the Acting Director recommended that the Agency "not assist Mr. Hersh's efforts." On January 18, 1973 Nedzi briefed Agency officials on his November conversation with Hersh, including allegations "that we are engaged in extensive domestic operations," and the Director said the Agency should assemble a senior team to outline for Nedzi "what we do and do not do in the United States."[^12] -Hersh's front-page article of December 22, 1974 (datelined December 21) reported, from "well-placed Government sources," that the CIA had conducted "a massive illegal domestic intelligence operation during the Nixon Administration against the antiwar movement and other dissident groups," that files on at least 10,000 American citizens were kept by a special unit reporting to [[Richard Helms]], and that a check of the Agency's domestic files ordered by [[James R. Schlesinger]] had produced evidence of dozens of other illegal activities. The article said Colby had been informed the previous week of the Times inquiry and quoted him at a Council on Foreign Relations meeting: "I think family skeletons are best left where they are, in the closet." The clipping survives in the Agency's own internal press digest of December 27, 1974.[^12] +Hersh's front-page article of December 22, 1974 (datelined December 21) reported, from "well-placed Government sources," that the CIA had conducted "a massive illegal domestic intelligence operation during the Nixon Administration against the antiwar movement and other dissident groups," that files on at least 10,000 American citizens were kept by a special unit reporting to [[Richard Helms]], and that a check of the Agency's domestic files ordered by [[James R. Schlesinger]] had produced evidence of dozens of other illegal activities. The article said Colby had been informed the previous week of the Times inquiry and quoted him at a Council on Foreign Relations meeting: "I think family skeletons are best left where they are, in the closet." The clipping survives in the Agency's own internal press digest of December 27, 1974.[^13] ### The Glomar Explorer -The CIA's internal history of [[Project Azorian]] records that the first press leak was in the [[Los Angeles Times]] in February 1975 and that "extraordinary efforts by DCI Colby and others were able to contain the spread of the story for a time."[^13] A note in the State Department's Foreign Relations series, citing CIA Executive Registry files, states that Colby urged Hersh to delay publication in conversations on February 1, 1974 and February 10, 1975, and that on March 19, 1975, the day after [[Jack Anderson]] broadcast the story, the Times, the Los Angeles Times and the Washington Post published front-page accounts.[^14] Hersh's March 19 Times article reported the project's purpose, cost and results; at a [[White House]] meeting that morning Colby told [[Gerald Ford]], "I go back to the U-2," in arguing against official confirmation.[^15] +The CIA's internal history of [[Project Azorian]] records that the first press leak was in the [[Los Angeles Times]] in February 1975 and that "extraordinary efforts by DCI Colby and others were able to contain the spread of the story for a time."[^14] A note in the State Department's Foreign Relations series, citing CIA Executive Registry files, states that Colby urged Hersh to delay publication in conversations on February 1, 1974 and February 10, 1975, and that on March 19, 1975, the day after [[Jack Anderson]] broadcast the story, the Times, the Los Angeles Times and the Washington Post published front-page accounts.[^15] Hersh's March 19 Times article reported the project's purpose, cost and results; at a [[White House]] meeting that morning Colby told [[Gerald Ford]], "I go back to the U-2," in arguing against official confirmation.[^16] ### Contra drug trafficking coverage -The record compiled by the Senate subcommittee chaired by [[John Kerry]] places the Times in the 1985 and 1986 press chronology of the Contra supply network. It lists Times reports on July 8, 1985 (the statements of the mercenaries [[Steven Carr]] and [[Peter Glibbery]] that they had flown weapons to the Contras), on August 8, 1985 (a front-page report that [[National Security Council]] aides were helping the Contras raise money from private sources), and on August 25, 1985 (on [[John Hull]] as the FDN contact in [[Costa Rica]]). It lists a May 6, 1986 Times report on page A6 quoting a [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]] spokesman that charges regarding gunrunning were false and that "all leads have been completely exhausted." The same chronology records that at a meeting that day with Kerry's staff a Justice Department official said the department's public statements to the contrary were "inaccurate," and that [[Leon Kellner]], the United States Attorney in Miami, later testified that he told the spokesman, [[Pat Korten]], that his statements to the Times had not been correct. On June 12, 1986 the Times carried Hersh's front-page article on Panama's General [[Manuel Noriega]].[^16] +The record compiled by the Senate subcommittee chaired by [[John Kerry]] places the Times in the 1985 and 1986 press chronology of the Contra supply network. It lists Times reports on July 8, 1985 (the statements of the mercenaries [[Steven Carr]] and [[Peter Glibbery]] that they had flown weapons to the Contras), on August 8, 1985 (a front-page report that [[National Security Council]] aides were helping the Contras raise money from private sources), and on August 25, 1985 (on [[John Hull]] as the FDN contact in [[Costa Rica]]). It lists a May 6, 1986 Times report on page A6 quoting a [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]] spokesman that charges regarding gunrunning were false and that "all leads have been completely exhausted." The same chronology records that at a meeting that day with Kerry's staff a Justice Department official said the department's public statements to the contrary were "inaccurate," and that [[Leon Kellner]], the United States Attorney in Miami, later testified that he told the spokesman, [[Pat Korten]], that his statements to the Times had not been correct. On June 12, 1986 the Times carried Hersh's front-page article on Panama's General [[Manuel Noriega]].[^17] -[[Gary Webb]] wrote in *Dark Alliance* that in May 1986 the Justice Department spokesman [[Terry Eastland]] had "planted a false story in the New York Times" that the department had cleared the Contras, and that the Washington Post and the Times "decided in 1986 that there was no story here."[^17] +[[Gary Webb]] wrote in *Dark Alliance* that in May 1986 the Justice Department spokesman [[Terry Eastland]] had "planted a false story in the New York Times" that the department had cleared the Contras, and that the Washington Post and the Times "decided in 1986 that there was no story here."[^18] -The Times's two articles on the Mercury News series appeared on October 20 and 21, 1996, according to the Justice Department Office of the Inspector General, which also recorded that the Times concluded, from unnamed sources, that there was "no evidence" that [[Norwin Meneses]] or [[Danilo Blandon]] had ties to the CIA or held official positions with the Contras.[^18] Webb wrote that the Times and the Los Angeles Times "took the same tack" as the Post, admitting the basic facts and arguing that they did not prove what the series had not claimed.[^19] On May 11, 1997 the Mercury News editor [[Jerry Ceppos]] published a column acknowledging shortcomings in the series; Webb wrote that the Times, "which hadn't found the original series newsworthy enough to mention," carried the column on its front page and praised Ceppos's courage in an editorial.[^20] +The Times's two articles on the Mercury News series appeared on October 20 and 21, 1996, according to the Justice Department Office of the Inspector General, which also recorded that the Times concluded, from unnamed sources, that there was "no evidence" that [[Norwin Meneses]] or [[Danilo Blandon]] had ties to the CIA or held official positions with the Contras.[^19] Webb wrote that the Times and the Los Angeles Times "took the same tack" as the Post, admitting the basic facts and arguing that they did not prove what the series had not claimed.[^20] On May 11, 1997 the Mercury News editor [[Jerry Ceppos]] published a column acknowledging shortcomings in the series; Webb wrote that the Times, "which hadn't found the original series newsworthy enough to mention," carried the column on its front page and praised Ceppos's courage in an editorial.[^21] -On July 17, 1998 the Times reported on its front page, under the headline "C.I.A. Says It Used Nicaraguan Rebels Accused of Drug Tie," that the Agency "continued to work with about two dozen Nicaraguan rebels and their supporters during the 1980s despite allegations that they were trafficking in drugs." Representative [[Maxine Waters]] read the headline and sentence into the [[Congressional Record]] that day and stated that the report appeared to come from a leak of the still classified review by Inspector General [[Fred Hitz]].[^21] Webb wrote that the article reported the decision to keep the paid agents "was made by top officials at headquarters," and that the Los Angeles Times and the Post did not take it up.[^22] +On July 17, 1998 the Times reported on its front page, under the headline "C.I.A. Says It Used Nicaraguan Rebels Accused of Drug Tie," that the Agency "continued to work with about two dozen Nicaraguan rebels and their supporters during the 1980s despite allegations that they were trafficking in drugs." Representative [[Maxine Waters]] read the headline and sentence into the [[Congressional Record]] that day and stated that the report appeared to come from a leak of the still classified review by Inspector General [[Fred Hitz]].[^22] Webb wrote that the article reported the decision to keep the paid agents "was made by top officials at headquarters," and that the Los Angeles Times and the Post did not take it up.[^23] ### Inslaw -On October 21, 1991 the Times op-ed page carried "A High-Tech Watergate" by former Attorney General [[Elliot Richardson]], counsel to [[INSLAW]]. The article stated that former Justice Department employees had told Richardson that [[Earl Brian]] was "linked to a scheme to take Inslaw's stolen software" for a $250 million Justice Department contract, cited claims by [[Michael Riconosciuto]], "an out-of-fiction character believed by many knowledgeable sources to have C.I.A. connections," that the software had been taken as a payoff connected to the [[October Surprise]], and described the death of the freelance journalist [[Danny Casolaro]], whom Richardson said had been murdered although authorities concluded suicide. Brian sued; on November 29, 1995 the New York Court of Appeals, in an opinion by Judge Titone, held the article to be nonactionable opinion.[^23] +On October 21, 1991 the Times op-ed page carried "A High-Tech Watergate" by former Attorney General [[Elliot Richardson]], counsel to [[INSLAW]]. The article stated that former Justice Department employees had told Richardson that [[Earl Brian]] was "linked to a scheme to take Inslaw's stolen software" for a $250 million Justice Department contract, cited claims by [[Michael Riconosciuto]], "an out-of-fiction character believed by many knowledgeable sources to have C.I.A. connections," that the software had been taken as a payoff connected to the [[October Surprise]], and described the death of the freelance journalist [[Danny Casolaro]], whom Richardson said had been murdered although authorities concluded suicide. Brian sued; on November 29, 1995 the New York Court of Appeals, in an opinion by Judge Titone, held the article to be nonactionable opinion.[^24] ### The 2017 AATIP article -The Times published "[[December 2017 New York Times AATIP Report|Glowing Auras and 'Black Money': The Pentagon's Mysterious U.F.O. Program]]" on December 16, 2017 under the bylines of [[Helene Cooper]], [[Ralph Blumenthal]] and [[Leslie Kean]]. It stated that the Advanced Aerospace Threat Identification Program was run by [[Luis Elizondo]], that it began in 2007 and was "largely funded at the request of [[Harry Reid]]," and that most of the money went to a company run by [[Robert Bigelow]]; it discussed a video of a 2004 encounter between Navy jets and an unidentified object.[^24] [[Bryan Bender]] reported in [[Politico]] that [[Christopher Mellon]], by then a paid adviser to [[To The Stars Academy of Arts & Science]], had acted as Elizondo's "unofficial public relations manager" and "started dangling the story to the New York Times, POLITICO and several other mainstream outlets," that the Times "was granted permission to broadcast the videos," and that Politico was shown the videos but not given copies. Both papers published on December 16, 2017.[^25] +The Times published "[[December 2017 New York Times AATIP Report|Glowing Auras and 'Black Money': The Pentagon's Mysterious U.F.O. Program]]" on December 16, 2017 under the bylines of [[Helene Cooper]], [[Ralph Blumenthal]] and [[Leslie Kean]]. It stated that the Advanced Aerospace Threat Identification Program was run by [[Luis Elizondo]], that it began in 2007 and was "largely funded at the request of [[Harry Reid]]," and that most of the money went to a company run by [[Robert Bigelow]]; it discussed a video of a 2004 encounter between Navy jets and an unidentified object.[^25] [[Bryan Bender]] reported in [[Politico]] that [[Christopher Mellon]], by then a paid adviser to [[To The Stars Academy of Arts & Science]], had acted as Elizondo's "unofficial public relations manager" and "started dangling the story to the New York Times, POLITICO and several other mainstream outlets," that the Times "was granted permission to broadcast the videos," and that Politico was shown the videos but not given copies. Both papers published on December 16, 2017.[^26] ### Footnotes [^1]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Final Report, Book I: Foreign and Military Intelligence*, S. Rept. 94-755, April 26, 1976, section "Covert Relationships with the United States Media." https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_I.pdf + [^2]: Bernstein, Carl. "The CIA and the Media," *Rolling Stone*, October 20, 1977, section on the New York Times (reprinted at carlbernstein.com/magazine_cia_and_media.php; read through the Internet Archive capture, https://web.archive.org/web/2012/http://www.carlbernstein.com/magazine_cia_and_media.php). Bernstein attributes the account to unnamed CIA officials. + [^3]: Bernstein, "The CIA and the Media," passages on the secrecy agreement, C. L. Sulzberger, Turner Catledge's 1974 letter to Stuart Loory, and Dulles. Same capture as note 2. + [^4]: Crewdson, John M. "C.I.A. Tried in 50's to Recruit Times Man," *The New York Times*, January 30, clipping in CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP89B00236R000500090011-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp89b00236r000500090011-8 + [^5]: Kempster, Norman. "Bush Urges Secrecy on Reporters List," *The Washington Star*, February 10, 1976, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP99-00498R000100040124-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-00498r000100040124-3 + [^6]: Gay, Lance. "Did Senate Unit Help Minimize CIA's Press Aid?" *The Washington Star*, September 12, 1977, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP99-00498R000100050080-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-00498r000100050080-1 + [^7]: Crewdson, John M., and Joseph B. Treaster. "The Worldwide C.I.A.: A Secret Shaper of Public Opinion," *The New York Times*, December 26, 1977, p. 1 (date as cited in Webb, *Dark Alliance*, notes to chapter 27), clipping in CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP88-01314R000300240002-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01314r000300240002-5 + [^8]: CIA memorandum, "New York Times Series," May 3, 1966, CIA Reading Room document C06878474. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06878474 -[^9]: Maury, John M. Memorandum for the record, "Senate Armed Services Committee Interest in Hersh Story re 'Rainmaking,'" OLC 72-0768, July 5, 1972, with Seymour M. Hersh, "Cloud Seeding in Indochina Confirmed," *The New York Times*, July 3, 1972, CIA-RDP75B00380R000100030115-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75b00380r000100030115-5 -[^10]: Memorandum for the record, "Representative Nedzi's Conversation of Today with Seymour Hersh of the New York Times," OLC 72-1162, November 30, 1972, CIA-RDP75B00380R000100030019-2 (https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75b00380r000100030019-2); CIA, "Comments on Allegations made to Chairman Nedzi, Intelligence Subcommittee of House Armed Services Committee, by Seymour Hersh," CIA-RDP75B00380R000200050121-5 (https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75b00380r000200050121-5). -[^11]: CIA, Director's morning meeting minutes, entries of November 15, 1972, December 29, 1972, January 18, 1973 and February 20, 1973, in the "Family Jewels" compilation, CIA Reading Room document 0001451843, minutes pp. 00302 to 00303 and following. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-0001451843 -[^12]: Hersh, Seymour M. "Huge C.I.A. Operation Reported in U.S. Against Antiwar Forces, Other Dissidents in Nixon Years," *The New York Times*, December 22, 1974, as reprinted in CIA, "News, Views and Issues," No. 21, December 27, 1974, CIA-RDP77-00432R000100340001-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp77-00432r000100340001-9 -[^13]: Central Intelligence Agency, "Project AZORIAN: The Story of the Hughes Glomar Explorer," *Studies in Intelligence*, Fall 1985, CIA Reading Room document 0005301269 (declassified January 4, 2010). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-0005301269 -[^14]: U.S. Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXV, National Security, 1973-1976, document 197 (Memorandum of Conversation, March 19, 1975), editorial notes 2 and 3. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d197 -[^15]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXV, document 183 (editorial note on the Hersh article of March 19, 1975) and document 197 (Colby: "I go back to the U-2."). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d183 -[^16]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy* (Kerry Committee report), December 1988, chronology entries for July 8, 1985, August 8 and 25, 1985, May 6, 1986 and June 12, 1986, and Kellner deposition of November 8, 1988 (Korten). https://archive.org/details/KerryCommitteeReport -[^17]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998, chapter 27 and notes ("Eastland had a history," citing Joel Millman, "Narco-terrorism: A Tale of Two Stories," *Columbia Journalism Review*, September/October 1986). https://archive.org/details/dark-alliance-the-cia-the-con-gary-webb -[^18]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Inspector General, *The CIA-Contra-Crack Cocaine Controversy: A Review of the Justice Department's Investigations and Prosecutions* (December 1997), chapter 1. https://oig.justice.gov/special/9712/ch01p1.htm -[^19]: Webb, *Dark Alliance*, chapter 27. -[^20]: Webb, *Dark Alliance*, chapter 27 (Ceppos column of May 11, 1997). -[^21]: *Congressional Record*, House of Representatives, July 17, 1998, p. H5847 (remarks of Rep. Maxine Waters, "CIA Admits Ties to Contra Drug Dealers"). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1998_cr/h980717-cia.htm -[^22]: Webb, *Dark Alliance*, epilogue. -[^23]: Richardson, Elliot L. "A High-Tech Watergate," *The New York Times*, October 21, 1991, as described in *Brian v. Richardson*, 87 N.Y.2d 46, 660 N.E.2d 1126 (N.Y. Court of Appeals, November 29, 1995). https://www.law.cornell.edu/nyctap/I95_0246.htm -[^24]: Cooper, Helene, Ralph Blumenthal and Leslie Kean. "Glowing Auras and 'Black Money': The Pentagon's Mysterious U.F.O. Program," *The New York Times*, December 16, 2017. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/16/us/politics/pentagon-program-ufo-harry-reid.html (Internet Archive capture, https://web.archive.org/web/2023id_/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/16/us/politics/pentagon-program-ufo-harry-reid.html) -[^25]: Bender, Bryan. "The Hidden History of How Washington Embraced UFOs," *Politico Magazine*, May 28, 2021. https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2021/05/28/ufos-secret-history-government-washington-dc-487900 (Internet Archive capture). Mellon's role is as characterized by Bender. + +[^9]: "The Law: The Times v. Its Law Firm," *Time*, August 2, 1971, p. 42. https://archive.org/details/time-1971-11-15 (file "Time 1971-08-02") + +[^10]: Maury, John M. Memorandum for the record, "Senate Armed Services Committee Interest in Hersh Story re 'Rainmaking,'" OLC 72-0768, July 5, 1972, with Seymour M. Hersh, "Cloud Seeding in Indochina Confirmed," *The New York Times*, July 3, 1972, CIA-RDP75B00380R000100030115-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75b00380r000100030115-5 + +[^11]: Memorandum for the record, "Representative Nedzi's Conversation of Today with Seymour Hersh of the New York Times," OLC 72-1162, November 30, 1972, CIA-RDP75B00380R000100030019-2 (https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75b00380r000100030019-2); CIA, "Comments on Allegations made to Chairman Nedzi, Intelligence Subcommittee of House Armed Services Committee, by Seymour Hersh," CIA-RDP75B00380R000200050121-5 (https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75b00380r000200050121-5). + +[^12]: CIA, Director's morning meeting minutes, entries of November 15, 1972, December 29, 1972, January 18, 1973 and February 20, 1973, in the "Family Jewels" compilation, CIA Reading Room document 0001451843, minutes pp. 00302 to 00303 and following. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-0001451843 + +[^13]: Hersh, Seymour M. "Huge C.I.A. Operation Reported in U.S. Against Antiwar Forces, Other Dissidents in Nixon Years," *The New York Times*, December 22, 1974, as reprinted in CIA, "News, Views and Issues," No. 21, December 27, 1974, CIA-RDP77-00432R000100340001-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp77-00432r000100340001-9 + +[^14]: Central Intelligence Agency, "Project AZORIAN: The Story of the Hughes Glomar Explorer," *Studies in Intelligence*, Fall 1985, CIA Reading Room document 0005301269 (declassified January 4, 2010). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-0005301269 + +[^15]: U.S. Department of State, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXV, National Security, 1973-1976, document 197 (Memorandum of Conversation, March 19, 1975), editorial notes 2 and 3. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d197 + +[^16]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXV, document 183 (editorial note on the Hersh article of March 19, 1975) and document 197 (Colby: "I go back to the U-2."). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d183 + +[^17]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy* (Kerry Committee report), December 1988, chronology entries for July 8, 1985, August 8 and 25, 1985, May 6, 1986 and June 12, 1986, and Kellner deposition of November 8, 1988 (Korten). https://archive.org/details/KerryCommitteeReport + +[^18]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998, chapter 27 and notes ("Eastland had a history," citing Joel Millman, "Narco-terrorism: A Tale of Two Stories," *Columbia Journalism Review*, September/October 1986). https://archive.org/details/dark-alliance-the-cia-the-con-gary-webb + +[^19]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Inspector General, *The CIA-Contra-Crack Cocaine Controversy: A Review of the Justice Department's Investigations and Prosecutions* (December 1997), chapter 1. https://oig.justice.gov/special/9712/ch01p1.htm + +[^20]: Webb, *Dark Alliance*, chapter 27. + +[^21]: Webb, *Dark Alliance*, chapter 27 (Ceppos column of May 11, 1997). + +[^22]: *Congressional Record*, House of Representatives, July 17, 1998, p. H5847 (remarks of Rep. Maxine Waters, "CIA Admits Ties to Contra Drug Dealers"). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1998_cr/h980717-cia.htm + +[^23]: Webb, *Dark Alliance*, epilogue. + +[^24]: Richardson, Elliot L. "A High-Tech Watergate," *The New York Times*, October 21, 1991, as described in *Brian v. Richardson*, 87 N.Y.2d 46, 660 N.E.2d 1126 (N.Y. Court of Appeals, November 29, 1995). https://www.law.cornell.edu/nyctap/I95_0246.htm + +[^25]: Cooper, Helene, Ralph Blumenthal and Leslie Kean. "Glowing Auras and 'Black Money': The Pentagon's Mysterious U.F.O. Program," *The New York Times*, December 16, 2017. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/16/us/politics/pentagon-program-ufo-harry-reid.html (Internet Archive capture, https://web.archive.org/web/2023id_/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/16/us/politics/pentagon-program-ufo-harry-reid.html) + +[^26]: Bender, Bryan. "The Hidden History of How Washington Embraced UFOs," *Politico Magazine*, May 28, 2021. https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2021/05/28/ufos-secret-history-government-washington-dc-487900 (Internet Archive capture). Mellon's role is as characterized by Bender. diff --git a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Russell and Company.md b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Russell and Company.md index f9a24524..7fba89de 100644 --- a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Russell and Company.md +++ b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Russell and Company.md @@ -98,8 +98,23 @@ relations: with: "[[Warren Delano Jr.]]" reverse: true start: 1840-01-01 + end: 1846-12-31 role: "partner; succeeded Robert Bennet Forbes as chief of the house" - fn: 7 + fn: 10 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Warren Delano Jr.]]" + reverse: true + start: 1861-01-01 + end: 1866-12-31 + role: "partner, readmitted" + fn: 60 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Delano family]]" + reverse: true + start: 1840-01-01 + end: 1866-12-31 + role: "Warren Delano Jr. (1840 to 1846 and 1861 to 1866) and Edward Delano (to 1846), partners" + fn: 58 - type: employed_by with: "[[Russell Sturgis]]" reverse: true @@ -125,13 +140,20 @@ relations: with: "[[Houqua]]" start: 1829-08-01 role: "agent for the Canton merchant's foreign business, secured to the house in 1830" - fn: 15 + fn: 19 + - type: employed_by + with: "[[Forbes family]]" + reverse: true + start: 1857-01-01 + end: 1881-12-31 + role: "Francis Blackwell Forbes, partner who went to China in 1857 and moved to Europe in the early 1880s; his cousin William Howell Forbes was senior partner at Hong Kong in 1891" + fn: 73 - type: participant_in with: "[[Opium War]]" start: 1839-03-22 end: 1842-08-29 role: "partners at Canton signed the May 25, 1839 memorial to Congress after the opium surrender" - fn: 29 + fn: 39 --- Russell and Company was an American commission house at [[Canton]], [[China]], formed by [[Samuel Russell]] of [[Middletown, Connecticut]]. [[W. C. Hunter]], a partner of the house, wrote that it "confined itself strictly to agency business."[^1] The [[Baker Library]] at [[Harvard Business School]] describes it as "the largest American commission house in China" until its demise in 1891.[^2] Its Canton correspondence includes the Turkish opium trade, and from 1830 the house kept the ship Lintin at anchor as its receiving ship in the opium anchorage off Canton.[^3][^4] @@ -140,155 +162,278 @@ Russell and Company was an American commission house at [[Canton]], [[China]], f The [[Library of Congress]] finding aid for the firm's papers describes it as a "Trading house founded in 1819 by Samuel Russell" in Canton.[^3] Hunter, a partner from 1837 to 1842 whose 1882 book describes the Canton factories, dates the house to January 1, 1824, as the successor of Samuel Russell & Co., which he says existed from December 26, 1818 to December 26, 1823, and records that the Chinese knew the house as Kee-Chang-Hong.[^1] The National Historic Landmark nomination for Russell's Middletown house, prepared by the [[National Park Service]], places his arrival in Canton in 1819 under arrangements made by Edward Carrington and Providence merchants, and dates the commission house in partnership with [[Philip Ammidon]] to 1824.[^5] It adds that the first Canton venture returned about $15,000 to each of five partners in 1823.[^5] -From January 1, 1824, until the middle of 1830 the sole partners were Russell and Ammidon.[^1] In September 1829 [[William H. Low]] arrived from [[Salem, Massachusetts]], and in November 1830 [[Augustine Heard]] arrived from [[Boston]] in the bark Lintin under Captain R. B. Forbes. Both became partners. Low left Canton in ill health in 1833 and died at the [[Cape of Good Hope]]. Hunter lists the 1834 to 1836 admissions as [[John Cleve Green]], special agent at Canton for N. L. and G. Griswold of [[New York]], [[John Murray Forbes]], who had arrived in the Lintin in 1830 to join the office, and [[Joseph Coolidge]], who arrived in 1832. Heard retired in the same term.[^1] The nomination states that Ammidon, unable to return to Canton, was terminated from the partnership after Low and Russell accepted Heard on a recommendation in 1830.[^5] +The National Register of Historic Places nomination for the Russell Company Upper Mill in Middletown says that Russell "established his own trading station in Canton in 1818."[^6] In the National Historic Landmark nomination the Providence contract of 1819 and the voyage of the ship Fame, which reached Macao in September of that year, began the venture.[^5] -In 1837 [[Abiel Abbot Low]], a nephew of William H. Low, and Hunter were admitted, and [[Edward King]] became a partner in July of that year. [[Robert Bennet Forbes]], the elder brother of John Murray Forbes, arrived in the Bashaw in October 1838 and was admitted on January 1, 1839, becoming chief of the house.[^1] Hunter gives his departure for New York in the Niantic on July 7, 1840.[^1] The Forbes brothers were nephews of [[Thomas Handasyd Perkins]], who headed the Boston house of J. and T. H. Perkins, and Robert Bennet Forbes's plans for the Lintin station in 1829 and 1830 ran through arrangements with the Perkins family and the [[Bryant and Sturgis]] house.[^6] +From January 1, 1824, until the middle of 1830 the sole partners were Russell and Ammidon.[^1] In September 1829 [[William H. Low]] arrived from [[Salem, Massachusetts]], and in November 1830 [[Augustine Heard]] arrived from [[Boston]] in the bark Lintin under Captain R. B. Forbes. Both became partners. Low left Canton in ill health in 1833 and died at the [[Cape of Good Hope]]. Hunter lists the 1834 to 1836 admissions as [[John Cleve Green]], special agent at Canton for N. L. and G. Griswold of [[New York]], [[John Murray Forbes]], who had arrived in the Lintin in 1830 to join the office, and [[Joseph Coolidge]], who arrived in 1832. Heard retired in the same term.[^1] John Murray Forbes's own notes say that he reached China in 1830, was put in by Cushing as the youngest clerk, and was privately promised admission to the firm on January 1, 1834.[^7] The nomination states that Ammidon, unable to return to Canton, was terminated from the partnership after Low and Russell accepted Heard on a recommendation in 1830.[^5] -[[Warren Delano Jr.]] joined in the term beginning in 1840 and succeeded Forbes as chief. Hunter describes him as formerly of the house of [[Russell, Sturgis and Company]] of Canton and [[Manila]].[^1] The [[Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library]] catalogues him as Warren Delano II (1809 to 1898), the maternal grandfather of [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], and dates his partnership to January 1840.[^7] [[Russell Sturgis]] became a partner on January 1, 1842.[^1] +Forbes's memoir names the first formers of the house as Samuel Russell and Philip Ammidon: "which was first formed by Messrs. Samuel Russell and Philip Ammidon, and after a few years was changed to the present firm of Russell & Co."[^8] -Forbes's own memoir gives his partnership in Russell and Company as running from January 1, 1840 to January 1, 1844, and again from January 1, 1849 to January 1, 1857, and says that he held the vice-consulate while in China on his last visit.[^8] Hunter's list has him admitted in 1839 and leaving for New York in July 1840.[^1] +In 1837 [[Abiel Abbot Low]], a nephew of William H. Low, and Hunter were admitted, and [[Edward King]] became a partner in July of that year. [[Robert Bennet Forbes]], the elder brother of John Murray Forbes, arrived in the Bashaw in October 1838 and was admitted on January 1, 1839, becoming chief of the house.[^1] Hunter gives his departure for New York in the Niantic on July 7, 1840.[^1] The Forbes brothers were nephews of [[Thomas Handasyd Perkins]] of the [[Perkins family]], who headed the Boston house of J. and T. H. Perkins, and Robert Bennet Forbes's plans for the Lintin station in 1829 and 1830 ran through arrangements with the Perkins family and the [[Bryant and Sturgis]] house.[^9] + +[[Warren Delano Jr.]] joined in the term beginning in 1840 and succeeded Forbes as chief. Hunter describes him as formerly of the house of [[Russell, Sturgis and Company]] of Canton and [[Manila]].[^1] The [[Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library]] catalogues him as Warren Delano II (1809 to 1898), the maternal grandfather of [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], and dates his partnership to January 1840.[^10] [[Russell Sturgis]] became a partner on January 1, 1842.[^1] + +Forbes's own memoir gives his partnership in Russell and Company as running from January 1, 1840 to January 1, 1844, and again from January 1, 1849 to January 1, 1857, and says that he held the vice-consulate while in China on his last visit.[^11] Hunter's list has him admitted in 1839 and leaving for New York in July 1840.[^1] ### Samuel Russell of Middletown The nomination gives Samuel Wadsworth Russell's dates as 1789 to 1862 and his ancestry as a line from William Russell (1612 to 1664), a founder of the Saybrook and New Haven colonies, through the Rev. [[Noadiah Russell]] (1659 to 1713), second pastor of the Congregational church at Middletown from 1698 and one of the founders of [[Yale University]], and his eldest son the Rev. William Russell (born 1690). It names his grandfather as Captain Samuel Russell (born 1727) and his father as Captain John Russell (1765 to 1801), who died insolvent.[^5] His middle name came from a great uncle, [[Jeremiah Wadsworth]] of Hartford, Commissary General of the Continental Army, who had married the Rev. William Russell's daughter Mehitable.[^5] The nomination records that Russell was twelve when his father died, that he was an apprentice clerk to the Middletown merchants Whittlesley and Alsop, and that after a voyage that ended in 1813 he acted as Middletown commission merchant for Hull and Griswold, and that the first Russell and Company was founded in a building he had leased there.[^5] -The nomination dates his withdrawal from the Canton house to 1836, with his profits reinvested in industry, banking and western railroad stock, and gives his estate at death in 1862 as $630,000, left to his widow and his sole surviving son, Samuel Wadsworth Russell Jr.[^5] Hunter records that Russell and John Perkins Cushing took their final leave of Canton in the Bashaw on February 27, 1831; the nomination says both returned to America upon completing their work in March 1831.[^5][^9] The house at Middletown, designed by [[Ithiel Town]] in 1827 to 1830, passed to [[Wesleyan University]] in 1937 by the gift of his great-grandson Thomas MacDonough Russell Jr.[^5] +The Library of Congress finding aid gives his dates as "1789-approximately 1862."[^3] Houqua's letter of January 14, 1837, held in the Library of Congress collection and quoted in the nomination, says that Russell's name had been associated with the house "during the whole course of its existence" and expresses his "sincere wish that you may live long to enjoy the fruit of your industry."[^12] -The Yale biographical sketches record that the Rev. William Russell of Middletown (Yale tutor, minister 1715 to 1761), the eldest child of the Rev. Noadiah Russell and Mary Hamlin, married Mary Pierpont in 1719 and had four sons and five daughters, of whom the Rev. William Russell (Yale 1745) and the Rev. Noadiah Russell (Yale 1750) and one other son survived him.[^10] [[Matthew Talcott Russell]] was the second son of that Noadiah Russell of Thompson, Connecticut, born March 19, 1761, a lawyer at Middletown, and the father of [[William Huntington Russell]], a co-founder of the [[Skull and Bones]] society, who was graduated from Yale in 1833.[^11][^12] The nomination says that Wadsworth had been apprenticed to his uncle Matthew Talcott of Middletown, and the Yale sketch records that Matthew Talcott Russell was named for Colonel Matthew Talcott of Middletown, who had married his aunt and paid for his education.[^5][^11] The sketch of the Rev. William Russell gives the Rev. Noadiah Russell (Yale 1750) as his son and the father of Matthew Talcott Russell; the nomination gives the Rev. William Russell's daughter Mehitable as the wife of Jeremiah Wadsworth, Samuel Russell's great uncle, and names Samuel Russell's grandfather as Captain Samuel Russell (born 1727).[^5][^10][^11] +The nomination dates his withdrawal from the Canton house to 1836, with his profits reinvested in industry, banking and western railroad stock, and gives his estate at death in 1862 as $630,000, left to his widow and his sole surviving son, Samuel Wadsworth Russell Jr.[^5] Hunter records that Russell and John Perkins Cushing took their final leave of Canton in the Bashaw on February 27, 1831; the nomination says both returned to America upon completing their work in March 1831.[^5][^13] The house at Middletown, designed by [[Ithiel Town]] in 1827 to 1830, passed to [[Wesleyan University]] in 1937 by the gift of his great-grandson Thomas MacDonough Russell Jr.[^5] -The Hamlin family genealogy of 1900 records Samuel Russell, born at Middletown on August 25, 1789, as the son of Capt. John Russell (born August 19, 1765, died December 7, 1801), who was the son of Capt. Samuel Russell (born July 7, 1727), a brother of the Rev. Noadiah Russell (Yale 1750). John Russell and Matthew Talcott Russell were first cousins, and Samuel Russell and William Huntington Russell were second cousins, with William Russell, the son of the Yale founder Noadiah Russell, as their common great-grandfather.[^13] [[Kris Millegan]] calls William Huntington Russell Samuel Russell's cousin in his opening article and at pages 151 to 152, his second cousin at page 313, and, at page 52, calls Samuel Russell his uncle.[^14] +The Yale biographical sketches record that the Rev. William Russell of Middletown (Yale tutor, minister 1715 to 1761), the eldest child of the Rev. Noadiah Russell and Mary Hamlin, married Mary Pierpont in 1719 and had four sons and five daughters, of whom the Rev. William Russell (Yale 1745) and the Rev. Noadiah Russell (Yale 1750) and one other son survived him.[^14] [[Matthew Talcott Russell]] was the second son of that Noadiah Russell of Thompson, Connecticut, born March 19, 1761, a lawyer at Middletown, and the father of [[William Huntington Russell]], a co-founder of the [[Skull and Bones]] society, who was graduated from Yale in 1833.[^15][^16] The nomination says that Wadsworth had been apprenticed to his uncle Matthew Talcott of Middletown, and the Yale sketch records that Matthew Talcott Russell was named for Colonel Matthew Talcott of Middletown, who had married his aunt and paid for his education.[^5][^15] The sketch of the Rev. William Russell gives the Rev. Noadiah Russell (Yale 1750) as his son and the father of Matthew Talcott Russell; the nomination gives the Rev. William Russell's daughter Mehitable as the wife of Jeremiah Wadsworth, Samuel Russell's great uncle, and names Samuel Russell's grandfather as Captain Samuel Russell (born 1727).[^5][^14][^15] + +The Hamlin family genealogy of 1900 records Samuel Russell, born at Middletown on August 25, 1789, as the son of Capt. John Russell (born August 19, 1765, died December 7, 1801), who was the son of Capt. Samuel Russell (born July 7, 1727), a brother of the Rev. Noadiah Russell (Yale 1750). John Russell and Matthew Talcott Russell were first cousins, and Samuel Russell and William Huntington Russell were second cousins, with William Russell, the son of the Yale founder Noadiah Russell, as their common great-grandfather.[^17] [[Kris Millegan]] calls William Huntington Russell Samuel Russell's cousin in his opening article and at pages 151 to 152, his second cousin at page 313, and, at page 52, calls Samuel Russell his uncle.[^18] ### The 1831 merger with Perkins and Company The Library of Congress finding aid states that in 1831 the China trading operations of [[John P. Cushing]], [[William Perkins and Company]] of Boston, and [[Houqua]], the Canton merchant, merged with Russell and Company.[^3] The Baker Library guide to the firm's records gives the same event from the Boston side: Cushing, who had been the sole agent in Canton for Perkins and Company, arranged to dissolve the Boston house by merging its Canton business into Russell and Company in 1831.[^2] -Hunter's account is dated by deaths. Thomas T. Forbes, who had succeeded Cushing at Perkins and Company in 1828, drowned in a typhoon on August 9, 1829, with S. H. Monson, the bookkeeper of Russell and Company. Among Forbes's papers was a sealed letter to Russell and Company asking them, in case of accident, to take charge of the local business of his own firm and of J. and T. H. Perkins. They did so, "and naturally came with it that of Houqua, who had been the intimate personal friend of Mr. Cushing during his unbroken residence of over twenty years in Canton."[^15] Cushing, who was in England when the news arrived, returned to Canton in the Bashaw in August 1830, and arrangements "were then definitely concluded by which Russell & Co. were officially appointed sole agents for the Boston house, that of Perkins & Co. being wound up, while the important foreign business of Houqua was then also definitely secured to them."[^15] +Hunter's account is dated by deaths. Thomas T. Forbes, who had succeeded Cushing at Perkins and Company in 1828, drowned in a typhoon on August 9, 1829, with S. H. Monson, the bookkeeper of Russell and Company. Among Forbes's papers was a sealed letter to Russell and Company asking them, in case of accident, to take charge of the local business of his own firm and of J. and T. H. Perkins. They did so, "and naturally came with it that of Houqua, who had been the intimate personal friend of Mr. Cushing during his unbroken residence of over twenty years in Canton."[^19] Cushing, who was in England when the news arrived, returned to Canton in the Bashaw in August 1830, and arrangements "were then definitely concluded by which Russell & Co. were officially appointed sole agents for the Boston house, that of Perkins & Co. being wound up, while the important foreign business of Houqua was then also definitely secured to them."[^19] -The nomination describes the reorganization as one directed by Cushing: Heard was made the representative of Perkins and their associated Boston firms, Robert Bennet Forbes was given charge of the Lintin station storeship business, and John Murray Forbes was placed with the firm as an assistant in line for partnership.[^5] The editor of John Murray Forbes's letters adds that Cushing, returning from Europe, went overland to Canton to look after the Perkins business and merged it into Russell and Company before the arrival in China of Forbes's father and uncle.[^16] The Baker Library holds the Perkins and Company letter books from Canton that precede the merger, and the Library of Congress finding aid says that more Russell and Company business records are in the William Perkins and Company records at Baker Library.[^2][^3] +The nomination dates the death of Forbes, the Perkins heir who was to have taken control of the firm, to 1827.[^5] + +The nomination describes the reorganization as one directed by Cushing: Heard was made the representative of Perkins and their associated Boston firms, Robert Bennet Forbes was given charge of the Lintin station storeship business, and John Murray Forbes was placed with the firm as an assistant in line for partnership.[^5] The editor of John Murray Forbes's letters adds that Cushing, returning from Europe, went overland to Canton to look after the Perkins business and merged it into Russell and Company before the arrival in China of Forbes's father and uncle.[^20] The Baker Library holds the Perkins and Company letter books from Canton that precede the merger, and the Library of Congress finding aid says that more Russell and Company business records are in the William Perkins and Company records at Baker Library.[^2][^3] + +The Perkins house at Canton had been run by Ephraim Bumstead, who went out as supercargo of the ship Thomas Russell after 1798, and then by John Perkins Cushing, who went out as a clerk at sixteen in 1803; Cary has Cushing in copartnership until "the dissolution of the house in 1827," and Hunter has him at Canton until 1828.[^21][^22] A George C. Perkins of Boston, bookkeeper of Russell & Co., is named by Hunter among the men drowned in the Lantao Channel, and Forbes's memoir records the death of a Mr. George Perkins in 1854 and the retirement of Edward King and Mr. Perkins from the house in 1849.[^22][^23] ### Turkish opium and the Indian trade -The Library of Congress finding aid says that the correspondence after 1818 contains much information on the daily operation of the Canton company and on the Turkish opium trade, along with the Amsterdam commodity exchanges.[^3] Its subject index includes an entry for the opium trade with Turkey, and among the firms represented in the correspondence it lists [[Clarke and Company]], of Smyrna, [[Turkey]].[^3] The box list includes account books for 1816 to 1829 that carry a manuscript on the Chinese method of preparing opium for smoking.[^17] +The Library of Congress finding aid says that the correspondence after 1818 contains much information on the daily operation of the Canton company and on the Turkish opium trade, along with the Amsterdam commodity exchanges.[^3] Its subject index includes an entry for the opium trade with Turkey, and among the firms represented in the correspondence it lists [[Clarke and Company]], of Smyrna, [[Turkey]].[^3] The box list includes account books for 1816 to 1829 that carry a manuscript on the Chinese method of preparing opium for smoking.[^24] The nomination's account of the trade is longer. It states that Americans, largely excluded from the Indian and Persian markets, were for a time restricted to Turkish opium transshipped through American ports, that the Perkins brothers of Boston had been associated with the Turkish opium trade since the 1780s and organized a Smyrna merchant house in 1816, and that there is no evidence that Russell took part in the opium trade during his first Canton venture.[^5] It states that by the time Ammidon left, his dealings "had made Russell & Company one of the most important American sellers of the opium in Canton, second or third in the trade behind the British firms of Jardine Matheson & Company and Dent & Company," that during the first Opium War the firm "managed to hold its position in the Turkish trade and became the third largest purveyor of the drug from India," and that by 1842 it was the largest and strongest American house in China.[^5] -Robert Bennet Forbes's memoir describes a 1828 voyage to Smyrna in the Danube, a vessel fitted out at New York by [[Sturgis and Perkins]]. He states the object plainly: "the principal object being to procure Turkey opium for China."[^18] He carried a credit on the [[Baring Brothers]] of about £60,000 and a cargo of coffee and specie. At Smyrna the principal American merchant was [[Joseph Langdon]]. Forbes says that he sailed from [[Vourla]] under the convoy of the United States schooner Porpoise through the Archipelago and then went on to [[Gibraltar]] to await operations on a larger scale.[^19] On the way up the Mediterranean he met the brig Leander, of Salem, bound home from Smyrna, and he suspected from her that her owner, [[Joseph Peabody]], who held an interest in the China and [[India]] trade, had been on the same errand.[^19] +The nomination adds that during Russell's senior partnership the firm sold opium for Perkins and Company on their storeship, that John Perkins Cushing began in 1818 to turn his commission business over to Russell and Company and other Canton houses, which included his opium shipments, and that in 1827 Russell solicited consignment business including "most notably the sale of opium for John Jacob Astor."[^5] Forbes writes that Russell and Company "had for some time done business at Canton previous to Mr. Cushing's leaving, and, in fact, had transacted a part of his business."[^25] -The Indian side of the trade ran through the store-ships anchored at [[Lintin]]. Forbes writes that the store-ships lay outside at Lintin and that the drug was run up the river in small boats, sometimes carried by the mandarin boats sent to protect the revenue.[^20] He gives the annual value of the trade as ten or twelve million dollars and says that the officials encouraged its introduction "from India and Turkey, not only by levying a duty on it for their own benefit, but by consuming it."[^20] Hunter says the Lintin was Russell and Company's "receiving ship" from 1830, and that she held her anchorage for nine years.[^4] Robert Bennet Forbes sought the command of the Lintin station ship in 1829 and 1830. The station ship was then the Tartar of Bryant and Sturgis, commanded by a relative of Mr. Sturgis.[^6] Forbes wrote that from January 1 to the closing of the port the commission account and the gains of the Lintin "showed a grand result."[^21] +Robert Bennet Forbes's memoir describes a 1828 voyage to Smyrna in the Danube, a vessel fitted out at New York by [[Sturgis and Perkins]]. He states the object plainly: "the principal object being to procure Turkey opium for China."[^26] A letter of December 27, 1796 from J. and T. H. Perkins to Mr. George Perkins at Smyrna asks about the market there for coffee and sugar, and orders of May 24, 1800 for the Perkins ship Thomas Russell direct her to Malaga, the Mediterranean including Smyrna, and Calcutta.[^27] He carried a credit on the [[Baring Brothers]] of about £60,000 and a cargo of coffee and specie. At Smyrna the principal American merchant was [[Joseph Langdon]]. Forbes says that he sailed from [[Vourla]] under the convoy of the United States schooner Porpoise through the Archipelago and then went on to [[Gibraltar]] to await operations on a larger scale.[^28] On the way up the Mediterranean he met the brig Leander, of Salem, bound home from Smyrna, and he suspected from her that her owner, [[Joseph Peabody]], who held an interest in the China and [[India]] trade, had been on the same errand.[^28] + +The Indian side of the trade ran through the store-ships anchored at [[Lintin]]. Forbes writes that the store-ships lay outside at Lintin and that the drug was run up the river in small boats, sometimes carried by the mandarin boats sent to protect the revenue.[^29] He gives the annual value of the trade as ten or twelve million dollars and says that the officials encouraged its introduction "from India and Turkey, not only by levying a duty on it for their own benefit, but by consuming it."[^29] Hunter says the Lintin was Russell and Company's "receiving ship" from 1830, and that she held her anchorage for nine years.[^4] Robert Bennet Forbes sought the command of the Lintin station ship in 1829 and 1830. The station ship was then the Tartar of Bryant and Sturgis, commanded by a relative of Mr. Sturgis.[^9] Forbes wrote that from January 1 to the closing of the port the commission account and the gains of the Lintin "showed a grand result."[^30] ### The 1839 surrender at Canton -In March 1839 the imperial commissioner [[Lin Zexu]] demanded the opium held by the foreign community at Canton. The [[Chinese Repository]], published at Canton, printed the sequence. On March 21 the General Chamber of Commerce, whose chairman was [[William S. Wetmore]], resolved in a letter to the Hong merchants that there was "an almost unanimous feeling in the community of the absolute necessity of the foreign residents of Canton having no connexion with the opium traffic," and that night the Hong merchants reported that Lin would be at the Consoo house at ten the next morning unless opium was delivered.[^22] An edict of April 1 addressed the chairman of the Chamber and called on the American consul to surrender a quantity of opium not less than the British superintendent had given up.[^22] A later edict from Lin recorded that the American consul [[P. W. Snow]] had declared that "the merchants of his country, acting in obedience to the new regulations, will not presume to traffic in opium," and objected that Snow's added remark about ordering offending ships home did not accord with conforming to the law.[^23] +In March 1839 the imperial commissioner [[Lin Zexu]] demanded the opium held by the foreign community at Canton. The [[Chinese Repository]], published at Canton, printed the sequence. On March 21 the General Chamber of Commerce, whose chairman was [[William S. Wetmore]], resolved in a letter to the Hong merchants that there was "an almost unanimous feeling in the community of the absolute necessity of the foreign residents of Canton having no connexion with the opium traffic," and that night the Hong merchants reported that Lin would be at the Consoo house at ten the next morning unless opium was delivered.[^31] An edict of April 1 addressed the chairman of the Chamber and called on the American consul to surrender a quantity of opium not less than the British superintendent had given up.[^31] A later edict from Lin recorded that the American consul [[P. W. Snow]] had declared that "the merchants of his country, acting in obedience to the new regulations, will not presume to traffic in opium," and objected that Snow's added remark about ordering offending ships home did not accord with conforming to the law.[^32] -[[Charles Elliot]], the British superintendent of trade, notified Lin on March 28, 1839 that he held himself responsible for delivering 20,283 chests of opium owned by British subjects, and that as the chests came into his possession each would be delivered up.[^24] Forbes's memoir records that Elliot called on British subjects and on all who held British-owned opium to surrender it in the name of [[Queen Victoria]], and that schedules were made chest by chest for delivery to Lin's officers.[^25] Hunter gives the count: by May 2, 15,501 chests had been handed over, and the whole quantity, 20,283 chests, was completed on May 21.[^26] +[[Charles Elliot]], the British superintendent of trade, notified Lin on March 28, 1839 that he held himself responsible for delivering 20,283 chests of opium owned by British subjects, and that as the chests came into his possession each would be delivered up.[^33] Forbes's memoir records that Elliot called on British subjects and on all who held British-owned opium to surrender it in the name of [[Queen Victoria]], and that schedules were made chest by chest for delivery to Lin's officers.[^34] Hunter gives the count: by May 2, 15,501 chests had been handed over, and the whole quantity, 20,283 chests, was completed on May 21.[^35] -Hunter wrote that the Americans had not delivered any American-owned opium, "of which we held at the time of surrender about fifty cases of Turkey."[^27] He adds: "The English on leaving placed theirs in charge of the American houses. A large share of it fell under the control of Russell & Co."[^27] He describes a discussion among the Canton agents about charging half-commissions on consignments withdrawn from the trade, and says the charge was dropped on the quantity Russell and Company delivered up, which he gives as nearly 15,000 dollars.[^28] Forbes wrote that the American hong housed the United States consul, P. W. Snow, together with Russell and Company and Russell, Sturgis and Company, and that the foreign community was kept under strict guard while the delivery went on.[^25] +In the committee of the General Chamber of Commerce that met in March 1839 on the bond proposed by the cohong, Warren Delano Jr. moved a resolution, seconded by H. Rustomjee and carried unanimously, that the committee should not enter further correspondence of a political or personal nature with the Chinese authorities, "inasmuch as we are prisoners in our factories, surrounded by an armed force, our trade stopped."[^36] + +Hunter wrote that the Americans had not delivered any American-owned opium, "of which we held at the time of surrender about fifty cases of Turkey."[^37] He adds: "The English on leaving placed theirs in charge of the American houses. A large share of it fell under the control of Russell & Co."[^37] He describes a discussion among the Canton agents about charging half-commissions on consignments withdrawn from the trade, and says the charge was dropped on the quantity Russell and Company delivered up, which he gives as nearly 15,000 dollars.[^38] Forbes wrote that the American hong housed the United States consul, P. W. Snow, together with Russell and Company and Russell, Sturgis and Company, and that the foreign community was kept under strict guard while the delivery went on.[^34] ### The memorial of the American merchants -A memorial dated at Canton on May 25, 1839 was printed by the [[United States House of Representatives]] as House Document 40 of the 26th Congress, first session, dated January 9, 1840 and referred to the [[United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs]]. The caption describes it as the memorial of R. B. Forbes and others, American merchants at Canton, for a commercial agent to be sent to China to negotiate a commercial treaty, with a naval force to protect the persons and property of Americans. It is signed by Russell Sturgis, W. Delano Jr., Gideon Nye Jr., R. B. Forbes, A. A. Low, Edward King, S. B. Rawle, and Jas. Ryan.[^29] +A memorial dated at Canton on May 25, 1839 was printed by the [[United States House of Representatives]] as House Document 40 of the 26th Congress, first session, dated January 9, 1840 and referred to the [[United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs]]. The caption describes it as the memorial of R. B. Forbes and others, American merchants at Canton, for a commercial agent to be sent to China to negotiate a commercial treaty, with a naval force to protect the persons and property of Americans. It is signed by Russell Sturgis, W. Delano Jr., Gideon Nye Jr., R. B. Forbes, A. A. Low, Edward King, S. B. Rawle, and Jas. Ryan.[^39] -The memorial states that the signers were "made prisoners in our factories" on March 22, that the commissioner had obtained "upwards of twenty thousand chests of British owned opium," valued at more than ten million dollars, and that the signers had been threatened over a bond under which a ship found bringing opium would be given up for punishment by death.[^29] It gives the opium sales at Canton by season: 3,210 chests for $3,657,000 in 1816 to 1817, 5,822 chests in 1822 to 1823, 9,535 chests in 1827 to 1828, and 23,670 chests for $15,332,759 in 1832 to 1833. It states that the receiving vessels moved from Whampoa to Lintin about 1821, that the Governor and the Hoppo had boats that received opium at Lintin, and that the officials took a fee of twenty to seventy dollars a chest.[^29] +The memorial states that the signers were "made prisoners in our factories" on March 22, that the commissioner had obtained "upwards of twenty thousand chests of British owned opium," valued at more than ten million dollars, and that the signers had been threatened over a bond under which a ship found bringing opium would be given up for punishment by death.[^39] It gives the opium sales at Canton by season: 3,210 chests for $3,657,000 in 1816 to 1817, 5,822 chests in 1822 to 1823, 9,535 chests in 1827 to 1828, and 23,670 chests for $15,332,759 in 1832 to 1833. It states that the receiving vessels moved from Whampoa to Lintin about 1821, that the Governor and the Hoppo had boats that received opium at Lintin, and that the officials took a fee of twenty to seventy dollars a chest.[^39] -The memorial also states: "We have no wish to see a revival of the opium trade," that most of the signers had signed a voluntary pledge to abstain from dealing in the drug, and that the drug had been "productive of much evil and of scarcely a single good to the Chinese." It continues that the signers could not "perceive the slightest ground for justification of the robbery committed upon British subjects here." It asks the government to act, if it thought fit, with Great Britain, France and Holland to obtain six demands: envoys at Peking, a fixed tariff, bonding warehouses, trade at other ports, compensation for the stoppage of trade, and limits on punishments of foreigners until Chinese laws were made known. Failing that, it asks for an agent or commissioner with a naval force to protect American commerce and to prevent any paper blockade. It names Snow as the consul whose despatches to the State Department would confirm the account and expresses "entire approbation" of his conduct.[^29] +The memorial also states: "We have no wish to see a revival of the opium trade," that most of the signers had signed a voluntary pledge to abstain from dealing in the drug, and that the drug had been "productive of much evil and of scarcely a single good to the Chinese." It continues that the signers could not "perceive the slightest ground for justification of the robbery committed upon British subjects here." It asks the government to act, if it thought fit, with Great Britain, France and Holland to obtain six demands: envoys at Peking, a fixed tariff, bonding warehouses, trade at other ports, compensation for the stoppage of trade, and limits on punishments of foreigners until Chinese laws were made known. Failing that, it asks for an agent or commissioner with a naval force to protect American commerce and to prevent any paper blockade. It names Snow as the consul whose despatches to the State Department would confirm the account and expresses "entire approbation" of his conduct.[^39] -On April 25, 1840, as the British blockade was expected, a petition to Lin from American houses asking that their ships be allowed to come directly to Whampoa was signed by Augustine Heard and Company, Gideon Nye Jr., A. A. Ritchie, James Ryan, Henry W. Hubbell, Olyphant and Company, Russell and Company, S. W. Lewis, Henry Fessenden, John Shillaber and Isaac M. Bull.[^30] The Chinese Repository gives Lin's reply as a declaration that it was an "egregious mistake" to think the English contemplated a blockade.[^30] +On April 25, 1840, as the British blockade was expected, a petition to Lin from American houses asking that their ships be allowed to come directly to Whampoa was signed by Augustine Heard and Company, Gideon Nye Jr., A. A. Ritchie, James Ryan, Henry W. Hubbell, Olyphant and Company, Russell and Company, S. W. Lewis, Henry Fessenden, John Shillaber and Isaac M. Bull.[^40] The Chinese Repository gives Lin's reply as a declaration that it was an "egregious mistake" to think the English contemplated a blockade.[^40] -The treaty between the United States and China was signed at the village of Wanghia (Mong-Ha in Hunter's spelling) at Macao on July 3, 1844, by [[Caleb Cushing]] and [[Qiying]]. Hunter, who dates the signing, described the two signatories as together the end of Old Canton.[^31] +The treaty between the United States and China was signed at the village of Wanghia (Mong-Ha in Hunter's spelling) at Macao on July 3, 1844, by [[Caleb Cushing]] and [[Qiying]]. Hunter, who dates the signing, described the two signatories as together the end of Old Canton.[^41] ### Opium, Houqua and the Chesapeake in 1840 -Hunter records that in 1840 Russell and Company bought the British ship Cambridge, renamed her Chesapeake under the American flag, and loaded her with British goods valued at £150,000 for [[Whampoa]]. On June 22, 1840, as H.M.S. Volage took up a station off [[Chuenpi]], she sailed past it, and she was the last vessel to enter the port.[^32] When the Chinese authorities then sought a large foreign ship to anchor above a raft across the river, they applied to Warren Delano Jr., "the then chief of Russell & Co.," who had never left Canton. The Chesapeake was made over to the mandarins, her American papers were removed, and the officials fitted her out as an auxiliary defence.[^33] +Hunter records that in 1840 Russell and Company bought the British ship Cambridge, renamed her Chesapeake under the American flag, and loaded her with British goods valued at £150,000 for [[Whampoa]]. On June 22, 1840, as H.M.S. Volage took up a station off [[Chuenpi]], she sailed past it, and she was the last vessel to enter the port.[^42] When the Chinese authorities then sought a large foreign ship to anchor above a raft across the river, they applied to Warren Delano Jr., "the then chief of Russell & Co.," who had never left Canton. The Chesapeake was made over to the mandarins, her American papers were removed, and the officials fitted her out as an auxiliary defence.[^43] -Forbes's account gives the firm a separate position on the opium trade itself. He wrote that between January and July 1840 Russell and Company "controlled considerable operations" for the Canton merchant Houqua, whose shipments were made in the firm's name and were known to the consignees to be for his account. When it became certain that the English government would make stringent demands on China, it was "arranged to buy all this property amounting to millions, and account to him for the returns," so that the shipments could not be seized in England, and the firm took its usual commission.[^34] He also wrote that the firm considered it important to keep a pledge made by John Cleve Green and that it had nothing to do with opium "between 1840 and 1844," a period he placed outside his own tenure.[^35] Forbes also wrote about the money. He said the price of the surrendered drug was contested, one side arguing that it had cost $400 or $500 a chest and the other that it sold for $250 or $300 at the time of seizure.[^35] He wrote that "most of the smaller holders of scrip were great losers, and that the large agents, who sold mostly on commission, turned their attention to speculation in scrip and in the drug itself, and made large fortunes."[^35] He also wrote that he sent out the schooner Anglona for Russell and Company in early 1841, and that she raced the Ariel from Macao Roads round Lintin.[^36] Hunter, for his part, records that Houqua liked to compare himself with "that famous house" with which, through Russell and Company, he had had years of important business. Hunter's footnote identifies the phrase "Ba-Blo" as Baring Brothers & Co.[^37] +Forbes's account gives the firm a separate position on the opium trade itself. He wrote that between January and July 1840 Russell and Company "controlled considerable operations" for the Canton merchant Houqua, whose shipments were made in the firm's name and were known to the consignees to be for his account. When it became certain that the English government would make stringent demands on China, it was "arranged to buy all this property amounting to millions, and account to him for the returns," so that the shipments could not be seized in England, and the firm took its usual commission.[^44] He also wrote that "Russell & Co. considered it important to keep the pledge made by Mr. Green, and for a long time had nothing to do with opium; certainly not within my time, between 1840 and 1844, when my interest ceased for a time."[^45] Forbes also wrote about the money. He said the price of the surrendered drug was contested, one side arguing that it had cost $400 or $500 a chest and the other that it sold for $250 or $300 at the time of seizure.[^45] He wrote that "most of the smaller holders of scrip were great losers, and that the large agents, who sold mostly on commission, turned their attention to speculation in scrip and in the drug itself, and made large fortunes."[^45] He also wrote that he sent out the schooner Anglona for Russell and Company in early 1841, and that she raced the Ariel from Macao Roads round Lintin.[^46] Hunter, for his part, records that Houqua liked to compare himself with "that famous house" with which, through Russell and Company, he had had years of important business. Hunter's footnote identifies the phrase "Ba-Blo" as Baring Brothers & Co.[^47] -The city of Canton was ransomed in 1841, after Sir [[Hugh Gough]]'s British forces took the heights above it. Hunter gives the ransom as six million dollars, five million of which were paid on the 31st, and the Hong merchants contributed two million dollars toward it, of which Houqua gave 1,100,000.[^38] For Houqua's share, Captain Elliot received three promissory notes drawn by Russell and Company at thirty days in favour of Houqua, who endorsed them to Elliot's order. The notes, for 400,000, 400,000 and 300,000 dollars, were deposited for collection with [[Jardine, Matheson and Company]] and [[Dent and Company]], and Russell and Company had moved its own office to Macao.[^37] Hunter writes: "At this time the last-named house held about two and a half millions of dollars belonging to their constituent, the endorser." The sentence follows his statement that the offices of Jardine, Matheson and Company, Dent and Company and Russell and Company had been removed to Macao, and he says the notes were cashed, less a discount of a little under a thousand dollars.[^37] +The city of Canton was ransomed in 1841, after Sir [[Hugh Gough]]'s British forces took the heights above it. Hunter gives the ransom as six million dollars, five million of which were paid on the 31st, and the Hong merchants contributed two million dollars toward it, of which Houqua gave 1,100,000.[^48] For Houqua's share, Captain Elliot received three promissory notes drawn by Russell and Company at thirty days in favour of Houqua, who endorsed them to Elliot's order. The notes, for 400,000, 400,000 and 300,000 dollars, were deposited for collection with [[Jardine, Matheson and Company]] and [[Dent and Company]], and Russell and Company had moved its own office to Macao.[^47] Hunter writes: "At this time the last-named house held about two and a half millions of dollars belonging to their constituent, the endorser." The sentence follows his statement that the offices of Jardine, Matheson and Company, Dent and Company and Russell and Company had been removed to Macao, and he says the notes were cashed, less a discount of a little under a thousand dollars.[^47] ### Railroads and the partners' American institutions -Several of the partners turned to American railroads and institutions in the next decades. The editor of John Murray Forbes's letters, his daughter [[Sarah Forbes Hughes]], writes that for the ten years before 1856 his business in ships and merchandise had been "gradually decreasing," that his work was "mainly devoted to the Michigan Central," and to the enterprise already, in 1856, known by its permanent title of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, and that the ocean telegraph "was soon to do away with the old-fashioned China merchant."[^39] She quotes his notes that he was "undoubtedly very busy with the Michigan Central Railroad, and also with the small roads which then formed the embryo of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy."[^40] The two roads are the [[Michigan Central Railroad]] and the [[Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad]]. +Several of the partners turned to American railroads and institutions in the next decades. The editor of John Murray Forbes's letters, his daughter [[Sarah Forbes Hughes]], writes that for the ten years before 1856 his business in ships and merchandise had been "gradually decreasing," that his work was "mainly devoted to the Michigan Central," and to the enterprise already, in 1856, known by its permanent title of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, and that the ocean telegraph "was soon to do away with the old-fashioned China merchant."[^49] She quotes his notes that he was "undoubtedly very busy with the Michigan Central Railroad, and also with the small roads which then formed the embryo of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy."[^50] The two roads are the [[Michigan Central Railroad]] and the [[Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad]]. -In 1857 the Michigan Central was in trouble. Forbes was called up from [[Naushon]] in October and asked to go to [[London]] to raise a loan of two million dollars, which the editor says might have prevented the railroad's bankruptcy.[^41] The letters print a resolution of the directors of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, dated October 18, 1898, which records their sorrow at Forbes's death.[^42] In the second volume he is described as chairman of the board of that road, with his cousin C. E. Perkins managing it.[^43] +In 1857 the Michigan Central was in trouble. Forbes was called up from [[Naushon Island]] in October and asked to go to [[London]] to raise a loan of two million dollars, which the editor says might have prevented the railroad's bankruptcy.[^51] The letters print a resolution of the directors of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, dated October 18, 1898, which records their sorrow at Forbes's death.[^52] In the second volume he is described as chairman of the board of that road, with his cousin C. E. Perkins managing it.[^53] -Samuel Russell turned to American investment after he returned to Middletown in 1831. The Library of Congress finding aid says that he founded the [[Russell Manufacturing Company]] for elastic webbing and that his real estate speculation reached [[Chicago]], [[Milwaukee]], and land in Michigan, [[Ohio]], [[Kentucky]], and [[New Jersey]].[^44] Of the later partners, the [[Landmarks Preservation Commission]] designation report for the [[Low Memorial Library]] at [[Columbia University]], given by [[Seth Low]] in honor of his father Abiel Abbot Low, says that the elder Low was a prominent tea merchant in the China trade who established an import business in 1849 and was associated with the construction of the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad and the founding of [[Newport News, Virginia]].[^45] The Trustee minutes of [[Princeton University]] record that John Cleve Green gave $200,000 for the School of Science on September 20, 1872; the John C. Green School of Science was occupied in 1874 and destroyed by fire on November 26 and 27, 1928.[^46] The university's museum reference entry on Green says that by the time President McCosh retired in 1888 Green and his residuary legatees had contributed "upwards of a million and a half, perhaps two million dollars," and describes his China fortune as derived from tea and textiles and, after the end of the East India Company's monopoly, from the opium trade, enhanced by railroad investments.[^47] +Samuel Russell turned to American investment after he returned to Middletown in 1831. The Library of Congress finding aid says that he founded the [[Russell Manufacturing Company]] for elastic webbing and that his real estate speculation reached [[Chicago]], [[Milwaukee]], and land in Michigan, [[Ohio]], [[Kentucky]], and [[New Jersey]].[^54] Of the later partners, the [[Landmarks Preservation Commission]] designation report for the [[Low Memorial Library]] at [[Columbia University]], given by [[Seth Low]] in honor of his father Abiel Abbot Low, says that the elder Low was a prominent tea merchant in the China trade who established an import business in 1849 and was associated with the construction of the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad and the founding of [[Newport News, Virginia]].[^55] The Trustee minutes of [[Princeton University]] record that John Cleve Green gave $200,000 for the School of Science on September 20, 1872; the John C. Green School of Science was occupied in 1874 and destroyed by fire on November 26 and 27, 1928.[^56] The university's museum reference entry on Green says that by the time President McCosh retired in 1888 Green and his residuary legatees had contributed "upwards of a million and a half, perhaps two million dollars," and describes his China fortune as derived from tea and textiles and, after the end of the East India Company's monopoly, from the opium trade, enhanced by railroad investments.[^57] ### The Delano family -The Franklin D. Roosevelt Library finding aid for the Delano family papers says that Warren Delano II sailed to China in 1833 as supercargo on the Commerce, became associated at Canton with Russell Sturgis and Company, and in January 1840 became a partner in Russell and Company. During the [[Opium War]] he remained in Canton and [[Macao]] and served as acting consul. The panic of 1857 brought severe losses, and in 1859 he returned to China to restore his fortune. His family, including the president's mother, joined him at [[Hong Kong]] in 1862, and he died at his house [[Algonac]] on January 17, 1898.[^7] The finding aid states that the papers include material on the history of Russell and Company's financial interests in China.[^7] +The Franklin D. Roosevelt Library finding aid for the Delano family papers says that Warren Delano II sailed to China in 1833 as supercargo on the Commerce, became associated at Canton with Russell Sturgis and Company, and in January 1840 became a partner in Russell and Company. During the [[Opium War]] he remained in Canton and [[Macao]] and served as acting consul. The panic of 1857 brought severe losses, and in 1859 he returned to China to restore his fortune. His family, including the president's mother, joined him at [[Hong Kong]] in 1862, and he died at his house [[Algonac]] on January 17, 1898.[^10] The finding aid states that the papers include material on the history of Russell and Company's financial interests in China, among them a series of typescript copies of letters to members of the house for 1840 and 1841 and "Houqua Accounts and Memoranda, 1865-1867."[^10] -Forbes's memoir records the terms of a later reorganization of the house in 1846, under which "W. Delano was to retire after a time" and [[Edward Delano]] remained a partner.[^48] The memoir adds that Edward Delano returned home in 1846.[^49] +The [[Delano family]] of [[Fairhaven, Massachusetts]] traced its American line to [[Philippe de Lannoy]], who reached Plymouth in 1621. Warren Delano II was a son of [[Captain Warren Delano]] (1779 to 1866) and the father of [[Sara Delano Roosevelt]], whose son was Franklin D. Roosevelt. A daughter, Deborah Perry (Dora) Delano, married [[William Howell Forbes]] of Hong Kong at Paris in 1867, and another, Annie Lyman Delano, married [[Frederick Delano Hitch]] of Shanghai in 1877.[^58] Forbes's appendix lists a W. Howell Forbes who entered the house in 1860 and remained a partner.[^59] + +Forbes's appendix gives the partnership dates of Warren Delano: partner in Russell, Sturgis and Company from December 31, 1835; admitted to Russell and Company on January 1, 1840 and a partner until December 31, 1846; admitted again on January 1, 1861 and finally retired on December 31, 1866.[^60] Hunter records that when the Chinese authorities wanted a large foreign ship in 1840 the application was made to Delano, and that Delano told Forbes that Houqua was disposed to send orders to India for cotton, three ships being despatched with 100,000 pounds remitted.[^61] *The Chinese Repository* of September 1840 records that after the consul Snow embarked for New York "W. Delano, jun. esq. acts as vice-consul."[^62] In December 1841 he arranged with the hong merchants for the release of about forty survivors of the wrecked East India Company steamer Madagascar and asked that no account be published in the Canton newspapers; the commander of the steamer wrote that [[James Matheson]]'s influence "with the American consul and merchants" had secured the result.[^63] Curtis T. Henson's study of the East India Squadron records that in 1842 Delano, as vice-consul, apprised Commodore [[Lawrence Kearny]] of an outrage against American subjects.[^64] + +Forbes's memoir records the terms of a later reorganization of the house in 1846, under which "W. Delano was to retire after a time" and [[Edward Delano]] remained a partner.[^65] The memoir adds that "In 1846 Mr. Edward Delano returned home."[^66] + +The Hong Kong directory for 1865 lists Russell and Company at Queen's Road with Paul S. Forbes (absent), Warren Delano Jr., William H. Forbes, George Tyson, David O. Clark, Frank B. Forbes, Henry S. Grew, Richard S. Dana, W. H. Foster Jr., E. D. Barbour and Emil Vogel.[^67] ### William Huntington Russell and the Russell name at Yale -[[Franklin Bowditch Dexter]]'s biographical sketches of Yale graduates give Matthew Talcott Russell as the second son of Rev. Noadiah Russell, Yale 1750, born in 1761. He settled as a lawyer in Middletown in 1786, served sixteen years as city treasurer, and in 1797 married Mary, eldest daughter of Rev. [[Enoch Huntington]] of Middletown. The sketch says their children were seven daughters and six sons, and that "The fifth son was graduated here in 1833."[^11] The Yale obituary record gives William Huntington Russell as the son of Matthew Talcott Russell (Yale 1779) and Mary Huntington Russell, born in Middletown on August 12, 1809.[^12] +[[Franklin Bowditch Dexter]]'s biographical sketches of Yale graduates give Matthew Talcott Russell as the second son of Rev. Noadiah Russell, Yale 1750, born in 1761. He settled as a lawyer in Middletown in 1786, served sixteen years as city treasurer, and in 1797 married Mary, eldest daughter of Rev. [[Enoch Huntington]] of Middletown. The sketch says their children were seven daughters and six sons, and that "The fifth son was graduated here in 1833."[^15] The Yale obituary record gives William Huntington Russell as the son of Matthew Talcott Russell (Yale 1779) and Mary Huntington Russell, born in Middletown on August 12, 1809.[^16] -The 1856 act incorporating the [[Russell Trust Association]], the trust through which Skull and Bones conducts its corporate affairs, names William H. Russell, [[John S. Beach]], [[Henry B. Harrison]], [[Daniel C. Gilman]], [[Henry T. Blake]] and [[Henry D. White]] as its first incorporators.[^50] A letter to the [[Yale Alumni Magazine]] by [[Bruce L. Reynolds]] in 2015 attributed the money for the society's 1856 building to Russell and Company, citing [[James Bradley]]'s book on the China trade.[^51] +The 1856 act incorporating the [[Russell Trust Association]], the trust through which Skull and Bones conducts its corporate affairs, names William H. Russell, [[John S. Beach]], [[Henry B. Harrison]], [[Daniel C. Gilman]], [[Henry T. Blake]] and [[Henry D. White]] as its first incorporators.[^68] A letter to the [[Yale Alumni Magazine]] by [[Bruce L. Reynolds]] in 2015 attributed the money for the society's 1856 building to Russell and Company, citing [[James Bradley]]'s book on the China trade.[^69] ### Failure and closing The Library of Congress holds records dated 1812 to 1894, chiefly from 1819 to 1840, which were given to the library by [[Thomas Macdonough Russell]] in 1931.[^3] The Baker Library records of the firm are dated 1820 to 1891, and the Baker Library's Forbes family business records include papers on the creation of the Shanghai Navigation Company, a steamboat company on the Yangtze River.[^2] -The second volume of the Forbes letters describes the last years of John Murray Forbes, who died in 1898. The editor, Sarah Forbes Hughes, writes that he was grieved by "the failure of his old house in China, Russell & Co., occasioned by some speculations in steamers and the close competition by German commission merchants." She adds that his friends, the "time-honored" Baring Brothers, had suspended payment, and that these events gave him "an actual physical shock."[^43] A footnote to that passage prints Forbes's letter of 1859 to the managers of the firm, which argued that its commission business alone could yield $200,000 a year net on a capital of $2,000,000, and that speculations of any sort would damage that capital.[^52] +The second volume of the Forbes letters describes the last years of John Murray Forbes, who died on October 12, 1898. The editor, Sarah Forbes Hughes, writes that he was grieved by "the failure of his old house in China, Russell & Co., occasioned by some speculations in steamers and the close competition by German commission merchants." She adds that his friends, the "time-honored" Baring Brothers, had suspended payment, and that these events gave him "an actual physical shock."[^53] A footnote to that passage prints Forbes's letter of 1859 to the managers of the firm, which argued that its commission business alone could yield $200,000 a year net on a capital of $2,000,000, and that speculations of any sort would damage that capital.[^70] -The [[Hong Kong Daily Press]] of July 22, 1891 reported a petition in bankruptcy before the Acting Chief Justice, E. J. Ackroyd. A Canton merchant petitioned "for the adjudication in bankruptcy" of W. H. Forbes, J. M. Forbes, A. W. Pomeroy, Chas. V. Smith and C. A. Tomes, "trading under the style of Russell & Co. at Hongkong and elsewhere." The petitioner's claim was for $1,044, and the court made an order adjudicating all the debtors bankrupts.[^53] The index to the Forbes letters lists J. Malcolm Forbes and William Hathaway Forbes as sons of John Murray Forbes; the records found do not establish whether they are the W. H. Forbes and J. M. Forbes named in the petition.[^54] On September 1, 1891 the Supreme Court of Hong Kong heard an application in a suit by No Chi Kiu and four others against Ng Woon Soon and others, which the report described as "a case arising out of the How Qua property and the failure of Messrs. Russell & Co." Counsel read an affidavit stating that Russell and Company became insolvent in June, that Hong Kong lots formerly registered in the Land Office as the property of John Murray Forbes junior had been registered in the name of a trustee for the creditors of Russell and Company, that an equitable charge by Russell and Company in favour of John Murray Forbes, trustee for How Qua, secured a sum in taels with interest at seven per cent, and that judgments of about $229,000 had been obtained against the partners in the late firm.[^55] +The [[Hong Kong Daily Press]] of July 22, 1891 reported a petition in bankruptcy before the Acting Chief Justice, E. J. Ackroyd. A Canton merchant petitioned "for the adjudication in bankruptcy" of W. H. Forbes, J. M. Forbes, A. W. Pomeroy, Chas. V. Smith and C. A. Tomes, "trading under the style of Russell & Co. at Hongkong and elsewhere." The petitioner's claim was for $1,044, and the court made an order adjudicating all the debtors bankrupts.[^71] The 1889 directory lists William H. Forbes and John M. Forbes (New York) among the partners of the firm at Hong Kong.[^72] The John Murray Forbes who was a partner at Canton in the 1830s and chaired the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy board until 1898 is not the partner of 1891, John Murray Forbes Jr. (1844 to 1921) of the [[Forbes family]].[^73] On September 1, 1891 the Supreme Court of Hong Kong heard an application in a suit by No Chi Kiu and four others against Ng Woon Soon and others, which the report described as "a case arising out of the How Qua property and the failure of Messrs. Russell & Co." Counsel read an affidavit stating that Russell and Company became insolvent in June, that Hong Kong lots formerly registered in the Land Office as the property of John Murray Forbes junior had been registered in the name of a trustee for the creditors of Russell and Company, that an equitable charge by Russell and Company in favour of John Murray Forbes, trustee for How Qua, secured a sum in taels with interest at seven per cent, and that judgments of about $229,000 had been obtained against the partners in the late firm.[^74] -The [[Hong Kong Telegraph]] of August 31, 1891 printed a letter signed A. B. McKean from the head office of the [[National Bank of China]], Limited, in Hong Kong. It reported that at a statutory meeting of shareholders in London on July 30 "an informal resolution was passed in favor of winding up the Bank," that the bank's articles of association appointed "the late firm of Russell & Co." secretaries of the bank for fifty years on a commission on profits, and that "the failure of Russell & Co. in June, and their consequent inability to carry out their part, cancels this agreement." It stated that "Rumours, absolutely false, have been circulated to the effect that the Bank has sustained heavy losses owing to the failure of Russell & Co." and that counsel's opinion in London was that the resolution of July 30 was not binding on the bank.[^56] +The Chronicle and Directory for China for 1889 gives the partners of "Russell & Co., merchants, Praya" at Hong Kong as William H. Forbes, John M. Forbes (New York), S. W. Pomeroy (London), Charles Vincent Smith (Shanghai), F. D. Bush (New York), G. H. Wheeler (Shanghai), E. H. M. Huntington and C. A. Tomes, and lists the same names at Shanghai with William H. Forbes at Hong Kong and John M. Forbes in New York.[^72] The 1892 volume's chronology of Hong Kong carries the entry "Russell & Co., suspend payment, 1891."[^75] + +On December 10, 1891 the Hong Kong Daily Press printed the report of the official assignee on the last examination of Charles Alexander Tomes, a junior partner. It states that Tomes "was adjudicated bankrupt, with William Howell Forbes, the senior partner at the firm," on July 22, 1891; that William Howell Forbes, as senior partner, had admitted him by a letter without any deed of partnership; and that his admission "has never yet received the sanction of John Murray Forbes, another partner of the firm who conducted the business in New York." It adds that all the partners entered into a trust deed on June 9, 1891 for the benefit of their creditors under the laws of New York, with Henry Hannah of New York as trustee.[^76] + +The Massachusetts Historical Society's genealogy for the Forbes family papers has one William Howell Forbes (1837 to 1896), a son of Paul Siemen Forbes, who lived in China, and one John Murray Forbes Jr. (1844 to 1921), a brother of Francis Blackwell Forbes, who went to China in 1857 and became a partner in Russell and Company. The John Murray Forbes Jr. folder holds business letters from Boston, New York and China for 1879 to 1906, and the collection holds letters from Francis Blackwell Forbes to William Howell Forbes, John Murray Forbes Jr., S. W. Pomeroy and G. H. Wheeler.[^73] + +The [[Hong Kong Telegraph]] of August 31, 1891 printed a letter signed A. B. McKean from the head office of the [[National Bank of China]], Limited, in Hong Kong. It reported that at a statutory meeting of shareholders in London on July 30 "an informal resolution was passed in favor of winding up the Bank," that the bank's articles of association appointed "the late firm of Russell & Co." secretaries of the bank for fifty years on a commission on profits, and that "the failure of Russell & Co. in June, and their consequent inability to carry out their part, cancels this agreement." It stated that "Rumours, absolutely false, have been circulated to the effect that the Bank has sustained heavy losses owing to the failure of Russell & Co." and that counsel's opinion in London was that the resolution of July 30 was not binding on the bank.[^77] ### Footnotes [^1]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 156-157 (house constitution, the Samuel Russell & Co. dates, the Kee-Chang-Hong name, the phrase on agency business, partner admissions and departures, Delano, Sturgis and Forbes). https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog + [^2]: Heard Library, Baker Library, Harvard Business School, collection guide, "Russell & Company records," Mss:766, 1820-1891, 25 volumes, with the history paragraph on the 1831 merger, the Perkins and Company letter books and the firm's demise in 1891; same guide, Forbes Family business records, Mss:766 1803-1942. https://www.library.hbs.edu/hc/heard/manuscript-collections.html + [^3]: Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, "Russell & Co., Guangzhou, China, Records," MSS38562, finding aid revised February 2024, collection summary, scope and content note, subject index, related material, container list. https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms010075 and https://lccn.loc.gov/mm80038562 + [^4]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 150, the Lintin as Russell and Company's "receiving ship" from 1830 and the nine years her anchors were not raised. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog + [^5]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8 statement of significance, pp. 8-11, drawing on Alain Munkittrick, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell (1789-1862): A Study in Ordered Investment," Wesleyan University honors thesis, 1973, which is based on the Russell & Company papers at the Library of Congress. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text -[^6]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 131-132, his plans in 1829-1830 for the command of the Lintin station, arranged with the Perkins family and Bryant and Sturgis, whom he calls "my powerful friends," and the Tartar then on the station. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog -[^7]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Delano family papers, biographical introduction to Warren Delano II (1809-1898), pp. 1-2 of the PDF, and the description of the papers. The library's numbering is Warren Delano II; this page uses the name Warren Delano Jr. https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_delanofamily.pdf -[^8]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), p. 223, his partnership in Russell and Company from January 1, 1840 to January 1, 1844 and from January 1, 1849 to January 1, 1857, and his service as vice-consul. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog -[^9]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 122-123, the departure of Mr. Russell and Mr. Cushing from Canton in the Bashaw, February 27, 1831. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog -[^10]: Franklin Bowditch Dexter, *Biographical Sketches of the Graduates of Yale College*, vol. II (1745-1763), sketch of the Rev. William Russell of Middletown, p. 90, born Middletown November 20, 1690, eldest child of the Rev. Noadiah Russell and Mary Hamlin; married Mary Pierpont August 19, 1719; four sons and five daughters, including the Rev. William Russell (Yale 1745) and the Rev. Noadiah Russell (Yale 1750). https://archive.org/details/biographicalsket02dext -[^11]: Franklin Bowditch Dexter, *Biographical Sketches of the Graduates of Yale College*, vol. IV (1778-1792), sketch of Matthew Talcott Russell (Yale 1779), pp. 125-126. https://archive.org/details/biographicalsket04dextuoft -[^12]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale College*, entry for William Huntington Russell, son of Matthew Talcott Russell (Yale 1779) and Mary (Huntington) Russell, born in Middletown, August 12, 1809. https://archive.org/details/1880t90obituary00yaleuoft -[^13]: *The Hamlin Family: A Genealogy of Capt. Giles Hamlin of Middletown, Connecticut, 1654-1900* (1900), entries [302] for Capt. John Russell (pp. 118 to 119), [307] for Matthew Talcott Russell (p. 119) and [638] for Samuel Russell, born at Middletown August 25, 1789, with the descent lines "(John, Samuel, William, Mary Hamlin, Giles)" and "(Noadiah, William, Mary Hamlin, Giles)". https://archive.org/details/hamlinfamilygene00andr -[^14]: Kris Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), opening article ("His cousin Samuel Russell's family enterprise"), pp. 151 to 152 ("General William Huntington Russell, Samuel Russell's cousin"), p. 313 ("Samuel Russell, second cousin to Bones founder William H.") and p. 52 ("drug money provided by his uncle, Samuel Russell"). https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones -[^15]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 118-119, the death of Thomas T. Forbes and S. H. Monson on August 9, 1829, the sealed letter to Russell and Company, Cushing's return in August 1830 and the appointment of Russell and Company as sole agents. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog -[^16]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 1, editor's note on Cushing and the Perkins business at Canton, roughly p. 62. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb -[^17]: Library of Congress finding aid MSS38562, box 9, account books, 1816-1829, with the entry for "Notes on the Chinese Method of Preparing Opium for Smoking." https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms010075 -[^18]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 123-124, the voyage to Smyrna fitted out at New York by Sturgis and Perkins to procure Turkey opium for China. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog -[^19]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 124-125, the Smyrna consignment to Joseph Langdon, the Barings credit, the convoy from Vourla under the schooner Porpoise, the passage to Gibraltar, and the brig Leander and Joseph Peabody. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog -[^20]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 142-144, the store-ships at Lintin, the smuggling boats, the mandarin boats, the annual value of the trade, and the government's encouragement of opium from India and Turkey. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog -[^21]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), p. 159, the commission account and gains of the Lintin from January 1 to the closing of the port. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog -[^22]: *The Chinese Repository*, vol. 7, no. 12 (April 1839), "Crisis in the Opium Traffic," the proceedings of March 21, 1839 (letter of the General Chamber of Commerce to the Hong merchants, W. S. Wetmore, chairman) and the edict of April 1, 1839. https://archive.org/details/chineserepositor7121unse -[^23]: *The Chinese Repository*, vol. 8, no. 1 (May 1839), the edict to Elliot, Johnston, Snow and Van Basel and the commissioner's reply on the American consul's declaration. https://archive.org/details/chineserepositor8118unse -[^24]: *Correspondence relating to China*, presented to both Houses of Parliament by command of Her Majesty (London, 1840), enclosure 21 in no. 146, Captain Elliot to the Imperial Commissioner, Canton, March 28, 1839. https://archive.org/details/CorrespondenceRelatingToChina1840 -[^25]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 146-147, the surrender of British-owned opium in the name of Queen Victoria, the schedules issued chest by chest, the nominal value of 20,283 chests, the American hong with Mr. P. W. Snow, United States consul, Russell and Company, and Russell, Sturgis and Company, and the strict guard over the foreign community. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog -[^26]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 144, the 15,501 chests given up by May 2, 1839, and the completed total of 20,283 chests on May 21. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog -[^27]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 146, the statement that the Americans had not delivered any American-owned opium and held about fifty cases of Turkey at the time of surrender, and the sentences on the English placing theirs in charge of the American houses and on the share that fell under the control of Russell and Co. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog -[^28]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 145-146 and note 1, the half-commission discussion and the charge foregone on the quantity delivered up by Russell and Company, nearly 15,000 dollars. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog -[^29]: U.S. House of Representatives, 26th Congress, 1st session, H. Doc. 40, "Merchants of the United States at Canton, China. Memorial of R. B. Forbes and others," January 9, 1840, referred to the Committee on Foreign Affairs (U.S. Serial Set vol. 364), pp. 1-4, with the signatures dated Canton, May 25, 1839. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/SERIALSET-00364_00_00-030-0040-0000 -[^30]: *The Chinese Repository*, vol. 9, no. 1 (May 1840), the petition of American houses at Canton dated April 25, 1840 and the commissioner's reply. https://archive.org/details/chineserepositor9118unse -[^31]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 154-155, the treaty of the United States signed at Mong-Ha (Macao) on July 3, 1844 by Mr. Caleb Cushing and Ke-Ying. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog -[^32]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 147, the purchase of the Cambridge, her renaming as the Chesapeake under the American flag, the British cargo, the sailing past the blockade station on June 22, 1840, and her arrival as the last vessel to enter the port. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog -[^33]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 147, the application to Mr. Delano, "the then chief of Russell & Co.," the sale of the Chesapeake to the mandarins and her fitting out as an auxiliary defence. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog -[^34]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 161-162, the operations controlled for Houqua between January and July 1840, the purchase of the shipments to prevent their seizure in England, the shipments made in the firm's name, and the commission charged. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog -[^35]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 160-161, the dispute over the price of the surrendered opium ($400 or $500 a chest against $250 or $300 at seizure), the passage on the holders of scrip and the speculators who made large fortunes, and the pledge made by Mr. Green with the statement that the firm had nothing to do with opium between 1840 and 1844. This is Forbes's own account. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog -[^36]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), p. 302, the schooner Anglona sent out in early 1841 for Russell and Company and her race with the Ariel from Macao Roads round Lintin. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog -[^37]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 46-47, the three promissory notes of 400,000, 400,000 and 300,000 dollars drawn by Russell and Company in Houqua's favour, the deposit with Jardine, Matheson and Company and Dent and Company, the sentence beginning "At this time the last-named house," the discount, and Houqua's remark "My all same, 'Ba-Blo.'" https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog -[^38]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 45-46 (the Hong merchants' contribution of 2,000,000 dollars and Houqua's share of 1,100,000 dollars) and p. 150 (the ransom of six million dollars, five million paid on the 31st). https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog -[^39]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 1, p. 160, the editor's text on John Murray Forbes's business in the 1850s, the Michigan Central, the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy and the ocean telegraph. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb -[^40]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 1, p. 138, quoting Forbes's notes. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb -[^41]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 1, pp. 168-169, the October loan request in London to prevent the Michigan Central's bankruptcy during the crisis of 1857. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb -[^42]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 2, Appendix A, resolution of the board of directors of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, October 18, 1898. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect02forb -[^43]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 2, pp. 224-225, the editor's account of the chairmanship of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy board, C. E. Perkins, the failure of Russell and Company and the suspension of Baring Brothers and Company. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect02forb -[^44]: Library of Congress finding aid MSS38562, scope and content note on Samuel Russell (1789 to circa 1862) of Middletown, the Greek Revival mansion letters of 1827-1830, the Russell Manufacturing Company, the 1831 return to Middletown, and the land speculation subjects. https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms010075 -[^45]: New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission, Designation List 139, LP-1118, "Low Memorial Library Interior," February 3, 1981, history of the donor. https://s-media.nyc.gov/agencies/lpc/lp/1118.pdf -[^46]: Princetoniana Museum, The Trustees of Princeton University, reference entry "John C. Green School of Science," citing Trustee Minutes of September 20, 1872, with the dates of occupancy (1874) and destruction by fire (November 26-27, 1928). https://www.princetonianamuseum.org/reference/5ef15e9b-6369-491c-a2e0-cc20b816db83 -[^47]: Princetoniana Museum, The Trustees of Princeton University, reference entry "John C. Green," including President McCosh's farewell report of 1888. https://princetonianamuseum.org/reference/b5388d91-1efc-4e01-ace3-3b5d7a6e3774 -[^48]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), p. 168, the 1846 reorganization terms under which W. Delano was to retire and Edward Delano was to remain a partner. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog -[^49]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), p. 355, the return of Edward Delano in 1846. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog -[^50]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, certified copies (March 28, 2001) of "An Act incorporating Russell Trust Association" (1856), resolution amending the charter (July 1870), and resolution confirming the by-laws (approved March 24, 1887). The act names William H. Russell, John S. Beach, Henry B. Harrison, Daniel C. Gilman, Henry T. Blake and Henry D. White as the body corporate, with the power of the General Assembly to amend or repeal it. -[^51]: Bruce L. Reynolds '66, letter, "More secrets of the Tomb," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, responding to the May/June 2015 article, citing James Bradley, *The China Mirage* (Little, Brown, 2015). The passage is the letter writer's account. https://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4127-more-secrets-of-the-tomb -[^52]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 2, p. 225 and note 1, Forbes's letter of 1859 to the managers of Russell and Company. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect02forb -[^53]: *Hong Kong Daily Press*, July 22, 1891, p. 2, "In Bankruptcy," before Mr. E. J. Ackroyd, Acting Chief Justice. https://archive.org/details/NPDP18910722 -[^54]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 2, index, p. 244, entries for J. Malcolm Forbes and William Hathaway Forbes, sons of J. M. F. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect02forb -[^55]: *Hong Kong Daily Press*, September 2, 1891, p. 2, Supreme Court, 1st September, before Sir James Russell, Chief Justice, No Chi Kiu and four others v. Ng Woon Soon, Creasy Ewens and Ng Chau Fong. https://archive.org/details/NPDP18910902 -[^56]: *Hong Kong Telegraph*, August 31, 1891, p. 3, letter to the editor from the head office of the National Bank of China, Limited, signed A. B. McKean. https://archive.org/details/NPTG18910831 + +[^6]: National Register of Historic Places nomination, "Russell Company Upper Mill," Middletown, Connecticut (1986), "History" section. https://www.middletownct.gov/DocumentCenter/View/5448 + +[^7]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 1, pp. 62-64. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb + +[^8]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (Boston, 1882), addenda, p. 386. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog + +[^9]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 131-132, his plans in 1829-1830 for the command of the Lintin station, arranged with the Perkins family and Bryant and Sturgis, whom he calls "my powerful friends," and the Tartar then on the station. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog + +[^10]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Delano family papers, biographical introduction to Warren Delano II (1809-1898), pp. 1-2 of the PDF, and the description of the papers. The library's numbering is Warren Delano II; this page uses the name Warren Delano Jr. https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_delanofamily.pdf + +[^11]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), p. 223, his partnership in Russell and Company from January 1, 1840 to January 1, 1844 and from January 1, 1849 to January 1, 1857, and his service as vice-consul. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog + +[^12]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8, p. 15, quoting the letter of January 14, 1837 in the Library of Congress collection; Library of Congress, "Russell & Co., Guangzhou, China, Records," MSS38562. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text + +[^13]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 122-123, the departure of Mr. Russell and Mr. Cushing from Canton in the Bashaw, February 27, 1831. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog + +[^14]: Franklin Bowditch Dexter, *Biographical Sketches of the Graduates of Yale College*, vol. II (1745-1763), sketch of the Rev. William Russell of Middletown, p. 90, born Middletown November 20, 1690, eldest child of the Rev. Noadiah Russell and Mary Hamlin; married Mary Pierpont August 19, 1719; four sons and five daughters, including the Rev. William Russell (Yale 1745) and the Rev. Noadiah Russell (Yale 1750). https://archive.org/details/biographicalsket02dext + +[^15]: Franklin Bowditch Dexter, *Biographical Sketches of the Graduates of Yale College*, vol. IV (1778-1792), sketch of Matthew Talcott Russell (Yale 1779), pp. 125-126. https://archive.org/details/biographicalsket04dextuoft + +[^16]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale College*, entry for William Huntington Russell, son of Matthew Talcott Russell (Yale 1779) and Mary (Huntington) Russell, born in Middletown, August 12, 1809. https://archive.org/details/1880t90obituary00yaleuoft + +[^17]: *The Hamlin Family: A Genealogy of Capt. Giles Hamlin of Middletown, Connecticut, 1654-1900* (1900), entries [302] for Capt. John Russell (pp. 118 to 119), [307] for Matthew Talcott Russell (p. 119) and [638] for Samuel Russell, born at Middletown August 25, 1789, with the descent lines "(John, Samuel, William, Mary Hamlin, Giles)" and "(Noadiah, William, Mary Hamlin, Giles)". https://archive.org/details/hamlinfamilygene00andr + +[^18]: Kris Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), opening article ("His cousin Samuel Russell's family enterprise"), pp. 151 to 152 ("General William Huntington Russell, Samuel Russell's cousin"), p. 313 ("Samuel Russell, second cousin to Bones founder William H.") and p. 52 ("drug money provided by his uncle, Samuel Russell"). https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones + +[^19]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 118-119, the death of Thomas T. Forbes and S. H. Monson on August 9, 1829, the sealed letter to Russell and Company, Cushing's return in August 1830 and the appointment of Russell and Company as sole agents. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog + +[^20]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 1, editor's note on Cushing and the Perkins business at Canton, roughly p. 62. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb + +[^21]: Thomas Greaves Cary, *Memoir of Thomas Handasyd Perkins* (Boston, 1856), pp. 208 to 210. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary + +[^22]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 118 to 119. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog + +[^23]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (Boston, 1882), chapter VIII, pp. 387 to 389. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog + +[^24]: Library of Congress finding aid MSS38562, box 9, account books, 1816-1829, with the entry for "Notes on the Chinese Method of Preparing Opium for Smoking." https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms010075 + +[^25]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (Boston, 1882), p. 134. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog + +[^26]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 123-124, the voyage to Smyrna fitted out at New York by Sturgis and Perkins to procure Turkey opium for China. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog + +[^27]: Cary, *Memoir* (1856), appendix, pp. 282 to 283 and 289 to 290. https://archive.org/details/memoirofthomasha00cary + +[^28]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 124-125, the Smyrna consignment to Joseph Langdon, the Barings credit, the convoy from Vourla under the schooner Porpoise, the passage to Gibraltar, and the brig Leander and Joseph Peabody. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog + +[^29]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 142-144, the store-ships at Lintin, the smuggling boats, the mandarin boats, the annual value of the trade, and the government's encouragement of opium from India and Turkey. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog + +[^30]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), p. 159, the commission account and gains of the Lintin from January 1 to the closing of the port. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog + +[^31]: *The Chinese Repository*, vol. 7, no. 12 (April 1839), "Crisis in the Opium Traffic," the proceedings of March 21, 1839 (letter of the General Chamber of Commerce to the Hong merchants, W. S. Wetmore, chairman) and the edict of April 1, 1839. https://archive.org/details/chineserepositor7121unse + +[^32]: *The Chinese Repository*, vol. 8, no. 1 (May 1839), the edict to Elliot, Johnston, Snow and Van Basel and the commissioner's reply on the American consul's declaration. https://archive.org/details/chineserepositor8118unse + +[^33]: *Correspondence relating to China*, presented to both Houses of Parliament by command of Her Majesty (London, 1840), enclosure 21 in no. 146, Captain Elliot to the Imperial Commissioner, Canton, March 28, 1839. https://archive.org/details/CorrespondenceRelatingToChina1840 + +[^34]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 146-147, the surrender of British-owned opium in the name of Queen Victoria, the schedules issued chest by chest, the nominal value of 20,283 chests, the American hong with Mr. P. W. Snow, United States consul, Russell and Company, and Russell, Sturgis and Company, and the strict guard over the foreign community. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog + +[^35]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 144, the 15,501 chests given up by May 2, 1839, and the completed total of 20,283 chests on May 21. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog + +[^36]: *The Chinese Repository*, vol. VII, no. 12 (April 1839), "Crisis in the Opium Traffic," minutes of the General Chamber of Commerce committee, No. 21. https://archive.org/details/chineserepositor7121unse + +[^37]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 146, the statement that the Americans had not delivered any American-owned opium and held about fifty cases of Turkey at the time of surrender, and the sentences on the English placing theirs in charge of the American houses and on the share that fell under the control of Russell and Co. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog + +[^38]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 145-146 and note 1, the half-commission discussion and the charge foregone on the quantity delivered up by Russell and Company, nearly 15,000 dollars. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog + +[^39]: U.S. House of Representatives, 26th Congress, 1st session, H. Doc. 40, "Merchants of the United States at Canton, China. Memorial of R. B. Forbes and others," January 9, 1840, referred to the Committee on Foreign Affairs (U.S. Serial Set vol. 364), pp. 1-4, with the signatures dated Canton, May 25, 1839. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/SERIALSET-00364_00_00-030-0040-0000 + +[^40]: *The Chinese Repository*, vol. 9, no. 1 (May 1840), the petition of American houses at Canton dated April 25, 1840 and the commissioner's reply. https://archive.org/details/chineserepositor9118unse + +[^41]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 154-155, the treaty of the United States signed at Mong-Ha (Macao) on July 3, 1844 by Mr. Caleb Cushing and Ke-Ying. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog + +[^42]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 147, the purchase of the Cambridge, her renaming as the Chesapeake under the American flag, the British cargo, the sailing past the blockade station on June 22, 1840, and her arrival as the last vessel to enter the port. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog + +[^43]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 147, the application to Mr. Delano, "the then chief of Russell & Co.," the sale of the Chesapeake to the mandarins and her fitting out as an auxiliary defence. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog + +[^44]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 161-162, the operations controlled for Houqua between January and July 1840, the purchase of the shipments to prevent their seizure in England, the shipments made in the firm's name, and the commission charged. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog + +[^45]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 160-161, the dispute over the price of the surrendered opium ($400 or $500 a chest against $250 or $300 at seizure), the passage on the holders of scrip and the speculators who made large fortunes, and the pledge made by Mr. Green and the statement that the firm for a long time had nothing to do with opium, certainly not within Forbes's time, between 1840 and 1844 (the pledge passage is on p. 161; the Houqua passage in note 34 is at pp. 157-158). This is Forbes's own account. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog + +[^46]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), p. 302, the schooner Anglona sent out in early 1841 for Russell and Company and her race with the Ariel from Macao Roads round Lintin. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog + +[^47]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 46-47, the three promissory notes of 400,000, 400,000 and 300,000 dollars drawn by Russell and Company in Houqua's favour, the deposit with Jardine, Matheson and Company and Dent and Company, the sentence beginning "At this time the last-named house," the discount, and Houqua's remark "My all same, 'Ba-Blo.'" https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog + +[^48]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 45-46 (the Hong merchants' contribution of 2,000,000 dollars and Houqua's share of 1,100,000 dollars) and p. 150 (the ransom of six million dollars, five million paid on the 31st). https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog + +[^49]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 1, p. 160, the editor's text on John Murray Forbes's business in the 1850s, the Michigan Central, the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy and the ocean telegraph. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb + +[^50]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 1, p. 138, quoting Forbes's notes. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb + +[^51]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 1, pp. 168-169, the October loan request in London to prevent the Michigan Central's bankruptcy during the crisis of 1857. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb + +[^52]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 2, Appendix A, resolution of the board of directors of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, October 18, 1898. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect02forb + +[^53]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 2, pp. 224-225, the editor's account of the chairmanship of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy board, C. E. Perkins, the failure of Russell and Company and the suspension of Baring Brothers and Company; p. 237, the date of his death, October 12, 1898. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect02forb + +[^54]: Library of Congress finding aid MSS38562, scope and content note on Samuel Russell (1789 to circa 1862) of Middletown, the Greek Revival mansion letters of 1827-1830, the Russell Manufacturing Company, the 1831 return to Middletown, and the land speculation subjects. https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms010075 + +[^55]: New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission, Designation List 139, LP-1118, "Low Memorial Library Interior," February 3, 1981, history of the donor. https://s-media.nyc.gov/agencies/lpc/lp/1118.pdf + +[^56]: Princetoniana Museum, The Trustees of Princeton University, reference entry "John C. Green School of Science," citing Trustee Minutes of September 20, 1872, with the dates of occupancy (1874) and destruction by fire (November 26-27, 1928). https://www.princetonianamuseum.org/reference/5ef15e9b-6369-491c-a2e0-cc20b816db83 + +[^57]: Princetoniana Museum, The Trustees of Princeton University, reference entry "John C. Green," including President McCosh's farewell report of 1888. https://princetonianamuseum.org/reference/b5388d91-1efc-4e01-ace3-3b5d7a6e3774 + +[^58]: Joel Andrews Delano, *The Genealogy, History and Alliances of the American House of Delano, 1621 to 1899* (1899), pt. 4-6, Capt. Warren Delano and Warren Delano 2d entries, pp. 503-506. https://archive.org/details/genealogyhistory46dela + +[^59]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), appendix, pp. 356-357. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog + +[^60]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), appendix, pp. 355-357. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog + +[^61]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 147 and 150. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog + +[^62]: *The Chinese Repository*, vol. IX (September 1840), p. 628. + +[^63]: *The Chinese Repository*, vol. XI, no. XII (December 1842), "Loss of the Madagascar," pp. 641-643. https://archive.org/details/chinesereposito111unse_11 + +[^64]: Curtis T. Henson Jr., *Commissioners and Commodores: The East India Squadron and American Diplomacy in China* (University of Alabama Press, 1982), chapter "Commodore Kearny and the Opium War." https://archive.org/details/commissionerscom00hens + +[^65]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), p. 168, the 1846 reorganization terms under which W. Delano was to retire and Edward Delano was to remain a partner. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog + +[^66]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), p. 356, "In 1846 Mr. Edward Delano returned home." https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog + +[^67]: *The Chronicle and Directory for China, Japan and the Philippines for 1865* (Hong Kong: Daily Press Office, 1865), "Russell & Co., Queen's Road." https://archive.org/details/1865-chronicle-and-directory-for-china-etc + +[^68]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, certified copies (March 28, 2001) of "An Act incorporating Russell Trust Association" (1856), resolution amending the charter (July 1870), and resolution confirming the by-laws (approved March 24, 1887). The act names William H. Russell, John S. Beach, Henry B. Harrison, Daniel C. Gilman, Henry T. Blake and Henry D. White as the body corporate, with the power of the General Assembly to amend or repeal it. + +[^69]: Bruce L. Reynolds '66, letter, "More secrets of the Tomb," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, responding to the May/June 2015 article, citing James Bradley, *The China Mirage* (Little, Brown, 2015). The passage is the letter writer's account. https://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4127-more-secrets-of-the-tomb + +[^70]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 2, p. 225 and note 1, Forbes's letter of 1859 to the managers of Russell and Company. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect02forb + +[^71]: *Hong Kong Daily Press*, July 22, 1891, p. 2, "In Bankruptcy," before Mr. E. J. Ackroyd, Acting Chief Justice. https://archive.org/details/NPDP18910722 + +[^72]: *The Chronicle and Directory for China, Corea, Japan, the Philippines, etc., for the Year 1889*, Hongkong firms ("Russell & Co., merchants, Praya"), Shanghai firms ("Russell & Co., merchants, The Bund") and the Hongkong residents' list. https://archive.org/details/Directorychronicle1889 + +[^73]: Massachusetts Historical Society, *Forbes Family Papers, 1732-1931* (Ms. N-49), collection guide, biographical sketch of Francis Blackwell Forbes and Paul Siemen Forbes, condensed genealogy, and reel 21, 22, 27 and 28 folder lists. https://www.masshist.org/collection-guides/view/fa0269 + +[^74]: *Hong Kong Daily Press*, September 2, 1891, p. 2, Supreme Court, 1st September, before Sir James Russell, Chief Justice, No Chi Kiu and four others v. Ng Woon Soon, Creasy Ewens and Ng Chau Fong. https://archive.org/details/NPDP18910902 + +[^75]: *The Chronicle and Directory of China, etc., for 1892*, Hongkong chronological table. https://archive.org/details/Directorychronicle1892 + +[^76]: *Hong Kong Daily Press*, December 10, 1891, "In Bankruptcy," before Mr. E. J. Ackroyd, Acting Chief Justice, report of the Official Assignee on Charles Alexander Tomes. https://archive.org/details/NPDP18911210 + +[^77]: *Hong Kong Telegraph*, August 31, 1891, p. 3, letter to the editor from the head office of the National Bank of China, Limited, signed A. B. McKean. https://archive.org/details/NPTG18910831 diff --git a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Skull and Bones.md b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Skull and Bones.md index af2e174e..86828042 100644 --- a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Skull and Bones.md +++ b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Skull and Bones.md @@ -31,62 +31,62 @@ relations: with: "[[George H.W. Bush]]" reverse: true role: "member, Class of 1948" - fn: 48 + fn: 53 - type: member_of with: "[[George W. Bush]]" reverse: true role: "member, Class of 1968" - fn: 48 + fn: 53 - type: member_of with: "[[McGeorge Bundy]]" reverse: true role: "member, Class of 1940" - fn: 56 + fn: 63 - type: member_of with: "[[Prescott Bush]]" reverse: true role: "member, Class of 1917" - fn: 41 + fn: 46 - type: member_of with: "[[E. Roland Harriman]]" reverse: true role: "member, Class of 1917" - fn: 41 + fn: 46 - type: member_of with: "[[W. Averell Harriman]]" reverse: true role: "member, Class of 1913" - fn: 40 + fn: 45 - type: member_of with: "[[Henry L. Stimson]]" reverse: true role: "member, Class of 1888" - fn: 36 + fn: 41 - type: member_of with: "[[F. Trubee Davison]]" reverse: true role: "member, Class of 1918" - fn: 69 + fn: 92 - type: member_of with: "[[Payne Whitney]]" reverse: true role: "B.A. 1898" - fn: 73 + fn: 96 - type: member_of with: "[[Henry Luce]]" reverse: true role: "member, Class of 1920" - fn: 53 + fn: 58 - type: member_of with: "[[William F. Buckley Jr.]]" reverse: true role: "member, Class of 1950" - fn: 58 + fn: 66 - type: member_of with: "[[John Kerry]]" reverse: true role: "member, Class of 1966" - fn: 62 + fn: 70 - type: founded with: "[[William Huntington Russell]]" reverse: true @@ -103,6 +103,43 @@ relations: reverse: true start: "1832" fn: 1 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Harvey H. Bundy]]" + reverse: true + start: 1909 + role: "member, initiated 1909, per Sutton's index" + fn: 65 + - type: member_of + with: "[[William Sloane Coffin]]" + reverse: true + role: "member, class of 1949" + fn: 67 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Weyerhaeuser family]]" + reverse: true + start: 1896 + role: "Frederick E. Weyerhaeuser, class of 1896, recorded as Bones in the class's decennial record" + fn: 80 + - type: member_of + with: "[[William Walter Phelps]]" + reverse: true + role: "member, Class of 1860" + fn: 87 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Anson Phelps Stokes Jr.]]" + reverse: true + role: "member, Class of 1896" + fn: 88 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Wadsworth family|James Wolcott Wadsworth Jr.]]" + reverse: true + role: "member, Class of 1898" + fn: 82 + - type: member_of + with: "[[Lord family|Oswald Bates Lord]]" + reverse: true + role: "member, Class of 1926" + fn: 85 --- Skull and Bones is a senior society at [[Yale University]] in [[New Haven, Connecticut]]. Its members are chosen in their junior year, spend one year on campus as initiates, and remain members for life as patriarchs. The society meets in a windowless sandstone building on [[High Street]]. Its corporate affairs run through three Connecticut entities: the Russell Trust Association, chartered by the [[Connecticut General Assembly]] in 1856; RTA Incorporated, a nonstock corporation formed in 1961 and recognized as a tax-exempt educational organization supporting Yale; and the Deer Island Club Corporation, formed in 1907 to operate the society's island retreat in the [[St. Lawrence River]]. @@ -127,196 +164,368 @@ The Yale obituary record and Franklin Bowditch Dexter's sketches of Yale graduat ### The 1856 charter and RTA Incorporated -Richards wrote: "The first step was to incorporate the club in the State of Connecticut as a trust; they called it the Russell Trust Association." The purpose, in his account, was to let "a proper corporation" hold "fee-simple title" to the building.[^1] Sutton states that the Order "was incorporated as The Russell Trust in 1856," and writes that [[Daniel C. Gilman]] became treasurer of the association and Russell its president; Gilman was assistant librarian at Yale in the fall of 1856 and was appointed librarian in 1858.[^16] +Richards wrote: "The first step was to incorporate the club in the State of Connecticut as a trust; they called it the Russell Trust Association." The purpose, in his account, was to let "a proper corporation" hold "fee-simple title" to the building.[^1] Sutton states that the Order "was incorporated as The Russell Trust in 1856," and writes that [[Daniel C. Gilman]] became treasurer of the association and Russell its president; Gilman was assistant librarian at Yale in the summer of 1856 and was appointed librarian in 1858.[^16][^17] -The special act of the General Assembly, a certified copy of which the Connecticut Secretary of the State issued on March 28, 2001, resolved that William H. Russell, [[John S. Beach]], [[Henry B. Harrison]], Daniel C. Gilman, [[Henry T. Blake]] and [[Henry D. White]], "and all such other persons as may be from time to time associated with them," were constituted "a body corporate and politic" under the name of the Russell Trust Association, "for the purpose of the intellectual and moral improvement of its members, and for that only." The act capped the real and personal estate the association could hold at fifteen thousand dollars, fixed its first meeting at New Haven on the last Wednesday of July 1856, and reserved to the General Assembly the power to alter, amend or repeal it.[^17] A resolution approved in July 1870 amended the charter to raise the ceiling on the property the association could hold to three hundred and fifty thousand dollars. A resolution approved on March 24, 1887 validated a meeting held in November 1885 and the by-laws adopted there. An act approved on July 9, 1943 raised the ceiling to seven hundred thousand dollars; the members accepted it unanimously at New Haven on November 12, 1943, and the certificate was sworn by [[Morris Hadley]] as president.[^17] Sutton's index lists Hadley under the class of 1916.[^18] Bagg listed the same names with their class years and wrote that "the first of whom has since acted as president, the one next to the last as treasurer, of the association"; the next-to-last name in the act is Henry D. White, and Sutton wrote that Gilman became treasurer.[^4] +The special act of the General Assembly, a certified copy of which the Connecticut Secretary of the State issued on March 28, 2001, resolved that William H. Russell, [[John S. Beach]], [[Henry B. Harrison]], Daniel C. Gilman, [[Henry T. Blake]] and [[Henry D. White]], "and all such other persons as may be from time to time associated with them," were constituted "a body corporate and politic" under the name of the Russell Trust Association, "for the purpose of the intellectual and moral improvement of its members, and for that only." The act capped the real and personal estate the association could hold at fifteen thousand dollars, fixed its first meeting at New Haven on the last Wednesday of July 1856, and reserved to the General Assembly the power to alter, amend or repeal it.[^18] A resolution approved in July 1870 amended the charter to raise the ceiling on the property the association could hold to three hundred and fifty thousand dollars. A resolution approved on March 24, 1887 validated a meeting held in November 1885 and the by-laws adopted there. An act approved on July 9, 1943 raised the ceiling to seven hundred thousand dollars; the members accepted it unanimously at New Haven on November 12, 1943, and the certificate was sworn by [[Morris Hadley]] as president.[^18] Sutton's index lists Hadley under the class of 1916.[^19] Bagg listed the same names with their class years and wrote that "the first of whom has since acted as president, the one next the last as treasurer, of the association." In Bagg's list the name next to the last is Henry D. White ('51); Sutton and Millegan give the treasurer as Gilman.[^4] -On April 14, 1961 the Connecticut registry shows the incorporation of RTA Incorporated, a nonstock corporation.[^19] Its certificate of incorporation states that it is formed "for exclusively educational purposes," including the intellectual and moral improvement of its members and "the support of education at Yale University." All members of the Russell Trust Association became members of the new corporation, together with undergraduates at Yale elected under its by-laws; the activities of the corporation were to be managed by a board of six directors, two elected each year. On dissolution, the assets after the payment of lawful claims were to "be paid to Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, to be by it used for its general educational purposes."[^20] The oath on the certificate was sworn by Henry B. Van Sinderen, John W. Hincks, Howard S. Weaver, H. P. Baldwin Terry and Sidney Lovett. The same names appear in Sutton's index of members, under the classes of 1911, 1952, 1948, 1935 and 1950.[^20][^21] +The class secretary, [[Ephraim Cutter]], listed Skull and Bones among Gilman's senior-year societies in the memorial volume the class of 1852 published in 1909.[^20] An 1876 pamphlet, The Fall of Skull and Bones, reports a framed engraving in the hall with a card reading "From the German Chapter. Presented by Patriarch D.C. Gilman of D. 50."[^21] Gilman's papers at the [[Yale University Library]], catalogued as MS 582, include correspondence from William H. Russell dated 1855, a year before the act.[^22] -The October 1983 membership catalogue that Sutton reproduces tells members to send corrections and changes of address to the secretary of RTA Incorporated at a post office box in Yale Station, New Haven.[^22] In November 1983 the members voted an amending certificate that increased the board from six to eight directors (nine when the term of the president would otherwise have expired), lengthened terms to four years, let the president continue as a director, and deleted the section of the 1961 certificate that required a two-thirds vote of members for fundamental changes. The certificate records 35 members as the quorum, 71 present in person or by proxy and 48 as the vote required.[^23] [[Kris Millegan]], who reprinted the filings, quoted the New Haven Register of September 27, 1991 as reporting that "almost 700 of the club's approximately 800 surviving members narrowly voted to admit women."[^24] [[Ron Rosenbaum]] reported in [[Esquire]] in 1977 that when a class of the 1970s proposed tapping Yale women, the officers of the Russell Trust Association threatened to bar that class from the tomb and change the locks.[^25] +On April 14, 1961 the Connecticut registry shows the incorporation of RTA Incorporated, a nonstock corporation.[^23] Its certificate of incorporation states that it is formed "for exclusively educational purposes," including the intellectual and moral improvement of its members and "the support of education at Yale University." All members of the Russell Trust Association became members of the new corporation, together with undergraduates at Yale elected under its by-laws; the activities of the corporation were to be managed by a board of six directors, two elected each year. On dissolution, the assets after the payment of lawful claims were to "be paid to Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, to be by it used for its general educational purposes."[^24] The oath on the certificate was sworn by Henry B. Van Sinderen, John W. Hincks, Howard S. Weaver, H. P. Baldwin Terry and Sidney Lovett. The same names appear in Sutton's index of members, under the classes of 1911, 1952, 1948, 1935 and 1950.[^24][^25] -The Connecticut business registry lists "RUSSELL TRUST ASSOCIATION, THE" as a domestic business of the type "Special Chartered," with status "Active" and account number 0269315. It lists RTA INCORPORATED as an active nonstock corporation, account number 0059060, registered on April 14, 1961, with a billing address at 64 High Street in New Haven and a post office box in the 06520 postal district.[^19] +The October 1983 membership catalogue that Sutton reproduces tells members to send corrections and changes of address to the secretary of RTA Incorporated at a post office box in Yale Station, New Haven.[^26] In November 1983 the members voted an amending certificate that increased the board from six to eight directors (nine when the term of the president would otherwise have expired), lengthened terms to four years, let the president continue as a director, and deleted the section of the 1961 certificate that required a two-thirds vote of members for fundamental changes. The certificate records 35 members as the quorum, 71 present in person or by proxy and 48 as the vote required.[^27] [[Kris Millegan]], who reprinted the filings, quoted the New Haven Register of September 27, 1991 as reporting that "almost 700 of the club's approximately 800 surviving members narrowly voted to admit women."[^28] [[Ron Rosenbaum]] reported in [[Esquire]] in 1977 that when a class of the 1970s proposed tapping Yale women, the officers of the Russell Trust Association threatened to bar that class from the tomb and change the locks.[^29] -Sutton wrote that "the Russell Trust Association is run entirely by Patriarchs," and that the organization, both as the association and as the Deer Iland Corporation, is "essentially geared towards the post graduation world."[^26] Rosenbaum wrote that the [[File and Claw]] break-in pamphlet was among the papers he found in a box in the manuscript room of the [[Yale University Library|Yale library]], filed "under Skull and Bones's corporate name, Russell Trust Association."[^25] Sutton lists three nineteenth-century publications about the society: the student paper The Iconoclast, published October 13, 1873; an anonymous pamphlet on an 1876 break-in at the society's hall; and an anonymous satire titled The Order, The Fall of Skull and Bones (New Haven, 1876).[^27] He wrote that the [[Sterling Memorial Library]] at Yale, which has "major holdings" of the society's records, had refused researchers further access to "Russell Trust papers."[^28] +The Connecticut business registry lists "RUSSELL TRUST ASSOCIATION, THE" as a domestic business of the type "Special Chartered," with status "Active" and account number 0269315. It lists RTA INCORPORATED as an active nonstock corporation, account number 0059060, registered on April 14, 1961, with a billing address at 64 High Street in New Haven and a post office box in the 06520 postal district.[^23] + +Sutton wrote that "the Russell Trust Association is run entirely by Patriarchs," and that the organization, both as the association and as the Deer Iland Corporation, is "essentially geared towards the post graduation world."[^30] Rosenbaum wrote that the [[File and Claw]] break-in pamphlet was among the papers he found in a box in the manuscript room of the Yale library, filed "under Skull and Bones's corporate name, Russell Trust Association."[^29] Sutton lists three nineteenth-century publications about the society: the student paper The Iconoclast, published October 13, 1873; an anonymous pamphlet on an 1876 break-in at the society's hall; and an anonymous satire titled The Order, The Fall of Skull and Bones (New Haven, 1876).[^31] He wrote that the [[Sterling Memorial Library]] at Yale, which has "major holdings" of the society's records, had refused researchers further access to "Russell Trust papers."[^32] ### Finances and the island -The Internal Revenue Service lists RTA Incorporated (employer identification number 06-0768741, post office box in New Haven) as a section 501(c)(3) organization with a ruling date of February 1966.[^29] Its annual return for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021 gives its mission as "To provide structured programs of intellectual inquiry, sensitivity training and personal development for students of Yale University focusing on topics of intellectual, political or cultural importance." The return describes the corporation as a Type III functionally integrated supporting organization under section 509(a)(3), with Yale University as the one supported organization; states that the organization has members who vote for the board; reports 13 officers and directors, ten of them voting; and reports four employees and twenty volunteers. Of total expenses of $575,657, occupancy accounted for $199,381 and conferences and meetings for $74,195.[^30] Its Schedule R lists the Deer Island Club, a post office box in [[Alexandria Bay, New York]], as a related organization with the activity "Social Club" under section 501(c)(7).[^30] +The Internal Revenue Service lists RTA Incorporated (employer identification number 06-0768741, post office box in New Haven) as a section 501(c)(3) organization with a ruling date of February 1966.[^33] Its annual return for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021 gives its mission as "To provide structured programs of intellectual inquiry, sensitivity training and personal development for students of Yale University focusing on topics of intellectual, political or cultural importance." The return describes the corporation as a Type III functionally integrated supporting organization under section 509(a)(3), with Yale University as the one supported organization; states that the organization has members who vote for the board; reports 13 officers and directors, ten of them voting; and reports four employees and twenty volunteers. Of total expenses of $575,657, occupancy accounted for $199,381 and conferences and meetings for $74,195.[^34] Its Schedule R lists the Deer Island Club, a post office box in [[Alexandria Bay, New York]], as a related organization with the activity "Social Club" under section 501(c)(7).[^34] -The Internal Revenue Service return data for fiscal years ending in June show the following. In fiscal 2011, total assets of $4,229,513. In fiscal 2017, total assets of $3,906,458, with contributions of $163,612. In fiscal 2018, contributions of $5,133,725 and total assets of $8,922,229. In fiscal 2019, contributions of $5,061,958 and total assets of $13,791,929. In fiscal 2021, contributions of $693,165 and total assets of $16,127,481. In fiscal 2022, total assets of $17,182,221, and in fiscal 2023, $17,146,085. The 2025 entry in the exempt-organization master file lists assets of $17,071,890.[^29][^31] +The Internal Revenue Service return data for fiscal years ending in June show the following. In fiscal 2011, total assets of $4,229,513. In fiscal 2017, total assets of $3,906,458, with contributions of $163,612. In fiscal 2018, contributions of $5,133,725 and total assets of $8,922,229. In fiscal 2019, contributions of $5,061,958 and total assets of $13,791,929. In fiscal 2021, contributions of $693,165 and total assets of $16,127,481. In fiscal 2022, total assets of $17,182,221, and in fiscal 2023, $17,146,085. The 2025 entry in the exempt-organization master file lists assets of $17,071,890.[^33][^35] -Millegan wrote in 2003, from the corporation's returns of the preceding years, that investment earnings were sometimes over $400,000 a year, that the corporation reported $4,000 to $10,000 a year as "rental of facility for educational programs" for the island, that it spent about $50,000 a year on conferences, conventions and meetings and renovation costs of more than a quarter of a million dollars in 1998, and that its only charitable gifts in the returns he read were $5,000 to the Yale scholarship fund in each of 1999 and 2000. He wrote that contributions fell from $164,000 in 1997.[^24] Rosenbaum reported in 1977, citing "one source," that each initiate received "a no-strings, tax-free gift of $15,000 from the Russell Trust Association."[^25] [[Jacques Leslie]], a Yale student of the class of 1968 who was asked to join the society, wrote in [[Salon]] in March 2000 that students heard rumors that the society's assets made it "the largest corporation in Connecticut," and that each member was guaranteed a lifetime annual stipend of $20,000. Leslie added: "Nobody knew whether the rumors were true."[^32] Rosenbaum wrote that one could ask [[J. Richardson Dilworth]], "the Bonesman who now manages the Rockefeller fortune," "just how wealthy the Bones society is and whether it's true that each new initiate gets a no-strings gift of fifteen thousand dollars cash and guaranteed financial security for life."[^25] +Millegan wrote in 2003, from the corporation's returns of the preceding years, that investment earnings were sometimes over $400,000 a year, that the corporation reported $4,000 to $10,000 a year as "rental of facility for educational programs" for the island, that it spent about $50,000 a year on conferences, conventions and meetings and renovation costs of more than a quarter of a million dollars in 1998, and that its only charitable gifts in the returns he read were $5,000 to the Yale scholarship fund in each of 1999 and 2000. He wrote that contributions fell from $164,000 in 1997.[^28] Rosenbaum reported in 1977, citing "one source," that each initiate received "a no-strings, tax-free gift of $15,000 from the Russell Trust Association."[^29] [[Jacques Leslie]], a Yale student of the class of 1968 who was asked to join the society, wrote in [[Salon]] in March 2000 that students heard rumors that the society's assets made it "the largest corporation in Connecticut," and that each member was guaranteed a lifetime annual stipend of $20,000. Leslie added: "Nobody knew whether the rumors were true."[^36] Rosenbaum wrote that one could ask [[J. Richardson Dilworth]], "the Bonesman who now manages the Rockefeller fortune," "just how wealthy the Bones society is and whether it's true that each new initiate gets a no-strings gift of fifteen thousand dollars cash and guaranteed financial security for life."[^29] -Sutton writes that the society meets once a year, with patriarchs only, on [[Deer Island]] in the St. Lawrence River at Alexandria Bay, where the [[Deer Iland Club]] operates; the island was donated in 1906 by George Douglas Miller (listed in Sutton's index under the class of 1870), and the club was established in 1907.[^33] Rosenbaum described it as a "private resort island owned and maintained by the Russell Trust Association."[^25] The Connecticut registry lists the Deer Island Club Corporation as an active nonstock corporation, account number 0053733, registered and organized on February 20, 1907, with its billing address in care of the New Haven law firm [[Wiggin & Dana]]; it lists a separate specially chartered nonstock corporation, The Deer Island Association, registered on May 19, 1915 (account number 0269028).[^19] +Sutton writes that the society meets once a year, with patriarchs only, on [[Deer Island]] in the St. Lawrence River at Alexandria Bay, where the [[Deer Iland Club]] operates; the island was donated in 1906 by George Douglas Miller (listed in Sutton's index under the class of 1870), and the club was established in 1907.[^37] Rosenbaum described it as a "private resort island owned and maintained by the Russell Trust Association."[^29] The Connecticut registry lists the Deer Island Club Corporation as an active nonstock corporation, account number 0053733, registered and organized on February 20, 1907, with its billing address in care of the New Haven law firm [[Wiggin & Dana]]; it lists a separate specially chartered nonstock corporation, The Deer Island Association, registered on May 19, 1915 (account number 0269028).[^23] ### Membership in government, intelligence and finance -Sutton reproduces entries from a 1971 membership catalogue and an index of members arranged by class year.[^34] The class years below come from that index unless another source is cited. Printed records of the period give the same affiliations for several members, as noted. +Sutton reproduces entries from a 1971 membership catalogue and an index of members arranged by class year.[^38] The class years below come from that index unless another source is cited. Printed records of the period give the same affiliations for several members, as noted. The Yale Obituary Record for 1929 to 1930 lists among William Howard Taft's undergraduate societies "Linonia, Delta Kappa, Phi Theta Psi, He Boule, Psi Upsilon, Skull and Bones, and Phi Beta Kappa."[^7] -[[Henry L. Stimson]] is listed under the class of 1888.[^35] A 1897 catalogue of the Phillips Academy society H.A.E. lists his Yale degree of 1888 with Skull and Bones among his Yale societies.[^36] The Yale Obituary Record for 1950 to 1951 lists among his undergraduate honors "He Boule, Psi Upsilon, Skull and Bones, Chi Delta Theta, Phi Beta Kappa."[^37] Rosenbaum named Stimson among the members in 1977.[^25] Leslie also named Stimson, as a member of the class of 1888.[^32] Sutton writes that Stimson married Mabel White, the daughter of Charles A. White, a member of the society, and that Stimson "proved he was capable in the law." When William Howard Taft, also a member, was looking for a Secretary of War in 1911, Sutton writes, he appointed Stimson.[^38] William Howard Taft is listed under the class of 1878.[^39] Sutton also gives Alphonso Taft's tenure as Secretary of War in 1876, under President Grant.[^3] +[[Horace Dutton Taft]], a son of Alphonso Taft by his second marriage, graduated from Yale University in 1883 and is listed among his Yale societies as Skull and Bones. He studied in Vienna in 1883 and 1884, the years his father was minister to [[Austria-Hungary]]. He founded the [[Taft School]] in 1890 and was its headmaster until 1936.[^39] -[[W. Averell Harriman]] is listed under the class of 1913, and [[E. Roland Harriman]], his brother, under the class of 1917.[^40] The class history of 1917 prints Edward Roland Noel Harriman's biographical entry with the statement that he is "a member of Psi Upsilon and Skull and Bones."[^41] Rosenbaum named Averell Harriman among the members in 1977.[^25] Sutton writes that Harriman and his fellow investment bankers "have dominated the direction of The Order."[^42] E. Roland Harriman appears in the [[Union Banking Corporation]] record discussed below.[^43] Sutton wrote that the Harriman brothers and two other members, [[Ellery Sedgwick James|E.S. James]] and [[Knight Woolley]], "through the Union Bank (in which they held a major interest) were prime financial backers of Hitler."[^44] The same class history prints entries for William Ellery Sedgwick James and Knight Woolley that state membership in Skull and Bones, as it does for Prescott Sheldon Bush and [[Neil Mallon|Henry Neil Mallon]].[^41] The 1979 company history of Dresser Industries by [[Darwin Payne]] states that Harriman, Bush, Woolley and Mallon had been fellow members of the society.[^45] +[[Henry L. Stimson]] is listed under the class of 1888.[^40] A 1897 catalogue of the Phillips Academy society H.A.E. lists his Yale degree of 1888 with Skull and Bones among his Yale societies.[^41] The Yale Obituary Record for 1950 to 1951 lists among his undergraduate honors "He Boule, Psi Upsilon, Skull and Bones, Chi Delta Theta, Phi Beta Kappa."[^42] Rosenbaum named Stimson among the members in 1977.[^29] Leslie also named Stimson, as a member of the class of 1888.[^36] Sutton writes that Stimson married Mabel White, the daughter of Charles A. White, a member of the society, and that Stimson "proved he was capable in the law." When William Howard Taft, also a member, was looking for a Secretary of War in 1911, Sutton writes, he appointed Stimson.[^43] William Howard Taft is listed under the class of 1878.[^44] Sutton also gives Alphonso Taft's tenure as Secretary of War in 1876, under President Grant.[^3] -[[Prescott Bush]] is listed under the class of 1917. The class history of 1917 states of him: "He belongs to the Whiffenpoofs, Psi Upsilon, and Skull and Bones."[^41] The 1971 entry in Sutton's catalogue gives his offices as Yale Corporation member from 1944 to 1958, United States Senator from Connecticut from 1952 to 1963, and former partner of [[Brown Brothers Harriman]].[^46] [[Anthony L. Kimery]]'s article in the CIA reading room states that Prescott Bush and a Yale classmate named Mallon were "Yale classmates and initiates of Skull and Bones," and describes Prescott Bush as "a managing partner of Brown Brothers Harriman and major benefactor of Yale."[^47] Kimery wrote that Mallon, as longtime chairman of the board of Dresser Industries, "personally offered Bush the IDECO job," and that Mallon "steered prospective candidates for spy work to Dulles and often provided cover employment to CIA operatives."[^47] +[[W. Averell Harriman]] is listed under the class of 1913, and [[E. Roland Harriman]], his brother, under the class of 1917.[^45] The class history of 1917 prints Edward Roland Noel Harriman's biographical entry with the statement that he is "a member of Psi Upsilon and Skull and Bones."[^46] Rosenbaum named Averell Harriman among the members in 1977.[^29] Sutton writes that Harriman and his fellow investment bankers "have dominated the direction of The Order."[^47] E. Roland Harriman appears in the [[Union Banking Corporation]] record discussed below.[^48] Sutton wrote that the Harriman brothers and two other members, [[Ellery Sedgwick James|E.S. James]] and [[Knight Woolley]], "through the Union Bank (in which they held a major interest) were prime financial backers of Hitler."[^49] The same class history prints entries for William Ellery Sedgwick James and Knight Woolley that state membership in Skull and Bones, as it does for Prescott Sheldon Bush and [[Neil Mallon|Henry Neil Mallon]].[^46] The 1979 company history of Dresser Industries by [[Darwin Payne]] states that Harriman, Bush, Woolley and Mallon had been fellow members of the society.[^50] -On October 20, 1942 the [[Alien Property Custodian]], [[Leo T. Crowley]], signed Vesting Order No. 248 concerning the Union Banking Corporation, a New York corporation. The order vested "all of the capital stock" of the corporation, 4,000 shares of $100 par value, held for the benefit of [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]] of Rotterdam, which the order describes as "owned or controlled by members of the [[Thyssen family]], nationals of Germany and/or Hungary." The registered owners were E. Roland Harriman (3,991 shares), [[Cornelius Lievense]] (4), [[Harold D. Pennington]] (1), [[Ray Morris]] (1), Prescott S. Bush (1), [[H. J. Kouwenhoven]] (1) and [[Johann G. Groeninger]] (1). The order was published in the [[Federal Register]] on November 7, 1942.[^43] +[[Prescott Bush]] is listed under the class of 1917. The class history of 1917 states of him: "He belongs to the Whiffenpoofs, Psi Upsilon, and Skull and Bones."[^46] The 1971 entry in Sutton's catalogue gives his offices as Yale Corporation member from 1944 to 1958, United States Senator from Connecticut from 1952 to 1963, and former partner of [[Brown Brothers Harriman]].[^51] [[Anthony L. Kimery]]'s article in the CIA reading room states that Prescott Bush and a Yale classmate named Mallon were "Yale classmates and initiates of Skull and Bones," and describes Prescott Bush as "a managing partner of Brown Brothers Harriman and major benefactor of Yale."[^52] Kimery wrote that Mallon, as longtime chairman of the board of Dresser Industries, "personally offered Bush the IDECO job," and that Mallon "steered prospective candidates for spy work to Dulles and often provided cover employment to CIA operatives."[^52] -[[George H.W. Bush]] is listed under the class of 1948, and [[George W. Bush]] under the class of 1968.[^48] The index also lists [[Jonathan James Bush]] under the class of 1953.[^49] The 1971 entry for George H.W. Bush gives his service as a United States congressman from 1966 to 1970, and the entry for George W. Bush gives his service as a lieutenant and pilot in the United States Air Force from June 1968 to June 1970.[^50] Kimery writes that George H.W. Bush joined the society in his junior year.[^47] +On October 20, 1942 the [[Alien Property Custodian]], [[Leo T. Crowley]], signed Vesting Order No. 248 concerning the Union Banking Corporation, a New York corporation. The order vested "all of the capital stock" of the corporation, 4,000 shares of $100 par value, held for the benefit of [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]] of Rotterdam, which the order describes as "owned or controlled by members of the [[Thyssen family]], nationals of Germany and/or Hungary." The registered owners were E. Roland Harriman (3,991 shares), [[Cornelius Lievense]] (4), [[Harold D. Pennington]] (1), [[Ray Morris]] (1), Prescott S. Bush (1), [[H. J. Kouwenhoven]] (1) and [[Johann G. Groeninger]] (1). The order was published in the [[Federal Register]] on November 7, 1942.[^48] -[[Robert A. Lovett]] is listed under the class of 1918.[^51] Sutton writes that Judge Robert Scott Lovett, a friend and attorney of [[E. H. Harriman]] and general counsel for the [[Union Pacific Railroad]], handled $250,000 that Harriman gave the [[Republican National Committee]] in 1904 after a request from President [[Theodore Roosevelt]], citing [[George Kennan]]'s biography of Harriman. Sutton writes that the judge's son, Robert Abercrombie Lovett, went to Yale and was initiated with the two Harriman brothers.[^52] +[[George H.W. Bush]] is listed under the class of 1948, and [[George W. Bush]] under the class of 1968.[^53] The index also lists [[Jonathan James Bush]] under the class of 1953.[^54] The 1971 entry for George H.W. Bush gives his service as a United States congressman from 1966 to 1970, and the entry for George W. Bush gives his service as a lieutenant and pilot in the United States Air Force from June 1968 to June 1970.[^55] Kimery writes that George H.W. Bush joined the society in his junior year.[^52] -[[Henry Luce]] is listed under the class of 1920.[^53] Rosenbaum named Luce among the members in 1977, together with Averell Harriman and Stimson.[^25] Leslie named Luce as well.[^32] Sutton's name index lists fourteen members of the class of 1920, among them "Hadden, Briton" and "Luce, Henry Robinson."[^54] [[Briton Hadden]] co-founded [[Time Inc.]] with Luce in 1923. The Harvard Crimson of May 16, 1919 printed a special dispatch from New Haven dated May 15 listing the men elected to Skull and Bones: DeForest Van Slyck, James McHenry, Joseph Weir Sargent, L. G. Adams, Daniel R. Winter, Henry R. Luce, John M. Hincks, Harry P. Davison, Theodore L. Safford, Morehead Patterson, Briton Hadden, Alfred C. Schermerhorn, Frank P. Hefflefinger, Francis T. Hobson and David L. Ingalls. The same dispatch lists the Scroll and Key and Wolf's Head elections for 1919.[^55] +[[Robert A. Lovett]] is listed under the class of 1918.[^56] Sutton writes that Judge Robert Scott Lovett, a friend and attorney of [[E. H. Harriman]] and general counsel for the [[Union Pacific Railroad]], handled $250,000 that Harriman gave the [[Republican National Committee]] in 1904 after a request from President [[Theodore Roosevelt]], citing [[George Kennan]]'s biography of Harriman. Sutton writes that the judge's son, Robert Abercrombie Lovett, went to Yale and was initiated with the two Harriman brothers.[^57] -[[William P. Bundy]] is listed under the class of 1939, and [[McGeorge Bundy]] under the class of 1940.[^56] Sutton writes that William P. Bundy held key positions in government while his brother McGeorge was in the White House. Sutton presents the brothers' positions as a possible control of the information reaching the President on Vietnam, and writes: "We are not saying this happened. We believe it to be a hypothesis worthy of examination."[^57] +[[Henry Luce]] is listed under the class of 1920.[^58] Rosenbaum named Luce among the members in 1977, together with Averell Harriman and Stimson.[^29] Leslie named Luce as well.[^36] Sutton's name index lists fourteen members of the class of 1920, among them "Hadden, Briton" and "Luce, Henry Robinson."[^59] [[Briton Hadden]] co-founded [[Time Inc.]] with Luce in 1923. The Harvard Crimson of May 16, 1919 printed a special dispatch from New Haven dated May 15 listing the men elected to Skull and Bones: DeForest Van Slyck, James McHenry, Joseph Weir Sargent, L. G. Adams, Daniel R. Winter, Henry R. Luce, John M. Hincks, [[Henry P. Davison Jr.|Harry P. Davison]], Theodore L. Safford, Morehead Patterson, Briton Hadden, Alfred C. Schermerhorn, Frank P. Hefflefinger, Francis T. Hobson and David L. Ingalls. The same dispatch lists the Scroll and Key and Wolf's Head elections for 1919.[^60] Sutton's index of members by class year lists "Davison, Harry Pomeroy" in the class of 1920.[^61] Sutton wrote that Henry P. Davison's "son H.P. Davison, Jr. was initiated in 1920."[^62] -[[William F. Buckley Jr.]] is listed under the class of 1950.[^58] [[William Sloane Coffin]] is listed under the class of 1949.[^59] An FBI memorandum of October 20, 1950 records that Buckley "graduated at Yale in 1950, and was chairman of" the [[Yale Daily News]].[^60] [[Potter Stewart]] is listed under the class of 1937, and Rosenbaum named him among the members in 1977.[^61] [[John Kerry|John Forbes Kerry]] is listed under the class of 1966.[^62] [[Archibald MacLeish]] is listed under the class of 1915 and [[Richard A. Moore]] under the class of 1936.[^63] The Library of Congress lists MacLeish as Librarian of Congress from 1939.[^64] Sutton wrote that the constitution of [[UNESCO]] "was written largely by The Order, i.e., member Archibald MacLeish."[^65] +[[William P. Bundy]] is listed under the class of 1939, and [[McGeorge Bundy]] under the class of 1940.[^63] Sutton writes that William P. Bundy held key positions in government while his brother McGeorge was in the White House. Sutton presents the brothers' positions as a possible control of the information reaching the President on Vietnam, and writes: "We are not saying this happened. We believe it to be a hypothesis worthy of examination."[^64] -[[Percy Avery Rockefeller]] is listed under the class of 1900.[^66] [[Harry Payne Whitney]] is listed under the class of 1894.[^67] [[Payne Whitney]] is listed under the class of 1898; Sutton's text gives the two brothers as 1894 and 1898, and his chart table prints the years in reverse.[^68] Sutton's chart places the Payne family and the [[Rockefeller family]] under [[Standard Oil]], and the Davison family under [[J. P. Morgan]].[^34] +Sutton's index lists [[Harvey H. Bundy]] under the class of 1909, and his text states that Bundy was initiated in 1909 and that he became law clerk to Justice [[Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.]] in 1914 and 1915. Sutton calls Bundy the "key Pentagon man on the Manhattan Project."[^65] + +[[William F. Buckley Jr.]] is listed under the class of 1950.[^66] [[William Sloane Coffin]] is listed under the class of 1949.[^67] An FBI memorandum of October 20, 1950 records that Buckley "graduated at Yale in 1950, and was chairman of" the [[Yale Daily News]].[^68] [[Potter Stewart]] is listed under the class of 1937, and Rosenbaum named him among the members in 1977.[^69] [[John Kerry|John Forbes Kerry]] is listed under the class of 1966.[^70] [[Archibald MacLeish]] is listed under the class of 1915 and [[Richard A. Moore]] under the class of 1936.[^71] The Library of Congress lists MacLeish as Librarian of Congress from 1939.[^72] Sutton wrote that the constitution of [[UNESCO]] "was written largely by The Order, i.e., member Archibald MacLeish."[^73] + +Sutton's index lists [[Henry Sloane Coffin]] under the class of 1897 and a William Sloane Coffin under the class of 1900. The same index lists four other Sloanes: Henry Thompson Sloane under the class of 1866, Thomas Chalmers Sloane under 1868, William Sloane under 1895 and John Sloane under 1905.[^74] A 1953 family genealogy lists Skull and Bones among the college societies of Henry Thompson Sloane, a son of the carpet merchant William Sloane and a brother of Euphemia Sloane, whose sons were Henry Sloane Coffin and William Sloane Coffin.[^75] Ron Rosenbaum wrote in 1977 that William Sloane Coffin descended from "an aptly named family with three generations of Bonesmen."[^76] + +[[Percy Avery Rockefeller]] is listed under the class of 1900.[^77] Sutton's chart table and his index of members by class year list [[Payne Whitney]] under the class of 1894 and [[Harry Payne Whitney]] under 1898, while his text and the Yale records give Harry Payne Whitney as 1894 and Payne Whitney as 1898.[^78][^79] Sutton's chart places the Payne family and the [[Rockefeller family]] under [[Standard Oil]], and the Davison family under [[J. P. Morgan & Co.]].[^38] + +The Decennial Record of the Class of 1896 at Yale University (1907) lists "F. E. Weyerhaeuser," Frederick Edward Weyerhaeuser (born at Rock Island, Illinois, November 4, 1872, a son of [[Frederick Weyerhaeuser]]), and ends its list of his college societies: "He Boule. D. K. E. Bones."[^80] Sutton's membership list by class year includes "Weyerhaeuser, Frederick E." in the class of 1896, and Millegan's 2003 list carries "Frederick E. Weyerhaeuser (S&B 1896)."[^81] The same record prints his 1905 letter on the committee of the [[National Lumber Manufacturers Association]] for a chair of Applied Forestry and Practical Lumbering at the [[Yale Forest School]], which he chaired.[^80] Sutton's chart of new-wealth families lists the [[Weyerhaeuser family]] (lumber).[^38] + +Sutton's index lists [[Wadsworth family|James Wolcott Wadsworth Jr.]] under the class of 1898 and James Jeremiah Wadsworth under 1927. The 1914 genealogy of southern New York states of Wadsworth Jr., later Speaker of the New York Assembly, United States Senator from 1915 to 1927 and Representative from 1933 to 1951, that at Yale he "was chosen by the Skull and Bones Society."[^82] James Jeremiah Wadsworth, United States Representative to the United Nations from 1960 to 1961, is recorded as a member of the society in the finding aid of the Livingston County Historian's Office.[^83] + +Sutton's index lists [[Lord family|Lords]] in the Order: George DeForest Lord (initiated 1854), Franklin Atkins Lord (1898), William Galey Lord (1922), Oswald Bates Lord (1926), Charles Edwin Lord II (1949) and Winston Lord (1959). The Yale obituary record for 1868 states that Daniel Lord's son George DeForest Lord graduated in the Yale class of 1854.[^84] The *Yale Banner and Pot Pourri* prints, under the heading "Senior Society" without naming the society, fifteen-name lists for 1921 to 1922 (including William Galey Lord) and 1925 to 1926 (including Oswald Bates Lord) that match Sutton's class lists for those years.[^85] [[Carroll Quigley]]'s list gives "Lord S&B 1854," William Galey Lord (1922), Oswald B. Lord (1926) and "Winston Bao Lord BB/S&B 1959/TC."[^86] Sutton describes the New York law firm [[Lord, Day and Lord]] as dominated by the Lord family. + +### The Phelps names in the class lists + +Sutton's class list, compiled by Kris Millegan from the Yale Catalogue, places [[William Walter Phelps]] in the class of 1860, Henry Phelps Johnston and John Phelps Taylor in 1862, Anson Phelps Tinker in 1868, William Phelps Eno in 1882, Edward Johnson Phelps and Sheffield Phelps in 1886, Zira Bennett Phelps in 1895, Anson Phelps Stokes in 1896, Harold Phelps Stokes in 1909, Putnam Phelps in 1916, Charles Phelps Taft in 1918 and Anson Phelps Stokes Jr. in 1927.[^87] The class history of 1896 records [[Anson Phelps Stokes Jr.]], Secretary of Yale University from 1899, as "Phi Beta Kappa. He Boule. D. K. E. Bones," and names a younger brother in the class of 1909 and a son, Anson Phelps Stokes 3d, born at New Haven on January 11, 1905.[^88] A directory of fraternities published in 1899 lists William Walter Phelps and Sheffield Phelps among the Yale graduates who were members of the Order.[^89] + +The senior society [[Wolf's Head]], founded in June 1883, was incorporated as the Phelps Trust Association. Rupert Hughes, in *Munsey's Magazine* for June 1894, gave Bones as the Russell Trust Association, Scroll and Key as the Kingsley Trust Association and Wolf's Head as the Phelps Trust Association; the directory of 1899 states that Wolf's Head "is incorporated as the Phelps Trust Association"; and George W. Pierson's history of Yale College lists the Kingsley Trust Association (Scroll and Key) with the date 1860 and the Phelps Trust Association (Wolf's Head) with the date 1886.[^89][^90] Its hall of 1884 to 1885 on Prospect Street, designed by McKim, Mead & White, was built for the Phelps Association.[^91] ### The Yale Unit and the Central Intelligence Agency -The Yale Alumni Magazine reported in 2006 that [[F. Trubee Davison]] co-founded the Yale aviation group that grew into the first squadron of the Naval Air Reserve, and that of the two dozen Yale students he recruited before the United States entered the war, five were Bonesmen. Davison crashed during a training flight and was disabled for life; the magazine reported that while he recovered at home, fellow members wrote to him about candidates for membership, initiations abroad and other society business, and that the yearbook entries for Davison, [[Winter Mead]] and [[Charles C. Haffner Jr.]] confirmed that each was a member.[^69] Sutton's index lists Davison under the class of 1918.[^70] The Air Force biography dates the crash to July 28, 1917, over Huntington Bay, New York, and Ralph D. Paine's 1925 history records that the injury was a fractured vertebra with injury to the spinal cord.[^71] +The Yale Alumni Magazine reported in 2006 that [[F. Trubee Davison]] co-founded the Yale aviation group that grew into the first squadron of the Naval Air Reserve, and that of the two dozen Yale students he recruited before the United States entered the war, five were Bonesmen. Davison crashed during a training flight and was disabled for life; the magazine reported that while he recovered at home, fellow members wrote to him about candidates for membership, initiations abroad and other society business, and that the yearbook entries for Davison, [[Winter Mead]] and [[Charles C. Haffner Jr.]] confirmed that each was a member.[^92] Sutton's index lists Davison under the class of 1918.[^93] The Air Force biography dates the crash to July 28, 1917, over Huntington Bay, New York, and Ralph D. Paine's 1925 history records that the injury was a fractured vertebra with injury to the spinal cord.[^94] -The Yale News account of the First Yale Unit states that on April 19, 1917, Tap Day in New Haven, two representatives from Yale arrived in Florida, where the unit was training, to tap students at noon. Davison was the first tapped for the society, and eleven other members of the unit were tapped with him.[^72] +The Yale News account of the First Yale Unit states that on April 19, 1917, Tap Day in New Haven, two representatives from Yale arrived in Florida, where the unit was training, to tap students at noon. Davison was the first tapped for the society, and eleven other members of the unit were tapped with him.[^95] -The Yale Obituary Record for Payne Whitney, B.A. 1898, who died on May 25, 1927, lists "Skull and Bones" among his undergraduate activities.[^73] A Yale Obituary Record entry for a member of the Yale Aviation Corps says the corps was "formed by Payne Whitney, '98, in June, 1916," and that Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 1 was organized by Davison.[^74] +The Yale Obituary Record for Payne Whitney, B.A. 1898, who died on May 25, 1927, lists "Skull and Bones" among his undergraduate activities.[^96] A Yale Obituary Record entry for a member of the Yale Aviation Corps says the corps was "formed by Payne Whitney, '98, in June, 1916," and that Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 1 was organized by Davison.[^97] -An Associated Press item in the CIA reading room reports that "Brig. Gen. Trubee Davison, former Assistant Secretary of War for Air," would join the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] on July 16, 1951, as "a principal assistant" to [[Walter Bedell Smith]], and that he "probably would do personnel work." The item adds that Davison had been president of the [[American Museum of Natural History]] since 1933 and assistant chief of the Army Air Force air staff during part of World War II.[^75] A memorandum of September 11, 1951 from Davison to the Deputy Director of Central Intelligence appears on a routing slip addressed to the Assistant Director (Personnel).[^76] The Covert Action Information Bulletin reported in 1990, citing the New York Times of July 5, 1951, that Davison was the CIA's Director of Personnel in 1951, and that two of his sons, [[Endicott Peabody Davison]] and [[Daniel Pomeroy Davison]], were also Bonesmen.[^77] The New York Times obituary of November 16, 1974 states that he left the post the following April, when it was announced that he had completed his mission of organizing the personnel of the Agency; CIA committee minutes of October 1951 and January 1952 list him as Assistant Director for Personnel and chairman of the Career Service Committee.[^78] +An Associated Press item in the CIA reading room reports that "Brig. Gen. Trubee Davison, former Assistant Secretary of War for Air," would join the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] on July 16, 1951, as "a principal assistant" to [[Walter Bedell Smith]], and that he "probably would do personnel work." The item adds that Davison had been president of the [[American Museum of Natural History]] since 1933 and assistant chief of the Army Air Force air staff during part of World War II.[^98] A memorandum of September 11, 1951 from Davison to the Deputy Director of Central Intelligence appears on a routing slip addressed to the Assistant Director (Personnel).[^99] The Covert Action Information Bulletin reported in 1990, citing the New York Times of July 5, 1951, that Davison was the CIA's Director of Personnel in 1951, and that two of his sons, [[Endicott Peabody Davison]] and [[Daniel Pomeroy Davison]], were also Bonesmen.[^100] The New York Times obituary of November 16, 1974 states that he left the post the following April, when it was announced that he had completed his mission of organizing the personnel of the Agency; CIA committee minutes of October 1951 and January 1952 list him as Assistant Director for Personnel and chairman of the Career Service Committee.[^101] -The same article in the Covert Action Information Bulletin listed other members it connected to intelligence work. It reported that [[Hugh Cunningham]], of the class of 1934, a Rhodes Scholar, served in the CIA from 1947 to 1973 in positions that included the Board of National Estimates and the Director of Training from 1969 to 1973, citing Victor Marchetti and John D. Marks.[^77] CIA documents released to the reading room name Hugh T. Cunningham as Director of Training in 1968, 1969 and 1972.[^79] Sutton's index lists a Hugh Terry Cunningham under the class of 1934.[^80] The article reported that William P. Bundy began in the [[Office of Strategic Services]] during World War II and worked at the CIA from 1951 to 1961, including the Office of National Estimates; that [[Dino Pionzio]], of the class of 1950, was CIA deputy chief of station in [[Santiago]], [[Chile]] in 1970 and later a vice president at [[Dillon, Read & Co.]]; and that Richard A. Moore served as a special assistant to the chief of military intelligence in World War II and later as special assistant to President [[Richard Nixon]].[^77] Sutton's index lists Dino John Pionzio under the class of 1950.[^81] +The same article in the Covert Action Information Bulletin listed other members it connected to intelligence work. It reported that [[Hugh Cunningham]], of the class of 1934, a Rhodes Scholar, served in the CIA from 1947 to 1973 in positions that included the Board of National Estimates and the Director of Training from 1969 to 1973, citing Victor Marchetti and John D. Marks.[^100] CIA documents released to the reading room name Hugh T. Cunningham as Director of Training in 1968, 1969 and 1972.[^102] Sutton's index lists a Hugh Terry Cunningham under the class of 1934.[^103] The article reported that William P. Bundy began in the [[Office of Strategic Services]] during World War II and worked at the CIA from 1951 to 1961, including the Office of National Estimates; that [[Dino Pionzio]], of the class of 1950, was CIA deputy chief of station in [[Santiago]], [[Chile]] in 1970 and later a vice president at [[Dillon, Read & Co.]]; and that Richard A. Moore served as a special assistant to the chief of military intelligence in World War II and later as special assistant to President [[Richard Nixon]].[^100] Sutton's index lists Dino John Pionzio under the class of 1950.[^104] -Rosenbaum wrote in 1977 that "Bill Bundy or Bill Buckley, both of whom went into the C.I.A. after leaving Bones," could be asked whether Skull and Bones was useful training for "the clandestine trade," and that George Bush "ran the C.I.A."[^82] He wrote that Coffin "headed for the C.I.A. not long after graduation from Bones," and that "the man Coffin tapped for Bones, William F. Buckley Jr., was himself tapped by the C.I.A. the following year."[^82] The Covert Action Information Bulletin reported that, according to "several experts on the CIA," Buckley began cooperating with the Agency in [[Mexico City]] in 1952, where his friend [[Howard Hunt|E. Howard Hunt]] was station chief, and that his older brother [[James L. Buckley]], also a member in the bulletin's account, was Under Secretary of State for Security Assistance, Science and Technology in 1981 and 1982. It cited Donald Freed and Fred Landis, *Death in Washington* (1980), for the statement that on September 14, 1976, a week before the assassination of [[Orlando Letelier]], [[Michael Townley]] and [[Guillermo Novo]] visited Senator Buckley's office in New York.[^77] +Rosenbaum wrote in 1977 that "Bill Bundy or Bill Buckley, both of whom went into the C.I.A. after leaving Bones," could be asked whether Skull and Bones was useful training for "the clandestine trade," and that George Bush "ran the C.I.A."[^76] He wrote that Coffin "headed for the C.I.A. not long after graduation from Bones," and that "the man Coffin tapped for Bones, William F. Buckley Jr., was himself tapped by the C.I.A. the following year."[^76] The Covert Action Information Bulletin reported that, according to "several experts on the CIA," Buckley began cooperating with the Agency in [[Mexico City]] in 1952, where his friend [[Howard Hunt|E. Howard Hunt]] was station chief, and that his older brother [[James L. Buckley]], also a member in the bulletin's account, was Under Secretary of State for Security Assistance, Science and Technology in 1981 and 1982. It cited Donald Freed and Fred Landis, *Death in Washington* (1980), for the statement that on September 14, 1976, a week before the assassination of [[Orlando Letelier]], [[Michael Townley]] and [[Guillermo Novo]] visited Senator Buckley's office in New York.[^100] -Kimery's article cites [[Robin W. Winks]]'s account of Yale's ties to the intelligence services and quotes Winks that Yale "influenced the CIA more than any other institution."[^47] +Kimery's article cites [[Robin W. Winks]]'s account of Yale's ties to the intelligence services and quotes Winks that Yale "influenced the CIA more than any other institution."[^52] ### Communications -Sutton wrote that the society had "a significant penetration into communications," and gave as its first example that "Henry Luce of Time-Life is in The Order."[^83] +Sutton wrote that the society had "a significant penetration into communications," and gave as its first example that "Henry Luce of Time-Life is in The Order."[^105] ### Sutton's hypothesis -Sutton's book, first published in 1983 as [[America's Secret Establishment]], sets out three hypotheses. The first is that "a secret society comprising members of old line American families and representatives of financial power" has existed since 1833.[^3] The chart renders the hypothesis visually, placing "THE ORDER" at the center of a wheel of families.[^34] +Sutton's book, first published in 1983 as [[America's Secret Establishment]], sets out three hypotheses. The first is that "a secret society comprising members of old line American families and representatives of financial power" has existed since 1833.[^3] The chart renders the hypothesis visually, placing "THE ORDER" at the center of a wheel of families.[^38] -The chart gives settlement dates for the old-line families: Whitney (1635, [[Watertown, Massachusetts]]), Stimson (1635, Watertown), Perkins (1631, [[Boston]]), Taft (1679, [[Braintree, Massachusetts|Braintree]]), Phelps (1630, [[Dorchester, Massachusetts|Dorchester]]), Bundy (1635, Boston), Wadsworth (1632, [[Newtown, Massachusetts|Newtown]]), Lord (1635, [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]]) and Gilman (1638, [[Hingham, Massachusetts|Hingham]]).[^34] The chart's new-wealth families are the Rockefeller and Payne families (Standard Oil), the Harriman family (railroads), the Davison family (J. P. Morgan), the Weyerhaeuser family (lumber), the Pillsbury family (flour milling) and the Sloane family (retail).[^34] +The chart gives settlement dates for the old-line families: Whitney (1635, [[Watertown, Massachusetts]]), Stimson (1635, Watertown), [[Perkins family|Perkins]] (1631, [[Boston]]), Taft (1679, [[Braintree, Massachusetts|Braintree]]), [[Phelps family|Phelps]] (1630, [[Dorchester, Massachusetts|Dorchester]]), Bundy (1635, Boston), Wadsworth (1632, [[Newtown, Massachusetts|Newtown]]), Lord (1635, [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]]) and Gilman (1638, [[Hingham, Massachusetts|Hingham]]).[^38] [[Fabian Franklin]]'s biography of Gilman states that Edward Gilman, the progenitor of most of the Gilman name in America, came from Hingham, Norfolk, England, with his family in 1638 and settled at Hingham, Massachusetts, before removing to Exeter, New Hampshire.[^106] The chart's new-wealth families are the Rockefeller and Payne families (Standard Oil), the Harriman family (railroads), the Davison family (J. P. Morgan), the Weyerhaeuser family (lumber), the [[Pillsbury family]] (flour milling) and the Sloane family (retail).[^38] + +The Yale class book of 1936 records Edmund Pennington Pillsbury (born December 22, 1913, a son of John Sargent Pillsbury of Minneapolis) as a member of Skull and Bones, together with [[Jonathan Brewster Bingham]], [[John Hersey|John Richard Hersey]] and Robert Train.[^107] Sutton's index lists him in the class of 1936 and lists John Sargent Pillsbury Jr. in the class of 1935. Sutton's index also lists Oswald Bates Lord in the class of 1926 with the notation "Mary Pillsbury (of Pillsbury flour family)," and their son [[Winston Lord]] in the class of 1959; Oswald Bates Lord's wife was [[Mary Pillsbury Lord]], a daughter of Charles Stinson Pillsbury and a granddaughter of the Minneapolis miller Charles A. Pillsbury. + +Sutton's index of members by class year lists four Perkinses: John and William Perkins in the class of 1840, Nathaniel Shaw Perkins in 1842 and Thomas Albert Perkins in 1858.[^108] The Yale Obituary Record gives John Perkins as born at Natchez in 1819, a member of Congress from Louisiana from 1853, chairman of the Louisiana secession convention in January 1861 and a member of the Confederate Congress, who left the country and returned in 1878.[^109] Kris Millegan wrote of him as "John Perkins, Jr. (S&B 1840), chairman of the 1861 Louisiana Secession Convention, who fled abroad for 13 years after the Civil War."[^110] William Perkins (1840) was a Mississippi lawyer who died on the steamer Arctic in 1854;[^111] Nathaniel Shaw Perkins (1842) was a partner in the New London whaling firm Perkins & Smith;[^112] Thomas Albert Perkins (1858) was a Brooklyn cotton merchant, and the class of 1858's biographical record prints a Skull and Bones roster that includes him.[^113] In the text Sutton describes "old line American families who arrived on the East coast in the 1600s, e.g., Whitney, Lord, Phelps, Wadsworth, Allen, Bundy, Adams and so on," and "families who acquired wealth in the last 100 years, sent their sons to Yale and in time became almost old line families, e.g., Harriman, Rockefeller, Payne, Davison."[^3] He adds that "Some families, like the Whitneys, were Connecticut Yankees and acquired wealth in the nineteenth century."[^3] Sutton writes that active members "have enough influence to push their sons and relatives into The Order," and that there is "significant inter-marriage among the families."[^3] ### Other writers -Jacques Leslie's 2000 article in Salon named [[John Hersey]] and William Sloane Coffin among the members, along with Stimson, Stewart, Harriman and Luce. Leslie also recounted [[Bill Minutaglio]]'s biography of George W. Bush, which records that Bush considered joining a society called "Gin and Tonic" and was swayed when his father, then a congressman, conducted the tapping himself.[^32] +Jacques Leslie's 2000 article in Salon named John Hersey and William Sloane Coffin among the members, along with Stimson, Stewart, Harriman and Luce. Leslie also recounted [[Bill Minutaglio]]'s biography of George W. Bush, which records that Bush considered joining a society called "Gin and Tonic" and was swayed when his father, then a congressman, conducted the tapping himself.[^36] -[[Alexandra Robbins]] published [[Secrets of the Tomb]] in 2002, with the subtitle "Skull and Bones, the Ivy League, and the Hidden Paths of Power."[^84] +[[Alexandra Robbins]] published [[Secrets of the Tomb]] in 2002, with the subtitle "Skull and Bones, the Ivy League, and the Hidden Paths of Power."[^114] -Millegan issued [[Fleshing Out Skull & Bones]] through [[Trine Day]] in 2003. The book includes a chapter titled "Geronimo's Bones" by [[Howard Altman]], dated July 2003, and Millegan's own chapter on RTA Incorporated, with certified copies of the corporation's filings.[^24][^85] +Millegan issued [[Fleshing Out Skull & Bones]] through [[Trine Day]] in 2003. The book includes a chapter titled "Geronimo's Bones" by [[Howard Altman]], dated July 2003, and Millegan's own chapter on RTA Incorporated, with certified copies of the corporation's filings.[^28][^115] ### The Geronimo skull claim -The George H.W. Bush Presidential Library's file FOIA 2009-0116-F describes its contents as records "related to the Skull and Bones Society at Yale University, of which George H. W. Bush and his father Prescott Bush were both members."[^86] The file contains correspondence from President Bush to William F. Buckley Jr. and [[Thomas W. Ludlow Ashley]] about a Buckley article in [[National Review]], which had answered [[Pat Buchanan]]'s description of Bush's foreign policy as "Skull and Bones foreign policy" in the 1992 campaign. It also contains administrative forms for a Skull and Bones tea at the White House on October 20, 1989.[^86] The library's description states that "Several of the articles address the rumor that Prescott Bush and a group of Skull and Bones members had disinterred and taken Apache leader [[Geronimo]]'s skull."[^86] +The George H.W. Bush Presidential Library's file FOIA 2009-0116-F describes its contents as records "related to the Skull and Bones Society at Yale University, of which George H. W. Bush and his father Prescott Bush were both members."[^116] The file contains correspondence from President Bush to William F. Buckley Jr. and [[Thomas W. Ludlow Ashley]] about a Buckley article in [[National Review]], which had answered [[Pat Buchanan]]'s description of Bush's foreign policy as "Skull and Bones foreign policy" in the 1992 campaign. It also contains administrative forms for a Skull and Bones tea at the White House on October 20, 1989.[^116] The library's description states that "Several of the articles address the rumor that Prescott Bush and a group of Skull and Bones members had disinterred and taken Apache leader [[Geronimo]]'s skull."[^116] -The Yale Alumni Magazine reported in May 2006 that [[Marc Wortman]], researching Davison's war years in the F. Trubee Davison Papers at Sterling Memorial Library, found a letter of June 7, 1918 from Winter Mead '19 to Davison '18, about an exhumation at [[Fort Sill]], Oklahoma. It reads (with the magazine's expansions of the letter's abbreviations): "The skull of the worthy Geronimo the Terrible, exhumed from its tomb at Fort Sill by your club & the K[night] Haffner, is now safe inside the T[omb] together with his well worn femurs[,] bit & saddle horn." The magazine reported that Haffner's yearbook entry places him at the artillery school at Fort Sill between August 1917 and July 1918, that Mead was not at Fort Sill, and that Judith Schiff, chief research archivist at Sterling, said the letter "adds to the seriousness of the belief" and "has a very strong likelihood of being true, since it was written so close to the time." It reported that the rumor had reached public attention in 1986, when Ned Anderson, then chair of the [[San Carlos Apache Tribe]], received an anonymous letter from a writer who claimed to be a member, with a photograph of a skull in a display case and a copy of what appeared to be a centennial history of the society by [[F. O. Matthiessen]] (class of 1923). In that history, which quotes a society log book of 1919, six members unearthed the skull; the history names three of them, all at Fort Sill in early 1918: Ellery James, Neil Mallon and Prescott Bush, all of the class of 1917. The magazine reported that Anderson met Jonathan Bush '53 and Endicott Peabody Davison '45, who showed a display case containing a skull that they said was a child's and offered it to him; he declined. It also reported that the historian David H. Miller of Cameron University said the grave at Fort Sill was unmarked and overgrown until the 1920s and doubted that the Bonesmen found Geronimo's grave, and that Alexandra Robbins told the magazine that members spoke to her of "a skull in a glass case by the front door that they call Geronimo."[^69] The Yale Alumni Magazine also reported that Ron Rosenbaum, in 2001, recorded on videotape what appeared to be an initiation in the society's courtyard in which members carried skulls and "femur-sized bones."[^69] +The Yale Alumni Magazine reported in May 2006 that [[Marc Wortman]], researching Davison's war years in the F. Trubee Davison Papers at Sterling Memorial Library, found a letter of June 7, 1918 from Winter Mead '19 to Davison '18, about an exhumation at [[Fort Sill]], Oklahoma. It reads (with the magazine's expansions of the letter's abbreviations): "The skull of the worthy Geronimo the Terrible, exhumed from its tomb at Fort Sill by your club & the K[night] Haffner, is now safe inside the T[omb] together with his well worn femurs[,] bit & saddle horn." The magazine reported that Haffner's yearbook entry places him at the artillery school at Fort Sill between August 1917 and July 1918, that Mead was not at Fort Sill, and that Judith Schiff, chief research archivist at Sterling, said the letter "adds to the seriousness of the belief" and "has a very strong likelihood of being true, since it was written so close to the time." It reported that the rumor had reached public attention in 1986, when Ned Anderson, then chair of the [[San Carlos Apache Tribe]], received an anonymous letter from a writer who claimed to be a member, with a photograph of a skull in a display case and a copy of what appeared to be a centennial history of the society by [[F. O. Matthiessen]] (class of 1923). In that history, which quotes a society log book of 1919, six members unearthed the skull; the history names three of them, all at Fort Sill in early 1918: Ellery James, Neil Mallon and Prescott Bush, all of the class of 1917. The magazine reported that Anderson met Jonathan Bush '53 and Endicott Peabody Davison '45, who showed a display case containing a skull that they said was a child's and offered it to him; he declined. It also reported that the historian David H. Miller of Cameron University said the grave at Fort Sill was unmarked and overgrown until the 1920s and doubted that the Bonesmen found Geronimo's grave, and that Alexandra Robbins told the magazine that members spoke to her of "a skull in a glass case by the front door that they call Geronimo."[^92] The Yale Alumni Magazine also reported that Ron Rosenbaum, in 2001, recorded on videotape what appeared to be an initiation in the society's courtyard in which members carried skulls and "femur-sized bones."[^92] -Altman's chapter reports that a man who said he was "Geronimo's great-great grandson" came to the [[New Haven Advocate]] office in the late summer of 1989 and described the bones as dug up by Prescott Bush and taken to the society's building.[^85] The chapter's principal source for the claim is Anderson. Anderson told Altman that a former Bonesman, referred to as "Pat," had tipped him off, and that the Bonesman had given him a picture of what Anderson said were Geronimo's bones in New Haven.[^85] Anderson said that the bones were dug up in 1918 by Prescott Bush and others, and that he had arranged a meeting with Jonathan Bush: "Bush was taken aback when confronted with the evidence," Anderson told Altman.[^85] Altman wrote that when he later tracked down Bush, Bush was cordial but would not discuss the meeting.[^85] The [[Mescalero Apache]] leader [[Wendell Chino]], who represented the family, called Anderson's bid to move the remains "a publicity stunt to attract tourists."[^85] +Altman's chapter reports that a man who said he was "Geronimo's great-great grandson" came to the [[New Haven Advocate]] office in the late summer of 1989 and described the bones as dug up by Prescott Bush and taken to the society's building.[^115] The chapter's principal source for the claim is Anderson. Anderson told Altman that a former Bonesman, referred to as "Pat," had tipped him off, and that the Bonesman had given him a picture of what Anderson said were Geronimo's bones in New Haven.[^115] Anderson said that the bones were dug up in 1918 by Prescott Bush and others, and that he had arranged a meeting with Jonathan Bush: "Bush was taken aback when confronted with the evidence," Anderson told Altman.[^115] Altman wrote that when he later tracked down Bush, Bush was cordial but would not discuss the meeting.[^115] The [[Mescalero Apache]] leader [[Wendell Chino]], who represented the family, called Anderson's bid to move the remains "a publicity stunt to attract tourists."[^115] -The complaint in [[Geronimo et al. v. Obama et al.]] was filed in the [[United States District Court for the District of Columbia]] on February 17, 2009, the hundredth anniversary of Geronimo's death.[^87] It was brought by a group of twenty descendants of Geronimo and named [[Barack Obama]], [[Robert M. Gates]], [[Peter Geren]], Yale University and the Order of Skull and Bones as defendants.[^88] The lawyer for the plaintiffs, [[Ramsey Clark]], told the Yale Alumni Magazine that the principal defendant was the United States Army, as owner of Fort Sill, and that the society received one paragraph of the 32-page complaint; a university spokeswoman said that Skull and Bones is not part of the university and is legally independent of it.[^87] The court's account of the complaint states that Geronimo was buried at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, "in the dress of a chief with his possessions," and that "a group of Yale University students who were members of the organization named the Order of Skull and Bones opened the tomb of Geronimo and removed his skull, other bones, and items that were buried with Geronimo's body."[^88] +The complaint in [[Geronimo et al. v. Obama et al.]] was filed in the [[United States District Court for the District of Columbia]] on February 17, 2009, the hundredth anniversary of Geronimo's death.[^117] It was brought by a group of twenty descendants of Geronimo and named [[Barack Obama]], [[Robert M. Gates]], [[Peter Geren]], Yale University and the Order of Skull and Bones as defendants.[^118] The lawyer for the plaintiffs, [[Ramsey Clark]], told the Yale Alumni Magazine that the principal defendant was the United States Army, as owner of Fort Sill, and that the society received one paragraph of the 32-page complaint; a university spokeswoman said that Skull and Bones is not part of the university and is legally independent of it.[^117] The court's account of the complaint states that Geronimo was buried at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, "in the dress of a chief with his possessions," and that "a group of Yale University students who were members of the organization named the Order of Skull and Bones opened the tomb of Geronimo and removed his skull, other bones, and items that were buried with Geronimo's body."[^118] -In its July 27, 2010 memorandum opinion, the court wrote that "the only alleged discovery or wrongful removal described by the complaint occurred in or around 1918." Judge [[Richard W. Roberts]] held that the statute the complaint invoked applies only to discoveries after November 16, 1990, that the alleged 1918 removal fell outside it, and that the United States had not waived sovereign immunity.[^88] The court granted the federal defendants' motion to dismiss and wrote that the complaint "will be dismissed as to all defendants."[^88] Intervenor plaintiffs, who were other lineal descendants of Geronimo, had argued that the gravesite should not be disturbed under Apache custom.[^88] +In its July 27, 2010 memorandum opinion, the court wrote that "the only alleged discovery or wrongful removal described by the complaint occurred in or around 1918." Judge [[Richard W. Roberts]] held that the statute the complaint invoked applies only to discoveries after November 16, 1990, that the alleged 1918 removal fell outside it, and that the United States had not waived sovereign immunity.[^118] The court granted the federal defendants' motion to dismiss and wrote that the complaint "will be dismissed as to all defendants."[^118] Intervenor plaintiffs, who were other lineal descendants of Geronimo, had argued that the gravesite should not be disturbed under Apache custom.[^118] ### The Pancho Villa skull suit -A complaint filed pro se in the [[United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas]], Corpus Christi Division, on October 31, 2017, *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340, named the Russell Trust Association, George H.W. Bush, [[Mitt Romney|Willard Mitt Romney]] and Yale University as defendants. The magistrate judge summarized it: the plaintiff alleged that the society possesses the skull of [[Pancho Villa]], which was stolen from his grave in 1926, that the defendants know of its presence in the society's headquarters on the Yale campus, and that Romney is a member; he asked that the skull be returned so that it could be buried with Villa's body in Mexico City.[^89] On November 13, 2017 the magistrate judge, [[Jason B. Libby]], ordered a more definite statement on the plaintiff's standing and the court's jurisdiction. In a memorandum and recommendation of November 21, 2017 he recommended dismissal for lack of subject matter jurisdiction: the complaint presented no federal question, complete diversity was lacking because the plaintiff, of Corpus Christi, and Bush, of Houston, were citizens of Texas, and no amount in controversy was alleged. None of the defendants had appeared. Judge [[Nelva Gonzales Ramos]] adopted the recommendation and entered final judgment on December 18, 2017; she denied a motion for reconsideration and a request for a refund of the filing fee on January 23, 2018, and the Fifth Circuit dismissed the plaintiff's appeal (No. 18-40008) on February 28, 2018. The docket records the return of service on the Russell Trust Association as executed on December 21, 2017.[^89] +A complaint filed pro se in the [[United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas]], Corpus Christi Division, on October 31, 2017, *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340, named the Russell Trust Association, George H.W. Bush, [[Mitt Romney|Willard Mitt Romney]] and Yale University as defendants. The magistrate judge summarized it: the plaintiff alleged that the society possesses the skull of [[Pancho Villa]], which was stolen from his grave in 1926, that the defendants know of its presence in the society's headquarters on the Yale campus, and that Romney is a member; he asked that the skull be returned so that it could be buried with Villa's body in Mexico City.[^119] On November 13, 2017 the magistrate judge, [[Jason B. Libby]], ordered a more definite statement on the plaintiff's standing and the court's jurisdiction. In a memorandum and recommendation of November 21, 2017 he recommended dismissal for lack of subject matter jurisdiction: the complaint presented no federal question, complete diversity was lacking because the plaintiff, of Corpus Christi, and Bush, of Houston, were citizens of Texas, and no amount in controversy was alleged. None of the defendants had appeared. Judge [[Nelva Gonzales Ramos]] adopted the recommendation and entered final judgment on December 18, 2017; she denied a motion for reconsideration and a request for a refund of the filing fee on January 23, 2018, and the Fifth Circuit dismissed the plaintiff's appeal (No. 18-40008) on February 28, 2018. The docket records the return of service on the Russell Trust Association as executed on December 21, 2017.[^119] -The magistrate judge's memorandum states that "the Russell Trust Association is the governing body of the Society," citing Robbins. It cites the Washington Post of August 11, 1988, which reported that a group of Mexican nationals in El Paso, Texas wished to sue the society in 1988 to reclaim Villa's skull but had difficulty establishing standing, and Mark Singer, "La Cabeza de Villa," The New Yorker, November 27, 1989, and it cites the Geronimo suit as another action over remains attributed to the society.[^89] +The magistrate judge's memorandum states that "the Russell Trust Association is the governing body of the Society," citing Robbins. It cites the Washington Post of August 11, 1988, which reported that a group of Mexican nationals in El Paso, Texas wished to sue the society in 1988 to reclaim Villa's skull but had difficulty establishing standing, and Mark Singer, "La Cabeza de Villa," The New Yorker, November 27, 1989, and it cites the Geronimo suit as another action over remains attributed to the society.[^119] ### Footnotes [^1]: David A. Richards, "The origins of the tomb," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2015, with editors' note on the author's listing among Skull and Bones members in the Class of 1967 graduation book. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4072-the-origins-of-the-tomb + [^2]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chart "Hypothesis Number One," after the text on the three hypotheses. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + [^3]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), opening chapter and the passage that sets out Hypothesis One, with the old-line and new-wealth families. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + [^4]: Lyman Bagg, *Four Years at Yale* (New Haven: Henry Holt, 1871), p. 52 ("modern system, which began in 1832"), pp. 145 to 147 (the Russell Trust Association, the society, its founders and catalogue) and p. 153 ("Eulogia"). https://archive.org/details/fouryearsatyale00baggrich + [^5]: *Catalogue of the Connecticut Alpha of the Phi Beta Kappa*, August 1838, officers for 1837-8 and list of members of 1833, compared with the roster of the class of 1833 in Sutton (1983). https://archive.org/details/catalogueofconne00phib + [^6]: Anonymous pamphlet on the 1876 break-in at the hall, as quoted in Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), Memorandum Two, and reprinted in Kris Millegan, *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones ; https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones + [^7]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930 (New Haven: Yale University, 1930), entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," pp. 69 to 72, including the entry for his father ("Alphonso Taft (B A. 1833, LL.D. 1867) ... tutor at Yale 1835-37; member of Yale Corporation 1872-1882"). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf + [^8]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), nineteenth-century description of the hall reprinted in the appendix, passage on the earlier meeting room in the Courant building. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + [^9]: Lyman Bagg, *Four Years at Yale* (New Haven: Henry Holt, 1871), pp. 145 to 146, description of the hall, its doors and roof plates and its value, reprinted in the appendix to Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983). https://archive.org/details/fouryearsatyale00baggrich + [^10]: Franklin Bowditch Dexter, *Biographical Sketches of the Graduates of Yale College*, vol. IV (1778-1792), sketch of Matthew Talcott Russell (Yale 1779), pp. 125 to 126. https://archive.org/details/biographicalsket04dextuoft + [^11]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University, deceased from June, 1880, to June, 1890*, entry for William Huntington Russell, born in Middletown, August 12, 1809, pp. 241 to 242. https://archive.org/details/1880t90obituary00yaleuoft + [^12]: *The Hamlin Family: A Genealogy of Capt. Giles Hamlin of Middletown, Connecticut, 1654-1900* (1900), entries [302], [307] and [638] (Capt. John Russell; Matthew Talcott Russell; Samuel Russell, born at Middletown August 25, 1789). https://archive.org/details/hamlinfamilygene00andr + [^13]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, section 8, pp. 8-11. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text + [^14]: Franklin Bowditch Dexter, *Biographical Sketches of the Graduates of Yale College*, vol. II (1745-1763), sketch of the Rev. William Russell of Middletown, p. 90. https://archive.org/details/biographicalsket02dext + [^15]: Kris Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), opening article and pp. 151 to 152 ("cousin"), p. 313 ("second cousin") and p. 52 ("uncle"). https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones + [^16]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passages stating that the Order "was incorporated as The Russell Trust in 1856" and on Daniel C. Gilman's role as treasurer, his appointment as assistant librarian in 1856 and as librarian in 1858. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^17]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, certified copies (March 28, 2001) of "An Act incorporating Russell Trust Association" (1856); resolution amending the charter (July 1870); resolution confirming the by-laws (approved March 24, 1887); and "An Act amending the charter of The Russell Trust Association" (approved July 9, 1943) with the certificate of acceptance of November 12, 1943 sworn by the president and secretary, as reprinted in Kris Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), pp. 693 to 696. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones -[^18]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1916 (Hadley, Morris). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^19]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, Connecticut Business Registry (data.ct.gov dataset n7gp-d28j), business master records for account numbers 0269315 (The Russell Trust Association; Special Chartered; Active), 0059060 (RTA Incorporated; Non-Stock; Active; registered April 14, 1961; organization meeting February 28, 1962; billing street 64 High Street, New Haven), 0053733 (The Deer Island Club Corporation; Non-Stock; Active; registered February 20, 1907) and 0269028 (The Deer Island Association; Non-Stock Specially Chartered; Active; registered May 19, 1915). https://data.ct.gov/resource/n7gp-d28j.json?accountnumber=0059060 -[^20]: Certificate of Incorporation of RTA Incorporated (1961), under the Nonstock Corporation Act of Connecticut, sections 3 to 6 and oath of the signers, as reprinted in Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), pp. 697 to 700. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones -[^21]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year: Van Sinderen, Henry B. (1911); Hincks, John Winslow (1952); Terry, Henry Porter Baldwin (1935); Weaver, Howard Sayer (1948); Lovett, Sidney (1950). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^22]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), description of the October 1983 membership catalogue, whose inside title page directs corrections to "The Secretary, RTA Incorporated, P.O. Box 2138, Yale Station, New Haven, Conn. 06520." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^23]: Certificate amending the Certificate of Incorporation of RTA Incorporated (December 1983), with the vote of the members, as reprinted in Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), pp. 701 to 702. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones -[^24]: Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," July 2003, in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), pp. 691 to 693, quoting the New Haven Register, September 27, 1991. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones -[^25]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977 -[^26]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), concluding passage on the Russell Trust Association and the Deer Iland Corporation as organizations geared to the post-graduation world. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^27]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), notes on nineteenth-century publications: *The Iconoclast* (New Haven, October 13, 1873); an anonymous *Skull & Bones* pamphlet on the 1876 break-in; *The Order, The Fall of Skull and Bones* (New Haven, 1876). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^28]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on access to the Russell Trust papers at the Sterling Library, Yale University. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^29]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer, organization record for RTA Incorporated, EIN 06-0768741, New Haven, Connecticut (Internal Revenue Service return data, fiscal years 2011 to 2023; ruling date February 1966). https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/60768741 -[^30]: RTA Incorporated, IRS Form 990 for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021 (e-file object 202241189349302124), Part I, Part III, Part VI, Part IX, Schedule A (supporting organization, Yale University, EIN 06-0646973), Schedule O and Schedule R (Deer Island Club, EIN 13-1897694). https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/60768741 -[^31]: Internal Revenue Service, Exempt Organizations Business Master File extract for Connecticut (eo_ct.csv), entry for RTA Incorporated, EIN 060768741, tax period 2025-06 (asset amount 17,071,890; income amount 2,178,912; revenue amount 808,538). https://www.irs.gov/charities-non-profits/exempt-organizations-business-master-file-extract-eo-bmf -[^32]: Jacques Leslie, "Smirk from the past" ("Yale"), *Salon*, March 1, 2000. https://www.salon.com/2000/03/01/yale/ -[^33]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), Deer Iland Club entry (island donated in 1906 by Patriarch George Douglas Miller; club established 1907; 76th season in 1983) and index of members by class year, class of 1870 (Miller, George Douglas). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^34]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), chart of families, October 1983 membership catalogue (living members) and index of members by class year. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^35]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1888 (Stimson, Henry Lewis). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^36]: *A Catalogue of the Members of H. A. E. of Phillips Academy, Andover* (New Haven: T. M. & T. Press, 1897), entry 25, Henry Lewis Stimson ("Yale, 1888, A.B." with the society list that includes Skull and Bones). https://archive.org/details/catalogueofmembe00pial -[^37]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1950-1951 (New Haven: Yale University, 1951), entry "Henry Lewis Stimson, B.A. 1888," p. 11. http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1950-51.pdf -[^38]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on Henry Stimson's career, his marriage to Mabel White and his 1911 appointment. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^39]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1878 (Taft, William Howard). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^40]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1913 (Harriman, William Averell) and class of 1917 (Harriman, Edward Roland N.), and the passage that reads "William Averell Harriman (113) and Edward Roland Noel Harriman (17) joined The Order." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^41]: George Mosher Murray and others, *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. 1 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1917), biographical entries for Prescott Sheldon Bush (pp. 105 to 106), Edward Roland Noel Harriman, William Ellery Sedgwick James, Henry Neil Mallon and Knight Woolley. https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr -[^42]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), chapter on the Harriman family and the investment bankers, passage ending "have dominated the direction of The Order." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^43]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 248 (executed October 20, 1942), 7 Fed. Reg. 9097-9098 (November 7, 1942), F.R. Doc. 42-11568. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf -[^44]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on Averell Harriman, Roland Harriman, E.S. James, Knight Woolley and the Union Bank. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^45]: Darwin Payne, *Initiative in Energy: Dresser Industries, Inc., 1880-1978* (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979), chapter "New Command in a Troubled Era." https://archive.org/details/initiativeinener00payn_0 -[^46]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entry "BUSH, 1917, Prescott S." (Yale Corporation, U.S. Senator, former partner of Brown Brothers Harriman). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^47]: Anthony L. Kimery, "George Bush and the CIA: In the Company of Friends," CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP99-01448R000401570011-0, sections "The Early Years: Waltzing with Spooks" and the passage on Henry Neil Mallon, citing Robin W. Winks, *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* (William Morrow, 1987), ch. 1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401570011-0 -[^48]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entries "BUSH, 1948, George Herbert Walker" and "BUSH, 1968" (George Walker Bush), and class index. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^49]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entry "BUSH, 1953, Jonathan James" (investments). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^50]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entries for George Herbert Walker Bush ("U.S. Congressman, '66-70") and George Walker Bush ("Lieut., Pilot, USAF, June '68-June 70"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^51]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1918 (Lovett, Robert Abercrombie), and the passage on the Lovett family ("The Order '18"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^52]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on Judge Robert Scott Lovett, citing George Kennan's biography of E. H. Harriman, and on Robert Abercrombie Lovett's initiation. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^53]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1920 (Luce, Henry Robinson). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^54]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), name index, class of 1920. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^55]: "Tap Day Results!," special dispatch from New Haven, May 15, 1919, *The Harvard Crimson*, May 16, 1919. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1919/5/16/tap-day-results-pnew-haven-conn/ -[^56]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1939 (Bundy, William Putman) and class of 1940 (Bundy, McGeorge). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^57]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on the Bundy brothers and Vietnam, where the book states its own hypothesis. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^58]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1950 (Buckley, William Frank Jr.). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^59]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1949 (Coffin, William S. Jr.). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^60]: FBI headquarters file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 1, memorandum L. B. Nichols to Mr. Tolson, October 20, 1950. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1 -[^61]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1937 (Stewart, Potter). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^62]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1966 (Kerry, John Forbes). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^63]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, classes of 1915 (MacLeish, Archibald) and 1936 (Moore, Richard Anthony). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^64]: Library of Congress, "Librarians of Congress" (Archibald MacLeish and Luther Harris Evans, 1939-1953). https://guides.loc.gov/librarians-of-congress -[^65]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), closing section on education, "UNESCO - Constitution, Archibald MacLeish ('15)." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^66]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1900 (Rockefeller, Percy Avery). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^67]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1894 (Whitney, Harry Payne). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^68]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1898 (Whitney, Payne), and the Whitney table and text. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^69]: Kathrin Day Lassila and Mark Alden Branch, "Whose Skull and Bones?," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20060614215733/http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/2006_05/notebook.html -[^70]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1918 (Davison, Fredrick Trubee). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^71]: United States Air Force, "Brigadier General Frederick Trubee Davison," official biography. https://web.archive.org/web/20250401000815/https://www.af.mil/About-Us/Biographies/Display/Article/3928479/frederick-trubee-davison/ ; Ralph D. Paine, *The First Yale Unit* (1925), chapter "Trubee, the Crippled Leader." https://archive.org/details/firstyaleunit0000ralp -[^72]: Yale News, "Defending Allied skies: Yale's pioneering pilots form first naval aviation unit" (August 17, 2014), text on Tap Day, April 19, 1917. https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit -[^73]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased During the Year Ending July 1, 1927*, entry for Payne Whitney, B.A. 1898, pp. 171 to 172 (listing "member Hé Boulé, Delta Kappa Epsilon, and Skull and Bones"). https://archive.org/details/obituaryrecordof00yale_4 -[^74]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased 1915 to 1920*, entry for Albert Dillon Sturtevant, Ph.B. 1916. https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft -[^75]: Associated Press item, "F. Trubee Davison to Join CIA in Personnel Post," CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP78-04718A000500180115-2 (released May 10, 2000). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp78-04718a000500180115-2 -[^76]: Memorandum from F. Trubee Davison dated September 11, 1951, on CIA Official Routing Slip, CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP80R01731R003100090067-0. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003100090067-0 -[^77]: "Bush's Boy's Club: Skull and Bones," *Covert Action Information Bulletin*, no. 33 (Winter 1990), pp. 20 to 22, citing the *New York Times*, July 5, 1951, Marchetti and Marks, *The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence* (1974), pp. 110 to 111, Payne and Dobson, *Who's Who in Espionage* (1984), and Freed and Landis, *Death in Washington* (1980), p. 168. https://archive.org/details/CAIB33 -[^78]: "F. Trubee Davison Dies at 78," *New York Times*, November 16, 1974. https://web.archive.org/web/20240107180328/https://www.nytimes.com/1974/11/16/archives/f-trubee-davison-dies-at-78-led-natural-history-museum-aviation.html ; "Minutes of 2nd Career Service Committee Meeting," October 1, 1951, CIA-RDP80-01826R000400090089-6, and "Minutes of 14th Career Service Committee Meeting," CIA-RDP80-01826R000400090006-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-01826r000400090089-6 ; https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-01826r000400090006-7 -[^79]: CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP84-00780R003200020017-9 (letter of May 15, 1969 signed by Hugh T. Cunningham, Director of Training); CIA-RDP84-00780R003200020006-1 (Midcareer Executive Development Course correspondence, 1968); CIA-RDP80-00536A000300070001-5 (Midcareer Course No. 32, April to June 1972, listing Hugh Cunningham, Director of Training). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-00536a000300070001-5 -[^80]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1934 (Cunningham, Hugh Terry). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^81]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1950 (Pionzio, Dino John). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^82]: Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977, passages on the C.I.A. careers of Bill Bundy, Bill Buckley and William Sloane Coffin. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977 -[^83]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull and Bones* (1983), section "Communications." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones -[^84]: Alexandra Robbins, *Secrets of the Tomb: Skull and Bones, the Ivy League, and the Hidden Paths of Power* (Little, Brown, 2002). https://archive.org/details/secretsoftombsku00robb -[^85]: Howard Altman, "Geronimo's Bones," in Kris Millegan, *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), pp. 33 to 37. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones -[^86]: George H. W. Bush Presidential Library, "Records on Skull and Bones Society," FOIA 2009-0116-F, scope and content note, processed August 2009. https://www.bush41library.gov/download/file/4777 -[^87]: Carole Bass, "Apaches sue to recover Geronimo's skull," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2009. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/2421-apaches-sue-to-recover-geronimo-s-skull -[^88]: *Geronimo et al. v. Obama et al.*, No. 09-303 (RWR) (D.D.C. July 27, 2010), memorandum opinion of Judge Richard W. Roberts, background, discussion and conclusion. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303/pdf/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303-0.pdf -[^89]: *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340 (S.D. Tex.), docket entries 1 (complaint, October 31, 2017), 4 (order for more definite statement, November 13, 2017), 6 (memorandum and recommendation, November 21, 2017, with footnotes 1 to 3), 7 and 8 (order adopting and final judgment, December 18, 2017), 9 (return of service on the Russell Trust Association, executed December 21, 2017), 16 (order of January 23, 2018) and 17 (Fifth Circuit dismissal, February 28, 2018, No. 18-40008). https://archive.org/details/gov.uscourts.txsd.1463674 + +[^17]: Obituary Record of the Graduates of Yale University, deceased 1900 to 1910 (New Haven, 1910), entry for the class of 1852, p. 1012 ("in the summer of 1856 was made Assistant Librarian and, two years later, Librarian of Yale College"). https://archive.org/details/1900t10obituary00yaleuoft + +[^18]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, certified copies (March 28, 2001) of "An Act incorporating Russell Trust Association" (1856); resolution amending the charter (July 1870); resolution confirming the by-laws (approved March 24, 1887); and "An Act amending the charter of The Russell Trust Association" (approved July 9, 1943) with the certificate of acceptance of November 12, 1943 sworn by the president and secretary, as reprinted in Kris Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), pp. 693 to 696. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones + +[^19]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1916 (Hadley, Morris). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^20]: Memorial Symposium of the Class of Yale 1852, Academic, held on their Classmate Daniel Coit Gilman (New Bedford, Mass., 1909), Fasciculus IX, "Contribution of the Secretary" by Ephraim Cutter, pp. 28 to 29. https://archive.org/details/fasciculiofmemor00yaleuoft + +[^21]: The Fall of Skull and Bones, compiled from the minutes of the 7th regular meeting of the Order of the File and Claw (New Haven, 1876), as reproduced in Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), appendix; and in Kris Millegan (ed.), Fleshing Out Skull & Bones (2003), chapter on the Tomb. + +[^22]: Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, Guide to the Daniel Coit Gilman Papers, MS 582, compiled by Ann Ronberg (February 1971), Series I, box 2, folder 123 ("Russell, William H., 1855"). https://ead-pdfs.library.yale.edu/4054.pdf + +[^23]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, Connecticut Business Registry (data.ct.gov dataset n7gp-d28j), business master records for account numbers 0269315 (The Russell Trust Association; Special Chartered; Active), 0059060 (RTA Incorporated; Non-Stock; Active; registered April 14, 1961; organization meeting February 28, 1962; billing street 64 High Street, New Haven), 0053733 (The Deer Island Club Corporation; Non-Stock; Active; registered February 20, 1907) and 0269028 (The Deer Island Association; Non-Stock Specially Chartered; Active; registered May 19, 1915). https://data.ct.gov/resource/n7gp-d28j.json?accountnumber=0059060 + +[^24]: Certificate of Incorporation of RTA Incorporated (1961), under the Nonstock Corporation Act of Connecticut, sections 3 to 6 and oath of the signers, as reprinted in Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), pp. 697 to 700. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones + +[^25]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year: Van Sinderen, Henry B. (1911); Hincks, John Winslow (1952); Terry, Henry Porter Baldwin (1935); Weaver, Howard Sayer (1948); Lovett, Sidney (1950). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^26]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), description of the October 1983 membership catalogue, whose inside title page directs corrections to "The Secretary, RTA Incorporated, P.O. Box 2138, Yale Station, New Haven, Conn. 06520." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^27]: Certificate amending the Certificate of Incorporation of RTA Incorporated (December 1983), with the vote of the members, as reprinted in Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), pp. 701 to 702. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones + +[^28]: Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," July 2003, in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), pp. 691 to 693, quoting the New Haven Register, September 27, 1991. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones + +[^29]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977 + +[^30]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), concluding passage on the Russell Trust Association and the Deer Iland Corporation as organizations geared to the post-graduation world. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^31]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), notes on nineteenth-century publications: *The Iconoclast* (New Haven, October 13, 1873); an anonymous *Skull & Bones* pamphlet on the 1876 break-in; *The Order, The Fall of Skull and Bones* (New Haven, 1876). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^32]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on access to the Russell Trust papers at the Sterling Library, Yale University. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^33]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer, organization record for RTA Incorporated, EIN 06-0768741, New Haven, Connecticut (Internal Revenue Service return data, fiscal years 2011 to 2023; ruling date February 1966). https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/60768741 + +[^34]: RTA Incorporated, IRS Form 990 for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021 (e-file object 202241189349302124), Part I, Part III, Part VI, Part IX, Schedule A (supporting organization, Yale University, EIN 06-0646973), Schedule O and Schedule R (Deer Island Club, EIN 13-1897694). https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/60768741 + +[^35]: Internal Revenue Service, Exempt Organizations Business Master File extract for Connecticut (eo_ct.csv), entry for RTA Incorporated, EIN 060768741, tax period 2025-06 (asset amount 17,071,890; income amount 2,178,912; revenue amount 808,538). https://www.irs.gov/charities-non-profits/exempt-organizations-business-master-file-extract-eo-bmf + +[^36]: Jacques Leslie, "Smirk from the past" ("Yale"), *Salon*, March 1, 2000. https://www.salon.com/2000/03/01/yale/ + +[^37]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), Deer Iland Club entry (island donated in 1906 by Patriarch George Douglas Miller; club established 1907; 76th season in 1983) and index of members by class year, class of 1870 (Miller, George Douglas). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^38]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), chart of families, October 1983 membership catalogue (living members) and index of members by class year. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^39]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1942-1943 (New Haven: Yale University, 1943), entry for Horace Dutton Taft, B.A. 1883, pp. 14 to 15. https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1942-43.pdf + +[^40]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1888 (Stimson, Henry Lewis). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^41]: *A Catalogue of the Members of H. A. E. of Phillips Academy, Andover* (New Haven: T. M. & T. Press, 1897), entry 25, Henry Lewis Stimson ("Yale, 1888, A.B." with the society list that includes Skull and Bones). https://archive.org/details/catalogueofmembe00pial + +[^42]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1950-1951 (New Haven: Yale University, 1951), entry "Henry Lewis Stimson, B.A. 1888," p. 11. http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1950-51.pdf + +[^43]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on Henry Stimson's career, his marriage to Mabel White and his 1911 appointment. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^44]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1878 (Taft, William Howard). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^45]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1913 (Harriman, William Averell) and class of 1917 (Harriman, Edward Roland N.), and the passage that reads "William Averell Harriman (113) and Edward Roland Noel Harriman (17) joined The Order." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^46]: George Mosher Murray and others, *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. 1 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1917), biographical entries for Prescott Sheldon Bush (pp. 105 to 106), Edward Roland Noel Harriman, William Ellery Sedgwick James, Henry Neil Mallon and Knight Woolley. https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr + +[^47]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), chapter on the Harriman family and the investment bankers, passage ending "have dominated the direction of The Order." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^48]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 248 (executed October 20, 1942), 7 Fed. Reg. 9097-9098 (November 7, 1942), F.R. Doc. 42-11568. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf + +[^49]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on Averell Harriman, Roland Harriman, E.S. James, Knight Woolley and the Union Bank. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^50]: Darwin Payne, *Initiative in Energy: Dresser Industries, Inc., 1880-1978* (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979), chapter "New Command in a Troubled Era." https://archive.org/details/initiativeinener00payn_0 + +[^51]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entry "BUSH, 1917, Prescott S." (Yale Corporation, U.S. Senator, former partner of Brown Brothers Harriman). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^52]: Anthony L. Kimery, "George Bush and the CIA: In the Company of Friends," CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP99-01448R000401570011-0, sections "The Early Years: Waltzing with Spooks" and the passage on Henry Neil Mallon, citing Robin W. Winks, *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* (William Morrow, 1987), ch. 1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401570011-0 + +[^53]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entries "BUSH, 1948, George Herbert Walker" and "BUSH, 1968" (George Walker Bush), and class index. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^54]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entry "BUSH, 1953, Jonathan James" (investments). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^55]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entries for George Herbert Walker Bush ("U.S. Congressman, '66-70") and George Walker Bush ("Lieut., Pilot, USAF, June '68-June 70"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^56]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1918 (Lovett, Robert Abercrombie), and the passage on the Lovett family ("The Order '18"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^57]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on Judge Robert Scott Lovett, citing George Kennan's biography of E. H. Harriman, and on Robert Abercrombie Lovett's initiation. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^58]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1920 (Luce, Henry Robinson). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^59]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), name index, class of 1920. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^60]: "Tap Day Results!," special dispatch from New Haven, May 15, 1919, *The Harvard Crimson*, May 16, 1919. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1919/5/16/tap-day-results-pnew-haven-conn/ + +[^61]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1920 ("Davison, Harry Pomeroy"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^62]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), text on the Morgan partnership ("whose son H.P. Davison, Jr. was initiated in 1920"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^63]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1939 (Bundy, William Putman) and class of 1940 (Bundy, McGeorge). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^64]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on the Bundy brothers and Vietnam, where the book states its own hypothesis. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^65]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2002 edition), index of members by class year (1909, 1939, 1940) and the section on the Bundy family. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^66]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1950 (Buckley, William Frank Jr.). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^67]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1949 (Coffin, William S. Jr.). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^68]: FBI headquarters file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 1, memorandum L. B. Nichols to Mr. Tolson, October 20, 1950. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1 + +[^69]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1937 (Stewart, Potter). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^70]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1966 (Kerry, John Forbes). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^71]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, classes of 1915 (MacLeish, Archibald) and 1936 (Moore, Richard Anthony). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^72]: Library of Congress, "Librarians of Congress" (Archibald MacLeish and Luther Harris Evans, 1939-1953). https://guides.loc.gov/librarians-of-congress + +[^73]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), closing section on education, "UNESCO - Constitution, Archibald MacLeish ('15)." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^74]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, classes of 1866, 1868, 1895, 1897, 1900 and 1905. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^75]: *Widener, Dunton, Elkins, Broomall, and Allied Families* (1953), Sloane family chapter, pp. 125 to 129. https://archive.org/details/widenerduntonelk00unse + +[^76]: Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977, passages on the C.I.A. careers of Bill Bundy, Bill Buckley and William Sloane Coffin. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977 + +[^77]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1900 (Rockefeller, Percy Avery). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^78]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1894 (Whitney, Payne). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^79]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1898 (Whitney, Harry Payne), the Whitney table, and the Whitney passage in the text ("Harry Payne ('94) and Payne Whitney ('98)"); Yale University, Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased During the Year Ending July 1, 1927, entry for Payne Whitney, B.A. 1898, pp. 171 to 172. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^80]: *Decennial Record of the Class of 1896, Yale College* (1907), Biographies, "F. E. Weyerhaeuser," pp. 638 to 640. https://archive.org/details/decennialrecordo00yalerich + +[^81]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1896; Kris Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), list of members including "Frederick E. Weyerhaeuser (S&B 1896)." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones ; https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones + +[^82]: Cuyler Reynolds, ed., *Genealogical and Family History of Southern New York and the Hudson River Valley*, vol. 2 (New York, 1914), p. 854 ("was chosen by the Skull and Bones Society"). https://archive.org/details/genealogicalfami02reyn + +[^83]: Livingston County Historian's Office, "James Jeremiah Wadsworth (1905-1984) Collection," finding aid C169 (August 2022), section II, Biographical Information; Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), membership index, class of 1927. https://livingstoncountyny.gov/DocumentCenter/View/15946 + +[^84]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale College deceased during the academical year ending in July 1868* (New Haven, 1868), entry for Daniel Lord, class of 1814. https://archive.org/details/obituaryrecordof00yale_0 + +[^85]: *The Yale Banner and Pot Pourri*, 1921-1922, "Senior Society" list. https://archive.org/details/yalebannerpotpo192122newh ; *The Yale Banner and Pot Pourri*, 1925-1926, "Senior Society" list. https://archive.org/details/yalebannerandpo00univgoog + +[^86]: Carroll Quigley, *Tragedy and Hope: A History of the World in Our Time* (1966), list of Skull and Bones members. https://archive.org/details/tragedy-and-hope-a-history-of-the-world-in-our-time-carroll-quigley-1st-edition-1966 + +[^87]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), class-by-class list of members of the Order, "This section compiled by Kris Millegan" from the Yale Catalogue. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^88]: *History of the Class of 1896, Yale College: Decennial Record* (New Haven, 1907), biography of Anson Phelps Stokes Jr., pp. 588 to 590. https://archive.org/details/decennialrecordo00yalerich + +[^89]: A. C. Stevens, *The Cyclopaedia of Fraternities* (1899), Yale senior societies ("Bones" men including William Walter Phelps and Sheffield Phelps; Wolf's Head "was founded at Yale by a number of members of the class of '84" and "is incorporated as the Phelps Trust Association"). https://archive.org/details/StevensACTheCyclopaediaOfFraternities1899 + +[^90]: Rupert Hughes, "Secret Societies at Yale," *Munsey's Magazine*, vol. 11, no. 3 (June 1894). https://archive.org/details/sim_munseys-magazine_1894-06_11_3 ; George W. Pierson, *Yale College: An Educational History, 1871-1921* (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1952), list of senior-society trust associations. https://archive.org/details/yalecollegeeduca0000pier + +[^91]: *Buildings and Grounds of Yale University* (New Haven: Yale University, 1979), entries "Phelps Association, see 77 Prospect Street; Wolf's Head" and the McKim, Mead & White building "in Richardsonian Romanesque for the Phelps Association (Wolfs Head Society)"; *McKim, Mead & White, Architects* (1983), list of works, "Phelps Association (Wolf's Head), Yale University, 1884-85." https://archive.org/details/buildingsgrounds0000yale + +[^92]: Kathrin Day Lassila and Mark Alden Branch, "Whose Skull and Bones?," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20060614215733/http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/2006_05/notebook.html + +[^93]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1918 (Davison, Fredrick Trubee). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^94]: United States Air Force, "Brigadier General Frederick Trubee Davison," official biography. https://web.archive.org/web/20250401000815/https://www.af.mil/About-Us/Biographies/Display/Article/3928479/frederick-trubee-davison/ ; Ralph D. Paine, *The First Yale Unit* (1925), chapter "Trubee, the Crippled Leader." https://archive.org/details/firstyaleunit0000ralp + +[^95]: Yale News, "Defending Allied skies: Yale's pioneering pilots form first naval aviation unit" (August 17, 2014), text on Tap Day, April 19, 1917. https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit + +[^96]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased During the Year Ending July 1, 1927*, entry for Payne Whitney, B.A. 1898, pp. 171 to 172 (listing "member Hé Boulé, Delta Kappa Epsilon, and Skull and Bones"). https://archive.org/details/obituaryrecordof00yale_4 + +[^97]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased 1915 to 1920*, entry for Albert Dillon Sturtevant, Ph.B. 1916. https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft + +[^98]: Associated Press item, "F. Trubee Davison to Join CIA in Personnel Post," CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP78-04718A000500180115-2 (released May 10, 2000). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp78-04718a000500180115-2 + +[^99]: Memorandum from F. Trubee Davison dated September 11, 1951, on CIA Official Routing Slip, CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP80R01731R003100090067-0. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003100090067-0 + +[^100]: "Bush's Boy's Club: Skull and Bones," *Covert Action Information Bulletin*, no. 33 (Winter 1990), pp. 20 to 22, citing the *New York Times*, July 5, 1951, Marchetti and Marks, *The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence* (1974), pp. 110 to 111, Payne and Dobson, *Who's Who in Espionage* (1984), and Freed and Landis, *Death in Washington* (1980), p. 168. https://archive.org/details/CAIB33 + +[^101]: "F. Trubee Davison Dies at 78," *New York Times*, November 16, 1974. https://web.archive.org/web/20240107180328/https://www.nytimes.com/1974/11/16/archives/f-trubee-davison-dies-at-78-led-natural-history-museum-aviation.html ; "Minutes of 2nd Career Service Committee Meeting," October 1, 1951, CIA-RDP80-01826R000400090089-6, and "Minutes of 14th Career Service Committee Meeting," CIA-RDP80-01826R000400090006-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-01826r000400090089-6 ; https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-01826r000400090006-7 + +[^102]: CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP84-00780R003200020017-9 (letter of May 15, 1969 signed by Hugh T. Cunningham, Director of Training); CIA-RDP84-00780R003200020006-1 (Midcareer Executive Development Course correspondence, 1968); CIA-RDP80-00536A000300070001-5 (Midcareer Course No. 32, April to June 1972, listing Hugh Cunningham, Director of Training). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-00536a000300070001-5 + +[^103]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1934 (Cunningham, Hugh Terry). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^104]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1950 (Pionzio, Dino John). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^105]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull and Bones* (1983), section "Communications." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^106]: Fabian Franklin, The Life of Daniel Coit Gilman (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1910), p. 1. https://archive.org/details/lifeofdanielcoit00fran + +[^107]: *History of the Class of Nineteen Thirty-Six, Yale College* (New Haven: Class Book Committee, 1936), biographical entry for Edmund Pennington Pillsbury, pp. 355 to 356 ("He belongs to Chi Psi, the Torch Honor Society, and Skull and Bones"); entries for Jonathan Brewster Bingham, John Richard Hersey and Robert Train. https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00yale_0 + +[^108]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), index of members by class year, classes of 1840, 1842 and 1858. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + +[^109]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University, 1886, pp. 308 to 309, entry for John Perkins, class of 1840. https://archive.org/details/obituaryrecordof1886yale + +[^110]: Kris Millegan, ed., Fleshing Out Skull & Bones (Trine Day, 2003), account of the early initiates. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones + +[^111]: Class of 1840 Statistics, Yale College, entry for William Perkins. https://archive.org/details/stat1840 + +[^112]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University, 1900-1910, pp. 420 to 421, entry for Nathaniel Shaw Perkins. https://archive.org/details/obituaryrecordof19001910yale + +[^113]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University, 1900-1910, class of 1858, entry for Thomas Albert Perkins; Fifth Biographical Record of the Class of 1858, Yale College (1908), roster of Skull and Bones. https://archive.org/details/cu31924030632487 + +[^114]: Alexandra Robbins, *Secrets of the Tomb: Skull and Bones, the Ivy League, and the Hidden Paths of Power* (Little, Brown, 2002). https://archive.org/details/secretsoftombsku00robb + +[^115]: Howard Altman, "Geronimo's Bones," in Kris Millegan, *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), pp. 33 to 37. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones + +[^116]: George H. W. Bush Presidential Library, "Records on Skull and Bones Society," FOIA 2009-0116-F, scope and content note, processed August 2009. https://www.bush41library.gov/download/file/4777 + +[^117]: Carole Bass, "Apaches sue to recover Geronimo's skull," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2009. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/2421-apaches-sue-to-recover-geronimo-s-skull + +[^118]: *Geronimo et al. v. Obama et al.*, No. 09-303 (RWR) (D.D.C. July 27, 2010), memorandum opinion of Judge Richard W. Roberts, background, discussion and conclusion. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303/pdf/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303-0.pdf + +[^119]: *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340 (S.D. Tex.), docket entries 1 (complaint, October 31, 2017), 4 (order for more definite statement, November 13, 2017), 6 (memorandum and recommendation, November 21, 2017, with footnotes 1 to 3), 7 and 8 (order adopting and final judgment, December 18, 2017), 9 (return of service on the Russell Trust Association, executed December 21, 2017), 16 (order of January 23, 2018) and 17 (Fifth Circuit dismissal, February 28, 2018, No. 18-40008). https://archive.org/details/gov.uscourts.txsd.1463674 diff --git a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Standard Oil.md b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Standard Oil.md index 431e81c7..69037e83 100644 --- a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Standard Oil.md +++ b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Standard Oil.md @@ -46,47 +46,47 @@ relations: with: "[[I.G. Farben]]" start: 1929-11-09 role: "four agreements of November 9, 1929, and the Standard-I.G. and Jasco patent licensing" - fn: 14 + fn: 20 - type: investigated with: "[[Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program]]" reverse: true start: 1942-03-05 end: 1942-04-07 role: "Part 11, Rubber, hearings on the I.G. Farben agreements" - fn: 14 + fn: 20 - type: prosecuted with: "[[Department of Justice]]" reverse: true start: 1942-03-25 role: "criminal information, complaint and consent decree of March 25, 1942" - fn: 38 + fn: 44 - type: investigated with: "[[Federal Trade Commission]]" reverse: true start: 1949-12-02 end: 1951-10 role: "international petroleum cartel staff investigation; staff report filed October 1951" - fn: 43 + fn: 49 - type: prosecuted with: "[[Department of Justice]]" reverse: true start: 1953-04-14 role: "civil antitrust complaint in the international petroleum cartel case, Civil No. 86-27" - fn: 59 + fn: 65 - type: owned with: "[[Creole Petroleum Company]]" role: "Venezuelan subsidiary; Nelson Rockefeller sat on its board" - fn: 74 + fn: 80 - type: partner_of with: "[[Arabian American Oil Company]]" start: 1948-12 role: "30 percent stake in Aramco from December 1948; Socony-Vacuum held 10 percent" - fn: 53 + fn: 59 - type: participant_in with: "[[Iranian Consortium]]" start: 1954-04-01 role: "eight percent share of the 1954 consortium" - fn: 66 + fn: 72 --- Standard Oil was the petroleum monopoly founded in 1870 by [[John D. Rockefeller]] that controlled roughly ninety percent of American oil refining before the [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]] ordered its dissolution in 1911 under the [[Sherman Antitrust Act]]. The breakup created successor companies, including Standard Oil of [[New Jersey]] (later [[Exxon]]), Standard Oil of New York ([[Mobil]]), and Standard Oil of California ([[Chevron]]), whose combined assets preserved the [[Rockefeller Foundation|Rockefeller]] family's financial power.[^1] Between 1929 and 1942 the New Jersey company's patent and licensing arrangements ran through the German chemical combine [[I.G. Farben]]; after the war it held a 30 percent interest in the [[Arabian American Oil Company]] (Aramco) and an 8 percent share of the 1954 [[Iranian Consortium]]. @@ -99,83 +99,85 @@ The appeal was brought by "The Standard Oil Company of New Jersey and thirty-thr [[Oliver Hazard Payne]], a Yale graduate of the class of 1863 and a brother of Flora Payne, the wife of [[William Collins Whitney]], served as the company's treasurer until 1884 and then sat on its board until his death in 1917, according to the Yale Obituary Record.[^9] The decree in the government's suit names "Oliver H. Payne" among the seven individual defendants, beside John D. Rockefeller and William Rockefeller, in the list reproduced in the Court's opinion.[^10] The Yale record states that Payne's nephews were [[Harry Payne Whitney]], [[Payne Whitney]] and [[Henry Payne Bingham]].[^9] +[[Ida M. Tarbell]] wrote that the [[South Improvement Company]]'s stockholders in 1872 included "O. H. Payne, Cleveland" with 180 shares, the same holding as the Rockefeller, Flagler and Bostwick interests, and that Payne "soon after became" a stockholder in the Standard Oil Company.[^11] In the House Committee on Commerce inquiry into the railroads' contracts with the Standard Oil Company, the committee summoned "O. H. Payne, treasurer of the Standard Oil Company" with the railroad officers, and Tarbell wrote that Mr. Payne "refused also to furnish the committee with information."[^12] When the Ohio legislature elected [[Henry B. Payne]] to the Senate in January 1884, Tarbell wrote that his son Oliver, "at that time treasurer of the Standard Oil Company," was one of the backers of the Payne boom at the Neil House in Columbus.[^13] The Ohio House select committee's testimony, printed as Senate Miscellaneous Document No. 106 (1886), records the Cleveland lawyer L. A. Russell answering, when asked whether he recognized "the principal officers of the great corporation known as the Standard Oil Company" among the workers for Henry B. Payne, that "there was Oliver H. Payne, Henry B. Payne's son, who was the leader and manager of the Payne forces ... Oliver Payne was at that time treasurer of the Standard Oil Company," and a member, L. C. Cole, testifying that "the Standard Oil Company, with its officers and workers, were here in force. The secretary and the treasurer of the company were here."[^14] The Senate Committee on Privileges and Elections reported on July 15, 1886 that the testimony was "merely cumulative and speculative," and the Senate voted 44 to 17 on July 23, 1886 to drop the matter.[^15] The *Evening World* of New York wrote at his death in 1917 that after the government's antitrust suits had reorganized the Standard Oil and tobacco "trusts" he withdrew from the directorates.[^16] + ### Successor companies -The Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) changed its name to Exxon Corporation in November 1972; on November 30, 1999 a wholly owned subsidiary of Exxon was merged into Mobil Corporation and Exxon changed its name to Exxon Mobil Corporation, a New Jersey corporation incorporated in 1882.[^11] The Standard Oil Company of California, incorporated in Delaware in 1926, took the name Chevron Corporation in 1984, ChevronTexaco Corporation in 2001, and Chevron Corporation again in 2005.[^12] The Senate's 1974 print, in describing the five defendants in the 1953 cartel case, gives their then-current names as Exxon (Standard Oil of New Jersey), Mobil ([[Socony-Vacuum]] Oil Company), Socal ([[Standard Oil of California|Standard Oil Company of California]]), [[Texaco]] ([[The Texas Company]]) and [[Gulf Oil|Gulf]].[^13] +The Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) changed its name to Exxon Corporation in November 1972; on November 30, 1999 a wholly owned subsidiary of Exxon was merged into Mobil Corporation and Exxon changed its name to Exxon Mobil Corporation, a New Jersey corporation incorporated in 1882.[^17] The Standard Oil Company of California, incorporated in Delaware in 1926, took the name Chevron Corporation in 1984, ChevronTexaco Corporation in 2001, and Chevron Corporation again in 2005.[^18] The Senate's 1974 print, in describing the five defendants in the 1953 cartel case, gives their then-current names as Exxon (Standard Oil of New Jersey), Mobil ([[Socony-Vacuum]] Oil Company), Socal ([[Standard Oil of California|Standard Oil Company of California]]), [[Texaco]] ([[The Texas Company]]) and [[Gulf Oil|Gulf]].[^19] ### The 1929 agreements with I.G. Farben -The company's chemical relationship with I.G. Farben rested on four agreements dated November 9, 1929. [[Thurman Arnold]], the assistant attorney general in charge of antitrust, described them to the [[Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program|Truman Committee]] on March 26, 1942 as the "division of the fields" agreement, the four-party agreement, the coordination agreement and the German sales agreement.[^14] Arnold testified that Standard turned its non-oil chemical processes over to I.G., and that I.G. turned over to Standard the patents and discoveries that directly concerned oil production, including synthetic gasoline, so that each company held a world monopoly in its field.[^15] The arrangement created two patent pools, one for synthetic rubber and chemicals controlled from [[Germany]] and one for synthetic gasoline controlled by Standard Oil.[^16] +The company's chemical relationship with I.G. Farben rested on four agreements dated November 9, 1929. [[Thurman Arnold]], the assistant attorney general in charge of antitrust, described them to the [[Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program|Truman Committee]] on March 26, 1942 as the "division of the fields" agreement, the four-party agreement, the coordination agreement and the German sales agreement.[^20] Arnold testified that Standard turned its non-oil chemical processes over to I.G., and that I.G. turned over to Standard the patents and discoveries that directly concerned oil production, including synthetic gasoline, so that each company held a world monopoly in its field.[^21] The arrangement created two patent pools, one for synthetic rubber and chemicals controlled from [[Germany]] and one for synthetic gasoline controlled by Standard Oil.[^22] -Arnold gave his own account of the motive in the same testimony: "these arrangements were not entered into with any desire to help Germany. The sole motive was an attempt on the part of the Standard Oil to get a protected market, to eliminate independent competition, and, finally, to restrict world production in order to maintain that control."[^17] He read into the record a letter signed by [[Walter C. Teagle]] of Standard, in which each party proposed "to hold itself willing to take care of any future eventualities in a spirit of mutual helpfulness" and, if performance of the agreements were restrained or prevented "by operation of any existing or future law" or the beneficial interest of either party alienated "by operation of law or governmental authority," to "enter into new negotiations in the spirit of the present agreements."[^18] +Arnold gave his own account of the motive in the same testimony: "these arrangements were not entered into with any desire to help Germany. The sole motive was an attempt on the part of the Standard Oil to get a protected market, to eliminate independent competition, and, finally, to restrict world production in order to maintain that control."[^23] He read into the record a letter signed by [[Walter C. Teagle]] of Standard, in which each party proposed "to hold itself willing to take care of any future eventualities in a spirit of mutual helpfulness" and, if performance of the agreements were restrained or prevented "by operation of any existing or future law" or the beneficial interest of either party alienated "by operation of law or governmental authority," to "enter into new negotiations in the spirit of the present agreements."[^24] -Arnold identified a second set of arrangements as the Hague Memorandum, made in September 1939, which he said carried the 1929 conspiracy through the war between Germany and [[United Kingdom|Great Britain]]. He read a letter of October 12, 1939 from [[Frank A. Howard]], the president of the [[Standard Oil Development Company]], stating that in [[Netherlands|Holland]] "They delivered to me assignments of some 2,000 foreign patents" and that the parties had worked toward "complete plans for a modus Vivendi which would operate through the term of the war, whether or not the United States came in."[^19] +Arnold identified a second set of arrangements as the Hague Memorandum, made in September 1939, which he said carried the 1929 conspiracy through the war between Germany and [[United Kingdom|Great Britain]]. He read a letter of October 12, 1939 from [[Frank A. Howard]], the president of the [[Standard Oil Development Company]], stating that in [[Netherlands|Holland]] "They delivered to me assignments of some 2,000 foreign patents" and that the parties had worked toward "complete plans for a modus Vivendi which would operate through the term of the war, whether or not the United States came in."[^25] -[[William S. Farish]], the president of the New Jersey company, testified on March 31, 1942 and described the 1939 readjustment. The company's patent licensing had run through two American corporations, Standard-I.G. and [[Jasco]], in one of which Standard held 80 per cent and in the other 50 per cent, the Germans holding the other shares; the stock holdings represented roughly the German participations in licensing fixed by the 1929 contracts. Farish said that substantially all the patents had originated with I.G. and that legal title to most of them, especially the foreign patents, had been left in I.G. to avoid the expense of transfers.[^20] The assignments were taken by an American trustee who, if the United States went to war with Germany, would be subject to account to the [[Alien Property Custodian]] for any equitable interest of the Germans. The German 20 per cent interest in Standard-I.G. was purchased at book value ($20,000), and the Germans retained title to their 20 per cent of the royalties.[^21] +[[William S. Farish]], the president of the New Jersey company, testified on March 31, 1942 and described the 1939 readjustment. The company's patent licensing had run through two American corporations, Standard-I.G. and [[Jasco]], in one of which Standard held 80 per cent and in the other 50 per cent, the Germans holding the other shares; the stock holdings represented roughly the German participations in licensing fixed by the 1929 contracts. Farish said that substantially all the patents had originated with I.G. and that legal title to most of them, especially the foreign patents, had been left in I.G. to avoid the expense of transfers.[^26] The assignments were taken by an American trustee who, if the United States went to war with Germany, would be subject to account to the [[Alien Property Custodian]] for any equitable interest of the Germans. The German 20 per cent interest in Standard-I.G. was purchased at book value ($20,000), and the Germans retained title to their 20 per cent of the royalties.[^27] -The same agreements appear in the first order the Custodian issued. Vesting Order No. 1, signed by [[Leo T. Crowley]] on March 25, 1942 (the date of the consent decree) and published in the Federal Register on March 31, 1942, vested all right, title and interest of I.G. Farbenindustrie, A.G. in the Division of Fields Agreement of November 9, 1929 and the Jasco Agreement of September 30, 1930; the four-party, coordination and German sales agreements; a series of agreements of October 7, 1938 among [[Ruhrchemie]], I.G., [[Royal Dutch Shell|Shell]] and [[M.W. Kellogg Company|Kellogg]] on hydrocarbon synthesis; the Hague Memorandum dated September 25, 1939, effective September 1, 1939; the trust agreement executed March 8, 1940 by Walter Schaefer and Harold Koechling; and a trust agreement of August 31, 1939 among Frank A. Howard, W.E. Currie and P.L. Young. The order also vested the stock, patents and contracts of the [[Standard Catalytic Company]], the capital stock of Jasco, Inc. (including five certificates held by Schaefer and Koechling as trustees), and all patents held by or in the name of Standard-I.G. Company, Standard Catalytic Company, Jasco, Inc. or W.E. Currie, listed in four schedules.[^22] The Custodian's annual report for March 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943, a period in which 1,792 vesting orders were issued, lists it first and states that German holders of American patents had "acquired a substantial influence in American industry" through patent contracts, naming synthetic rubber among the affected industries.[^23][^24] +The same agreements appear in the first order the Custodian issued. Vesting Order No. 1, signed by [[Leo T. Crowley]] on March 25, 1942 (the date of the consent decree) and published in the Federal Register on March 31, 1942, vested all right, title and interest of I.G. Farbenindustrie, A.G. in the Division of Fields Agreement of November 9, 1929 and the Jasco Agreement of September 30, 1930; the four-party, coordination and German sales agreements; a series of agreements of October 7, 1938 among [[Ruhrchemie]], I.G., [[Royal Dutch Shell|Shell]] and [[M.W. Kellogg Company|Kellogg]] on hydrocarbon synthesis; the Hague Memorandum dated September 25, 1939, effective September 1, 1939; the trust agreement executed March 8, 1940 by Walter Schaefer and Harold Koechling; and a trust agreement of August 31, 1939 among Frank A. Howard, W.E. Currie and P.L. Young. The order also vested the stock, patents and contracts of the [[Standard Catalytic Company]], the capital stock of Jasco, Inc. (including five certificates held by Schaefer and Koechling as trustees), and all patents held by or in the name of Standard-I.G. Company, Standard Catalytic Company, Jasco, Inc. or W.E. Currie, listed in four schedules.[^28] The Custodian's annual report for March 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943, a period in which 1,792 vesting orders were issued, lists it first and states that German holders of American patents had "acquired a substantial influence in American industry" through patent contracts, naming synthetic rubber among the affected industries.[^29][^30] -The [[Federal Trade Commission]]'s staff later recorded the German marketing side of the relationship: an agreement of 1928 among Standard (New Jersey), Royal Dutch Shell and the [[Anglo-Persian Oil Company]], which together controlled more than 60 percent of the German domestic market, with the cooperation reported of the marketing subsidiaries of [[Leuna]] and I.G. Farben, and the distributor [[Deutsche Gasolin]] A.G. owned 50 percent by Standard and 50 percent by I.G. Farbenindustrie in 1933.[^25] +The [[Federal Trade Commission]]'s staff later recorded the German marketing side of the relationship: an agreement of 1928 among Standard (New Jersey), Royal Dutch Shell and the [[Anglo-Persian Oil Company]], which together controlled more than 60 percent of the German domestic market, with the cooperation reported of the marketing subsidiaries of [[Leuna]] and I.G. Farben, and the distributor [[Deutsche Gasolin]] A.G. owned 50 percent by Standard and 50 percent by I.G. Farbenindustrie in 1933.[^31] ### Synthetic rubber and the buna patents -Arnold told the Truman Committee that I.G. Farben had "the deciding voice on policy questions with respect to buna synthetic rubber." He said that between 1932 and 1934 four rubber companies and one chemical company approached Standard seeking licenses, and that negotiations in 1932 between [[B.F. Goodrich|Goodrich]] and Standard were subject to the supervision of I.G., which refused to accept various portions of the proposed terms.[^26] Howard's letter of February 6, 1940 to [[E.J. Sadler]] stated the company's position: "The interest of the Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey in the buna process dates back to the original agreement of 1929 between I. G. and Jersey."[^27] Arnold also said that for Standard's own butyl development the company licensed only two rubber companies, apart from specialty companies.[^28] +Arnold told the Truman Committee that I.G. Farben had "the deciding voice on policy questions with respect to buna synthetic rubber." He said that between 1932 and 1934 four rubber companies and one chemical company approached Standard seeking licenses, and that negotiations in 1932 between [[B.F. Goodrich|Goodrich]] and Standard were subject to the supervision of I.G., which refused to accept various portions of the proposed terms.[^32] Howard's letter of February 6, 1940 to [[E.J. Sadler]] stated the company's position: "The interest of the Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey in the buna process dates back to the original agreement of 1929 between I. G. and Jersey."[^33] Arnold also said that for Standard's own butyl development the company licensed only two rubber companies, apart from specialty companies.[^34] -The company issued a release on the day of the consent decree, introduced as Exhibit 359, which stated that "The developments made under these agreements have advanced the progress of American industry and its ability to meet the war emergency."[^29] Arnold asked the committee to keep the release in mind when weighing the documents, one of which showed that the company had refused to let the British have a sample of rubber as late as 1941.[^30] +The company issued a release on the day of the consent decree, introduced as Exhibit 359, which stated that "The developments made under these agreements have advanced the progress of American industry and its ability to meet the war emergency."[^35] Arnold asked the committee to keep the release in mind when weighing the documents, one of which showed that the company had refused to let the British have a sample of rubber as late as 1941.[^36] ### Ethyl, aviation fuel and the German plants -Standard and [[General Motors]] each held 50 per cent of the [[Ethyl Gasoline Corporation]], described in the 1942 criminal information as sole producer of the tetraethyl lead used in nearly all American motor fuels.[^31] In 1940 the Supreme Court recorded that Standard "owns one-half of the capital stock" of Ethyl and that "The remainder is owned by General Motors Corporation and E. I. du Pont de Nemours Company."[^32] Howard's February 6, 1940 letter reported that [[Ethyl G.m.b.H.]], a German company owned half by the [[British Associated Ethyl Company]] and half by I.G. Farbenindustrie, paid in full a debt of nearly $900,000 owed to the Ethyl Gasoline Corporation about one month after the war began, although it could have deferred payment for two more months.[^33] +Standard and [[General Motors]] each held 50 per cent of the [[Ethyl Gasoline Corporation]], described in the 1942 criminal information as sole producer of the tetraethyl lead used in nearly all American motor fuels.[^37] In 1940 the Supreme Court recorded that Standard "owns one-half of the capital stock" of Ethyl and that "The remainder is owned by General Motors Corporation and E. I. du Pont de Nemours Company."[^38] Howard's February 6, 1940 letter reported that [[Ethyl G.m.b.H.]], a German company owned half by the [[British Associated Ethyl Company]] and half by I.G. Farbenindustrie, paid in full a debt of nearly $900,000 owed to the Ethyl Gasoline Corporation about one month after the war began, although it could have deferred payment for two more months.[^39] -The committee's summary states that Standard, through the New Jersey company as well as its subsidiary, helped build an aviation gasoline plant for Germany at [[Hamburg]] as late as 1939. It cites a memorandum signed by E.J. Gohr dated August 1, 1939 describing I.G. representatives leaving [[New York City|New York]] on August 4 for a week in the South and [[Indiana]] and returning to New York for discussions on the detailed design of the plant, and a letter of August 11, 1939 from R.P. Russell of the Standard Oil Development Company stating that the company was "not only willing but anxious to do everything we can to assist the Kellogg and I. G. gentlemen in preparing the process design."[^34] Farish's statement of March 31, 1942 answered the charge that the German subsidiary D.A.P.G. had planned a plant at Hamburg in 1938 or 1939 with the words "This is true and as a German corporation, operating in Germany, with which country we were not then at war, it could not have done otherwise," and called the charge that Standard shipped to Italian and German air lines in [[Brazil]] contrary to the wishes of the State Department "unfounded."[^35] +The committee's summary states that Standard, through the New Jersey company as well as its subsidiary, helped build an aviation gasoline plant for Germany at [[Hamburg]] as late as 1939. It cites a memorandum signed by E.J. Gohr dated August 1, 1939 describing I.G. representatives leaving [[New York City|New York]] on August 4 for a week in the South and [[Indiana]] and returning to New York for discussions on the detailed design of the plant, and a letter of August 11, 1939 from R.P. Russell of the Standard Oil Development Company stating that the company was "not only willing but anxious to do everything we can to assist the Kellogg and I. G. gentlemen in preparing the process design."[^40] Farish's statement of March 31, 1942 answered the charge that the German subsidiary D.A.P.G. had planned a plant at Hamburg in 1938 or 1939 with the words "This is true and as a German corporation, operating in Germany, with which country we were not then at war, it could not have done otherwise," and called the charge that Standard shipped to Italian and German air lines in [[Brazil]] contrary to the wishes of the State Department "unfounded."[^41] -The summary also quotes a memorandum from Howard to Teagle and Farish on the effect of the cartel agreement on fuels for the [[Army Air Corps]]: "To meet the very proper desires of the Air Corps as expressed to us we shall have to violate our agreements and perhaps forfeit the confidence of our associates, both American and foreign." The summary concludes that Standard "met with difficulties in developing aviation gasoline for our own Army because of the cartel agreement."[^36] +The summary also quotes a memorandum from Howard to Teagle and Farish on the effect of the cartel agreement on fuels for the [[Army Air Corps]]: "To meet the very proper desires of the Air Corps as expressed to us we shall have to violate our agreements and perhaps forfeit the confidence of our associates, both American and foreign." The summary concludes that Standard "met with difficulties in developing aviation gasoline for our own Army because of the cartel agreement."[^42] -Standard's Brazilian subsidiary and the German-controlled line [[Condor Syndikat|Condor]] and the [[Lineas Aereas Transcontinentales Italianas|Lati]] line, which ran from [[Italy]] to Brazil, were the subject of testimony by [[Adolf Berle]], the assistant secretary of state. Berle said the Secretary of State requested in March 1941 that Standard Oil of New Jersey make no sales to the two lines except from New York or [[Aruba]]; that the department had reason to believe, and Standard had reported, that the lines were drawing supplies from the Brazilian subsidiary; and that after a conference on April 14, 1941 the company agreed to supply them, if at all, only through that subsidiary, which would deliver only with the approval of the American ambassador in [[Rio de Janeiro]].[^37] +Standard's Brazilian subsidiary and the German-controlled line [[Condor Syndikat|Condor]] and the [[Lineas Aereas Transcontinentales Italianas|Lati]] line, which ran from [[Italy]] to Brazil, were the subject of testimony by [[Adolf Berle]], the assistant secretary of state. Berle said the Secretary of State requested in March 1941 that Standard Oil of New Jersey make no sales to the two lines except from New York or [[Aruba]]; that the department had reason to believe, and Standard had reported, that the lines were drawing supplies from the Brazilian subsidiary; and that after a conference on April 14, 1941 the company agreed to supply them, if at all, only through that subsidiary, which would deliver only with the approval of the American ambassador in [[Rio de Janeiro]].[^43] ### The 1942 consent decree -On March 25, 1942 the [[Department of Justice]] filed a criminal information and a complaint against Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) and entered a consent decree with it. The information named as defendants the New Jersey company, the Delaware corporation of similar name, the Standard Oil Development Company, the Standard Oil Company of Louisiana, the Standard Catalytic Company, Jasco, Inc., the [[Hydro Engineering and Chemical Company]], and Teagle, Farish and Howard.[^31] Arnold told the committee on March 27 that the company pleaded nolo contendere and paid fines of $50,000. Asked by [[Harry S. Truman]], the committee's chairman, why the fines were so small, Arnold said the department judged that getting the patents loose was more important than fines large enough to involve years of litigation. The chairman remarked that the fines were "rather out of proportion with other fines," and Arnold answered, "I have to confess they are somewhat out of proportion." Arnold said he had not been present at the New York negotiations, which covered a period of weeks, and that "when the smoke all cleared away and the matter reached my office, it was simply a take-it-or-leave-it proposition, and at that point, after consultation with a number of people, I finally took it." Asked by the committee's chief counsel, [[Hugh A. Fulton]], whether the company had held back the butyl patents during the negotiations, Arnold said: "Butyl had not been made available."[^38] +On March 25, 1942 the [[Department of Justice]] filed a criminal information and a complaint against Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) and entered a consent decree with it. The information named as defendants the New Jersey company, the Delaware corporation of similar name, the Standard Oil Development Company, the Standard Oil Company of Louisiana, the Standard Catalytic Company, Jasco, Inc., the [[Hydro Engineering and Chemical Company]], and Teagle, Farish and Howard.[^37] Arnold told the committee on March 27 that the company pleaded nolo contendere and paid fines of $50,000. Asked by [[Harry S. Truman]], the committee's chairman, why the fines were so small, Arnold said the department judged that getting the patents loose was more important than fines large enough to involve years of litigation. The chairman remarked that the fines were "rather out of proportion with other fines," and Arnold answered, "I have to confess they are somewhat out of proportion." Arnold said he had not been present at the New York negotiations, which covered a period of weeks, and that "when the smoke all cleared away and the matter reached my office, it was simply a take-it-or-leave-it proposition, and at that point, after consultation with a number of people, I finally took it." Asked by the committee's chief counsel, [[Hugh A. Fulton]], whether the company had held back the butyl patents during the negotiations, Arnold said: "Butyl had not been made available."[^44] -Arnold said the decree compelled Standard to license anyone royalty-free under the crucial rubber patents and the other patents involved in the conspiracy, including the toluol patents, and required the company to transfer the know-how for them; he said he was reluctant to sign because the decree had no provision allowing the Attorney General or the court to pass on future relations between I.G. Farben and Standard. He said the company had indicated its willingness to make restitution "in the sum of millions of dollars and at the cost of its future domination of the industry."[^39] He put the cost of the royalty-free licensing to the company at possibly $10,000,000, and said the company's release gave $6,000,000.[^40] The final judgment required the defendants to dissolve the [[Hydro Patents Company]] and the Hydro Engineering and Chemical Company within one year, enjoined them from entering into patent transfer arrangements with I.G. Farben without notice to the Attorney General, and recorded the Alien Property Custodian's consent to the decree, including limits on royalties and compulsory licensing under the patents.[^41] The information had described the Hydro Patents Company as the vehicle for the hydrogenation process in the United States under the Mutual Licensing Plan of July 11, 1930.[^42] +Arnold said the decree compelled Standard to license anyone royalty-free under the crucial rubber patents and the other patents involved in the conspiracy, including the toluol patents, and required the company to transfer the know-how for them; he said he was reluctant to sign because the decree had no provision allowing the Attorney General or the court to pass on future relations between I.G. Farben and Standard. He said the company had indicated its willingness to make restitution "in the sum of millions of dollars and at the cost of its future domination of the industry."[^45] He put the cost of the royalty-free licensing to the company at possibly $10,000,000, and said the company's release gave $6,000,000.[^46] The final judgment required the defendants to dissolve the [[Hydro Patents Company]] and the Hydro Engineering and Chemical Company within one year, enjoined them from entering into patent transfer arrangements with I.G. Farben without notice to the Attorney General, and recorded the Alien Property Custodian's consent to the decree, including limits on royalties and compulsory licensing under the patents.[^47] The information had described the Hydro Patents Company as the vehicle for the hydrogenation process in the United States under the Mutual Licensing Plan of July 11, 1930.[^48] ### The Federal Trade Commission staff report -The Federal Trade Commission resolved on December 2, 1949 to investigate agreements among American petroleum companies and with their foreign partners; the Department of Justice deferred its own investigation to avoid duplicating the commission's work, and the commission's staff filed its report in October 1951.[^43] Published in 1952 as a committee print of the Senate Select Committee on Small Business, the report listed Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey) as one of seven international companies, with crude production in 1949 of 1,317.7 thousand barrels daily.[^44] It recorded that Creole Petroleum Corp. was a subsidiary of the New Jersey company and that the company owned 30 percent of the Trans-Arabian Pipe Line.[^45] It described the board of Aramco as three members each from Standard Oil Co. (N.J.), Standard Oil Co. of California and Texas Co., one from Socony-Vacuum and one with no listed affiliation, and stated that the directors of Standard of New Jersey and Socony-Vacuum who determined Aramco policy also shaped the behavior of the Iraq Petroleum Company.[^46] +The Federal Trade Commission resolved on December 2, 1949 to investigate agreements among American petroleum companies and with their foreign partners; the Department of Justice deferred its own investigation to avoid duplicating the commission's work, and the commission's staff filed its report in October 1951.[^49] Published in 1952 as a committee print of the Senate Select Committee on Small Business, the report listed Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey) as one of seven international companies, with crude production in 1949 of 1,317.7 thousand barrels daily.[^50] It recorded that Creole Petroleum Corp. was a subsidiary of the New Jersey company and that the company owned 30 percent of the Trans-Arabian Pipe Line.[^51] It described the board of Aramco as three members each from Standard Oil Co. (N.J.), Standard Oil Co. of California and Texas Co., one from Socony-Vacuum and one with no listed affiliation, and stated that the directors of Standard of New Jersey and Socony-Vacuum who determined Aramco policy also shaped the behavior of the Iraq Petroleum Company.[^52] -The Justice Department report to the National Security Council of January 1953 stated that "an indictment could have been returned on the basis of the Federal Trade Commission's staff report and a small number of documents in the possession of the Department of Justice," and that the pending investigation was being conducted "with the aid of a committee composed of representatives of State, CIA, Defense and Justice."[^47] The commission's evidence also covered the domestic side of the cartel, including production curtailment on the Gulf Coast and the profit Standard of California earned on its Middle East oil at prices charged to the [[United States Navy|Navy]].[^48] +The Justice Department report to the National Security Council of January 1953 stated that "an indictment could have been returned on the basis of the Federal Trade Commission's staff report and a small number of documents in the possession of the Department of Justice," and that the pending investigation was being conducted "with the aid of a committee composed of representatives of State, CIA, Defense and Justice."[^53] The commission's evidence also covered the domestic side of the cartel, including production curtailment on the Gulf Coast and the profit Standard of California earned on its Middle East oil at prices charged to the [[United States Navy|Navy]].[^54] ### Aramco and the Saudi concessions -Standard of California obtained a petroleum concession in Saudi Arabia in 1933, located wholly within the territory of the 1928 [[Red Line Agreement]]; the concession passed to Aramco, which was owned by Standard of California and The Texas Company.[^49] The Achnacarry Agreement, which Walter Teagle of Standard, Sir [[Henri Deterding]] of Royal Dutch Shell and the Anglo-Persian Oil Company made in September 1928, aimed to eliminate competition among the parties, prevent overproduction and divide world markets on an "as is" basis.[^50] +Standard of California obtained a petroleum concession in Saudi Arabia in 1933, located wholly within the territory of the 1928 [[Red Line Agreement]]; the concession passed to Aramco, which was owned by Standard of California and The Texas Company.[^55] The Achnacarry Agreement, which Walter Teagle of Standard, Sir [[Henri Deterding]] of Royal Dutch Shell and the Anglo-Persian Oil Company made in September 1928, aimed to eliminate competition among the parties, prevent overproduction and divide world markets on an "as is" basis.[^56] -Aramco's production rose from 21,296 barrels daily in 1944 to 58,386 in 1945, most of it for military use, and its owners sought a permanent market.[^51] Discussions between Standard of New Jersey, Socony-Vacuum and the two owners began before mid-1946; an agreement in principle was reached in December 1946, and formal agreements were signed on March 12, 1947 giving Jersey a 30 percent and Socony a 10 percent interest in Aramco and the Trans-Arabian Pipe Line, conditional on a favorable settlement of the red-line controversy by March 12, 1951.[^52] Jersey was to pay $76,500,000 and Socony $25,500,000 for their stock, and both guaranteed $102,000,000 in bank loans. The agreements became effective in December 1948, after the withdrawal in November 1948 of the suit brought by the [[Compagnie Française des Pétroles]]; the Commission's staff put the total financial cost to the two companies for their 40 percent interest at nearly one-half billion dollars, and noted that they obtained a veto over amendments to Aramco's bylaws.[^53] The 1974 print's account of operations under the Red Line agreement states that, on the excuse that Aramco's owners were "unable to finance" a pipeline to the Mediterranean, Jersey and Socony-Vacuum were admitted to partnership; that both agreed to guarantee loans totaling $273,000,000 and became parties to joint contracts for oil from Aramco for eighteen years in the ratio 3:3:3:1; and that this "provided for the transfer of effective control of Aramco to the two American companies, Jersey and Socony."[^49] +Aramco's production rose from 21,296 barrels daily in 1944 to 58,386 in 1945, most of it for military use, and its owners sought a permanent market.[^57] Discussions between Standard of New Jersey, Socony-Vacuum and the two owners began before mid-1946; an agreement in principle was reached in December 1946, and formal agreements were signed on March 12, 1947 giving Jersey a 30 percent and Socony a 10 percent interest in Aramco and the Trans-Arabian Pipe Line, conditional on a favorable settlement of the red-line controversy by March 12, 1951.[^58] Jersey was to pay $76,500,000 and Socony $25,500,000 for their stock, and both guaranteed $102,000,000 in bank loans. The agreements became effective in December 1948, after the withdrawal in November 1948 of the suit brought by the [[Compagnie Française des Pétroles]]; the Commission's staff put the total financial cost to the two companies for their 40 percent interest at nearly one-half billion dollars, and noted that they obtained a veto over amendments to Aramco's bylaws.[^59] The 1974 print's account of operations under the Red Line agreement states that, on the excuse that Aramco's owners were "unable to finance" a pipeline to the Mediterranean, Jersey and Socony-Vacuum were admitted to partnership; that both agreed to guarantee loans totaling $273,000,000 and became parties to joint contracts for oil from Aramco for eighteen years in the ratio 3:3:3:1; and that this "provided for the transfer of effective control of Aramco to the two American companies, Jersey and Socony."[^55] -In April 1945, when Standard of California and Texas still owned Aramco, Assistant Secretary of State [[William L. Clayton]] wrote to Assistant Secretary [[James C. Dunn]] on ways of helping the government of [[Saudi Arabia]] meet its budget deficit that the department "should avoid putting the Arabian American Oil Company in an embarrassing position without giving it every opportunity to stand on its own feet."[^54] In June 1945 the American minister in Saudi Arabia, [[William A. Eddy]], predicted that the king's alternative to American assistance would be "to bleed Aramco for loans to stabilize his economy," and wrote that the company's opinion was that "Aramco is the substance and the Legation the shadow."[^55] In August 1945 the State Department described a proposed arrangement under which Navy oil would carry a royalty of 15 cents a barrel, against the 23 cents specified in the existing Aramco concession.[^56] +In April 1945, when Standard of California and Texas still owned Aramco, Assistant Secretary of State [[William L. Clayton]] wrote to Assistant Secretary [[James C. Dunn]] on ways of helping the government of [[Saudi Arabia]] meet its budget deficit that the department "should avoid putting the Arabian American Oil Company in an embarrassing position without giving it every opportunity to stand on its own feet."[^60] In June 1945 the American minister in Saudi Arabia, [[William A. Eddy]], predicted that the king's alternative to American assistance would be "to bleed Aramco for loans to stabilize his economy," and wrote that the company's opinion was that "Aramco is the substance and the Legation the shadow."[^61] In August 1945 the State Department described a proposed arrangement under which Navy oil would carry a royalty of 15 cents a barrel, against the 23 cents specified in the existing Aramco concession.[^62] ### The grand jury and the cartel case -The Attorney General's report to the National Security Council of January 1953 stated that the cartel had existed since 1928 and that seven of the major oil companies controlled all major oil producing areas outside the United States, all foreign refining operations and the patents covering refining processes, divided world markets and maintained non-competitive world prices. It stated that a decision to terminate the investigation "would be regarded by the world as a confession that our abhorrence of monopoly and restrictive cartel activities does not extend to the world's most important single industry."[^43][^57] [[Frank Church]]'s preface to the 1974 print records the sequence: the Attorney General announced a grand jury investigation on July 17, 1952, subpoenas went to 21 companies in August, and the State Department had opposed the investigation from the outset (Acheson memorandum of April 16, 1952).[^58] On January 12, 1953, in the last days of the Truman administration, Truman wrote to Attorney General [[James P. McGranery]] directing a civil suit instead of the grand jury, conditioned on the voluntary production of documents; the department filed a civil complaint on April 14, 1953 in the District Court for the District of Columbia naming Standard Oil of New Jersey, Socony-Vacuum, Standard Oil of California, The Texas Company and Gulf Oil, alleging violations of the Sherman Act from 1928, and the case was transferred to the Southern District of New York at the defendants' request.[^59] +The Attorney General's report to the National Security Council of January 1953 stated that the cartel had existed since 1928 and that seven of the major oil companies controlled all major oil producing areas outside the United States, all foreign refining operations and the patents covering refining processes, divided world markets and maintained non-competitive world prices. It stated that a decision to terminate the investigation "would be regarded by the world as a confession that our abhorrence of monopoly and restrictive cartel activities does not extend to the world's most important single industry."[^49][^63] [[Frank Church]]'s preface to the 1974 print records the sequence: the Attorney General announced a grand jury investigation on July 17, 1952, subpoenas went to 21 companies in August, and the State Department had opposed the investigation from the outset (Acheson memorandum of April 16, 1952).[^64] On January 12, 1953, in the last days of the Truman administration, Truman wrote to Attorney General [[James P. McGranery]] directing a civil suit instead of the grand jury, conditioned on the voluntary production of documents; the department filed a civil complaint on April 14, 1953 in the District Court for the District of Columbia naming Standard Oil of New Jersey, Socony-Vacuum, Standard Oil of California, The Texas Company and Gulf Oil, alleging violations of the Sherman Act from 1928, and the case was transferred to the Southern District of New York at the defendants' request.[^65] ### Iran and the 1954 consortium -Church wrote that in March 1951 [[Iran]] had nationalized all local assets of the [[Anglo-Iranian Oil Company]], that Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] had considered developing an American capability to restore Iranian production even in the absence of the company, and that the Justice Department believed the cooperation of the established major American companies was not required.[^58][^59] [[Herbert Hoover Jr.]] was appointed the new administration's special representative on the Iranian problem. On August 6, 1953 National Security Council Action Memorandum No. 875b designated the Attorney General to "develop a solution which would protect the interests of the free world in the Near East as a vital source of petroleum supplies," and in October 1953 overall authority was transferred from the Attorney General to the Secretary of State.[^59][^60] Church wrote that the American majors, encouraged by the downgrading of the cartel case to a civil action, stated that they would be willing to participate in a solution because of the "large national security interests involved" (letter from [[Orvil Harden]], December 4, 1953).[^60] +Church wrote that in March 1951 [[Iran]] had nationalized all local assets of the [[Anglo-Iranian Oil Company]], that Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] had considered developing an American capability to restore Iranian production even in the absence of the company, and that the Justice Department believed the cooperation of the established major American companies was not required.[^64][^65] [[Herbert Hoover Jr.]] was appointed the new administration's special representative on the Iranian problem. On August 6, 1953 National Security Council Action Memorandum No. 875b designated the Attorney General to "develop a solution which would protect the interests of the free world in the Near East as a vital source of petroleum supplies," and in October 1953 overall authority was transferred from the Attorney General to the Secretary of State.[^65][^66] Church wrote that the American majors, encouraged by the downgrading of the cartel case to a civil action, stated that they would be willing to participate in a solution because of the "large national security interests involved" (letter from [[Orvil Harden]], December 4, 1953).[^66] -Representatives of eight companies, namely the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, Royal Dutch Shell, Compagnie Française des Pétroles, Standard Oil France, Standard of California, Texas, Gulf and Socony, met in [[London]] on December 14, 15 and 17, 1953 at the invitation of the Anglo-Iranian company, with Hoover attending as an observer at the request of the Justice Department.[^61] [[John Foster Dulles]]'s memorandum of January 8, 1954 records that after the meeting of the National Security Council that day he, Wilson, Humphrey, Attorney General [[Herbert Brownell Jr.]] and Anderson discussed legal clearance for the American companies, and that the Attorney General "felt that he could give some sort of agreement not to sue" if requested in the national interest, and that the pending lawsuit would be continued in a way that would avoid undesirable publicity, which "would require some cooperation from the attorneys for the oil companies."[^62] On January 13, 1954 the assistant attorney general [[Stanley N. Barnes]] and the antitrust attorney [[Leonard Emmerglick]] gave Brownell the division's two primary objections to the consortium agreement: the possible use of a veto by the Anglo-Iranian company, the British government and the Iranian government, and the lack of freedom to set prices and markets.[^63] The National Security Council decided on January 14 that the security interests of the United States required the American petroleum companies to participate in an international consortium.[^60] +Representatives of eight companies, namely the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, Royal Dutch Shell, Compagnie Française des Pétroles, Standard Oil France, Standard of California, Texas, Gulf and Socony, met in [[London]] on December 14, 15 and 17, 1953 at the invitation of the Anglo-Iranian company, with Hoover attending as an observer at the request of the Justice Department.[^67] [[John Foster Dulles]]'s memorandum of January 8, 1954 records that after the meeting of the National Security Council that day he, Wilson, Humphrey, Attorney General [[Herbert Brownell Jr.]] and Anderson discussed legal clearance for the American companies, and that the Attorney General "felt that he could give some sort of agreement not to sue" if requested in the national interest, and that the pending lawsuit would be continued in a way that would avoid undesirable publicity, which "would require some cooperation from the attorneys for the oil companies."[^68] On January 13, 1954 the assistant attorney general [[Stanley N. Barnes]] and the antitrust attorney [[Leonard Emmerglick]] gave Brownell the division's two primary objections to the consortium agreement: the possible use of a veto by the Anglo-Iranian company, the British government and the Iranian government, and the lack of freedom to set prices and markets.[^69] The National Security Council decided on January 14 that the security interests of the United States required the American petroleum companies to participate in an international consortium.[^66] -On January 20, 1954 Brownell advised the National Security Council that the consortium, if organized as described and with the freedom of each member to sell oil at prices it determined, did not violate the antitrust laws. The opinion was given "subject to the express reservation of all rights of the United States" to continue prosecuting the action against Standard Oil Company of New Jersey and others, pending in the Southern District of New York as Civil No. 86-27.[^64] Hoover wrote on January 21 that the "five United States companies now named in the Cartel antitrust case are the only ones from this country who meet such a criteria" for participation in an Iranian settlement.[^65] +On January 20, 1954 Brownell advised the National Security Council that the consortium, if organized as described and with the freedom of each member to sell oil at prices it determined, did not violate the antitrust laws. The opinion was given "subject to the express reservation of all rights of the United States" to continue prosecuting the action against Standard Oil Company of New Jersey and others, pending in the Southern District of New York as Civil No. 86-27.[^70] Hoover wrote on January 21 that the "five United States companies now named in the Cartel antitrust case are the only ones from this country who meet such a criteria" for participation in an Iranian settlement.[^71] -The consortium's composition as set out on April 1, 1954 gave the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company 40 per cent, Royal Dutch Shell 14 per cent, Compagnie Française des Pétroles 6 per cent, and 8 per cent each to Jersey Standard, Socony-Vacuum, California Standard, Gulf Oil and Texas, making the American share 40 per cent; its negotiating representatives for [[Tehran]] were Harden of Jersey Standard, Snow of the Anglo-Iranian company and Loudon of Royal Dutch Shell.[^66] By May 1954 the consortium insisted that it control extraction and refining as principals, while the Iranians insisted that management remain under the [[National Iranian Oil Company]], and Ambassador [[Loy Henderson]] reported that the two sides were moving toward an agency arrangement.[^67] A joint Iranian-British statement of August 5, 1954 set compensation at 25 million pounds payable over ten years, free of interest, with payments beginning no earlier than January 1, 1957.[^68] On September 21, 1954 the Finance Minister, [[Ali Amini]], introduced into the [[Majlis]] a single-article bill to ratify an agreement signed by Iran and the National Iranian Oil Company on one side and by Gulf, Socony Vacuum, Standard Oil Company of New Jersey, Standard Oil Company of California, the Texas Oil Company, the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, N.V. Bataafsche Petroleum Maatschappij and Compagnie Française des Pétroles on the other.[^69] The Iranian Senate ratified the agreement on October 28, 1954 by 41 votes to 4, with 3 abstentions.[^70] +The consortium's composition as set out on April 1, 1954 gave the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company 40 per cent, Royal Dutch Shell 14 per cent, Compagnie Française des Pétroles 6 per cent, and 8 per cent each to Jersey Standard, Socony-Vacuum, California Standard, Gulf Oil and Texas, making the American share 40 per cent; its negotiating representatives for [[Tehran]] were Harden of Jersey Standard, Snow of the Anglo-Iranian company and Loudon of Royal Dutch Shell.[^72] By May 1954 the consortium insisted that it control extraction and refining as principals, while the Iranians insisted that management remain under the [[National Iranian Oil Company]], and Ambassador [[Loy Henderson]] reported that the two sides were moving toward an agency arrangement.[^73] A joint Iranian-British statement of August 5, 1954 set compensation at 25 million pounds payable over ten years, free of interest, with payments beginning no earlier than January 1, 1957.[^74] On September 21, 1954 the Finance Minister, [[Ali Amini]], introduced into the [[Majlis]] a single-article bill to ratify an agreement signed by Iran and the National Iranian Oil Company on one side and by Gulf, Socony Vacuum, Standard Oil Company of New Jersey, Standard Oil Company of California, the Texas Oil Company, the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, N.V. Bataafsche Petroleum Maatschappij and Compagnie Française des Pétroles on the other.[^75] The Iranian Senate ratified the agreement on October 28, 1954 by 41 votes to 4, with 3 abstentions.[^76] -Church's preface describes the later course of the consortium and the cartel case. Clause 28 of the Participants Agreement, which he printed for the first time, permitted companies holding an aggregate of 31 percent or more of the equity to set crude production at any level below the desires of the rest of the members; the Antitrust Division attorney Emmerglick wrote on August 19, 1954 that the "plan goes beyond the premises upon which the Attorney General's opinion delivered to the National Security Council was based." The Attorney General, who "felt that he had already crossed this bridge on January 20," approved the plan, and on September 15, 1954 "agreed that approval of the consortium was inconsistent with the cartel case as the complaint is drawn and that necessarily the case must proceed with emphasis on the marketing aspects and not on the production control aspects."[^60][^71] The Statement of Claims prepared in 1961 concerned marketing; consent decrees were entered against Gulf, Exxon and Texaco, and the case against Mobil and Socal was dismissed without prejudice. Church wrote that the National Security Council "perverted the law" and that "nowhere is there any reference to consultation with the United States Congress."[^71] +Church's preface describes the later course of the consortium and the cartel case. Clause 28 of the Participants Agreement, which he printed for the first time, permitted companies holding an aggregate of 31 percent or more of the equity to set crude production at any level below the desires of the rest of the members; the Antitrust Division attorney Emmerglick wrote on August 19, 1954 that the "plan goes beyond the premises upon which the Attorney General's opinion delivered to the National Security Council was based." The Attorney General, who "felt that he had already crossed this bridge on January 20," approved the plan, and on September 15, 1954 "agreed that approval of the consortium was inconsistent with the cartel case as the complaint is drawn and that necessarily the case must proceed with emphasis on the marketing aspects and not on the production control aspects."[^66][^77] The Statement of Claims prepared in 1961 concerned marketing; consent decrees were entered against Gulf, Exxon and Texaco, and the case against Mobil and Socal was dismissed without prejudice. Church wrote that the National Security Council "perverted the law" and that "nowhere is there any reference to consultation with the United States Congress."[^77] ### Guatemala, June 1954 -On June 16, 1954, in a telephone call recorded by Secretary of State Dulles's secretary, [[Allen Dulles]], the Director of Central Intelligence, told John Foster Dulles that he was seeing that morning "men from Standard of NJ" who would "lay before him their position with regard to the small country down south," and that besides finding out their position he would "possibly slow things up without formalized action." The call concerned the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] operation against the government of [[Jacobo Arbenz]] in [[Guatemala]]; the Secretary asked whether [[Bourke B. Hickenlooper]] might introduce a sanctions bill in the Senate.[^72] +On June 16, 1954, in a telephone call recorded by Secretary of State Dulles's secretary, [[Allen Dulles]], the Director of Central Intelligence, told John Foster Dulles that he was seeing that morning "men from Standard of NJ" who would "lay before him their position with regard to the small country down south," and that besides finding out their position he would "possibly slow things up without formalized action." The call concerned the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] operation against the government of [[Jacobo Arbenz]] in [[Guatemala]]; the Secretary asked whether [[Bourke B. Hickenlooper]] might introduce a sanctions bill in the Senate.[^78] ### Latin America and the Rockefeller Network -Standard Oil of New Jersey's extensive holdings in [[Venezuela]] and across [[Latin America]] made the region central to the family's interests, and the young [[Nelson Rockefeller]] became a director of the company's Venezuelan subsidiary, Creole Petroleum, in the 1930s. His effort to manage the political risk to those holdings led to his 1940 appointment as [[Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs]], the wartime office that fused commercial interests, intelligence collection, and propaganda across the hemisphere.[^73] Creole Petroleum Corp. was a subsidiary of Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey) in 1949.[^74] Executive Order 8840 of July 30, 1941 established the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs within the Executive Office of the President and defined its functions and duties.[^75] +Standard Oil of New Jersey's extensive holdings in [[Venezuela]] and across [[Latin America]] made the region central to the family's interests, and the young [[Nelson Rockefeller]] became a director of the company's Venezuelan subsidiary, Creole Petroleum, in the 1930s. His effort to manage the political risk to those holdings led to his 1940 appointment as [[Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs]], the wartime office that fused commercial interests, intelligence collection, and propaganda across the hemisphere.[^79] Creole Petroleum Corp. was a subsidiary of Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey) in 1949.[^80] Executive Order 8840 of July 30, 1941 established the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs within the Executive Office of the President and defined its functions and duties.[^81] ### Footnotes @@ -189,68 +191,74 @@ Standard Oil of New Jersey's extensive holdings in [[Venezuela]] and across [[La [^8]: *Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States*, 221 U.S. 1 (decided May 15, 1911), opinion of Harlan, J., "concurring in part and dissenting in part." https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/221/1 [^9]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, B.A. 1863, pp. 295 to 296 (treasurer until 1884; board thereafter; death June 27, 1917; nephews). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft [^10]: *Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States*, 221 U.S. 1 (1911), decree Section 2 as set out in the opinion ("the seven individual defendants"; "Oliver H. Payne"). https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/221/1 -[^11]: Exxon Mobil Corporation, Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 1999 (filed March 23, 2000), Item 1 ("Exxon Mobil Corporation ('ExxonMobil'), formerly named Exxon Corporation, was incorporated in the State of New Jersey in 1882"; merger of Mobil Corporation into a wholly owned subsidiary of Exxon on November 30, 1999) and SEC header (former conformed name Standard Oil Co of New Jersey, date of name change 1972-11-23), accession no. 0000930661-00-000656. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/34088/0000930661-00-000656.txt -[^12]: Chevron Corporation, Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2024 (filed February 21, 2025), note to Item 1 ("Incorporated in Delaware in 1926 as Standard Oil Company of California, the company adopted the name Chevron Corporation in 1984 and ChevronTexaco Corporation in 2001. In 2005, ChevronTexaco Corporation changed its name to Chevron Corporation"), accession no. 0000093410-25-000009. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/93410/000009341025000009/cvx-20241231.htm -[^13]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VI ("Standard Oil of New Jersey (now Exxon), Socony-Vacuum Oil Company (now Mobil), Standard Oil Company of California (Socal), The Texas Company (now Texaco), and Gulf Oil Corporation (Gulf)"). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity -[^14]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), statement of Thurman W. Arnold, Assistant Attorney General, March 26, 1942, p. 4309 (the four agreements of November 9, 1929; "division of the fields," four-party, coordination and German sales agreements; Exhibits 360 to 364-A, appendix pp. 4561-4580). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit -[^15]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, pp. 4309-4310 (allocation of fields; I.G. turning over patents directly concerning oil production, including synthetic gasoline). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit -[^16]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4309 (two patent pools, one for synthetic rubber and chemicals controlled by Germany, one for synthetic gasoline controlled by Standard Oil). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit -[^17]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, pp. 4307-4308 ("these arrangements were not entered into with any desire to help Germany. The sole motive was an attempt on the part of the Standard Oil to get a protected market, to eliminate independent competition, and, finally, to restrict world production in order to maintain that control"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit -[^18]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4310 (letter signed by Mr. Teagle, Exhibit 367, appendix p. 4584); U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 7 ("Walter Teagle of Standard"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit -[^19]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, pp. 4310-4311 (The Hague Memorandum; letter of Frank A. Howard of October 12, 1939, Exhibit 368, appendix pp. 4584-4585). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit -[^20]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), testimony of W.S. Farish, March 31, 1942, p. 4374 (Standard-I.G. and Jasco holdings of 80 and 50 per cent; patents originated with I.G.; legal title left in I.G.). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit -[^21]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Farish testimony, p. 4375 (assignment to an American trustee; German 20 per cent interest in Standard-I.G. bought at "book value ($20,000)"; Jasco settlement). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit -[^22]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 1, "Vesting of Property of I.G. Farbenindustrie, Standard-I.G. Co., and Others," signed by Leo T. Crowley, March 25, 1942, 7 *Federal Register* 2417 (March 31, 1942) (Exhibit A, items 1 to 14 and schedules A to D of patents; issued under Executive Order 9095, 7 F.R. 1971). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-03-31/pdf/FR-1942-03-31.pdf -[^23]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, *Annual Report for the Period March 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943* (Washington: GPO, 1943), Exhibit A, "List of Vesting Orders Issued by the Office of Alien Property Custodian, Mar. 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943," first entry (interest of I.G. Farbenindustrie in Standard Catalytic Co. and Jasco Inc.). https://archive.org/details/officeofalienpro00unit -[^24]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, *Annual Report for the Period March 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943* (Washington: GPO, 1943), p. 97 (German interests in American patents and cartels; "acquired a substantial influence in American industry"; synthetic rubber among the industries listed). https://archive.org/details/officeofalienpro00unit -[^25]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), p. 325 and note (agreement of 1928 among Standard (New Jersey), Shell and Anglo-Iranian in Germany; marketing subsidiaries of Leuna and I.G. Farben; Deutsche Gasolin A.G. "owned 50 percent by Standard (Now Jersey), and 50 percent by I. G. Farbenindustrie"). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2 -[^26]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4312 ("I. G. Farben had the deciding voice on policy questions with respect to buna synthetic rubber"; four rubber companies and one chemical company, 1932 to 1934; Goodrich negotiations of 1932). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit -[^27]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4312 (letter of Frank A. Howard to E.J. Sadler, February 6, 1940, Exhibit 371, appendix p. 4589); the same letter at pp. 4589-4590. https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit -[^28]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4312 (butyl licensing). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit -[^29]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4307 (Exhibit 359, release issued by Standard Oil on March 25, 1942, appendix p. 4560-4561; "The developments made under these agreements have advanced the progress of American industry and its ability to meet the war emergency"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit -[^30]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4308 (refusal to let the British have a rubber sample as late as 1941). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit -[^31]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Exhibit 441, information in the District Court of the United States for the District of New Jersey, appendix pp. 4693-4697 (defendants; Standard and General Motors each owning 50 per cent of the Ethyl Gasoline Corporation, "sole producer of tetraethyl lead," p. 4697). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit -[^32]: Ethyl Gasoline Corp. v. United States, 309 U.S. 436 (1940), Harvard Caselaw Access Project, https://static.case.law/us/309/cases/0436-01.json. -[^33]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Howard letter of February 6, 1940 (Exhibit 371), appendix pp. 4589-4590 (Ethyl G.m.b.H. "owned 50% by the British Associated Ethyl Co. and 50% by I. G. Farbenindustrie," payment of "nearly $900,000"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit -[^34]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), committee summary, pp. 4825-4826 (memorandum signed by E.J. Gohr, August 1, 1939, Exhibit S. 69, appendix p. 4907; letter of R.P. Russell to E.V. Murphree, August 11, 1939, on the process design of the "D. A. P. G. catalytic cracking plant"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit -[^35]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Farish statement, March 31, 1942, p. 4360 (items 3 and 4 of the charges Farish listed; "This is true and as a German corporation, operating in Germany ... it could not have done otherwise"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit -[^36]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), committee summary, pp. 4827-4828 (memorandum of Frank A. Howard to Messrs. Teagle and Farish, Exhibit S. 75, appendix p. 4916; "Thus Standard met with difficulties in developing aviation gasoline for our own Army because of the cartel agreement," p. 4828). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit -[^37]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), testimony of Adolf A. Berle Jr., Assistant Secretary of State, April 3, 1942, pp. 4506-4508 (Lati and Condor; request of March 1941; conference of April 14, 1941). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit -[^38]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold, March 27, 1942, p. 4345 (information, complaint and consent decree filed "day before yesterday"; nolo contendere; fines of $50,000; exchange with the chairman); consent decree of March 25, 1942 indexed at p. 4346. https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit -[^39]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold, pp. 4346-4347 (royalty-free licensing under the rubber and toluol patents; transfer of know-how; no provision for the Attorney General or the court to pass on future relations with I.G.; "in the sum of millions of dollars and at the cost of its future domination of the industry," p. 4347). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit -[^40]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold, p. 4328 (royalty-free licensing and compulsory licensing after the war; cost to the company "possibly $10,000,000. I think their release says $6,000,000"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit -[^41]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Exhibit 440, "Final Judgment," United States v. Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) et al., District Court of the United States for the District of New Jersey, appendix pp. 4677-4687 (defendants named at p. 4677; paragraph (14), dissolution of Hydro Patents Co. and Hydro Engineering and Chemical Co. one year after entry, p. 4684; Alien Property Custodian consent and compulsory licensing, p. 4686). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit -[^42]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Exhibit 441, information, paragraphs 34 and 35 (Hydro Patents Company and the Mutual Licensing Plan of July 11, 1930), appendix p. 4702. https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit -[^43]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), pp. 29-33 (Report of the Attorney General to the National Security Council relative to the grand jury investigation of the international oil cartel, January 1953): pp. 29-30 (Federal Trade Commission resolution of December 2, 1949; subpoenas duces tecum of January 1950; staff report filed October 1951; instruction of June 23, 1952); p. 31 (cartel since 1928); p. 32 (committee of State, CIA, Defense and Justice). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity -[^44]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), p. 24, Table 9 (crude oil production of seven international companies, 1949: Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey) 1,317.7 thousand barrels daily). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2 -[^45]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 27-28 (pipeline ownership: Creole Petroleum Corp., "a subsidiary of Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey)"; Trans-Arabian Pipe Line, Jersey 30 per cent, Texas 30, Standard of California 30, Socony-Vacuum 10; Interprovincial Pipe Line and Imperial Oil). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2 -[^46]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 31-32 (interlocking directorates; Aramco board of three members each from Standard Oil Co. (N.J.), Standard Oil Co. of California and Texas Co., one from Socony-Vacuum and one unaffiliated; summary: four of the seven companies own all the shares of Aramco). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2 -[^47]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 32 (Justice Department report of January 1953: "an indictment could have been returned on the basis of the Federal Trade Commission's staff report and a small number of documents in the possession of the Department of Justice"). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity -[^48]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), pp. 5-6 and 29 (Federal Trade Commission material on production curtailment and on Navy prices). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity -[^49]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 10 (1933 Saudi concession; Standard of New Jersey 30 per cent and Socony 10 per cent of Aramco stock; loans totaling $273,000,000; eighteen-year contracts; ratio 3:3:3:1). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity -[^50]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 7 (Achnacarry Agreement of September 1928; Walter Teagle of Standard, Sir Henri Deterding of Shell and Anglo-Persian; "as is" basis; "Standard's fear of the American antitrust laws" and the parties' decision not to sign the final agreement). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity -[^51]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 118-119 (Aramco in 1944 to 1946; Standard of California and Texas as owners; Ras Tanura refinery; production of 21,296 barrels daily in 1944 and 58,386 in 1945). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2 -[^52]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 119-121 (agreement in principle in December 1946; formal agreements of March 12, 1947; condition of settlement of the red-line controversy by March 12, 1951). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2 -[^53]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 122-124 (stock subscription agreements of March 12, 1947; Jersey $76,500,000 and Socony $25,500,000; guaranty of $102,000,000 in bank loans; effective December 1948 after the withdrawal of the Compagnie Francaise des Petroles suit in November 1948; limited veto; "nearly one-half billion dollars"). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2 -[^54]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, Volume VIII, *The Near East and Africa*, Document 850, Clayton to Dunn, April 7, 1945. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v08/d850 -[^55]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, Volume VIII, *The Near East and Africa*, Document 892, Eddy to the Secretary of State, Jidda, June 21, 1945. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v08/d892 -[^56]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, Volume VIII, *The Near East and Africa*, Document 920, Secretary of State to the Ambassador in the United Kingdom, August 8, 1945. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v08/d920 -[^57]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 33 ("A decision at this time to terminate the pending investigation would be regarded by the world as a confession that our abhorrence of monopoly and restrictive cartel activities does not extend to the world's most important single industry"; letter of Harry S. Truman to Attorney General James P. McGranery, January 12, 1953). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity -[^58]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. V (policies of "prosecution of the International Petroleum Cartel Case" and "creation of the Iranian Consortium"; announcement of July 17, 1952; subpoenas of August 1952 against 21 companies; Acheson memorandum of April 16, 1952). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity -[^59]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VI (Truman letter of January 12, 1953; civil complaint filed April 14, 1953 in the District Court for the District of Columbia naming Standard Oil of New Jersey, Socony-Vacuum, Standard Oil Company of California, The Texas Company and Gulf Oil; transfer to the Southern District of New York at the defendants' request; Hoover appointed; National Security Council Action Memorandum No. 875b of August 6, 1953). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity -[^60]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VII (transfer of authority in October 1953; letter from Harden, December 4, 1953; National Security Council decision of January 14, 1954; opinion of January 20, 1954; clause 28 of the Participants Agreement; Emmerglick memorandum of August 19, 1954). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity -[^61]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 397, Butterworth to the Department of State, London, December 18, 1953. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d397 -[^62]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 61 (memorandum of John Foster Dulles, January 8, 1954, following the meeting of the National Security Council). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity -[^63]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 62 (memorandum to the files, Stanley N. Barnes, January 13, 1954). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity -[^64]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 411, Brownell to the National Security Council, January 20, 1954 (action pending as Civil No. 86-27, Southern District of New York). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d411 -[^65]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 413, Hoover to the Secretary of State, January 21, 1954. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d413 -[^66]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 449, Aldrich to the Department of State, London, April 1, 1954. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d449 -[^67]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 458, Henderson to the Department of State, Tehran, May 8, 1954. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d458 -[^68]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 490, Henderson to the Department of State, Tehran, August 5, 1954 (joint Iranian-British statement: compensation of 25 million pounds payable over ten years, free of interest, payments not to begin before January 1, 1957). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d490 -[^69]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 496, Henderson to the Department of State, Tehran, September 21, 1954 (single-article bill introduced by Finance Minister Amini). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d496 -[^70]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 502, Secretary of State to the Embassy in Iran, October 28, 1954, editorial note (agreement in principle signed August 5, 1954 between the Government of Iran and the International Oil Consortium; ratified by the Iranian Senate on October 28, 1954, 41 votes to 4, with 3 abstentions). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d502 -[^71]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VIII (memorandum to Barnes, September 15, 1954; Statement of Claims of 1961; consent decrees against Gulf, Exxon and Texaco; dismissal as to Mobil and Socal without prejudice; Emmerglick, September 15, 1954). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity -[^72]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Guatemala, Document 189, Memorandum of Telephone Conversation between Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and Director of Central Intelligence Allen Dulles, Washington, June 16, 1954, 11:20 a.m. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54Guat/d189 -[^73]: Colby, Gerard, and Charlotte Dennett. *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon: Nelson Rockefeller and Evangelism in the Age of Oil.* HarperCollins, 1995. -[^74]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), p. 27 (Creole Petroleum Corp., a subsidiary of Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey)). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2 -[^75]: Executive Order 8840, "Establishing the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs in the Executive Office of the President and Defining Its Functions and Duties," July 30, 1941. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-8840-establishing-the-office-the-coordinator-inter-american-affairs-the +[^11]: Ida M. Tarbell, *The History of the Standard Oil Company*, vol. 1 (1904), p. 57. https://archive.org/details/historyofstandar01tarbuoft +[^12]: Tarbell, *The History of the Standard Oil Company*, vol. 1 (1904), p. 168. https://archive.org/details/historyofstandar01tarbuoft +[^13]: Tarbell, *The History of the Standard Oil Company*, vol. 2 (1904), pp. 112 to 113. https://archive.org/details/historyofstandar02tarbuoft +[^14]: U.S. Senate, Mis. Doc. No. 106, 49th Cong., 1st sess. (1886), testimony of L. A. Russell, p. 221, and of L. C. Cole, p. 42. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/SERIALSET-02346_00_00-008-0106-0000 +[^15]: U.S. Senate, Report No. 1490, 49th Cong., 1st sess. (July 15, 1886), https://www.senate.gov/about/origins-foundations/electing-appointing-senators/contested-senate-elections/pdf/75_Jul_15_1886_Payne.pdf; U.S. Senate, "Henry B. Payne (Ohio)," Contested Senate Elections. https://www.senate.gov/about/origins-foundations/electing-appointing-senators/contested-senate-elections/075Henry_Payne.htm +[^16]: "O. H. Payne Dies in His Town Home," *The Evening World* (New York), June 28, 1917, p. 15. https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn83030193/1917-06-28/ed-1/?sp=15 +[^17]: Exxon Mobil Corporation, Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 1999 (filed March 23, 2000), Item 1 ("Exxon Mobil Corporation ('ExxonMobil'), formerly named Exxon Corporation, was incorporated in the State of New Jersey in 1882"; merger of Mobil Corporation into a wholly owned subsidiary of Exxon on November 30, 1999) and SEC header (former conformed name Standard Oil Co of New Jersey, date of name change 1972-11-23), accession no. 0000930661-00-000656. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/34088/0000930661-00-000656.txt +[^18]: Chevron Corporation, Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2024 (filed February 21, 2025), note to Item 1 ("Incorporated in Delaware in 1926 as Standard Oil Company of California, the company adopted the name Chevron Corporation in 1984 and ChevronTexaco Corporation in 2001. In 2005, ChevronTexaco Corporation changed its name to Chevron Corporation"), accession no. 0000093410-25-000009. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/93410/000009341025000009/cvx-20241231.htm +[^19]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VI ("Standard Oil of New Jersey (now Exxon), Socony-Vacuum Oil Company (now Mobil), Standard Oil Company of California (Socal), The Texas Company (now Texaco), and Gulf Oil Corporation (Gulf)"). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity +[^20]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), statement of Thurman W. Arnold, Assistant Attorney General, March 26, 1942, p. 4309 (the four agreements of November 9, 1929; "division of the fields," four-party, coordination and German sales agreements; Exhibits 360 to 364-A, appendix pp. 4561-4580). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit +[^21]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, pp. 4309-4310 (allocation of fields; I.G. turning over patents directly concerning oil production, including synthetic gasoline). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit +[^22]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4309 (two patent pools, one for synthetic rubber and chemicals controlled by Germany, one for synthetic gasoline controlled by Standard Oil). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit +[^23]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, pp. 4307-4308 ("these arrangements were not entered into with any desire to help Germany. The sole motive was an attempt on the part of the Standard Oil to get a protected market, to eliminate independent competition, and, finally, to restrict world production in order to maintain that control"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit +[^24]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4310 (letter signed by Mr. Teagle, Exhibit 367, appendix p. 4584); U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 7 ("Walter Teagle of Standard"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit +[^25]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, pp. 4310-4311 (The Hague Memorandum; letter of Frank A. Howard of October 12, 1939, Exhibit 368, appendix pp. 4584-4585). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit +[^26]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), testimony of W.S. Farish, March 31, 1942, p. 4374 (Standard-I.G. and Jasco holdings of 80 and 50 per cent; patents originated with I.G.; legal title left in I.G.). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit +[^27]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Farish testimony, p. 4375 (assignment to an American trustee; German 20 per cent interest in Standard-I.G. bought at "book value ($20,000)"; Jasco settlement). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit +[^28]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 1, "Vesting of Property of I.G. Farbenindustrie, Standard-I.G. Co., and Others," signed by Leo T. Crowley, March 25, 1942, 7 *Federal Register* 2417 (March 31, 1942) (Exhibit A, items 1 to 14 and schedules A to D of patents; issued under Executive Order 9095, 7 F.R. 1971). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-03-31/pdf/FR-1942-03-31.pdf +[^29]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, *Annual Report for the Period March 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943* (Washington: GPO, 1943), Exhibit A, "List of Vesting Orders Issued by the Office of Alien Property Custodian, Mar. 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943," first entry (interest of I.G. Farbenindustrie in Standard Catalytic Co. and Jasco Inc.). https://archive.org/details/officeofalienpro00unit +[^30]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, *Annual Report for the Period March 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943* (Washington: GPO, 1943), p. 97 (German interests in American patents and cartels; "acquired a substantial influence in American industry"; synthetic rubber among the industries listed). https://archive.org/details/officeofalienpro00unit +[^31]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), p. 325 and note (agreement of 1928 among Standard (New Jersey), Shell and Anglo-Iranian in Germany; marketing subsidiaries of Leuna and I.G. Farben; Deutsche Gasolin A.G. "owned 50 percent by Standard (Now Jersey), and 50 percent by I. G. Farbenindustrie"). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2 +[^32]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4312 ("I. G. Farben had the deciding voice on policy questions with respect to buna synthetic rubber"; four rubber companies and one chemical company, 1932 to 1934; Goodrich negotiations of 1932). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit +[^33]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4312 (letter of Frank A. Howard to E.J. Sadler, February 6, 1940, Exhibit 371, appendix p. 4589); the same letter at pp. 4589-4590. https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit +[^34]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4312 (butyl licensing). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit +[^35]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4307 (Exhibit 359, release issued by Standard Oil on March 25, 1942, appendix p. 4560-4561; "The developments made under these agreements have advanced the progress of American industry and its ability to meet the war emergency"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit +[^36]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4308 (refusal to let the British have a rubber sample as late as 1941). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit +[^37]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Exhibit 441, information in the District Court of the United States for the District of New Jersey, appendix pp. 4693-4697 (defendants; Standard and General Motors each owning 50 per cent of the Ethyl Gasoline Corporation, "sole producer of tetraethyl lead," p. 4697). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit +[^38]: Ethyl Gasoline Corp. v. United States, 309 U.S. 436 (1940), Harvard Caselaw Access Project, https://static.case.law/us/309/cases/0436-01.json. +[^39]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Howard letter of February 6, 1940 (Exhibit 371), appendix pp. 4589-4590 (Ethyl G.m.b.H. "owned 50% by the British Associated Ethyl Co. and 50% by I. G. Farbenindustrie," payment of "nearly $900,000"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit +[^40]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), committee summary, pp. 4825-4826 (memorandum signed by E.J. Gohr, August 1, 1939, Exhibit S. 69, appendix p. 4907; letter of R.P. Russell to E.V. Murphree, August 11, 1939, on the process design of the "D. A. P. G. catalytic cracking plant"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit +[^41]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Farish statement, March 31, 1942, p. 4360 (items 3 and 4 of the charges Farish listed; "This is true and as a German corporation, operating in Germany ... it could not have done otherwise"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit +[^42]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), committee summary, pp. 4827-4828 (memorandum of Frank A. Howard to Messrs. Teagle and Farish, Exhibit S. 75, appendix p. 4916; "Thus Standard met with difficulties in developing aviation gasoline for our own Army because of the cartel agreement," p. 4828). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit +[^43]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), testimony of Adolf A. Berle Jr., Assistant Secretary of State, April 3, 1942, pp. 4506-4508 (Lati and Condor; request of March 1941; conference of April 14, 1941). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit +[^44]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold, March 27, 1942, p. 4345 (information, complaint and consent decree filed "day before yesterday"; nolo contendere; fines of $50,000; exchange with the chairman); consent decree of March 25, 1942 indexed at p. 4346. https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit +[^45]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold, pp. 4346-4347 (royalty-free licensing under the rubber and toluol patents; transfer of know-how; no provision for the Attorney General or the court to pass on future relations with I.G.; "in the sum of millions of dollars and at the cost of its future domination of the industry," p. 4347). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit +[^46]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold, p. 4328 (royalty-free licensing and compulsory licensing after the war; cost to the company "possibly $10,000,000. I think their release says $6,000,000"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit +[^47]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Exhibit 440, "Final Judgment," United States v. Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) et al., District Court of the United States for the District of New Jersey, appendix pp. 4677-4687 (defendants named at p. 4677; paragraph (14), dissolution of Hydro Patents Co. and Hydro Engineering and Chemical Co. one year after entry, p. 4684; Alien Property Custodian consent and compulsory licensing, p. 4686). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit +[^48]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Exhibit 441, information, paragraphs 34 and 35 (Hydro Patents Company and the Mutual Licensing Plan of July 11, 1930), appendix p. 4702. https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit +[^49]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), pp. 29-33 (Report of the Attorney General to the National Security Council relative to the grand jury investigation of the international oil cartel, January 1953): pp. 29-30 (Federal Trade Commission resolution of December 2, 1949; subpoenas duces tecum of January 1950; staff report filed October 1951; instruction of June 23, 1952); p. 31 (cartel since 1928); p. 32 (committee of State, CIA, Defense and Justice). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity +[^50]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), p. 24, Table 9 (crude oil production of seven international companies, 1949: Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey) 1,317.7 thousand barrels daily). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2 +[^51]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 27-28 (pipeline ownership: Creole Petroleum Corp., "a subsidiary of Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey)"; Trans-Arabian Pipe Line, Jersey 30 per cent, Texas 30, Standard of California 30, Socony-Vacuum 10; Interprovincial Pipe Line and Imperial Oil). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2 +[^52]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 31-32 (interlocking directorates; Aramco board of three members each from Standard Oil Co. (N.J.), Standard Oil Co. of California and Texas Co., one from Socony-Vacuum and one unaffiliated; summary: four of the seven companies own all the shares of Aramco). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2 +[^53]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 32 (Justice Department report of January 1953: "an indictment could have been returned on the basis of the Federal Trade Commission's staff report and a small number of documents in the possession of the Department of Justice"). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity +[^54]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), pp. 5-6 and 29 (Federal Trade Commission material on production curtailment and on Navy prices). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity +[^55]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 10 (1933 Saudi concession; Standard of New Jersey 30 per cent and Socony 10 per cent of Aramco stock; loans totaling $273,000,000; eighteen-year contracts; ratio 3:3:3:1). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity +[^56]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 7 (Achnacarry Agreement of September 1928; Walter Teagle of Standard, Sir Henri Deterding of Shell and Anglo-Persian; "as is" basis; "Standard's fear of the American antitrust laws" and the parties' decision not to sign the final agreement). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity +[^57]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 118-119 (Aramco in 1944 to 1946; Standard of California and Texas as owners; Ras Tanura refinery; production of 21,296 barrels daily in 1944 and 58,386 in 1945). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2 +[^58]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 119-121 (agreement in principle in December 1946; formal agreements of March 12, 1947; condition of settlement of the red-line controversy by March 12, 1951). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2 +[^59]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 122-124 (stock subscription agreements of March 12, 1947; Jersey $76,500,000 and Socony $25,500,000; guaranty of $102,000,000 in bank loans; effective December 1948 after the withdrawal of the Compagnie Francaise des Petroles suit in November 1948; limited veto; "nearly one-half billion dollars"). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2 +[^60]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, Volume VIII, *The Near East and Africa*, Document 850, Clayton to Dunn, April 7, 1945. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v08/d850 +[^61]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, Volume VIII, *The Near East and Africa*, Document 892, Eddy to the Secretary of State, Jidda, June 21, 1945. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v08/d892 +[^62]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, Volume VIII, *The Near East and Africa*, Document 920, Secretary of State to the Ambassador in the United Kingdom, August 8, 1945. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v08/d920 +[^63]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 33 ("A decision at this time to terminate the pending investigation would be regarded by the world as a confession that our abhorrence of monopoly and restrictive cartel activities does not extend to the world's most important single industry"; letter of Harry S. Truman to Attorney General James P. McGranery, January 12, 1953). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity +[^64]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. V (policies of "prosecution of the International Petroleum Cartel Case" and "creation of the Iranian Consortium"; announcement of July 17, 1952; subpoenas of August 1952 against 21 companies; Acheson memorandum of April 16, 1952). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity +[^65]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VI (Truman letter of January 12, 1953; civil complaint filed April 14, 1953 in the District Court for the District of Columbia naming Standard Oil of New Jersey, Socony-Vacuum, Standard Oil Company of California, The Texas Company and Gulf Oil; transfer to the Southern District of New York at the defendants' request; Hoover appointed; National Security Council Action Memorandum No. 875b of August 6, 1953). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity +[^66]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VII (transfer of authority in October 1953; letter from Harden, December 4, 1953; National Security Council decision of January 14, 1954; opinion of January 20, 1954; clause 28 of the Participants Agreement; Emmerglick memorandum of August 19, 1954). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity +[^67]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 397, Butterworth to the Department of State, London, December 18, 1953. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d397 +[^68]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 61 (memorandum of John Foster Dulles, January 8, 1954, following the meeting of the National Security Council). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity +[^69]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 62 (memorandum to the files, Stanley N. Barnes, January 13, 1954). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity +[^70]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 411, Brownell to the National Security Council, January 20, 1954 (action pending as Civil No. 86-27, Southern District of New York). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d411 +[^71]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 413, Hoover to the Secretary of State, January 21, 1954. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d413 +[^72]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 449, Aldrich to the Department of State, London, April 1, 1954. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d449 +[^73]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 458, Henderson to the Department of State, Tehran, May 8, 1954. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d458 +[^74]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 490, Henderson to the Department of State, Tehran, August 5, 1954 (joint Iranian-British statement: compensation of 25 million pounds payable over ten years, free of interest, payments not to begin before January 1, 1957). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d490 +[^75]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 496, Henderson to the Department of State, Tehran, September 21, 1954 (single-article bill introduced by Finance Minister Amini). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d496 +[^76]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 502, Secretary of State to the Embassy in Iran, October 28, 1954, editorial note (agreement in principle signed August 5, 1954 between the Government of Iran and the International Oil Consortium; ratified by the Iranian Senate on October 28, 1954, 41 votes to 4, with 3 abstentions). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d502 +[^77]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VIII (memorandum to Barnes, September 15, 1954; Statement of Claims of 1961; consent decrees against Gulf, Exxon and Texaco; dismissal as to Mobil and Socal without prejudice; Emmerglick, September 15, 1954). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity +[^78]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Guatemala, Document 189, Memorandum of Telephone Conversation between Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and Director of Central Intelligence Allen Dulles, Washington, June 16, 1954, 11:20 a.m. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54Guat/d189 +[^79]: Colby, Gerard, and Charlotte Dennett. *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon: Nelson Rockefeller and Evangelism in the Age of Oil.* HarperCollins, 1995. +[^80]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), p. 27 (Creole Petroleum Corp., a subsidiary of Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey)). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2 +[^81]: Executive Order 8840, "Establishing the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs in the Executive Office of the President and Defining Its Functions and Duties," July 30, 1941. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-8840-establishing-the-office-the-coordinator-inter-american-affairs-the diff --git a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Trilateral Commission.md b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Trilateral Commission.md index 60e6216d..21e8e881 100644 --- a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Trilateral Commission.md +++ b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Trilateral Commission.md @@ -128,8 +128,15 @@ relations: end: 1978 role: "member; resigned in 1978" fn: 11 + - type: funded + with: "[[Weyerhaeuser family]]" + reverse: true + start: 1973 + end: 1980 + role: "Weyerhaeuser Company listed among corporate financial supporters, as of March 31, 1980" + fn: 12 created: 2026-10-01 -updated: 2026-10-01 +updated: 2026-10-26 --- The Trilateral Commission is a private organization of business, political, labor and academic figures from North America, Western Europe and Japan (later the Asia Pacific), with regional offices and a published series of task force reports. diff --git a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Yale University.md b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Yale University.md index a21efd45..8f47e65c 100644 --- a/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Yale University.md +++ b/20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Yale University.md @@ -30,83 +30,89 @@ relations: role: "assistant professor of English; OSS Library Project collector in Istanbul from April 1943; returned to Yale in the summer of 1946" start: 1943 end: 1946 - fn: 27 + fn: 31 - type: employed_by with: "[[Richard Bissell]]" reverse: true role: "doctorate in economics, 1939; taught economics at Yale before moving to MIT in 1942" start: 1939 end: 1942 - fn: 36 + fn: 40 - type: employed_by with: "[[Sherman Kent]]" reverse: true role: "history professor before 1941; left for the OSS Research and Analysis Branch; returned in 1947 or 1949 (the CIA essays give both); left for the CIA in 1950" start: 1933 end: 1950 - fn: 35 + fn: 39 - type: employed_by with: "[[Mark A. May]]" reverse: true role: "professor of educational psychology; director of the Institute of Human Relations, 1935 to 1961" start: 1927 end: 1960 - fn: 39 + fn: 43 - type: employed_by with: "[[Stanley Milgram]]" reverse: true role: "conducted the obedience experiments in the Yale interaction laboratory; at Harvard by 1963" start: 1960 end: 1963 - fn: 42 + fn: 46 - type: employed_by with: "[[Myron S. Malkin]]" reverse: true role: "member of the physics faculty" start: 1952 end: 1961 - fn: 51 + fn: 55 - type: employed_by with: "[[José M. R. Delgado]]" reverse: true role: "Department of Psychiatry; came to Yale in 1952 as an instructor" start: 1952 - fn: 44 + fn: 48 - type: employed_by with: "[[Robert B. Livingston]]" reverse: true role: "School of Medicine, instructor to assistant professor of physiology under John F. Fulton" start: 1946 end: 1952 - fn: 45 + fn: 49 - type: employed_by with: "[[Robert Byck]]" reverse: true role: "Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine; testified before the House Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control on July 26, 1979" start: 1979 end: 1979 - fn: 56 + fn: 60 - type: employed_by with: "[[José A. Cabranes]]" reverse: true role: "general counsel and director of government relations" start: 1975 end: 1979 - fn: 62 + fn: 67 - type: head_of with: "[[Richard Levin]]" reverse: true role: "twenty-second president" start: 1993 end: 2013 - fn: 81 + fn: 86 - type: funded with: "[[Thiel Foundation]]" reverse: true role: "$25,000 grant to Yale University for education, 2006" start: 2006 end: 2006 - fn: 80 + fn: 85 + - type: appointed + with: "[[William Sloane Coffin]]" + reverse: true + start: 1958 + role: "chaplain" + fn: 103 --- Yale University is a private university in [[New Haven, Connecticut]], chartered by the [[Connecticut Colony]] in 1701 as a collegiate school. Its senior society [[Skull and Bones]], its wartime faculty recruited into the [[Office of Strategic Services]] and the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], its psychology, psychiatry and neurophysiology laboratories, and its alumni in the federal courts and the executive branch appear in the records of intelligence services, behavioral research, parapsychology, drug policy and finance. @@ -131,166 +137,296 @@ A special act of the [[Connecticut General Assembly]] in 1856 incorporated the R In 2017 a pro se complaint, *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340 (S.D. Tex.), named Yale University, the Russell Trust Association, George H.W. Bush and Willard Mitt Romney as defendants. It alleged that the society holds the skull of [[Pancho Villa]] and asked for its return for burial in Mexico City. The court dismissed it for lack of subject matter jurisdiction on December 18, 2017, and the Fifth Circuit dismissed the appeal on February 28, 2018.[^24] In the United States District Court for the District of Columbia, twenty descendants of Geronimo sued Yale University and the Order of Skull and Bones in 2009 over the removal of Geronimo's remains, which the opinion places "in or around 1918." Judge [[Richard W. Roberts]] dismissed the complaint as to all defendants in a memorandum opinion of July 27, 2010.[^25] The Yale Alumni Magazine reported in 2006 a letter of June 7, 1918 from one member to another stating that the skull of Geronimo had been taken from [[Fort Sill]] and was "safe inside" the society's building.[^26] +The senior society [[Wolf's Head]] was incorporated as the Phelps Trust Association, a date of 1886 being given for the incorporation in [[George Wilson Pierson|George W. Pierson]]'s history of the college, and its Prospect Street hall of 1884 to 1885 was built by McKim, Mead & White for the Phelps Association.[^27] The university's records carry other [[Phelps family|Phelps]] names of the same decade: a bequest of $50,000 from the alumni trustee [[William Walter Phelps]] (Yale 1860, trustee 1872 to 1892) toward Phelps Hall, with $20,000 from his family, and the Phelps Memorial Gateway of 1895.[^28] [[Edward John Phelps]], United States minister to Great Britain, was Kent Professor of Law at Yale from 1881 until his death in 1900, and a professorship of commercial law and contracts bearing his name was founded in 1887.[^29] [[Anson Phelps Stokes Jr.]] (Yale 1896) was Secretary of the University from 1899 to 1921.[^30] + ### The Library Project, the Research and Analysis Branch and X-2 -Yale's wartime collection of enemy publications served as cover for an Office of Strategic Services operation. In April 1943 Joseph Toy Curtiss, an assistant professor of English, sailed for Istanbul with a $25,000 fund to acquire books and war material for Yale and other libraries; he had been recruited to collect intelligence on the Axis powers, and the operation was called the Library Project. [[Donald Downes]], an OSS officer and Yale graduate, formed the plan after reading a notice in the Yale Library Gazette. Only Curtiss and the collection's two curators, [[Russell Pruden]] and [[Thomas Mendenhall]], knew the purpose at Yale; President [[Charles Seymour]] was not told. The OSS sent the money to [[Walter Pforzheimer|Walter L. Pforzheimer]], a trustee of the Yale Library Associates, who presented it to the university as a gift from anonymous alumni, and two sets of accounts were kept, one for Yale and one for the OSS. The Library Project remained secret until 1953, and Curtiss returned to Yale in the summer of 1946 and taught there for twenty more years.[^27] The Yale research archivist who wrote that account cites [[Robin W. Winks]], a Yale history professor, and his book *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* for the Yale connections of the new intelligence service.[^28] A Walter Pforzheimer received a letter from the chief investigator of the [[Senate Internal Security Subcommittee]] on May 9, 1955, and a letter from [[Daniel O. Graham]] on September 23, 1980 enclosing a partial membership list of the [[National Strategy Committee]]; the records found do not state whether that recipient is the Yale trustee of the same name.[^29] +Yale's wartime collection of enemy publications served as cover for an Office of Strategic Services operation. In April 1943 Joseph Toy Curtiss, an assistant professor of English, sailed for Istanbul with a $25,000 fund to acquire books and war material for Yale and other libraries; he had been recruited to collect intelligence on the Axis powers, and the operation was called the Library Project. [[Donald Downes]], an OSS officer and Yale graduate, formed the plan after reading a notice in the Yale Library Gazette. Only Curtiss and the collection's two curators, [[Russell Pruden]] and [[Thomas Mendenhall]], knew the purpose at Yale; President [[Charles Seymour]] was not told. The OSS sent the money to [[Walter Pforzheimer|Walter L. Pforzheimer]], a trustee of the Yale Library Associates, who presented it to the university as a gift from anonymous alumni, and two sets of accounts were kept, one for Yale and one for the OSS. The Library Project remained secret until 1953, and Curtiss returned to Yale in the summer of 1946 and taught there for twenty more years.[^31] The Yale research archivist who wrote that account cites [[Robin W. Winks]], a Yale history professor, and his book *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* for the Yale connections of the new intelligence service.[^32] A Walter Pforzheimer received a letter from the chief investigator of the [[Senate Internal Security Subcommittee]] on May 9, 1955, and a letter from [[Daniel O. Graham]] on September 23, 1980 enclosing a partial membership list of the [[National Strategy Committee]]; the records found do not state whether that recipient is the Yale trustee of the same name.[^33] -[[Norman Holmes Pearson]], a Yale University professor, headed [[X-2]], the OSS counterintelligence branch, in London, according to a review in the CIA's Studies in Intelligence of the memoirs of Richard W. Cutler, a Yale-educated lawyer who built X-2's agent vetting section at Pearson's direction.[^30] [[James Jesus Angleton]] (class of 1941) entered Yale in 1937, majored in English literature, and edited the poetry review [[Furioso]], which published [[T.S. Eliot]] and [[Ezra Pound]]; he entered [[Harvard Law School]] and then joined the Army in 1943.[^31] According to [[Tom Mangold]]'s biography, he co-founded the magazine with the poet [[Reed Whittemore]] and developed close ties to Eliot and Pound during those years.[^32] [[David Robarge]] wrote in the CIA's Studies in Intelligence in 2009 that Winks's chapter "The Theorist" in *Cloak and Gown*, partly derived from conversations with Angleton, was "the most insightful biographical sketch of Angleton yet written," and described the argument of the scholar David Holzman that the New Criticism prominent at Yale when Angleton attended shaped his approach to counterintelligence.[^33] +[[Norman Holmes Pearson]], a Yale University professor, headed [[X-2]], the OSS counterintelligence branch, in London, according to a review in the CIA's Studies in Intelligence of the memoirs of Richard W. Cutler, a Yale-educated lawyer who built X-2's agent vetting section at Pearson's direction.[^34] [[James Jesus Angleton]] (class of 1941) entered Yale in 1937, majored in English literature, and edited the poetry review [[Furioso]], which published [[T.S. Eliot]] and [[Ezra Pound]]; he entered [[Harvard Law School]] and then joined the Army in 1943.[^35] According to [[Tom Mangold]]'s biography, he co-founded the magazine with the poet [[Reed Whittemore]] and developed close ties to Eliot and Pound during those years.[^36] [[David Robarge]] wrote in the CIA's Studies in Intelligence in 2009 that Winks's chapter "The Theorist" in *Cloak and Gown*, partly derived from conversations with Angleton, was "the most insightful biographical sketch of Angleton yet written," and described the argument of the scholar David Holzman that the New Criticism prominent at Yale when Angleton attended shaped his approach to counterintelligence.[^37] -[[Sherman Kent]] was born in Chicago in 1903, graduated from Yale in 1926 and received a Ph.D. in history there in 1933. In 1941 he left Yale for the Research and Analysis Branch of the Coordinator of Information, later the OSS, and in January 1943 became chief of its Europe-Africa Division. The CIA's collected essays on his years as chairman of the [[Board of National Estimates]], 1952 to 1967, say that his Yale classes had been popular because his enthusiasm brought history to life, and that he bestowed D's and F's "with abandon" on sham or lack of preparation.[^34] One essay says he served on the staff of the [[National War College]] before "returning to Yale in 1947," where he wrote *[[Strategic Intelligence for American World Policy]]*, published in 1949, and that a year after its publication he left Yale for the CIA in the wake of the [[Korean War]]. The editor's note to another essay says Kent "did not return to teach at Yale until 1949," having taught at the National War College in 1946-1947 and held a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1947-1948, and that he joined the CIA's Office of National Estimates in late 1950 under [[William L. Langer]].[^35] +[[Sherman Kent]] was born in Chicago in 1903, graduated from Yale in 1926 and received a Ph.D. in history there in 1933. In 1941 he left Yale for the Research and Analysis Branch of the Coordinator of Information, later the OSS, and in January 1943 became chief of its Europe-Africa Division. The CIA's collected essays on his years as chairman of the [[Board of National Estimates]], 1952 to 1967, say that his Yale classes had been popular because his enthusiasm brought history to life, and that he bestowed D's and F's "with abandon" on sham or lack of preparation.[^38] One essay says he served on the staff of the [[National War College]] before "returning to Yale in 1947," where he wrote *[[Strategic Intelligence for American World Policy]]*, published in 1949, and that a year after its publication he left Yale for the CIA in the wake of the [[Korean War]]. The editor's note to another essay says Kent "did not return to teach at Yale until 1949," having taught at the National War College in 1946-1947 and held a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1947-1948, and that he joined the CIA's Office of National Estimates in late 1950 under [[William L. Langer]].[^39] -[[Richard Bissell]] took a doctorate at Yale in 1939 and taught economics there before moving to the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] in 1942, according to the CIA's official history of the U-2 program by [[Gregory W. Pedlow]] and [[Donald E. Welzenbach]].[^36] [[Tracy Barnes]] graduated from Yale and Harvard Law School before joining the OSS, and served in Europe as a paramilitary operative.[^37] +[[Richard Bissell]] took a doctorate at Yale in 1939 and taught economics there before moving to the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] in 1942, according to the CIA's official history of the U-2 program by [[Gregory W. Pedlow]] and [[Donald E. Welzenbach]].[^40] [[Tracy Barnes]] graduated from Yale and Harvard Law School before joining the OSS, and served in Europe as a paramilitary operative.[^41] ### The 1958 Conference on America's Human Resources -A letter of February 7, 1958 from [[Howard L. Bevis]], chairman of the [[President's Committee on Scientists and Engineers]], to [[Allen Dulles]], then Director of Central Intelligence, thanks Dulles for addressing the Conference on America's Human Resources at Yale on February 3 and 4, 1958 and for an address that "was a distinct contribution." The enclosed list of participants names [[Max Ascoli]] ("Editor and Publisher, The Reporter," of [[The Reporter]]), the publisher [[William Benton]], [[Lloyd Berkner]] of Associated Universities, and [[Frank H. Bartholomew]], president of [[United Press]]. The program's campus map locates the Institute of Human Relations, the Cowles Foundation, the Institute of Far Eastern Languages and the society buildings Skull and Bones, Scroll and Key, Wolf's Head, Book and Snake and the Elihu Club.[^38] +A letter of February 7, 1958 from [[Howard L. Bevis]], chairman of the [[President's Committee on Scientists and Engineers]], to [[Allen Dulles]], then Director of Central Intelligence, thanks Dulles for addressing the Conference on America's Human Resources at Yale on February 3 and 4, 1958 and for an address that "was a distinct contribution." The enclosed list of participants names [[Max Ascoli]] ("Editor and Publisher, The Reporter," of [[The Reporter]]), the publisher [[William Benton]], [[Lloyd Berkner]] of Associated Universities, and [[Frank H. Bartholomew]], president of [[United Press]]. The program's campus map locates the Institute of Human Relations, the Cowles Foundation, the Institute of Far Eastern Languages and the society buildings Skull and Bones, Scroll and Key, Wolf's Head, Book and Snake and the Elihu Club.[^42] ### The Institute of Human Relations and behavioral research -The Yale Institute of Human Relations was first organized in 1929 to integrate teaching at Yale on the study of man. [[Mark A. May]], professor of educational psychology at Yale from 1927 to 1960, was its executive secretary and then its director from 1935 to 1961; its work addressed juvenile delinquency, psychotherapy, cultural conflicts and child rearing. May was a scientific consultant to the War Department in the Second World War on psychological warfare and the psychological effects of weaponry, conducted research for the Office of Scientific Research and Development on psychological damage in soldiers caused by different weapons, and after the war served on the Advisory Commission on Information of the [[United States Information Agency]], chairing it from 1952; Yale holds his papers.[^39] [[Ernst Kris]] joined Yale's Child Study Center in 1949 and became professor of psychology there in 1951 and of psychiatry in 1953, after attending the September 1947 Project RAND conference of social scientists.[^40] +The Yale Institute of Human Relations was first organized in 1929 to integrate teaching at Yale on the study of man. [[Mark A. May]], professor of educational psychology at Yale from 1927 to 1960, was its executive secretary and then its director from 1935 to 1961; its work addressed juvenile delinquency, psychotherapy, cultural conflicts and child rearing. May was a scientific consultant to the War Department in the Second World War on psychological warfare and the psychological effects of weaponry, conducted research for the Office of Scientific Research and Development on psychological damage in soldiers caused by different weapons, and after the war served on the Advisory Commission on Information of the [[United States Information Agency]], chairing it from 1952; Yale holds his papers.[^43] [[Ernst Kris]] joined Yale's Child Study Center in 1949 and became professor of psychology there in 1951 and of psychiatry in 1953, after attending the September 1947 Project RAND conference of social scientists.[^44] -The congressional record of the CIA's behavioral modification program cites Yale work on drug interrogation. A survey titled "'Truth' Drugs in Interrogation," which [[Stansfield Turner]], Director of Central Intelligence, supplied for the record of the August 3, 1977 joint Senate hearing on [[Project MKULTRA]], reports that "Redlich and his associates at Yale" administered sodium amytal to nine volunteers who had invented cover stories for guilty episodes in their pasts, and cites F. C. Redlich, L. J. Ravitz and G. H. Dession, "Narcoanalysis and truth," *American Journal of Psychiatry* 107 (1951).[^41] +The congressional record of the CIA's behavioral modification program cites Yale work on drug interrogation. A survey titled "'Truth' Drugs in Interrogation," which [[Stansfield Turner]], Director of Central Intelligence, supplied for the record of the August 3, 1977 joint Senate hearing on [[Project MKULTRA]], reports that "Redlich and his associates at Yale" administered sodium amytal to nine volunteers who had invented cover stories for guilty episodes in their pasts, and cites F. C. Redlich, L. J. Ravitz and G. H. Dession, "Narcoanalysis and truth," *American Journal of Psychiatry* 107 (1951).[^45] -[[Stanley Milgram]] described his obedience experiments in the *Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology* in 1963 while "Now at Harvard University." The paper reports that the subjects were 40 men aged 20 to 50 drawn from New Haven and surrounding communities by newspaper advertisement and direct mail, who believed they were taking part in a study of memory and learning at Yale; that they were paid $4.50; and that the experiment was conducted "on the grounds of Yale University in the elegant interaction laboratory." Of the 40, 26 obeyed the experimenter's orders to the end, up to the 450-volt switch on a 30-switch shock generator, while fourteen Yale seniors asked beforehand to predict the behavior of 100 hypothetical subjects estimated from 0 to 3 percent, with a mean of 1.2 percent. Milgram acknowledged a grant (NSF G-17916) from the [[National Science Foundation]] and a 1960 grant for exploratory studies from the Higgins Fund at Yale, thanked the research assistants [[Alan C. Elms]] and Jon Wayland, and wrote that he gave the National Science Foundation a first report in January 1961 and first submitted the article to the journal on December 27, 1961.[^42] +[[Stanley Milgram]] described his obedience experiments in the *Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology* in 1963 while "Now at Harvard University." The paper reports that the subjects were 40 men aged 20 to 50 drawn from New Haven and surrounding communities by newspaper advertisement and direct mail, who believed they were taking part in a study of memory and learning at Yale; that they were paid $4.50; and that the experiment was conducted "on the grounds of Yale University in the elegant interaction laboratory." Of the 40, 26 obeyed the experimenter's orders to the end, up to the 450-volt switch on a 30-switch shock generator, while fourteen Yale seniors asked beforehand to predict the behavior of 100 hypothetical subjects estimated from 0 to 3 percent, with a mean of 1.2 percent. Milgram acknowledged a grant (NSF G-17916) from the [[National Science Foundation]] and a 1960 grant for exploratory studies from the Higgins Fund at Yale, thanked the research assistants [[Alan C. Elms]] and Jon Wayland, and wrote that he gave the National Science Foundation a first report in January 1961 and first submitted the article to the journal on December 27, 1961.[^46] ### Neuroelectric research, psychoenergetics and the STARGATE file -[[José M. R. Delgado]] is listed as a contributor to the 1971 proceedings of the Fourth Annual National Conference of the [[Neuroelectric Society]], held in San Antonio, Texas, with the affiliation "Department of Psychiatry, Yale University." The proceedings, edited by [[Norman L. Wulfsohn]] and [[Anthony Sances]], Jr., were filed as CIA-RDP96-00787R000500200005-2 in the [[Project Stargate]] collection.[^43] An early proposal titled "Direct Brain Perception," submitted by [[Edgar Mitchell]] and prepared by [[Andrija Puharich]], includes biographical sketches of its consultants. One states that Delgado "came to Yale in 1952 as an Instructor."[^44] +[[José M. R. Delgado]] is listed as a contributor to the 1971 proceedings of the Fourth Annual National Conference of the [[Neuroelectric Society]], held in San Antonio, Texas, with the affiliation "Department of Psychiatry, Yale University." The proceedings, edited by [[Norman L. Wulfsohn]] and [[Anthony Sances]], Jr., were filed as CIA-RDP96-00787R000500200005-2 in the [[Project Stargate]] collection.[^47] An early proposal titled "Direct Brain Perception," submitted by [[Edgar Mitchell]] and prepared by [[Andrija Puharich]], includes biographical sketches of its consultants. One states that Delgado "came to Yale in 1952 as an Instructor."[^48] -The 1992 "Phenomenological Research and Analysis Technical Volume" of [[Science Applications International Corporation]], by [[Edwin May]] and Wanda L. W. Luke, lists [[Robert B. Livingston]], M.D., of the [[University of California, San Diego]] as a member of its Institutional Review Board with [[Louis Jolyon West|Louis J. West]] of the [[University of California, Los Angeles]], and prints Livingston's 1991 curriculum vitae: Yale University School of Medicine, instructor to assistant professor of physiology under [[John F. Fulton]], 1946-1952, with a publication list that includes work "with José Delgado." The same volume adds Professor [[Steven A. Hillyard]] of UC San Diego to its Scientific Oversight Committee and states that his resume is included in its Section IV, which holds a curriculum vitae recording a Yale Ph.D. in psychology in 1968 with a traineeship under [[Robert Galambos]].[^45] +The 1992 "Phenomenological Research and Analysis Technical Volume" of [[Science Applications International Corporation]], by [[Edwin May]] and Wanda L. W. Luke, lists [[Robert B. Livingston]], M.D., of the [[University of California, San Diego]] as a member of its Institutional Review Board with [[Louis Jolyon West|Louis J. West]] of the [[University of California, Los Angeles]], and prints Livingston's 1991 curriculum vitae: Yale University School of Medicine, instructor to assistant professor of physiology under [[John F. Fulton]], 1946-1952, with a publication list that includes work "with José Delgado." The same volume adds Professor [[Steven A. Hillyard]] of UC San Diego to its Scientific Oversight Committee and states that his resume is included in its Section IV, which holds a curriculum vitae recording a Yale Ph.D. in psychology in 1968 with a traineeship under [[Robert Galambos]].[^49] -[[Annie Jacobsen]] wrote that Puharich's theory of an energy linking the brain and the cells gained traction when [[Lloyd H. Beck]] and [[Walter S. Miles]] of Yale reported that the olfactory nerve of a bee radiated energy in the infrared range.[^46] [[Harold Saxton Burr]] published "Diurnal Potentials in the Maple Tree" in the [[Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine]] in July 1945.[^47] A 1984 interim report on a geophysical effects study, prepared by [[Harold Puthoff]] and Marsha Adams of [[SRI International]] for the U.S. Army Intelligence and Security Command under the [[Center Lane]] special access program, states that its ultra-low-frequency measurements "were stimulated by the work of Burr on relatively steady-state tree potentials," and its reference list cites Burr's 1945 and 1947 papers in the Yale journal and his 1956 paper in *Science*.[^48] +[[Annie Jacobsen]] wrote that Puharich's theory of an energy linking the brain and the cells gained traction when [[Lloyd H. Beck]] and [[Walter S. Miles]] of Yale reported that the olfactory nerve of a bee radiated energy in the infrared range.[^50] [[Harold Saxton Burr]] published "Diurnal Potentials in the Maple Tree" in the [[Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine]] in July 1945.[^51] A 1984 interim report on a geophysical effects study, prepared by [[Harold Puthoff]] and Marsha Adams of [[SRI International]] for the U.S. Army Intelligence and Security Command under the [[Center Lane]] special access program, states that its ultra-low-frequency measurements "were stimulated by the work of Burr on relatively steady-state tree potentials," and its reference list cites Burr's 1945 and 1947 papers in the Yale journal and his 1956 paper in *Science*.[^52] -A survey of international parapsychology research, held in the CIA reading room as a chapter of the book *[[New Psychic Frontiers]]*, lists Yale University, New Haven, among the institutions with parapsychology activity. The entry names [[Henry Margenau]] and [[Dieter Brill]] as the professors involved.[^49] A Defense Intelligence Agency report of August 7, 1984, titled "Psychoenergetics Research," prints an Exhibit 7 headed "Universities Involved in Courses, Research, or Degrees in Parapsychology," on which Yale University appears on the same line as the University of California, Berkeley.[^50] +A survey of international parapsychology research, held in the CIA reading room as a chapter of the book *[[New Psychic Frontiers]]*, lists Yale University, New Haven, among the institutions with parapsychology activity. The entry names [[Henry Margenau]] and [[Dieter Brill]] as the professors involved.[^53] A Defense Intelligence Agency report of August 7, 1984, titled "Psychoenergetics Research," prints an Exhibit 7 headed "Universities Involved in Courses, Research, or Degrees in Parapsychology," on which Yale University appears on the same line as the University of California, Berkeley.[^54] ### Physics, the Space Shuttle and Dimona -[[Myron S. Malkin]] was a member of the Yale physics faculty from 1952 to 1961. He then worked at [[General Electric]] on re-entry vehicles and later directed the [[Space Shuttle program]] at [[NASA]] headquarters from 1973 to 1980.[^51] [[Robert T. Webber]] earned a doctorate in physics at Yale and served as scientific attache at the American embassy in [[Tel Aviv]]. According to [[Seymour Hersh]]'s account in *[[The Samson Option]]*, he shared the interest of [[William N. Dale]] in the [[Dimona]] reactor.[^52] +[[Myron S. Malkin]] was a member of the Yale physics faculty from 1952 to 1961. He then worked at [[General Electric]] on re-entry vehicles and later directed the [[Space Shuttle program]] at [[NASA]] headquarters from 1973 to 1980.[^55] [[Robert T. Webber]] earned a doctorate in physics at Yale and served as scientific attache at the American embassy in [[Tel Aviv]]. According to [[Seymour Hersh]]'s account in *[[The Samson Option]]*, he shared the interest of [[William N. Dale]] in the [[Dimona]] reactor.[^56] ### Walt Rostow, Eugene Rostow and the Yale Law School -[[Walt Rostow]] received a Ph.D. in economics from Yale in 1940.[^53] His brother [[Eugene V. Rostow]], dean of the [[Yale Law School]], is listed as a member of Panel IV of the [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund]] [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund Special Studies Project]], whose 1961 report *[[Prospect for America]]* names him as "dean, Yale University Law School."[^54] [[Max Millikan]] took a B.S. in physics at Yale in 1935 and a Yale Ph.D. in 1941 before working at the [[Office of Price Administration]] in 1942.[^55] +[[Walt Rostow]] received a Ph.D. in economics from Yale in 1940.[^57] His brother [[Eugene V. Rostow]], dean of the [[Yale Law School]], is listed as a member of Panel IV of the [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund]] [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund Special Studies Project]], whose 1961 report *[[Prospect for America]]* names him as "dean, Yale University Law School."[^58] [[Max Millikan]] took a B.S. in physics at Yale in 1935 and a Yale Ph.D. in 1941 before working at the [[Office of Price Administration]] in 1942.[^59] ### Pharmacology and the 1979 cocaine hearings -[[Robert Byck]] of the Yale Department of Pharmacology, described in the hearing record as a professor of psychiatry and pharmacology at Yale who had just returned from an international conference on cocaine in Peru, testified on July 26, 1979 before the [[House Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control]] in the hearings published as *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*.[^56] He opened by saying that, cocaine as then used in the United States was not dangerous in the usual sense, and that the emphasis had been placed in the wrong place. His prepared statement, printed in the same volume, says that freebase smoking "can represent the same threat that the speed epidemics of the 1960's represented in their time," that the United States did not yet have an epidemic of freebase or coca paste smoking, and that "The possibility is strong that this might occur. It is occurring in the countries of South America."[^57] [[Gary Webb]] wrote in *[[Dark Alliance]]* in 1998 that Byck had warned Congress of the coming [[Crack Cocaine|crack]] epidemic in 1979 and had been ignored.[^58] +[[Robert Byck]] of the Yale Department of Pharmacology, described in the hearing record as a professor of psychiatry and pharmacology at Yale who had just returned from an international conference on cocaine in Peru, testified on July 26, 1979 before the [[House Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control]] in the hearings published as *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*.[^60] He opened by saying that, cocaine as then used in the United States was not dangerous in the usual sense, and that the emphasis had been placed in the wrong place. His prepared statement, printed in the same volume, says that freebase smoking "can represent the same threat that the speed epidemics of the 1960's represented in their time," that the United States did not yet have an epidemic of freebase or coca paste smoking, and that "The possibility is strong that this might occur. It is occurring in the countries of South America."[^61] [[Gary Webb]] wrote in *[[Dark Alliance]]* in 1998 that Byck had warned Congress of the coming [[Crack Cocaine|crack]] epidemic in 1979 and had been ignored.[^62] ### Yale-China -The Yale-China Association, known first as Yale-in-China, was founded on February 10, 1901 by young Yale alumni, who chose Hunan Province as the field; a renovated building in central [[Changsha]] provided classrooms and a Western medicine clinic by Christmas 1906. [[Edward H. Hume]], Yale class of 1897, opened a small hospital and with [[Yan Fuqing]] secured land and funding for the medical school, and the 1913 Xiang-ya Agreement with the Hunan authorities was described as a turning point; the preparatory school became Yali High School.[^59] Yale's own China timeline records that Yan Fuqing graduated from the Yale School of Medicine in 1909 and became head of Xiangya Hospital, founder of Shanghai Medical College of Fudan University, and Minister of Health, and that [[Yung Wing]] graduated from Yale College in 1854 and organized the Chinese Educational Mission that sent 120 students to New England.[^60] +The Yale-China Association, known first as Yale-in-China, was founded on February 10, 1901 by young Yale alumni, who chose Hunan Province as the field; a renovated building in central [[Changsha]] provided classrooms and a Western medicine clinic by Christmas 1906. [[Edward H. Hume]], Yale class of 1897, opened a small hospital and with [[Yan Fuqing]] secured land and funding for the medical school, and the 1913 Xiang-ya Agreement with the Hunan authorities was described as a turning point; the preparatory school became Yali High School.[^63] Yale's own China timeline records that Yan Fuqing graduated from the Yale School of Medicine in 1909 and became head of Xiangya Hospital, founder of Shanghai Medical College of Fudan University, and Minister of Health, and that [[Yung Wing]] graduated from Yale College in 1854 and organized the Chinese Educational Mission that sent 120 students to New England.[^64] ### Courts, the Law School and the executive branch -Alphonso Taft, Yale class of 1833, was a tutor at Yale from 1835 to 1837 and a member of the Yale Corporation from 1872 to 1882; Yale gave him the LL.D. in 1867.[^61] His son [[William Howard Taft]], Yale class of 1878, held the Kent Professorship of Law in Yale College and the professorship of constitutional law in the Law School from 1913 to 1921. He was a member of the Yale Corporation from 1906 to 1913 and again from 1922 to 1925.[^61] +Alphonso Taft, Yale class of 1833, was a tutor at Yale from 1835 to 1837 and a member of the Yale Corporation from 1872 to 1882; Yale gave him the LL.D. in 1867.[^65] His obituary record states that his 1872 election to the Corporation came in the year members of that body were for the first time elected by the alumni, and that he held the seat until he declined to stand again in 1882.[^66] His son [[William Howard Taft]], Yale class of 1878, held the Kent Professorship of Law in Yale College and the professorship of constitutional law in the Law School from 1913 to 1921. He was a member of the Yale Corporation from 1906 to 1913 and again from 1922 to 1925.[^65] -[[José A. Cabranes]] graduated from [[Columbia University]] in 1961 and from Yale Law School in 1965. He was general counsel and director of government relations at Yale from 1975 to 1979. [[Jimmy Carter]] nominated him to the District of Connecticut on November 6, 1979, and [[Bill Clinton]] nominated him to the Second Circuit on May 24, 1994. He served on the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review from 2013 to 2020, presiding from 2018 to 2020.[^62] [[Robert W. Sweet]] graduated from Yale in 1944 and from Yale Law School in 1948, after service as a Navy lieutenant junior grade from 1943 to 1946. Carter nominated him to the Southern District of New York on February 17, 1978.[^63] +[[José A. Cabranes]] graduated from [[Columbia University]] in 1961 and from Yale Law School in 1965. He was general counsel and director of government relations at Yale from 1975 to 1979. [[Jimmy Carter]] nominated him to the District of Connecticut on November 6, 1979, and [[Bill Clinton]] nominated him to the Second Circuit on May 24, 1994. He served on the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review from 2013 to 2020, presiding from 2018 to 2020.[^67] [[Robert W. Sweet]] graduated from Yale in 1944 and from Yale Law School in 1948, after service as a Navy lieutenant junior grade from 1943 to 1946. Carter nominated him to the Southern District of New York on February 17, 1978.[^68] -[[Stephen Cutler]] graduated summa cum laude from Yale and received his law degree there before being named Enforcement Director of the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] in October 2001.[^64] [[William Bradford Reynolds]] received a B.A. from Yale in 1964.[^65] [[Richard Thornburgh]] earned a B.S. in engineering from Yale in 1954.[^66] [[Cyrus Vance]] graduated from Yale in 1939 and received his law degree there in 1942.[^67] [[Dean Acheson]] also graduated from Yale.[^68] [[Mark W. Everson]] received a B.A. in history from Yale.[^69] [[Porter Goss]] took a B.A. in classics and Greek from Yale in 1960.[^70] +[[Stephen Cutler]] graduated summa cum laude from Yale and received his law degree there before being named Enforcement Director of the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] in October 2001.[^69] [[William Bradford Reynolds]] received a B.A. from Yale in 1964.[^70] [[Richard Thornburgh]] earned a B.S. in engineering from Yale in 1954.[^71] [[Cyrus Vance]] graduated from Yale in 1939 and received his law degree there in 1942.[^72] [[Dean Acheson]] also graduated from Yale.[^73] [[Mark W. Everson]] received a B.A. in history from Yale.[^74] [[Porter Goss]] took a B.A. in classics and Greek from Yale in 1960.[^75] -Other lawyers and officials who took their law degrees at Yale include [[David Boies]] (LL.B. 1966),[^71] [[Alan Dershowitz]],[^72] [[Hillary Clinton]], who met Bill Clinton there,[^73] [[Cory Booker]],[^74] [[Ro Khanna]],[^75] [[JD Vance]] (2013)[^76] and [[Mariano-Florentino Cuéllar]].[^77] [[John Morley]] of Yale Law School helped design the governance structure of [[Anthropic]]'s [[Long-Term Benefit Trust]].[^78] [[William H. Draper III]], nominated by [[Ronald Reagan]] in 1981 to head the [[Export-Import Bank of the United States]], held a Yale B.A. from 1950.[^79] +Other lawyers and officials who took their law degrees at Yale include [[David Boies]] (LL.B. 1966),[^76] [[Alan Dershowitz]],[^77] [[Hillary Clinton]], who met Bill Clinton there,[^78] [[Cory Booker]],[^79] [[Ro Khanna]],[^80] [[JD Vance]] (2013)[^81] and [[Mariano-Florentino Cuéllar]].[^82] [[John Morley]] of Yale Law School helped design the governance structure of [[Anthropic]]'s [[Long-Term Benefit Trust]].[^83] [[William H. Draper III]], nominated by [[Ronald Reagan]] in 1981 to head the [[Export-Import Bank of the United States]], held a Yale B.A. from 1950.[^84] ### Money, presidents and families -The [[Thiel Foundation]]'s 2006 return reports a grant of $25,000 to Yale University in the education category.[^80] [[Richard Levin]], the economist who served as Yale's twenty-second president from 1993 to 2013, is the father of [[Jonathan Levin]], who was named president of [[Stanford University]] in 2024.[^81] [[Larry Summers]] left his advisory role at the Yale Budget Lab in November 2025.[^82] [[Nick Bostrom]] was teaching at Yale in 2001 when he met [[James Hughes]] and [[Mark Walker]] in the meeting that began the second phase of the [[World Transhumanist Association]].[^83] [[David Goslin]] took his doctorate in sociology at Yale in 1962.[^84] +The [[Thiel Foundation]]'s 2006 return reports a grant of $25,000 to Yale University in the education category.[^85] [[Richard Levin]], the economist who served as Yale's twenty-second president from 1993 to 2013, is the father of [[Jonathan Levin]], who was named president of [[Stanford University]] in 2024.[^86] [[Larry Summers]] left his advisory role at the Yale Budget Lab in November 2025.[^87] [[Nick Bostrom]] was teaching at Yale in 2001 when he met [[James Hughes]] and [[Mark Walker]] in the meeting that began the second phase of the [[World Transhumanist Association]].[^88] [[David Goslin]] took his doctorate in sociology at Yale in 1962.[^89] -The [[Yale Center for British Art]] describes [[Paul Mellon]] as its founder.[^85] [[Cari Tuna]] studied political science at Yale and worked on the college paper before she and [[Dustin Moskovitz]] began the giving that became [[Good Ventures]].[^86] [[Francis Shelden]], the owner of [[North Fox Island]], testified in a 1982 deposition that he received a bachelor of arts degree from Yale.[^87] [[Frederic J. Truslow]] is recorded in the 1963 Harvard Law School yearbook as "B.A. Yale '61."[^88] +The [[Yale Center for British Art]] describes [[Paul Mellon]] as its founder.[^90] [[Cari Tuna]] studied political science at Yale and worked on the college paper before she and [[Dustin Moskovitz]] began the giving that became [[Good Ventures]].[^91] [[Francis Shelden]], the owner of [[North Fox Island]], testified in a 1982 deposition that he received a bachelor of arts degree from Yale.[^92] [[Frederic J. Truslow]] is recorded in the 1963 Harvard Law School yearbook as "B.A. Yale '61."[^93] -Yale's Manuscripts and Archives holds the papers of [[Alvin Johnson]] (MS 615, 1902 to 1969), given by Johnson, [[Agnes de Lima]] and Edith Levy in 1967.[^89] [[Christopher Mellon]] took a master's degree in international affairs at Yale.[^90] [[Rob Reich]] holds a B.A. in philosophy from Yale.[^91] +Yale's Manuscripts and Archives holds the papers of [[Alvin Johnson]] (MS 615, 1902 to 1969), given by Johnson, [[Agnes de Lima]] and Edith Levy in 1967.[^94] [[Christopher Mellon]] took a master's degree in international affairs at Yale.[^95] [[Rob Reich]] holds a B.A. in philosophy from Yale.[^96] -[[Oliver Hazard Payne]], Yale B.A. 1863, left one million dollars to the university by his will; he died in New York City on June 27, 1917.[^92] In June 1916 his nephew [[Payne Whitney]], Yale 1898, formed the [[Yale Aviation Corps]]. A Yale record of one of its members says the corps was formed that month, and that [[F. Trubee Davison]], Yale 1918, organized Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 1.[^93] +[[Oliver Hazard Payne]], Yale B.A. 1863, left one million dollars to the university by his will; he died in New York City on June 27, 1917.[^97] The Yale Obituary Record heads the entry "Oliver Hazard Payne, B.A. 1863," but states that he remained in the class only until October 1861, when he left to accept a commission in the [[124th Ohio Infantry]], and that the Yale Corporation voted him the degree of B.A. in 1878.[^97] In June 1916 his nephew [[Payne Whitney]], Yale 1898, formed the [[Yale Aviation Corps]]. A Yale record of one of its members says the corps was formed that month, and that [[F. Trubee Davison]], Yale 1918, organized Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 1.[^98] + +The Payne Whitney Gymnasium stands on Tower Parkway in New Haven, Connecticut. The Athletic Journal reported in June 1931 that it "has been given to Yale University in memory of Payne Whitney by Mrs. Whitney and the children" and was being built at a cost of at least $5,000,000.[^99] The Architectural Record of February 1933 published it as designed by [[John Russell Pope]], with a front of 310 feet on Tower Parkway and a tower 200 feet high, and beside it the Ray Tompkins House.[^100] Payne Whitney himself presented to Yale the dormitory for the varsity oarsmen at the rowing camp at Gales Ferry, and the New York Times wrote in 1927 that he had made many gifts to the university, always anonymously.[^101] His estate's trustees later named Yale University among the institutions to share a fund of $25,972,124 for public purposes.[^102] + +### The Yale chaplaincy + +William Sloane Coffin was appointed Yale chaplain in 1958. The New York Times announced on March 17, 1958 that he would take the post effective July 1, succeeding the retiring chaplain, and that he was then chaplain of [[Williams College]].[^103] Allen Dulles, then director of the Central Intelligence Agency, wrote to him on March 27, 1958, congratulating him on the appointment and wishing him every success in the year ahead.[^104] A 1987 feature gave his tenure at Yale as eighteen years.[^105] A 1988 Washington Times profile describes him as Yale's freedom-riding chaplain of the 1960s.[^106] His uncle [[Henry Sloane Coffin]] (B.A. 1897) had been a Fellow of Yale University from 1921 while president of [[Union Theological Seminary]],[^107] and the Sloane family had given the university the Sloane Laboratory of Physics in 1912, by Henry Thompson Sloane and William Douglas Sloane, and a recitation building and physics laboratory in 1883.[^108] ### Footnotes [^1]: "Act for a Collegiate School," General Court of the Colony of Connecticut, October 1701 session, in *The Public Records of the Colony of Connecticut, from August, 1689, to May, 1706*, ed. J. Hammond Trumbull (Hartford: Case, Lockwood and Brainard, 1868), pp. 363-364. https://archive.org/details/bwb_P9-CDP-546 + [^2]: "An Act for the more full and compleat Establishment of Yale College in New Haven, and for enlarging the Powers and Priviledges thereof," General Court, May 1745, in *The Public Records of the Colony of Connecticut, from May, 1744, to November, 1750*, ed. Charles J. Hoadly (Hartford: Case, Lockwood and Brainard, 1876), pp. 113-114. https://archive.org/details/publicrecordsofc009conn + [^3]: David A. Richards, "The origins of the tomb," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2015, with editors' note on the author's listing among Skull and Bones members in the Class of 1967 graduation book. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4072-the-origins-of-the-tomb + [^4]: Lyman Bagg, *Four Years at Yale* (New Haven: Henry Holt, 1871), p. 146. https://archive.org/details/fouryearsatyale00baggrich + [^5]: Bruce L. Reynolds '66, letter, "More secrets of the Tomb," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, responding to the May/June 2015 article; the letter cites James Bradley, *The China Mirage* (Little, Brown, 2015). The passage is the letter writer's account. https://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4127-more-secrets-of-the-tomb + [^6]: *The Hamlin Family: A Genealogy of Capt. Giles Hamlin of Middletown, Connecticut, 1654-1900* (1900), entries [302], [307] and [638]. https://archive.org/details/hamlinfamilygene00andr + [^7]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University, deceased from June, 1880, to June, 1890*, entry for William Huntington Russell, p. 241. https://archive.org/details/1880t90obituary00yaleuoft + [^8]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, Connecticut Business Registry - Business Master, open data set n7gp-d28j, record "RUSSELL TRUST ASSOCIATION, THE" (business type Special Chartered; status Active; citizenship Domestic; account number 0269315); record "RTA INCORPORATED" (account number 0059060, registered April 14, 1961, 64 High Street, New Haven), the successor corporation. https://data.ct.gov/resource/n7gp-d28j.json + [^9]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1950-1951 (New Haven: Yale University, 1951), entry "Henry Lewis Stimson, B.A. 1888," p. 11. http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1950-51.pdf + [^10]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977 + [^11]: "Mac Bundy," *The Harvard Crimson*, November 10, 1956. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1956/11/10/mac-bundy-pwhen-mcgeorge-bundy-became/ + [^12]: FBI headquarters file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 1, memorandum L. B. Nichols to Mr. Tolson, October 20, 1950, and summary memoranda. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1 + [^13]: White House, "Biography of President George W. Bush" (archived). Born July 6, 1946, in New Haven; bachelor's degree in history from Yale University in 1968. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov ; Biography.com, "George W. Bush" (Yale enrollment in 1964). https://www.biography.com/us-president/george-w-bush + [^14]: Jacques Leslie, "Smirk from the past" ("Yale"), *Salon*, March 1, 2000. https://www.salon.com/2000/03/01/yale/ + [^15]: George H. W. Bush Presidential Library, "Records on Skull and Bones Society," FOIA 2009-0116-F, processed August 2009 (Records of the White House Office of Policy Development, Emily Mead Subject Files, 23348-002; Press Office of the Vice President, Subject Files, 14925-046; White House Social Office, Cathy Fenton Subject Files, 07104, "10/20/89 Skull and Bones Tea"). The library text describes the Geronimo rumor and does not endorse it. https://www.bush41library.gov/download/file/4777 + [^16]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 248, executed October 20, 1942 (Leo T. Crowley, Alien Property Custodian), 7 Fed. Reg. 9097-9098 (November 7, 1942), F.R. Doc. 42-11567 series. Federal Register, vol. 7, no. 220. + [^17]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, certified copies (March 28, 2001) of the 1856 act incorporating the Russell Trust Association and the 1943 amending act, as reprinted in Kris Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2003), pp. 694 to 696. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones + [^18]: Certificate of Incorporation of RTA Incorporated (1961), as reprinted in Millegan (2003), pp. 697 to 700; Connecticut Business Registry, account 0059060 (registered April 14, 1961). https://data.ct.gov/resource/n7gp-d28j.json?accountnumber=0059060 + [^19]: RTA Incorporated, IRS Form 990 for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021, Schedule A. https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/60768741 + [^20]: Internal Revenue Service, Exempt Organizations Business Master File extract for Connecticut, EIN 060768741, tax period 2025-06. https://www.irs.gov/charities-non-profits/exempt-organizations-business-master-file-extract-eo-bmf + [^21]: Carole Bass, "Apaches sue to recover Geronimo's skull," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2009. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/2421-apaches-sue-to-recover-geronimo-s-skull + [^22]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on access to the Russell Trust papers at the Sterling Library. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones + [^23]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977 + [^24]: *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340 (S.D. Tex.), docket entries 1, 6, 7, 8 and 17. https://archive.org/details/gov.uscourts.txsd.1463674 + [^25]: *Geronimo et al. v. Obama et al.*, No. 09-303 (RWR) (D.D.C. July 27, 2010). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303/pdf/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303-0.pdf + [^26]: Kathrin Day Lassila and Mark Alden Branch, "Whose Skull and Bones?," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20060614215733/http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/2006_05/notebook.html -[^27]: Judith Ann Schiff, "The library at war," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, Nov/Dec 2019. https://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4991-the-library-at-war -[^28]: Robin W. Winks, *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* (New York: William Morrow, 1987), cited in the Schiff article. -[^29]: Letter from the chief investigator of the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee to Walter Pforzheimer, May 9, 1955, CIA-RDP58-00597A000100240018-8, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp58-00597a000100240018-8 ; Daniel O. Graham to Walter Pforzheimer, September 23, 1980, enclosing a partial membership list of the National Strategy Committee, CIA-RDP02T06251R000900300002-4, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom). Both are cited on the Senate Judiciary Committee and Daniel O. Graham pages. -[^30]: Kevin C. Ruffner, review of Richard W. Cutler, *Counterspy: Memoirs of a Counterintelligence Officer in World War II and the Cold War* (Washington: Brassey's, 2004), *Studies in Intelligence* 49, no. 3. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/volume-49-no-3/counterspy-memoirs-of-a-counterintelligence-officer-in-world-war-ii-and-the-cold-war -[^31]: David Robarge, "'Cunning Passages, Contrived Corridors': Wandering in the Angletonian Wilderness," *Studies in Intelligence* 53, no. 4 (2009), biographical backdrop. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Cunning-Passages-Contrived-Corridors.pdf -[^32]: Tom Mangold, *Cold Warrior: James Jesus Angleton, the CIA's Master Spy Hunter* (Simon & Schuster, 1991). -[^33]: Robarge, "'Cunning Passages, Contrived Corridors,'" *Studies in Intelligence* 53, no. 4 (2009), sections on Winks, *Cloak and Gown*, and on Holzman. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Cunning-Passages-Contrived-Corridors.pdf -[^34]: Donald P. Steury, ed., *Sherman Kent and the Board of National Estimates: Collected Essays* (CIA History Staff, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1994), foreword, the essay on Kent's biography, and Harold P. Ford, "A Tribute to Sherman Kent." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/sherman-kent-and-the-board-of-national-estimates-collected-essays.pdf -[^35]: Steury, *Sherman Kent and the Board of National Estimates*, the essay on *Strategic Intelligence* ("before returning to Yale in 1947"; "A year after *Strategic Intelligence* was published, Sherm left Yale for the CIA") and editor's note 6 to the Kent biography essay. The two passages are printed in the same volume. -[^36]: Gregory W. Pedlow and Donald E. Welzenbach, *The CIA and the U-2 Program, 1954-1974* (CIA History Staff, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1998), biographical passage on Richard M. Bissell. https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA355539 -[^37]: Evan Thomas, *The Very Best Men: Four Who Dared: The Early Years of the CIA* (Simon & Schuster, 1995). -[^38]: Howard L. Bevis to Allen W. Dulles, February 7, 1958, with program, campus map and list of participants, "America's Human Resources: To Meet the Scientific Challenge," Yale University, February 3-4, 1958, sponsored by the President's Committee on Scientists and Engineers, CIA-RDP80B01676R003800020106-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003800020106-4 -[^39]: Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, "Guide to the Mark Arthur May papers," MS 1447, biographical/historical note and scope and contents. https://ead-pdfs.library.yale.edu/3894.pdf -[^40]: Deutsche Biographie, "Kris, Ernst" (NDB 13, 1982). https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/sfz46084.html ; Library of Congress Manuscript Division, Ernst Kris Papers (MSS84824), register; Daniel M. Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State," Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 2013, p. 190 note 88 (attendee list of RAND R-106). Cited as the Ernst Kris page cites them. -[^41]: "'Truth' Drugs in Interrogation," material supplied by Admiral Stansfield Turner for the record, *Project MKULTRA, the CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification*, Joint Hearing before the Select Committee on Intelligence and the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research of the Committee on Human Resources, U.S. Senate, 95th Cong., 1st sess., August 3, 1977; reference 25, F. C. Redlich, L. J. Ravitz and G. H. Dession, "Narcoanalysis and truth," *American Journal of Psychiatry* 107 (1951): 586-593. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/hearings/95mkultra.pdf -[^42]: Stanley Milgram, "Behavioral Study of Obedience," *Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology* 67, no. 4 (1963): 371-378, author's note 1 and 2, methods, "Preliminary Notions" and "Result of Experiment I." https://archive.org/details/milgram370551 -[^43]: *The Nervous System and Electric Currents*, Volume 2, Proceedings of the Fourth Annual National Conference of the Neuroelectric Society, San Antonio, Texas, March 10-12, 1971, edited by Norman L. Wulfsohn and Anthony Sances, Jr. CIA-RDP96-00787R000500200005-2, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom). -[^44]: Edgar D. Mitchell (submitter) and Henry (Andrija) Puharich, M.D. (editor), "Direct Brain Perception" research proposal, biographical sketches of the researchers. CIA-RDP96-00787R000100190001-2, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom). -[^45]: Edwin C. May and Wanda L. W. Luke, "Phenomenological Research and Analysis Technical Volume," Science Applications International Corporation, Cognitive Sciences Laboratory, May 8, 1992, Contract MDA908-91-C-0037 (Scientific Oversight Committee and Institutional Review Board sections; Section IV curricula vitae). CIA-RDP96-00789R003100170001-9, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom). -[^46]: Annie Jacobsen, *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis* (Little, Brown, 2017). -[^47]: H. S. Burr, "Diurnal Potentials in the Maple Tree," *Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine* 17, no. 6 (July 1945): 727-734. PMC2601777. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2601777/ -[^48]: Harold E. Puthoff and Marsha Adams, "Geophysical Effects Study," Interim Report, July 1984, SRI Project 6600, prepared for the Department of the Army, USAINSCOM, Center Lane special access program, text and reference list. CIA-RDP96-00788R001800160001-6, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom). -[^49]: "Research, Investigation and Teaching: A Survey of the International Scene," in *New Psychic Frontiers*, p. 208, CIA-RDP96-00788R001200230018-6, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom). -[^50]: Defense Intelligence Agency, Directorate for Scientific and Technical Intelligence, "Psychoenergetics Research," 7 August 1984, Exhibit 7, "Universities Involved in Courses, Research, or Degrees in Parapsychology." CIA-RDP96-00788R001800210001-0, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom). -[^51]: Warren E. Leary, "Myron S. Malkin Is Dead at 70; Designed Space Shuttle Program," *New York Times*, October 26, 1994, Section B, page 13. https://www.nytimes.com/1994/10/26/obituaries/myron-s-malkin-is-dead-at-70-designed-space-shuttle-program.html -[^52]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapter 12. -[^53]: Encyclopedia.com, "Rostow, Walt Whitman (1916-2003)," Gale biography. https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/us-history-biographies/walt-whitman-rostow -[^54]: Rockefeller Brothers Fund, *Prospect for America: The Rockefeller Panel Reports* (Garden City: Doubleday, 1961), Panel IV member list. https://archive.org/details/prospect-for-america -[^55]: MIT Libraries, Department of Distinctive Collections, Max F. Millikan papers (MC-0188), biographical note. https://archivesspace.mit.edu/repositories/2/resources/722 -[^56]: *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*, Hearings before the Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control, House of Representatives, Ninety-sixth Congress, first session, July 24, 26 and October 10, 1979, Thursday, July 26, 1979, testimony of Robert Byck, M.D., Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine. NCJ 65411. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/65411NCJRS.pdf -[^57]: *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*, NCJ 65411, prepared statement of Robert Byck ("My name is Robert Byck ..."), printed in the volume. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/65411NCJRS.pdf -[^58]: Gary Webb, *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion* (Seven Stories Press, 1998), chapter 15. -[^59]: Aurelia Dochnal, "120th anniversary of Yale-China: the beginnings," *China Hands Magazine*, February 10, 2021. https://chinahandsmagazine.org/2021/02/10/120th-anniversary-of-yale-china-the-beginnings/ -[^60]: Yale Center Beijing, "Yale-China History Timeline" (entries for 1854, 1872 and 1909). https://centerbeijing.yale.edu/node/365 -[^61]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930 (New Haven: Yale University, 1930), entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," pp. 69 to 72, including the entry for his father ("Alphonso Taft (B A. 1833, LL.D. 1867) ... tutor at Yale 1835-37; member of Yale Corporation 1872-1882") and "Yale Corporation 1906-1913 and again 1922-25 ... Kent professor of law in Yale College and professor of constitutional law in the Law School 1913-1921." https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf -[^62]: Federal Judicial Center, "Cabranes, Jose Alberto," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/cabranes-jose-alberto -[^63]: Federal Judicial Center, "Sweet, Robert Workman," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/sweet-robert-workman -[^64]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, "Stephen M. Cutler Named SEC Enforcement Director," Press Release 2001-120, October 25, 2001. https://www.sec.gov/news/press/2001-120.txt -[^65]: Federalist Society, "Wm. Bradford Reynolds," fedsoc.org. -[^66]: Office of the Attorney General, U.S. Department of Justice, "Richard Lewis Thornburgh," *Attorneys General of the United States*. -[^67]: Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State, "Cyrus Roberts Vance (1917-2002)." https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/vance-cyrus-roberts -[^68]: Dean Acheson, *Present at the Creation: My Years in the State Department* (Norton, 1969), and Robert L. Beisner, *Dean Acheson: A Life in the Cold War* (Oxford University Press, 2006). -[^69]: National Archives and Records Administration, Catalog Record ID 3936205. -[^70]: Congressional Directory for the 108th Congress (2003 to 2004), August 2004, Florida delegation, Representative Porter J. Goss, Biography, p. 62. Cited on the Porter Goss page. -[^71]: Boies Schiller Flexner LLP, "David Boies," firm biography. https://www.bsfllp.com/people/david-boies.html -[^72]: Harvard Law School, "Alan M. Dershowitz, Felix Frankfurter Professor of Law, Emeritus," faculty biography. https://hls.harvard.edu/faculty/alan-m-dershowitz/ -[^73]: "Biography of Hillary Rodham Clinton," The White House, Office of the First Lady (Clinton administration archive, National Archives). https://clintonwhitehouse4.archives.gov/WH/EOP/First_Lady/html/HILLARY_Bio.html -[^74]: "About Cory," Office of U.S. Senator Cory Booker. https://www.booker.senate.gov/about-cory -[^75]: Office of Representative Ro Khanna, "About Rep. Khanna," official biography. https://khanna.house.gov/about/about-rep-khanna -[^76]: J. D. Vance, *Hillbilly Elegy: A Memoir of a Family and Culture in Crisis* (Harper, 2016). -[^77]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, "Mariano-Florentino (Tino) Cuellar," biography. https://carnegieendowment.org/people/mariano-florentino-tino-cuellar -[^78]: Anthropic, "The Long-Term Benefit Trust," September 19, 2023. https://www.anthropic.com/news/the-long-term-benefit-trust -[^79]: Ronald Reagan, "Nomination of William H. Draper III To Be President and Chairman of the Export-Import Bank of the United States," March 18, 1981, American Presidency Project. https://presidency.ucsb.edu/node/247393 -[^80]: The Thiel Foundation, Form 990-PF for 2006, Part VIII and Statement A, grants paid (line 3, Yale University, Education, $25,000). https://990s.foundationcenter.org/990pf_pdf_archive/203/203846597/203846597_200612_990PF.pdf -[^81]: Yale Daily News, "Stanford appoints son of former Yale president Rick Levin as president," April 5, 2024. https://yaledailynews.com/blog/2024/04/05/stanford-appoints-son-of-former-yale-president-rick-levin-as-president/ -[^82]: "Larry Summers banned for life from American Economic Association," Associated Press via *Fortune*, December 3, 2025. https://fortune.com/2025/12/03/larry-summers-banned-for-life-from-american-economic-association -[^83]: Nick Bostrom, "A History of Transhumanist Thought," *Journal of Evolution and Technology* 14, no. 1 (April 2005), section 4. https://jetpress.org/volume14/bostrom.pdf -[^84]: American Institutes for Research, "The American Institutes for Research Honors the Life and Legacy of David Goslin," January 6, 2025. -[^85]: "Paul Mellon: Founder," Yale Center for British Art. https://britishart.yale.edu/stories/paul-mellon-founder -[^86]: Ariana Eunjung Cha, "Cari Tuna and Dustin Moskovitz: Young Silicon Valley billionaires pioneer new approach to philanthropy," *The Washington Post*, December 26, 2014; "Billionaire from Evansville to spread the wealth," WFIE 14 News, December 2014. Cited on the Cari Tuna page. -[^87]: *National Bank of Detroit v. Shelden*, 730 F.2d 421 (6th Cir. 1984) (Nos. 82-1737, 82-1905), on the Amsterdam deposition of 1982. https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/433085/national-bank-of-detroit-v-francis-d-shelden-the-trust-company-of-the/ -[^88]: *Harvard Law School Year Book*, 1963, entry "Frederic Jennings Truslow, B.A. Yale '61." https://books.google.com/books?id=8oc8AAAAIAAJ -[^89]: Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, "Alvin Saunders Johnson papers," MS 615. https://archives.yale.edu/repositories/12/resources/3846 -[^90]: "Unholy Alliance?" *Roll Call*, February 12, 2003. https://rollcall.com/2003/02/12/unholy-alliance/ -[^91]: Rob Reich, curriculum vitae, Department of Political Science, Stanford University. https://robreich.people.stanford.edu/files/reich-cv.pdf -[^92]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, B.A. 1863, pp. 295 to 296 (bequests of one million dollars each to Yale, the New York Public Library and Lakeside Hospital; death June 27, 1917). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft -[^93]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased 1915 to 1920*, entry for Albert Dillon Sturtevant, Ph.B. 1916, Sheffield Scientific School ("formed by Payne Whitney, '98, in June, 1916"; Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 1 organized by F. Trubee Davison, B.A. 1918). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft + +[^27]: George W. Pierson, *Yale College: An Educational History, 1871-1921* (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1952), https://archive.org/details/yalecollegeeduca0000pier ; *Buildings and Grounds of Yale University* (New Haven: Yale University, 1979), https://archive.org/details/buildingsgrounds0000yale + +[^28]: Lewis Sheldon Welch and Walter Camp, *Yale: Her Campus, Class-Rooms, and Athletics* (1899), treasurer's lists and chronology, https://archive.org/details/yalehercampuscla00welc ; *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1893-1894*, entry for William Walter Phelps, https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1859_1924/1893-94.pdf + +[^29]: John W. Stewart, memoir in *Orations and Essays of Edward John Phelps* (New York: Harper, 1901), https://archive.org/details/orationsessaysof00phel ; Welch and Camp (1899), chronology. + +[^30]: *History of the Class of 1896, Yale College: Decennial Record* (New Haven, 1907), https://archive.org/details/decennialrecordo00yalerich ; Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), membership list entry "STOKES, Anson P. 1896 Secretary of Yale (1899-1921)." + +[^31]: Judith Ann Schiff, "The library at war," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, Nov/Dec 2019. https://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4991-the-library-at-war + +[^32]: Robin W. Winks, *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* (New York: William Morrow, 1987), cited in the Schiff article. + +[^33]: Letter from the chief investigator of the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee to Walter Pforzheimer, May 9, 1955, CIA-RDP58-00597A000100240018-8, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp58-00597a000100240018-8 ; Daniel O. Graham to Walter Pforzheimer, September 23, 1980, enclosing a partial membership list of the National Strategy Committee, CIA-RDP02T06251R000900300002-4, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom). Both are cited on the Senate Judiciary Committee and Daniel O. Graham pages. + +[^34]: Kevin C. Ruffner, review of Richard W. Cutler, *Counterspy: Memoirs of a Counterintelligence Officer in World War II and the Cold War* (Washington: Brassey's, 2004), *Studies in Intelligence* 49, no. 3. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/volume-49-no-3/counterspy-memoirs-of-a-counterintelligence-officer-in-world-war-ii-and-the-cold-war + +[^35]: David Robarge, "'Cunning Passages, Contrived Corridors': Wandering in the Angletonian Wilderness," *Studies in Intelligence* 53, no. 4 (2009), biographical backdrop. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Cunning-Passages-Contrived-Corridors.pdf + +[^36]: Tom Mangold, *Cold Warrior: James Jesus Angleton, the CIA's Master Spy Hunter* (Simon & Schuster, 1991). + +[^37]: Robarge, "'Cunning Passages, Contrived Corridors,'" *Studies in Intelligence* 53, no. 4 (2009), sections on Winks, *Cloak and Gown*, and on Holzman. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Cunning-Passages-Contrived-Corridors.pdf + +[^38]: Donald P. Steury, ed., *Sherman Kent and the Board of National Estimates: Collected Essays* (CIA History Staff, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1994), foreword, the essay on Kent's biography, and Harold P. Ford, "A Tribute to Sherman Kent." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/sherman-kent-and-the-board-of-national-estimates-collected-essays.pdf + +[^39]: Steury, *Sherman Kent and the Board of National Estimates*, the essay on *Strategic Intelligence* ("before returning to Yale in 1947"; "A year after *Strategic Intelligence* was published, Sherm left Yale for the CIA") and editor's note 6 to the Kent biography essay. The two passages are printed in the same volume. + +[^40]: Gregory W. Pedlow and Donald E. Welzenbach, *The CIA and the U-2 Program, 1954-1974* (CIA History Staff, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1998), biographical passage on Richard M. Bissell. https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA355539 + +[^41]: Evan Thomas, *The Very Best Men: Four Who Dared: The Early Years of the CIA* (Simon & Schuster, 1995). + +[^42]: Howard L. Bevis to Allen W. Dulles, February 7, 1958, with program, campus map and list of participants, "America's Human Resources: To Meet the Scientific Challenge," Yale University, February 3-4, 1958, sponsored by the President's Committee on Scientists and Engineers, CIA-RDP80B01676R003800020106-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003800020106-4 + +[^43]: Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, "Guide to the Mark Arthur May papers," MS 1447, biographical/historical note and scope and contents. https://ead-pdfs.library.yale.edu/3894.pdf + +[^44]: Deutsche Biographie, "Kris, Ernst" (NDB 13, 1982). https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/sfz46084.html ; Library of Congress Manuscript Division, Ernst Kris Papers (MSS84824), register; Daniel M. Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State," Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 2013, p. 190 note 88 (attendee list of RAND R-106). Cited as the Ernst Kris page cites them. + +[^45]: "'Truth' Drugs in Interrogation," material supplied by Admiral Stansfield Turner for the record, *Project MKULTRA, the CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification*, Joint Hearing before the Select Committee on Intelligence and the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research of the Committee on Human Resources, U.S. Senate, 95th Cong., 1st sess., August 3, 1977; reference 25, F. C. Redlich, L. J. Ravitz and G. H. Dession, "Narcoanalysis and truth," *American Journal of Psychiatry* 107 (1951): 586-593. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/hearings/95mkultra.pdf + +[^46]: Stanley Milgram, "Behavioral Study of Obedience," *Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology* 67, no. 4 (1963): 371-378, author's note 1 and 2, methods, "Preliminary Notions" and "Result of Experiment I." https://archive.org/details/milgram370551 + +[^47]: *The Nervous System and Electric Currents*, Volume 2, Proceedings of the Fourth Annual National Conference of the Neuroelectric Society, San Antonio, Texas, March 10-12, 1971, edited by Norman L. Wulfsohn and Anthony Sances, Jr. CIA-RDP96-00787R000500200005-2, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom). + +[^48]: Edgar D. Mitchell (submitter) and Henry (Andrija) Puharich, M.D. (editor), "Direct Brain Perception" research proposal, biographical sketches of the researchers. CIA-RDP96-00787R000100190001-2, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom). + +[^49]: Edwin C. May and Wanda L. W. Luke, "Phenomenological Research and Analysis Technical Volume," Science Applications International Corporation, Cognitive Sciences Laboratory, May 8, 1992, Contract MDA908-91-C-0037 (Scientific Oversight Committee and Institutional Review Board sections; Section IV curricula vitae). CIA-RDP96-00789R003100170001-9, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom). + +[^50]: Annie Jacobsen, *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis* (Little, Brown, 2017). + +[^51]: H. S. Burr, "Diurnal Potentials in the Maple Tree," *Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine* 17, no. 6 (July 1945): 727-734. PMC2601777. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2601777/ + +[^52]: Harold E. Puthoff and Marsha Adams, "Geophysical Effects Study," Interim Report, July 1984, SRI Project 6600, prepared for the Department of the Army, USAINSCOM, Center Lane special access program, text and reference list. CIA-RDP96-00788R001800160001-6, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom). + +[^53]: "Research, Investigation and Teaching: A Survey of the International Scene," in *New Psychic Frontiers*, p. 208, CIA-RDP96-00788R001200230018-6, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom). + +[^54]: Defense Intelligence Agency, Directorate for Scientific and Technical Intelligence, "Psychoenergetics Research," 7 August 1984, Exhibit 7, "Universities Involved in Courses, Research, or Degrees in Parapsychology." CIA-RDP96-00788R001800210001-0, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom). + +[^55]: Warren E. Leary, "Myron S. Malkin Is Dead at 70; Designed Space Shuttle Program," *New York Times*, October 26, 1994, Section B, page 13. https://www.nytimes.com/1994/10/26/obituaries/myron-s-malkin-is-dead-at-70-designed-space-shuttle-program.html + +[^56]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapter 12. + +[^57]: Encyclopedia.com, "Rostow, Walt Whitman (1916-2003)," Gale biography. https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/us-history-biographies/walt-whitman-rostow + +[^58]: Rockefeller Brothers Fund, *Prospect for America: The Rockefeller Panel Reports* (Garden City: Doubleday, 1961), Panel IV member list. https://archive.org/details/prospect-for-america + +[^59]: MIT Libraries, Department of Distinctive Collections, Max F. Millikan papers (MC-0188), biographical note. https://archivesspace.mit.edu/repositories/2/resources/722 + +[^60]: *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*, Hearings before the Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control, House of Representatives, Ninety-sixth Congress, first session, July 24, 26 and October 10, 1979, Thursday, July 26, 1979, testimony of Robert Byck, M.D., Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine. NCJ 65411. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/65411NCJRS.pdf + +[^61]: *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*, NCJ 65411, prepared statement of Robert Byck ("My name is Robert Byck ..."), printed in the volume. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/65411NCJRS.pdf + +[^62]: Gary Webb, *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion* (Seven Stories Press, 1998), chapter 15. + +[^63]: Aurelia Dochnal, "120th anniversary of Yale-China: the beginnings," *China Hands Magazine*, February 10, 2021. https://chinahandsmagazine.org/2021/02/10/120th-anniversary-of-yale-china-the-beginnings/ + +[^64]: Yale Center Beijing, "Yale-China History Timeline" (entries for 1854, 1872 and 1909). https://centerbeijing.yale.edu/node/365 + +[^65]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930 (New Haven: Yale University, 1930), entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," pp. 69 to 72, including the entry for his father ("Alphonso Taft (B A. 1833, LL.D. 1867) ... tutor at Yale 1835-37; member of Yale Corporation 1872-1882") and "Yale Corporation 1906-1913 and again 1922-25 ... Kent professor of law in Yale College and professor of constitutional law in the Law School 1913-1921." https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf + +[^66]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1890-91* (New Haven: Yale University, 1891), entry for Alphonso Taft, class of 1833, p. 18. https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1859_1924/1890-91.pdf + +[^67]: Federal Judicial Center, "Cabranes, Jose Alberto," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/cabranes-jose-alberto + +[^68]: Federal Judicial Center, "Sweet, Robert Workman," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/sweet-robert-workman + +[^69]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, "Stephen M. Cutler Named SEC Enforcement Director," Press Release 2001-120, October 25, 2001. https://www.sec.gov/news/press/2001-120.txt + +[^70]: Federalist Society, "Wm. Bradford Reynolds," fedsoc.org. + +[^71]: Office of the Attorney General, U.S. Department of Justice, "Richard Lewis Thornburgh," *Attorneys General of the United States*. + +[^72]: Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State, "Cyrus Roberts Vance (1917-2002)." https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/vance-cyrus-roberts + +[^73]: Dean Acheson, *Present at the Creation: My Years in the State Department* (Norton, 1969), and Robert L. Beisner, *Dean Acheson: A Life in the Cold War* (Oxford University Press, 2006). + +[^74]: National Archives and Records Administration, Catalog Record ID 3936205. + +[^75]: Congressional Directory for the 108th Congress (2003 to 2004), August 2004, Florida delegation, Representative Porter J. Goss, Biography, p. 62. Cited on the Porter Goss page. + +[^76]: Boies Schiller Flexner LLP, "David Boies," firm biography. https://www.bsfllp.com/people/david-boies.html + +[^77]: Harvard Law School, "Alan M. Dershowitz, Felix Frankfurter Professor of Law, Emeritus," faculty biography. https://hls.harvard.edu/faculty/alan-m-dershowitz/ + +[^78]: "Biography of Hillary Rodham Clinton," The White House, Office of the First Lady (Clinton administration archive, National Archives). https://clintonwhitehouse4.archives.gov/WH/EOP/First_Lady/html/HILLARY_Bio.html + +[^79]: "About Cory," Office of U.S. Senator Cory Booker. https://www.booker.senate.gov/about-cory + +[^80]: Office of Representative Ro Khanna, "About Rep. Khanna," official biography. https://khanna.house.gov/about/about-rep-khanna + +[^81]: J. D. Vance, *Hillbilly Elegy: A Memoir of a Family and Culture in Crisis* (Harper, 2016). + +[^82]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, "Mariano-Florentino (Tino) Cuellar," biography. https://carnegieendowment.org/people/mariano-florentino-tino-cuellar + +[^83]: Anthropic, "The Long-Term Benefit Trust," September 19, 2023. https://www.anthropic.com/news/the-long-term-benefit-trust + +[^84]: Ronald Reagan, "Nomination of William H. Draper III To Be President and Chairman of the Export-Import Bank of the United States," March 18, 1981, American Presidency Project. https://presidency.ucsb.edu/node/247393 + +[^85]: The Thiel Foundation, Form 990-PF for 2006, Part VIII and Statement A, grants paid (line 3, Yale University, Education, $25,000). https://990s.foundationcenter.org/990pf_pdf_archive/203/203846597/203846597_200612_990PF.pdf + +[^86]: Yale Daily News, "Stanford appoints son of former Yale president Rick Levin as president," April 5, 2024. https://yaledailynews.com/blog/2024/04/05/stanford-appoints-son-of-former-yale-president-rick-levin-as-president/ + +[^87]: "Larry Summers banned for life from American Economic Association," Associated Press via *Fortune*, December 3, 2025. https://fortune.com/2025/12/03/larry-summers-banned-for-life-from-american-economic-association + +[^88]: Nick Bostrom, "A History of Transhumanist Thought," *Journal of Evolution and Technology* 14, no. 1 (April 2005), section 4. https://jetpress.org/volume14/bostrom.pdf + +[^89]: American Institutes for Research, "The American Institutes for Research Honors the Life and Legacy of David Goslin," January 6, 2025. + +[^90]: "Paul Mellon: Founder," Yale Center for British Art. https://britishart.yale.edu/stories/paul-mellon-founder + +[^91]: Ariana Eunjung Cha, "Cari Tuna and Dustin Moskovitz: Young Silicon Valley billionaires pioneer new approach to philanthropy," *The Washington Post*, December 26, 2014; "Billionaire from Evansville to spread the wealth," WFIE 14 News, December 2014. Cited on the Cari Tuna page. + +[^92]: *National Bank of Detroit v. Shelden*, 730 F.2d 421 (6th Cir. 1984) (Nos. 82-1737, 82-1905), on the Amsterdam deposition of 1982. https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/433085/national-bank-of-detroit-v-francis-d-shelden-the-trust-company-of-the/ + +[^93]: *Harvard Law School Year Book*, 1963, entry "Frederic Jennings Truslow, B.A. Yale '61." https://books.google.com/books?id=8oc8AAAAIAAJ + +[^94]: Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, "Alvin Saunders Johnson papers," MS 615. https://archives.yale.edu/repositories/12/resources/3846 + +[^95]: "Unholy Alliance?" *Roll Call*, February 12, 2003. https://rollcall.com/2003/02/12/unholy-alliance/ + +[^96]: Rob Reich, curriculum vitae, Department of Political Science, Stanford University. https://robreich.people.stanford.edu/files/reich-cv.pdf + +[^97]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, B.A. 1863, pp. 295 to 296 (bequests of one million dollars each to Yale, the New York Public Library and Lakeside Hospital; death June 27, 1917). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft + +[^98]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased 1915 to 1920*, entry for Albert Dillon Sturtevant, Ph.B. 1916, Sheffield Scientific School ("formed by Payne Whitney, '98, in June, 1916"; Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 1 organized by F. Trubee Davison, B.A. 1918). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft + +[^99]: John L. Griffith, "Review of the Year in Athletics," *Athletic Journal*, vol. 11, no. 10 (June 1931). https://archive.org/details/sim_athletic-journal_1931-06_11_10 + +[^100]: "The Payne Whitney Gymnasium and Ray Tompkins House at Yale University," *The Architectural Record*, vol. 73, no. 2 (February 1933). https://archive.org/details/sim_architectural-record_1933-02_73_2 + +[^101]: "Noted in Rowing at Yale" and "Payne Whitney Dies Suddenly at Home," *The New York Times*, May 26, 1927, pp. 1 and 25. https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_the-new-york-times_1927-05-26_76_25324 + +[^102]: "$178,893,655 Estate, Record for America," *The New York Times*, November 23, 1928, section "Public Beneficiaries." https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1928-11-23_78_25871 + +[^103]: CIA Reading Room, "Former Infantry Officer Named Yale Chaplain," special dispatch to *The New York Times*, March 17, 1958, CIA-RDP75-00001R000300020009-4. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp75-00001r000300020009-4 + +[^104]: Allen W. Dulles to William Sloane Coffin Jr., March 27, 1958, CIA-RDP80B01676R003800030070-3. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp80b01676r003800030070-3 + +[^105]: Mary Reinholz, feature on William Sloane Coffin Jr., 1987, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP91-00587R000100010069-7. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp91-00587r000100010069-7 + +[^106]: Charlotte Hays, "The peace minister," *The Washington Times*, 1988, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP91-00587R000100010070-5. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp91-00587r000100010070-5 + +[^107]: *Who's Who* 1935, entry "Coffin, Rev. Henry Sloane, D.D." https://archive.org/details/whoswho1935001355mbp + +[^108]: *Widener, Dunton, Elkins, Broomall, and Allied Families* (1953), Sloane family chapter, pp. 128 to 129. https://archive.org/details/widenerduntonelk00unse diff --git a/30 - PROGRAMS & PROJECTS/HISTORICAL_PROGRAMS/Manhattan Project.md b/30 - PROGRAMS & PROJECTS/HISTORICAL_PROGRAMS/Manhattan Project.md index 7808d3ba..f53c87ff 100644 --- a/30 - PROGRAMS & PROJECTS/HISTORICAL_PROGRAMS/Manhattan Project.md +++ b/30 - PROGRAMS & PROJECTS/HISTORICAL_PROGRAMS/Manhattan Project.md @@ -10,6 +10,20 @@ end: 1947 --- The [[Manhattan Project]] was a top-secret research and development undertaking by the [[United States]] with the support of the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Canada]] during World War II. Its primary objective was to produce the first nuclear weapons. [[J. Robert Oppenheimer]] was the scientific director of the project, and [[John von Neumann]] was also a key figure.[^1] +### Administration and the Combined Policy Committee + +The atomic project's policy was coordinated through the [[Combined Policy Committee]], the body of the United States, the United Kingdom and Canada. The committee's minutes of January 22, 1945 and March 8, 1945 list [[Harvey H. Bundy]] as a joint secretary with Dr. [[William L. Webster]], and the minutes of July 4, 1945 list him as joint secretary with [[Roger Makins]]. The July 4 minutes include an item headed "Use of Weapon Against Third Parties."[^2] + +The [[Interim Committee]] met on May 31, 1945 under [[Henry L. Stimson]], with [[George Marshall]] and [[Leslie Groves]] present by invitation together with Bundy and [[Arthur Page]].[^3] The National Security Archive index lists the "Harrison-Bundy files" in Record Group 77 under folders 69, 76, 77 and 100, and identifies [[George L. Harrison]] as Stimson's special assistant on Manhattan Project matters.[^4] + +In July and August 1943, during the Anglo-American dispute over the exchange of information, Bundy wrote the record of the July 22, 1943 meeting at 10 Downing Street between Stimson, [[Vannevar Bush]], Bundy, [[Winston Churchill]], Sir John Anderson and Lord Cherwell, and on August 6, 1943 sent Stimson a memorandum on the views of Bush and [[James B. Conant]] on an agreement with the United Kingdom.[^5] R. Gordon Arneson, the Interim Committee's recording secretary, stated in a 1989 Truman Library interview that Bundy hired him and proposed him for that post.[^6] At the July 4, 1945 Combined Policy Committee meeting Bundy reported that Belgian Congo supplies and captured material received by the Combined Development Trust were on their way to the United States.[^7] + ### Footnotes -[^1]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991. Chapter 2. \ No newline at end of file +[^1]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991. Chapter 2. +[^2]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, vol. II, minutes of the Combined Policy Committee, January 22, March 8 and July 4, 1945, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v02 +[^3]: "Notes of the Interim Committee Meeting, Thursday, 31 May 1945," National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 162, Document 12, list of persons present, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/12.pdf +[^4]: National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 162, document index, Record Group 77, Manhattan Engineering District records, "Harrison-Bundy Files," folders 69, 76, 77 and 100, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/index.htm +[^5]: *Foreign Relations of the United States: The Conferences at Washington and Quebec, 1943*, Bundy memorandum of July 22, 1943 and document 334 (August 6, 1943), https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1943 +[^6]: R. Gordon Arneson, oral history interview, June 21, 1989, Harry S. Truman Library, https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/oralhist/arneson.htm +[^7]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, vol. II, Combined Policy Committee minutes of July 4, 1945, item 6, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v02 diff --git a/70 - DISPATCHES/2026-10-26 Funding Conduit.md b/70 - DISPATCHES/2026-10-26 Funding Conduit.md new file mode 100644 index 00000000..dba9efc2 --- /dev/null +++ b/70 - DISPATCHES/2026-10-26 Funding Conduit.md @@ -0,0 +1,45 @@ +--- +title: "Funding Conduit" +date: 2026-10-26 +status: published +summary: "A November 1968 CIA Central Cover Staff memorandum lists John Hay Whitney's charitable trust as a 'Funding conduit under Project QKOPERA,' the designation it gives the Congress for Cultural Freedom." +entities: + - "[[John Hay Whitney]]" + - "[[Granary Fund]]" + - "[[Congress for Cultural Freedom]]" + - "[[Farfield Foundation]]" + - "[[Forum World Features]]" + - "[[William Harding Jackson]]" + - "[[Central Intelligence Agency]]" + - "[[Ramparts]]" + - "[[Charles Katek]]" + - "[[Richard Mellon Scaife]]" + - "[[Brian Crozier]]" + - "[[Whitney family]]" +tags: + - CIA + - Qkopera + - CongressForCulturalFreedom + - Foundations + - WhitneyFamily +--- +# Funding Conduit + +On February 25, 1967 the San Francisco Chronicle reported that "a charitable trust established by John Hay Whitney received $325,000 in 1964 and 1965 from the Granary Fund of Boston, used by the Central Intelligence Agency to channel money from front organizations to various organizations here and abroad." The schedule the [[Granary Fund]] filed with the Massachusetts attorney general showed $225,000 paid to the John Hay Whitney Trust for Charitable Purposes in 1964 and $100,000 in 1965. Walter N. Thayer, head of the Whitney communications corporation, issued a statement in Whitney's name: "The trust which I established Dec. 29, 1958, for charitable purposes has operated since that date."[^1] David Wise and Thomas B. Ross wrote the same year that the trust was "financed in part by the Granary Fund, the CIA conduit."[^2] + +In November 1968 [[Charles Katek]], Chief of the CIA's Central Cover Staff, sent the Deputy Director for Plans a memorandum on the "Scope and Possible Damage of New Allegations by Ramparts Magazine." [[Ramparts]] had sent the Internal Revenue Service a list of 145 tax-exempt organizations it suspected of CIA funding. The memorandum's annex of terminated covert funding conduits lists the Granary Fund as a Central Cover Staff proprietary (LPSIPHON/7). It lists "Whitney Trust for Charitable Purposes, John Hay" twice, as Ramparts items 141 and 142, each time as a "Funding conduit under Project QKOPERA (LPCORSET/68)." The same memorandum gives QKOPERA as the project designation for the [[Congress for Cultural Freedom]], and lists the [[Farfield Foundation]] as a "Funding conduit for CCF."[^3] In 1985 the CIA answered a 1980 request for records on "the John Hay Whitney Trust for Charitable Purposes and the Granary Fund." It reported two documents, dated December 10, 1968 and January 23, 1969, and withheld both in full.[^4] + +When [[Forum World Features]] began selling articles from [[London]] in 1966, its owner of record was Whitney, according to officials quoted by the Washington Post in 1975. An internal CIA memorandum of about 1968, which the Post quoted from Time Out, says the service was begun in January 1966 from the residue of Forum Service, an activity of the Congress for Cultural Freedom. [[Richard Mellon Scaife]] replaced Whitney early in 1973, and a Whitney spokesman said he had "no comment on the subject."[^5] [[Brian Crozier]], the service's president, later wrote that in the spring of 1965 [[John Hunt]] told him Whitney had agreed to take over the service, and printed a letter of June 10, 1965 from Hunt saying that Whitney "tentatively plans to put about $100,000 a year into Forum Features."[^6] + +[[William Harding Jackson]] was managing director of J. H. Whitney & Co. when he wrote to Director of Central Intelligence [[Roscoe H. Hillenkoetter]] on the firm's letterhead on May 29, 1947: "You need only call upon me and I shall do anything within my power to be of assistance."[^7] He became Deputy Director of Central Intelligence in October 1950.[^8] The CIA's history of the [[Walter Bedell Smith]] years names [[Alexander Standish]], "a partner in J. H. Whitney & Company," among the original Princeton Consultants of the [[Board of National Estimates]].[^9] On March 26, 1969 [[Henry A. Kissinger]] wrote to Peter Flanigan about Whitney's interest in the [[Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board]]: "You should know that this has twice been raised with the President and rejected both times."[^10] + +[^1]: "CIA Link to Charity Funds," *San Francisco Chronicle*, February 25, 1967 (CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP75-00149R000800060024-5). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00149r000800060024-5 +[^2]: David Wise and Thomas B. Ross, *The Espionage Establishment* (Random House, 1967), p. 144. +[^3]: Charles Katek, Chief, Central Cover Staff, memorandum for the Deputy Director for Plans, "Indications of the Scope and Possible Damage of New Allegations by Ramparts Magazine," November 1968, with annexes (JFK Assassination Records, 2025 release, 104-10059-10026). https://archive.org/details/JFK-Assassination-Records-2025-Batch01-02 +[^4]: Central Intelligence Agency, Information and Privacy Coordinator, letter of May 28, 1985 responding to the Freedom of Information Act request of January 11, 1980 (CIA-RDP87B00858R000500640014-6). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP87B00858R000500640014-6 +[^5]: Bernard D. Nossiter, "CIA News Service," *The Washington Post*, July 3, 1975, p. A26. https://archive.org/details/nsia-CIAForumWorldFeatures +[^6]: Brian Crozier, reply to the *Guardian*, December 1, 1976, with printed correspondence of John Hunt (June 10, 1965). https://archive.org/details/crozier-replies-to-gaurdian-by-peter-chippendale-martin-walker-the-gaurdian-december-1-1976-pp.-1-9 +[^7]: William H. Jackson to Rear Admiral R. H. Hillenkoetter, May 29, 1947, on J. H. Whitney & Co. letterhead (CIA-RDP80B01676R004000040034-9). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r004000040034-9 +[^8]: *The Pulse*, October 15, 1950 (employee bulletin of The New York Hospital), notice of Jackson's appointment as Deputy Director. https://archive.org/details/pulse1519newy_6 +[^9]: Central Intelligence Agency, "General Walter Bedell Smith as Director of Central Intelligence, October 1950 to February 1953," vol. III (CREST document 00669377), passage on the Board of National Estimates and the Princeton Consultants. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-00669377 +[^10]: Henry A. Kissinger to Peter Flanigan, memorandum of March 26, 1969, "Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board, John Hay Whitney" (LOC-HAK-1-2-69-2). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-loc-hak-1-2-69-2 diff --git a/70 - DISPATCHES/2026-10-26 Legend, Not History.md b/70 - DISPATCHES/2026-10-26 Legend, Not History.md new file mode 100644 index 00000000..2292d886 --- /dev/null +++ b/70 - DISPATCHES/2026-10-26 Legend, Not History.md @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +--- +title: "Legend, Not History" +date: 2026-10-26 +status: published +summary: "The 1862 House record names J. Pierpont Morgan as lender and voucher payee on the Hall carbines; the 1941 study calling the case against him 'legend, not history' was written by a Morgan vice president." +entities: + - "[[J. P. Morgan]]" + - "[[J. P. Morgan & Co.]]" + - "[[R. Gordon Wasson]]" + - "[[Simon Stevens]]" + - "[[John C. Frémont]]" + - "[[Morris Ketchum]]" + - "[[Franklin D. Callender]]" + - "[[Elihu B. Washburne]]" + - "[[Joseph Holt]]" + - "[[Geschickter Fund for Medical Research]]" + - "[[Project MKUltra]]" +tags: + - JPMorgan + - CivilWar + - WarContracts + - MKUltra +--- +# Legend, Not History + +In June 1861 [[Arthur M. Eastman]] bought 5,400 Hall's carbines from the Ordnance Bureau at $3.50 each. He sold 5,000 to [[Simon Stevens]] at $12.50, and Stevens sold them to Major General [[John C. Frémont]] at $22.[^1] The House select committee on government contracts, reporting through [[Elihu B. Washburne]], found that "the arms were placed under the control of J. Pierpont Morgan to secure him the payment of $20,000 he had advanced to Stevens."[^2] Stevens testified: "I got them from J. Pierpont Morgan, to send to General Fremont." He said Morgan was to be refunded the $20,000 with interest "and to be paid for his services and expenses in attending to the sale and collection of the money as trustee for all parties concerned."[^3] + +Captain [[Franklin D. Callender]] of the St. Louis arsenal testified on October 26, 1861: "According to the best information I have, J. Pierpont Morgan sold them to the government." He produced a bill dated August 7, 1861, headed "The United States to J. Pierpont Morgan, Dr.," for 2,500 carbines at $55,550. It was marked paid on September 10, with a receipt signed "J. PIERPONT MORGAN, By his attorney, J. T. HOWARD." A second bill in Morgan's name for $58,175 was marked "Not paid for want of funds."[^4] The committee valued the arm at "very nearly $12 50" and found that the claim sought "some $49,000 over and above the value of the property sold."[^5] The War Department commission of [[Joseph Holt]] and [[Robert Dale Owen]] docketed the claim as Case No. 97 in Morgan's name.[^6] + +The standard account of the affair is *The Hall Carbine Affair: A Study in Contemporary Folklore*, printed in 1941 in an edition of 100 copies and revised in 1948 in an edition of 750. Its preface states that, "insofar as the case against Morgan is concerned," the transaction "is legend, not history."[^7] Its own reckoning, from [[Morris Ketchum]]'s statement to the committee, is that Morgan retained $26,343.54 of the voucher's proceeds, including a $5,400 commission, and passed $28,650.96 to Ketchum on September 16, 1861.[^8] The author was [[R. Gordon Wasson]], a vice president of [[J. P. Morgan & Co.]][^9] + +Wasson's 1956 mushroom expedition to Huautla de Jiménez was joined by the chemist James Moore and drew a $2,000 contribution from the [[Geschickter Fund for Medical Research]], a conduit for the CIA's [[Project MKUltra|MKULTRA]] program.[^10] + +[^1]: U.S. House of Representatives, 37th Cong., 2d sess., House Report No. 2, "Government Contracts," section "The purchase of the Hall carbines," pp. 40 to 43. https://archive.org/details/governmentcontra00unit_1 +[^2]: House Report No. 2, 37th Cong., 2d sess., p. 43. https://archive.org/details/governmentcontra00unit_1 +[^3]: House Report No. 2, 37th Cong., 2d sess., testimony of Simon Stevens, "Testimony: Purchase of Arms," pp. 242 to 245, quoted in the committee's report at p. 43. https://archive.org/details/governmentcontra00unit_1 +[^4]: House Report No. 2, 37th Cong., 2d sess., testimony of Captain Franklin D. Callender, October 26, 1861, quoted at pp. 47 to 50. https://archive.org/details/governmentcontra00unit_1 +[^5]: House Report No. 2, 37th Cong., 2d sess., pp. 51 to 53. https://archive.org/details/governmentcontra00unit_1 +[^6]: R. Gordon Wasson, *The Hall Carbine Affair: A Study in Contemporary Folklore* (revised edition, 1948), pp. 44 to 48, quoting the Report of the Commission on Ordnance Claims and Contracts, Senate Executive Document 72, 37th Cong., 2d sess., p. 460. https://archive.org/details/hallcarbineaffai012466mbp +[^7]: Wasson, *The Hall Carbine Affair* (1948), title page, copyright page and preface. https://archive.org/details/hallcarbineaffai012466mbp +[^8]: Wasson, *The Hall Carbine Affair* (1948), pp. 21 to 23. https://archive.org/details/hallcarbineaffai012466mbp +[^9]: Annie Jacobsen, *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis* (Little, Brown and Company, 2017). +[^10]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate* (1979), chapter 7.