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---
category: "Intelligence & Government"
aliases:
- Joan Jacoby
- Mrs. Joan E. Jacoby
category: "Scientists & Researchers"
created: 2024-04-25
updated: 2026-05-01
updated: 2026-10-14
tags:
- KeyFigure
- Person
- PROMIS
- INSLAW
- Criminologist
summary: "Joan E. Jacoby was Director of the Office of Crime Analysis of the District of Columbia who co-led the 1969 team that designed PROMIS alongside Charles R. Work and project manager Bill Hamilton, and later directed national prosecution research programs at the National Center for Prosecution Management and the Bureau of Social Science Research."
- ProsecutionManagement
- LEAA
- BureauOfSocialScienceResearch
summary: "Joan E. Jacoby directed the Office of Crime Analysis of the District of Columbia, co-led the 1969 PROMIS design team, and later directed the National Center for Prosecution Management."
relations:
- type: head_of
with: "[[Office of Crime Analysis of the District of Columbia]]"
role: "director"
start: 1969
end: 1972
fn: 6
- type: head_of
with: "[[National Center for Prosecution Management]]"
role: "executive director"
start: 1972
fn: 9
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Bureau of Social Science Research]]"
role: "adjunct research associate; project coordinator and project director of prosecution research projects"
start: 1975
fn: 18
- type: participant_in
with: "[[PROMIS]]"
role: "co-director of the 1969 design team"
start: 1969
end: 1971
fn: 2
---
Joan E. Jacoby received a B.A. in sociology from Boston University and an M.A. in statistics from The American University. She is a published criminologist with work spanning prosecution management, criminal statistics, and information systems design.
Joan E. Jacoby is a criminologist who directed the [[Office of Crime Analysis of the District of Columbia]], co-led the 1969 team that designed the [[PROMIS|Prosecutor's Management Information System]] with [[Charles R. Work]], and later directed the [[National Center for Prosecution Management]] and the prosecution research projects of the [[Bureau of Social Science Research]]. She received a B.A. in sociology from [[Boston University]] and an M.A. in statistics from [[American University]]. She is a published criminologist with work spanning prosecution management, criminal statistics, and information systems design.
### Role in PROMIS Development
### PROMIS design team, 1969 to 1971
In 1969, while serving as Director of the [[Office of Crime Analysis of the District of Columbia]], Jacoby co-led the team commissioned by U.S. Attorney [[Thomas A. Flannery]] to design a computer-based case management system for the DC U.S. Attorney's Office, funded by a $60,000 [[LEAA]] grant (70-DF-047) administered through [[Peat, Marwick, Mitchell & Co]]. The co-directors of the project were Jacoby and [[Charles R. Work]] (then Deputy Chief of the Superior Court Division of the [[U.S. Attorney's office|U.S. Attorney's Office]]), with [[Bill Hamilton]] serving as project manager as a senior consultant at Peat Marwick. The resulting system was named the Prosecutor's Management Information System ([[PROMIS]]) and deployed on January 1, 1971.[^1]
In 1969 the Office of Crime Analysis of the District of Columbia and the [[U.S. Attorney's office|U.S. Attorney's Office]] assembled a team of prosecutors, criminologists, statisticians and systems analysts to design a computerized case management system for the Superior Court Division. The team was commissioned by U.S. Attorney [[Thomas A. Flannery]] and funded through a $60,000 grant from the [[LEAA|Law Enforcement Assistance Administration]], grant 70-DF-047, administered through the Office of Crime Analysis.[^1] [[Peat, Marwick, Mitchell & Co]] was engaged to assist in the design and implementation of the system, which became operational on January 1, 1971.[^2] [[Bill Hamilton]] served as project manager as a senior consultant at Peat Marwick. The resulting system was named the Prosecutor's Management Information System (PROMIS).
Jacoby also developed a competing proposal during this period: a 1970 paper titled "Project TRACE - A System for the Tracking, Retrieval and Analysis of Criminal Events," presented at the Urban and Regional Information Systems Proceedings on November 12, 1970. Project TRACE (Tracking Retrieval and Analysis of Criminal Events) shared PROMIS's subject-in-process tracking concept but was not adopted for the federal program.[^2][^3]
A May 1971 system overview prepared for the Office of Crime Analysis states that the team "was headed by Mrs. Joan E. Jacoby, Director of the Office of Crime Analysis," together with Charles R. Work, deputy director of the Superior Court Division of the U.S. Attorney's Office.[^3] The other members were [[James M. Etheridge]], [[Fred L. Lander III]], [[Soo Lee]] and [[Stanley H. Turner]], assistant directors of the Office of Crime Analysis, and [[Frederick G. Watts]], chief of the Grand Jury Section of the Superior Court Division.[^4]
The Office of Crime Analysis described PROMIS as the critical component of its own project TRACE (Tracking, Retrieval and Analysis of Criminal Events), a system for tracking offenders through the District's criminal justice system from arrest through sentencing and incarceration, and the LEAA provided funding for both TRACE and PROMIS.[^5] Jacoby is listed as director on the 1971 PROMIS system overview and on the Office of Crime Analysis's 1972 *Final Report: Project TRACE*.[^6] A 1974 directory of social and behavioral science data bases lists her 1970 paper "Project TRACE - A System for the Tracking, Retrieval and Analysis of Criminal Events," presented to the Urban and Regional Information Systems proceedings on November 12, 1970.[^7]
The case evaluation systems used in PROMIS, which score the seriousness of the offense with an adaptation of the Sellin and Wolfgang scale and the seriousness of the defendant's record, were originally developed by the Office of Crime Analysis for the U.S. Attorney's office in 1969. By 1976 PROMIS was being implemented in about 22 prosecutors' offices.[^8]
In April 1973 Patrick F. Healy, executive director of the [[National District Attorneys Association]], told a House Judiciary subcommittee that PROMIS "was developed by Joan E. Jacoby who is now the executive director of the National Center for Prosecution Management, and Charles Work," an assistant U.S. attorney.[^9] Healy described the system as developed under a $290,000 LEAA grant and said it had produced a 25-percent increase in convictions for certain serious misdemeanors in the District of Columbia.[^10][^11]
### National Center for Prosecution Management
After her time at the Office of Crime Analysis, Jacoby served as Executive Director of the [[National Center for Prosecution Management]], a nonprofit corporation established by the [[Department of Justice]] with LEAA funding to provide management and technical assistance to prosecutors nationwide and conduct research on the prosecution function.[^1]
The Law Enforcement Assistance Administration made a grant to the National District Attorneys Association for the development of standards to measure the efficiency of prosecutors' offices, and the grant created the National Center for Prosecution Management.[^12] The center was established with LEAA funding in December 1971 as a nonprofit corporation to provide technical and management assistance to prosecutors nationwide and to conduct research on the prosecution function. Jacoby served as its executive director.[^9]
### Bureau of Social Science Research
In fiscal 1973 the center had received about $1 million in grants through the National District Attorneys Association and had been in operation for less than two years, with a staff of 18 located in Washington. The LEAA's fiscal 1973 report lists the [[National College of District Attorneys]] and the [[Institute for Court Management]] as co-sponsors of the center, alongside the association.[^13]
In 1975, Jacoby became a Research Associate at the Bureau of Social Science Research, where she directed national programs of research in prosecution and criminal justice. She subsequently became Executive Director of the Jefferson Institute in Washington, D.C.[^1]
Jacoby, James M. Etheridge and J. D. Bourland are listed as the authors of the center's *First Annual Report* (Washington, D.C.: National Center for Prosecution Management).[^14] Exhibits to the 1973 hearing include three items under Jacoby's name as executive director: "Capacity and Overload in a Prosecutor's Office," a system for the manual evaluation of case processing in a prosecutor's office, and a manual statistical system to measure case flow.[^15]
### Bureau of Social Science Research, 1975 to 1982
Jacoby joined the Bureau of Social Science Research in 1975, when the bureau took part in a national evaluation of pretrial screening programs.[^16] Her charging-decision monograph, published in January 1977 by the National Institute of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice, states that it is a direct result of a Phase I Evaluation of Pretrial Screening conducted by its author. The preface describes the work as based on her experience as executive director of the National Center for Prosecution Management.[^17] The monograph identifies her as an adjunct research associate of the bureau and was supported by Contract Number OM 6-0566-J-LEAA and Grant Number 75-NI-99-0079, awarded to the bureau.[^18]
Under LEAA Grant 78-NI-AX-0006 Jacoby was project director of the bureau's research on prosecutorial decision making, with [[Leonard R. Mellon]] as deputy project director. The executive summary of that research is dated April 1979.[^19] Jacoby and Mellon also published Policy Analysis for Prosecution through the bureau in 1979.[^20] The 1982 National Institute of Justice report Prosecutorial Decisionmaking: A National Study lists Jacoby, Mellon, [[Edward C. Ratledge]] and Stanley H. Turner as authors and was funded under Grants 79-NI-AX-0006 and 79-NI-AX-0034 awarded to the bureau.[^21]
Jacoby's single-author monograph Basic Issues in Prosecution and Public Defender Performance was issued by the National Institute of Justice in 1982 under Grant 78-NI-AX-0091. It applies functions analysis to the measurement of prosecutor and public defender performance.[^22][^23] A January 1982 report, Policy and Prosecution, lists Jacoby with Mellon and [[Walter F. Smith]] as authors and presents a conceptual model for analyzing prosecutive decision making from a policy perspective.[^24] Her book The American Prosecutor: A Search for Identity was published by [[Lexington Books]] in 1980.[^25]
Her 1975 *Judicature* article "Case Evaluation: Quantifying Prosecutorial Policy" and the January 1976 LEAA National Evaluation Program Phase I report *Pre-trial Screening in Perspective* preceded the charging-decision monograph.[^26]
The bureau also held LEAA support before this work. In 1972 it received a short grant, 72-NI-99-0019-G, for an extension of its criminological survey techniques project, under which it added studies to an inventory of public surveys on crime and justice. The inventory was published in January 1973 as an interim report listing 240 studies.[^27]
The bureau had been a military contractor since the 1950s. Under [[Air Force Office of Scientific Research]] contract AF 49(638)727 it issued Research Report 339-4, [[Albert Biderman|Albert D. Biderman]]'s *Cultural Models of Captivity Relationships* (February 1961), and Biderman's 1964 paper *Captivity Lore and Behavior in Captivity* reports research supported in part by the same contract.[^28] Biderman's *Chinese "Thought Reform" as a Source of Perspectives toward Western Correctional Practice* (May 20, 1965), a bureau report, was prepared under contract AF 49(638)1344.[^29] In 1963 the bureau submitted to the Air Force Office of Scientific Research an annotated bibliography of about 200 items on prisoner interrogation, compliance and resistance, prepared for a special conference on training programs for required captivity behavior and supported by the office's Behavioral Sciences Division; a preliminary report on Chinese Communist indoctrination of military prisoners of war by John W. Lewis of [[Cornell University]] was issued for the same conference under the bureau's contract.[^30] A 1963 bureau final report on historical incidents of extreme overcrowding, by Biderman and two co-authors, was written under Office of Civil Defense contract OCD-OS-62-122.[^31]
In October 1965 Elisabeth T. Crawford compiled for the bureau, under an Air Force Office of Scientific Research contract, an annotated bibliography of 150 references, *The Social Sciences in International and Military Policy*.[^32] The 1969 anthology *Social Scientists and International Affairs*, edited by Crawford and Biderman, states that its plan was developed in a research project supported by the Behavioral Sciences Division of the Air Force Office of Scientific Research on the use of social science knowledge in international and military affairs; the same volume contains an article titled "The Rise and Fall of Project Camelot" ([[Project Camelot]]).[^33]
A *Wall Street Journal* report of December 8, 1965 described a different bureau project. According to the report, the private Bureau of Social Science Research was at the [[Pentagon]]'s request embarked on a study project to determine how social science research was being used in making Pentagon and foreign-policy decisions.[^34]
### Jefferson Institute for Justice Studies, 1985 to 1987
In October 1987 the National Institute of Justice published Jacoby's Caseweighting Systems for Prosecutors: Guidelines and Procedures. The report was submitted under subcontract Z-sub-JIJ-12/19/85 from [[Abt Associates]], Inc., by the [[Jefferson Institute for Justice Studies]] of Washington, D.C.[^35] Jacoby later served as executive director of the Jefferson Institute in Washington, D.C. Her 1984 papers "Attorney Effort: A Powerful Descriptor of Operations and Policy" and "Computing Variable Costs in Adjudication," the latter presented to the American Society of Criminology in Cincinnati on November 10, 1984, were both issued by the Jefferson Institute.[^36]
### Footnotes
[^1]: U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on the Judiciary. *The INSLAW Affair: Investigative Report.* House Report 102-857, 102nd Congress, 2nd Session, September 10, 1992.
[^2]: Office of Justice Programs, National Criminal Justice Reference Service. Abstract: "Project TRACE (Tracking, Retrieval and Analysis of Criminal Events) - Final Report." OJP Virtual Library.
[^3]: Sessions, Vivian S. *Directory of Data Bases in the Social and Behavioral Sciences.* Science Associates International, 1974.
[^1]: Peat, Marwick, Mitchell & Co., *System Overview and Report Formats for PROMIS* (May 1971), title page, prepared for the District of Columbia Government Office of Crime Analysis under LEAA Grant No. 70-DF-047, NCJ 32469. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/32469NCJRS.pdf
[^2]: Peat, Marwick, Mitchell & Co., *System Overview and Report Formats for PROMIS (Prosecutor's Management Information System): A Computer-Based System for the United States Attorney's Office for the District of Columbia* (May 1971), passage on the team, the firm's engagement and the January 1, 1971 operational date, NCJ 32469. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/32469NCJRS.pdf
[^3]: Peat, Marwick, Mitchell & Co., *System Overview and Report Formats for PROMIS* (May 1971), note 1 to the passage on the design team, NCJ 32469. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/32469NCJRS.pdf
[^4]: Peat, Marwick, Mitchell & Co., *System Overview and Report Formats for PROMIS* (May 1971), note 1 to the passage on the design team, list of members, NCJ 32469. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/32469NCJRS.pdf
[^5]: Peat, Marwick, Mitchell & Co., *System Overview and Report Formats for PROMIS* (May 1971), abstract and introduction: PROMIS as the critical component of the Office of Crime Analysis's project TRACE, with LEAA funding for both; NCJ 32469. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/32469NCJRS.pdf
[^6]: Jacoby, Joan E., *Final Report: Project TRACE* (Washington, D.C.: Office of Crime Analysis, Government of the District of Columbia, 1972) and *System Overview and Report Format for PROMIS* (1971), each listed with Jacoby as director in the notes and bibliography of NCJ 35832. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/35832NCJRS.pdf
[^7]: Sessions, Vivian S., *Directory of Data Bases in the Social and Behavioral Sciences* (Science Associates International, 1974), entry for the Project TRACE paper, presented to the Urban and Regional Information Systems proceedings, November 12, 1970.
[^8]: Jacoby, Joan E., *The Prosecutor's Charging Decision: A Policy Perspective* (January 1977; copyright 1976), chapter on case evaluation systems, note 1, NCJ 35832. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/35832NCJRS.pdf
[^9]: U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee No. 5, *Law Enforcement Assistance Administration, Hearings*, Serial No. 4 (1973), statement of Patrick F. Healy, executive director, National District Attorneys Association, April 4, 1973, and the appended listing of the National Center for Prosecution Management, where Jacoby is identified as executive director. https://archive.org/details/lawenforcementas00unit
[^10]: Same hearing, statement of Patrick F. Healy, April 4, 1973, on the $290,000 LEAA grant. https://archive.org/details/lawenforcementas00unit
[^11]: Same hearing, statement of Patrick F. Healy, April 4, 1973, on the 25-percent increase in convictions for certain serious misdemeanors. https://archive.org/details/lawenforcementas00unit
[^12]: Law Enforcement Assistance Administration, *Annual Report, Fiscal Year 1972*, court improvement section, grant to the National District Attorney's Association for standards to measure the efficiency of prosecutors' offices through a new National Center for Prosecution Management. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/148302NCJRS.pdf
[^13]: Law Enforcement Assistance Administration, *Annual Report, Fiscal Year 1973*, section on prosecutors' offices, describing the grants to the National Center for Prosecution Management, its sponsors and its staff of 18. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/147380NCJRS.pdf
[^14]: Jacoby, J. E., Ethridge, J. M. and Bourland, J. D., *First Annual Report of the National Center for Prosecution Management* (Washington, D.C.: National Center for Prosecution Management, 1972), as listed in the bibliography of NCJ 79227. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/79227NCJRS.pdf
[^15]: Same hearing, appendix exhibits by Joan E. Jacoby, Executive Director, National Center for Prosecution Management, including "Capacity and Overload in a Prosecutor's Office," "A System for Manual Evaluation of Case Processing in the Prosecutor's Office," and a manual statistical system to measure case flow. https://archive.org/details/lawenforcementas00unit
[^16]: Jacoby, Joan E., Mellon, Leonard R., Ratledge, Edward C., and Turner, Stanley H., *Prosecutorial Decisionmaking: A National Study* (1982), passage stating that in 1975 the Bureau of Social Science Research, as part of a national evaluation of pretrial screening programs, added a new dimension to the standard setting task. NCJ 79227. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/79227NCJRS.pdf
[^17]: Jacoby, Joan E., *The Prosecutor's Charging Decision: A Policy Perspective* (January 1977), preface and acknowledgments, including the statement that the work is a direct result of a Phase I Evaluation of Pretrial Screening conducted by the author, and her description as executive director of the National Center for Prosecution Management. NCJ 35832. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/35832NCJRS.pdf
[^18]: Jacoby, Joan E., *The Prosecutor's Charging Decision: A Policy Perspective* (National Institute of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice, January 1977), copyright page and project note: Contract Number OM 6-0566-J-LEAA and Grant Number 75-NI-99-0079 awarded to the Bureau of Social Science Research; staff listing with Jacoby as project coordinator and adjunct research associate. NCJ 35832. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/35832NCJRS.pdf
[^19]: Jacoby, Joan E., and Mellon, Leonard R., *Research on Prosecutorial Decisionmaking: Executive Summary* (April 1979), LEAA Grant 78 NI-AX-0006 to the Bureau of Social Science Research, project staff listing. NCJ 69512. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/69512NCJRS.pdf
[^20]: Jacoby, J. E., and Mellon, L. R., *Policy Analysis for Prosecution* (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Social Science Research, 1979), as listed in the bibliography of NCJ 79227. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/79227NCJRS.pdf
[^21]: Jacoby, Joan E., Mellon, Leonard R., Ratledge, Edward C., and Turner, Stanley H., *Prosecutorial Decisionmaking: A National Study* (National Institute of Justice, 1982), NCJ 79227, grant numbers 79-NI-AX-0006 and 79-NI-AX-0034 to the Bureau of Social Science Research. https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/prosecutorial-decisionmaking-national-study
[^22]: Jacoby, J. E., *Basic Issues in Prosecution and Public Defender Performance* (Bureau of Social Science Research, 1982), NCJ 84431, Grant Number 78-NI-AX-0091. https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/basic-issues-prosecution-and-public-defender-performance
[^23]: Jacoby, Joan, *Caseweighting Systems for Prosecutors: Guidelines and Procedures* (October 1987), bibliography entry for Jacoby, Joan E., *Basic Issues in Prosecution and Public Defender Performance* (Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Justice, 1982). NCJ 109771. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/109771NCJRS.pdf
[^24]: Jacoby, Joan E., Mellon, Leonard R., and Smith, Walter F., *Policy and Prosecution* (National Institute of Justice, January 1982), abstract: a conceptual model for analyzing prosecutive decisionmaking from a policy perspective. University of Delaware UDSpace record. https://udspace.udel.edu/items/3de0b540-2905-4dd6-8e95-a7bd8092164f/full
[^25]: Jacoby, Joan E., *The American Prosecutor: A Search for Identity* (Lexington Books, c1980). CiNii catalogue record. https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA04306866
[^26]: Jacoby, Joan E., *The Prosecutor's Charging Decision: A Policy Perspective* (1977), bibliography and notes: *Pre-trial Screening in Perspective*, National Evaluation Program Phase I Report (U.S. Department of Justice, LEAA, January 1976), and "Case Evaluation: Quantifying Prosecutorial Policy," *Judicature* 58:10 (May 1975), NCJ 35832. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/35832NCJRS.pdf
[^27]: Law Enforcement Assistance Administration, *Annual Report, Fiscal Year 1972*, grant 72-NI-99-0019-G (May 31 to July 13, 1972, $6,796) to the Bureau of Social Science Research, extension of the criminological survey techniques project, with the inventory of 240 studies published January 1973. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/148302NCJRS.pdf
[^28]: Biderman, Albert D., *Cultural Models of Captivity Relationships*, BSSR Research Report 339-4, Bureau of Social Science Research, Washington, D.C., February 1961, Contract No. AF 49(638)727, DTIC AD0257325 (https://archive.org/details/DTIC_AD0257325); Biderman, *Captivity Lore and Behavior in Captivity*, AFOSR 65-0577 (1964), footnote on AFOSR Contract AF 49(638)727, DTIC AD0615363 (https://archive.org/details/DTIC_AD0615363).
[^29]: Biderman, Albert D., *Chinese "Thought Reform" as a Source of Perspectives toward Western Correctional Practice*, AFOSR 65-1205, May 20, 1965, Bureau of Social Science Research, Inc., Contract No. AF 49(638)1344, DTIC AD0623172. https://archive.org/details/DTIC_AD0623172
[^30]: *An Annotated Bibliography on Prisoner Interrogation, Compliance and Resistance*, AFOSR 68-1401, August 1963, Bureau of Social Science Research, Inc., supported by the Behavioral Sciences Division, AFOSR, DTIC AD0670999 (https://archive.org/details/DTIC_AD0670999); Lewis, John W., *Preliminary Report on Chinese Communist Indoctrination of Military Prisoners of War*, AFOSR 68-1410, DTIC AD0671004 (https://archive.org/details/DTIC_AD0671004).
[^31]: Biderman, Albert D., Louria, Margot, and Bacchus, Joan, *Historical Incidents of Extreme Overcrowding*, BSSR 354-5, Bureau of Social Science Research, Inc., Final Report, Contract No. OCD-OS-62-122, DTIC AD0609752. https://archive.org/details/DTIC_AD0609752
[^32]: Crawford, Elisabeth T., *The Social Sciences in International and Military Policy: An Analytic Bibliography*, AFOSR 65-1890, October 1965, Bureau of Social Science Research, Inc., prepared under contract with the Air Force Office of Scientific Research, DTIC AD0623841. https://archive.org/details/DTIC_AD0623841
[^33]: Crawford, Elisabeth T., and Biderman, Albert D., eds., *Social Scientists and International Affairs: A Case for a Sociology of Social Science* (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1969), AFOSR 69-1443TR, preface and table of contents, DTIC AD0688759. https://archive.org/details/DTIC_AD0688759
[^34]: "Research Ripples: Government Farms Out More Studies; Some Reports Draw Criticism," by Edward A. Behr, *Wall Street Journal*, December 8, 1965, as reproduced in the CIA CREST reading room file CIA-RDP73-00475R000102100001-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp73-00475r000102100001-3
[^35]: Jacoby, Joan, *Caseweighting Systems for Prosecutors: Guidelines and Procedures* (National Institute of Justice, October 1987), NCJ 109771, statement that the report was submitted under a sub-contract with Abt Associates, Inc., Cambridge, Mass. (Z-sub-JIJ-12/19/85), by the Jefferson Institute for Justice Studies, Washington, D.C. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/109771NCJRS.pdf
[^36]: Jacoby, Joan E., bibliography of *Caseweighting Systems for Prosecutors* (NCJ 109771), entries "Attorney Effort: A Powerful Descriptor of Operations and Policy" (1984a) and "Computing Variable Costs in Adjudication," paper presented to the American Society of Criminology, November 10, 1984, Cincinnati, Ohio (1984b), both Jefferson Institute for Justice Studies. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/109771NCJRS.pdf