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12
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Air Force Technical Applications Center.md
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@ -7,9 +7,17 @@ category: "U.S. Government"
summary: "The Air Force Technical Applications Center (AFTAC) is a unit of the United States Air Force responsible for operating and maintaining a global network of sensors to detect nuclear explosions."
start: 1959
location: "Patrick Air Force Base, Cape Canaveral, Florida"
relations:
- type: participant_in
with: "[[VELA Satellite]]"
role: "conducted the readout of Vela 6911"
start: 1979-09-21
end: 1979-09-21
fn: 1
---
The Air Force Technical Applications Center (AFTAC) is a unit of the [[United States]] Air Force responsible for operating and maintaining a global network of sensors to detect nuclear explosions. On September 22, 1979, a [[VELA Satellite]] digitally relayed its sighting of two distinctive bright flashes of light over the South Indian Ocean to AFTAC headquarters at Patrick Air Force Base in [[Cape Canaveral]], [[Florida]]. This event was probable evidence of a nuclear explosion.[^1]
The Air Force Technical Applications Center (AFTAC) is a unit of the [[United States]] Air Force responsible for operating and maintaining a global network of sensors to detect nuclear explosions. On the evening of September 21, 1979, AFTAC technicians conducted a routine readout of the [[VELA Satellite|Vela satellite]] designated Vela 6911, launched May 23, 1969, at Patrick Air Force Base in [[Cape Canaveral]], [[Florida]]. The readout showed a double-humped signal of the kind associated with a nuclear explosion, from a region the satellite's bhangmeters viewed across the southern Atlantic and Indian Oceans.[^1] [[Seymour Hersh]] wrote that this event was probable evidence of a nuclear explosion.[^2]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991. Chapter 20.
[^1]: Richelson, Jeffrey T., ed., "The Vela Incident: Nuclear Test or Meteoroid?" National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 190, May 5, 2006, narrative. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB190/index.htm
[^2]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991. Chapter 20.

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20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Central Intelligence Agency.md
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@ -174,6 +174,8 @@ The third progress report on NSC 59/1 records that the CIA had been assigned a c
In February 1961 [[Allen Dulles|Allen W. Dulles]] wrote to Millikan, then director of the center, that he was "very deeply interested in the proposal in your letter of January 23," and expected to attend at least part of the meetings of May 18 to 21, 1961, at which the center would review its first ten years.[^56]
A CIA document titled "Principles Governing Budgetary Relationships Between CENIS and CIA" describes an annual contract under which research projects were "mutually agreed upon case by case" between the agency and the Center for International Studies, within an annual authorization of $500,000. The document is undated.[^57] A CIA list of recipients of Office of Research and Reports unclassified studies names Max Millikan, [[Walt Rostow]], [[Wilfred Malenbaum]], [[Everett Hagen]], [[Evsey Domar]] and [[Thomas Schelling]], each listed under the Center for International Studies.[^58] A CIA memorandum dated February 16, 1959, forwarding a [[National Review]] Bulletin item, carries the item's text stating that [[Richard Bissell]] and [[Robert Amory]] "lean ideologically on CIA's outriding auxiliary at MIT, the Center for International Studies," and that they have been influenced by the theories of "W. W. Rostow, director of the Center."[^59] The MIT President's report for 1962 to 1963 refers to "Max F. Millikan, Director of the Center for International Studies."[^60] A CIA Office of Legislative Counsel journal entry of March 3, 1967 records that "the Agency has Senator Fulbright's letter concerning a Center for International Studies, MIT, and is preparing a response."[^61]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Schnabel, Jim. *Remote Viewers*. Dell, 1997.
@ -232,3 +234,8 @@ In February 1961 [[Allen Dulles|Allen W. Dulles]] wrote to Millikan, then direct
[^54]: FRUS, The Intelligence Community, 1950-1955, Document 57 (third progress report on NSC 59/1), paragraph 12. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d57
[^55]: CIA reading room document CIA-RDP79S01011A000900030019-8, excerpt of the Project Troy report to the Secretary of State, February 1, 1951 (balloon chapter). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP79S01011A000900030019-8
[^56]: Allen W. Dulles, letter to Max F. Millikan, February 27, 1961, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80B01676R003500160028-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003500160028-9
[^57]: CIA, "Principles Governing Budgetary Relationships Between CENIS and CIA" (undated; released 2000), CIA reading room document CIA-RDP67-00059A000200090016-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp67-00059a000200090016-2
[^58]: CIA, "Recipients for ORR Unclassified Studies" (undated list), CIA reading room document CIA-RDP63-00314R000100180007-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp63-00314r000100180007-7
[^59]: CIA memorandum from the Assistant to the Director, February 16, 1959, forwarding a National Review Bulletin item, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00001R000100260064-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000100260064-9
[^60]: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, President's Report Issue for the year ending July 1, 1963, p. 165, MIT Libraries, DSpace. https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/160055
[^61]: CIA Office of Legislative Counsel, journal entry, "Friday, 3 March 1967," CIA reading room document CIA-RDP69B00369R000200020044-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp69b00369r000200020044-4

16
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Nuclear Intelligence Panel.md
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@ -5,10 +5,20 @@ tags:
- Nuclear
- USA
category: "U.S. Government"
summary: "The Nuclear Intelligence Panel (NIP) was a highly classified U.S. government nuclear intelligence group whose members, including Harold M. Agnew, concluded that the 1979 VELA satellite flash was a nuclear detonation and were dismayed by White House interference in their investigation."
summary: "Highly classified U.S. nuclear intelligence panel that met in February 1980 to review the 1979 Vela satellite flash; in Seymour Hersh's account its members concluded it was a nuclear detonation."
relations:
- type: investigated
with: "[[VELA Satellite]]"
role: "reviewed the data on the September 22, 1979 event"
start: 1980-02-11
end: 1980-02-14
fn: 2
---
The Nuclear Intelligence Panel (NIP) is a highly classified nuclear intelligence group within the U.S. government. Its members, including [[Harold M. Agnew]] and [[Louis H. Roddis, Jr.]], conducted their own investigation into the 1979 [[VELA Satellite]] sighting and concluded that a low-yield nuclear weapon had most certainly been detonated. They were dismayed by the extent of [[White House]] interference in the investigation, which they believed was politically motivated to find a different explanation for the event.[^1]
The Nuclear Intelligence Panel (NIP) is a highly classified nuclear intelligence group within the U.S. government. [[Seymour Hersh]] wrote that its members, including [[Harold M. Agnew]] and [[Louis H. Roddis, Jr.]], conducted their own investigation into the 1979 [[VELA Satellite]] sighting and concluded that a low-yield nuclear weapon had most certainly been detonated, and that they were dismayed by the extent of [[White House]] interference in the investigation, which they believed was politically motivated to find a different explanation for the event.[^1]
Director of Central Intelligence [[Stansfield Turner]] asked the panel to examine the data, according to [[Jeffrey Richelson]]. The panel met on February 11 to 13, 1980. The February 14, 1980 memorandum to the director from the chairman of the Joint Atomic Energy Intelligence Committee states that the attached summary of panel views "was prepared by the Panel Chairman, Mr. Louis H. Roddis, Jr." and that other subjects reviewed at the meeting would be in a formal panel report to follow; the attached judgments are completely redacted. Richelson and [[Leonard Weiss]] describe [[Donald M. Kerr]] as the panel's chairman or head.[^2]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991. Chapter 20.
[^1]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991. Chapter 20.
[^2]: Joint Atomic Energy Intelligence Committee, memorandum for the Director of Central Intelligence, "Judgments of the DCI's Nuclear Intelligence Panel on the 22 September 1979 Event," February 14, 1980, Secret. Document 6 in Richelson, Jeffrey T., ed., "The Vela Incident: Nuclear Test or Meteoroid?" National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 190, May 5, 2006. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB190/06.pdf

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20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Psychological Strategy Board.md Normal file
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@ -0,0 +1,194 @@
---
category: "Intelligence & Government"
tags:
- Organization
- PsychologicalStrategyBoard
- PsychologicalWarfare
- NationalSecurityCouncil
- CentralIntelligenceAgency
- OperationsCoordinatingBoard
- ProjectTroy
- VolunteerFreedomCorps
- Escapees
- Defectors
- ColdWar
- 1950s
aliases:
- Psychological Strategy Board
- PSB
- National Psychological Strategy Board
- Psychological Strategy Board (PSB)
summary: "The Psychological Strategy Board, created by Truman's directive of April 4, 1951, coordinated national psychological operations until Executive Order 10483 abolished it on September 2, 1953."
start: 1951-04-04
end: 1953-09-02
location: "Washington, D.C."
created: 2026-10-09
updated: 2026-10-09
relations:
- type: reported_to
with: "[[National Security Council]]"
start: 1951-04-04
end: 1953-09-02
fn: 1
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Central Intelligence Agency]]"
role: "Member agency; the Director of Central Intelligence sat on the Board and chaired its meetings in 1951 and 1952"
start: 1951-07-02
end: 1953-09-02
fn: 13
- type: head_of
with: "[[Gordon Gray]]"
reverse: true
role: "Director of the Psychological Strategy Board"
start: 1951-04
end: 1952-01
fn: 9
- type: head_of
with: "[[Raymond B. Allen]]"
reverse: true
role: "Director of the Psychological Strategy Board"
start: 1952-01
end: 1952-08
fn: 9
- type: head_of
with: "[[Alan G. Kirk]]"
reverse: true
role: "Director of the Psychological Strategy Board"
start: 1952
end: 1953
fn: 10
- type: head_of
with: "[[George A. Morgan]]"
reverse: true
role: "Acting Director of the Psychological Strategy Board"
start: 1951
end: 1952
fn: 9
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Edward P. Lilly]]"
reverse: true
role: "Member, Office of Plans; historian of the Board"
start: 1952
end: 1952
fn: 18
---
The Psychological Strategy Board was an interagency body created by presidential directive on April 4, 1951 to plan and coordinate national psychological operations under the [[National Security Council]]. Its members were the Under Secretary of State, the Deputy Secretary of Defense and the Director of Central Intelligence, and a Director appointed by the President ran its staff. President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] abolished it by [[Executive Order 10483]] on September 2, 1953, and assigned its outstanding affairs to the [[Operations Coordinating Board]].
### Creation and charter
President [[Harry S. Truman]] signed the directive on April 4, 1951, addressed to the Secretary of State, the Secretary of Defense and the Director of Central Intelligence. It gave the Board's purpose as "more effective planning, coordination and conduct, within the framework of approved national policies, of psychological operations," and defined psychological operations as "all activities (other than overt types of economic warfare) envisioned under NSC 59/1 and NSC 10/2."[^1] The directive stated that "This directive does not authorize the Board nor the Director to perform any 'psychological operations'," and that the Board would "report to the National Security Council."[^1] The White House released an abbreviated version on June 20, 1951.[^2]
The [[Department of State]] initially opposed the Board and later argued that a Department member should chair it. [[James E. Webb]] wrote to the Director of the [[Bureau of the Budget]] on March 15, 1951 that it was "impossible . . . to entrust the formulation and execution of policies and programs of political warfare to an agency not subject or subordinate to the Department of State."[^3] The President appointed [[Gordon Gray]], then president of the [[University of North Carolina]] and a former Secretary of the Army, as the first Director.[^3]
The Board grew out of the [[Project Troy]] study of 1950 and 1951. [[Paul Nitze]], then Director of the [[Policy Planning Staff]], wrote to Webb on April 9, 1951 that a memorandum of March 29, 1951 from [[Edward W. Barrett]], Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs, envisaged the Board "as operating as a central authority on political warfare" "as recommended by the Troy group," and that "The Troy group went vastly beyond its original terms of reference and explored a field for which it had no special competence and about which it had little information."[^4] On November 1, 1951 Gray wrote to [[Allen Dulles]] of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] that Dr. [[Julius A. Stratton]] of the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] would present the program of the Center of International Studies to the Board and its staff on November 7, and that the Center was "a continuation on an established basis of the work recommended by the Troy Report."[^5] A CIA historian's note of an interview with [[Max Millikan]] on March 5, 1952, headed "Origin of PSB," records Millikan's recollection that "the best way into the problem proved to be through the 'defectors.'"[^6]
In a paper dated August 3, 1951, Nitze told Webb that the directive was "somewhat unclear in setting forth the scope of the Board's jurisdiction." He described two positions. The first, held by members of the Central Intelligence Agency active in the Board's early work, gave the Board primary authority over "all matters of the conduct of foreign policy short of formal hostilities." The second, held by the State Department and supported by the military, limited the Board to primary authority over coordination of the activities in NSC 59/1 and NSC 10/2 and to a secondary role for psychological factors elsewhere in foreign policy.[^7] The paper was drafted by [[Charles Burton Marshall]], then a member of the Policy Planning Staff.[^7]
### Directors and staff
The Board's first meeting, on July 2, 1951, was attended by Gray, [[Walter Bedell Smith]] as Director of Central Intelligence, [[Robert Lovett]] as Deputy Secretary of Defense, and Barrett for the Under Secretary of State, with Allen Dulles and [[James Q. Reber]] of the Central Intelligence Agency also present.[^8] Smith argued there that the Board needed a "master plan" on the model of the [[Combined Chiefs of Staff]]'s sequencing of Germany before Japan, and that the Board should act as "a high-level project review board to allocate missions to the various agencies."[^8] Gray served as Director until January 1952.[^9][^10]
[[Raymond B. Allen]] directed the Board from January to August 1952.[^9][^10] [[Alan G. Kirk]], listed in the Foreign Relations persons index as Admiral Alan G. Kirk, USN (ret.), was Director from 1952 to 1953. A transmittal memorandum from Kirk dated November 3, 1952 forwarded the Board's report covering July through September 1952.[^10][^11] [[George A. Morgan]] served as Acting Director from 1951 to 1952, and signed as Acting Director on July 6, 1953, when he sent Under Secretary Smith a recommendation on the freedom of reading in [[United States Information Service]] libraries.[^9][^12]
The eighth meeting, on January 10, 1952 in the Pentagon, was chaired by Smith, with Deputy Secretary of Defense [[William C. Foster]] and Under Secretary of State Webb as members and Barrett, Brig. Gen. [[John Magruder]] and Brig. Gen. [[Jesmond D. Balmer]] of the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]] as other participants. The minutes record Webb's proposal that State Department staff lead the drafting of the Japan plan and Foster's reply that the Board should keep the responsibility for preparing it. They also record Foster's report that Defense had no objection to the transfer of $4.3 million of [[Mutual Security Agency]] funds for the escapee program, and Smith's remark that the language of the [[Kersten Amendment]] was "pretty elastic."[^13]
Gray planned a Special Assistant to handle the Board's relations with congressmen and private agencies, as recorded at the Board's second meeting on August 13, 1951.[^14] The same meeting recorded that Gray's staff would be briefed through the members' alternates, and listed [[Charles E. Johnson]] as Acting Executive Secretary.[^14] On June 21, 1952 President Truman sent a letter to the Chairman of the Board on the Board's organization; a Bureau of the Budget memorandum on the Board was dated April 21, 1952, and [[Frank Wisner]] circulated both within the [[Office of Policy Coordination]] on July 1, 1952.[^15]
A report on the Board's background by "Dr. Lilly" was transmitted to Wisner, the Deputy Director (Plans), on March 13, 1952 as a text not approved by the Board.[^16] On March 17, 1952 Wisner replied that Dr. Lilly "first called upon me pursuant to a request of Mr. Gray who was then Director of the PSB, which request was reported to and sanctioned by General Smith," that Lilly had drawn heavily on discussions with Wisner for many passages after page 110 of the report, and recommended that the report be "very closely held."[^17] [[Edward P. Lilly]], Ph.D., was Historian and Advisor to the Joint Chiefs of Staff on Psychological Warfare from 1946 to 1952 and a member of the Board's Office of Plans in 1952. In a 1988 interview for the [[Harry S. Truman Library]] he was questioned on his history of the Board and its background section, and said that he joined the Board about two months after Gray's staff began to assemble.[^18] A Top Secret study in CIA files, "The Development of American Psychological Operations 1945-1951" by Edward P. Lilly, Ph.D., dated December 19, 1951 and running to 95 pages, thanks the Staff of the Board "for the many courtesies extended to him," and the Board's central files include a folder labeled "PSB X - 201 LILLY, EDWARD P."[^19][^20] The CIA copies of the March 1952 memoranda identify the author only as Dr. Lilly; records found do not state in terms that the report they describe is Edward P. Lilly's.
### Procedure and the master plan
At its second meeting, on August 13, 1951, the Board agreed that the Director would decide whether a problem lay within the Board's competence. The meeting took up the Director's list of problems (PSB D-2), which Lovett called "an encyclopedic approach." The members agreed that three problems should be studied first, to establish what the agencies were already doing. The Board also agreed that "an over-all psychological strategy plan should be developed so that all activity in the Government is in consonance with it."[^14]
Smith's master-plan concern remained the Board's central question. At the Board's meeting of October 9, 1952 the Director of Central Intelligence handed to Under Secretary of State [[David K. Bruce]] a memorandum recommending that "The responsibility for guiding policy, for approving projects, and for assessing the results of all covert cold war operations be placed upon" the Board. [[Robert P. Joyce]] of the Policy Planning Staff reported the recommendation to Bruce on October 15, 1952. Smith's proposal was discussed on October 10, 1952 at a meeting in Wisner's office attended by Wisner, Kirk, General Magruder, [[Tracy Barnes]] and Joyce.[^21]
### NSC 10/5 and the Packet
NSC 10/5, "Scope and Pace of Covert Operations," approved by the National Security Council on October 23, 1951, directed the Board to ensure that its strategic concept included covert operations. It made the Board responsible for "determining the desirability and feasibility of programs and of individual major projects for covert operations" formulated by or proposed to the Director of Central Intelligence, and for "establishing the scope, pace, and timing of covert operations and the allocation of priorities among these operations." Paragraph 5, citing the necessity for decision before the Board came into operation, authorized expanded guerrilla activities in China.[^22] Under that paper the Board became the approving body for the covert programs of the Office of Policy Coordination, the component of the Central Intelligence Agency that ran covert political warfare under NSC 10/2.
On February 20, 1952 Allen proposed that the Board create a special panel, the "10/5 Panel," to screen covert programs. Its members would be the State, Defense and Joint Chiefs of Staff representatives who already advised the Director of Central Intelligence under NSC 10/2, a Central Intelligence Agency representative and two Board representatives, one of whom would chair.[^23] The Board approved the panel on February 27, 1952 and added two Board members to it, Barnes and Putnam.[^24] On March 20, 1952 the CIA submitted the "Packet" to the Board. It consisted of the CIA/OPC Strategic Plan, a budget analysis for fiscal 1953, programs and major projects over $50,000, and their support requirements. The documentation ran to about 300 pages and described some 100 projects.[^24] The Foreign Relations editors state that the Packet itself has not been located in the files.[^24]
Barnes briefed the Board on May 7, 1952, and wrote that "the Board in our opinion need not delay its approval of much, perhaps all, of the 'Packet.'"[^24] A Board memorandum of May 1952 in CIA reading-room files, titled "Interim Approval of the 'Packet,'" directed OPC to proceed with programs and projects while the Board's review continued.[^25] The panel also wrote that, before the Board could pass on the "desirability" of a project under NSC 10/5, the panel "needs some interpretations of policy."[^24]
### Plans and the Board's output
The Board's status report for the period ending June 30, 1952, PSB D-30, dated August 1, 1952, carried an annex listing the plans it had approved or was developing. The stand-by plans included a psychological operations plan for the Korean cease-fire (PSB D-7c, approved October 25, 1951), a plan for general hostilities (PSB D-8b, approved February 21, 1952 and submitted to the Council as NSC 127), and national overt propaganda guidance for a general war (PSB D-11/b, approved November 15, 1951).[^26]
The plans in development included an escapee program (PSB D-18a/1, "Phase B") concerned with "the stimulation of defection." Other plans covered France (D-14/c), Italy (D-15/b) and Germany (D-21a), with Germany's objectives set out as the integration of Western Germany into Western Europe, the reduction of Soviet capabilities in Eastern Germany, and German unity. Further plans covered the Middle East (D-22), Southeast Asia (D-23), the exploitation of Stalin's passing (D-24), the "Hate America" propaganda campaign (D-25), the "Princeton Statement" of U.S. aims (D-26), Japan (D-27, to "strengthen Japan and other non-communist powers in Asia") and economic security against the Soviet orbit (D-28).[^26] Terms of reference for the Germany plan, PSB D-21/1, were approved by the Director on March 21, 1952 for Ad Hoc Task Panel "F," and forwarded to Smith over the signature of Charles E. Johnson as Executive Officer.[^27]
A Board paper dated November 26, 1952, PSB D-31, "A Strategic Concept for a National Psychological Program with Particular Reference to Cold War Operations under NSC 10/5," set out a heading "Breeding Suspicion and Dissension Within the Communist System." It stated that the inherent suspicion of the communist system could be increased "to the point of systematic removal or elimination of personnel in important and effective positions," and that "the best chances of success would be obtained by breeding distrust among satellite personnel and between those individuals and Moscow." The paper distinguished this objective from "broad attempts to disrupt the system by a variety of means other than marking individuals for suspicion and distrust."[^28]
The Board's later status reports continued the same pattern. PSB D-34, dated October 30, 1952, covered July through September 1952.[^11] PSB D-35, dated January 5, 1953, was approved by the Board at its seventeenth meeting on January 15, 1953, and its covering note was signed by the Board's secretary, Charles E. Johnson.[^29] The last status report in the record, PSB D-47 dated July 29, 1953, described the programs as of June 30, 1953 and noted the work of the President's Committee on International Information Activities.[^30]
### Escapees and defectors
PSB D-18/a, the "Psychological Operations Plan for Soviet Orbit Escapees, Phase A," was approved by the Board at its sixth meeting on December 20, 1951 under the code name Engross. A panel had been established on November 2, 1951 with representatives of the State Department, the Office of the Secretary of Defense, the NATO Standing Group, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the three military departments, the Central Intelligence Agency, the Mutual Security Agency and the Bureau of the Budget. The paper divided the problem in two: the care and resettlement of current escapees, and a second study of policies "envisaging the inducement of additional escapees." It referred to the hundred million dollars authorized from Mutual Security funds under the Kersten Amendment to the Mutual Security Act of 1951, and in a footnote tied the handling of escapees to the flow of individuals qualified as sources of intelligence, as intelligence agents, and as recruits for psychological and paramilitary programs under NSC 10/2, NSC 10/5 and other papers.[^31][^32]
The Phase B study was the "Escapee-Defector Study." A Wisner memorandum on its terms of reference, dated January 26, 1952 and rewritten in the Office of the Deputy Director (Plans) on February 4, 1952, referred to the panel directed at the Board's meeting of December 20, 1951 and stated that "The problem is monumental."[^33] Annex E to PSB D-30 recorded an initial authorization of $4,300,000 for the escapee program, of which an estimated $1,500,000 had been obligated in fiscal 1952, and a further $1,460,500 requested for an increase in the number of escapees requiring assistance. Under the Lodge Amendment, escapees could be recruited for military service. Of 5,194 applications, 3,916 had been rejected, 295 accepted (262 of them on active duty) and 982 were being processed.[^26]
A memorandum to Allen Dulles, by then Director of Central Intelligence, dated April 10, 1953 stated: "In response to the Board's wish, I have designated Mr. [[Paul Comstock]] as the PSB staff representative to sit from time to time with the Interagency Defector Committee."[^34] The Board's central files include a folder for the Inter-Agency Defector Committee and files on escapees.[^20]
### Volunteer Freedom Corps
On February 14, 1953 Eisenhower sent the National Security Council a memorandum, in the NSC 143 series, proposing a "Volunteer Freedom Corps." Its infantry battalions would be organized by nationality from behind the Iron Curtain, with arms, training and maintenance provided by the United States Army, and Eisenhower proposed recruiting "up to 250,000 men." The memorandum proposed an ad hoc committee of representatives of the State Department, the Defense Department, the Central Intelligence Agency and the Psychological Strategy Board (acting for the Special Assistant to the President for Cold War Operations), chaired by a retired general such as Lt. General [[Willis D. Crittenberger]].[^35]
In March 1953, after conferring with [[C. D. Jackson]], the Board designated [[Edmond L. Taylor]] to represent it on the ad hoc committee set up under the Council's action.[^36] On June 29, 1953 the Board transmitted contingency guidance dated June 19, 1953 for the preparatory phase of the Corps, with the concurrence of General Crittenberger, noting that consultations with foreign governments authorized by NSC 143/2 (NSC Action 793) had begun.[^37] An editorial note records that major U.S. allies opposed the proposal and that, as a result, it "died a slow death."[^38] The Board's central files hold four folders on the Corps.[^20]
### Surviving files
The Board's central files are held at the [[Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library]] as the Psychological Strategy Board Central Files Series of the White House Office, National Security Council Staff: Papers, 1948-61. The container list includes folders titled "PSB X - 080 CENIS (Center for International Studies)," "PSB X - 080 HUMAN RESOURCES RESEARCH INSTITUTE," "PSB 014.3 Social Science Research," "PSB 334 Advisory Group on Psychological and Unconventional Warfare," "PSB 383.6 [Prisoners of War]," "PSB 452.1 [unidentified flying objects]," "PSB 470 [Armaments and American Policy; Project Candor]," "PSB 702.5 (1)(2) [brainwashing during Korean War]" and "PSB 729.2 (1)(2) [biological warfare propaganda]."[^20] The Eisenhower Library's C. D. Jackson records, 1953-54, open with a PSB-OCB series that includes folders for PSB D-33 (doctrinal warfare), D-45 (exploitation of unrest in satellite Europe) and D-39 (program for support).[^39]
### The Jackson Committee and abolition
The President's Committee on International Information Activities, chaired by [[William H. Jackson]] from January 20, 1953, issued its report, the Jackson Committee report, on June 30, 1953.[^40] Gray was a member of the committee until the same date.[^9] The committee's own preference, as recorded by [[Howland H. Sargeant]] of the State Department in a July 1, 1953 paper to Under Secretary Smith, was for consolidation of foreign operating programs within an expanded Department of Foreign Affairs. In the same paper Sargeant wrote that "Abolition of the Psychological Strategy Board" "in no way conflicts with the understandings or with the specific language of the President's reorganization proposals."[^41]
Executive Order 10483, signed by Eisenhower on September 2, 1953, established the Operations Coordinating Board, to be chaired by the Under Secretary of State and to include the Deputy Secretary of Defense, the director of the [[Foreign Operations Administration]], the Director of Central Intelligence and a representative of the President.[^42] Section 4 of the order provided that "The Psychological Strategy Board shall be abolished not later than sixty days after the date of this order and its outstanding affairs shall be wound up by the Operations Coordinating Board."[^42] Eisenhower's memorandum that day to the Executive Secretary of the National Security Council stated that he had signed the order "establishing the Operations Coordinating Board and abolishing the Psychological Strategy Board." A supplementary directive assigned the Operations Coordinating Board the Board's functions under paragraphs 2 and 3 of NSC 10/5 "insofar as those functions relate to major programs."[^43]
The Operations Coordinating Board held its first meeting on September 17, 1953 with Smith in the chair. C. D. Jackson was designated its Acting Executive Officer and Morgan his Acting Deputy. The Board authorized the Acting Executive Officer to use the PSB staff and resources for Operations Coordinating Board work until other arrangements were made.[^44]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1951, vol. I, Document 16, Directive by the President to the Secretary of State, the Secretary of Defense, and the Director of Central Intelligence, April 4, 1951, pp. 58-60. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1951v01/d16
[^2]: Public Papers of the Presidents: Harry S. Truman, 1951, pp. 341-342, as cited in Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community, Document 60 (editorial note). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d60
[^3]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community, Document 60, editorial note, citing Webb to the Director, Bureau of the Budget, March 15, 1951 (National Archives, RG 59, Central Files 1950-54, 100.4 PSB/4-451); Gray's presidency of the University of North Carolina and service as Secretary of the Army are stated in the footnote to the directive, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1951, vol. I, Document 16. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d60
[^4]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community, Document 62, Memorandum from the Director of the Policy Planning Staff (Nitze) to the Under Secretary of State (Webb), April 9, 1951, discussing the Barrett memorandum of March 29, 1951 (see footnote 3 of the document). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d62
[^5]: Central Intelligence Agency, letter from Gordon Gray, Director, Psychological Strategy Board, to Allen Dulles, November 1, 1951. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP80R01731R003300410041-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003300410041-0
[^6]: A. B. Darling, note of interview with Max Millikan, "Origin of PSB," March 5, 1952, file HS/CSG-556, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP83-00036R000400050039-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83-00036r000400050039-0
[^7]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community, Document 81, Memorandum from the Director of the Policy Planning Staff (Nitze) to the Under Secretary of State (Webb), August 3, 1951, "Drafted by Charles Burton Marshall, member of the Policy Planning Staff." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d81
[^8]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community, Document 78, Minutes of a Meeting of the Psychological Strategy Board (PSB M-1), July 2, 1951. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d78
[^9]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community, list of persons (Allen, Director of the Psychological Strategy Board from January to August 1952; Gray, Director 1951 to 1952 and member of the President's Committee on International Information Activities from January 20, 1953 to June 30, 1953; Morgan, Acting Director 1951 to 1952). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/persons
[^10]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954, vol. II, Part 2, list of persons (Allen, January to August 1952; Gray, until January 1952; Kirk, Director 1952-1953). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v02p2/persons
[^11]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community, Document 133, Report by the Psychological Strategy Board (PSB D-34), October 30, 1952, with transmittal memorandum of November 3, 1952 from Director Alan G. Kirk to the NSC Executive Secretary. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d133
[^12]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954, vol. II, Part 2, Document 343, Memorandum by the Acting Director of the Psychological Strategy Board (Morgan) to the Under Secretary of State (Smith), "PSB Recommendation on Policy for USIS Libraries," July 6, 1953. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v02p2/d343
[^13]: Central Intelligence Agency, Minutes, Eighth Meeting of the Psychological Strategy Board (PSB M-8a), January 10, 1952, 2:00 p.m., Room 3E928, Pentagon. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP80-01065A000500100033-6. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80-01065A000500100033-6
[^14]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community, Document 82, Minutes of a Meeting of the Psychological Strategy Board (PSB M-2), August 13, 1951. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d82
[^15]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum from Frank G. Wisner to the Chief, Psychological Division, Office of Policy Coordination, "Organization of the Psychological Strategy Board," July 1, 1952 (TS 63781), attaching the President's letter of June 21, 1952 to the Chairman of the Board and a Bureau of the Budget memorandum of April 21, 1952. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP80R01731R003300140006-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003300140006-9
[^16]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum from the Psychological Strategy Board to Frank G. Wisner, March 13, 1952, "Dr. Lilly's Report on the Background of the Psychological Strategy Board" ("It is not, repeat not, approved"). CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP80R01731R003300180027-2. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003300180027-2
[^17]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum from Frank G. Wisner to the Special Assistant to the Director, Psychological Strategy Board, March 17, 1952 (TS 63276). CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP80R01731R003300180026-3. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003300180026-3
[^18]: Harry S. Truman Library, Oral History Interview with Edward P. Lilly, September 20, 1988, by Neil M. Johnson (Special Assistant to the Director of the Office of War Information, 1944-1945; Historian and Advisor to the Joint Chiefs of Staff on Psychological Warfare, 1946-1952; Member, Office of Plans, Psychological Strategy Board, 1952), pp. 12-13. https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/oral-histories/lillye
[^19]: Edward P. Lilly, "The Development of American Psychological Operations 1945-1951," December 19, 1951, preface and acknowledgment. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP86B00269R000900020001-9. https://archive.org/details/THEDEVELOPMENTOFAMERICANPSYCHOLOGICALOPERATIONS1945-1951BYEDWARDPLILLYRDP86B00269R000900020001-9
[^20]: Dwight D. Eisenhower Library, White House Office, National Security Council Staff: Papers, 1948-61, Psychological Strategy Board (PSB) Central Files Series, container list (Box 5, PSB X - 201 Lilly, Edward P.; Box 10, PSB 014.3 Social Science Research; Boxes 1 and 2, PSB X - 080 CENIS and Human Resources Research Institute; Box 11, PSB 080 Volunteer Freedom Corps (1)-(4); Box 22, PSB 334 Advisory Group on Psychological and Unconventional Warfare and Inter-Agency Defector Cmte.; Box 26, PSB 383.6 Prisoners of War; Box 27, PSB 383.7 Escapees (1)-(7); Box 28, PSB 452.1 unidentified flying objects; Box 29, PSB 470, 702.5 and 729.2). https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/finding-aids/pdf/who-nsc/psb-central-files-series.pdf
[^21]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community, Document 129, Memorandum from Robert P. Joyce of the Policy Planning Staff to the Under Secretary of State (Bruce), October 15, 1952. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d129
[^22]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community, Document 90, Note from the Executive Secretary of the National Security Council (Lay), enclosing NSC 10/5, "Scope and Pace of Covert Operations," October 23, 1951. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d90
[^23]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community, Document 104, Memorandum from the Director of the Psychological Strategy Board (Allen) to Board Members, "Procedure for Handling 10/5 Matters in PSB," February 20, 1952. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d104
[^24]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community, Document 108, Briefing Paper Prepared by the Chairman of the 10/5 Panel (Barnes), May 7, 1952. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d108
[^25]: Central Intelligence Agency reading room, "Interim Approval of the 'Packet' (Submitted to the Psychological Strategy Board by the Director of Central Intelligence)," May 1952, CIA-RDP80-01065A000500140027-9. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp80-01065a000500140027-9
[^26]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community, Document 127, Memorandum from the Executive Secretary of the National Security Council (Lay) to the National Security Council, August 19, 1952 (NSC 135), Enclosure 2, Annex E to PSB D-30, "Planning Activities of the Psychological Strategy Board Through June 30, 1952," August 1, 1952. The PSB D-30 report itself, "Status Report on the National Psychological Effort and First Progress Report of the Psychological Strategy Board," is printed as Document 125. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d127
[^27]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum from the Psychological Strategy Board to General Walter Bedell Smith, "Terms of Reference for the Psychological Strategy Plan Prescribing Specific Courses of Action with Respect to Germany," transmitting PSB D-21/1 dated March 21, 1952. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP80R01731R003200030017-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003200030017-0
[^28]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community, Document 139, Paper Prepared by the Psychological Strategy Board (PSB D-31), November 26, 1952. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d139
[^29]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community, Document 143, Report by the Psychological Strategy Board (PSB D-35), January 5, 1953, with covering note approved at the Board's seventeenth meeting and signed by Charles E. Johnson. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d143
[^30]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community, Document 153, Report by the Psychological Strategy Board (PSB D-47), July 29, 1953. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d153
[^31]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954, vol. VIII, Document 63, Paper Prepared by the Psychological Strategy Board Panel on the Escapee Program (PSB D-18/a), December 20, 1951, footnote 1 (approved at the sixth meeting, December 20; code name Engross). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v08/d63
[^32]: Central Intelligence Agency, Psychological Strategy Board, "Psychological Operations Plan for Soviet Orbit Escapees, Phase A," PSB D-18/a, December 20, 1951, sections I and II and footnote 2. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP80-01065A000200050044-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-01065a000200050044-3
[^33]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum from Frank G. Wisner to the Director, Psychological Strategy Board, "Terms of Reference for Phase B, Escapee-Defector Study, by the Psychological Strategy Board," January 26, 1952, rewritten February 4, 1952. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP80R01731R003300180029-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003300180029-0
[^34]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum from the Psychological Strategy Board to Allen W. Dulles, "PSB Representative on the Interagency Defector Committee," April 10, 1953. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP80R01731R003300190018-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003300190018-1
[^35]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954, vol. VIII, Document 70, Memorandum by the President to the Executive Secretary of the National Security Council (Lay), "Proposal for a Volunteer Freedom Corps," February 14, 1953 (NSC 143 series). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v08/d70
[^36]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum from the Psychological Strategy Board to James S. Lay, Jr., "Proposal for a Volunteer Freedom Corps (NSC 143)," March 1953, referring to Lay's memorandum of February 26, 1953. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP80R01731R003300190039-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003300190039-8
[^37]: Central Intelligence Agency, Psychological Strategy Board transmittal of June 29, 1953, "Contingency Guidance During Preparatory Phase of the Volunteer Freedom Corps, dated June 19, 1953." CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP80R01731R003300190021-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003300190021-7
[^38]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community, Document 148, editorial note. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d148
[^39]: Dwight D. Eisenhower Library, finding aid, C. D. Jackson: Records, 1953-54, Series I, PSB-OCB Series, Box 1. https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/finding-aids/pdf/jackson-cd-records.pdf
[^40]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community, Document 151, editorial note on the Report of the President's Committee on International Information Activities (the Jackson Committee report), June 30, 1953. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d151
[^41]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954, vol. II, Part 2, Document 371, Memorandum by Howland H. Sargeant to the Under Secretary of State (Smith), July 1, 1953. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v02p2/d371
[^42]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community, Document 157, White House press release, Executive Order 10483, "Establishing the Operations Coordinating Board," September 2, 1953. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d157
[^43]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community, Document 158, Memorandum from President Eisenhower to the Executive Secretary of the National Security Council (Lay), Denver, September 2, 1953, with the supplementary directive on the additional functions of the Operations Coordinating Board. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d158
[^44]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community, Document 160, Minutes of the First Meeting of the Operations Coordinating Board, September 17, 1953. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d160

12
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/INTERNATIONAL/Radio Free Europe.md
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@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
---
---
created: 2026-05-15
updated: 2026-05-15
updated: 2026-10-09
title: Radio Free Europe
aliases:
- RFE
@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ tags:
- 1950s
- 1960s
category: "Intelligence Operation"
summary: "Radio Free Europe was a CIA-funded broadcast organization established in 1949 to broadcast into Soviet-bloc countries, operated under the cover of private funding until its CIA financing was publicly revealed in 1967, and whose broadcasts to Hungary during the 1956 revolution - which some analysts argue implied American support that was never forthcoming - contributed to CIA officer Frank Wisner's psychological breakdown."
summary: "Radio Free Europe was a CIA-funded broadcaster to the Soviet bloc, founded in 1949 and presented as privately funded until the CIA financing was revealed in 1967."
start: 1949
location: "Munich, West Germany"
---
@ -36,7 +36,7 @@ RFE's Munich headquarters employed thousands of emigre journalists from the targ
The pivotal controversy in RFE's history occurred during the [[Hungarian Revolution]] of October-November 1956. RFE's Hungarian-language broadcasts during the uprising included material that, by later analysis, could have been reasonably interpreted by Hungarian listeners as implying that American military support would follow if they fought the Soviet occupation. No such support was contemplated by the [[Dwight Eisenhower|Eisenhower administration]], which had decided not to risk nuclear confrontation over Hungary.
When Soviet tanks crushed the revolution in November 1956, the gap between RFE's broadcast messages and American non-intervention was acute. The [[CIA]] and the [[Psychological Strategy Board]] subsequently reviewed the Hungarian broadcasts and found that while the content was not explicitly promise of military support, it had been irresponsible in its implications. [[Frank Wisner]], whose [[Office of Policy Coordination]] was the organizational parent of RFE's CIA relationship, was in Europe during the Hungarian crisis and was deeply affected by the experience. The Hungarian Revolution's failure was a direct cause of his subsequent psychological breakdown.[^2]
When Soviet tanks crushed the revolution in November 1956, the gap between RFE's broadcast messages and American non-intervention was acute. The [[CIA]]'s Covert Action Staff reviewed the tapes of the entire Hungarian-language broadcasts in early 1957. A CIA memorandum for the Director of Central Intelligence catalogued under March 4, 1962 and signed by [[Cord Meyer]] reports that the review found the broadcasts "generally consistent with U.S. policy," that RFE "did not incite the Hungarian people to revolt," and that RFE did not "directly or by implication offer hope that outside military assistance would be forthcoming to the Hungarian patriots, with one possible exception": portions of speeches by the U.S. Representative to the United Nations "which might have been interpreted as indicating some Western support for the Hungarian patriots."[^2] The same memorandum states that the UN Special Committee on Hungary found in June 1957 that "certain broadcasts by RFE helped to create an impression that support might be forthcoming for the Hungarians," while describing the revolt as a "spontaneous national uprising."[^2] In a book published in 1980, Meyer wrote that the tone of the RFE broadcast tapes was "more exuberant and optimistic than the situation warranted" and that the content of one script "clearly violated the basic policy guidelines and should never have been broadcast."[^3] Frank Wisner, whose Office of Policy Coordination was the organizational parent of RFE's CIA relationship, was in Europe during the Hungarian crisis and was deeply affected by the experience. The Hungarian Revolution's failure was a direct cause of his subsequent psychological breakdown.[^4]
### Disclosure and Transition
@ -51,4 +51,6 @@ RFE represented the largest sustained CIA propaganda operation of the Cold War p
### Footnotes
[^1]: Puddington, Arch. *Broadcasting Freedom: The Cold War Triumph of Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty.* University Press of Kentucky, 2000. Lucas, W. Scott. *Freedom's War: The American Crusade Against the Soviet Union.* New York University Press, 1999.
[^2]: Thomas, Evan. *The Very Best Men: Four Who Dared: The Early Years of the CIA.* Simon & Schuster, 1995. Mitrovich, Gregory. *Undermining the Kremlin: America's Strategy to Subvert the Soviet Bloc, 1947-1956.* Cornell University Press, 2000.
[^2]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum for the Director of Central Intelligence, "Radio Free Europe (RFE) and the Hungarian Revolution," Cord Meyer, Jr., Chief, Covert Action Staff (catalogued 1962-03-04). CIA reading room document 0001409017. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-0001409017
[^3]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum "Re: Radio Free Europe and the 1956 Hungarian Uprising," April 20, 1990 (PAO 90-0152), quoting Cord Meyer, Facing Reality (1980), pp. 125-130. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP99-01448R000401630009-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401630009-6
[^4]: Thomas, Evan. *The Very Best Men: Four Who Dared: The Early Years of the CIA.* Simon & Schuster, 1995. Mitrovich, Gregory. *Undermining the Kremlin: America's Strategy to Subvert the Soviet Bloc, 1947-1956.* Cornell University Press, 2000.

9
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Air America.md
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@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ title: Air America
aliases:
- Air America
created: 2026-05-17
updated: 2026-05-17
updated: 2026-10-09
tags:
- Organization
- CIA
@ -30,6 +30,10 @@ Air America's role in heroin trafficking during the Vietnam War was well-documen
The 1993 Department of Justice inquiry into CIA involvement with The Finders examined these connections. The Washington Times reported in December 1993 that investigators had uncovered multiple links between the group and the intelligence community, including the Air America employment, the CIA training at Future Enterprises, and [[Isabelle Pettie]]'s employment with the CIA. The convergence of these connections suggested a pattern of overlap between The Finders and intelligence operations that went beyond coincidence.[^1]
### Nugan Hand Bank
In 1969 four men who gave their business address as Air America were among the shareholders of [[Australasian and Pacific Holding]], which was described as a "tourism" company and through which [[Frank Nugan]] and [[Michael Hand]] began their business partnership.[^3] The Progressive described the founders of the [[Nugan Hand Bank]] as listing their addresses as "c/o Air America, San Francisco," and described Air America as a wholly owned CIA subsidiary.[^4] The New York Times reported in 1987 that [[Richard Secord]] "played a large role in directing Air America's operations" in the period when Hand served in Laos.[^5]
### From Vietnam to Central America
[[Eugene Hasenfus]], who survived the October 1986 shootdown of a Contra supply plane over [[Nicaragua]] that broke open the [[Iran-Contra Affair|Iran-Contra scandal]], was a former Air America cargo handler. The same networks of pilots, aircraft, and logistical expertise that had supported U.S. operations in Vietnam were repurposed for the Contra war, including the drug trafficking that accompanied both conflicts.[^2]
@ -38,3 +42,6 @@ The 1993 Department of Justice inquiry into CIA involvement with The Finders exa
[^1]: Dovey, S. (2023). Eye of the Chickenhawk. United States: Thehotstar.
[^2]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Ch. 16.
[^3]: "Failed Bank Linked to CIA Ripoffs." New York Daily News, February 13, 1981, Washington News Bureau report. CIA CREST, CIA-RDP90-00806R000200820040-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000200820040-5
[^4]: "December Briefing" (items "Fighting words" and "Troubled waters"), The Progressive, December 1980. CIA CREST, CIA-RDP90-00806R000200820041-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000200820041-4
[^5]: Schneider, Keith. "North's Aides Linked to Australia Study." New York Times, March 8, 1987. CIA CREST, CIA-RDP90-00965R000605740024-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000605740024-7

30
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Bell Boys.md
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@ -7,27 +7,33 @@ tags:
- ChildAbuse
- Dutroux
- RolodexInvestigation
summary: "Bell Boys was a Dutch callboy service operated by Karel Maasdam under the alias 'Alex Privee' that supplied minors to clients in the Netherlands and internationally; it appears in this vault as a central node of the organized Dutch pedophile network investigated under the Rolodex Investigation, with connections to the Belgian-Dutch child abuse network examined in the Marc Dutroux X-Dossier inquiry."
summary: "Bell Boys was an Amsterdam escort agency that advertised in Het Parool from 1983 to 1985; Nick Davies wrote in 1998 that Karel Maasdam, known as Alex Privee, owned it."
created: 2026-05-15
updated: 2026-05-15
updated: 2026-10-09
location: "Netherlands"
relations:
- type: owned
with: "[[Karel Maasdam]]"
reverse: true
start: 1998
role: "owner of the escort agency, as described by Nick Davies"
fn: 2
---
Bell Boys was a commercial callboy service operated in the [[Netherlands]] by [[Karel Maasdam]], who used the operational alias "Alex Privee." The service functioned as an organized network providing minors for sexual exploitation to a paying clientele that Dutch investigators identified as including professionals, academics, and individuals with international connections. Bell Boys operated in [[Amsterdam]] and extended its network across the Netherlands, with connections to Belgian and other European pedophile networks documented in the [[Marc Dutroux]] investigation period.[^1]
Bell Boys was an escort agency in [[Amsterdam]]. [[Het Parool]] carried classified advertisements headed "Bell Boys" in its "Diverse clubs" column from December 24, 1983 ("BELL BOYS. 24 uur escorts") through at least October 28, 1985.[^1] The journalist [[Nick Davies]] wrote in 1998 that [[Karel Maasdam]], known in Amsterdam as "Alex Privee," was the "owner of the Bell Boys escort agency."[^2] Davies also wrote that an Englishman he interviewed in Amsterdam, who is not named, said a boy who worked as an escort for "Alex Privee's agency, Bell Boys" had mentioned seeing a missing German boy in [[Lothar Glandorf]]'s clubs in [[Rotterdam]].[^2]
### Operations and Structure
### Venues and Belgian connections
Maasdam operated Bell Boys as a structured commercial enterprise: recruiting vulnerable young males, facilitating their sexual exploitation by paying clients, and maintaining client relationships through the "Alex Privee" identity. The service used the [[Festival Bar]] in Amsterdam as one operational venue and maintained other arrangements for client-supplier contact. The organizational model - a broker/facilitator connecting supply (exploited minors) to demand (paying clients) - was characteristic of commercial child exploitation networks documented across Western Europe in the period.
The Bell Boys network intersected with the broader Dutch child exploitation infrastructure. [[Robert Jan Warmerdam]], a witness in the Dutch investigations, testified to knowledge of Bell Boys and its connections to Belgian networks including those around [[Marc Dutroux]]. The network's client list extended to Belgium, and the cross-border dimension made it relevant to the Belgian parliamentary inquiry into the Dutroux affair and the conduct of the broader investigation.[^2]
Davies placed Maasdam in the [[Paardenstraat]], where he listed three bars, the [[Festival Bar]], the [[Music Box]] and the [[Cupido]].[^2] Willems wrote that [[Robert Jan Warmerdam]], a witness in the Dutch investigations, testified to knowledge of Bell Boys and its connections to Belgian networks, including those around [[Marc Dutroux]], and that the network's client list extended to Belgium, which made it relevant to the Belgian parliamentary inquiry into the Dutroux affair.[^3][^4]
### Rolodex Investigation
The [[Rolodex Investigation]] (Rolodex-onderzoek), a Dutch police inquiry conducted from the mid-1990s onward, explicitly targeted the network centered on Maasdam and Bell Boys. The investigation identified clients and participants through what appeared to be a "rolodex" or client/contact list maintained by Maasdam, giving the inquiry its name. The investigation identified [[Henry Hans Holthuis]] and other Dutch figures as clients or associates within the Bell Boys network.
The investigation's findings and the adequacy of subsequent prosecutions were subjects of political controversy in the Netherlands, with critics alleging that the full client list was not aggressively pursued and that figures with political connections were protected from prosecution - paralleling similar criticisms of the Belgian Dutroux investigation's handling of prominent named individuals.[^1]
The Dutch government's summary of the [[Rolodex Investigation]] (December 23, 2013) refers to the brothel owner only as "A" and does not name Bell Boys.[^5] Willems wrote that the investigation's findings and the adequacy of subsequent prosecutions were subjects of political controversy in the Netherlands, with critics alleging that the full client list was not aggressively pursued and that figures with political connections were protected from prosecution.[^3]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Willems, Jan. *Wie beschermt het kind?* ["Who Protects the Child?"]. VUB Press, 1999.
[^2]: Parliamentary Commission of Inquiry (Belgium). *Parlementaire onderzoekscommissie betreffende de wijze waarop het onderzoek naar Marc Dutroux werd gevoerd.* Belgian Senate, 1997.
[^1]: Het Parool, classified advertisements, December 24, 1983 (ABCDDD:010846300:mpeg21:a0137) through October 28, 1985 (ABCDDD:010831481:mpeg21:a0029), Koninklijke Bibliotheek, Delpher. http://resolver.kb.nl/resolve?urn=ABCDDD:010846300:mpeg21:a0137
[^2]: Nick Davies, "Paedophile network trafficks young boys across Europe," nickdavies.net, dated October 1, 1998 and marked previously unpublished. https://www.nickdavies.net/1998/10/01/paedophile-network-trafficks-young-boys-across-europe/
[^3]: Willems, Jan. *Wie beschermt het kind?* ["Who Protects the Child?"]. VUB Press, 1999.
[^4]: Parliamentary Commission of Inquiry (Belgium). *Parlementaire onderzoekscommissie betreffende de wijze waarop het onderzoek naar Marc Dutroux werd gevoerd.* Belgian Senate, 1997.
[^5]: "Samenvatting van de aanleiding, het verloop, de resultaten en de besluitvorming in het Rolodex-onderzoek," December 23, 2013. https://eerstekamer.nl/9370000/1/j4nvgs5kjg27kof_j9vvkfvj6b325az/vjigib8p5szh

9
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Burns & Roe, Inc..md
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@ -5,13 +5,14 @@ tags:
- Engineering
- Nuclear
category: "Private Organization"
summary: "Burns & Roe, Inc. was an international engineering and construction firm owned by the Roe family whose Pacific director George K. Pender appears in connections to nuclear facility construction and intelligence-adjacent contracting."
summary: "Burns & Roe, Inc. was an international engineering and construction firm owned by the Roe family, which employed George K. Pender as a sales representative who established its West Coast division."
---
Burns & Roe, Inc. was an international engineering and construction corporation. It was a family corporation owned by [[Kenneth A. Roe]] and his family. [[George K. Pender]] was a former Director of the [[Pacific Ocean]] area for Burns & Roe, Inc., and also served as a Senior Engineer Consultant to the company.[^1]
Burns & Roe, Inc. was an international engineering and construction corporation. It was a family corporation owned by [[Kenneth A. Roe]] and his family. According to his 1999 obituary, [[George K. Pender]] joined Burns & Roe, Inc. in [[Oradell, New Jersey|Oradell]], New Jersey, as a sales representative after working for [[Aerojet|General Aerojet Corporation]] in [[Los Angeles]], and was responsible for establishing a West Coast division for the firm.[^1] [[Cheri Seymour]] wrote that he was a former Director of the [[Pacific Ocean]] area for Burns & Roe, Inc., and a Senior Engineer Consultant to the company.[^2]
Under [[Kenneth A. Roe]]'s leadership, Burns & Roe, Inc. was involved in major projects, including the engineering design and construction of the [[United States|U.S.A.]] Fast Breeder Nuclear Reactor Plant in conjunction with [[Westinghouse Electric Corporation]], which was responsible for the nuclear system supply of steam. At the time, the construction value of Burns & Roe, Inc.'s business backlog exceeded six billion U.S. dollars.[^1]
Under Kenneth A. Roe's leadership, Burns & Roe, Inc. was involved in major projects, including the engineering design and construction of the [[United States|U.S.A.]] Fast Breeder Nuclear Reactor Plant in conjunction with [[Westinghouse Electric Corporation]], which was responsible for the nuclear system supply of steam. At the time, the construction value of Burns & Roe, Inc.'s business backlog exceeded six billion U.S. dollars.[^2]
---
### Footnotes
[^1]: Seymour, Cheri. *The Last Circle: Danny Casolaro’s Investigation into the Octopus and the PROMIS Software Scandal*. First Edition. TrineDay, 2010.
[^1]: College of the Holy Cross, *Holy Cross Magazine*, "In Memoriam," Summer 1999, entry for George K. Pender (died Jan. 6, 1999). Archived copy: https://web.archive.org/web/20040812105331/http://www.holycross.edu/departments/publicaffairs/hcm/summer99/in_memoriam/1927.html
[^2]: Seymour, Cheri. *The Last Circle: Danny Casolaro’s Investigation into the Octopus and the PROMIS Software Scandal*. First Edition. TrineDay, 2010.

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---
aliases:
- CENIS
- MIT Center for International Studies
category: "Private Organization"
start: 1951
location: "Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA"
tags:
- Organization
- Academic
- CENIS
- ProjectTroy
- MaxMillikan
- CentralIntelligenceAgency
- FordFoundation
- MassachusettsInstituteOfTechnology
- MKULTRA
- ColdWar
- ColdWarSocialScience
summary: "MIT research center set up in 1951 out of Project Troy, funded by the CIA until spring 1966, directed by Max Millikan until his death in 1969, then by Everett Hagen and Eugene Skolnikoff."
created: 2026-10-09
updated: 2026-10-09
relations:
- type: funded
with: "[[Central Intelligence Agency]]"
reverse: true
role: "principal outside funder; CIA contracts ended in spring 1966"
start: 1951
end: 1966-05
fn: 4
- type: funded
with: "[[Ford Foundation]]"
reverse: true
role: "grant of 875,000 dollars for an international communication program, per Bessner"
start: 1952-04
fn: 9
- type: member_of
with: "[[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]"
role: "research center within the university"
start: 1951
fn: 2
- type: head_of
with: "[[Max Millikan]]"
reverse: true
role: "first director"
start: 1952-02
end: 1969-12
fn: 8
- type: head_of
with: "[[Everett Hagen]]"
reverse: true
role: "director"
start: 1970
end: 1972
fn: 44
- type: head_of
with: "[[Eugene Skolnikoff]]"
reverse: true
role: "director"
start: 1972
end: 1987
fn: 46
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Hans Speier]]"
reverse: true
role: "chair of the planning committee for the international communication program"
start: 1952-09
end: 1953-06
fn: 1
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Walt Rostow]]"
reverse: true
role: "staff member; consultant to the CIA Office of Research and Reports from March 1951 to June 1953"
start: 1951
fn: 26
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Ithiel de Sola Pool]]"
reverse: true
role: "research director, international communication program"
start: 1953
fn: 1
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Anthony J. Wiener]]"
reverse: true
role: "affiliated researcher on a 1958 to 1959 study of Soviet scientists, per Oster"
start: 1958
end: 1959
fn: 7
---
The Center for International Studies at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] in [[Cambridge]], [[Massachusetts]], known as CENIS, emerged from [[Project Troy]], the 1950 study of Soviet jamming and political warfare. Its first director was the economist [[Max Millikan]], who had taken leave from MIT in 1951 to serve as assistant director of research and reports at the [[Central Intelligence Agency]].[^1][^2][^3] The CIA funded the center until spring 1966, according to a 1967 report in [[Time]], and the center's research through the 1960s covered Soviet and communist affairs, economic development and international communication.[^4]
### Origins in Project Troy
[[Daniel Bessner]] writes that CENIS "emerged from Project TROY."[^1] [[James Killian]], the MIT president who convened the Troy group, was pleased with its outcome and organized a second phase of four research initiatives. One of them concerned a [[State Department]]-funded institute similar to the one [[Donald Marquis]] had recommended in Annex 11 of the Troy report.[^1]
A CIA historian's note of an interview with Millikan on March 5, 1952, titled "Origin of PSB," records Millikan's account that the Troy study flowed directly into the creation of the [[Psychological Strategy Board]] in early 1951. The note's abstract describes his recollections as emphasizing the importance of the "Troy Report," and records him as saying that "the best way into the problem proved to be through the 'defectors.'"[^5]
### Founding and CIA support, 1951 to 1952
The [[Church Committee]] report on CIA relations with private institutions, Book I of the final report, states: "The CIA assisted in the establishment in 1951 and the funding for over a decade of a research institute at a major American university." The report says the assistance came at the request of Under Secretary of State [[James E. Webb]] to General [[Walter Bedell Smith]], then Director of the CIA, and that Webb proposed the center "be supported by the CIA in the interest of the entire intelligence community." The report does not name the institute.[^6]
In 1977 [[Patrick Oster]] of the [[Chicago Sun-Times]] reported in the [[Washington Post]] that the center was "set up in 1951 with CIA money."[^7] Oster named the center's first director as Millikan, "a former assistant director of the agency."[^7]
Millikan took leave from MIT in January 1951 to head the agency's Office of Research and Reports, and in a letter stamped January 30, 1951, he wrote of the office's mission and of the agency's request that he survey work in the field.[^3] MIT's archival note for his papers dates the center's establishment to January 1952 and says it "continued the contract work undertaken for the government under Project TROY."[^8] The center's own history gives 1951 as the founding year and states that it "was founded in 1951 in response to the Cold War struggles between the United States and the Soviet Union."[^2]
Bessner writes that CENIS "began operating in the fall of 1951," and that in February 1952 Millikan, "an economics professor who had spent a year at the CIA," accepted the offer to serve as its first director. Soon after moving to the center, Millikan asked [[H. Rowan Gaither]] of the [[Ford Foundation]] for money.[^1] Bessner's account of the founding draws on [[Donald L. M. Blackmer]], whose institutional history, The MIT Center for International Studies: The Founding Years, 1951 to 1969, was published in 2002 for the center's fiftieth anniversary.[^1]
### Ford Foundation grants
Bessner writes that [[Hans Speier]] visited Millikan in February 1952, when Millikan was "reticent" about a center for research in international communication, and that Speier "convinced him otherwise." Bessner writes that the Ford trustees granted CENIS $875,000 in the spring of 1952 to found a research program in international communication.[^9]
The Ford Foundation's annual report for 1954 describes a program of research in economic development and political stability, carried on by the center, that "also received long-term Foundation support," research "mainly in India, Indonesia and Italy." The grant list, under the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, carries four columns (unpaid December 31, 1953; grants in 1954; payments in 1954; unpaid September 30, 1954). "Completion of field project in Indonesia by Center for International Studies" shows 50,000 dollars unpaid at the end of 1953 and paid in 1954. "Research in economic and political development by Center for International Studies" shows 175,000 dollars unpaid at the end of 1953 and paid in 1954, and a new grant of 750,000 dollars in 1954 unpaid at September 30, 1954. A further MIT entry, "Research on international communications," shows 500,000 dollars unpaid at both dates, and "Research on international affairs" 5,000 dollars unpaid at the end of 1953.[^10][^11]
A 1956 Ford Foundation grant to MIT established two chairs in the behavioral sciences. The first went to [[Daniel Lerner]], named in December 1957 to a professorship in international communication. The institute's release said he would "apply research findings of the Center for International Studies to a new teaching program on international communication."[^12]
### Research programs
The communications program. The planning committee's June 1953 report, Research in International Communication, was prepared by Speier and by [[Jerome Bruner]], Wallace Carroll, [[Harold Lasswell]], [[Paul Lazarsfeld]], [[Edward Shils]] and [[Ithiel de Sola Pool]]. Its opening sentence, as Bessner quotes it, reads: "in this age of insecurity we know too little about the forces which move man as an individual and society as a whole." The committee recommended that the program study "communications to and from the wielders of power and influence."[^1] Pool became the program's research director after Speier turned the post down. The staff included [[Raymond Bauer]], Lerner, [[Harold Isaacs]], Howard Perlmutter and [[Eric Lenneberg]].[^1] A progress memorandum from Pool to the planning committee, dated February 28, 1955, is titled "Progress of the International Communications Program."[^13]
Political games. Bessner writes that [[Paul Kecskemeti]], who had played in the [[Rand Corporation]] games, visited MIT in 1957 to help [[Lincoln P. Bloomfield]], a former State Department official, design a political game. The most important of the games for senior government officials took place in 1960, when the center hosted a game termed POLEX II, which focused on a regional crisis in the Middle East. Bessner writes that its results reached [[Defense Department]] officials through [[Henry Rowen]].[^14]
Defense and arms control. The center's history states that in 1958 Millikan headed a committee on the future of social science teaching and research at MIT, one of whose recommendations was that the Institute take on defense and arms control initiatives. It also states that in 1960 Bloomfield organized graduate seminars on the use of military force, conventional weapons transfers and arms control.[^2]
The Soviet bloc. The 1953 book [[The Dynamics of Soviet Society]] was credited to "W. W. Rostow in collaboration with Alfred Levin, and with the assistance of others at the Center for International Studies, Massachusetts Institute of Technology," and carried a preface by Millikan as the center's director.[^15] A CIA reading-room item titled "Review and Consideration of the CENIS Project, Communist Takeover and 'Economic Reshaping' of Eastern Europe by Nicolas Spulber" concerns a CENIS study of Eastern Europe by [[Nicolas Spulber]]. The copy is undated.[^16] A press item in agency files reports that the center was also at work evaluating Russian education methods, including the quality of Russian textbooks.[^17]
Latin America. A CIA [[Office of Legislative Counsel]] memorandum, signed by its chief, records that [[Ernest Halperin]] of MIT had proposed a book entitled "The National Liberation Movements in Latin America," and that a paper by him on the same subject had been written in June 1969 for the center.[^18]
### Agency funding
A CIA document titled "Principles Governing Budgetary Relationships Between CENIS and CIA" describes an annual contract under which research projects were "mutually agreed upon case by case" between the two parties, within an annual authorization of $500,000. The document is undated.[^19]
A CIA list of recipients of Office of Research and Reports unclassified studies names Max Millikan, [[Walt Rostow]], [[Wilfred Malenbaum]], [[Everett Hagen]], [[Evsey Domar]] and [[Thomas Schelling]], each listed under the Center for International Studies.[^20]
A CIA memorandum of February 16, 1959 from the Assistant to the Director forwards the text of an item in the [[National Review]] Bulletin. The item reads: "Bissell and his favored CIA teammate, Robert Amory, lean ideologically on CIA's outriding auxiliary at MIT, the Center for International Studies. They have been particularly influenced by the neo-Marxian theories of W. W. Rostow, director of the Center."[^21] The item names [[Richard Bissell]] and [[Robert Amory]]. Millikan held the directorship: [[Allen W. Dulles]] addressed him as director of the center in 1961, the MIT President's report for 1962 to 1963 refers to "Max F. Millikan, Director of the Center for International Studies," and the center's section of the 1963 to 1964 report is signed by him.[^22][^23][^24] The 1958 to 1959 President's report lists Rostow and [[Elspeth Davies Rostow]] on leave at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]], England.[^25]
In a letter of February 27, 1961, Dulles wrote to Millikan, as director of the center, that he was "very deeply interested in the proposal in your letter of January 23," and that he expected to attend part of the meetings of May 18 to 21, 1961, at which Millikan would review the center's first ten years.[^22]
A CIA Office of Security memorandum of April 11, 1958 records that Rostow was approved as a consultant to the agency's Office of Research and Reports in March 1951, that the status was extended to June 1953, and that his contract as a consultant was not renewed after it expired in June 1953. The same memorandum records that [[Alfred Kohlberg]], in a letter to Senator [[Styles Bridges]] as late as October 1957, "criticized the Agency for supporting CENIS and particularly, criticized Walt Rostow."[^26] In a letter of November 26, 1951 Millikan, then at the agency, wrote to a person whose name is redacted that Rostow at the center had asked for his help in finding someone to assist with research.[^27]
In June 1955 [[Nelson Rockefeller]] arranged meetings at [[Quantico, Virginia|Quantico]], Virginia, of a panel of eleven consultants. The panel's report of June 10, 1955 lists Millikan and Rostow, each with the Center of International Studies, MIT, Rostow as panel chairman.[^28]
[[Andreas Lowenfeld]], then of the State Department's Office of the Legal Adviser, testified before the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]]'s Internal Security Subcommittee that he had been connected with the center in 1951 and 1952, and that "they had some kind of contract with the CIA." Asked whether he knew it was a CIA operation, he said: "I was never formally told, but it became apparent." Asked whether Rostow was in charge, he said Rostow was acting and that Millikan came afterward.[^29]
Oster reported that a 1958 and 1959 study by [[Anthony J. Wiener]], then affiliated with the center, on "what criteria can be developed in spotting and assessing" Soviet scientists as potential agent recruits, was financed through the [[Society for the Investigation of Human Ecology]] at a total of $12,000. Oster placed the study under [[Project MKUltra]].[^7] A CIA memorandum of November 18, 1958, states that MKULTRA Subproject 90 has been approved and that $12,000 of the project's funds has been obligated to cover its expenses. The memorandum does not name the institution.[^30]
Philip G. Strong of the agency's [[Office of Scientific Intelligence]] wrote a memorandum for the record titled "Meeting with Dr. Julius A. Stratton, Executive Vice President and Provost, MIT and Dr. Max Millikan, Director of CENIS." It records Strong's belief that a review of the UFO problem would require "the full backing and support of DCI Smith." The memorandum is cited in the notes to [[Gerald K. Haines]]'s history of the agency's role in UFO study.[^31]
The issue of Time dated February 24, 1967 refers to "$300,000 to finance M.I.T.'s topflight Center for International Studies" and states: "Until last spring, M.I.T. continued to accept agency funds, then terminated the contract 'for practical, not moral reasons.'" It quotes Millikan, "the sage director of M.I.T.'s International Center," as saying: "The number of my friends around here who have swallowed this 'invisible government' line is disturbing."[^4]
### The end of the contracts, 1966 and 1967
A clipping in agency files from the [[Philadelphia Inquirer]], headlined "Penn Denies Campus Has CIA Agents," reports that the [[University of Pennsylvania]] said it "has no knowledge" of any CIA people on its campus or faculty in answer to a charge by Representative [[Adam Clayton Powell]]. Powell said he had received "unverified information" that CIA personnel were associated with the university and with MIT. The clipping states: "On April 26, Dr. Max Millikan, director of the MIT Center of International Studies, said the college would reluctantly drop research contracts with the CIA because they were 'subject to misinterpretation.'" It quotes Millikan, "There never was a secret" about the contracts, and states that the contracts were for research on international developments, particularly Communism, and China.[^32]
A CIA Office of Legislative Counsel journal entry of March 3, 1967 records that "the Agency has Senator Fulbright's letter concerning a Center for International Studies, MIT, and is preparing a response."[^33]
A letter of April 21, 1971, on the center's letterhead at 30 Wadsworth Street, Cambridge, was sent to [[Richard Helms]] by a writer whose name is redacted in the copy. It reads: "some years ago our Center for International Studies cancelled contracts with the CIA on the grounds that it was improper for a university to conceal, not only what it was doing, but also who was paying the bill." The writer states that MIT "adopted a policy that rejected the extremists demands to refuse contracts from intelligence agencies, but which did insist that any such contracts be overt and avowed," and continues: "It was the CIA and not the university which declined to continue relations on such terms." The writer also states that MIT "properly acted four or five years ago when it adopted the present guidelines."[^34]
### Protests, the Cambridge Project and the Review Panel, 1969 to 1971
The MIT Dean of Humanities and Social Science reported that the center's offices on the fourth floor of the Hermann Building received a mass visit in early October 1969, of perhaps two hundred people, "students, a few staff members, and a substantial but uncertain number of persons without any M.I.T. affiliation," protesting MIT's "alleged complicity in the waging of the Viet Nam war and the conduct of U.S. foreign policy." The visit was described as peaceable. The Hermann Building was closed temporarily before the November Action of that year. The Department of Economics reported demonstrations and confrontations, "many directed at the Center for International Studies." In 1970 to 1971 the Dean reported that the center, "though still the target of a small group of vocal critics," had an essentially peaceful year.[^35][^36] The Tech of October 21, 1969 dates the demonstration at the center to October 10 and reports that Dean Robert L. Bishop was speaking to staff members of the center "to determine whether disciplinary action should be taken against those involved in the peaceful work stoppage at CIS." Everett E. Hagen wrote in a letter printed in the same issue that if any building were entered again with obstructionist intent or effect, he trusted the faculty and students would understand the importance of promptly suspending the students and hauling all participants into court. Another letter under the heading "Two CIS Replies" states: "They really believe that the Center for International Studies does secret work for the Department of Defense. They really believe that Project Cambridge will record information about dissenters."[^37]
In 1969 MIT President [[Howard W. Johnson]] formed a Review Panel on Special Laboratories, chaired by [[William F. Pounds]], Dean of the [[MIT Sloan School of Management|Sloan School]], to examine the relationship between MIT and the [[Lincoln Laboratory]] and the [[Instrumentation Laboratory]]. Johnson's letter asked the panel "to evaluate the implications that the laboratories have for the Institute in its prime responsibility for education and research and in its responsibility for service to the nation." The panel's first report of May 31, 1969 recommended a standing committee on the special laboratories and concluded "that the Poseidon program at this stage of its development is inappropriate for M.I.T. sponsorship." Its final report was due in October 1969.[^38][^39]
The Cambridge Project, a program of computer methods for the behavioral sciences organized by behavioral and computer scientists at MIT and [[Harvard University]], began in June 1969. The MIT Provost's report states that it "has been funded by the Behavioral Sciences Branch of ARPA through the Defense Supply Service of the Army" and that [[Project MAC]] contributed to its planning.[^40] The 1969 to 1970 report states that the project was "supported by the Advanced Research Projects Agency of the Department of Defense under a contract in which Professor Joseph C. R. Licklider is principal investigator," and that "During the summer and fall of 1969, the project was the subject of much controversy" at both universities. It lists Pool, who directed the center's communications work, as starting a program called the General Implicator, and Rosemarie S. Rogers and William E. Griffith, both of the center, as testing procedures by which a computer can categorize policy documents.[^41]
The center's annual report for 1968 to 1969 describes four areas of work: economic and political development, international communication, military and foreign policy, and communism, revisionism and revolution. It lists a joint project with Chile's Oficina de Planificacion Nacional under Millikan, Paul Rosenstein-Rodan and Richard Eckaus; a 1968 seminar on Title IX of the Foreign Assistance Act organized "at the request of the Agency for International Development" and chaired by Millikan and [[Lucian Pye]]; Pool's simulations of Soviet communications patterns; political-military exercises by Bloomfield; and a book in progress on communism and guerrilla warfare in Latin America by Halperin.[^42] The 1969 to 1970 report lists a study by [[Daniel Ellsberg]] of the process by which American foreign policy is formulated in periods of crisis, begun in late April 1970, and the 1970 to 1971 report lists work by [[William Bundy]] on "the events that led to the 1965 decision on Vietnam."[^43][^44]
### Directors
Millikan directed the center from 1952. The MIT President's report for 1969 to 1970 states that he was "Director of the Center since a few months after its founding in 1952" and died on December 14, 1969, aged 56; MIT's archival note for his papers gives February 1, 1952 as the start of his directorship.[^8][^43] The center's history states that during his more than fifteen years as director he urged faculty members to become "social science entrepreneurs."[^2]
The President's report for 1970 to 1971 states that the center worked "under the directorship of Professor Everett E. Hagen," and the Department of Economics report for the same year states that "Professor Everett E. Hagen has become Director of the Center for International Studies."[^44][^45] The report for 1971 to 1972 records that Hagen became Professor Emeritus at the end of the academic year and that [[Eugene Skolnikoff]], head of the Department of Political Science since the fall of 1970, was appointed director to replace him, and that the center ceased to be part of the School of Humanities and Social Science and became "an inter-School center reporting directly to the Provost."[^46] The reports for 1972 to 1973 and 1973 to 1974 describe the center as under Skolnikoff's directorship, with a program on technology and international relations.[^47][^48]
From 1972 to 1987 the director was Skolnikoff, a political scientist who had studied engineering and who, according to the center's history, laid the groundwork for further science-related projects on international issues.[^2] In 2002 the center's associate director was [[Stephen Van Evera]], and a symposium marking the center's fiftieth anniversary described Walt Rostow as "co-founder of CIS in 1951."[^49]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Daniel Morris Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State" (PhD diss., Duke University, 2013), pp. 255 to 259 and notes 104 to 114, citing Donald L. M. Blackmer, The MIT Center for International Studies: The Founding Years, 1951 to 1969 (Cambridge: MIT Center for International Studies, 2002), pp. 18, 36 to 42 and 61 to 63, as cited there. The planning committee report quoted here is Hans Speier, Jerome Bruner, Wallace Carroll, Harold Lasswell, Paul Lazarsfeld, Edward Shils and Ithiel de Sola Pool, Research in International Communication: An Advisory Report of the Planning Committee (Cambridge: Center for International Studies, June 1953), as Bessner cites it. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/232a76ac-f2d8-4827-99fe-50b3b109fa6c/content
[^2]: MIT Center for International Studies, "History." https://cis.mit.edu/history
[^3]: Max F. Millikan, letter stamped January 30, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003100150032-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003100150032-1
[^4]: Time, February 24, 1967, vol. 89, no. 8, The Nation, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP84-00161R000400210135-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84-00161r000400210135-8
[^5]: A. B. Darling, note of interview with Max Millikan, "Origin of PSB," March 5, 1952, file HS/CSG-556, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP83-00036R000400050039-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83-00036r000400050039-0
[^6]: U.S. Senate, "Foreign and Military Intelligence, Book I, Final Report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities," S. Rept. 94-755 (1976), section "Covert Use of Academic and Voluntary Organizations," subsection "CIA Use of Private Foundations, Pre-1967," item (1). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_I.pdf
[^7]: Patrick Oster, "CIA Envisioned Soviet Scientists as U.S. Agents," Chicago Sun-Times, reprinted in the Washington Post, September 11, 1977, p. A-9, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP88-01315R000400460003-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01315r000400460003-8
[^8]: MIT Libraries, Department of Distinctive Collections, Max F. Millikan papers (MC-0188), biographical note. https://archivesspace.mit.edu/repositories/2/resources/722
[^9]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 256 and notes 107 to 109, citing Blackmer, The Founding Years, pp. 36 to 42 and 38. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/232a76ac-f2d8-4827-99fe-50b3b109fa6c/content
[^10]: Ford Foundation, Annual Report for 1954, program statement "Economic Development and Political Stability," p. 45. https://www.fordfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/1954-annual-report.pdf
[^11]: Ford Foundation, Annual Report for 1954, grant list for the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, p. 86 (column headings: unpaid Dec. 31, 1953; grants in 1954; payments in 1954; unpaid Sept. 30, 1954). https://www.fordfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/1954-annual-report.pdf
[^12]: MIT News Office, release of December 6, 1957, announcing the appointment of Daniel Lerner, signed by J. A. Stratton. MIT Institute Archives, AC0069. https://cdn.libraries.mit.edu/dissemination/diponline/AC0069_NewReleases/NewsRelease_1950/AC0069_1957/AC0069_195712_012.pdf
[^13]: Ithiel de Sola Pool, "Progress of the International Communications Program," memorandum to the members of the planning committee, February 28, 1955, MIT Libraries, DSpace. https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/85161
[^14]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 277, on Kecskemeti's 1957 visit, Bloomfield's games, POLEX II in 1960 and the route to the Defense Department through Henry Rowen. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/232a76ac-f2d8-4827-99fe-50b3b109fa6c/content
[^15]: W. W. Rostow, The Dynamics of Soviet Society (New York: W. W. Norton, 1953), xvi, 282 pp., title-page credit as given in the review listing in the American Historical Review 60, no. 1 (1955). https://archive.org/details/dynamicsofsoviet0000rost
[^16]: CIA reading room document CIA-RDP61S00527A000100160017-2, "Review and Consideration of the CENIS Project, Communist Takeover and 'Economic Reshaping' of Eastern Europe by Nicolas Spulber" (undated). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp61s00527a000100160017-2
[^17]: CIA reading room document CIA-RDP70-00058R000100030039-5, press item "Man Behind the Soviet Challenge" (undated). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp70-00058r000100030039-5
[^18]: CIA Office of Legislative Counsel, journal memorandum (undated), CIA reading room document CIA-RDP73B00296R000300260135-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp73b00296r000300260135-2
[^19]: CIA, "Principles Governing Budgetary Relationships Between CENIS and CIA" (undated; released 2000), CIA reading room document CIA-RDP67-00059A000200090016-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp67-00059a000200090016-2
[^20]: CIA, "Recipients for ORR Unclassified Studies" (undated list), CIA reading room document CIA-RDP63-00314R000100180007-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp63-00314r000100180007-7
[^21]: CIA, memorandum from the Assistant to the Director, February 16, 1959, forwarding a National Review Bulletin item, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00001R000100260064-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000100260064-9
[^22]: Allen W. Dulles, letter to Max F. Millikan, Director, Center for International Studies, February 27, 1961, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80B01676R003500160028-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003500160028-9
[^23]: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, President's Report Issue for the year ending July 1, 1963, p. 165, MIT Libraries, DSpace. https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/160055
[^24]: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, President's Report Issue 1963 to 1964, Center for International Studies section, pp. 255 to 257, signed Max F. Millikan; the faculty roster lists "MAX FRANKLIN MILLIKAN, Economics (now Director of the Center for International Studies)." https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/160044
[^25]: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Report of the President, 1959 (MIT Bulletin, November 1959), School of Humanities and Social Science, "Comings and Goings," p. 153: "To Cambridge, England - Professor Walt W. Rostow and Assistant Professor Elspeth D. Rostow on a year's leave of absence." https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/160021
[^26]: CIA Office of Security, memorandum for the Director of Central Intelligence, "Walt Whittman Rostow," April 11, 1958, paragraphs 4 to 6, CIA reading room document 0001477407. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/0001477407
[^27]: Max F. Millikan, letter of November 26, 1951 (addressee redacted), CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003000200096-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003000200096-6
[^28]: Report of the Quantico Vulnerabilities Panel, June 10, 1955, with CIA memorandum of July 25, 1955, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP86B00269R000800070001-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp86b00269r000800070001-5
[^29]: U.S. Senate, Committee on the Judiciary, Internal Security Subcommittee, extracts from hearings (Part 3) on State Department security and passport regulations, testimony of Andreas F. Lowenfeld, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00149R000400560007-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00149r000400560007-3
[^30]: CIA, memorandum for the Comptroller, "MKULTRA, Subproject No. 90," November 18, 1958, CIA reading room document 00017493. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-00017493
[^31]: Gerald K. Haines, "CIA's Role in the Study of UFOs, 1947-90," Studies in Intelligence (1997), notes 23 to 25, citing Philip G. Strong, memorandum for the record, "Meeting with Dr. Julius A. Stratton, Executive Vice President and Provost, MIT and Dr. Max Millikan, Director of CENIS." https://sgp.fas.org/library/ciaufo.html
[^32]: Philadelphia Inquirer clipping, headline "Penn Denies Campus Has CIA Agents," CIA reading room document CIA-RDP73-00475R000401020013-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp73-00475r000401020013-7
[^33]: CIA Office of Legislative Counsel, journal entry, "Friday, 3 March 1967," CIA reading room document CIA-RDP69B00369R000200020044-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp69b00369r000200020044-4
[^34]: Letter dated April 21, 1971, on Center for International Studies letterhead, 30 Wadsworth Street, Cambridge, to Richard M. Helms, Director of Central Intelligence, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80B01086A000900210009-2. Writer's name redacted in the copy. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01086a000900210009-2
[^35]: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Report of the President for the academic year 1969 to 1970, School of Humanities and Social Science, report of the Dean, Robert L. Bishop, pp. 195 to 196 (demonstration of October 1969; Hermann Building closure) and Department of Economics report, p. 196. https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/160013
[^36]: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Report of the President for the academic year 1970 to 1971, School of Humanities and Social Science, report of the Dean, p. 175. https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/160071
[^37]: The Tech (MIT), vol. 89, Tuesday, October 21, 1969, article by Lee Giguere on the committee investigating the disruption of the Center for International Studies, and letters under "Two CIS Replies." http://tech.mit.edu/V89/PDF/V89-N38.pdf
[^38]: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Standing Committee on Special Laboratories records, 1969 to 1972, description of the Review Panel on Special Laboratories formed by President Howard W. Johnson in 1969, American Institute of Physics, catalog entry. https://history.aip.org/catalog/icos/262.html
[^39]: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Report of the President 1969, report of the Vice President for Special Laboratories, pp. 675 to 676 (Review Panel chaired by Dean William F. Pounds; Johnson's letter; first report of May 31, 1969; recommendations). https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/160053
[^40]: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Report of the President 1969, report of the Provost (Project MAC section by Joseph C. R. Licklider), pp. 465 to 466. https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/160053
[^41]: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Report of the President for the academic year 1969 to 1970, report of the Provost, "The Cambridge Project," pp. 31 to 37 ("Organization and Financial Support"). https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/160013
[^42]: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Report of the President 1969, Center for International Studies, pp. 321 to 326. https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/160053
[^43]: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Report of the President for the academic year 1969 to 1970, Center for International Studies, pp. 218 to 220. https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/160013
[^44]: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Report of the President for the academic year 1970 to 1971, Center for International Studies, pp. 206 to 208. https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/160071
[^45]: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Report of the President for the academic year 1970 to 1971, Department of Economics, p. 185. https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/160071
[^46]: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Report of the President and the Chancellor 1971 to 1972, Center for International Studies (Kepes's section) and Department of Political Science, p. 215. https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/160087
[^47]: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Report of the President and the Chancellor Issue 1972 to 1973, Center for International Studies, pp. 59 to 60. https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/159994
[^48]: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Report of the President and the Chancellor Issue 1973 to 1974, Center for International Studies. https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/160002
[^49]: MIT News, "CIS panels discuss issues of security, human rights," report on the symposium of May 16, 2002, marking the center's fiftieth anniversary. https://news.mit.edu/2002/cis-0522

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---
aliases:
- Congress for Cultural Freedom
- CCF
- Congress for Cultural Freedom (CCF)
- International Association for Cultural Freedom
- IACF
category: "Private Organization"
tags:
- Organization
- CongressForCulturalFreedom
- InternationalAssociationForCulturalFreedom
- ColdWar
- CulturalColdWar
- CentralIntelligenceAgency
- OperationCongress
- FordFoundation
- Encounter
- Preuves
- MelvinLasky
- MichaelJosselson
- FarfieldFoundation
- KatzenbachCommittee
- ChurchCommittee
summary: "International association of intellectuals founded in West Berlin in 1950, financed by the CIA through covert conduits until 1966, and renamed the International Association for Cultural Freedom after its exposure."
start: 1950
end: 1978
location: "West Berlin; Paris"
created: 2026-10-09
updated: 2026-10-09
relations:
- type: funded
with: "[[Central Intelligence Agency]]"
reverse: true
start: 1950-06
end: 1966
role: "principal funder through covert conduits; the executive director told the General Assembly in May 1967 that the support ran from 1950 to the summer of 1966"
fn: 20
- type: funded
with: "[[Farfield Foundation]]"
reverse: true
start: 1953
role: "front foundation that channeled CIA money to the congress; 843,668 dollars recorded for 1958"
fn: 10
- type: funded
with: "[[Ford Foundation]]"
reverse: true
start: 1957-10
end: 1978-03
role: "two-year grant of 500,000 dollars from fall 1957, 250,000 dollars a year through 1962, 7,000,000 dollars six-year grant announced 1966, terminal grant early 1978"
fn: 25
- type: founded
with: "[[Melvin Lasky]]"
reverse: true
start: 1950-06
role: "conceived and organized the Berlin conference; listed as general secretary on the masthead until removed from overt roles in 1950"
fn: 1
- type: founded
with: "[[Michael Josselson]]"
reverse: true
start: 1950-06
role: "promoted the Berlin congress idea from late 1949 and became the organization's administrative secretary"
fn: 1
- type: head_of
with: "[[Michael Josselson]]"
reverse: true
start: 1950-11
end: 1967-10
role: "administrative secretary, later executive director; offered his resignation in May 1967 and was replaced in October 1967"
fn: 21
- type: head_of
with: "[[Nicolas Nabokov]]"
reverse: true
role: "secretary general (Langenkamp); president (University of Chicago finding aid); resigned on the reorganization into the IACF"
fn: 23
- type: head_of
with: "[[Shepard Stone]]"
reverse: true
start: 1967-10
role: "president of the International Association for Cultural Freedom"
fn: 21
- type: head_of
with: "[[Raymond Aron]]"
reverse: true
start: 1966
end: 1967-05
role: "chair of the new board of directors; resigned in May 1967"
fn: 26
---
The Congress for Cultural Freedom (CCF) was an association of writers, scholars and artists formed at a conference in [[West Berlin]] in June 1950, with administrative headquarters in [[Paris]]. The [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) financed it through covert channels from its founding until the summer of 1966. After the funding was exposed in 1966 and 1967 the organization was renamed the [[International Association for Cultural Freedom]] (IACF), which closed its last offices in 1978.[^1]
### Founding in Berlin, 1950
In August 1949 [[Melvin Lasky]], then a 29-year-old journalist and the founding editor of the German-language journal [[Der Monat]], met the former Communists [[Franz Borkenau]] and [[Ruth Fischer]] in [[Frankfurt]] and hatched a plan for a conference of the non-Communist left in Berlin the following year. Der Monat was sponsored by the American occupation government.[^1] [[Michael Josselson]], a cultural officer for the occupation government, took up the plan in late 1949. The proposal reached Washington in January 1950. The [[Office of Policy Coordination]] (OPC) drew up a project proposal with a budget of 50,000 dollars, and [[Frank Wisner]], its head, approved the outline on April 7, 1950 and asked that Lasky and [[James Burnham]] be kept out of sight in Berlin.[^1]
Wisner's memorandum of August 8, 1950 to "Mr. Breckinridge" stated that he would not continue backing the operation "unless means can be found to sanitize this operation by the removal of Lasky, Burnham and other persons of known or traceable official significance from overt roles in the proposed continuing organization." He described the damage resulting from Lasky's conduct as "a major blunder."[^2] The inaugural conference was funded by the CIA through [[Marshall Plan]] counterpart funds.[^3]
The congress opened on June 26, 1950 in the [[Titania Palace]] in Berlin with almost 200 delegates and about 4,000 other attendees.[^1] The University of Chicago finding aid dates the founding conference June 26 to 30.[^4] [[Peter Coleman]] wrote that the opening ceremony took place on Monday, June 25, and the closing rally on Thursday, June 28.[^5] The honorary chairmen were [[John Dewey]], [[Bertrand Russell]], [[Benedetto Croce]], [[Karl Jaspers]] and [[Jacques Maritain]].[^1] American delegates included [[Sidney Hook]], Burnham, [[James T. Farrell]], [[Tennessee Williams]], [[Arthur Schlesinger Jr.]], [[Robert Montgomery]] and [[David Lilienthal]].[^1] Leadership of the sessions fell to the Italian socialist [[Ignazio Silone]] and to [[Arthur Koestler]]. At the closing rally on June 29, Koestler read the congress's Freedom Manifesto before a crowd the CIA study estimates at 15,000, calling out "Friends, freedom has seized the offensive!"[^1] Coleman, who reprinted the text, wrote that Koestler drafted the manifesto, that it had fourteen numbered paragraphs, and that [[Hugh Trevor-Roper]] and [[A. J. Ayer]] moved amendments to paragraphs 10, 13 and 14. Trevor-Roper objected to a draft paragraph declaring that totalitarians "who deny spiritual freedom to others do not enjoy the right to citizenship in the free republic of the spirit"; Silone, Lie, Frode Jacobson (as Coleman spelled the names) and Ayer supported him, and Koestler withdrew the paragraph.[^5] The first paragraph reads: "We hold it to be self-evident that intellectual freedom is one of the inalienable rights of man." The eleventh reads: "We hold that the theory and practice of the totalitarian state are the greatest challenge which man has been called on to meet in the course of civilised history."[^5]
In November 1950 the steering committee made the organization permanent. Josselson became its administrative secretary and held that post for 16 years. Lasky and Burnham had been removed from prominent roles by then.[^1]
### CIA funding and conduits
The CIA's International Organizations Division, supervised by [[Thomas W. Braden]], earmarked 200,000 dollars in 1951 for the consolidation of the congress, with affiliate committees in London, Oslo, Berlin, Frankfurt, Vienna, Rome, New Delhi, Tokyo and New York.[^3] In his account in the [[Saturday Evening Post]] of May 20, 1967, titled "I'm Glad the CIA Is 'Immoral,'" Braden wrote: "We had placed one agent in a Europe-based organization of intellectuals called the Congress for Cultural Freedom. Another agent became an editor of [[Encounter]]."[^6] He also wrote that money for the magazine's publication "came from the CIA."[^6]
In 1964 the House subcommittee on foundations, chaired by [[Wright Patman]], named eight CIA front foundations or funds.[^7] A [[Dallas]] newspaper report of February 1967 listed the Gotham Foundation, the Michigan Fund and the Price, Monroe and Heights funds among them, and named as other believed fronts the Knickerbocker Foundation, the Metropolitan Foundation, the Northcraft Educational Fund and the Victoria Strauss foundation.[^8] A United Press International report of September 1964 said that the Internal Revenue Service had confidentially told Patman that the CIA had contributed money to the [[J. M. Kaplan Fund]].[^9]
The [[Farfield Foundation]] of New York is the best documented of the conduits. Langenkamp describes it as a front "set up to channel funds to the CIA's target organizations, mainly the CCF," and records 843,668 dollars from it to the congress in 1958.[^10] When [[Nicolas Nabokov]] sought support for a proposed Hamburg assembly of scientists, about 35,000 dollars of its cost was provided by Farfield, according to the same report.[^10] The congress's own records hold Farfield correspondence files for 1953 through 1956.[^4]
The [[Karl Hoblitzelle Foundation]] of Dallas was named in February 1967 as one of several foundations through which the CIA passed funds. The Dallas report gave the foundation's contributions from 1959 to 1965 as 505,700 dollars, of which 250,000 dollars was listed as coming from anonymous donors. A foundation trustee denied knowledge of any CIA money.[^8]
### Publications
Encounter was a magazine of literature, arts and politics published in London from October 1953, edited by [[Stephen Spender]] and [[Irving Kristol]] and published for the congress. Catalog records list Melvin Lasky as an editor, and the Library of Congress record gives the editors as Spender and Kristol from 1956 and Lasky and Nigel Denis from 1969.[^11] Braden wrote that the CIA paid for its publication.[^6] Spender, Lasky and Kristol wrote to the [[New York Times]] on May 10, 1966.[^12] Kristol had been executive secretary of the [[American Committee for Cultural Freedom]], the congress's American affiliate. In 1955 [[Michael Harrington]] wrote in [[Dissent]] that Kristol, in that post, had supported Sidney Hook's general outlook on civil liberties.[^13]
[[Preuves]] was a French-language review published in Paris under the title "Preuves : cahiers mensuels du Congrès pour la liberté de la culture," edited by [[François Bondy]]. The Bibliothèque nationale de France dates it 1951 to 1975, and the University of Chicago finding aid describes it as appearing monthly between 1951 and 1969. Its papers are in Series VII of the congress's records.[^14] Der Monat, the German-language journal that Lasky founded, is held in a separate collection of the same archive.[^15] [[Tempo Presente]], directed by [[Nicola Chiaromonte]] and Silone, began with its number 1 of April 1956.[^16] [[Quadrant]], an Australian quarterly review sponsored by the Australian Committee for Cultural Freedom and edited by [[James McAuley]], began with its volume 1, number 1 for summer 1956 to 1957.[^17] [[Cuadernos]] (Cuadernos del Congreso por la Libertad de la Cultura) was a Spanish-language review issued from Paris beginning with a March to May 1953 number.[^18] The finding aid lists folders for Tempo Presente (1956), Quadrant (1961 to 1966), Cuadernos (budget and distribution, 1950 to 1966; a Cuadernos folder for 1963 to 1966 is cross-referenced to the correspondence of [[Julián Gorkin]]), [[Quest]] (1955 to 1968) and [[Mundo Nuevo]] (1965 to 1971).[^15]
The congress's journals also included [[Transition]], published in [[Uganda]], whose editor was arrested and imprisoned for months on a sedition charge in the wake of the 1966 to 1967 disclosures. Mundo Nuevo was a literary journal for Latin American readers, and the [[Ford Foundation]] gave it three years of support.[^19]
### Officers and directors
Josselson ran the congress from Paris for 16 to 17 years. In May 1967 he told the General Assembly that the congress had received CIA support from 1950 to the summer of 1966 and that he had accepted it without his colleagues' knowledge. The assembly issued a statement of regret, asked him to stay on, and he agreed.[^20] The New York Times reported in October 1967 that [[Pierre Emmanuel]], a French poet who had been literary director and deputy secretary general, had succeeded Josselson, who had resigned.[^21] Josselson said that no one else in the congress had been involved in the CIA arrangement.[^20]
Nabokov, a composer, was the congress's secretary general in the early 1950s.[^22] A University of Chicago finding aid lists him as president and John C. Hunt as executive director of the congress, and records that both resigned when the congress was reorganized and that Stone was named president of the IACF.[^23] In February 1954 [[Shepard Stone]] wrote to [[John J. McCloy]] that "you know the sources of funds that have hitherto been supplied to the Congress, but in our conversation with these gentlemen [Nabokov and Rougemont] we should not reveal what we know."[^24]
[[Denis de Rougemont]], the Swiss writer, met Stone and Nabokov in 1954 on the congress's funding. He and Nabokov wrote to the New York Times on May 19, 1966.[^12][^24]
Stone, who had directed the Ford Foundation's international affairs work, became president of the IACF in October 1967.[^21] [[Raymond Aron]], the French sociologist, was asked by Stone to chair the new board of directors in 1966. He resigned in May 1967 when he judged that the organization was moving in the wrong direction.[^25][^26]
### The Ford Foundation, 1957 to 1967
Stone, then in charge of the foundation's international affairs program, asked the trustees to take over the congress's costs. In the fall of 1957 the foundation approved a two-year grant of 500,000 dollars toward the congress's conferences and seminars, and Stone's division then gave 250,000 dollars a year through the end of 1962.[^25] In February 1961 the trustees barred grants to tax-exempt organizations that could not fully account for their other income, and a year later they added institutions receiving funds from undisclosed United States government sources.[^25] Stone then proposed a guarantee of "some $2,000,000 per year for the next five years." The proposal failed. A later plan for a consortium of 15 to 20 million dollars over ten years also failed, because the [[Rockefeller Foundation]] and the [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund]] would not join without a substantial Ford contribution.[^25]
In 1966, after [[Henry Heald]] was replaced by [[McGeorge Bundy]] as president, Bundy wrote to [[Julius A. Stratton]], the foundation's chairman, on September 23, 1966 that the foundation would make a grant of 7,000,000 dollars to the congress over six years. "It may raise a few eyebrows among those who know or think they know the previous financial history of the Congress," Bundy wrote, "but it is the right thing to do at the right time."[^25] The foundation's annual report for 1966 records a 1,500,000 dollar grant "in further support of the Congress for Cultural Freedom" and states that the new board of trustees was headed by Aron.[^26]
Bundy asked the foundation's Overseas Development Division for a review. Its vice president, [[Champion Ward]], judged in favor of the congress despite reservations, and [[James A. Perkins]] called the congress "a gamble, but an important one."[^25] In September 1967 [[Francis X. Sutton]], vice president of the International Affairs Division, recommended five more years of support with more non-American financing. Bundy did not reverse the grant, but the last three installments were cut by nearly 1,000,000 dollars in total.[^25]
A foundation evaluation by [[Craufurd Goodwin]] dated November 3, 1977 put the foundation's total grants to the congress and the IACF at 8,400,000 dollars over two decades. Langenkamp's table of grants totals 10,934,750 dollars.[^25]
### Exposure, 1966 and 1967
The New York Times published a series of five articles on the CIA by [[Tom Wicker]], [[John W. Finney]], [[Max Frankel]], [[E. W. Kenworthy]] and other staff members from April 25 to 29, 1966, under the first title "C.I.A.: Maker of Policy, or Tool?" The third article, datelined April 26 and published April 27, said that the CIA had supported "anti-Communist but liberal organizations of intellectuals such as the Congress for Cultural Freedom, and some of their newspapers and magazines," and described Encounter as an indirect beneficiary of CIA funds.[^25][^27] Josselson told the General Assembly on May 13, 1967 that CIA support had run from 1950 to the summer of 1966.[^20]
In March 1967 [[Ramparts]] reported the CIA's funding of the [[National Student Association]]. [[Sol Stern]] wrote the account (pages 29 to 39). It named a "Fairfield Foundation" as "a frequent contributor to the Congress for Cultural Freedom, previously identified in The New York Times as having received CIA funds," and recorded that the Rabb Foundation made a 15,000 dollar grant to that foundation in 1963.[^28] Braden's article of May 20, 1967 defended the program as a counteroffensive against Communist fronts and wrote that Frank Wisner, "in my view, was an authentic American hero."[^6]
On February 15, 1967 President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] named [[Nicholas Katzenbach]], [[John Gardner]] and [[Richard Helms]] to a committee to review government activities that might "endanger the integrity and independence of the educational community." The committee worked for 43 days. Its recommendation, accepted on March 29, 1967, was that "no federal agency shall provide any covert financial assistance or support, direct or indirect, to any of the nation's educational or private voluntary organizations."[^7] A May 1967 circular from the CIA's deputy director for plans, [[Desmond FitzGerald]], stated that "covert funding overseas of foreign-based international organizations is permitted."[^7]
On May 13, 1967 the congress's General Assembly held an extraordinary session in Paris. According to the New York Times, the assembly expressed regret that CIA funds had been used to finance the congress and that the executive director had accepted them without his colleagues' knowledge. It also named a committee to examine the congress's structure and draw up a new charter.[^20]
### The International Association for Cultural Freedom, 1967 to 1978
The congress was renamed the IACF in 1967. Stone left the Ford Foundation after thirteen years to lead it.[^29] Stone was its president from October 1967, and Pierre Emmanuel was its director.[^21] Stone's fundraising in Europe and Japan did not produce a lasting replacement for Ford money.[^25]
In 1972 the Ford Foundation renewed support for five years at 400,000 dollars a year, on the recommendation of its program officer [[David Heaps]].[^25] The same year the foundation granted 50,000 dollars to promote Encounter in the United States. Seventy-three American and English writers and editors protested the grant in a petition organized by [[Partisan Review]], which had itself been rescued more than once by CIA money channeled through the congress.[^30] A terminal grant ran from January 1 to March 31, 1978, and the IACF was dissolved on March 31, 1978.[^25]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Central Intelligence Agency, Center for the Study of Intelligence, "Origins of the Congress for Cultural Freedom, 1949-1950," Studies in Intelligence, vol. 38, no. 5. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-38-no-5/origins-of-the-congress-for-cultural-freedom-1949-1950
[^2]: Memorandum from F.G.W. (Frank G. Wisner) to Mr. Breckinridge, "Berlin Congress for Cultural Freedom; activities of Melvin Lasky," August 8, 1950, CIA reading room copy. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-0001318530
[^3]: Harm Langenkamp, "A Most Interesting and Complex Involvement: Cold War Alignments between the Ford and Rockefeller Foundations, the Congress for Cultural Freedom, and the Central Intelligence Agency," Rockefeller Archive Center Research Reports (2021), introduction and note 12. https://rockarch.issuelab.org/resources/38323/38323.pdf
[^4]: University of Chicago Library, Hanna Holborn Gray Special Collections Research Center, "Guide to the International Association for Cultural Freedom Records 1941-1978," Series I and II, Box 134, Folders 3 to 6 (Farfield Foundation correspondence, 1953 to 1956), and Series III, Subseries 1 ("Berlin 1950, June 26-30, Founding Conference"). https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/scrc/findingaids/view.php?eadid=ICU.SPCL.IACF
[^5]: Peter Coleman, "Arthur Koestler and the Congress for Cultural Freedom," Polanyiana 2005, nos. 1-2, pp. 192 to 195 (opening on Monday June 25 in the Titania Palace; the fourteen-paragraph Freedom Manifesto reprinted with the Trevor-Roper and Ayer amendments; the closing ceremony on Thursday June 28 before 15,000). https://polanyiana.org/articles/polanyiana-2005-1-2-14_peter-coleman-arthur-koestler-and-the-congress-for-cultural-freedom.pdf
[^6]: Thomas W. Braden, "I'm Glad the CIA Is 'Immoral,'" Saturday Evening Post, May 20, 1967, pp. 10, 12, 14.
[^7]: Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, Final Report, Book I, S. Rept. 94-755 (1976), sections on the 1964 Patman hearings ("Patman Eight") and the Katzenbach Committee, including the committee's recommendation and FitzGerald's May 1967 circular. The February 15, 1967 appointment date is from the editorial note to Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, vol. 33, document 260.
[^8]: "CIA Funds Reported Sent to Dallas Body; Foundation Trustee Denies Knowledge of Any Donations," Dallas News, February 1967, CIA reading room copy. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00149r000100140020-7
[^9]: Daniel Rapoport, United Press International report on Patman and the Kaplan Fund, September 1964, CIA reading room copy. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00149r000400260004-9
[^10]: Langenkamp, pp. 9 to 10 and note 44 (Farfield as a front set up to channel funds mainly to the CCF; about 35,000 dollars from Farfield for the proposed Hamburg assembly of scientists), and Table 3, "Grants to the CCF, 1958-1959 / 1963-1964" (Farfield Foundation, New York, 843,668 in the 1958 column). https://rockarch.issuelab.org/resources/38323/38323.pdf
[^11]: Library of Congress catalog record for Encounter (issues from October 1953; "Published for the Congress for Cultural Freedom, 1953-"; editors "<1956-> : Stephen Spender and Irving Kristol; <1969-> : Melvin J. Lasky and Nigel Denis"); Bibliothèque nationale de France catalogue record cb34465822k, "Encounter (London. 1953)," Spender, Kristol and Lasky as directeurs de publication (ISSN 0013-7073); Eton College Library catalogue record B53860. https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb34465822k and https://catalogue.etoncollege.com/B53860
[^12]: Langenkamp, note 62, citing letters to the New York Times by Nabokov and Rougemont, May 19, 1966, and by Stephen Spender, Melvin Lasky and Irving Kristol, May 10, 1966. https://rockarch.issuelab.org/resources/38323/38323.pdf
[^13]: "On the Committee for Cultural Freedom," Dissent, 1967, reprinting Michael Harrington's article from the Spring 1955 issue. CIA reading room copy. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp73-00475r000100600001-0
[^14]: Bibliothèque nationale de France catalogue record cb343490202, "Preuves : cahiers mensuels du Congrès pour la liberté de la culture," François Bondy, directeur de publication, 1951-1975 (ISSN 0032-7980); University of Chicago Library finding aid, Scope Note, Series VII, "Preuves Papers, 1951-1969." https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb343490202 and https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/scrc/findingaids/view.php?eadid=ICU.SPCL.IACF
[^15]: University of Chicago Library, "Guide to the International Association for Cultural Freedom Records 1941-1978," Series II, Series VII (Preuves Papers) and the Der Monat, Tempo Presente, Quadrant, Cuadernos, Quest and Mundo Nuevo folders. https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/scrc/findingaids/view.php?eadid=ICU.SPCL.IACF
[^16]: Bibliothèque nationale de France catalogue records cb32631877b and cb319416808, "Tempo presente. Informazione e discussione. [Mensile.] Dir. : Nicola Chiaromonte e Ignazio Silone. Anno I. Num. 1, aprile 1956"; Library of Congress catalog record 7945222 (Chiaromonte and Silone as editors). https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb32631877b
[^17]: Library of Congress catalog record for Quadrant (Sydney; "Vol. 1, no. 1 (summer 1956-7)"; "Editor: 1957- J. McAuley"; sponsored by the Australian Committee for Cultural Freedom and, from winter 1957, the Australian Association for Cultural Freedom); Bibliothèque nationale de France catalogue record cb32402678d, "Quadrant. An Australian quarterly review. Ed. : James McAuley. Vol. I. N° 1, Summer 1956-57." https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb32402678d
[^18]: Library of Congress catalog record 11493571, "Cuadernos del Congreso por la Libertad de la Cultura" ("Began with: No. 1 (marzo/mayo 1953)"; issued by the Congress for Cultural Freedom); Bibliothèque nationale de France catalogue record cb34410523v (1953-1965, ISSN 0590-1502). https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb34410523v
[^19]: Langenkamp, pp. 17 to 19 (the Transition editor's arrest and imprisonment on a sedition charge), and Table 2 (Ford's three-year support for Mundo Nuevo, described as the CCF's literary journal directed to Latin American audiences). https://rockarch.issuelab.org/resources/38323/38323.pdf
[^20]: Gloria Emerson, "Resignation Rejected After Disclosure of C.I.A. Aid," New York Times, May 15, 1967 (dispatch from Paris dated May 14). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00149r000400240016-8
[^21]: Gloria Emerson, "Cultural Group Announces Choice of New Head," New York Times, October 3, 1967 (dispatch from Paris dated October 2). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00149r000700390029-5
[^22]: Langenkamp, discussion of the Rockefeller applications for the CCF's 1953 conferences (note 37), identifying Nabokov as CCF secretary general. https://rockarch.issuelab.org/resources/38323/38323.pdf
[^23]: University of Chicago Library, "Guide to the International Association for Cultural Freedom Records 1941-1978," Historical Note (Nabokov as president, John C. Hunt as executive director, Shepard Stone named president of the IACF). https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/scrc/findingaids/view.php?eadid=ICU.SPCL.IACF
[^24]: Langenkamp, note 50, quoting Shepard Stone to John J. McCloy, February 25, 1954, as cited by Berghahn, America and the Intellectual Cold Wars in Europe, p. 223. Rougemont's 1954 meeting with Stone and Nabokov is in the same passage. https://rockarch.issuelab.org/resources/38323/38323.pdf
[^25]: Langenkamp, pp. 13 to 19 and notes 58 to 82 (the 1957 grant and the 250,000 dollar annual payments; the 1961 and 1962 trustee rules; the 2,000,000 dollar guarantee proposal and the 15 to 20 million dollar consortium; Bundy's letter of September 23, 1966 and the 7,000,000 dollar six-year grant; the 1966 review by Ward and Perkins; Sutton's September 1967 recommendation and the reduced installments; Heaps and the 1972 renewal; the 1978 terminal grant; Goodwin's 1977 evaluation with the 8,400,000 dollar total; the April 1966 New York Times articles). https://rockarch.issuelab.org/resources/38323/38323.pdf
[^26]: Ford Foundation, Annual Report 1966 (fiscal year ended September 30, 1966), International Affairs section, p. 34, and grant table, p. 96. https://www.fordfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/1966-annual-report.pdf
[^27]: Tom Wicker, John W. Finney, Max Frankel, E. W. Kenworthy and other staff members, New York Times series on the Central Intelligence Agency, April 25 to 29, 1966, third article (dispatch of April 26), CIA reading room copy of the full series. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP75-00001R000200520008-1
[^28]: Sol Stern, "A Short Account of International Student Politics and the Cold War with Particular Reference to the NSA, CIA, Etc.," Ramparts, March 1967, pp. 29 to 39 (the passage on the Rabb Foundation and the Fairfield Foundation). https://archive.org/details/nsa-and-the-cia
[^29]: Ford Foundation, Annual Report 1967 (fiscal year ended September 30, 1967), president's review, p. 10. https://www.fordfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/1967-annual-report.pdf
[^30]: Langenkamp, note 93, citing the Ford Foundation grant of 50,000 dollars for Encounter's promotion in the United States and the press release of November 16, 1972 on the petition.

107
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Council on Foreign Relations.md
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@ -40,11 +40,18 @@ relations:
start: 1949
role: "grant for aid to Europe studies, 30,000 dollars in 1949 to 1950"
fn: 9
- type: funded
with: "[[Ford Foundation]]"
reverse: true
start: 1964-10
end: 1965-09
role: "grant of 1,000,000 dollars under the heading American education in world affairs, fiscal year to September 30, 1965"
fn: 10
- type: head_of
with: "[[Allen Dulles]]"
reverse: true
role: "president until he joined the Central Intelligence Agency, addressed as president in January 1951; vice-chairman of the board, on leave, in 1952 to 1953"
fn: 12
fn: 14
- type: director_of
with: "[[Allen Dulles]]"
reverse: true
@ -61,7 +68,7 @@ relations:
start: 1953
end: 1971
role: "acting executive director in 1952 to 1953, then executive director"
fn: 10
fn: 12
- type: head_of
with: "[[Winston Lord]]"
reverse: true
@ -79,18 +86,18 @@ relations:
reverse: true
end: 2023-06-30
role: "president, 1,868,393 dollars reportable compensation in the return for the year to June 2023"
fn: 30
fn: 32
- type: head_of
with: "[[David Rubenstein]]"
reverse: true
role: "chairman in the return for the year to June 2023"
fn: 30
fn: 32
- type: funded
with: "[[Bernard L. Schwartz]]"
reverse: true
start: 2002
role: "Bernard L. Schwartz Senior Fellowship in Business and Foreign Policy, first holder Bennett Freeman"
fn: 26
fn: 28
created: 2026-10-01
updated: 2026-10-09
---
@ -117,11 +124,13 @@ A Council table of November 1951, held in the files of the [[Central Intelligenc
The special-studies grants in the same table include 25,000 to 30,000 dollars a year from Carnegie for the Committees on Foreign Relations, newspaper fellowships of 20,000 (1948 to 1950) and 15,000 (1950 to 1951) and 22,500 a year for democracy studies from 1950. The Rockefeller Foundation paid 34,750 dollars a year from 1946 to 1950 for the Langer History Project, 25,000 and 30,000 dollars for studies of aid to Europe in 1948 to 1950, and 16,000 for British-American studies in 1950 to 1951; the [[Ford Foundation]] gave 30,000 dollars for aid to Europe in 1949 to 1950, the [[Sloan Foundation]] 10,000 for the Langer history and the Viking Fund 1,500 for a fellowship. Total research receipts were 159,086 dollars (1946 to 1947), 167,941, 207,160, 244,640 and 200,505, with 194,600 projected for 1951 to 1952.[^9]
The foundation's 1965 annual report lists a grant of 1,000,000 dollars to the Council under the heading American education in world affairs.[^10] In 1953 the foundation funded a study group on relations between the democratic nations and the Soviet Union, which [[John J. McCloy]] wrote would be "undertaken at the Council on Foreign Relations under a grant of the Ford Foundation," with a full-time staff under [[Henry Roberts]] of [[Columbia University]].[^11]
Corporate contributions to the House Fund of 1945 totaled 34,000 dollars and to the 25th Anniversary Fund for 1946 to 1951 totaled 24,100, for 58,100 in all. The contributors were [[Chase National Bank]] (10,000), [[IBM]] (12,500), [[National City Bank]] (10,000), [[Standard Oil Company (New Jersey)]] (7,500), [[Westinghouse Electric]] (7,500), [[General Electric]] (2,500), [[Socony Vacuum Oil Company]] (2,000), General Motors Overseas Operations (1,500), the [[International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union]] (1,000), the [[National Cash Register Company]] (1,000), the Underwood Corporation (900), the Macmillan Company (500), National Dairy Products (500), the Texas Company (500), the International Nickel Company (400) and the American Hawaiian Steamship Company (100). A separate page lists forty-five individual contributions to the 25th Anniversary Fund for 1946 to 1950 totaling 95,479 dollars, among them [[Frank Altschul]] (5,000), [[E. Roland Harriman]] (4,500), Allen W. Dulles (3,500, "over 5 years"), [[John Foster Dulles]] (1,250, "over 5 years"), [[W. Averell Harriman]] (1,100), [[Henry R. Luce]] (1,000), [[Herbert H. Lehman]] (5,000), [[Caryl P. Haskins]] (8,500), [[Arthur H. Dean]] (10,000) and [[Stephen Clark]] (10,000); a continuation page lists further names including [[Arthur Hays Sulzberger]], [[Myron C. Taylor]] and [[Alfred P. Sloan]]. The totals on the continuation page are 114,175 dollars from individuals, 24,100 from corporations and 7,960 in contributions under 500, or 146,235 in all.[^9]
The annual report of the executive director for 1951 to 1952 records that the Rockefeller Foundation, "in line with its policy of discontinuing support for the general budgets of organizations which it has helped for some years," did not renew a 45,000-dollar grant to the general research program, while continuing 18,500 dollars for a study of the Political Implications of Economic Development (directed by Eugene Staley of the [[Stanford Research Institute]]), 3,500 for a study of German unity and 4,000 for a bibliography. Carnegie gave 35,000 dollars to the general research program, 3,000 to the Committee on Policy and 30,000 to the Committees on Foreign Relations, and had granted 23,000 for three research fellowships in 1952 to 1953. Members and corporations gave 32,787 dollars to the general research program, and a gift of 17,030.86 dollars in memory of Edwin F. Gay, a director from 1921 to 1945, was added. The Board had voted a 10 percent cost-of-living salary increase on December 17, 1951. The combined deficit in the general and research accounts was "the only substantial deficit the Council has ever had."[^4]
On November 16, 1954 the Carnegie Corporation granted 500,000 dollars to be spent over five years from the following August; a Ford Foundation grant had been reported earlier, and Frank Altschul had offered to pay for a new annex, estimated at about 200,000 dollars.[^8] [[George S. Franklin]], who served as acting executive director in 1952 and 1953, is described in the finding aid of the records of the [[Trilateral Commission]] as executive director of the Council from 1953 to 1971.[^10]
On November 16, 1954 the Carnegie Corporation granted 500,000 dollars to be spent over five years from the following August; a Ford Foundation grant had been reported earlier, and Frank Altschul had offered to pay for a new annex, estimated at about 200,000 dollars.[^8] [[George S. Franklin]], who served as acting executive director in 1952 and 1953, is described in the finding aid of the records of the [[Trilateral Commission]] as executive director of the Council from 1953 to 1971.[^12]
### Corporations with officers who are members, 1951
@ -135,29 +144,29 @@ Membership stood at 927 on August 1, 1951 and 933 on August 1, 1952, in the clas
### Correspondence with Allen Dulles, 1950 to 1960
Several letters between the Council and Dulles are in Central Intelligence Agency files released between 2002 and 2012. On December 12, 1950, Armstrong sent Harriman, then at the [[White House]], a statement signed by members of a Council group that had studied military, economic and political problems of aid to Europe for about two years. His covering letter says the statement does not represent the views of the Council, which is precluded from taking a position on public matters, and is not for publication, and that Dulles had spoken to Harriman about it that morning.[^11] On January 2, 1951, [[Alan G. Kirk]], writing on Department of State letterhead to "Mr. Allen W. Dulles, President, Council on Foreign Relations," declined an invitation to address the Council on January 15 and proposed instead an hour with "four or five besides myself" at the Council's house on January 17 or 18, in a group whose conversations would be "kept within strictly classified lines." A note on the letter records that Dulles told Kirk's wife on January 11 that he would be away for a week.[^12]
Several letters between the Council and Dulles are in Central Intelligence Agency files released between 2002 and 2012. On December 12, 1950, Armstrong sent Harriman, then at the [[White House]], a statement signed by members of a Council group that had studied military, economic and political problems of aid to Europe for about two years. His covering letter says the statement does not represent the views of the Council, which is precluded from taking a position on public matters, and is not for publication, and that Dulles had spoken to Harriman about it that morning.[^13] On January 2, 1951, [[Alan G. Kirk]], writing on Department of State letterhead to "Mr. Allen W. Dulles, President, Council on Foreign Relations," declined an invitation to address the Council on January 15 and proposed instead an hour with "four or five besides myself" at the Council's house on January 17 or 18, in a group whose conversations would be "kept within strictly classified lines." A note on the letter records that Dulles told Kirk's wife on January 11 that he would be away for a week.[^14]
On February 13, 1952 Dulles wrote to [[Gordon Dean]], chairman of the [[Atomic Energy Commission]]: "the Council is one of my closest interests and I was President of it until I came down here, but as Director and Vice-Chairman of the Board, on leave, I still spend a good deal of time on its work." The letter also refers to "the matter we discussed when you and Gordon Gray and I were together." The distribution line shows the letter was filed with the papers of the Deputy [[Director of Central Intelligence]].[^13] Letters from Franklin of November 24, 1952, January 27, 1953 and June 19, 1953 sent Dulles Council memoranda, a report on Council activities and the agenda for a Committee on Studies luncheon on February 16, 1953, and the Finance Committee's budget and pension plan, with an announcement that a balanced budget for 1952 to 1953 was assured.[^14]
On February 13, 1952 Dulles wrote to [[Gordon Dean]], chairman of the [[Atomic Energy Commission]]: "the Council is one of my closest interests and I was President of it until I came down here, but as Director and Vice-Chairman of the Board, on leave, I still spend a good deal of time on its work." The letter also refers to "the matter we discussed when you and Gordon Gray and I were together." The distribution line shows the letter was filed with the papers of the Deputy [[Director of Central Intelligence]].[^15] Letters from Franklin of November 24, 1952, January 27, 1953 and June 19, 1953 sent Dulles Council memoranda, a report on Council activities and the agenda for a Committee on Studies luncheon on February 16, 1953, and the Finance Committee's budget and pension plan, with an announcement that a balanced budget for 1952 to 1953 was assured.[^16]
On a letter to the Council's Membership Committee carrying a distribution notation of April 20, 1955, Dulles, as Director of Central Intelligence, endorsed a proposal by [[William H. Jackson]] to admit a person whose name is redacted in the release, writing that he had known the candidate "for a number of years, particularly during his tenure in this Agency."[^15] On February 16, 1956 Armstrong thanked Dulles for attending the Editorial Advisory Board meeting of the previous night and asked about his expenses so that Foreign Affairs could reimburse him. Dulles replied on March 4 to Mallory: "Don't worry about the expenses of my trip as I was able to combine this visit to New York with plenty of official business, so that it is a proper charge against my own official travel account," and added that he was suggesting the Agency "buy several copies" of the Council's ten-year Foreign Affairs Bibliography "for use here in the Agency."[^16]
On a letter to the Council's Membership Committee carrying a distribution notation of April 20, 1955, Dulles, as Director of Central Intelligence, endorsed a proposal by [[William H. Jackson]] to admit a person whose name is redacted in the release, writing that he had known the candidate "for a number of years, particularly during his tenure in this Agency."[^17] On February 16, 1956 Armstrong thanked Dulles for attending the Editorial Advisory Board meeting of the previous night and asked about his expenses so that Foreign Affairs could reimburse him. Dulles replied on March 4 to Mallory: "Don't worry about the expenses of my trip as I was able to combine this visit to New York with plenty of official business, so that it is a proper charge against my own official travel account," and added that he was suggesting the Agency "buy several copies" of the Council's ten-year Foreign Affairs Bibliography "for use here in the Agency."[^18]
On April 25, 1958 Armstrong asked Dulles to second a candidate (name redacted) for membership, "particularly" for the study groups on Far Eastern problems.[^17] On May 2, 1958 Franklin, by then executive director, wrote that Secretary [[Neil McElroy]] had accepted an invitation to the June 6 dinner of the Committees on Foreign Relations: "Thank you a great deal for all you did. You obviously produced the bacon."[^18] On August 20, 1959 Dulles told a correspondent that "Foster consulted me at the time he delivered his original speech on this subject before the Council on Foreign Relations," a reference to the speech on massive retaliation by John Foster Dulles.[^19]
On April 25, 1958 Armstrong asked Dulles to second a candidate (name redacted) for membership, "particularly" for the study groups on Far Eastern problems.[^19] On May 2, 1958 Franklin, by then executive director, wrote that Secretary [[Neil McElroy]] had accepted an invitation to the June 6 dinner of the Committees on Foreign Relations: "Thank you a great deal for all you did. You obviously produced the bacon."[^20] On August 20, 1959 Dulles told a correspondent that "Foster consulted me at the time he delivered his original speech on this subject before the Council on Foreign Relations," a reference to the speech on massive retaliation by John Foster Dulles.[^21]
On May 6, 1960 Franklin invited Dulles to a Council dinner for [[Adlai Stevenson]] on Friday, June 3 at 7:30, at which Stevenson would describe his recent trip through [[Latin America]], with [[John J. McCloy]] presiding and representatives of the affiliated Committees on Foreign Relations in twenty-nine cities present. Dulles declined, writing that he could not reach New York on "2 June." A memorandum to Dulles of May 16, 1960, filed with the reply (author redacted), states that the Agency had been in touch with William Benton, who accompanied Stevenson on the trip, that Benton "promised to furnish us with a complete set of the notes maintained during their trip," and that in view of this "no attempt was made to get in touch with Governor Stevenson."[^20]
On May 6, 1960 Franklin invited Dulles to a Council dinner for [[Adlai Stevenson]] on Friday, June 3 at 7:30, at which Stevenson would describe his recent trip through [[Latin America]], with John J. McCloy presiding and representatives of the affiliated Committees on Foreign Relations in twenty-nine cities present. Dulles declined, writing that he could not reach New York on "2 June." A memorandum to Dulles of May 16, 1960, filed with the reply (author redacted), states that the Agency had been in touch with William Benton, who accompanied Stevenson on the trip, that Benton "promised to furnish us with a complete set of the notes maintained during their trip," and that in view of this "no attempt was made to get in touch with Governor Stevenson."[^22]
### Discussion group on intelligence, 1968
The third meeting of the Council's Discussion Group on Intelligence and Foreign Policy was held at the Harold Pratt House at 5:00 p.m. on January 8, 1968. The minutes list [[Richard Bissell]] as discussion leader, [[C. Douglas Dillon]] as chairman, [[William J. Barnds]] as secretary and William R. Harris as rapporteur, with these others present: [[George Agree]], Frank Altschul, [[Robert Amory Jr.]], [[Meyer Bernstein]], Col. Sidney B. Berry Jr., Allen W. Dulles, George S. Franklin Jr., [[Eugene Fubini]], [[Julius C. Holmes]], [[Thomas L. Hughes]], [[Joseph Kraft]], [[David W. MacEachron]], [[Philip W. Quigg]], [[Harry Howe Ransom]], [[Theodore C. Sorensen]] and [[David B. Truman]]. Dillon stated that the series was off the record, that the subject of the evening was "especially sensitive," and that problems involving the Agency's relationships with private institutions would be examined at a later meeting.[^21]
The third meeting of the Council's Discussion Group on Intelligence and Foreign Policy was held at the Harold Pratt House at 5:00 p.m. on January 8, 1968. The minutes list [[Richard Bissell]] as discussion leader, [[C. Douglas Dillon]] as chairman, [[William J. Barnds]] as secretary and William R. Harris as rapporteur, with these others present: [[George Agree]], Frank Altschul, [[Robert Amory Jr.]], [[Meyer Bernstein]], Col. Sidney B. Berry Jr., Allen W. Dulles, George S. Franklin Jr., [[Eugene Fubini]], [[Julius C. Holmes]], [[Thomas L. Hughes]], [[Joseph Kraft]], [[David W. MacEachron]], [[Philip W. Quigg]], [[Harry Howe Ransom]], [[Theodore C. Sorensen]] and [[David B. Truman]]. Dillon stated that the series was off the record, that the subject of the evening was "especially sensitive," and that problems involving the Agency's relationships with private institutions would be examined at a later meeting.[^23]
Bissell listed eight forms of covert action (political advice and counsel; subsidies to an individual; support of political parties; support of private organizations "including labor unions, business firms, cooperatives, etc."; covert propaganda; private training and exchange of persons; economic operations; and paramilitary or political action to overthrow or support a regime). On disclosures of private-institution support he said, "it is very clear that we should have had greater compartmenting of operations," that "if the Agency is to be effective, it will have to make use of private institutions on an expanding scale, though those relations which have 'blown' cannot be resurrected," and that "we need to operate under deeper cover, with increased attention to the use of 'cut-outs.'"[^21]
Bissell listed eight forms of covert action (political advice and counsel; subsidies to an individual; support of political parties; support of private organizations "including labor unions, business firms, cooperatives, etc."; covert propaganda; private training and exchange of persons; economic operations; and paramilitary or political action to overthrow or support a regime). On disclosures of private-institution support he said, "it is very clear that we should have had greater compartmenting of operations," that "if the Agency is to be effective, it will have to make use of private institutions on an expanding scale, though those relations which have 'blown' cannot be resurrected," and that "we need to operate under deeper cover, with increased attention to the use of 'cut-outs.'"[^23]
[[Victor Marchetti]] and [[John D. Marks]] wrote that the minutes became public in 1971 when students occupying the Harvard Center for International Affairs found them in faculty files, that Harris later admitted privately that the text had been partially edited to remove particularly sensitive material, and that the African Research Group reprinted it. They wrote that Barnds had been with the Agency's Office of National Estimates until he joined the Council's staff in the mid-1960s, and quoted a January 1969 article by Barnds in Foreign Affairs: "The disclosure of intelligence activities in the press in recent years is a clear national liability." They also quoted Amory, in a television interview of February 26, 1967, calling press disclosures of Agency funding of the National Student Association and other private groups "a commentary on the immaturity of our society."[^22]
[[Victor Marchetti]] and [[John D. Marks]] wrote that the minutes became public in 1971 when students occupying the Harvard Center for International Affairs found them in faculty files, that Harris later admitted privately that the text had been partially edited to remove particularly sensitive material, and that the African Research Group reprinted it. They wrote that Barnds had been with the Agency's Office of National Estimates until he joined the Council's staff in the mid-1960s, and quoted a January 1969 article by Barnds in Foreign Affairs: "The disclosure of intelligence activities in the press in recent years is a clear national liability." They also quoted Amory, in a television interview of February 26, 1967, calling press disclosures of Agency funding of the National Student Association and other private groups "a commentary on the immaturity of our society."[^24]
Of the participants named in the minutes, Altschul, Dulles and Franklin appear in the 1952 officer and committee lists above, and Hughes and Kraft appear in the 1981 membership list of the Trilateral Commission.[^4][^23]
Of the participants named in the minutes, Altschul, Dulles and Franklin appear in the 1952 officer and committee lists above, and Hughes and Kraft appear in the 1981 membership list of the Trilateral Commission.[^4][^25]
### Central Intelligence Agency contacts, 1976 to 1979
A memorandum of July 26, 1976 from the National Intelligence Officer for China, routed via the Assistant to the Director, the Director of Security and the Chief of the Central Cover Staff, reported an invitation from the Council's program director, Rolland Bushner, to speak to the Nashville Committee on Foreign Relations and possibly to committees in Louisville, Indianapolis and St. Louis. It stated that "as is the custom with the Council my remarks will be on a not-for-attribution basis and there will not be publicity," and that the officer would "use some classified data through Confidential but will blend it in to my talk." A note on the memorandum states that the Director of Security "does not concur in the use of classified material." A memorandum of September 7, 1976 moved the second talk from Louisville to Tampa Bay on September 28.[^24] On September 12, 1979, [[Stansfield Turner]], as Director of Central Intelligence, nominated three associates of the National Foreign Assessment Center for the Council's International Affairs Fellowship for 1980 to 1981.[^25]
A memorandum of July 26, 1976 from the National Intelligence Officer for China, routed via the Assistant to the Director, the Director of Security and the Chief of the Central Cover Staff, reported an invitation from the Council's program director, Rolland Bushner, to speak to the Nashville Committee on Foreign Relations and possibly to committees in Louisville, Indianapolis and St. Louis. It stated that "as is the custom with the Council my remarks will be on a not-for-attribution basis and there will not be publicity," and that the officer would "use some classified data through Confidential but will blend it in to my talk." A note on the memorandum states that the Director of Security "does not concur in the use of classified material." A memorandum of September 7, 1976 moved the second talk from Louisville to Tampa Bay on September 28.[^26] On September 12, 1979, [[Stansfield Turner]], as Director of Central Intelligence, nominated three associates of the National Foreign Assessment Center for the Council's International Affairs Fellowship for 1980 to 1981.[^27]
### The Corporate Program, the Campaign and the membership roster, 1984 to 1985
@ -171,29 +180,29 @@ The individual donors of 10,000 dollars or more included [[Giovanni Agnelli]], [
General fund expenditures were 6,778,300 dollars against total funding of 6,718,900. Nonrecurring grants made up 49.8 percent of funding in the fiscal year to June 1972 and 13.8 percent in 1984 to 1985; the International Affairs Fellowship Program, at 346,200 dollars, was paid for by the Ford, MacArthur and Mellon foundations and the National Endowment for the Humanities.[^1]
The report lists as directors, at press time, Harold Brown, Stanley Hoffmann, Nicholas Katzenbach, Lane Kirkland, Juanita Kreps, Robert Scalapino, [[Brent Scowcroft]], Stephen Stamas, Philip Geyelin, McColough, Donald McHenry, Peterson, William D. Rogers, Vance, Marina Whitman, Walter Wriston, Graham Allison, Warren Christopher, Richard Gelb, Alan Greenspan, [[Bobby Ray Inman]], Jeane Kirkpatrick, Lewis Preston and Clifton Wharton. Of these twenty-four, Brown, Allison, Christopher, Kirkland, Greenspan, Kreps and Whitman appear in the Trilateral Commission's North American roster of July 1981.[^1][^23] A letter from McCloy dated June 27, 1985, printed in the report, refers to David Rockefeller's "44 years of close and active association with the Council" and to his "relinquishment of his leadership on the Board."[^1]
The report lists as directors, at press time, Harold Brown, Stanley Hoffmann, Nicholas Katzenbach, Lane Kirkland, Juanita Kreps, Robert Scalapino, [[Brent Scowcroft]], Stephen Stamas, Philip Geyelin, McColough, Donald McHenry, Peterson, William D. Rogers, Vance, Marina Whitman, Walter Wriston, Graham Allison, Warren Christopher, Richard Gelb, Alan Greenspan, [[Bobby Ray Inman]], Jeane Kirkpatrick, Lewis Preston and Clifton Wharton. Of these twenty-four, Brown, Allison, Christopher, Kirkland, Greenspan, Kreps and Whitman appear in the Trilateral Commission's North American roster of July 1981.[^1][^25] A letter from McCloy dated June 27, 1985, printed in the report, refers to David Rockefeller's "44 years of close and active association with the Council" and to his "relinquishment of his leadership on the Board."[^1]
### The Bernard L. Schwartz fellowship and the Greenberg Center, 2002
On March 20, 2002, the council announced that [[Bennett Freeman]] had been named the first Bernard L. Schwartz Fellow in Business and Foreign Policy. The fellowship was placed in the council's new [[Maurice R. Greenberg Center for Geoeconomic Studies]]. The release states: "This fellowship is funded by Bernard L. Schwartz, Chairman and CEO of Loral Space & Communications Ltd."[^26]
On March 20, 2002, the council announced that [[Bennett Freeman]] had been named the first Bernard L. Schwartz Fellow in Business and Foreign Policy. The fellowship was placed in the council's new [[Maurice R. Greenberg Center for Geoeconomic Studies]]. The release states: "This fellowship is funded by Bernard L. Schwartz, Chairman and CEO of Loral Space & Communications Ltd."[^28]
Two months earlier, on January 9, 2002, [[Space Systems/Loral]] had signed a consent agreement with the State Department's Office of Defense Trade Controls. The agreement set a civil penalty of $20,000,000, of which $14,000,000 was payable and $6,000,000 was suspended, and recorded that the company neither admitted nor denied the allegations in a draft charging letter.[^27] The draft charging letter, addressed to the president of Loral Space & Communications, alleged "Sixty-four (64) violations" in connection with the aftermath of the February 1996 Long March 3B failure.[^28]
Two months earlier, on January 9, 2002, [[Space Systems/Loral]] had signed a consent agreement with the State Department's Office of Defense Trade Controls. The agreement set a civil penalty of $20,000,000, of which $14,000,000 was payable and $6,000,000 was suspended, and recorded that the company neither admitted nor denied the allegations in a draft charging letter.[^29] The draft charging letter, addressed to the president of Loral Space & Communications, alleged "Sixty-four (64) violations" in connection with the aftermath of the February 1996 Long March 3B failure.[^30]
### Foreign Affairs
Foreign Affairs published "The Sources of Soviet Conduct" in July 1947 over the signature "X," credited by the journal to George F. Kennan; the article called for "a long-term, patient but firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies."[^29]
Foreign Affairs published "The Sources of Soviet Conduct" in July 1947 over the signature "X," credited by the journal to George F. Kennan; the article called for "a long-term, patient but firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies."[^31]
### Recent filings
The Council's Form 990 for the year ended June 30, 2023 reports revenue of 106,930,600 dollars, expenses of 83,166,400 dollars and year-end assets of 719,707,600 dollars; the same series of returns on the [[ProPublica]] Nonprofit Explorer shows revenue of 59,633,100 dollars and assets of 438,237,900 dollars for the year to June 2011.[^2] The 2023 return lists contributions of 63,113,857 dollars, Foreign Affairs revenue of 11,709,500, individual membership revenue of 9,036,200 and corporate membership revenue of 1,103,843, with 711 employees and 34 voting members of the governing body. It describes the membership as "over 5,000," states that the members elect all voting directors, and gives the year of founding as 1921.[^30]
The Council's Form 990 for the year ended June 30, 2023 reports revenue of 106,930,600 dollars, expenses of 83,166,400 dollars and year-end assets of 719,707,600 dollars; the same series of returns on the [[ProPublica]] Nonprofit Explorer shows revenue of 59,633,100 dollars and assets of 438,237,900 dollars for the year to June 2011.[^2] The 2023 return lists contributions of 63,113,857 dollars, Foreign Affairs revenue of 11,709,500, individual membership revenue of 9,036,200 and corporate membership revenue of 1,103,843, with 711 employees and 34 voting members of the governing body. It describes the membership as "over 5,000," states that the members elect all voting directors, and gives the year of founding as 1921.[^32]
[[Richard Haass]] is shown as president through June 30, 2023 with reportable compensation of 1,868,393 dollars and 59,851 dollars of other compensation; [[Michael Froman]] is named as principal officer. Other reported compensation includes 524,534 dollars to the chief investment officer, [[Giovanna Ban]], 519,740 to the executive vice president and chief financial officer, Keith Olson, 459,793 to the director of studies, [[James M. Lindsay]], 330,419 to the editor of Foreign Affairs, [[Daniel Kurtz-Phelan]], and 280,205 to the distinguished fellow [[Martin Indyk]]. [[David Rubenstein]] is chairman, [[Blair Effron]] and [[Jami Miscik]] vice-chairmen, and the directors include [[Thad Allen]], [[Ashton B. Carter]] (through October 2022), [[Kenneth I. Chenault]], [[Laurence D. Fink]] (through June 30, 2023), [[Timothy F. Geithner]] (through June 30, 2023), [[James P. Gorman]], [[Stephen J. Hadley]], [[Jeh Johnson]], [[William H. McRaven]], [[Janet Napolitano]], [[Meghan O'Sullivan]], [[Ruth Porat]], [[Laurene Powell Jobs]], [[Frances F. Townsend]], [[Daniel H. Yergin]] and [[Fareed Zakaria]]. Schedule O reports business relationships between Haass and directors Effron, [[Stephen C. Freidheim]] and [[Nicholas Beim]]; between Rubenstein and Carter and Yergin; between Miscik and Gorman; and between directors [[James Manyika]] and Porat. Schedule I lists fellowship payments including 596,458 dollars for nine International Affairs Fellows, 288,750 dollars for four fellows in national security, 119,350 dollars for six in Japan, 100,000 dollars for one Edward R. Murrow press fellow and 80,000 dollars for one Stanton nuclear security fellow. The donor schedule is redacted in the public copy.[^30]
[[Richard Haass]] is shown as president through June 30, 2023 with reportable compensation of 1,868,393 dollars and 59,851 dollars of other compensation; [[Michael Froman]] is named as principal officer. Other reported compensation includes 524,534 dollars to the chief investment officer, [[Giovanna Ban]], 519,740 to the executive vice president and chief financial officer, Keith Olson, 459,793 to the director of studies, [[James M. Lindsay]], 330,419 to the editor of Foreign Affairs, [[Daniel Kurtz-Phelan]], and 280,205 to the distinguished fellow [[Martin Indyk]]. [[David Rubenstein]] is chairman, [[Blair Effron]] and [[Jami Miscik]] vice-chairmen, and the directors include [[Thad Allen]], [[Ashton B. Carter]] (through October 2022), [[Kenneth I. Chenault]], [[Laurence D. Fink]] (through June 30, 2023), [[Timothy F. Geithner]] (through June 30, 2023), [[James P. Gorman]], [[Stephen J. Hadley]], [[Jeh Johnson]], [[William H. McRaven]], [[Janet Napolitano]], [[Meghan O'Sullivan]], [[Ruth Porat]], [[Laurene Powell Jobs]], [[Frances F. Townsend]], [[Daniel H. Yergin]] and [[Fareed Zakaria]]. Schedule O reports business relationships between Haass and directors Effron, [[Stephen C. Freidheim]] and [[Nicholas Beim]]; between Rubenstein and Carter and Yergin; between Miscik and Gorman; and between directors [[James Manyika]] and Porat. Schedule I lists fellowship payments including 596,458 dollars for nine International Affairs Fellows, 288,750 dollars for four fellows in national security, 119,350 dollars for six in Japan, 100,000 dollars for one Edward R. Murrow press fellow and 80,000 dollars for one Stanton nuclear security fellow. The donor schedule is redacted in the public copy.[^32]
Five of the directors named in the 2023 return (Rubenstein, Manyika, O'Sullivan, Townsend and Yergin) are members of the North American group in the Trilateral Commission's list of September 6, 2024, on which five Council fellows also appear.[^31]
Five of the directors named in the 2023 return (Rubenstein, Manyika, O'Sullivan, Townsend and Yergin) are members of the North American group in the Trilateral Commission's list of September 6, 2024, on which five Council fellows also appear.[^33]
### Jeffrey Epstein
Two biographical statements in the [[Department of Justice]]'s [[Epstein Files|Epstein Library]], one headed "Biographical Information of Jeffrey E. Epstein" and one "About Jeffrey E. Epstein," neither dated on its face, describe [[Jeffrey Epstein]] as "a former member of the Trilateral Commission and a former member of the Council on Foreign Relations." No Council membership roll appears in the documents examined.[^32] An exchange of November 8 and 15, 2010 between Epstein and the Council's director of events concerns travel and a weekend event.[^33]
Two biographical statements in the [[Department of Justice]]'s [[Epstein Files|Epstein Library]], one headed "Biographical Information of Jeffrey E. Epstein" and one "About Jeffrey E. Epstein," neither dated on its face, describe [[Jeffrey Epstein]] as "a former member of the Trilateral Commission and a former member of the Council on Foreign Relations." No Council membership roll appears in the documents examined.[^34] An exchange of November 8 and 15, 2010 between Epstein and the Council's director of events concerns travel and a weekend event.[^35]
### Footnotes
@ -206,27 +215,29 @@ Two biographical statements in the [[Department of Justice]]'s [[Epstein Files|E
[^7]: The Rockefeller Foundation, Annual Report 1946 (New York, 1947): The Social Sciences, sections Council on Foreign Relations and Council on Foreign Relations, History of World War II, pp. 186 to 189, https://archive.org/details/the-rockefeller-foundation-annual-report-1946
[^8]: Letter, Council on Foreign Relations (catalogued as from Walter H. Mallory, Executive Director) to Allen W. Dulles, December 17, 1954, CIA-RDP80R01731R001200030019-0, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001200030019-0
[^9]: Council on Foreign Relations, Receipts (1946-1951), Research Budget, with Contributions of Corporations, Individual Contributions to the 25th Anniversary Fund and Corporations with Officers who are members of the Council on Foreign Relations, November 1951, 8 pages, CIA-RDP80R01731R001100170005-1, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001100170005-1
[^10]: Rockefeller Archive Center, The Trilateral Commission (North America) Records, finding aid by Robert Battaly, April 2011, Institutional History, p. 2, https://dimes.rockarch.org/collections/2KaqPEr3JRZv5WBQsf9mKn (text read from the copy at https://archive.org/download/one-world-order-new-world-order/Trilateral%20Commission%20records%20%28Rockefeller%20Archives%29.pdf)
[^11]: Letter, Hamilton Fish Armstrong to W. Averell Harriman, December 12, 1950, CIA-RDP80R01731R003100010004-7, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003100010004-7
[^12]: Letter, Alan G. Kirk (Department of State) to Allen W. Dulles, January 2, 1951, with note of January 11, CIA-RDP80R01731R001100170026-8, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001100170026-8
[^13]: Letter, Allen W. Dulles to Gordon Dean, February 13, 1952, CIA-RDP80R01731R001200010035-4, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001200010035-4
[^14]: Letters, George S. Franklin Jr. to Allen W. Dulles, November 24, 1952 (CIA-RDP80R01731R001200010002-0), January 27, 1953 (CIA-RDP80R01731R001200020051-5) and June 19, 1953 (CIA-RDP80R01731R001200020027-2), https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001200010002-0, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001200020051-5 and https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001200020027-2
[^15]: Letter, Allen W. Dulles to the Membership Committee, Council on Foreign Relations, distribution notation 20 Apr 55 (ER 6-9539/A), CIA-RDP80R01731R001200030009-1, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001200030009-1
[^16]: Letter, Allen W. Dulles to Walter H. Mallory, March 4, 1956 (ER 7-9374/A), with letter of Hamilton Fish Armstrong to Dulles, February 16, 1956, CIA-RDP80B01676R004000060049-1, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r004000060049-1
[^17]: Letter, Hamilton Fish Armstrong to Allen W. Dulles, April 25, 1958, CIA-RDP80B01676R004000060009-5, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r004000060009-5
[^18]: Letter, George S. Franklin Jr. to Allen W. Dulles, May 2, 1958, CIA-RDP80B01676R004000060012-1, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r004000060012-1
[^19]: Letter, Allen W. Dulles to Ferdinand Lathrop Mayer, August 20, 1959, CIA-RDP80R01731R000300010083-1, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r000300010083-1
[^20]: Letter, George S. Franklin Jr. to Allen W. Dulles, May 6, 1960; reply of Allen W. Dulles to Franklin, May 1960; memorandum for Mr. Dulles, May 16, 1960, CIA-RDP80B01676R004100010066-6, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r004100010066-6
[^21]: Minutes of the third meeting of the Discussion Group on Intelligence and Foreign Policy, Council on Foreign Relations, Harold Pratt House, January 8, 1968 (reproduced by Public Intelligence as "Minutes of the 1968 Bissell Meeting at the Council on Foreign Relations"), https://info.publicintelligence.net/CFR-BissellMeeting.pdf
[^22]: Victor Marchetti and John D. Marks, The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence (Dell paperback ed., 1975), "Covert-Action Theory," pp. 55 to 56, and "Controlling the CIA," pp. 332 to 333 (note on p. 332), https://archive.org/details/ciacultofintelli00marc_1
[^23]: The Trilateral Commission, membership list "As of July 1, 1981," reprinted in Congressional Research Service, The Trilateral Commission, Issue Packet IP0092 (Library of Congress, 1981), https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/19810501_IP0092_2d3ea09e2c6068af730f41d315f4ea490bc91878.pdf
[^24]: Memoranda, National Intelligence Officer for China to Deputy Director of Central Intelligence for National Intelligence, July 26, 1976 (NIO 1215-76) and September 7, 1976 (NIO 1426-76), CIA-RDP83B00100R000100130019-2, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00100r000100130019-2
[^25]: Letter, Stansfield Turner to Alton Frye, Director, International Affairs Fellowships, Council on Foreign Relations, September 12, 1979, CIA-RDP80B01554R003300220008-8, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01554r003300220008-8
[^26]: Council on Foreign Relations, "Bennett Freeman Named First Bernard L. Schwartz Senior Fellow in Business and Foreign Policy," press release dated March 20, 2002, https://www.cfr.org/articles/bennett-freeman-named-first-bernard-l-schwartz-senior-fellow-business-and-foreign
[^27]: U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Political-Military Affairs, Office of Defense Trade Controls, consent agreement with Space Systems/Loral, Inc., January 9, 2002, Exhibit 10.1 to Loral Space & Communications Ltd. Form 8-K, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/0001006269/000095012302000193/y56456ex10-1.txt
[^28]: U.S. Department of State, Office of Defense Trade Controls, Draft Charging Letter to Space Systems/Loral, Inc. (undated), https://www.pmddtc.state.gov/sys_attachment.do?sys_id=032ef245db15df00d0a370131f96192b
[^29]: "X" (George F. Kennan), "The Sources of Soviet Conduct," Foreign Affairs, vol. 25, no. 4, July 1947, https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/russian-federation/1947-07-01/sources-soviet-conduct
[^30]: Internal Revenue Service, Form 990 of Council on Foreign Relations Inc for the year ended June 30, 2023 (tax year 2022), Parts I, III, VI, VII, VIII, Schedules B, I and O, IRS e-file XML object 202430169349300598, https://apps.irs.gov/pub/epostcard/990/xml/2024/2024_TEOS_XML_01A.zip (member 2024_TEOS_XML_01A/202430169349300598_public.xml)
[^31]: The Trilateral Commission, membership list "Last updated September 6, 2024," North American Group, https://archive.org/details/tc-membership-list-sept-6-2024-1
[^32]: Department of Justice, Epstein Library, "Biographical Information of Jeffrey E. Epstein," EFTA00725190, and "About Jeffrey E. Epstein," EFTA00725191, https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00725190.pdf and https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00725191.pdf
[^33]: Department of Justice, Epstein Library, emails of November 8 and 15, 2010 between Jeffrey Epstein and the Council on Foreign Relations director of events, EFTA00751793, https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00751793.pdf
[^10]: Ford Foundation, "Annual Report 1965," grant tables, entry for Council on Foreign Relations, $1,000,000, under the heading American education in world affairs. https://www.fordfoundation.org/media/2435/1965-annual-report.pdf
[^11]: John J. McCloy to Allen W. Dulles, April 29, 1953, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP80R01731R001200020045-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001200020045-2
[^12]: Rockefeller Archive Center, The Trilateral Commission (North America) Records, finding aid by Robert Battaly, April 2011, Institutional History, p. 2, https://dimes.rockarch.org/collections/2KaqPEr3JRZv5WBQsf9mKn (text read from the copy at https://archive.org/download/one-world-order-new-world-order/Trilateral%20Commission%20records%20%28Rockefeller%20Archives%29.pdf)
[^13]: Letter, Hamilton Fish Armstrong to W. Averell Harriman, December 12, 1950, CIA-RDP80R01731R003100010004-7, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003100010004-7
[^14]: Letter, Alan G. Kirk (Department of State) to Allen W. Dulles, January 2, 1951, with note of January 11, CIA-RDP80R01731R001100170026-8, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001100170026-8
[^15]: Letter, Allen W. Dulles to Gordon Dean, February 13, 1952, CIA-RDP80R01731R001200010035-4, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001200010035-4
[^16]: Letters, George S. Franklin Jr. to Allen W. Dulles, November 24, 1952 (CIA-RDP80R01731R001200010002-0), January 27, 1953 (CIA-RDP80R01731R001200020051-5) and June 19, 1953 (CIA-RDP80R01731R001200020027-2), https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001200010002-0, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001200020051-5 and https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001200020027-2
[^17]: Letter, Allen W. Dulles to the Membership Committee, Council on Foreign Relations, distribution notation 20 Apr 55 (ER 6-9539/A), CIA-RDP80R01731R001200030009-1, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001200030009-1
[^18]: Letter, Allen W. Dulles to Walter H. Mallory, March 4, 1956 (ER 7-9374/A), with letter of Hamilton Fish Armstrong to Dulles, February 16, 1956, CIA-RDP80B01676R004000060049-1, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r004000060049-1
[^19]: Letter, Hamilton Fish Armstrong to Allen W. Dulles, April 25, 1958, CIA-RDP80B01676R004000060009-5, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r004000060009-5
[^20]: Letter, George S. Franklin Jr. to Allen W. Dulles, May 2, 1958, CIA-RDP80B01676R004000060012-1, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r004000060012-1
[^21]: Letter, Allen W. Dulles to Ferdinand Lathrop Mayer, August 20, 1959, CIA-RDP80R01731R000300010083-1, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r000300010083-1
[^22]: Letter, George S. Franklin Jr. to Allen W. Dulles, May 6, 1960; reply of Allen W. Dulles to Franklin, May 1960; memorandum for Mr. Dulles, May 16, 1960, CIA-RDP80B01676R004100010066-6, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r004100010066-6
[^23]: Minutes of the third meeting of the Discussion Group on Intelligence and Foreign Policy, Council on Foreign Relations, Harold Pratt House, January 8, 1968 (reproduced by Public Intelligence as "Minutes of the 1968 Bissell Meeting at the Council on Foreign Relations"), https://info.publicintelligence.net/CFR-BissellMeeting.pdf
[^24]: Victor Marchetti and John D. Marks, The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence (Dell paperback ed., 1975), "Covert-Action Theory," pp. 55 to 56, and "Controlling the CIA," pp. 332 to 333 (note on p. 332), https://archive.org/details/ciacultofintelli00marc_1
[^25]: The Trilateral Commission, membership list "As of July 1, 1981," reprinted in Congressional Research Service, The Trilateral Commission, Issue Packet IP0092 (Library of Congress, 1981), https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/19810501_IP0092_2d3ea09e2c6068af730f41d315f4ea490bc91878.pdf
[^26]: Memoranda, National Intelligence Officer for China to Deputy Director of Central Intelligence for National Intelligence, July 26, 1976 (NIO 1215-76) and September 7, 1976 (NIO 1426-76), CIA-RDP83B00100R000100130019-2, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00100r000100130019-2
[^27]: Letter, Stansfield Turner to Alton Frye, Director, International Affairs Fellowships, Council on Foreign Relations, September 12, 1979, CIA-RDP80B01554R003300220008-8, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01554r003300220008-8
[^28]: Council on Foreign Relations, "Bennett Freeman Named First Bernard L. Schwartz Senior Fellow in Business and Foreign Policy," press release dated March 20, 2002, https://www.cfr.org/articles/bennett-freeman-named-first-bernard-l-schwartz-senior-fellow-business-and-foreign
[^29]: U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Political-Military Affairs, Office of Defense Trade Controls, consent agreement with Space Systems/Loral, Inc., January 9, 2002, Exhibit 10.1 to Loral Space & Communications Ltd. Form 8-K, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/0001006269/000095012302000193/y56456ex10-1.txt
[^30]: U.S. Department of State, Office of Defense Trade Controls, Draft Charging Letter to Space Systems/Loral, Inc. (undated), https://www.pmddtc.state.gov/sys_attachment.do?sys_id=032ef245db15df00d0a370131f96192b
[^31]: "X" (George F. Kennan), "The Sources of Soviet Conduct," Foreign Affairs, vol. 25, no. 4, July 1947, https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/russian-federation/1947-07-01/sources-soviet-conduct
[^32]: Internal Revenue Service, Form 990 of Council on Foreign Relations Inc for the year ended June 30, 2023 (tax year 2022), Parts I, III, VI, VII, VIII, Schedules B, I and O, IRS e-file XML object 202430169349300598, https://apps.irs.gov/pub/epostcard/990/xml/2024/2024_TEOS_XML_01A.zip (member 2024_TEOS_XML_01A/202430169349300598_public.xml)
[^33]: The Trilateral Commission, membership list "Last updated September 6, 2024," North American Group, https://archive.org/details/tc-membership-list-sept-6-2024-1
[^34]: Department of Justice, Epstein Library, "Biographical Information of Jeffrey E. Epstein," EFTA00725190, and "About Jeffrey E. Epstein," EFTA00725191, https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00725190.pdf and https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00725191.pdf
[^35]: Department of Justice, Epstein Library, emails of November 8 and 15, 2010 between Jeffrey Epstein and the Council on Foreign Relations director of events, EFTA00751793, https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00751793.pdf

38
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/First Intercontinental Development Corporation.md
View file

@ -10,8 +10,20 @@ tags:
- NSA
- PROMIS
category: "Private Organization"
updated: 2026-10-08
updated: 2026-10-09
summary: "First Intercontinental Development Corporation was a company whose board of directors included prominent figures with ties to government and intelligence, and it was reportedly a National Security Council cutout."
relations:
- type: founded
with: "[[George K. Pender]]"
reverse: true
start: 1970
fn: 2
- type: director_of
with: "[[George K. Pender]]"
reverse: true
role: "director"
start: 1983
fn: 3
---
First Intercontinental Development Corporation (FIDCO) was a company whose board of directors included prominent figures with ties to government and intelligence, and it was reportedly a [[National Security Council|NSC]] cutout. It figures in [[Danny Casolaro]]'s "[[The Octopus]]" investigation.[^1]
@ -22,7 +34,7 @@ The Board of Directors of FIDCO consisted of individuals with significant backgr
* [[Robert Maheu]], Sr.: Vice President, Director; former [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] agent and former CEO of Howard Hughes Operations.[^1]
* [[Michael A. McManus]]: Director, Vice President, and General Counsel to FIDCO; former Assistant to President [[Ronald Reagan]] at the [[White House]].[^1]
* [[Robert Booth Nichols]]: Director, Senior Vice President, and Chairman of Investment Committee; CEO of R.B.N. Companies, International, involved in high technology electronics, real estate, construction, and international finance.[^1]
* [[George K. Pender]]: Director; former Director of [[Pacific Ocean]] area of Burns & Roe, Inc., an international engineering and construction corporation.[^1]
* [[George K. Pender]]: founder (1970) and president and chief executive officer according to his 1999 obituary;[^2] listed among the directors as of January 11, 1983 in a 2016 FOIA request;[^3] Seymour wrote that he was a Director and a former Director of the [[Pacific Ocean]] area of Burns & Roe, Inc., an international engineering and construction corporation.[^1]
* [[Kenneth A. Roe]]: Director; Chairman and President of Burns & Roe, Inc., involved in major projects like the [[United States|U.S.A.]] Fast Breeder Nuclear Reactor Plant.[^1]
* [[Frances T. Fox]]: Vice President and Director; former General Manager of L.A. International Airport and Director of Aviation for Howard Hughes Nevada operations (now Summa Corporation).[^1]
* [[Clint W. Murchison, Jr.]]: Director; owner of the Dallas Cowboys NFL football team, with family ties to powerful political and organized crime figures.[^1]
@ -31,19 +43,27 @@ The Board of Directors of FIDCO consisted of individuals with significant backgr
### Activities and Allegations
FIDCO was reportedly used as a NSC cutout in [[Lebanon]] to arrange the release of a prisoner. [[Peter Zokosky]] told Seymour in 2001 that FIDCO was an "NSA front corporation used in Lebanon," that its directors "contracted" with Nichols, and that he had been on it "briefly."[^2] According to Seymour, letters of the summer of 1983 between Michael A. McManus and George K. Pender concerned FIDCO's role in Lebanon. A follow-up letter from George K. Pender to [[Amin Gamayel]], the president of Lebanon, indicated that transactions could be telexed to Robert Booth Nichols' address. The Arab Bank Limited in Amman, [[Jordan]], responded positively to a potential financial transaction of "US$ three billion or more" for the reconstruction of Lebanon.[^1]
FIDCO was reportedly used as a NSC cutout in [[Lebanon]] to arrange the release of a prisoner. [[Peter Zokosky]] told Seymour in 2001 that FIDCO was an "NSA front corporation used in Lebanon," that its directors "contracted" with Nichols, and that he had been on it "briefly."[^4] According to Seymour, letters of the summer of 1983 between Michael A. McManus and George K. Pender concerned FIDCO's role in Lebanon. A follow-up letter from George K. Pender to [[Amin Gamayel]], the president of Lebanon, indicated that transactions could be telexed to Robert Booth Nichols' address. The Arab Bank Limited in Amman, [[Jordan]], responded positively to a potential financial transaction of "US$ three billion or more" for the reconstruction of Lebanon.[^1]
[[Michael Riconosciuto]] claimed that FIDCO was a NSC corporate cutout and that he was a technical advisor for the organization. He also stated that FIDCO had a companion company called Euramae Trading, which operated throughout the [[Middle East]] and was involved in the drug trade, allegedly as a NSC-directed operation.[^1]
The FBI reported no responsive documents on a 2016 FOIA request for FIDCO records, and the no-records finding was affirmed on appeal.[^3]
An FBI Los Angeles airtel of December 3, 1990, captioned "Front Door; Major Case 90," reported that searches of FBI indices on George K. Pender, "Chairman of First Intercontinental Development Cooperation," produced three references, that investigation "revealed PENDER to be a self-employed consulting engineer," and that "The case was closed without any interview of PENDER."[^5] An [[INSLAW]] memorandum to the record dated July 18, 1990, reported [[Michael Riconosciuto]]'s statement that for a 1980 mission to [[Iran]] [[Earl Brian]] "liaised with George Pender, whom we have later discovered was Chairman of the First Intercontinental Development Corporation (FIDCO)," and that Mr. and Mrs. Reagan owned shares in FIDCO through proxies held by Pender, his daughter or Michael McManus.[^6]
Michael Riconosciuto claimed that FIDCO was a NSC corporate cutout and that he was a technical advisor for the organization. He also stated that FIDCO had a companion company called Euramae Trading, which operated throughout the [[Middle East]] and was involved in the drug trade, allegedly as a NSC-directed operation.[^1]
Robert Booth Nichols used FIDCO to verify his credibility in proposed arms projects, including the construction of an R&D facility for weapons systems on the [[Cabazon Indian Reservation]]. Michael Riconosciuto also claimed that Robert Booth Nichols was involved in illicit activities through FIDCO, including attempting to take embargoed technology out of the United States.[^1]
### Nevada Charter Record
The filing index of Nevada charter C417-1961 lists an amendment on August 7, 1984 under the name First Intercontinental Development Corporation, with authorized stock of 10,000,000 shares at one cent par. The same charter's earlier amendments read Nevada Real Estate Investment Corporation (1972), Harbor Resources Incorporated (1979) and Western Smelting & Refining, Inc. (1982); its current record is under the name [[Meridian International Logistics]], Inc., Robert Booth Nichols's holding company, with annual lists filed from 1998 to 2002, a 1992 registered agent in Las Vegas, and the status "Permanently Revoked."[^3] A separate California stock corporation named First Intercontinental Development Corporation (number 0871867) shows Franchise Tax Board suspensions in 1983, 1994 and 2000.[^4]
The filing index of Nevada charter C417-1961 lists an amendment on August 7, 1984 under the name First Intercontinental Development Corporation, with authorized stock of 10,000,000 shares at one cent par. The same charter's earlier amendments read Nevada Real Estate Investment Corporation (1972), Harbor Resources Incorporated (1979) and Western Smelting & Refining, Inc. (1982); its current record is under the name [[Meridian International Logistics]], Inc., Robert Booth Nichols's holding company, with annual lists filed from 1998 to 2002, a 1992 registered agent in Las Vegas, and the status "Permanently Revoked."[^7] A separate California stock corporation named First Intercontinental Development Corporation (number 0871867) shows Franchise Tax Board suspensions in 1983, 1994 and 2000.[^8]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Seymour, Cheri. *The Last Circle: Danny Casolaro’s Investigation into the Octopus and the PROMIS Software Scandal*. First Edition. TrineDay, 2010. Sole source.
[^2]: Seymour, Cheri. *The Last Circle: Danny Casolaro's Investigation into the Octopus and the PROMIS Software Scandal.* TrineDay, 2010, chapter 22, interview of Peter Zokosky, February 14, 2001. Sole source.
[^3]: OpenCorporates, record and filing list for Meridian International Logistics, Inc., Nevada company C417-1961 (retrieved October 8, 2026). https://opencorporates.com/companies/us_nv/C417-1961/filings
[^4]: OpenCorporates, record for First Intercontinental Development Corporation, California company 0871867 (retrieved October 8, 2026). https://opencorporates.com/companies/us_ca/0871867
[^1]: Seymour, Cheri. *The Last Circle: Danny Casolaro’s Investigation into the Octopus and the PROMIS Software Scandal*. First Edition. TrineDay, 2010.
[^2]: College of the Holy Cross, *Holy Cross Magazine*, "In Memoriam," Summer 1999, entry for George K. Pender (died Jan. 6, 1999). Archived copy: https://web.archive.org/web/20040812105331/http://www.holycross.edu/departments/publicaffairs/hcm/summer99/in_memoriam/1927.html
[^3]: Best, Emma. FOIA request "FIDCO," submitted to the Federal Bureau of Investigation through MuckRock, submitted February 9, 2016 (FBI number 1344462-000; appeal DOJ-AP-2016-002797, final disposition June 21, 2016). The board list as of January 11, 1983 is as stated in the request text. https://web.archive.org/web/20191224043712/https://www.muckrock.com/foi/united-states-of-america-10/fidco-23873/
[^4]: Seymour, Cheri. *The Last Circle: Danny Casolaro's Investigation into the Octopus and the PROMIS Software Scandal.* TrineDay, 2010, chapter 22, interview of Peter Zokosky, February 14, 2001.
[^5]: Federal Bureau of Investigation, Los Angeles, airtel to the Director, "Front Door; Major Case 90," December 3, 1990, released June 2019 in FBI file 1344385-002. https://cdn.muckrock.com/foia_files/2019/07/01/6-24-19_MR23694.pdf (pages 6 and 7)
[^6]: INSLAW, Inc., Memorandum to the Record, July 18, 1990, in "Inslaw - Press Releases," Internet Archive item InslawPressReleases. https://archive.org/details/InslawPressReleases
[^7]: OpenCorporates, record and filing list for Meridian International Logistics, Inc., Nevada company C417-1961 (retrieved October 8, 2026). https://opencorporates.com/companies/us_nv/C417-1961/filings
[^8]: OpenCorporates, record for First Intercontinental Development Corporation, California company 0871867 (retrieved October 8, 2026). https://opencorporates.com/companies/us_ca/0871867

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---
aliases:
- Ford Foundation
- The Ford Foundation
- Ford Foundation of Michigan
category: "Private Organization"
tags:
- Organization
- FordFoundation
- Philanthropy
- ColdWar
- CongressForCulturalFreedom
- InternationalAssociationForCulturalFreedom
- CentralIntelligenceAgency
- KatzenbachCommittee
- ChurchCommittee
- RandCorporation
- CenterForAdvancedStudyBehavioralSciences
- EastEuropeanFund
- TaxReformAct1969
- DurbanConference
- ParapsychologyResearch
summary: "Michigan foundation chartered by Edsel Ford in 1936 that the CIA approached for cover funding from 1951 and that financed the Congress for Cultural Freedom both before and after its 1966 to 1967 exposure."
start: 1936
location: "New York City; chartered in Michigan"
created: 2026-10-09
updated: 2026-10-09
relations:
- type: founded
with: "[[Edsel Ford]]"
reverse: true
start: 1936-02
role: "chartered in Michigan with an initial gift of 25,000 dollars"
fn: 1
- type: head_of
with: "[[Paul G. Hoffman]]"
reverse: true
start: 1950-11
end: 1953-03
role: "president"
fn: 3
- type: head_of
with: "[[H. Rowan Gaither]]"
reverse: true
start: 1953-03
end: 1956-10
role: "president"
fn: 3
- type: head_of
with: "[[Henry T. Heald]]"
reverse: true
start: 1956-10
end: 1965-12
role: "president"
fn: 3
- type: head_of
with: "[[McGeorge Bundy]]"
reverse: true
start: 1966-03
end: 1979-05
role: "president"
fn: 3
- type: director_of
with: "[[John J. McCloy]]"
reverse: true
start: 1959
end: 1965-12
role: "chairman of the board of trustees (trustee from 1953)"
fn: 27
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Richard Bissell]]"
reverse: true
start: 1952-01
end: 1954
role: "staff member from January 1952, described as a consultant by Langenkamp"
fn: 21
- type: funded
with: "[[Fighting Group against Inhumanity]]"
start: 1951-04
role: "grant of 150,000 dollars, channeled through the National Committee for a Free Europe"
fn: 14
- type: funded
with: "[[Congress for Cultural Freedom]]"
start: 1957-10
end: 1962-12
role: "two-year grant of 500,000 dollars from fall 1957, then 250,000 dollars a year through 1962"
fn: 37
- type: funded
with: "[[International Association for Cultural Freedom]]"
start: 1966-09
end: 1978-03
role: "grant of 7,000,000 dollars announced 1966; renewed 1972 at 400,000 dollars a year"
fn: 46
- type: funded
with: "[[Rand Corporation]]"
start: 1948-05
role: "interest-free loan of 100,000 dollars and credit guarantee of 300,000 dollars after RAND's separation from Douglas Aircraft; loan extended to 1,000,000 dollars in 1950"
fn: 66
- type: funded
with: "[[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]"
start: 1952-04
role: "grant of 875,000 dollars to the Center for International Studies in spring 1952"
fn: 62
- type: funded
with: "[[Council on Foreign Relations]]"
start: 1964-10
end: 1965-09
role: "grant of 1,000,000 dollars under American education in world affairs in fiscal 1965"
fn: 69
- type: owned
with: "[[East European Fund]]"
role: "subsidiary, per Langenkamp"
fn: 71
- type: funded
with: "[[Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences]]"
start: 1954
role: "helped establish the center at Stanford University; grant of 3,411,590 dollars for five years in fiscal 1954"
fn: 74
---
The Ford Foundation is a philanthropic foundation chartered in Michigan in 1936 by [[Edsel Ford]] with an initial gift of 25,000 dollars.[^1] Ford Motor Company stock valued at 417 million dollars passed to it after the deaths of Edsel Ford in 1943 and [[Henry Ford]] in 1947. By New Year's Eve 1950 the endowment stood at 492 million dollars, and its assets dwarfed those of the [[Carnegie Corporation of New York]] and the [[Rockefeller Foundation]], the two largest American foundations until then.[^2] From April 1951 the foundation's officers were approached by the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) and the [[U.S. Department of State]] about channeling Cold War projects through the foundation. It financed the [[Congress for Cultural Freedom]] (CCF) from 1957 until the successor organization, the [[International Association for Cultural Freedom]] (IACF), was dissolved in March 1978.
### Founding and the Gaither study
The foundation's presidents were Edsel Ford, from February 1936 to June 1943; [[Henry Ford II]], from July 1943 to November 1950; [[Paul G. Hoffman]], from November 1950 to March 1953; [[H. Rowan Gaither]], from March 1953 to October 1956; [[Henry T. Heald]], from October 1956 to December 1965; and [[McGeorge Bundy]], from March 1966 to May 1979.[^3]
Henry Ford II commissioned a blue-ribbon panel led by Gaither to explore the foundation's future. The panel advised that the foundation become a national and international philanthropy, and its recommendations were approved unanimously in 1950.[^4] The Henry Ford museum's collection of foundation papers lists a "Report of the Study for the Ford Foundation on Policy, 1949."[^5] Gaither had helped turn the [[Rand Corporation]] from an Air Force branch into an independent think tank and served as a RAND trustee until 1959. Henry Ford II had brought him in during 1947 to help set the foundation's priorities.[^6]
### Hoffman's first contacts with the CIA, 1951
On April 3, 1951 Hoffman and his associates met Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]], who assured them that his department would put its liaison machinery "into high gear" for exchanges with the foundation.[^7] The same day they met CIA Director [[Walter Bedell Smith]] and [[Allen Dulles]], who was soon to be promoted to Smith's deputy as director of plans. After instructing their hosts "never to refer to [this meeting] as long as we lived," Smith and Dulles raised the agency's plans. These included the rehabilitation of defectors and the settlement of exiles from the Soviet bloc, medical and laboratory equipment for the [[University of Tehran]], and "area centers" to study regions open to Soviet overtures.[^8]
A memorandum dated April 2, 1951 and signed by [[Max Millikan]] as the agency's assistant director for research and reports listed projects the agency wanted the foundation to support. The list named area studies of Indonesia, Indochina, India, Pakistan and Iraq, and an analysis of the nature, validity and scope of Soviet statistics and statistical methods.[^9]
On April 13, 1951 staff delegations from the State Department and the agency met the foundation in New York. The foundation was told that it might receive project proposals backed by both. The first projects it was asked to support "unqualified and urgent" were the [[Free University of Berlin]], a university for Soviet bloc exiles near Strasbourg, the [[International Federation of War Veterans' Organizations]], and a study of Soviet tactics in the Far East under the auspices of the [[National Committee for a Free Asia]], which the agency had created.[^10]
On April 30, 1951 [[Sidney Hook]] applied for 1,000,000 dollars over three years for the CCF.[^11] [[Joseph McDaniel]], the foundation's Pasadena officer, questioned the CCF's usefulness and advised that the CIA take on full sponsorship. [[Robert M. Hutchins]] found Hook "contentious and erratic" and regarded the CCF's purpose as "mere propaganda." The Pasadena office voted against the proposal "as a matter of policy." On June 27, 1951 the foundation notified Hook that it could not comply.[^12] The outcome was communicated to the agency by [[James Burnham]], who had acted as liaison between the CCF and the agency.[^13]
### The Fighting Group and the National Committee for a Free Europe
In April 1951 the foundation obtained a grant of 150,000 dollars for the Fighting Group against Inhumanity, a West Berlin anti-Communist group. [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] had pressed Hoffman to take an interest in the group, with the approval of the State Department and the CIA. Hoffman required that the money be used for humanitarian activities, namely locating arrested and missing people in the Soviet zone and aiding victims of Soviet injustice, and he stated that "we cannot contribute to subversive activities." The grant was therefore channeled through the [[National Committee for a Free Europe]] (NCFE), which Langenkamp describes as a CIA proprietary set up to carry out covert refugee assistance and counterpropaganda, including the work of [[Radio Free Europe]].[^14]
Foundation officers later became alarmed by the group's "more aggressive action in fields and by means not entirely consistent with the purposes of the Foundation" and moved to suspend the final allotment. [[Bernard Gladieux]], who was still acting as a liaison with the CIA, persuaded his colleagues that cancellation would "completely disrupt the present relations between the NCFE and the Fighting Group."[^15] In 1954 Gladieux acknowledged his continuing relationship with the CIA at a hearing of the [[Reece Committee]].[^16]
In 1952 Hoffman told the trustees that the foundation was not to support activities "which would destroy its effectiveness in working for peace" by appearing as a tool for combating Soviet power.[^17] A proposed "Free University in Exile," an NCFE project, was sidetracked by Hutchins and others on the ground that the NCFE was "a cold war propaganda organization rather than an educational institution." The NCFE's president, [[DeWitt C. Poole]], regarded that reasoning as tenuous, given that the foundation had granted 1,309,500 dollars to the Free University of Berlin.[^18]
By early 1954 the foundation's leadership had adopted, in the words of [[Don K. Price]], the position that "we're just not going to mix in with these action agencies" like the CCF. A renewed request for 500,000 dollars for the CCF's publication activities, submitted by both the CCF and the CIA in March 1954, faced rejection, according to Langenkamp.[^19]
### Hoffman's departure and the Gaither years
In February 1953 Henry Ford II, a staunch supporter of Gaither, forced Hoffman to resign. At the same trustees' meeting Gaither was elected president, director and trustee.[^20] Langenkamp describes the two men's approaches as diverging, with Hoffman favoring international dialogue and Gaither a harder line in the Cold War.[^20]
### Richard Bissell and the staff of 1952
The Eisenhower Presidential Library's finding aid for the papers of [[Richard Bissell]] states that he joined the foundation's staff in January 1952 after leaving the [[Economic Cooperation Administration]] (later the [[Mutual Security Agency]]) and, after a brief tenure, resigned in 1954.[^21] Langenkamp describes Bissell as a consultant to the foundation who left in 1954 to become special assistant to Allen Dulles.[^22] Langenkamp also cites [[Burton Hersh]] for an account in which Bissell, as Dulles's special assistant, helped [[Franklin A. Lindsay]] on an "internal, no-holds-barred study of techniques that could be used to roll back the Communists in Europe."[^23] Langenkamp describes Lindsay as a CIA operative whom the foundation took on after his return from Europe, where he had helped set up the network of counter-front groups that included the CCF.[^23]
### Shepard Stone, John McCloy and the European program
[[John J. McCloy]], the former United States High Commissioner for Germany, had been brought in as a consultant by Henry Ford II. McCloy pressed the foundation to add a full European program, and [[Shepard Stone]], McCloy's former public affairs director at the High Commission, became its director.[^24] On December 31, 1951, as he left Germany, McCloy wrote to Hoffman urging the foundation to "help to carry on certain operations which the future [US] Embassy may find difficult to continue, but which are of great significance to United States objectives in Germany."[^25] Stone regarded the CCF as "the most effective organization in Europe working among political, intellectual, and cultural leaders."[^26]
The foundation's 1965 annual report states that McCloy served on the board of trustees from 1953 and as its chairman from 1959, retiring on December 31, 1965, and that [[Julius A. Stratton]], president of the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] and a trustee since 1955, was elected chairman to replace him.[^27] By 1962, when Stone proposed a guarantee for the CCF, McCloy was chairman of the board.[^28]
On April 29, 1953 McCloy wrote to Allen W. Dulles that he was "delighted to have a report from Shep Stone" that Dulles would participate in a study group. The group would be "undertaken at the Council on Foreign Relations under a grant of the Ford Foundation," with a full-time staff under [[Henry Roberts]], then on leave from [[Columbia University]]. "Though the group will be entirely unofficial, its findings will be made available to our government," McCloy wrote.[^29]
On February 25, 1954 Stone wrote to McCloy about the CCF's funding. "You know the sources of funds that have hitherto been supplied to the Congress, but in our conversation with these gentlemen [Nabokov and Rougemont] we should not reveal what we know," he wrote.[^30] Stone later told the foundation's oral history project that he never held a security clearance, but that he would from time to time approach Dulles for information about Eastern Europe.[^31]
### Price's rule and the CIA arrangement, 1954 to 1962
A memorandum of May 21, 1954 by Don K. Price set the foundation's policy on government-sponsored programs. Such projects could be recommended, infrequently, if they were "worth support on their merits, regardless of any official interest," and only with the prior approval of three trustees: "the Chairman, the President, and 'Mr. McCloy.'"[^32] Langenkamp writes that Price and McCloy later defended the arrangement as a means of limiting the CIA's access to foundation officers and grantees.[^33] In McCloy's words, the foundation could not keep its "shirts clean" if it closed the door on the agency completely. Price had warned Dulles and [[Frank Wisner]] sternly: "The first time you meddle with our boys," he said, "we'll quit this whole program."[^33]
[[Thomas Braden]], the CIA officer in charge of its public and private relations, recalled in an interview that the agency "never used the large and genuine American foundations like the Rockefeller, Ford or Carnegie, except once in the case of the Ford Foundation." Langenkamp notes that it is not clear whether the statement is true, or for which project it would apply.[^34]
Dulles repeatedly sought to recruit the foundation's fellows. In 1958 he invited several foundation officers to Washington for a briefing on agency operations. In the early 1960s Heald repeated the foundation's position to [[John A. McCone]], then the CIA director, without effect.[^35]
In February 1961 the trustees disallowed grants to tax-exempt organizations that could not fully account for their other sources of income. In 1962 they added that institutions receiving funds from "undisclosed United States Government sources" did not qualify.[^36]
### The Congress for Cultural Freedom, 1957 to 1967
In the fall of 1957 the foundation approved a two-year grant of 500,000 dollars toward the expansion of the CCF's international activities, including conferences, seminars and study groups, and an outreach program for intellectuals from Poland and Hungary. Stone's International Affairs Division then extended annual support of 250,000 dollars through the end of 1962.[^37] Langenkamp writes that the CCF "finally achieved self-sufficiency through Ford's 1957-1962 grant" at the same time that the cover of the agency's network of front organizations was blown.[^38]
In 1962 Stone proposed that the foundation guarantee "some $2,000,000 per year for the next five years," so that other foundations could later take over part of the burden. The proposal foundered, despite the support of McCloy.[^39] In 1964 Stone sought a consortium of foundations to raise "a fund of approximately $15-20 million over the next ten years." The Rockefeller entities would not raise that sum without a substantial Ford contribution, and the consortium did not form.[^40]
An attempt to have the foundation adopt full sponsorship of the CCF also failed under Heald. [[Michael Josselson]], the CCF's executive director, later reported that Heald "had little use for culture and equally little use for the earlier CIA involvement."[^41]
In 1964 [[Wright Patman]], chairman of the subcommittee on foundations of the House, held a public hearing at which he named eight of the CIA's funding instruments, the so-called "Patman Eight."[^42]
### The 1966 and 1967 disclosures and the International Association for Cultural Freedom
From April 25 to 29, 1966 the [[New York Times]] published a series of articles on the CIA's funding of private organizations. The April 27 article mentioned the CCF and its magazine [[Encounter]].[^43] [[Arthur Schlesinger Jr.]] wrote to Bundy, who had succeeded Heald in March 1966, asking whether he could "illuminate or reinforce" the CCF's application. Bundy assured him that the foundation would give the CCF's needs careful consideration.[^44] Bundy asked the foundation's Overseas Development Division for a review. Its vice president, [[Champion Ward]], judged in favor of the CCF despite reservations, and [[James A. Perkins]], president of [[Cornell University]], wrote that the CCF was "a gamble, but an important one."[^45]
On September 23, 1966 Bundy wrote to Stratton, then chairman of the board of trustees, that the foundation would make a grant of 7,000,000 dollars to the CCF over six years. "It may raise a few eyebrows among those who know or think they know the previous financial history of the Congress," Bundy wrote, "but it is the right thing to do at the right time."[^46] The foundation's annual report for 1966 records that "in further support of the Congress for Cultural Freedom" the foundation granted 1.5 million dollars, that the congress would use the funds for general support and to strengthen its emphasis on less-developed countries and dialogue with East European intellectuals, and that its new board of trustees was headed by Raymond Aron.[^47]
In March 1967 the San Francisco magazine [[Ramparts]] reported the CIA's funding of the [[National Student Association]]. [[Sol Stern]] wrote the account.[^48] In April 1967 [[Jason Epstein]] published "The CIA and the Intellectuals" in the [[New York Review of Books]]. In May 1967 Thomas Braden, a former chief of the CIA's International Organizations Division, defended the program in the [[Saturday Evening Post]] as a counteroffensive against Communist fronts. The article disclosed, without naming names, agents placed in the CCF and on the editorial board of Encounter.[^49]
On May 13, 1967, at an extraordinary session of the CCF General Assembly in Paris, Josselson disclosed the organization's financial history and the CIA's role in it. The assembly expressed regret that Josselson had accepted CIA money without informing his colleagues.[^50] [[Raymond Aron]], whom Stone had asked to chair the new board, resigned when he judged the organization to be moving in the wrong direction.[^51]
The CCF was renamed the IACF. In September 1967 [[Francis X. Sutton]], vice president of the foundation's International Affairs Division, recommended five more years of support with more non-American financing. Bundy did not reverse the grant, but the last three installments were reduced by nearly 1,000,000 dollars in total.[^52]
Shepard Stone, who had been with the foundation for thirteen years, left in 1967 for Paris to lead the IACF, and [[Pierre Emmanuel]] became its director.[^53] Stone's fundraising in Europe and Japan did not produce a lasting replacement for foundation money.[^54] In 1972 the foundation, on the recommendation of its program officer [[David Heaps]], renewed support for five years at 400,000 dollars a year. The IACF was dissolved on March 31, 1978.[^54]
In a 1977 evaluation of the grant files, [[Craufurd Goodwin]] called the foundation's involvement with the CCF and IACF "one of the most interesting and complex involvements of the Ford Foundation over the course of its relatively brief history," and put the total of its grants at 8,400,000 dollars over two decades.[^55]
In 1972 the foundation granted 50,000 dollars to promote Encounter in the United States. Seventy-three American and English writers and editors protested the grant in a petition organized by [[Partisan Review]], which had itself been rescued more than once by CIA money channeled through the CCF.[^56]
### The Katzenbach Committee and the end of covert grants, 1967
After the 1967 disclosures, [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] established a committee composed of [[Nicholas Katzenbach]], Under Secretary of State, [[John W. Gardner]], Secretary of Health, Education and Welfare, and [[Richard Helms]], the CIA director. Its inquiry concerned government activities that might "endanger the integrity and independence of the educational community." The [[Church Committee]] describes the committee's life as 43 days, and states that President Johnson accepted its recommendations on March 29, 1967.[^57] The committee's report, as printed in the [[Foreign Relations of the United States]] series, recommended that no federal agency provide covert financial assistance to educational or private voluntary organizations.[^58]
On June 4, 1968 [[Dean Rusk]] advised Johnson, in a follow-up on the committee's work: "It seems to me far better to let the CIA matter wither away and let a new administration take a fresh look at the possibilities."[^59] The report of the Rusk committee states that Johnson directed termination of the covert support no later than December 31, 1967; Langenkamp writes that the recommendations were implemented with a few exceptions, among them Radio Free Europe and [[Radio Liberty]].[^60]
### Grants to Massachusetts Institute of Technology
The Church Committee's Book I describes a research institute at a major American university that the CIA helped establish in 1951 and funded for more than a decade, at the request of Under Secretary of State [[James E. Webb]]. The report does not name the institute.[^61] The [[Center for International Studies]] (CENIS) of MIT began operating in the fall of 1951. Millikan, a professor of economics who had spent a year at the CIA, accepted its directorship in February 1952, and in the spring of 1952 the Ford trustees granted CENIS 875,000 dollars to found a research program in international communication, according to [[Daniel Bessner]].[^62] The fiscal 1965 annual report lists a grant of 400,000 dollars for MIT under the Harvard-M.I.T. Joint Center for Urban Studies.[^63]
The foundation's annual report for 1954 describes a program of research in economic development and political stability, carried on by the center, that "also received long-term Foundation support," research "mainly in India, Indonesia and Italy."[^64] The report's grant list for the Massachusetts Institute of Technology carries four columns (unpaid December 31, 1953; grants in 1954; payments in 1954; unpaid September 30, 1954). "Completion of field project in Indonesia by Center for International Studies" shows 50,000 dollars unpaid at the end of 1953 and paid in 1954. "Research in economic and political development by Center for International Studies" shows 175,000 dollars unpaid at the end of 1953 and paid in 1954, and a new grant of 750,000 dollars in 1954 unpaid at September 30, 1954. A further MIT entry, "Research on international communications," shows 500,000 dollars unpaid at both dates, and "Research on international affairs" 5,000 dollars unpaid at the end of 1953.[^64][^65]
### Grants to RAND Corporation
After RAND separated from [[Douglas Aircraft]] on May 14, 1948, it lobbied for and received from Henry Ford II of the foundation an interest-free loan of 100,000 dollars and a credit guarantee of 300,000 dollars. In 1950 the foundation extended the loan to 1,000,000 dollars, and it eventually converted the loan into a grant.[^66] In a memorandum of May 5, 1951 to Gaither, [[Hans Speier]], director of the RAND social science department, advised that before the foundation came to the aid of government-related projects it should establish that its action was "unobjectionable in the light of Foundation objectives and reputation, both in the United States and in the European country concerned."[^67] Speier, one of the foundation's RAND consultants, wrote that private organizations could "play the role which overt government effort can no longer assume."[^68]
### Grants to the Council on Foreign Relations
The foundation funded the 1953 study group on relations with the Soviet Union described in the McCloy letter above. The fiscal 1965 annual report lists a grant of 1,000,000 dollars to the [[Council on Foreign Relations]] under the heading American education in world affairs.[^69]
### Grants to the International Institute for Strategic Studies
The fiscal 1965 annual report states that the [[International Institute for Strategic Studies]] in London received a grant of 550,000 dollars for further internationalization and for expansion of research, conferences, publications, translations and library resources.[^70]
### The East European Fund and Columbia University
Langenkamp writes that the foundation's Free Russia Fund, soon renamed the [[East European Fund]], was created to accommodate defectors, exiles and refugees from behind the Iron Curtain, to further their appreciation of the "free world" and to acquire intelligence about Soviet conduct. [[George F. Kennan]] proposed these projects, and Kennan later admitted that the exile projects he had proposed were ones the State Department had failed to realize.[^71]
Langenkamp notes that [[Philip E. Mosely]] advised the Rockefeller Foundation against an intelligence unit proposed by the State Department's Policy Planning Staff, which Langenkamp calls the "Eurasia Institute." Mosely later ran a Russian program at Columbia University that secured support through the East European Fund, which Langenkamp describes as the Ford Foundation's subsidiary.[^72]
### Behavioral sciences and the Center for Advanced Study
The foundation helped establish the [[Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences]] at [[Stanford University]].[^73] The foundation's annual report for fiscal 1954 records that the major grant among sixteen in the behavioral sciences, 3,411,590 dollars, supported the center for five years, that it began operations at Stanford in September 1954, and that thirty-eight scholars formed its first group of fellows.[^74]
### Parapsychology
The [[Parapsychology Foundation]] was founded in 1951 by [[Eileen Garrett|Eileen J. Garrett]] with the support of [[Frances P. Bolton]], and was chartered in Delaware on December 14 of that year.[^75]
### The 1969 tax reform hearings
In 1969 the [[House Ways and Means Committee]] began hearings on general tax reform and devoted its first week of testimony to foundations. Wright Patman was the first witness.[^76] McGeorge Bundy defended travel and study grants totaling more than 130,000 dollars to eight former staff members of [[Robert F. Kennedy]]. Smith writes that the grants "raised suspicion, resembling too closely political favors." Bundy's testimony was not well received, and he later acknowledged as much.[^76]
The grants are recorded in the Rockefeller Archive Center grant file "Travel And Study Awards For Members Of The Staff Of The Late Senator Robert F. Kennedy."[^77] Smith also writes that a 1967 foundation grant to the Cleveland chapter of the [[Congress of Racial Equality]] for a voter registration drive was felt by many to have helped secure the mayoral victory of [[Carl Stokes]], and that the foundation's involvement in the voter registration drives of the [[Southern Regional Council]] offended officials in the South. After Congress passed the [[Tax Reform Act of 1969]], Bundy urged foundations to make the new regulations effective, so that they would become "permanent safeguards against abuse."[^78]
### The 2001 Durban conference
In 2003 the [[Jewish Telegraphic Agency]] published a two-month investigation by [[Edwin Black]], the first part of a series titled "Funding Hate." The series described the foundation as a multimillion-dollar funder of human rights groups that attended the 2001 United Nations World Conference Against Racism in [[Durban]].[^79] It reported that the [[Palestinian Committee for the Protection of Human Rights and the Environment]], known as LAW, received three Ford grants totaling 1.1 million dollars since 1997. It reported that the [[Palestinian NGO Network]] received Ford grants totaling 1.4 million dollars from 1999 to 2002, plus a 270,000 dollar supplement. More than a dozen activist groups received well over one million dollars in Ford grants earmarked for advertising, public meetings and advocacy at the conference. Ford's Cairo office, the series reported, extended more than 35 million dollars to about 272 Arab and Palestinian organizations in 2000 and 2001.[^79]
The foundation's communications vice president, [[Alex Wilde]], initially declined to answer questions. He later sent a written statement: "We have seen no indication that our grantees in Durban or elsewhere engaged in anti-Semitic speech or activities. The Foundation does not support hate speech of any kind."[^80]
### Records at the Rockefeller Archive Center
The Ford Foundation's records are held at the [[Rockefeller Archive Center]] in Sleepy Hollow, New York. The series cited on this page are the Oral History Project (FA618), the Office Files of H. Rowan Gaither (FA621), the Office Files of Robert M. Hutchins (FA703), the Office Files of McGeorge Bundy (FA617), the General Correspondence (FA735), the Office Files of David Bell (FA624), the Office Files of Francis X. Sutton (FA568), the Francis X. Sutton Papers (FA1141) and the grant files (FA732).[^81]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Ford Foundation, "Ford Foundation 70 Years" (2007), 1936 entry, stating that the foundation is chartered in Michigan by Edsel Ford with an initial gift of $25,000. https://www.fordfoundation.org/media/1743/2007-ford_foundation_70_years.pdf
[^2]: Harm Langenkamp, "A Most Interesting and Complex Involvement: Cold War Alignments between the Ford and Rockefeller Foundations, the Congress for Cultural Freedom, and the Central Intelligence Agency," Rockefeller Archive Center Research Reports (2021), note 1 (Ford Motor Company stock valued at $417 million after the deaths of Edsel Ford in 1943 and Henry Ford in 1947; endowment of $492 million by New Year's Eve 1950; the Carnegie and Rockefeller foundations named as the two largest until then). https://rockarch.issuelab.org/resources/38323/38323.pdf
[^3]: Ford Foundation, "Ford Foundation 70 Years" (2007), list of presidents: Edsel Ford, February 1936 to June 1943; Henry Ford II, July 1943 to November 1950; Paul G. Hoffman, November 1950 to March 1953; H. Rowan Gaither Jr., March 1953 to October 1956; Henry T. Heald, October 1956 to December 1965; McGeorge Bundy, March 1966 to May 1979. https://www.fordfoundation.org/media/1743/2007-ford_foundation_70_years.pdf
[^4]: Ford Foundation, "Ford Foundation 70 Years" (2007), 1947 and 1950 entries, describing the blue-ribbon panel led by H. Rowan Gaither that Henry Ford II commissioned, its advice that the foundation become a national and international philanthropy, and the trustees' unanimous approval of its recommendations. https://www.fordfoundation.org/media/1743/2007-ford_foundation_70_years.pdf
[^5]: The Henry Ford, Ford Foundation Collection, Acc. 923, finding aid, listing "Report of the Study for the Ford Foundation on Policy, 1949." https://findingaids.thehenryford.org/xtf/data/pdf/923_FordFoundationCollection.pdf
[^6]: Langenkamp, note 10 (Gaither's role in transforming RAND from an Air Force branch into an independent think tank, his trusteeship until 1959, and Henry Ford II's hiring of him in 1947 to help set the foundation's priorities). https://rockarch.issuelab.org/resources/38323/38323.pdf
[^7]: Langenkamp, p. 2 and note 2, on the April 3, 1951 meeting with Acheson and the assurance that the State Department would put its liaison machinery "into high gear." https://rockarch.issuelab.org/resources/38323/38323.pdf
[^8]: Langenkamp, pp. 2 to 3 and notes 3 to 5, on the meeting with Walter Bedell Smith and Allen Dulles on April 3, 1951, including the "never to refer" instruction and the agency's proposals; citing the Robert M. Hutchins oral history (Rockefeller Archive Center, Ford Foundation Records, Oral History Project, FA618, Box 36, Folder 187) and H. Rowan Gaither's notes of the conference (Office Files of H. Rowan Gaither, FA621, Box 1, Folder 1).
[^9]: CIA, Assistant Director, Research and Reports (Max F. Millikan), memorandum "Suggestions on kinds of projects we would like to see the Ford Foundation support," April 2, 1951. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp79-01157a000100060036-2
[^10]: Langenkamp, pp. 2 to 3, on the April 13, 1951 follow-up meeting, the requests for the Free University of Berlin, the Strasbourg university, the International Federation of War Veterans' Organizations and the National Committee for a Free Asia, described as CIA-created and later the Asia Foundation. https://rockarch.issuelab.org/resources/38323/38323.pdf
[^11]: Langenkamp, pp. 4 to 5 and notes 14 and 15, on Hook's application for $1,000,000 over three years and Gladieux's report to McDaniel. https://rockarch.issuelab.org/resources/38323/38323.pdf
[^12]: Langenkamp, pp. 4 to 6 and notes 16 to 18 (McDaniel's advice that the CIA better take on full sponsorship; Hutchins's characterization of Hook as "contentious and erratic" and of the CCF's purpose as "mere propaganda"; Gladieux to Hook, June 27, 1951; the Pasadena vote "as a matter of policy"). https://rockarch.issuelab.org/resources/38323/38323.pdf
[^13]: Langenkamp, note 18, citing James Burnham's memorandum 02.446 of July 5, 1950 (Hoover Institution Archives, James Burnham Papers, Box 11, Folder 5) on his role as liaison between the CCF and the agency.
[^14]: Langenkamp, pp. 6 to 7 and notes 24 to 26, on the Fighting Group against Inhumanity, the $150,000 grant of April 1951, Eleanor Roosevelt's role, Hoffman's humanitarian condition and "we cannot contribute to subversive activities," and the channeling through the NCFE, described as a CIA proprietary (citing Eric Thomas Chester, "Covert Network," pp. 84 to 96, and the Rockefeller Archive Center grant file 05100034, FA732E). https://rockarch.issuelab.org/resources/38323/38323.pdf
[^15]: Langenkamp, pp. 6 to 7 and notes 27 and 28, on the suspension of the final allotment, the "more aggressive action" language, and Gladieux's argument to McDaniel that cancellation would "completely disrupt the present relations between the NCFE and the Fighting Group" (Gladieux to McDaniel, May 23, 1952, Grant File 05100034, FA732E).
[^16]: Langenkamp, note 27, citing Hearings before the Special Committee to Investigate Tax-Exempt Foundations and Comparable Organizations, House of Representatives, Eighty-Third Congress, Second Session (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1954), p. 1198, on Gladieux's acknowledgment of his continuing CIA relationship.
[^17]: Langenkamp, p. 8 and note 28, quoting Hoffman's 1952 statement to the trustees (Hoffman, Report to the Trustees, February 4, 1952).
[^18]: Langenkamp, note 29, citing Yorke Allen, Jr., memorandum "National Committee for Free Europe," March 20, 1952 (Rockefeller Archive Center, Office of the Messrs. Rockefeller Records, FA326), for the sidetracking of the Free University in Exile application and DeWitt C. Poole's regard for the reasoning as "rather tenuous" in light of the foundation's grant of $1,309,500 to the Free University in West Berlin. The sidetracking account is Langenkamp's reading of this memorandum.
[^19]: Langenkamp, pp. 7 to 8, quoting Don K. Price's statement that "we're just not going to mix in with these action agencies," and the renewed request for $500,000 for the CCF's publication activities. https://rockarch.issuelab.org/resources/38323/38323.pdf
[^20]: Langenkamp, note 22 and p. 5 (in February 1953 Henry Ford II forced Hoffman to resign; Gaither was elected president, director and trustee at the same trustees' meeting; the contrast between Hoffman's international dialogue and Gaither's harder line).
[^21]: Eisenhower Presidential Library, Richard M. Bissell Jr. Papers, Ford Foundation Series finding aid, series description ("Richard Bissell joined the staff of the Ford Foundation in January 1952 after leaving the Economic Cooperation Administration (later the Mutual Security Agency). After a brief tenure he resigned in 1954."). https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/finding-aids/pdf/bissell-richard-m-jr-papers/ford-foundation-series.pdf
[^22]: Langenkamp, note 8, describing Richard M. Bissell, Jr. as a consultant to the foundation who in 1954 left to become Dulles's special assistant.
[^23]: Langenkamp, note 8, citing Burton Hersh, "The Old Boys: The American Elite and the Origins of the CIA" (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1992), p. 319, for Bissell's study with Franklin A. Lindsay, and describing Lindsay's role. https://rockarch.issuelab.org/resources/38323/38323.pdf
[^24]: Langenkamp, pp. 11 to 12 and note 49, on McCloy's insistence on a full European program, its direction by Shepard Stone, and McCloy's role as a consultant brought in by Henry Ford II.
[^25]: Langenkamp, note 49, citing McCloy to Hoffman, December 31, 1951, quoted in Kai Bird, "The Chairman: John J. McCloy and the Making of the American Establishment" (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992), p. 358.
[^26]: Langenkamp, p. 12 and note 50, on Stone's view of the CCF as "the most effective organization in Europe working among political, intellectual, and cultural leaders."
[^27]: Ford Foundation, "Annual Report 1965" (fiscal year ended September 30, 1965), opening review by the president, on the retirement of John J. McCloy as chairman effective December 31, 1965 ("as a member of the Board since 1953 and as chairman since 1959") and the election of Julius A. Stratton as chairman. https://www.fordfoundation.org/media/2435/1965-annual-report.pdf
[^28]: Langenkamp, p. 13 (by the time of Stone's 1962 proposal McCloy "in the meantime having assumed the chairmanship of the board of trustees").
[^29]: John J. McCloy to Allen W. Dulles, April 29, 1953, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP80R01731R001200020045-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001200020045-2
[^30]: Langenkamp, note 50, citing Stone to McCloy, February 25, 1954, quoted in Volker R. Berghahn, "America and the Intellectual Cold Wars in Europe: Shepard Stone between Philanthropy, Academy, and Diplomacy" (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001), p. 223.
[^31]: Langenkamp, note 50, citing the transcript of the Shepard Stone oral history interview of December 12, 1972, pp. 25 to 27 (Rockefeller Archive Center, Ford Foundation Records, Oral History Project, FA618).
[^32]: Langenkamp, note 56, citing Don K. Price's memorandum of May 21, 1954, quoted in the text on the three-trustee approval requirement (Rockefeller Archive Center, Ford Foundation Records, Oral History Project, FA618).
[^33]: Langenkamp, note 56, citing Price's oral history of June 22, 1972, p. 70, and McCloy's interview with Kai Bird (Bird, "The Chairman," p. 427), for the defense of the arrangement, the "shirts clean" remark and Price's warning to Dulles and Wisner.
[^34]: Langenkamp, note 21, quoting Braden as cited in Joel Kotek, "Youth Organizations as a Battlefield in the Cold War," in The Cultural Cold War in Western Europe, 1945-1960, ed. Giles Scott-Smith and Hans Krabbendam (London: Frank Cass, 2003), p. 152, and Langenkamp's remark that it is not clear whether the statement is true.
[^35]: Langenkamp, note 57, citing 1958 and 1959 CIA correspondence (Rockefeller Archive Center, Ford Foundation Records, General Correspondence, FA735), John B. Howard's oral history of February 15, 1973, and Henry T. Heald's oral history of February 25, 1972, pp. 26 to 27 (Box 35, Folder 180), for the 1958 Washington briefing and Heald's repetition of the position to McCone.
[^36]: Langenkamp, p. 13 and note 58, citing the Executive Committee minutes of February 10, 1961 in the Shepard Stone Papers (Rauner Special Collections Library, Dartmouth College), as cited by Berghahn, p. 227, and the 1962 addition.
[^37]: Langenkamp, p. 12 and notes 53 to 55 (the fall 1957 two-year grant of $500,000; the seminars and outreach program; the annual support of $250,000 extended through 1962).
[^38]: Langenkamp, p. 21 ("finally achieved self-sufficiency through Ford's 1957-1962 grant").
[^39]: Langenkamp, p. 13 and note 59, citing Stone to McCloy, memorandum of June 12, 1962 (Shepard Stone Papers), as cited by Berghahn, pp. 232 to 233, for the "$2,000,000 per year for the next five years" proposal and its failure.
[^40]: Langenkamp, p. 13 and note 60, citing Stone to Josselson, June 10, 1964 (Harry Ransom Center, Josselson Papers, Box 21, Folder 1), and Josselson's report (Shepard Stone Papers), as cited by Berghahn, pp. 236 to 237, for the consortium proposal of $15 to 20 million over ten years.
[^41]: Michael Josselson, report on the financial history of the Congress for Cultural Freedom, read to the General Assembly on May 13, 1967, pp. 2 to 3 (Josselson Papers, Box 27, Folder 2), as quoted in Langenkamp, p. 16, on Heald's attitude toward the full-sponsorship proposal.
[^42]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, "Final Report, Book I: Foreign and Military Intelligence," S. Rept. 94-755 (1976), section "Covert Use of Academic and Voluntary Organizations," describing the 1964 public hearing of Wright Patman, chairman of the Subcommittee on Foundations, at which eight CIA funding instruments were named (the "Patman Eight"). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_I.pdf
[^43]: Langenkamp, note 61, citing the New York Times articles of April 25 to 29, 1966, with the CCF mentioned in the April 27 article.
[^44]: Langenkamp, p. 14 and note 63, citing Schlesinger to Bundy, April 25, 1966, and Bundy's reply of May 3, 1966 (Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. Papers, New York Public Library, Box 20, Folder 3).
[^45]: Langenkamp, pp. 14 to 15 and notes 64 to 66, citing the Overseas Development Division review, Ward's recommendation of July 15, 1966 (Rockefeller Archive Center, Office Files of McGeorge Bundy, FA617, Box 11, Folder 136), and James A. Perkins, "The Congress for Cultural Freedom," August 15, 1966, Rockefeller Archive Center, Catalogued Report 011014 (Perkins then being president of Cornell University).
[^46]: Langenkamp, p. 15 and note 67, citing Bundy to Julius A. Stratton, chair of the Board of Trustees, September 23, 1966 (Rockefeller Archive Center, Francis X. Sutton Papers, FA1141, Box 50, Folder 465), for the $7,000,000 grant and the quoted sentences.
[^47]: Ford Foundation, "Annual Report 1966" (fiscal year ended September 30, 1966), International Affairs section, p. 34 (grant of "$1.5 million" in "further support of the Congress for Cultural Freedom"; use of the funds; the new board headed by "the French scholar, Raymond Aron"), and the grant table, p. 96 (Congress for Cultural Freedom, General support, 1,500,000); the same 1,500,000 line appears in the "Annual Report 1967" grant table, p. 129. https://www.fordfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/1966-annual-report.pdf
[^48]: Langenkamp, p. 15 and note 68, citing Sol Stern, "A Short Account of International Student Politics and the Cold War with Particular Reference to the NSA, CIA, Etc.," Ramparts 5, No. 9 (March 1967), pp. 29 to 38.
[^49]: Langenkamp, p. 15 and notes 69 and 70, citing Jason Epstein, "The CIA and the Intellectuals," New York Review of Books, April 20, 1967, and Thomas Braden, "I'm Glad the CIA Is Immoral," Saturday Evening Post, May 20, 1967.
[^50]: Josselson, report read to the Extraordinary Meeting of the General Assembly, Paris, May 13, 1967, pp. 2 to 3, as cited in Langenkamp, p. 16 and note 71 (Rockefeller Archive Center, Ford Foundation Records, Grant File 05700395, FA732D, Reel 2135), and the assembly's expression of regret.
[^51]: Langenkamp, p. 17 and note 75 (Raymond Aron's resignation; Sutton to Bell, memorandum "Congress Finance Proposal," September 20, 1967, Rockefeller Archive Center, Office Files of David Bell, FA624, Box 12, Folder 179).
[^52]: Langenkamp, p. 17 and notes 73 and 74 (Josselson to Sutton, September 20, 1967; Sutton to Bundy and Bell, memorandum "Congress for Cultural Freedom," September 21, 1967, Rockefeller Archive Center, Office Files of Francis X. Sutton, FA568, Box 71, Folder 5), for the recommendation of five more years and the reduction of the last three installments by nearly $1,000,000.
[^53]: Ford Foundation, "Annual Report 1967" (fiscal year ended September 30, 1967), president's review, p. 10 (Shepard Stone, after thirteen years, left "for Paris, to lead the International Association for Cultural Freedom"). https://www.fordfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/1967-annual-report.pdf
[^54]: Langenkamp, pp. 17 to 19 and notes 76 to 81 (Stone's fundraising failures in Europe and Japan; the 1972 five-year renewal at $400,000 a year on the positive review by David Heaps; the IACF's dissolution in 1978).
[^55]: Craufurd Goodwin, memorandum "Evaluation International Association for Cultural Freedom," November 3, 1977 (Rockefeller Archive Center, Ford Foundation Records, Grant File 05700395, FA732D, Section 3, Reel 2174), as quoted in Langenkamp, p. 19 and note 82. Langenkamp's Table 2 totals 10,934,750 dollars, which differs from the 8,400,000 dollar figure quoted from the evaluation.
[^56]: Langenkamp, note 93, citing the press release of November 16, 1972 (Rockefeller Archive Center, Ford Foundation Records, Grant File 07200090, FA732D, Reel 1750), on the $50,000 grant to Encounter and the protest by seventy-three writers and editors organized by Partisan Review.
[^57]: U.S. Senate, "Final Report, Book I," S. Rept. 94-755 (1976), section "Covert Use of Academic and Voluntary Organizations," subsection on the Katzenbach Committee, describing its membership, its mandate ("endanger the integrity and independence of the educational community"), the 43-day life of the committee, and President Johnson's acceptance of its recommendations on March 29, 1967. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_I.pdf
[^58]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, vol. XXXIII, document 260, editorial note on the committee appointed to review the CIA's relationships with private American voluntary organizations and its March 29, 1967 report. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v33/d260
[^59]: Langenkamp, p. 25 and note 95, citing Rusk to President Johnson, June 4, 1968 (Lyndon Baines Johnson Library, White House Central Files, Confidential File, Box 192, Oversize Attachment Packet 1).
[^60]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1917-1972, vol. VII, document 186, "Report to the President of the Committee on Overseas Voluntary Activities" (the Rusk committee; the editorial note dates its release to about May 27, 1967), stating that the President directed termination of the support no later than December 31, 1967 and that the process was completed before that date. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1917-72PubDipv07/d186 For the exceptions, Langenkamp, note 94 (the recommendations were implemented with a few exceptions, among which were Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty). https://rockarch.issuelab.org/resources/38323/38323.pdf
[^61]: Church Committee, Book I (1976), subsection "CIA Use of Private Foundations, Pre-1967," item (1), describing the unnamed research institute established in 1951 at the request of Under Secretary of State James Webb and funded for more than a decade.
[^62]: Daniel Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State" (PhD diss., Duke University, 2013), pp. 255 to 256 and notes 105 to 109 (CENIS operating from fall 1951; Millikan's appointment in February 1952; the $875,000 grant "in the spring of 1952"), citing Donald L. M. Blackmer, "The MIT Center for International Studies: The Founding Years, 1951 to 1969" (Cambridge, MA: MIT Center for International Studies, 2002), pp. 18 and 36 to 42. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/232a76ac-f2d8-4827-99fe-50b3b109fa6c/content
[^63]: Ford Foundation, "Annual Report 1965" (fiscal year ended September 30, 1965), grant tables, entry for Massachusetts Institute of Technology, $400,000, under the Harvard-M.I.T. Joint Center for Urban Studies. https://www.fordfoundation.org/media/2435/1965-annual-report.pdf
[^64]: Ford Foundation, Annual Report for 1954, program statement "Economic Development and Political Stability," p. 45. https://www.fordfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/1954-annual-report.pdf
[^65]: Ford Foundation, Annual Report for 1954, grant list for the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, p. 86 (column headings: unpaid Dec. 31, 1953; grants in 1954; payments in 1954; unpaid Sept. 30, 1954). https://www.fordfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/1954-annual-report.pdf
[^66]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 187 and note 76 (May 14, 1948 separation; the $100,000 interest-free loan and $300,000 credit guarantee "from Henry Ford II of the Ford Foundation"; the extension of the loan to $1,000,000 in 1950; its conversion into a grant). https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/232a76ac-f2d8-4827-99fe-50b3b109fa6c/content
[^67]: Langenkamp, note 10, citing Hans Speier to H. Rowan Gaither, memorandum of May 5, 1951 (Rockefeller Archive Center, Office Files of H. Rowan Gaither, FA621, Box 1, Folder 3).
[^68]: Langenkamp, p. 3 and note 10, quoting the Speier memorandum on the role of private organizations.
[^69]: Ford Foundation, "Annual Report 1965," grant tables, entry for Council on Foreign Relations, $1,000,000, under the heading American education in world affairs. https://www.fordfoundation.org/media/2435/1965-annual-report.pdf
[^70]: Ford Foundation, "Annual Report 1965," narrative on international affairs, stating that the Institute for Strategic Studies, in London, "received a grant of $550,000 for further internationalization and for expansion of research, conferences, publications, translations, and library resources." https://www.fordfoundation.org/media/2435/1965-annual-report.pdf
[^71]: Langenkamp, p. 5 and note 22 (the Free Russia Fund, soon the East European Fund, created to accommodate defectors, exiles and refugees; Kennan's admission about the projects the State Department had failed to realize). https://rockarch.issuelab.org/resources/38323/38323.pdf
[^72]: Langenkamp, note 36, citing David C. Engerman, "Know Your Enemy: The Rise and Fall of America's Soviet Experts" (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), pp. 39 to 40, and Philip E. Mosely's memorandum "Eurasian Research Institute," October 19, 1948 (Rockefeller Archive Center, FA308, Box 407, Folder 2744).
[^73]: Ford Foundation, "Ford Foundation 70 Years" (2007), timeline entry noting that Ford helped establish the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences. https://www.fordfoundation.org/media/1743/2007-ford_foundation_70_years.pdf
[^74]: Ford Foundation, "Annual Report 1954" (fiscal year ended September 30, 1954), section "The Behavioral Sciences" (sixteen grants; "the major grant was that of $3,411,590 to support for five years the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences"; operations began at Stanford, California, in September 1954; thirty-eight scholars as the first group of fellows). https://www.fordfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/1954-annual-report.pdf
[^75]: Society for Psychical Research, "Parapsychology Foundation (PF)," psi encyclopedia. https://psi-encyclopedia.spr.ac.uk/articles/parapsychology-foundation/
[^76]: James Allen Smith, "From Populist Crusade to Comprehensive Regulation: The Tax Reform Act of 1969," Rockefeller Archive Center, RE:source (December 20, 2019), on the first week of hearings, Patman as the first witness, Bundy's defense of the RFK-staff grants of more than $130,000 and his acknowledgment that his testimony was not well received. https://resource.rockarch.org/story/from-populist-crusade-to-comprehensive-regulation-the-tax-reform-act-of-1969/
[^77]: Smith, "From Populist Crusade to Comprehensive Regulation," citing the Rockefeller Archive Center, Ford Foundation records, grant file "Travel And Study Awards For Members Of The Staff Of The Late Senator Robert F. Kennedy" (Foundation Administered Project 06890762).
[^78]: Smith, "From Populist Crusade to Comprehensive Regulation," on the 1967 Cleveland CORE grant, the Southern Regional Council voter drives, and Bundy's later urging of foundations to make the regulations effective, citing Bundy, "President's Review," Ford Foundation Annual Report 1969, p. xv. https://resource.rockarch.org/story/from-populist-crusade-to-comprehensive-regulation-the-tax-reform-act-of-1969/
[^79]: Edwin Black, "Part 1: Ford funded Durban activists," Jewish Telegraphic Agency, October 16, 2003, the first part of the "Funding Hate" series, reporting the LAW grants ($1.1 million since 1997), the PNGO grants ($1.4 million from 1999 to 2002 plus a $270,000 supplement), the more than one million dollars earmarked for Durban by more than a dozen groups, and the Cairo office's more than $35 million to about 272 organizations in 2000 and 2001. https://www.jta.org/2003/10/16/default/part-1-ford-funded-durban-activists
[^80]: Black, "Part 1: Ford funded Durban activists" (JTA, October 16, 2003), reporting Wilde's initial refusal to answer questions and the written statement he later provided. https://www.jta.org/2003/10/16/default/part-1-ford-funded-durban-activists
[^81]: Rockefeller Archive Center, Ford Foundation Records, series cited on this page: Oral History Project (FA618); Office Files of H. Rowan Gaither (FA621); Office Files of Robert M. Hutchins (FA703); Office Files of McGeorge Bundy (FA617); General Correspondence (FA735); Office Files of David Bell (FA624); Office Files of Francis X. Sutton (FA568); Francis X. Sutton Papers (FA1141); grant files (FA732). https://rockarch.issuelab.org/resources/38323/38323.pdf

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@ -8,12 +8,14 @@ tags:
- Marc_Dutroux
- Spartacus_Network
category: "Private Organization"
summary: "The G-Force was an Amsterdam nightclub frequented by Marc Dutroux and Robbie Van Der Plancken and owned by American John Edward Mullaney, identified in Morkhoven Workgroup dossiers as a node in the Belgian-Dutch child abuse network."
summary: "Amsterdam nightclub owned by American John Edward Mullaney, named in Morkhoven Workgroup dossiers as frequented by Marc Dutroux and Robbie Van Der Plancken."
location: "Amsterdam, Netherlands"
---
The G-Force was a nightclub in [[Amsterdam]] frequented by [[Marc Dutroux]] and [[Robbie Van Der Plancken]], according to a dossier compiled by the [[Morkhoven Workgroup]]. The club was owned by an American identified as John Edward Mullaney. Mullaney could be linked to [[John Stamford]]'s [[Spartacus Network]] through a company called Korper and Korver, as well as to [[Karel Maasdam]] through another company called Adonis. The bar at the G-Force was operated by an individual named Gerda Lamere.[^1]
The G-Force was a nightclub in [[Amsterdam]] frequented by [[Marc Dutroux]] and [[Robbie Van Der Plancken]], according to a dossier compiled by the [[Morkhoven Workgroup]]. The Morkhoven Workgroup dossier, as reported by S. Dovey, identified the club's owner as an American named John Edward Mullaney and linked him through a company called [[Korper and Korver]] to [[John Stamford]]'s [[Spartacus Network]] and through a company called [[Adonis]] to [[Karel Maasdam]].[^1] The Dutch commercial register lists a J.E. Mullaney Holding B.V. (Chamber of Commerce number 33304101), registered in Amsterdam and now inactive; the initials match the name given in the dossier and the register entry does not state who held the company.[^2] The register also lists a Korper B.V. (65922646) and an Adonis B.V. (09208081), both active; no officer is shown for any of the three.[^2] The bar at the G-Force was operated by a bar manager.[^1]
According to witness Robert Jan Warmerdam, who frequented the small sadomasochist scene in [[Amsterdam]] for about 15 years, [[Marc Dutroux|Dutroux]] had meetings at the G-Force on regular dates with a certain Nordholt, who was an official in the Amsterdam police, as well as with a certain Peter De Groot, who worked in a clinical laboratory. Warmerdam claimed he had often been at table with them and that [[Marc Dutroux|Dutroux]] had said he expected problems and was going to go to prison for a short time. Warmerdam also stated he met [[Robbie Van Der Plancken]] at the G-Force and later in [[Rotterdam|Rotterdam, Netherlands]]. The dossier linking [[Marc Dutroux|Dutroux]] to the G-Force and Amsterdam child trafficking networks was compiled by [[Marcel Vervloesem]] for prosecutor [[Michel Bourlet]] and formed the basis for a series of 2004 media reports.[^1]
According to witness Robert Jan Warmerdam, who frequented the small sadomasochist scene in Amsterdam for about 15 years, Dutroux had meetings at the G-Force on regular dates with an Amsterdam police official, as well as with a laboratory worker. Warmerdam claimed he had often been at table with them and that Dutroux had said he expected problems and was going to go to prison for a short time. Warmerdam also stated he met Robbie Van Der Plancken at the G-Force and later in [[Rotterdam|Rotterdam, Netherlands]]. The dossier linking Dutroux to the G-Force and Amsterdam child trafficking networks was compiled by [[Marcel Vervloesem]] for prosecutor [[Michel Bourlet]] and formed the basis for a series of 2004 media reports.[^1]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Dovey, S. (2023). *Eye of the Chickenhawk*. United States: Thehotstar.
[^2]: Kamer van Koophandel, Handelsregister, entries 33304101, 65922646 and 09208081. https://opencorporates.com/companies/nl/33304101

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@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ The Gay Palace was a club at 44 Spuistraat in [[Amsterdam]], managed by [[Warwic
A Scotland Yard informant claimed to have seen films screened at the Gay Palace showing boys aged eleven to fourteen in bondage being raped by masked men, and stated that Spinks was selling copies of a "special videotape" for 4,000 pounds showing a boy being tortured.[^2][^3] A different informant named "Frank" described another film Spinks had shown him of a boy being tortured with needles, castrated, and cut open with a knife inside a barn.[^2]
The Gay Palace operated across the street from Boys Club 21, managed by [[Alan Williams]]. S. Dovey wrote that together the two establishments formed the core of British-run child trafficking operations in Amsterdam's Spuistraat district, investigated under [[Operation Framework]] in 1992-93, that the establishments were presented as legitimate gay businesses, providing cover for their actual function as trafficking hubs, and that clients included prominent figures from across Europe.[^2]
The Gay Palace operated across the street from Boys Club 21, managed by [[Alan Williams]]. S. Dovey wrote that together the two establishments formed the core of British-run child trafficking operations in Amsterdam's Spuistraat district, investigated under [[Operation Framework]], that the establishments were presented as legitimate gay businesses, providing cover for their actual function as trafficking hubs, and that clients included prominent figures from across Europe.[^2]
### Address

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20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Gero-Video.md
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@ -9,12 +9,15 @@ tags:
- Child_Pornography
- Operation_Framework
category: "Private Organization"
summary: "Gero-Video was a video distribution company based in Dusseldorf, Germany, identified as one of the largest distributors of homosexual pornography in Europe."
summary: "Gero-Video was a video distribution company based in Dusseldorf, Germany, described by Der Spiegel in 1998 as one of the largest distributors of homosexual pornography in Europe."
location: "Dusseldorf, Germany"
---
Gero-Video was a video distribution company based in Dusseldorf, Germany, identified as one of the largest distributors of homosexual pornography in Europe. The company was linked to [[TAG Films]], the Amsterdam-based video production company operated by Welsh pedophiles [[Alan Williams]], [[John Gay]], and [[Lee Tucker]]. A raid by German authorities on Gero-Video's premises followed the [[Operation Framework]] investigation into suspected snuff films produced by British nationals in Amsterdam. The raid was triggered by the discovery that TAG Films' productions were being distributed through Gero-Video to customers across Europe.[^1]
Gero-Video Produktions GmbH of Dusseldorf was, in the words of Der Spiegel in August 1998, "einem der größten Vertriebe für Homosexuellen-Pornos in Europa." Spiegel reported that investigators had so far found nothing punishable at the company and that several proceedings had been discontinued; that Uwe Tomek had owned it since the end of 1994 and said he had removed about 340 videos "mit jüngeren Models" from the market; and that the Zandvoort finds had brought the company into discussion.[^1] S. Dovey wrote that the company was linked to [[TAG Films]], the Amsterdam video production company of [[Alan Williams]], [[John Gay]] and [[Lee Tucker]], that a raid by German authorities on its premises followed the [[Operation Framework]] investigation into suspected snuff films produced by British nationals in Amsterdam, and that the raid was triggered by the discovery that TAG Films' productions were distributed through it.[^2] [[Nick Davies]] wrote in 2000 that TAG Films sold its films "through distributors in the United States and Germany" and that Bristol detectives, following Lee Tucker and John Gay, "led German police to raid a video distributor in Dusseldorf," without naming the distributor.[^3]
[[Robbie Van Der Plancken]], who was imprisoned in Italy for the murder of [[Gerrit-Jan Ulrich]], appeared in at least five Gero-Video films. A video distributed by Gero-Video called "The Poison Dwarf" was identified during the investigation. Gero-Video changed ownership in 1994 when a man named Uwe Tomek took over the company. The company was also identified as a child porn distributor in a dossier provided by [[Karel Maasdam]]'s accountant to Dutch intelligence services as part of the [[Rolodex Investigation]].[^1]
[[Robbie Van Der Plancken]], who was jailed in Italy on suspicion of shooting his partner [[Gerrit-Jan Ulrich]], appears in at least five Gero-Video films (Spiegel: "in mindestens fünf Gero-Streifen"); Tomek said the films were bought in 1993 from a Dutch production company, before his time, and that to his knowledge Gero-Video had no personal contact with Van Der Plancken.[^1] Spiegel named the former owner as Georg G., who received a two-year suspended sentence in spring 1998 for sex with 15-year-old boys, and who still received royalties from the company.[^1] Dovey wrote that a video distributed by Gero-Video called "The Poison Dwarf" was identified during the investigation, and that a dossier provided by [[Karel Maasdam]]'s accountant to Dutch intelligence services identified the company as a distributor of child pornography as part of the [[Rolodex Investigation]].[^2]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Dovey, S. (2023). *Eye of the Chickenhawk*. United States: Thehotstar.
[^1]: "Nur die kleinen Fische," Der Spiegel 32/1998, August 3, 1998. https://www.spiegel.de/politik/nur-die-kleinen-fische-a-fc226181-0002-0001-0000-000007956187
[^2]: Dovey, S. *Eye of the Chickenhawk.* Thehotstar, 2023.
[^3]: Nick Davies, "Paedophilia is easy 2: how a paedophile murder inquiry fell apart," The Guardian, November 27, 2000. https://www.nickdavies.net/2000/11/27/paedophilia-is-easy-2-how-a-paedophile-murder-inquiry-fell-apart/

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20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Massachusetts Institute of Technology.md
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@ -18,35 +18,35 @@ tags:
- JeffreyEpstein
summary: "Cambridge university whose Center for International Studies appears in MKULTRA Subproject 90 and 1953 CIA UFO planning, which divested the Draper laboratory in 1973 and took Jeffrey Epstein's money after 2008."
created: 2026-10-05
updated: 2026-10-05
updated: 2026-10-09
relations:
- type: contractor_to
with: "[[Central Intelligence Agency]]"
role: "Center for International Studies, MKULTRA Subproject 90"
start: 1958-11
fn: 12
fn: 16
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Jack P. Ruina]]"
reverse: true
role: "professor of electrical engineering; chairman of the 1979 to 1980 Vela panel"
fn: 18
fn: 23
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Seth Lloyd]]"
reverse: true
role: "professor of mechanical engineering"
fn: 21
fn: 26
- type: head_of
with: "[[James Killian]]"
reverse: true
role: "president; first chairman of the President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board"
fn: 17
fn: 22
- type: funded
with: "[[Jeffrey Epstein]]"
reverse: true
role: "ten donations totaling 850,000 dollars, 2002 to 2017"
start: 2002
end: 2017
fn: 21
fn: 26
- type: contractor_to
with: "[[State Department]]"
role: "Project Troy study of Soviet jamming and political warfare, reporting to the Secretary of State (October 1950 to February 1951)"
@ -58,7 +58,7 @@ relations:
reverse: true
role: "Center for International Studies; CIA money reported 1951, $300,000 reported 1967"
start: 1951
fn: 4
fn: 6
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Max Millikan]]"
reverse: true
@ -74,66 +74,75 @@ In the Agency's account of its role in the study of unidentified flying objects,
### The Center for International Studies
The center grew out of [[Project Troy]], the study that MIT convened in October 1950 for the State Department on Soviet jamming of American broadcasts and on wider political warfare.[^2] [[Daniel Bessner]] writes that CENIS "emerged from Project TROY," and that [[James Killian]], pleased with the outcome, organized a second phase of four research initiatives, one of which concerned a State Department-funded institute similar to the one [[Donald Marquis]] had recommended in Annex 11 of the Troy report.[^2] The center began operating in the fall of 1951, and in February 1952 Max Millikan, an economist who had spent a year at the CIA, accepted the offer to serve as its first director.[^2] The center's own history states that it "was founded in 1951 in response to the Cold War struggles between the United States and the Soviet Union," and that in 1952 "a young MIT economist named Max F Millikan became the Center's first director."[^3] Bessner reports that Millikan asked a Ford Foundation official, Gaither, for funds soon after arriving, that [[Hans Speier]] then visited Millikan in February 1952 and "convinced him otherwise" about the center's scope, and that the Ford trustees granted CENIS $875,000 in the spring of 1952.[^2]
The center grew out of [[Project Troy]], the study that MIT convened in October 1950 for the State Department on Soviet jamming of American broadcasts and on wider political warfare.[^2] [[Daniel Bessner]] writes that CENIS "emerged from Project TROY," and that [[James Killian]], pleased with the outcome, organized a second phase of four research initiatives, one of which concerned a State Department-funded institute similar to the one [[Donald Marquis]] had recommended in Annex 11 of the Troy report.[^2] The center began operating in the fall of 1951, and in February 1952 Max Millikan, an economist who had spent a year at the CIA, accepted the offer to serve as its first director.[^2] The center's own history states that it "was founded in 1951 in response to the Cold War struggles between the United States and the Soviet Union," and that in 1952 "a young MIT economist named Max F Millikan became the Center's first director."[^3] Bessner reports that Millikan asked a Ford Foundation official, Gaither, for funds soon after arriving, that [[Hans Speier]] then visited Millikan in February 1952 and "convinced him otherwise" about the center's scope, and that the Ford trustees granted CENIS $875,000 in the spring of 1952.[^2] The Church Committee's Book I describes a research institute at a major American university that the CIA helped establish in 1951 and funded for more than a decade, at the request of Under Secretary of State [[James E. Webb]]. The report does not name the institute.[^4] The Ford Foundation's annual report for fiscal 1965 lists a grant of 400,000 dollars to MIT for the Harvard-M.I.T. Joint Center for Urban Studies.[^5]
Time of February 24, 1967 reported "directly and without masquerade" "$300,000 to finance M.I.T.'s topflight Center for International Studies," and that "Until last spring, M.I.T. continued to accept agency funds, then terminated the contract 'for practical, not moral reasons.'"[^4] [[Patrick Oster]] reported in the Washington Post of September 11, 1977 that the center "was set up in 1951 with CIA money," and that a 1958-59 study of Soviet scientists as potential agent recruits by [[Anthony J. Wiener]], then affiliated with the center, was paid through the [[Society for the Investigation of Human Ecology]] as part of "Project MK-ULTRA."[^5]
Time of February 24, 1967 reported "directly and without masquerade" "$300,000 to finance M.I.T.'s topflight Center for International Studies," and that "Until last spring, M.I.T. continued to accept agency funds, then terminated the contract 'for practical, not moral reasons.'"[^6] [[Patrick Oster]] reported in the Washington Post of September 11, 1977 that the center "was set up in 1951 with CIA money," and that a 1958-59 study of Soviet scientists as potential agent recruits by [[Anthony J. Wiener]], then affiliated with the center, was paid through the [[Society for the Investigation of Human Ecology]] as part of "Project MK-ULTRA."[^7]
Hearings of the Senate Judiciary Committee's Internal Security Subcommittee on [[State Department]] passport regulations include testimony by [[Andreas Lowenfeld]] of the State Department's Office of the Legal Adviser that he had been connected with the Center for International Studies at MIT in 1951 and 1952 and that "they had some kind of contract with the CIA," though "I never formally worked for them." Asked by the subcommittee's counsel, Sourwine, whether he knew that the Center "was a CIA operation," Lowenfeld answered: "I was never formally told, but it became apparent." Asked whether [[Walt Rostow]] was in charge, he said: "He was acting, I guess, and then Mr. Millikan came."[^6]
Hearings of the Senate Judiciary Committee's Internal Security Subcommittee on [[State Department]] passport regulations include testimony by [[Andreas Lowenfeld]] of the State Department's Office of the Legal Adviser that he had been connected with the Center for International Studies at MIT in 1951 and 1952 and that "they had some kind of contract with the CIA," though "I never formally worked for them." Asked by the subcommittee's counsel, Sourwine, whether he knew that the Center "was a CIA operation," Lowenfeld answered: "I was never formally told, but it became apparent." Asked whether [[Walt Rostow]] was in charge, he said: "He was acting, I guess, and then Mr. Millikan came."[^8]
A draft speech by the CIA's Deputy Director for Intelligence for delivery at Harvard in February 1986 stated that Max Millikan, an "MIT economist," had "organized the economic intelligence effort" of the Agency, as part of its account of academic recruitment from 1941 onward.[^7] Haines's account of the 1952 and 1953 UFO planning names Millikan as director of the Center in 1953.
A [[Philadelphia Inquirer]] clipping in agency files states that on April 26 Max Millikan, director of the MIT Center of International Studies, said the college would reluctantly drop research contracts with the CIA because they were "subject to misinterpretation."[^9] A letter of April 21, 1971 to [[Richard Helms]] on the center's letterhead, from a writer whose name is redacted in the copy, states that MIT "adopted a policy that rejected the extremists demands to refuse contracts from intelligence agencies, but which did insist that any such contracts be overt and avowed," and that "It was the CIA and not the university which declined to continue relations on such terms."[^10]
In a statement made in 1954 for the [[Atomic Energy Commission]] hearings on [[J. Robert Oppenheimer]]'s security clearance, Killian described "an earlier project, known as Project Lexington, carried out by the Atomic Energy Commission under contract with M.I.T.," and named [[Walter Whitman]] as its director.[^8] Bessner describes LEXINGTON as an Air Force summer study of a nuclear-powered airplane.[^9] Lexington Project Report 175, "Polonium-Powered Aircraft for Military Purposes," by A. R. Kaufmann of MIT, is dated September 28, 1948.[^10] Killian's statement also describes a 1952 summer study of the Lincoln Laboratory, whose recommendations went to the Department of Defense on strengthening defenses against air attack.[^8]
A draft speech by the CIA's Deputy Director for Intelligence for delivery at Harvard in February 1986 stated that Max Millikan, an "MIT economist," had "organized the economic intelligence effort" of the Agency, as part of its account of academic recruitment from 1941 onward.[^11] Haines's account of the 1952 and 1953 UFO planning names Millikan as director of the Center in 1953.
In a statement made in 1954 for the [[Atomic Energy Commission]] hearings on [[J. Robert Oppenheimer]]'s security clearance, Killian described "an earlier project, known as Project Lexington, carried out by the Atomic Energy Commission under contract with M.I.T.," and named [[Walter Whitman]] as its director.[^12] Bessner describes LEXINGTON as an Air Force summer study of a nuclear-powered airplane.[^13] Lexington Project Report 175, "Polonium-Powered Aircraft for Military Purposes," by A. R. Kaufmann of MIT, is dated September 28, 1948.[^14] Killian's statement also describes a 1952 summer study of the Lincoln Laboratory, whose recommendations went to the Department of Defense on strengthening defenses against air attack.[^12]
### MKULTRA Subproject 90
A CIA notification list of institutions connected with MKULTRA subprojects carries the entry "Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Center for International Studies, Cambridge, Mass. 02139" with the notation "Subproject 90." The list reproduces a statement MIT asked to be supplied to persons receiving notice: "The activity conducted at MIT involved a study of the scientist in the" (country name redacted) "to produce a descriptive model of the type likely to come in contact with Americans. The project was conducted by a guest of MIT and neither administered nor funded through MIT."[^11]
A CIA notification list of institutions connected with MKULTRA subprojects carries the entry "Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Center for International Studies, Cambridge, Mass. 02139" with the notation "Subproject 90." The list reproduces a statement MIT asked to be supplied to persons receiving notice: "The activity conducted at MIT involved a study of the scientist in the" (country name redacted) "to produce a descriptive model of the type likely to come in contact with Americans. The project was conducted by a guest of MIT and neither administered nor funded through MIT."[^15]
The released file on MKULTRA Subproject 90 consists of nineteen documents dated from October 1958 to November 1960. A memorandum of September 17, 1958 (SR/6-58-541) from a requesting component asked the Technical Services Staff's Chemical Division to undertake research on a prototype of a male scientist aged 35 to 45, a "professional 'comer'" who in youth had been "an idealist" who became "critically disillusioned" in his early twenties and who "has repressed and rationalized his doubts and opposition sentiments," and for guidance on "the most effective way or ways in which repressed and rationalized anti-regime motivations may be aroused or, more properly, re-activated." A second part of the request asked what criteria could be developed for spotting and assessing persons who are "inner emigration" or "alienated" as "potential agent recruits" and how their development should be conducted. A memorandum for the record on the subproject, titled "A Study of the Scientist in the" (country name redacted), states that its purposes were "(a) to produce a descriptive model of scientists who are likely to come into contact with Americans, and (b) to specify methods and strategies for evaluating and influencing such scientists." A grant from a foundation cutout (name redacted) was to be made to "an independent investigator," with cover that the grant was for "interest in the psychological, sociological, cultural, and political determinants of individuals occupying critical roles within various societies"; accounting for the funds was to follow the procedures established for "grants to unwitting agents." The cost for a year from November 1, 1958 was $12,000, obligated on November 18, 1958.[^12]
The released file on MKULTRA Subproject 90 consists of nineteen documents dated from October 1958 to November 1960. A memorandum of September 17, 1958 (SR/6-58-541) from a requesting component asked the Technical Services Staff's Chemical Division to undertake research on a prototype of a male scientist aged 35 to 45, a "professional 'comer'" who in youth had been "an idealist" who became "critically disillusioned" in his early twenties and who "has repressed and rationalized his doubts and opposition sentiments," and for guidance on "the most effective way or ways in which repressed and rationalized anti-regime motivations may be aroused or, more properly, re-activated." A second part of the request asked what criteria could be developed for spotting and assessing persons who are "inner emigration" or "alienated" as "potential agent recruits" and how their development should be conducted. A memorandum for the record on the subproject, titled "A Study of the Scientist in the" (country name redacted), states that its purposes were "(a) to produce a descriptive model of scientists who are likely to come into contact with Americans, and (b) to specify methods and strategies for evaluating and influencing such scientists." A grant from a foundation cutout (name redacted) was to be made to "an independent investigator," with cover that the grant was for "interest in the psychological, sociological, cultural, and political determinants of individuals occupying critical roles within various societies"; accounting for the funds was to follow the procedures established for "grants to unwitting agents." The cost for a year from November 1, 1958 was $12,000, obligated on November 18, 1958.[^16]
The file contains a foundation's letters of 1958 and 1959 on payments to a fellowship holder, a letter of September 19, 1960 noting that the final payment of $9,500 had been made a year earlier and that the promised report was overdue, and an accounting dated November 18, 1960 of disbursements of $8,803.36 against $9,500, including a ten-month fellowship of $6,500.[^13] The released documents redact the name of the investigator and of the foundation.
The file contains a foundation's letters of 1958 and 1959 on payments to a fellowship holder, a letter of September 19, 1960 noting that the final payment of $9,500 had been made a year earlier and that the promised report was overdue, and an accounting dated November 18, 1960 of disbursements of $8,803.36 against $9,500, including a ten-month fellowship of $6,500.[^17] The released documents redact the name of the investigator and of the foundation.
### MIT's 1979 committee report
An Interim Report of the Ad Hoc Committee on MIT and the Intelligence Agencies, chaired by [[Kenneth Hoffman]] and published in *[[Tech Talk]]* in 1979, stated that "we do not think that any member of the MIT community should (knowingly) act as an agent for an intelligence organization," and discussed gray areas of briefing, recruitment and surveillance of foreign members of the community. The editors of the newsletter that reprinted excerpts, in a note preserved in CIA files, wrote that CIA Director [[Stansfield Turner]] "has made it clear that the CIA will not honor the standards set up by a university," a statement they connected to Harvard's earlier guidelines.[^14]
An Interim Report of the Ad Hoc Committee on MIT and the Intelligence Agencies, chaired by [[Kenneth Hoffman]] and published in *[[Tech Talk]]* in 1979, stated that "we do not think that any member of the MIT community should (knowingly) act as an agent for an intelligence organization," and discussed gray areas of briefing, recruitment and surveillance of foreign members of the community. The editors of the newsletter that reprinted excerpts, in a note preserved in CIA files, wrote that CIA Director [[Stansfield Turner]] "has made it clear that the CIA will not honor the standards set up by a university," a statement they connected to Harvard's earlier guidelines.[^18]
### The special laboratories
The Instrumentation Laboratory, founded by [[Charles Stark Draper]], and Lincoln Laboratory developed missile guidance and air defense systems. In November 1968 graduate students formed the [[Science Action Coordinating Committee]], which planned a protest at [[Kresge Auditorium]] for March 4, 1969, with a call for a research stoppage; its poster noted that MIT was "the country's 14th largest military contractor for research, development and testing," singled out the "special labs," and stated that Lincoln Laboratory and the Instrumentation Laboratory accounted for more than half of MIT's budget. About 50 faculty members formed the [[Union of Concerned Scientists]], and MIT President [[Howard Johnson]] appointed the [[Pounds Panel]] to review both laboratories. Johnson announced in 1970 that MIT would divest the Instrumentation Laboratory, renamed the Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, no later than July 1, 1973, and the Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc. was formed as an independent nonprofit on July 1, 1973. According to MIT's alumni magazine, after the divestment MIT also set up an executive committee to review the operation of the laboratories and moved all classified research off campus to Lincoln Laboratory.[^15]
The Instrumentation Laboratory, founded by [[Charles Stark Draper]], and Lincoln Laboratory developed missile guidance and air defense systems. In November 1968 graduate students formed the [[Science Action Coordinating Committee]], which planned a protest at [[Kresge Auditorium]] for March 4, 1969, with a call for a research stoppage; its poster noted that MIT was "the country's 14th largest military contractor for research, development and testing," singled out the "special labs," and stated that Lincoln Laboratory and the Instrumentation Laboratory accounted for more than half of MIT's budget. About 50 faculty members formed the [[Union of Concerned Scientists]], and MIT President [[Howard Johnson]] appointed the [[Pounds Panel]] to review both laboratories. Johnson announced in 1970 that MIT would divest the Instrumentation Laboratory, renamed the Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, no later than July 1, 1973, and the Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc. was formed as an independent nonprofit on July 1, 1973. According to MIT's alumni magazine, after the divestment MIT also set up an executive committee to review the operation of the laboratories and moved all classified research off campus to Lincoln Laboratory.[^19]
The CIA's reading room holds a Lincoln Laboratory Technical Memorandum, No. 35 of July 30, 1953, by [[F. A. Rodgers]] on the sensitivities of pre- and post-detection integrators, marked restricted and declassified in 2014.[^16]
In 1969 MIT President [[Howard W. Johnson]] formed a Review Panel on Special Laboratories, chaired by Dean [[William F. Pounds]], to examine the relationship between MIT and the Lincoln Laboratory and the Instrumentation Laboratory. The panel was asked "to evaluate the implications that the laboratories have for the Institute in its prime responsibility for education and research."[^20]
The CIA's reading room holds a Lincoln Laboratory Technical Memorandum, No. 35 of July 30, 1953, by [[F. A. Rodgers]] on the sensitivities of pre- and post-detection integrators, marked restricted and declassified in 2014.[^21]
### Advisory boards
The [[Congressional Research Service]] history of the [[President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board]] lists James R. Killian Jr., president of MIT, as the board's chairman from early 1956 until 1958 and again among the members appointed in 1961, when he was identified as chairman of the MIT Corporation.[^17]
The [[Congressional Research Service]] history of the [[President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board]] lists James R. Killian Jr., president of MIT, as the board's chairman from early 1956 until 1958 and again among the members appointed in 1961, when he was identified as chairman of the MIT Corporation.[^22]
### The Vela panel
The Ad Hoc Panel Report on the September 22 Event of 1980 was prepared by a White House Office of Science and Technology Policy panel chaired by Ruina, "an MIT professor," according to the [[National Security Archive]].[^18] [[Seymour Hersh]] wrote in *The Samson Option* that in late 1979 Ruina, a professor of electrical engineering and director of MIT's Defense and Arms Control Studies Program, was involved in preparing a federally funded MIT report assessing the foreign availability of components for short-range ballistic missiles.[^19] The National Security Archive's posting of the papers of [[Gerard C. Smith]] lists State Department telegrams of February 1980 that "dismissed information from MIT professor Jack Ruina, gained from an Israeli visiting fellow at MIT, concerning a possible Israeli connection to the 22 September event."[^20]
The Ad Hoc Panel Report on the September 22 Event of 1980 was prepared by a White House Office of Science and Technology Policy panel chaired by Ruina, "an MIT professor," according to the [[National Security Archive]].[^23] [[Seymour Hersh]] wrote in *The Samson Option* that in late 1979 Ruina, a professor of electrical engineering and director of MIT's Defense and Arms Control Studies Program, was involved in preparing a federally funded MIT report assessing the foreign availability of components for short-range ballistic missiles.[^24] The National Security Archive's posting of the papers of [[Gerard C. Smith]] lists State Department telegrams of February 1980 that "dismissed information from MIT professor Jack Ruina, gained from an Israeli visiting fellow at MIT, concerning a possible Israeli connection to the 22 September event."[^25]
### Epstein donations, 2002 to 2020
The report of the law firm [[Goodwin Procter]] to the [[Executive Committee of the MIT Corporation]], dated January 10, 2020, found that between 2002 and 2017 Epstein made ten donations to MIT totaling $850,000, nine of them after his 2008 conviction, totaling $750,000, to support the [[MIT Media Lab]] ($525,000) or Professor [[Seth Lloyd]] ($225,000); that Lloyd received a personal gift of $60,000 in about 2005 or 2006 not recorded by MIT, and "purposefully failed to inform MIT that Epstein, a convicted sex offender, was the source" of $100,000 in 2012; that in 2013 General Counsel [[R. Gregory Morgan]], Vice President for Resource Development [[Jeffrey Newton]] and Executive Vice President [[Israel Ruiz]] approved accepting Epstein's donations to support [[Joi Ito]] and the Media Lab on condition that they remain small and unpublicized; that Epstein made at least nine campus visits between 2013 and 2017 unknown to President [[L. Rafael Reif]]; and that the decision was "the result of collective and significant errors in judgment." Ito resigned on September 7, 2019.[^21]
The report of the law firm [[Goodwin Procter]] to the [[Executive Committee of the MIT Corporation]], dated January 10, 2020, found that between 2002 and 2017 Epstein made ten donations to MIT totaling $850,000, nine of them after his 2008 conviction, totaling $750,000, to support the [[MIT Media Lab]] ($525,000) or Professor [[Seth Lloyd]] ($225,000); that Lloyd received a personal gift of $60,000 in about 2005 or 2006 not recorded by MIT, and "purposefully failed to inform MIT that Epstein, a convicted sex offender, was the source" of $100,000 in 2012; that in 2013 General Counsel [[R. Gregory Morgan]], Vice President for Resource Development [[Jeffrey Newton]] and Executive Vice President [[Israel Ruiz]] approved accepting Epstein's donations to support [[Joi Ito]] and the Media Lab on condition that they remain small and unpublicized; that Epstein made at least nine campus visits between 2013 and 2017 unknown to President [[L. Rafael Reif]]; and that the decision was "the result of collective and significant errors in judgment." Ito resigned on September 7, 2019.[^26]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Haines, Gerald K. "CIA's Role in the Study of UFOs, 1947-90," *Studies in Intelligence* (1997), sections "Early CIA Concerns, 1947-52" and "The Robertson Panel, 1952-53," text and notes 24, 25 and 36. https://sgp.fas.org/library/ciaufo.html
[^2]: Daniel Morris Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State" (PhD diss., Duke University, 2013), p. 255 (CENIS, Troy origin, Killian's second phase, Millikan's appointment), and p. 256 and notes 107 to 109 (Gaither, Speier's February 1952 visit, the $875,000 grant), citing Donald L. M. Blackmer, The MIT Center for International Studies: The Founding Years, 1951 to 1969 (2002), as cited there. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/232a76ac-f2d8-4827-99fe-50b3b109fa6c/content.
[^3]: MIT Center for International Studies, "History" (Origins of the Center). https://cis.mit.edu/history
[^4]: Time, February 24, 1967, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP84-00161R000400210135-8 (passage on the center). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84-00161r000400210135-8
[^5]: Patrick Oster, "CIA Envisioned Soviet Scientists as U.S. Agents," Chicago Sun-Times, reprinted in the Washington Post, September 11, 1977, p. A-9, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP88-01315R000400460003-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01315r000400460003-8
[^6]: U.S. Senate, Committee on the Judiciary, Internal Security Subcommittee, hearings on State Department security and passport regulations, part 3, testimony of Andreas F. Lowenfeld (p. 331), extracts in CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP75-00149R000400560007-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00149r000400560007-3
[^7]: CIA, memorandum for the record, "DDI Speech on CIA and the University," February 1986, with draft speech ("Harvard speech" of February 3, 1986), CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP88G01332R000800990018-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88g01332r000800990018-7
[^8]: James R. Killian, Jr., affidavit in the 1954 Atomic Energy Commission personnel security hearings on J. Robert Oppenheimer, as quoted in an article reproduced in CIA reading room document CIA-RDP64B00346R000200100018-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp64b00346r000200100018-4
[^9]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 237 and note 40. Killian's 1954 affidavit, cited in the note above, gives the sponsor as the Atomic Energy Commission.
[^10]: A. R. Kaufmann, Lexington Project Report 175, "Polonium-Powered Aircraft for Military Purposes" (MIT, September 28, 1948), OSTI ID 969802. https://www.osti.gov/biblio/969802
[^11]: Central Intelligence Agency, "MKULTRA Institution Notifications," list of institutions and subproject numbers, CIA Reading Room document 00020476 (also posted at https://archive.org/details/brief-summaries-of-cia-mkultra-subprojects), page listing the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Center for International Studies, and the statement MIT requested.
[^12]: CIA, "MKULTRA Subproject 90," memorandum of November 18, 1958 approving the subproject, memorandum for the record on the project's purposes, and memorandum SR/6-58-541 of September 17, 1958, "Requirement for Research Support," CIA Reading Room document 00017493. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-00017493
[^13]: Same document as note 5 (foundation letters of November 17, 1958, March 2, 1959 and September 1, 1959; letter of September 19, 1960; accounting of November 18, 1960).
[^14]: "The CIA on American Campuses: Massachusetts Institute of Technology," editor's note and excerpts from the Interim Report of the Ad Hoc Committee on MIT and the Intelligence Agencies (*Tech Talk*, vol. 23, no. 30, 1979), reprinted in a Center for National Security Studies newsletter of May 1979, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP88-01315R000300550015-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01315r000300550015-6
[^15]: Draper Laboratory, "Origins of Charles Stark Draper and His Laboratory" (https://www.draper.com/media-center/featured-stories/detail/25851/origins-of-charles-stark-draper-and-his-laboratory); "A Slight Rebellion off Mass Ave.," *MIT Technology Review*, August 19, 2014 (https://www.technologyreview.com/2014/08/19/171719/slight-rebellion-off-mass-ave/amp/).
[^16]: Rodgers, F. A. "The Relative Sensitivities of Pre- and Post-Detection Integrators," MIT Lincoln Laboratory Technical Memorandum No. 35, July 30, 1953, CIA-RDP67B00341R000400080001-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp67b00341r000400080001-8
[^17]: Congressional Research Service, "The President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board: An Historical Perspective (1955-1975)," 1975, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP02T06251R000900290008-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp02t06251r000900290008-0
[^18]: Richelson, Jeffrey, ed., "The Vela Incident: South Atlantic Mystery Flash in September 1979 Raised Questions about Nuclear Test," National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book, December 8, 2016. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/nuclear-vault/2016-12-06/vela-incident-south-atlantic-mystery-flash-september-1979-raised-questions-about-nuclear-test
[^19]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy.* Random House, 1991, chapter 20.
[^20]: Same briefing book as note 12, item list for the Gerard C. Smith papers.
[^21]: Goodwin Procter LLP. *Report Concerning Jeffrey Epstein's Interactions with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.* January 10, 2020, Introduction, Executive Summary and Findings 1 to 5. https://facultygovernance.mit.edu/sites/default/files/20200121GoodwinProcterReport.pdf
[^4]: U.S. Senate, "Final Report, Book I: Foreign and Military Intelligence," S. Rept. 94-755 (1976), section "Covert Use of Academic and Voluntary Organizations," subsection "CIA Use of Private Foundations, Pre-1967," item (1), describing the unnamed institute established in 1951 at the request of Under Secretary of State James Webb. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_I.pdf
[^5]: Ford Foundation, "Annual Report 1965" (fiscal year ended September 30, 1965), grant tables, entry for Massachusetts Institute of Technology, $400,000, under the Harvard-M.I.T. Joint Center for Urban Studies. https://www.fordfoundation.org/media/2435/1965-annual-report.pdf
[^6]: Time, February 24, 1967, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP84-00161R000400210135-8 (passage on the center). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84-00161r000400210135-8
[^7]: Patrick Oster, "CIA Envisioned Soviet Scientists as U.S. Agents," Chicago Sun-Times, reprinted in the Washington Post, September 11, 1977, p. A-9, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP88-01315R000400460003-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01315r000400460003-8
[^8]: U.S. Senate, Committee on the Judiciary, Internal Security Subcommittee, hearings on State Department security and passport regulations, part 3, testimony of Andreas F. Lowenfeld (p. 331), extracts in CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP75-00149R000400560007-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00149r000400560007-3
[^9]: Philadelphia Inquirer clipping, headline "Penn Denies Campus Has CIA Agents," CIA reading room document CIA-RDP73-00475R000401020013-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp73-00475r000401020013-7
[^10]: Letter dated April 21, 1971, on Center for International Studies letterhead, 30 Wadsworth Street, Cambridge, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80B01086A000900210009-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01086a000900210009-2
[^11]: CIA, memorandum for the record, "DDI Speech on CIA and the University," February 1986, with draft speech ("Harvard speech" of February 3, 1986), CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP88G01332R000800990018-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88g01332r000800990018-7
[^12]: James R. Killian, Jr., affidavit in the 1954 Atomic Energy Commission personnel security hearings on J. Robert Oppenheimer, as quoted in an article reproduced in CIA reading room document CIA-RDP64B00346R000200100018-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp64b00346r000200100018-4
[^13]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 237 and note 40. Killian's 1954 affidavit, cited in the note above, gives the sponsor as the Atomic Energy Commission.
[^14]: A. R. Kaufmann, Lexington Project Report 175, "Polonium-Powered Aircraft for Military Purposes" (MIT, September 28, 1948), OSTI ID 969802. https://www.osti.gov/biblio/969802
[^15]: Central Intelligence Agency, "MKULTRA Institution Notifications," list of institutions and subproject numbers, CIA Reading Room document 00020476 (also posted at https://archive.org/details/brief-summaries-of-cia-mkultra-subprojects), page listing the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Center for International Studies, and the statement MIT requested.
[^16]: CIA, "MKULTRA Subproject 90," memorandum of November 18, 1958 approving the subproject, memorandum for the record on the project's purposes, and memorandum SR/6-58-541 of September 17, 1958, "Requirement for Research Support," CIA Reading Room document 00017493. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-00017493
[^17]: Same document as note 5 (foundation letters of November 17, 1958, March 2, 1959 and September 1, 1959; letter of September 19, 1960; accounting of November 18, 1960).
[^18]: "The CIA on American Campuses: Massachusetts Institute of Technology," editor's note and excerpts from the Interim Report of the Ad Hoc Committee on MIT and the Intelligence Agencies (*Tech Talk*, vol. 23, no. 30, 1979), reprinted in a Center for National Security Studies newsletter of May 1979, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP88-01315R000300550015-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01315r000300550015-6
[^19]: Draper Laboratory, "Origins of Charles Stark Draper and His Laboratory" (https://www.draper.com/media-center/featured-stories/detail/25851/origins-of-charles-stark-draper-and-his-laboratory); "A Slight Rebellion off Mass Ave.," *MIT Technology Review*, August 19, 2014 (https://www.technologyreview.com/2014/08/19/171719/slight-rebellion-off-mass-ave/amp/).
[^20]: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Standing Committee on Special Laboratories records, 1969 to 1972, American Institute of Physics, catalog entry, https://history.aip.org/catalog/icos/262.html ; and Report of the President 1969, report of the Vice President for Special Laboratories, pp. 675 to 676 (panel chaired by Dean William F. Pounds), https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/160053
[^21]: Rodgers, F. A. "The Relative Sensitivities of Pre- and Post-Detection Integrators," MIT Lincoln Laboratory Technical Memorandum No. 35, July 30, 1953, CIA-RDP67B00341R000400080001-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp67b00341r000400080001-8
[^22]: Congressional Research Service, "The President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board: An Historical Perspective (1955-1975)," 1975, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP02T06251R000900290008-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp02t06251r000900290008-0
[^23]: Richelson, Jeffrey, ed., "The Vela Incident: South Atlantic Mystery Flash in September 1979 Raised Questions about Nuclear Test," National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book, December 8, 2016. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/nuclear-vault/2016-12-06/vela-incident-south-atlantic-mystery-flash-september-1979-raised-questions-about-nuclear-test
[^24]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy.* Random House, 1991, chapter 20.
[^25]: Same briefing book as note 12, item list for the Gerard C. Smith papers.
[^26]: Goodwin Procter LLP. *Report Concerning Jeffrey Epstein's Interactions with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.* January 10, 2020, Introduction, Executive Summary and Findings 1 to 5. https://facultygovernance.mit.edu/sites/default/files/20200121GoodwinProcterReport.pdf

63
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Nugan Hand Bank.md
View file

@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ aliases:
- Nugan Hand Bank
- Nugan Hand Ltd
created: 2026-05-17
updated: 2026-09-22
updated: 2026-10-09
category: "Private Organization"
tags:
- Organization
@ -15,10 +15,27 @@ tags:
- GoldenTriangle
- 1970s
- 1980s
summary: "Australian merchant bank (1973-1980) that functioned as what investigators described as a CIA financial network, with branches in thirteen countries staffed by American military and intelligence veterans, collapsing after Frank Nugan was found shot dead in January 1980 and Michael Hand disappeared."
summary: "Australian merchant bank (1973-1980) described by investigators as a CIA financial network, with branches in thirteen countries, which collapsed after Frank Nugan was found shot dead and Michael Hand disappeared."
start: 1973-01-01
end: 1980-06-01
location: "Sydney, Australia"
relations:
- type: founded
with: "[[Michael Hand]]"
reverse: true
start: 1973
fn: 6
- type: founded
with: "[[Frank Nugan]]"
reverse: true
start: 1973
fn: 6
- type: director_of
with: "[[Michael Hand]]"
reverse: true
role: chairman
start: 1980
fn: 9
---
Nugan Hand Bank was an Australian merchant bank founded in Sydney in 1973 by [[Michael Hand]], an American Green Beret and Vietnam veteran, and Frank Nugan, an Australian lawyer. It operated internationally for seven years before collapsing in 1980 following Nugan’s death and Hand’s disappearance, leaving approximately $50 million in debts. Australian government investigations and journalist [[Jonathan Kwitny]]’s *The Crimes of Patriots* (W.W. Norton, 1987) documented the bank’s alleged function as a conduit for CIA financial operations, drug money laundering, and covert military funding across Southeast Asia, the [[Middle East]], and the Pacific.[^1]
@ -29,12 +46,14 @@ Michael Hand was a U.S. Army Special Forces veteran who served in Vietnam and La
Frank Nugan was a Sydney lawyer from a fruit-farming family in Griffith, New South Wales - a region long associated with organized crime and drug trafficking in Australian criminology. Nugan brought Australian legal and financial access to the partnership. Together, Hand and Nugan established Nugan Hand Ltd. (later Nugan Hand Bank) to provide offshore banking, currency trading, and financial services to American military and intelligence personnel in the Pacific region.[^1]
In 1969 Nugan and Hand got their start as a business team by forming [[Australasian and Pacific Holding]], which the New York Daily News described as a "tourism" company. Four of its shareholders gave their business address as [[Air America]], the CIA-owned airline.[^2] Kwitny wrote that the list of thirty-seven shareholders of Australasian and Pacific Holdings filed with the government in May 1970 showed four with the address "c/o Air America, A.P.O. San Francisco," one with the address "c/o Continental Air Service," and five reachable through the U.S. Agency for International Development.[^3] CBS reported on September 22, 1982 that four of the original stockholders were Americans who listed their addresses as Air America, Army Post Office, San Francisco.[^4] The Progressive reported in December 1980 that the bank had been founded in 1973 by Hand and several others "listing their addresses as 'c/o Air America, San Francisco'."[^5] The Australian Dictionary of Biography gives the bank's nominal paid-up capital as $1 million.[^6] ProPublica gave the starting capital as $80.[^7] Bob Bottom wrote in Connections 1 that in 1970 Nugan and Hand formalised their relationship by establishing Yorkville Nominees Pty Ltd, an investment advisory company, and launched Nugan Hand Ltd in 1973 with paid-up capital of $1 million, increased to $2 million four years later.[^8]
### Operations and CIA Personnel
What distinguished Nugan Hand from conventional offshore banks was the composition of its board of directors and senior personnel. Among those who held positions at Nugan Hand or served as consultants were:
- Admiral Earl "Rex" Yates (former Commander in Chief, Pacific Fleet), president of Nugan Hand’s Hawaii office and later the bank itself
- General Edwin "Ed" Black, a veteran of Army intelligence and later a government representative in Thailand, who ran the bank’s Bangkok branch
- Admiral [[Earl P. Yates]], retired from the Navy and formerly head of planning for the U.S. Pacific Command, who headed the Washington, D.C. office in 1980 and was described by the Task Force report as then president of the bank[^9][^10][^11]
- General [[Edwin Black]], former commander of U.S. forces in Thailand, who became president of Nugan Hand, Inc., Hawaii, and acted as the bank's representative there; John Owen, who ran the bank's Bangkok branch, claimed in his book that Black was approached to join the bank and declined[^2][^3][^9][^11]
- General Earle Cocke Jr., a former president of the [[American Legion]] and Korean War veteran, who handled the bank’s Washington connections
- Walter McDonald, a former CIA Deputy Director for Economic Research, who served as a consultant
- Dale Holmgren, a former CIA officer and Air America pilot, who managed the Taiwan office
@ -42,6 +61,10 @@ What distinguished Nugan Hand from conventional offshore banks was the compositi
The presence of senior American military and intelligence officials in bank positions - receiving salaries for what appeared to be minimal work - was later characterized by investigators as providing a combination of access, legitimacy, and protection from regulatory scrutiny.[^1]
The Wall Street Journal reported in May 1980 that the bank's Washington, D.C. office was headed by Admiral Yates and that Donald Beazley was president of U.S. operations. Beazley had resigned by May 1980.[^9] A former Green Beret friend of Hand, [[George Farris]], worked in the Washington office, according to the Daily News.[^2] Former CIA director William Colby "confirmed that he had done legal work for Mr. Nugan but said that was the extent of their relationship."[^9]
The Progressive reported in December 1980 that Walter McDonald, described as a twenty-five-year consultant to the CIA, was "a close friend" of [[John Paisley]], a former CIA analyst of Soviet arms developments who died in September 1978, and that Paisley's telephone diary had McDonald's name in it.[^5] The Atlanta Journal reported in September 1981 that Paisley had been "particularly preoccupied" with the bank's operations in August and September 1978.[^12]
### Financial Operations
Australian government investigators and Kwitny’s reporting identified several categories of Nugan Hand’s activities:
@ -52,21 +75,47 @@ The journalist Jonathan Kwitny wrote that the bank laundered proceeds from [[Gol
The bank also handled financial transfers for covert operations. Kwitny documented that Nugan Hand managed accounts for clients in multiple countries who appeared to be receiving or disbursing funds for intelligence-related purposes. The specific operations are difficult to fully document because the bank’s records were largely destroyed or disappeared after its collapse.[^1]
The Australian Joint Task Force on Drug Trafficking reported that the bank had offices and mail drops in 13 countries in two hemispheres during its seven years in business, and named 26 reputed drug dealers.[^13] Kwitny wrote in the Journal in August 1983 that Nugan Hand "participated in at least two U.S. government covert action operations, and had stronger links to the U.S. intelligence community than was previously known," a picture he said emerged from the Australian government report and from the Journal's own reporting.[^10] The New York Times reported that the Task Force was told by an American witness that Hand was involved in a 1976 shipment of 10 million rounds of ammunition and 3,000 weapons, which was delivered to U.S.-supported forces in [[Angola]], and that Hand and the bank took part in a 1976 movement of a U.S. Navy spy ship to [[Iran]] with [[Edwin Wilson]].[^13]
### Collapse
On January 27, 1980, Frank Nugan was found shot to death in his car near Bowenfels, New South Wales, with a rifle beside him. His death was ruled suicide. Near his body was a business card for former CIA Director [[William Colby]], who was serving in the bank’s legal advisory capacity. Australian police found Nugan’s body with a bible containing what appeared to be personal notes referencing senior American political and intelligence figures.[^1]
The news of Nugan’s death triggered a run on the bank and rapid dissolution of its operations. Michael Hand convened an emergency meeting of the bank’s staff and reportedly spent days attempting to organize the removal and destruction of bank records before investigators could secure them. Australian Securities Commission investigators who arrived found that substantial records had been removed or destroyed.[^1]
The news of Nugan’s death triggered a run on the bank and rapid dissolution of its operations. Michael Hand convened an emergency meeting of the bank’s staff and reportedly spent days attempting to organize the removal and destruction of bank records before investigators could secure them. New South Wales [[Corporate Affairs Commission]] investigators who arrived found that substantial records had been removed or destroyed.[^11] The Royal Commission recorded that its work was hampered by "the concealment or destruction of a number of relevant documents immediately following the death of Nugan."[^14]
Hand disappeared from Australia on June 14, 1980. According to Kwitny’s reporting, an American identified in sources only as "Charlie" - a former Special Forces soldier and CIA operative - assisted Hand in obtaining a false identity and departing on a flight to Fiji. Hand has not been located by Australian authorities since. A separate Australian police investigation in later years reportedly established that Hand had relocated to the United States under an assumed identity and had been protected by American intelligence community connections.[^1]
A Sydney butcher and friend of Hand, who was granted immunity from prosecution in 1981, told the Task Force that in late February 1980 he met [[Bernie Houghton]] and bank director George Shaw at the bank's headquarters at 55 Macquarie Street, that Shaw filled about fifteen boxes with records from an office in room 1709 of the AMP Centre in Bridge Street, and that the boxes were moved to a flat in Ultimo and later to a cold store. He said Hand asked him not to tell Hand where the records were kept.[^11] A Task Force investigator, [[Kevin Woods]], told the butcher that Hand had stated in his Corporate Affairs Commission cross-examination that he helped remove the records.[^11] The butcher described Hand's departure on a long weekend in June 1980, by way of Fiji and Honolulu to Vancouver.[^11]
### Investigations
The Stewart Royal Commission, established by the Australian government in 1980 under Justice Donald Stewart, investigated Nugan Hand’s operations and the circumstances of Nugan’s death and Hand’s disappearance. The commission’s work was significantly hampered by the destruction of records, Hand’s disappearance, and the refusal of American officials and military personnel to provide information. The commission’s final report noted significant unresolved questions about the bank’s CIA connections without reaching definitive legal findings.[^2]
The [[Royal Commission into Drug Trafficking]], whose terms of reference under Mr Justice [[Donald Stewart]] were extended on March 28, 1983 to cover the Nugan Hand Group, investigated Nugan Hand’s operations and the circumstances of Nugan’s death and Hand’s disappearance. The commission’s work was significantly hampered by the destruction of records, Hand’s disappearance, and the refusal of American officials and military personnel to provide information. The commission's final report, tabled in November 1985, found that the allegations of CIA involvement lacked substance and that there was no objective evidence that the CIA used or was used by the group, and recorded that its work had been hampered by the concealment or destruction of documents after Nugan's death and by the absence of evidence from Hand.[^14][^15] The Australian Dictionary of Biography says that the 1983 to 1985 royal commission "uncovered little new information," and the New York Times reported that the 1985 report disputed some Task Force conclusions.[^6][^13]
On February 24, 1983 the Prime Minister announced that the life of the Royal Commission had been extended to March 28, 1983 and that the Commonwealth was discussing terms of reference for an inquiry into Nugan Hand.[^16] The first interim report was presented on October 13, 1983 and tabled on December 6, 1983, the second was presented on December 13, 1984 and tabled on March 20, 1985, and the final report was tabled on November 27, 1985.[^14]
The Wall Street Journal reported in November 1982 that a cabinet minister had called the Task Force material "compelling evidence" of widespread criminal activity, and that the report found "strong grounds to believe" the bank's officers were involved with U.S. and Australian intelligence agencies, but not "conclusive proof" that the bank was connected to an intelligence operation.[^17] The Corporate Affairs Commission reported in 1983 that Frank Nugan had been involved in "massive international and local fraud" and had deliberately falsified the bank's accounts to conceal debt.[^6]
[[Neil Evans]], a former bank executive given immunity from prosecution, told a CBS broadcast on September 22, 1982: "We were to become the paymasters for the CIA around the world."[^4] The CIA's response was a terse "no comment" in February 1981.[^2] The Nation reported in March 1984 that the agency flatly denied any connection with the bank and refused to cooperate with the Australian investigation.[^18]
Kwitny’s *The Crimes of Patriots* (W.W. Norton, 1987) provided the most comprehensive reconstruction of the bank’s operations, based on interviews with numerous participants, Australian court and regulatory records, and documents that survived the post-Nugan records destruction.[^1]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Kwitny, Jonathan. *The Crimes of Patriots: A True Tale of Dope, Dirty Money, and the CIA*. W.W. Norton, 1987.
[^2]: Stewart Royal Commission. *Report of the Royal Commission on the Activities of the Nugan Hand Group*. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra, 1985.
[^2]: "Failed Bank Linked to CIA Ripoffs." New York Daily News, February 13, 1981, Washington News Bureau report. CIA CREST, CIA-RDP90-00806R000200820040-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000200820040-5
[^3]: Kwitny, Jonathan. *The Crimes of Patriots*. W.W. Norton, 1987 (Touchstone edition, 1988), pp. 42, 73, 85, 159.
[^4]: CBS, "The Nugan Hand Bank," Evening News segment, September 22, 1982. CIA CREST, CIA-RDP90-00552R000201840002-6. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201840002-6
[^5]: "December Briefing" (items "Fighting words" and "Troubled waters"), The Progressive, December 1980, CIA CREST, CIA-RDP90-00806R000200820041-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000200820041-4
[^6]: Farrell, Frank. "Nugan, Francis John (1942-1980)." Australian Dictionary of Biography, vol. 15, 2000. https://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/nugan-francis-john-11266
[^7]: Bonner, Raymond. "Decades After Disappearing From Australia, a CIA-Linked Fugitive Is Found in Idaho." ProPublica, November 10, 2015. https://www.propublica.org/article/after-disappearing-from-australia-a-cia-linked-fugitive-found-in-idaho
[^8]: Bottom, Bob. *Connections 1*, excerpt "The Nugan Hand Connection," Sydney Crime Museum. https://sydneycrimemuseum.com/crime-stories/the-nugan-hand-connection/
[^9]: "An Australian Bank Faces Many Charges in Fiction-Like Case" (subhead "Nugan Hand Chairman Found Dead, Accused of Stealing; CIA Link Is Alleged"). Wall Street Journal, May 1, 1980. CIA CREST, CIA-RDP90-00806R000200820048-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000200820048-7
[^10]: Kwitny, Jonathan. "Nugan Hand." Wall Street Journal, August 16, 1983. CIA CREST, CIA-RDP90-00552R000302510001-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00552r000302510001-1
[^11]: Stannard, Bruce. "Nugan Hand from the Inside." The Bulletin (Sydney), June 5, 1984, pp. 22-27, and Sykes, Trevor, "Unsafe as a bank could possibly be," p. 27; reproduced in Cabinet Documents on the Inquiry into the Nugan-Hand Group, Government of the Commonwealth of Australia, Part 1. https://archive.org/details/Nugan-Hand
[^12]: Burstein, Daniel. "A CIA Tale of Blood and Intrigue." Atlanta Journal, September 20, 1981. CIA CREST, CIA-RDP90-00552R000404610014-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00552r000404610014-3
[^13]: Schneider, Keith. "North's Aides Linked to Australia Study." New York Times, March 8, 1987. CIA CREST, CIA-RDP90-00965R000605740024-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000605740024-7
[^14]: Young, Michael. Ministerial statement on the final report of the Royal Commission of Inquiry into the Activities of the Nugan Hand Group, Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, November 27, 1985, pp. 3784-3786 (reproduced in Cabinet Documents on the Inquiry into the Nugan-Hand Group, archive.org item Nugan-Hand, Part 2).
[^15]: Stewart Royal Commission. *Report of the Royal Commission on the Activities of the Nugan Hand Group*. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra, 1985.
[^16]: Fraser, Malcolm. Prime Minister's media release, February 24, 1983. PM Transcripts, Transcript 6034. https://pmtranscripts.pmc.gov.au/sites/default/files/original/00006034.pdf
[^17]: "Australian Probe Links Nugan Hand to Illegalities." Wall Street Journal, November 12, 1982. CIA CREST, CIA-RDP90-00552R000302510003-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00552r000302510003-9
[^18]: "Dispatches: Australia: The Nugan Hand Investigation." The Nation, March 3, 1984. CIA CREST, CIA-RDP90-00806R000200820008-1. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00806R000200820008-1

194
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Parapsychological Association.md
View file

@ -1,22 +1,198 @@
---
created: 2025-07-22
updated: 2025-07-22
updated: 2026-10-09
title: Parapsychological Association
aliases:
- PA
- Parapsychological Association (PA)
tags:
- organization
- parapsychology
- research
- Organization
- Parapsychology
- ConventionHistory
- PsiResearch
- Stargate
description: The Parapsychological Association is an international professional organization of scientists and scholars engaged in the study of parapsychology.
category: "Private Organization"
summary: "The Parapsychological Association is an international professional organization of scientists and scholars engaged in the study of Parapsychology."
summary: "The Parapsychological Association is an international professional organization of scientists and scholars engaged in the study of parapsychology, formed at Duke University in 1957 and affiliated with the AAAS since 1969."
start: 1957
location: "Durham, North Carolina, USA"
relations:
- type: founded
with: "[[J. B. Rhine]]"
start: 1957
role: "proposed the formation of the association at a workshop at the Duke Parapsychology Laboratory"
fn: 2
- type: head_of
with: "[[Robert A. McConnell]]"
start: 1957
end: 1958
role: "president of the founding council"
fn: 1
- type: member_of
with: "[[American Association for the Advancement of Science]]"
start: 1969
role: "affiliated organization"
fn: 5
---
The [[Parapsychological Association]] is an international professional organization of scientists and scholars engaged in the study of [[Parapsychology]]. In 1969, after a rousing conference speech by the anthropologist [[Margaret Mead]], the [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] voted to admit the Parapsychological Association to its ranks of approved disciplines. Her support helped lend a degree of legitimacy to the field of parapsychology, which had long struggled for scientific acceptance.[^1]
The [[Parapsychological Association]] is an international professional organization of scientists and scholars engaged in the study of [[Parapsychology]]. It was formed at [[Duke University]] on June 19, 1957, and has held an annual convention each year since 1958. It became an affiliated organization of the [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] in December 1969. Its conventions of the 1980s and 1990s included papers by researchers of [[SRI International]] and [[Science Applications International Corporation]] whose reports are in the [[Stargate Project]] collection.
Despite this recognition, the field of parapsychology, and the Association, continued to face an "informal system of scientific apartheid." Parapsychologists were officially allowed to call themselves scientists but were largely kept out of the mainstream scientific community, often ignored and forced to rely on private funding and publish in their own specialized journals. This was largely due to the fact that their work, while statistically significant, often lacked tangible, real-world applications that could convince skeptics. The [[Duke University Parapsychology Laboratory]] is an example of a research institution whose work contributed to the field of parapsychology.[^1]
### Formation at Duke, 1957
---
On June 19, 1957, a professional parapsychological society was formed at Duke University, with the purpose of advancing parapsychology as a science by serving as "an international meeting ground" for those engaged in research in the field. The announcement was published in the December 1957 issue of the [[Journal of Parapsychology]].[^1] The association states that it was created in [[Durham, North Carolina]] on June 19, 1957, and that its formation was proposed by [[J. B. Rhine]], director of the [[Duke University Parapsychology Laboratory]], at a workshop held in that laboratory.[^2]
[^1]: Schnabel, Jim. *Remote Viewers*. Dell, 1997.
The founding council of seven was elected at the organizational meeting. McConnell of the University of Pittsburgh was president. [[Gertrude Schmeidler]] of the City College of New York was vice-president, [[Rhea White]] of Duke University was secretary, and [[Remi J. Cadoret]] of Duke University was treasurer. The councilmen were [[Karlis Osis]] of the [[Parapsychology Foundation]], [[Margaret Anderson]] of Duke University, and [[W. G. Roll]] of Oxford University.[^1] Membership had two classes, Members and Associates, each admitted by a vote of the council after nomination. The Journal was affiliated with the association, and members received a subscription to it. Annual dues were $10 for Members and $6 for Associates resident in the United States.[^1]
### Presidents and convention sites
The association held an annual convention each year from 1958, with a president listed for each convention year through 2017.[^3] The March 1958 Journal announced the first annual convention at the [[City College of New York]] for September 4 to 6, 1958, and set June 19, 1958, as the closing date for membership applications that would make applicants charter members.[^4] The association's convention table lists the 1958 convention at Duke University in Durham, with Margaret Anderson as program chair.
| Year | President | Convention site |
|---|---|---|
| 1958 | Robert A. McConnell | Durham, North Carolina (Duke University) |
| 1959 | Gertrude Schmeidler | New York City (Henry Hudson Hotel) |
| 1960 | [[J. Gaither Pratt]] | New York City (Henry Hudson Hotel) |
| 1961 | Karlis Osis | New York City (Henry Hudson Hotel) |
| 1962 | Margaret Anderson | Durham, North Carolina (Jack Tar Durham Hotel) |
| 1963 | [[Carroll B. Nash]] | New York City (Barbizon-Plaza Hotel) |
| 1964 | William G. Roll | Oxford, England (Christ Church) |
| 1965 | [[Ramakrishna Rao]] | New York City (Barbizon-Plaza Hotel) |
| 1966 | [[Montague Ullman]] | New York City (Barbizon-Plaza Hotel) |
| 1967 | [[E. Douglas Dean]] | New York City (Barbizon-Plaza Hotel) |
| 1968 | [[Ian Stevenson]] | Freiburg, Germany (University of Freiburg) |
| 1969 | [[Hans Bender]] | New York City (Barbizon-Plaza Hotel) |
| 1970 | [[Robert Van de Castle]] | New York City (Barbizon-Plaza Hotel) |
| 1971 | Gertrude Schmeidler | Durham, North Carolina (Durham Hotel and Motel) |
| 1972 | [[John Beloff]] | Edinburgh, Scotland (University of Edinburgh) |
| 1973 | [[Rex Stanford]] | Charlottesville, Virginia (University of Virginia) |
| 1974 | [[Robert L. Morris]] | Jamaica, New York |
| 1975 | [[Charles Honorton]] | Santa Barbara, California |
| 1976 | [[Martin Johnson]] | Utrecht, Netherlands |
| 1977 | [[Charles Tart|Charles T. Tart]] | Washington, D.C. |
| 1978 | Ramakrishna Rao | St. Louis, Missouri |
| 1979 | [[John Palmer]] | Moraga, California |
| 1980 | Ian Stevenson | Reykjavik, Iceland |
| 1981 | [[Irvin Child]] | Syracuse, New York |
| 1982 | John Beloff | Cambridge, England |
| 1983 | [[Stanley Krippner]] | Madison, New Jersey |
| 1984 | Rhea A. White | Dallas, Texas |
| 1985 | Robert L. Morris | Medford, Massachusetts (Tufts University) |
| 1986 | [[Debra H. Weiner]] | Rohnert Park, California |
| 1987 | [[Richard S. Broughton]] | Edinburgh, Scotland |
| 1988 | [[Dean Radin]] | Montreal, Canada |
| 1989 | [[Hoyt Edge]] | San Diego, California |
| 1990 | Ramakrishna Rao | Chevy Chase, Maryland |
| 1991 | [[Steven E. Braude]] | Heidelberg, Germany |
| 1992 | John Palmer | Las Vegas, Nevada |
| 1993 | Dean Radin | Toronto, Canada |
| 1994 | [[Deborah L. Delanoy]] | Amsterdam, Netherlands |
| 1995 | [[Carlos Alvarado]] | Durham, North Carolina |
| 1996 | Richard S. Broughton | San Diego, California |
| 1997 | [[Edwin May|Edwin C. May]] | Brighton, England |
| 1998 | Dean Radin | Halifax, Canada |
| 1999 | Dean Radin | Palo Alto, California |
| 2000 | [[Marilyn Schlitz]] | Freiburg, Germany |
| 2001 | [[Nancy L. Zingrone]] | New York City |
| 2002 | [[Mario Varvoglis]] | Paris, France |
| 2003 | Carlos Alvarado | Vancouver, Canada |
| 2004 | [[Nancy Zingrone]] | Vienna, Austria |
| 2005 | [[Caroline Watt]] | Petaluma, California |
| 2006 | Dean Radin | Stockholm, Sweden |
| 2007 | Rex Stanford | Halifax, Canada |
| 2008 | [[Roger Nelson]] | Winchester, England |
| 2009 | [[Etzel Cardeña]] | Seattle, Washington |
| 2010 | [[David Luke]] | Paris, France |
| 2011 | David Luke | Curitiba, Brazil |
| 2012 | [[Alejandro Parra]] | Durham, North Carolina |
| 2013 | Alejandro Parra | Viterbo, Italy |
| 2014 | [[James C. Carpenter]] | Concord, California |
| 2015 | James C. Carpenter | London, England |
| 2016 | [[Chris A. Roe]] | Boulder, Colorado |
| 2017 | Chris A. Roe | Athens, Greece |
The convention banquet speakers listed in the same table include [[John C. Lilly]] (1969), [[Arthur Koestler]] (1972), [[Willis Harman]] (1975), [[Karl Pribram]] (1979), [[Claiborne Pell]] (1988, Montreal) and [[Michael Crichton]] (1989, San Diego).[^3]
Dean's report, published in 2015, states that he was elected president in 1966, and its editor's note gives his term as 1967 to 1969. Dean also wrote that in 1968 he became the association's secretary and that in 1969 he was elected to the board, tied on votes with John Beloff, who lost the draw by lot. The convention table lists Dean for 1967, Ian Stevenson for 1968 and Hans Bender for 1969.[^3][^5]
### Application for AAAS affiliation, 1963 to 1969
Dean wrote that the association reached the five-year minimum required for an application in 1963, and that its president, Carroll B. Nash, made the first attempt that year. The application was refused.[^5] Dean promised to try again and was elected president in 1966. His 1967 application passed the first hurdle, a recommendation from the AAAS committee on new affiliations, in November 1967. The committee's statement said it would gladly support scientific research in parapsychology but did not wish to assert that this proved extrasensory perception.[^5]
Dean wrote that the second hurdle was the AAAS Board of Directors, which met on December 26. He wrote that some of the eminent scientists on the board regarded the idea that parapsychology could count as science as preposterous and refused to let the application proceed to a third hurdle. He wrote that on December 30 a stormy controversy produced a board motion that the matter be put to a yes-or-no vote in 1968, and that the board dissolved the entire committee on new affiliations, ostensibly for other reasons.[^5]
In 1968 Dean filed a further application with the AAAS Committee on Council Affairs. He described the AAAS president, [[Walter Orr Roberts]], as sympathetic to the association's request, and wrote that Roberts spoke in its favor before the committee but was outvoted, so that the application failed at the first hurdle. The committee also decided to rewrite the criteria for new affiliations, which Dean again described as ostensibly for other reasons.[^5]
Dean wrote that in 1969 he considered holding back to avoid hostility to the new criteria expected in 1970, and that [[Robert A. McConnell]] advised him to apply in 1969 regardless. A letter from the AAAS office in Washington told him that the committee would most likely defer an application made in 1969 until the revised criteria were in force. The association's board backed his decision, and the fourth application went in. Each application cost about $150 in advance. The committee's twelve scientists each received about four pounds of reprints, the association's constitution and rules, and encyclopedia articles, together with twenty typed pages of argument, answers to six procedural questions and seven questions on the admission criteria, and the results of a survey of members. Dean wrote that about two thirds of the members who replied already belonged to the AAAS as individuals, that nine members were AAAS Fellows, that two of three members held doctorates, and that a list of about fifty master's and doctoral theses on parapsychology accompanied the application. In the autumn McConnell mailed literature on parapsychology to all 530 delegates to the AAAS Council.[^5]
Dean wrote that the application was reviewed by the first committee in the second half of November 1969, that he learned in mid-December that it had passed, and that it stood as Item 7 on the agenda of the Council. A typographical error listed four association members as AAAS Fellows instead of nine. Dean traveled to the AAAS annual meeting in Boston, found Roberts as he came out of a television studio, and was told that the error could be corrected and that the Board of Directors had approved the application. The Council vote remained.[^5]
A proposal submitted by [[Edgar Mitchell]] and prepared by [[Henry Puharich]] gives the words of [[Bentley Glass]], the 1969 AAAS president, on the Committee on Council Affairs: that it had considered the association's work for a very long time, concluded that the association investigated controversial or non-existent phenomena, found it open in membership to critics and agnostics, and was satisfied that it used scientific methods of inquiry, so that its investigation could be regarded as scientific.[^6]
### The December 1969 Council vote
The AAAS Council met on December 30, 1969, in the ballroom of the Statler-Hilton Hotel in Boston, under the chairmanship of Glass. Attendance was 210 members in the morning session and 172 in the afternoon session. Committee reports were not presented orally, and "Upon recommendation of the Committee on Council Affairs and the Board of Directors, Council voted to grant affiliation to the American Orthopsychiatric Association and to the Parapsychological Association."[^7]
Dean watched from a roped-off observers' gallery at the back of the hall. He wrote that [[Athelstan Spilhaus]], who was to preside, and Roberts were both absent, and that Glass called Item 7 at about noon: the affiliation applications of the [[American Orthopsychiatric Association]] and the association. Glass took the two separately. The orthopsychiatric application was moved, seconded and passed by voice vote without discussion. When Glass called for a motion on the association's application there was a silence of about ten seconds before a voice said yes, and a further silence of about five seconds before a second. Dean wrote that Glass had tried through a friend to arrange a mover and that the attempt appeared to have failed.[^5][^8]
Dean wrote that a man whose name he did not catch objected that the phenomena of parapsychology did not exist, that scientific research on them was therefore impossible and that the association was a null science, and that a woman member said the Council was not familiar with parapsychology and was not qualified to vote on the association. Dean wrote that this was not wholly accurate because McConnell had mailed literature to all 530 delegates. Glass then gave the committee's conclusion, and added that nine AAAS Fellows, not four, were members of the association.[^5][^8]
Dean recorded that [[Margaret Mead]] spoke after Glass asked for further comments. In his report she said that for the previous ten years the Council had been discussing what science and scientific method are and which societies make use of them, and had changed its rules as a result of those debates, that the association used statistical methods, blinding, placebos, double-blind procedures and other standard methods, and that the history of scientific progress was full of scientists who investigated phenomena the scientific establishment held not to exist. She proposed that the Council vote in favor of the society's work.[^5]
Dean wrote that Glass called a show of hands, which he estimated at 160 to 180 in favor, and that the opposed numbered approximately 30 to 35. Glass said the motion appeared to be carried and that he would call for a count if anyone insisted. No one did, and Glass declared the motion carried and moved to Item 8.[^5]
### Wheeler's 1979 appeal
On Monday, January 8, 1979, at the AAAS annual meeting in Houston, the physicist [[John Archibald Wheeler]] spoke at a session on science and consciousness, on a panel with [[Eugene Wigner]] and several parapsychologists. Martin Gardner wrote that the panel included [[Hal Puthoff]], [[Russell Targ]] and Charles Honorton of [[Maimonides Medical Center]].[^9] Wheeler, then director of the Center for Theoretical Physics at the University of Texas, wrote to [[William D. Carey]] at the AAAS as a concerned member of the AAAS, a former member of its board of directors and a former president of the [[American Physical Society]]. He asked that the board and the Council jointly appoint a five-member committee to review the AAAS section of parapsychology. The committee was to determine whether the field had produced any "battle tested result," to report on the advantage workers in the field gained in fund raising from their association with the AAAS and on the effect on the public image of the AAAS, and to advise whether the section should be left as it was, suspended or deleted. Wheeler wrote in the letter: "I know that the views of our late and beloved Margaret Mead were strong in getting parapsychology admitted to the AAAS. I was present at the meeting where it happened." He added that Admiral [[Hyman G. Rickover]] had telephoned to support his position.[^10]
Gardner wrote in the [[New York Review of Books]] of May 17, 1979, that Wheeler had asked the AAAS to reconsider its decision, "made ten years ago at the insistence of Margaret Mead." Gardner reprinted two appendices by Wheeler under the heading "Drive the Pseudos Out of the Workshop of Science," together with the letter.[^9] In the appendix Wheeler wrote that as a member of the AAAS Board of Directors he had "voted against the majority of the much larger Council at that time" and against the admission of "parapsychology" as a new division at the Boston meeting in 1969. He wrote of "pretentious pseudo-science" and of the name "AAAS-Affiliate," which he said gave solicitations "an air of legitimacy," and he put parapsychology's fund raising in the United States at between $1 million and $20 million a year.[^9] Wheeler wrote that he did not propose to stop anyone working in the field or to restrict publication in journals such as the [[International Journal of Parapsychology]] and the Journal of Parapsychology.[^9]
In a letter of September 27, 1979, Wheeler gave references on extrasensory perception and quantum mechanics, among them [[C. E. M. Hansel]]'s ESP: A Scientific Evaluation.[^11] In the issue of June 26, 1980, the physicists [[Olivier Costa de Beauregard]], [[Richard D. Mattuck]], [[Brian Josephson]] and [[Evan Harris Walker]] wrote that Wheeler had "violently attacked parapsychology" and that they were physicists who had for some years researched a possible connection between quantum mechanics and parapsychology. Gardner replied in the same issue.[^12]
### Schnabel's account of the field's standing
[[Jim Schnabel]] wrote that in 1969, after a rousing conference speech by Mead, the AAAS voted to admit the association to its ranks of approved disciplines, and that her support helped lend a degree of legitimacy to a field that had long struggled for scientific acceptance. He wrote that the field and the association continued to face an "informal system of scientific apartheid": parapsychologists were officially allowed to call themselves scientists but were largely kept out of the mainstream, often ignored, and forced to rely on private funding and to publish in their own specialized journals. Schnabel attributed this in part to work that was statistically significant but lacked tangible, real-world applications that could convince skeptics. He named the Duke University Parapsychology Laboratory as an example of a research institution whose work contributed to the field.[^13]
### Conventions and government-linked research, 1979 to 1990
The association's newsletter, PSI News, reported in October 1979 that a grant of $500,000 from [[James S. McDonnell]], chairman of [[McDonnell Douglas]], had established a parapsychology laboratory at [[Washington University in St. Louis]] under the physicist [[Peter R. Phillips]], and that McDonnell was an honorary member of the association.[^14]
At the 1982 annual meeting of the association, [[Ray Hyman]] and Honorton debated the results of the psi ganzfeld experiments. Each had analyzed all known ganzfeld experiments and reached very different conclusions. Their arguments appeared in the March 1985 issue of the Journal of Parapsychology, and in December 1986 they published a joint article.[^15] A chronology of Chinese interest in exceptional functions of the human body in the STARGATE collection records that H. E. Puthoff of SRI International reported at the 1985 convention an attempt to repeat experiments reported by researchers from the People's Republic of China at the association's 1982 convention, and that the repetition was partially successful, with smaller magnitude than the Chinese results.[^16]
The 28th convention, at [[Tufts University]] in Medford, Massachusetts, in August 1985, carried several papers by SRI staff, cited in SRI reports in the collection. Hubbard, May and Puthoff presented "Possible Production of Photons During a Remote Viewing Task: Preliminary Results" (proceedings pp. 355-372), and [[Jessica Utts]] and May presented "An Exact Method for Combining P-values" (pp. 431-439).[^17][^18] May, Humphrey and Mathews presented "A Figure of Merit Analysis for Free-Response Material" (pp. 343-354), Radin, May and Thomson "Psi Experiments with Random Number Generators: Meta-Analysis Part 1" (pp. 199-234), and May, Radin, Hubbard, Humphrey and Utts "Psi Experiments with Random Number Generators: An Informational Model" (pp. 237-266).[^19] The convention table lists Robert L. Morris as president for 1985 and Dean Radin as program chair.[^3]
At the 29th convention, at Sonoma State University in Rohnert Park, California, in August 1986, Radin and May presented "Testing the Intuitive Data Sorting Model with Pseudorandom Number Generators: A Proposed Method" (pp. 539-554).[^20] At the 31st convention in Montreal in August 1988, Humphrey, May and Utts presented "Fuzzy Set Technology in the Analysis of Remote Viewing" (pp. 378-394), and May and S. J. P. Spottiswoode presented "A Michelson Interferometer Schrodinger Cat: The Death of the Observation Theories."[^21] At the 33rd convention, at the National 4-H Center in Chevy Chase, Maryland, in August 1990, May, Luke, Trask and Frivold presented "Observation of Neuromagnetic Fields in Response to Remote Stimuli" (pp. 168-185), cited in a report of Science Applications International Corporation, and Lantz, May and Piantanida presented "Remote Viewing: From what Time Frame Does the Information Originate?" (pp. 138-150), cited in a compilation of the Cognitive Sciences Laboratory.[^22]
### Research endowment and current organization
The association's website, archived in 2016, describes the Parapsychological Association Research Endowment, created from a donation by Schmeidler. Its grants are administered by the board through a committee, for scholarships and grants-in-aid, usually for projects costing between $2,000 and $5,000. The 2016 site also describes the association as a non-profit, non-adjudicating organization that endorses no ideologies or beliefs other than the value of rigorous scientific and scholarly inquiry.[^23][^24] The association also administers the [[Gilbert Roller]] Fund for field investigation of macroscopic psychokinesis.[^25]
The association's current website lists [[Gerhard Mayer]] as president for 2025 and 2026, with Erika A. Pratte as vice-president, Jacob Glazier as secretary and Diane Hennacy as treasurer.[^26]
### Footnotes
[^1]: "Announcement of Formation of the Parapsychological Association," *Journal of Parapsychology* 21, no. 4 (December 1957), pp. 315-316. https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-parapsychology_1957-12_21_4
[^2]: Parapsychological Association, "About," parapsychological.org/about/, accessed October 9, 2026. https://parapsychological.org/about/
[^3]: "PA Convention History," Parapsychological Association website, archived December 29, 2016, listing president, convention city, dates, program chair and banquet speaker for 1958 to 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20161229231222/http://www.parapsych.org/section/23/convention_history.aspx
[^4]: "The Parapsychological Association, First Annual Convention," *Journal of Parapsychology* 22, no. 1 (March 1958). https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-parapsychology_1958-03_22_1
[^5]: E. Douglas Dean, "Die Parapsychological Association, affiliiertes Mitglied der American Association for the Advancement of Science. Parapsychologie ist jetzt eine anerkannte Wissenschaft. Wie es dazu kam," *Zeitschrift für Anomalistik* 15 (2015), pp. 47-54. Dean took part in the events he describes. https://www.anomalistik.de/images/pdf/zfa/zfa2015_12_047_dean.pdf
[^6]: Proposal submitted by Captain Edgar D. Mitchell, USN, prepared by Henry (Andrija) Puharich, M.D., "Direct Brain Perception" research program, undated, citing Dr. Glass, the 1969 AAAS president, in note 24. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00787r000100190001-2
[^7]: Dael Wolfle, "AAAS Council Meeting, 1969," *Science* 167, no. 3921 (February 20, 1970), pp. 1151-1153. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.167.3921.1151
[^8]: English typescript of the account of the December 1969 AAAS Council session that Dean published in German in 2015, in the STARGATE collection, CIA-RDP96-00787R000400040024-0. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00787r000400040024-0
[^9]: Martin Gardner, "Quantum Theory and Quack Theory," *New York Review of Books*, May 17, 1979, including the appendices and letter of John Archibald Wheeler. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1979/05/17/quantum-theory-and-quack-theory/
[^10]: John Archibald Wheeler, letter to William D. Carey, American Association for the Advancement of Science, "'A Decade of Permissiveness'," *New York Review of Books*, May 17, 1979. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1979/05/17/a-decade-of-permissiveness/
[^11]: John Archibald Wheeler, "The Superluminal," letter, *New York Review of Books*, September 27, 1979. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1979/09/27/the-superluminal-2/
[^12]: Olivier Costa de Beauregard, Richard D. Mattuck, Brian D. Josephson and Evan Harris Walker, with a reply by Martin Gardner, "Parapsychology: An Exchange," *New York Review of Books*, June 26, 1980. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1980/06/26/parapsychology-an-exchange/
[^13]: Jim Schnabel, *Remote Viewers*, Dell, 1997.
[^14]: "McDonnell Establishes Laboratory for Psychic Research," *PSI News* (Parapsychological Association) 2, no. 4 (October 1979), by Peter R. Phillips. CIA-RDP96-00787R000200080029-3. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00787r000200080029-3
[^15]: "Cognitive Sciences Laboratory, *Anomalous Mental Phenomena: Selected Papers*," STARGATE collection, CIA-RDP96-00789R003100030001-4, describing the 1982 debate and the ganzfeld meta-analysis, and crediting Edwin C. May of SRI International. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00789r003100030001-4
[^16]: "Chronology of Recent Interest in Exceptional Functions of the Human Body in the People's Republic of China," STARGATE collection, CIA-RDP96-00792R000400300011-9, entry for August 1985. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00792r000400300011-9
[^17]: SRI International, *Enhanced Human Performance Investigations*, final report, December 1988, covering November 1983 to October 1985, references A-10 (Hubbard, May and Puthoff; Utts and May). CIA-RDP96-00789R002200400001-3. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00789r002200400001-3
[^18]: Utts and May, "An Exact Method for Combining P-values," *Proceedings of Presented Papers, Parapsychological Association 28th Annual Convention*, pp. 431-439, in a bibliography in the STARGATE collection, CIA-RDP96-00791R000200170001-8. The Hubbard, May and Puthoff paper appears with pp. 355-372 in CIA-RDP96-00789R002200190001-7. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00791r000200170001-8
[^19]: STARGATE collection, CIA-RDP96-00787R000300150001-4 (May, Humphrey and Mathews, pp. 343-354) and CIA-RDP96-00787R000300300001-7 (Radin, May and Thomson, pp. 199-234; May, Radin, Hubbard, Humphrey and Utts, pp. 237-266), citing the *Proceedings of the 28th Annual Convention of the Parapsychological Association*, Tufts University, August 1985. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00787r000300300001-7
[^20]: SRI International report, STARGATE collection, CIA-RDP96-00789R002200220001-3, citing the *Proceedings of Presented Papers of the 29th Annual Parapsychological Association Convention*, Sonoma State University, August 1986. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00789r002200220001-3
[^21]: Cognitive Sciences Laboratory compilation, CIA-RDP96-00789R003100030001-4 (Humphrey, May and Utts, pp. 378-394), and a STARGATE bibliography, CIA-RDP96-00791R000200170001-8 (May and Spottiswoode), citing the *Proceedings of Presented Papers, Parapsychological Association 31st Annual Convention*, Montreal, August 1988. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00789r003100030001-4
[^22]: SAIC report, STARGATE collection, CIA-RDP96-00787R000300310001-6 (May, Luke, Trask and Frivold, pp. 168-185), and Cognitive Sciences Laboratory compilation, CIA-RDP96-00789R003100030001-4 (Lantz, May and Piantanida, pp. 138-150), citing the *Proceedings of Presented Papers, Parapsychological Association 33rd Annual Convention*, National 4-H Center, Chevy Chase, Maryland, August 1990. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00787r000300310001-6
[^23]: Parapsychological Association website, archived December 29, 2016, "First established in 1957, the PA has been an affiliated organization of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) since 1969," and the non-profit, non-adjudicating statement. https://web.archive.org/web/20161229231222/http://www.parapsych.org/section/8/parapsychological_association.aspx
[^24]: Parapsychological Association Research Endowment page, archived December 29, 2016, describing the Schmeidler donation, the award process and the $2,000 to $5,000 range. https://web.archive.org/web/20161229231222/http://www.parapsych.org/section/8/parapsychological_association.aspx
[^25]: Parapsychological Association, "Gilbert Roller Fund" page, archived December 29, 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20161229195421/http://www.parapsych.org/section/9/gilbert_roller_fund.aspx
[^26]: Parapsychological Association, "About," current board listing for 2025-2026. https://parapsychological.org/about/

15
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Rand Corporation.md
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@ -64,7 +64,7 @@ The project's first phase (mid-1964 through early 1965) was led by [[John Donnel
### Phase II: Goure and the Air Power Thesis
Phase II (early 1965 through April 1967) was controlled by [[Leon Goure|Leon Gouré]], head of Rand's Social Science Department, previously a Soviet civil defense expert. Gouré redirected the study's emphasis toward identifying which specific weapons and tactics, particularly air power, most eroded VC morale. His published reports concluded that continued bombing pressure would be effective, that VC morale was declining under air assault, and that forces would surrender under sufficient sustained pressure. These conclusions were consumed favorably at senior levels. Walt Rostow, National Security Advisor to President Johnson, drew on Gouré's work in preparing optimistic briefings. Robert McNamara was described by colleagues as reading Gouré's reports "like good scotch." Gouré briefed General Westmoreland, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the NSC. Even Westmoreland later found Gouré's optimism excessive.[^1]
Phase II (early 1965 through April 1967) was controlled by [[Leon Goure|Leon Gouré]], head of Rand's Social Science Department, previously a Soviet civil defense expert. Gouré redirected the study's emphasis toward identifying which specific weapons and tactics, particularly air power, most eroded VC morale. His published reports concluded that continued bombing pressure would be effective, that VC morale was declining under air assault, and that forces would surrender under sufficient sustained pressure. These conclusions were consumed favorably at senior levels. [[Walt Rostow]], chairman of the State Department Policy Planning Council in 1965 and from April 1966 the President's special assistant for national security affairs, drew on Gouré's work in preparing optimistic briefings.[^9] Robert McNamara was described by colleagues as reading Gouré's reports "like good scotch." Gouré briefed General Westmoreland, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the NSC. Even Westmoreland later found Gouré's optimism excessive.[^1]
Field analyst [[Anthony Russo]], who arrived in Saigon in February 1965 and conducted interviews across the country, found the interview data so diverse that "it could be used to argue anything." He documented that Gouré's published conclusions required systematic selection of responses supporting his air power thesis while suppressing contradictory material. He also prepared a separate report documenting systematic torture of VC prisoners at detention sites where Rand's interviews were conducted, a document Ellsberg later described as "the first to document American complicity in the routine use of torture." Gouré instituted an informal censorship policy by which interview transcripts were sanitized before analysis, removing all mentions of torture or mistreatment of detainees by US forces and their allies. In February 1966, Gouré signed Russo's and Scott's names to a memorandum promoting increased air strikes, Agent Orange use for population displacement, and refugee generation without their knowledge or permission.[^1]
@ -96,9 +96,9 @@ Rand's Santa Monica headquarters is described in accounts from the period as res
### Remote Viewing Era References
In accounts of the 1970s parapsychology research milieu, Rand is noted as larger and more prestigious than the [[Stanford Research Institute|SRI]] among scientific think tanks, and it figures in the French accounts of 1959 and 1960 of a [[The Nautilus (Telepathy Project)|USS Nautilus]] telepathy experiment, which the U.S. Navy denied and which a 1975 DIA study called rumors.[^9][^10]
In accounts of the 1970s parapsychology research milieu, Rand is noted as larger and more prestigious than the [[Stanford Research Institute|SRI]] among scientific think tanks, and it figures in the French accounts of 1959 and 1960 of a [[The Nautilus (Telepathy Project)|USS Nautilus]] telepathy experiment, which the U.S. Navy denied and which a 1975 DIA study called rumors.[^10][^11]
In Le Matin des magiciens, [[Jacques Bergier]] and [[Louis Pauwels]] wrote that at the beginning of 1957 the Rand Corporation laid before [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|President Eisenhower]] a report proposing telepathy for communicating with submarines, particularly under the polar ice cap, and that the report had no effect for a year. In the same chapter they list Rand among the organizations with parapsychology study laboratories, and a footnote cites a "Rapport de la Rand Corporation, 31 août 1958" in connection with a statement that the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission proposed in 1958 to use clairvoyants to guess where Russian bombs would fall.[^11] A report to Soviet Defense Minister [[Rodion Malinovsky]] of March 1960, as quoted by [[I. V. Tsykunov]], says that from the end of 1957 Rand, Westinghouse and Bell Telephone had been working intensively on telepathy.[^12]
In Le Matin des magiciens, [[Jacques Bergier]] and [[Louis Pauwels]] wrote that at the beginning of 1957 the Rand Corporation laid before [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|President Eisenhower]] a report proposing telepathy for communicating with submarines, particularly under the polar ice cap, and that the report had no effect for a year. In the same chapter they list Rand among the organizations with parapsychology study laboratories, and a footnote cites a "Rapport de la Rand Corporation, 31 août 1958" in connection with a statement that the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission proposed in 1958 to use clairvoyants to guess where Russian bombs would fall.[^12] A report to Soviet Defense Minister [[Rodion Malinovsky]] of March 1960, as quoted by [[I. V. Tsykunov]], says that from the end of 1957 Rand, Westinghouse and Bell Telephone had been working intensively on telepathy.[^13]
### Footnotes
@ -110,7 +110,8 @@ In Le Matin des magiciens, [[Jacques Bergier]] and [[Louis Pauwels]] wrote that
[^6]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 187 note 76.
[^7]: RAND RM-365, Jean M. Hungerford, The Exploitation of Superstitions for Purposes of Psychological Warfare (April 14, 1950; ASTIA ATI 210637), full text at https://archive.org/details/1950-hungerford-exploitation-of-superstitions-for-purposes-of-psychological-warfare; rand.org record https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_memoranda/RM365.html. Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 201 note 128 (dates it April 15, 1950).
[^8]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," pp. 205-207 and notes 145-150, citing Goldhamer, The 1951 Korean Armistice Conference: A Personal Memoir, and Robert C. Tucker's memoir for the Joy detail.
[^9]: Schnabel, Jim. *Remote Viewers*. Dell, 1997.
[^10]: Maire, Louis F., III, and J. D. LaMothe. *Soviet and Czechoslovakian Parapsychology Research*, DST-1810S-387-75, September 1975, CIA-RDP96-00787R000500420001-2, https://cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00787r000500420001-2.
[^11]: Pauwels, Louis, and Jacques Bergier. *Le Matin des magiciens*, abridged and annotated university edition prepared by Yvonne Lenard with Monica Faulkner (Harper and Row, 1967), pp. 136-141.
[^12]: Tsykunov, I. V. "От фантазии к реальности: как история «Наутилуса» открыла гонку сверхъестественных вооружений между СССР и США" [From fantasy to reality: how the story of the Nautilus opened the race for supernatural weapons between the USSR and the USA]. Aliter, no. 20 (2023), pp. 34-55. https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/ot-fantazii-k-realnosti-kak-istoriya-nautilusa-otkryla-gonku-sverhestestvennyh-vooruzheniy-mezhdu-sssr-i-ssha. Sole source for the passages so cited.
[^9]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, Volume II, Vietnam, January-June 1965*, document 121, memorandum from Rostow as "Chairman of the Policy Planning Council," February 15, 1965, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v02/d121 ; *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, Volume IV, Vietnam, 1966*, document 115, memorandum from "the President's Special Assistant (Rostow)," April 5, 1966, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v04/d115
[^10]: Schnabel, Jim. *Remote Viewers*. Dell, 1997.
[^11]: Maire, Louis F., III, and J. D. LaMothe. *Soviet and Czechoslovakian Parapsychology Research*, DST-1810S-387-75, September 1975, CIA-RDP96-00787R000500420001-2, https://cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00787r000500420001-2.
[^12]: Pauwels, Louis, and Jacques Bergier. *Le Matin des magiciens*, abridged and annotated university edition prepared by Yvonne Lenard with Monica Faulkner (Harper and Row, 1967), pp. 136-141.
[^13]: Tsykunov, I. V. "От фантазии к реальности: как история «Наутилуса» открыла гонку сверхъестественных вооружений между СССР и США" [From fantasy to reality: how the story of the Nautilus opened the race for supernatural weapons between the USSR and the USA]. Aliter, no. 20 (2023), pp. 34-55. https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/ot-fantazii-k-realnosti-kak-istoriya-nautilusa-otkryla-gonku-sverhestestvennyh-vooruzheniy-mezhdu-sssr-i-ssha. Sole source for the passages so cited.

2
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Rex Productions.md
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@ -13,7 +13,7 @@ location: "Amsterdam, Netherlands"
---
Rex Productions was a hardcore pornography studio in [[Amsterdam]] linked to [[Jean-Michel Nihoul]]'s trafficking network through [[Marleen De Cokere]]. Rex Productions was operated by Didier Pellerin, a transvestite born in [[Paris|Paris, France]], who sold production through the Rex Product and Rox Film Product companies from the Netherlands. Pellerin had several charges for false documents and incentive to debauch. According to a police report, [[Jean-Michel Nihoul|Nihoul]] could have participated in sadomasochistic shoots at the studio. Pellerin hosted monthly buffet evenings at her premises for initiation to sadomasochism. The report noted that [[Marleen De Cokere]] had worked as a secretary at the studio, and an anonymous witness reported seeing photographs of children chained or in handcuffs at the premises, which appeared in a press book. Pellerin reportedly stated that the trade in pedophile videos was very lucrative in Belgium but dangerous.[^1]
Rex Productions was mentioned alongside [[Roxanne Films]] in the dossier compiled by the [[Morkhoven Workgroup]] that linked [[Marc Dutroux]] to child traffickers in [[Amsterdam]]. [[Jean-Michel Nihoul|Nihoul]] was charged as an accomplice in the kidnapping of [[Laetitia Delhez]] along with [[Annie Bouty]] and [[Marleen De Cokere]], who was linked to the hardcore child pornography studios [[Roxanne Films]] and Rex Productions in [[Amsterdam]]. The [[Morkhoven Workgroup]] dossier described [[Marc Dutroux|Dutroux]] as having frequented the studios as part of his connections to the Amsterdam-based child trafficking network.[^1]
Rex Productions was mentioned alongside [[Roxanne Films]] in the dossier compiled by the [[Morkhoven Workgroup]] that linked [[Marc Dutroux]] to child traffickers in [[Amsterdam]]. [[Jean-Michel Nihoul|Nihoul]] was charged as an accomplice in the kidnapping of a 14-year-old girl along with [[Annie Bouty]] and [[Marleen De Cokere]], who was linked to the hardcore child pornography studios [[Roxanne Films]] and Rex Productions in [[Amsterdam]]. The [[Morkhoven Workgroup]] dossier described [[Marc Dutroux|Dutroux]] as having frequented the studios as part of his connections to the Amsterdam-based child trafficking network.[^1]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Dovey, S. (2023). *Eye of the Chickenhawk*. United States: Thehotstar.

10
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Rockefeller Brothers Fund.md
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@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ tags:
- Policy
summary: "Foundation established in 1940 by the five Rockefeller brothers whose Special Studies Project of 1956-61, directed by Henry Kissinger until 1958, produced the Rockefeller Panel Reports on security, economy and foreign policy."
created: 2026-06-05
updated: 2026-09-23
updated: 2026-10-09
relations:
---
@ -24,11 +24,11 @@ In the 1950s, the RBF became a vehicle for policy development. A trustee of the
The RBF's most consequential initiative was the Special Studies Project, launched in 1956 under Nelson Rockefeller's direction. The project convened six separate panels of experts from government, business, academia, and the military to study major challenges facing the United States.
The panels produced a series of influential reports between 1958 and 1961, collectively known as the "Prospect for America" reports and published in a compiled volume as *Prospect for America: The Rockefeller Panel Reports* (Doubleday, 1961). Individual panel papers were circulated to government officials before the consolidated publication. Their recommendations on nuclear weapons, military strategy, economic growth, and foreign policy substantially shaped the policy frameworks of both the final Eisenhower years and the early Kennedy administration. Veterans of the Special Studies Project who moved into the Kennedy White House included [[McGeorge Bundy]], [[Walt Rostow]], [[Roswell Gilpatric]], and [[Edward Lansdale]].[^2]
The panels produced a series of influential reports between 1958 and 1961, collectively known as the "Prospect for America" reports and published in a compiled volume as *Prospect for America: The Rockefeller Panel Reports* (Doubleday, 1961). Individual panel papers were circulated to government officials before the consolidated publication. Their recommendations on nuclear weapons, military strategy, economic growth, and foreign policy substantially shaped the policy frameworks of both the final Eisenhower years and the early Kennedy administration. Veterans of the Special Studies Project who moved into the Kennedy White House included [[McGeorge Bundy]], [[Walt Rostow]] (listed in Prospect for America among the "Consultants and Authors"),[^2] [[Roswell Gilpatric]], and [[Edward Lansdale]].[^3]
### Panel II: International Security (Kissinger)
[[Henry A. Kissinger|Henry Kissinger]] of Harvard's Center for International Affairs was director of the Special Studies Project until his resignation on June 30, 1958, and thereafter a consultant; the report of Panel II, *International Security: The Military Aspect,* was prepared under his direction. Panel IV dealt with the American economy.[^3] The panel's work on nuclear strategy and limited war doctrine reflected the [[Rockefeller family]]'s long-standing interest in "flexible response" military capabilities as an alternative to massive nuclear retaliation.
[[Henry A. Kissinger|Henry Kissinger]] of Harvard's Center for International Affairs was director of the Special Studies Project until his resignation on June 30, 1958, and thereafter a consultant; the report of Panel II, *International Security: The Military Aspect,* was prepared under his direction. Panel IV dealt with the American economy.[^2] The panel's work on nuclear strategy and limited war doctrine reflected the [[Rockefeller family]]'s long-standing interest in "flexible response" military capabilities as an alternative to massive nuclear retaliation.
Kissinger's panel work through the RBF gave him the intellectual platform and Rockefeller family connections that launched his career as a foreign policy adviser. After the Special Studies Project, Kissinger continued to serve as Nelson Rockefeller's foreign policy consultant through the 1960s.[^4]
@ -43,7 +43,7 @@ Nelson Rockefeller used the RBF's national security framework to promote bomb sh
### Footnotes
[^1]: Gerard Colby and Charlotte Dennett, *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon*. HarperCollins, 1995. Ch. 25, Appendix A.
[^2]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 25, 27.
[^3]: Rockefeller Brothers Fund. *Prospect for America: The Rockefeller Panel Reports.* Doubleday, 1961, list of project staff and introduction to the report of Panel II. https://archive.org/details/prospect-for-america-the-rockefeller-panel-reports-rockefeller-brothers-fund-1961
[^2]: Rockefeller Brothers Fund. *Prospect for America: The Rockefeller Panel Reports.* Doubleday, 1961, list of project staff and introduction to the report of Panel II. https://archive.org/details/prospect-for-america-the-rockefeller-panel-reports-rockefeller-brothers-fund-1961
[^3]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 25, 27.
[^4]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 25, 27.
[^5]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 25.

138
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Round Table Foundation.md
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@ -1,24 +1,140 @@
---
created: 2025-07-23
updated: 2025-07-23
updated: 2026-10-09
title: Round Table Foundation
aliases:
- Round Table Foundation
- Round Table Foundation Laboratory
- Round Table Laboratory of Experimental Electrobiology
- Round Table Foundation, Glen Cove, Maine
tags:
- organization
- research
- private
description: The Round Table Foundation was a research facility founded by Andrija Puharich in Maine, dedicated to the study of psychic phenomena.
- Organization
- PrivateOrganization
- Research
- Parapsychology
- Psi
- RoundTableFoundation
- Maine
- 1940s
- 1950s
category: "Private Organization"
start: 1948
end: 1958
location: "Glen Cove, Maine"
summary: "The Round Table Foundation was a research facility founded by Andrija Puharich in Glen Cove, Maine, in the late 1940s."
summary: "The Round Table Foundation was a privately funded parapsychology laboratory that Andrija Puharich founded in Maine, which operated until 1957 or 1958 and tested psychics inside a Faraday cage."
relations:
- type: founded
with: "[[Andrija Puharich]]"
reverse: true
start: 1948
fn: 2
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Andrija Puharich]]"
reverse: true
role: "director of research"
start: 1949
end: 1958
fn: 1
- type: funded
with: "[[Alice Astor Bouverie]]"
reverse: true
start: 1948
end: 1956
fn: 8
- type: funded
with: "[[Marcella Miller du Pont]]"
reverse: true
fn: 8
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Arthur M. Young]]"
reverse: true
start: 1952
end: 1953
fn: 11
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Eileen Garrett]]"
reverse: true
fn: 12
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Peter Hurkos]]"
reverse: true
start: 1956
end: 1956
fn: 15
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Harry Stump]]"
reverse: true
fn: 12
---
The [[Round Table Foundation]] was a research facility founded by [[Andrija Puharich]] in Glen Cove, Maine, in the late 1940s. It was dedicated to the study of [[Parapsychology|psi]] phenomena, particularly [[Extrasensory Perception|ESP]] and [[Psychokinesis]], and was funded by a group of wealthy patrons interested in the paranormal, including [[Alice Astor Bouverie]] and [[Marcella Miller du Pont]].[^1]
The [[Round Table Foundation]] was a privately funded parapsychology laboratory that [[Andrija Puharich]] founded in Maine. It studied [[Parapsychology|psi]] phenomena, principally [[Extrasensory Perception|ESP]] and [[Psychokinesis]], and tested gifted subjects inside a [[Faraday cage]]. Its patrons included [[Alice Astor Bouverie]] and [[Marcella Miller du Pont]], and the laboratory drew visits from [[Aldous Huxley]].[^1]
The foundation was housed in a 45-room mansion called the Warrenton Estate, and it was here that Puharich conducted his early research, including experiments with psychics like [[Eileen Garrett]] in a [[Faraday cage]]. The foundation also explored other areas of research, such as audio waves and human hearing.[^1]
### Founding and Maine laboratory
The Round Table Foundation attracted the attention of the U.S. government, and Puharich was eventually called back into military service. The foundation's work, though often blending science with mysticism, played a role in the early history of U.S. government interest in psychic phenomena.[^1]
Puharich's curriculum vitae, filed in the trial record and also held in [[Central Intelligence Agency]] files, states that he held the position of director of research at the foundation from 1948 to 1958, "except for a two-year leave of absence for military duty (1953-55)," and that he "helped to found" the non-profit foundation at [[Glen Cove, Maine]].[^2] His sworn testimony in the patent litigation gives the directorship as 1949 to 1958.[^1] The curriculum vitae describes the first years as animal research under a three-year fellowship from the [[General Foods Corporation]], recording electrical responses of dogs and cats to taste, and a collaboration from 1949 to 1952 with the ear surgeon [[Samuel Rosen]] on the stapes surgery that Rosen later extended to humans.[^2] The [[Warrenton Estate]], a 45-room mansion in Glen Cove, is described as the foundation's home and laboratory.[^3]
---
A [[Portland Press Herald]] story datelined [[Camden, Maine|Camden]] on January 9, 1949 described the "Round Table Foundation Laboratory of experimental electrobiology" as set up in a converted barn on the Bald Mountain retreat near Camden, close to the home of [[Zlatko Balokovic]] and his wife [[Joyce Borden Balokovic]].[^4] The 1949 story places it at Camden, the curriculum vitae and trial testimony at Glen Cove, and the [[Down East]] magazine account at Rockport, while describing the estate as at Glen Cove.[^3] The Down East account states that the foundation "formally shut down in 1957" and that the estate became a Bible school in 1959.[^3]
[^1]: Jacobsen, Annie. *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis*. Little, Brown and Company, 2017.
### Army service and the 1952 Pentagon paper
Puharich testified that the [[Office of the Chief of Psychological Warfare]] of the [[U.S. Army]] approached him in 1952 and early 1953 to run a test, which consisted of photographs sealed in opaque envelopes that a subject held and described, and that the results "were given in confidence to the Department of the Army people who were involved."[^5] The paper he presented, "An Evaluation of the Possible Usefulness of Extrasensory Perception in Psychological Warfare," is dated November 23, 1952 in his curriculum vitae, for a conference on psychological warfare at the Pentagon.[^2]
A 1977 article in the CIA's journal [[Studies in Intelligence]] by [[Kenneth A. Kress]] states that "in 1952 the Department of Defense was lectured on the possible usefulness of extrasensory perception in psychological warfare." Its footnote to that sentence names Puharich's "On the Possible Usefulness of Extrasensory Perception in Psychological Warfare," "delivered to a 1952 Pentagon conference," and cites [[The Washington Post|The Washington Post]] of August 7, 1977. The article's reference list gives a Post item of that date as J. Wilhelm, "Psychic Spying?", Outlook section.[^6] Kress's next paragraph states that parapsychology "induced one of the earliest U. S. Government parapsychology investigations" when the chief of the CIA's Office of Technical Service became interested in ESP, and that [[Stephen I. Abrams]], director of the parapsychological laboratory at [[Oxford University]], then prepared under [[Project ULTRA]] a review article "which claimed ESP was demonstrated but not understood or controllable." The article cites that work as Abrams, "Extrasensory Perception," draft report, December 14, 1965.[^6]
From 1953 to 1955 Puharich served as a captain in the Medical Corps and chief of the outpatient service at the [[U.S. Army Dispensary]] of the [[U.S. Army Chemical Center]] in Maryland. He testified that there he "conducted biological and radiological warfare research."[^5] His curriculum vitae lists "specialized training in chemical, radiological and biological warfare and classified responsibilities therefrom."[^2] [[Roger A. Beaumont]] wrote in the January 1982 issue of [[Signal (magazine)|Signal]] that Puharich's connections with the military and intelligence communities "go back to the early 1950s," when he "worked in the Army's Chemical and Biological Warfare Center at Ft. Detrick, Md."[^7]
Jacobsen wrote that a Lieutenant Colonel [[John B. Stanley]] of the Office of the Chief of Psychological Warfare, who also served as an Army liaison to the CIA, met with Puharich and recalled him to military service in March 1953.[^8] The trial record and the curriculum vitae confirm the Army's approach and the 1953 service, but neither names Stanley.[^2][^5]
The CIA's interest in Puharich continued after the Army years. A January 24, 1973 memorandum from the agency's Office of Research and Development, reviewing the [[Stanford Research Institute]] film of [[Uri Geller]], states that "Geller's connections with Dr. A. Puharich, with whom many unsavory reports have been linked, also is disturbing."[^9] A 1967 report by the Czech parapsychologist [[Milan Ryzl]] on parapsychology in Eastern Europe states that Soviet interlocutors showed interest in the work and theories of Puharich.[^10]
### Faraday cage and the subjects
The laboratory's principal apparatus was a Faraday cage used to test whether shielding enhanced ESP scores. Jacobsen wrote that Puharich built it with the inventor [[John Hays Hammond Jr.]].[^8] The trial photographs show the cage as used in the Glen Cove laboratory in 1952 and 1953 and possibly into 1955.[^1] [[Arthur M. Young]], who met Puharich in 1952, testified that his own [[Foundation for the Study of Consciousness]], chartered in 1952, took over the guidance of the Round Table's research while Puharich was drafted, covering late 1952 and 1953. Young's job was to locate sensitive subjects and bring them to Maine for tests in the cage.[^11]
Puharich testified that he used nine principal subjects at the foundation, among them [[Peter Hurkos]], [[Harry Stump]], [[Eileen Garrett]] and [[D. G. Vinod]].[^12] Of Garrett, Puharich testified that inside the treated cage her results gave a probability against chance of 5.5 times ten to the minus seventh, while a control subject outside the cage scored at chance expectation (probability .64). In a run with the cage uncharged her score was at the .28 level.[^13]
Puharich testified that in a test before the Psychic Research Society of the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] the percipient in the treated cage scored 18 hits out of 50, "which gives a probability of about 5.5 times 10 to the minus 7 against chance occurrence."[^14] The demonstrations of September 29 and 30, 1956 at the foundation were recorded in an 11-page report that Puharich entered in the record as Plaintiff's Exhibit 7.[^15] The report lists five MIT student observers, among them a Charles Tart, and lists Mrs. Balokovic among others present; [[Charles Tart]], later a parapsychologist, had studied at MIT before transferring to [[Duke University]].[^15] The report describes split Matching Abacus Test series in which Peter Hurkos and a second subject, written "Mr. Stone" in the report, sat in separate Faraday cages about 18 feet apart. Most runs scored at chance. For Demonstration No. 11 (50 trials, 18 on-target hits) the report states that the results "were considered evidence for the existence of telepathic interaction on the part of Mr. Stone and Mr. Hurkos."[^15] Puharich's counsel described the series in the appellate brief as "a clear demonstration of a telepathic interaction between one Peter Hurkos and one Harry Stone."[^16] The testimony spells the second subject's name "Harry Stump."[^12]
The Stanford Research Institute grant application of 1972 by [[Russell Targ]] describes "privately-circulated material" by Puharich on experiments in which subjects were placed in separate Faraday cages, or one subject in a copper-sheet cage while the other sat in a car a mile from the laboratory, and states that scoring fell back to ordinary levels when the shielding or the ground connection was broken.[^17] An anonymous mid-1960s paper in the CIA's files, "The World of the Supra-Sensory," states that Puharich "was director of a nonprofit foundation in Maine for several years where he studied various sensitives under 'scientific' conditions" and "was responsible for bringing Peter Hurkos to this country."[^18]
### Patrons and visitors
Jacobsen wrote that Alice Astor Bouverie, the only daughter of [[John Jacob Astor IV]], provided an initial check of $106,000 in 1948 and served as the foundation's first vice president.[^8] The Down East account states that Bouverie wrote the check that launched the foundation and that she died unexpectedly in July 1956.[^3] Jacobsen also wrote that Marcella Miller du Pont was a principal patron who was called the "mother of magic" within the organization, and that Library of Congress documents show she brought the foundation to the attention of [[John E. Gingrich]], director of security and intelligence at the [[Atomic Energy Commission]].[^8] Jacobsen names [[Henry Belk]] as a later investor who brought Peter Hurkos to Maine in the fall of 1956.[^8]
Huxley visited the laboratory in August 1955 for about two weeks, according to the Down East account, which states that he arrived by commuter plane at Owls Head and went on by taxi, quotes him describing Puharich as "a lively bird," and quotes a letter in which he wrote of the visit, "It was all very lively . . . and, I really think, promising."[^3] Puharich's curriculum vitae records that he sat on a 1960 symposium at Rancho La Puerta in Tecate, Mexico, moderated by Huxley.[^2] Jacobsen wrote that Huxley was present in August 1955 when Puharich gave Stump the mushroom [[Teonanacatl|teonanácatl]] without Stump's knowledge, and that Huxley objected and insisted that an antidote be given.[^8]
### Mushroom research
Puharich's curriculum vitae lists membership in the Mycological Society of San Francisco from 1959.[^2] From 1958 to 1961 he worked at the U.S. Army Hospital at Fort Ord, California, and in his testimony he described himself as a special consultant in mycology and mushroom poisoning.[^1] A 1960 expedition he led into the Chatino country of Oaxaca, Mexico, was sponsored by the [[U.S. Army Chemical Corps|Army Chemical Corps]], the [[University of Washington]] and the [[Aluminum Company of America]].[^2] Puharich's book *The Sacred Mushroom: Key to the Door of Eternity* was published by Doubleday in 1959.[^19]
Jacobsen wrote that the CIA, through an officer named James Moore, bypassed Puharich and approached [[R. Gordon Wasson]] directly about the mushroom for [[Project MKUltra|MKULTRA Subproject 58]], and that Puharich was sidelined from it.[^8] Jacobsen also wrote that a trance by Stump in June 1954, in which Stump drew a mushroom that Puharich identified as [[Amanita muscaria]], gave the CIA a key lead in its search.[^8]
### Patent litigation
Puharich filed patent application Serial No. 291,096 on June 27, 1963, for a "Method and Apparatus for Creating a Controlled Condition for the Observation of the Sensory Abilities of a Human Subject." The Patent Office examiner finally rejected the claims on February 16, 1965, and the Board of Appeals affirmed on June 30, 1966.[^1] Puharich sued under 35 U.S.C. section 145 against [[Edward J. Brenner]], Commissioner of Patents. The district court entered judgment for the Commissioner, and Young testified for the plaintiff at the trial.[^1] On June 25, 1969 the [[U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit]] affirmed in an opinion by Circuit Judge [[Leventhal]], which describes the device as "a kind of cage" with electrical installations in the screen casing and declines to disturb the district court's findings.[^2]
### Closing and later record
The curriculum vitae ends the directorship in 1958, the trial testimony gives 1958, and the Down East account gives 1957.[^1][^2][^3] From 1961 Puharich was president and director of medical research of the [[Intelectron Corporation]] in New York, which he testified was formed "to develop and market certain of my ideas and patents in the field of hearing."[^1]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Transcript of Record, Appendix, *Puharich v. Brenner*, No. 22286 (D.C. Cir.), testimony of Henry K. Puharich on direct examination (Appx. 22a-23a, 58a-67a) and testimony of Arthur M. Young (Appx. 36a-37a), https://archive.org/details/dc_circ_1968_22286_henry_k_puharich_v_edward_j_brenner.
[^2]: Henry K. Puharich, curriculum vitae, Appendix to the record in *Puharich v. Brenner* (above), and CIA Reading Room document "Direct Brain Perception/Action," submitted by Captain Edgar D. Mitchell, USN, prepared by Henry (Andrija) Puharich, CIA-RDP96-00787R000100190001-2, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00787r000100190001-2. Also *Puharich v. Brenner*, 415 F.2d 979 (D.C. Cir. 1969), Leventhal, J., https://static.case.law/f2d/415/cases/0979-01.json.
[^3]: Down East, "When a Shadowy Maine Estate Was an Epicenter of Psychics and Psychedelics," https://downeast.com/history/psych-out.
[^4]: Jim Moore, "Secrets Of Life," *Portland Press Herald* (Portland, Me.), January 9, 1949, p. 61, https://www.newspapers.com/image/848421406/.
[^5]: Transcript of Record, *Puharich v. Brenner*, Appx. 66a-67a (Army approach, confidential results) and Appx. 23a (Army Chemical Center service).
[^6]: Kenneth A. Kress, "Parapsychology in Intelligence: A Personal Review and Conclusions," *Studies in Intelligence*, vol. 21, no. 4, winter 1977, CIA-RDP96-00791R000200030040-0, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00791r000200030040-0. Footnote 1 and the reference list.
[^7]: Roger A. Beaumont, "On the Strategic Potential of ESP," *Signal*, January 1982, p. 39, CIA-RDP96-00788R001700360003-3, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001700360003-3.
[^8]: Annie Jacobsen, *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis* (Little, Brown and Company, 2017).
[^9]: Memorandum, Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Research and Development, ORD-413-73, "Briefing by Stanford Research Institute," January 24, 1973, CIA-RDP96-00787R000400070029-2, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00787r000400070029-2.
[^10]: Milan Ryzl, "Report on the Situation in Parapsychology in Eastern Europe," summer 1967, CIA-RDP96-00787R000400010036-0, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00787r000400010036-0.
[^11]: Transcript of Record, *Puharich v. Brenner*, Appx. 36a-37a, testimony of Arthur M. Young on the 1952 meeting, the charter of the Foundation for the Study of Consciousness and the 1952 to 1953 guidance of research.
[^12]: Transcript of Record, *Puharich v. Brenner*, Appx. 66a-67a, testimony of Henry K. Puharich listing the nine principal subjects.
[^13]: Transcript of Record, *Puharich v. Brenner*, testimony of Henry K. Puharich on cross-examination, Appx. 73a-74a, describing the Garrett control experiments and the probabilities reported for the treated and control runs.
[^14]: Transcript of Record, *Puharich v. Brenner*, Appx. 61a-63a, direct testimony of Henry K. Puharich on the Psychic Research Society test.
[^15]: Plaintiff's Exhibit 7, Puharich report, Transcript of Record, *Puharich v. Brenner*, Appendix, section 8.80 and following (laboratory demonstration for the Psychic Research Society of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, September 29 and 30, 1956; split Matching Abacus Test series between Peter Hurkos and Harry Stone). Exhibit 7 is at Appx. p. 178a.
[^16]: Brief for Appellant, *Puharich v. Brenner*, No. 22286 (D.C. Cir.), bound with the Transcript of Record at https://archive.org/details/dc_circ_1968_22286_henry_k_puharich_v_edward_j_brenner.
[^17]: Russell Targ, Public Health Service grant application "Techniques To Enhance Extraordinary Human Perception," Stanford Research Institute, project period October 1, 1972 to October 1, 1973, CIA-RDP96-00787R000100150001-6, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00787r000100150001-6.
[^18]: "The World of the Supra-Sensory," anonymous typescript by a behavioral scientist, CIA-RDP96-00787R000400040032-1, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00787r000400040032-1.
[^19]: Andrija Puharich, *The Sacred Mushroom: Key to the Door of Eternity* (Doubleday, 1959), as listed in a bibliography in CIA-RDP96-00788R001200230018-6, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001200230018-6.

3
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Society for the Investigation of Human Ecology.md
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@ -121,6 +121,8 @@ The New York Times reported on October 9, 1977 that "Sociological, cultural and
[[Patrick Oster]] of the [[Chicago Sun-Times]] reported in the [[Washington Post]] of September 11, 1977 that the CIA had financed a research project at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] on how to turn Soviet scientists into agents. The article said that, "As part of its Project MK-ULTRA," the agency, "using a private foundation as a 'front,'" spent a total of $12,000 in 1958 and 1959 on determining "what criteria can be developed in spotting and assessing [Soviet scientists] as potential agent recruits," according to CIA memos the Sun-Times had obtained. The research, "which relied heavily on interviews with American and Western scientists returning from the Soviet Union," was conducted by [[Anthony J. Wiener]], then affiliated with MIT's [[Center for International Studies]] and later a consultant to the [[Hudson Institute]], whom the article called "apparently an unwitting pawn in the CIA's mind-control project." It described the Society as "the now defunct Society for the Investigation of Human Ecology, A New York-based CIA front set up in the 1950s to provide a legitimate cover for CIA research projects, including some involving 'brainwashing.'" A CIA memo of September 17, 1958 quoted there said that "Given a model or prototype [of a scientist], it is desired that guidance be provided as regards the most effective way or ways in which repressed and rationalized anti-regime motivations may be aroused or, more properly, re-activated."[^17]
A CIA memorandum of November 18, 1958, addressed to the Comptroller under the heading "MKULTRA, Subproject No. 90," states that the subproject has been approved and that $12,000 of the overall MKULTRA project funds has been obligated to cover its expenses. The memorandum does not name the institution that performed the work.[^18]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Marks, John. *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate: The CIA and Mind Control.* Times Books, 1979, Chapter 9 ("The Proprietaries") - primary account of the Society's structure and funding relationships using surviving MKULTRA documents. "Project MKULTRA, the CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification." Senate Hearing, August 3, 1977.
@ -140,3 +142,4 @@ The New York Times reported on October 9, 1977 that "Sociological, cultural and
[^15]: Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*, "Conclusions" chapter, note on p. 207 (quoting James Monroe in *The New York Times*, August 2, 1977).
[^16]: Jo Thomas, "Extent of University Work for C.I.A. Is Hard to Pin Down," *The New York Times*, October 9, 1977 (dateline Washington, October 8). CIA reading room copy: https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp88-01315r000300390007-3 ; archive.org copy: https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01315r000300390007-3 .
[^17]: Patrick Oster, "CIA Envisioned Soviet Scientists as U.S. Agents," Chicago Sun-Times, reprinted in the Washington Post, September 11, 1977, p. A-9, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP88-01315R000400460003-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01315r000400460003-8
[^18]: CIA, memorandum for the Comptroller, "MKULTRA, Subproject No. 90," November 18, 1958, CIA reading room document 00017493. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-00017493

13
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/TAG Films.md
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@ -9,12 +9,17 @@ tags:
- Child_Pornography
- Snuff_Films
category: "Private Organization"
summary: "TAG Films was a video production company established in Amsterdam by three Welsh pedophiles: Alan Williams, John Gay, and Lee Tucker."
summary: "TAG Films was an Amsterdam video production company that S. Dovey described as established by Alan Williams, John Gay and Lee Tucker; Nick Davies wrote it sold through US and German distributors."
location: "Amsterdam, Netherlands"
---
TAG Films was a video production company established in Amsterdam by three Welsh pedophiles: [[Alan Williams]], [[John Gay]], and [[Lee Tucker]]. Williams managed [[Boys Club 21]] in Amsterdam's Spuistraat district and worked closely with [[Warwick Spinks]], who managed the [[Gay Palace]] nightclub across the street. A Scotland Yard informant named "Frank" described how the group produced a snuff film inside a barn belonging to a German man who frequented the boy brothels managed by Williams and Spinks. The investigation into TAG Films was part of [[Operation Framework]], the joint Scotland Yard and Dutch authorities inquiry conducted between 1992 and 1993 targeting suspected snuff pornography produced by British nationals in Amsterdam.[^1]
TAG Films was a video production company in Amsterdam. S. Dovey wrote that it was established by three Welsh pedophiles, [[Alan Williams]], [[John Gay]] and [[Lee Tucker]].[^1] [[Nick Davies]] wrote in 2000 that Williams, known as the Welsh Witch, arrived in Amsterdam in 1988 and managed [[Boys Club 21]] at 21 Spuistraat, and that across the road at number 44 [[Warwick Spinks]] ran a similar club, the [[Gay Palace]]; Davies wrote that both men "had much wider and crueller interests," and that Williams introduced Lee Tucker and John Gay, who "set up TAG Films."[^2] In a 1998 article Davies described Spinks as working at Boys For Men at 44b Spuistraat, and Williams as managing Boys Club 21 "across the road."[^3] The two Davies accounts name different clubs for Spinks; both are attributed. Dovey wrote that a Scotland Yard informant named "Frank" described how the group produced a snuff film inside a barn belonging to a German man who frequented the boy brothels managed by Williams and Spinks, and that the investigation into TAG Films was part of [[Operation Framework]], the joint Scotland Yard and Dutch authorities inquiry conducted between 1992 and 1993 targeting suspected snuff pornography produced by British nationals in Amsterdam.[^1]
TAG Films was linked to a German distribution company in Dusseldorf called [[Gero-Video]]. A raid by German authorities on Gero-Video's premises followed the Dutch investigation. Gero-Video was identified as one of the largest distributors of homosexual pornography in Europe. [[Robbie Van Der Plancken]], who was imprisoned in Italy for the murder of [[Gerrit-Jan Ulrich]], appeared in at least five Gero-Video films. Gero-Video changed ownership in 1994 and was also identified as a child porn distributor in a dossier provided by [[Karel Maasdam]]'s accountant to Dutch intelligence services.[^1]
Dovey wrote that TAG Films was linked to the Dusseldorf distributor [[Gero-Video]] and that a German raid on Gero-Video followed.[^4] Davies wrote that TAG Films sold its films "through distributors in the United States and Germany" and that German police raided "a video distributor in Dusseldorf" after Bristol detectives followed Tucker and Gay, without naming it.[^2] Der Spiegel reported in 1998 that investigators had found nothing punishable at Gero-Video and that proceedings had been discontinued.[^5]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Dovey, S. (2023). *Eye of the Chickenhawk*. United States: Thehotstar.
[^1]: Dovey, S. (2023). *Eye of the Chickenhawk*. United States: Thehotstar.
[^2]: Nick Davies, "Paedophilia is easy 2: how a paedophile murder inquiry fell apart," The Guardian, November 27, 2000. https://www.nickdavies.net/2000/11/27/paedophilia-is-easy-2-how-a-paedophile-murder-inquiry-fell-apart/
[^3]: Nick Davies, "Paedophile network trafficks young boys across Europe," nickdavies.net, dated October 1, 1998. https://www.nickdavies.net/1998/10/01/paedophile-network-trafficks-young-boys-across-europe/
[^4]: Dovey, S. *Eye of the Chickenhawk.* Thehotstar, 2023.
[^5]: "Nur die kleinen Fische," Der Spiegel 32/1998, August 3, 1998. https://www.spiegel.de/politik/nur-die-kleinen-fische-a-fc226181-0002-0001-0000-000007956187