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10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Allen Dulles.md
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---
created: 2026-05-15
updated: 2026-10-15
updated: 2026-10-26
title: Allen Dulles
aliases:
- Allen Welsh Dulles
@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ relations:
with: "[[Warren Commission]]"
start: 1963-11-29
end: 1964-09-24
fn: 19
fn: 20
---
Allen Welsh Dulles (April 7, 1893 - January 29, 1969) served as [[Director of Central Intelligence]] from February 26, 1953, to November 29, 1961 - the longest tenure of any DCI, the first civilian DCI, and the only brother of a sitting Secretary of State to hold the position. Dulles built the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] into the instrument of Cold War covert action that executed [[Operation AJAX]] in [[Iran]] (1953), [[Operation PBSUCCESS]] in [[Guatemala]] (1954), and the [[Bay of Pigs]] invasion of [[Cuba]] (1961). The Bay of Pigs disaster cost him his position - President [[John F. Kennedy]] forced his resignation, along with [[Richard Bissell]] and [[Charles P. Cabell|C.P. Cabell]] - and his subsequent appointment by President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] to the [[Warren Commission]] investigating Kennedy's assassination placed him in the remarkable position of overseeing the investigation of the event that had ended both his patron's life and his own career.[^1]
@ -72,17 +72,17 @@ On August 26, 1960 Dulles cabled the Leopoldville station that the station offic
### Correspondence with Senator McCarthy, 1953
In July 1953 [[Joseph McCarthy]], as chairman of the [[Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations]], wrote to Dulles about [[William P. Bundy]], an employee of the Central Intelligence Agency, whom McCarthy linked to a $400 contribution to the defense of [[Alger Hiss]].[^11] McCarthy's letter of July 27, 1953 said the contribution "raises the gravest question as to his holding a sensitive post in an intelligence agency."[^12] The CIA reply of July 22, 1953, signed by [[Alba W. Doan]] as director, gave the agency's account of Bundy's disclosure on his March 1951 application and of the field investigation and loyalty determinations that followed. It deferred comment on the reasons Bundy gave for the contribution until a review was complete.[^11] A newspaper article by [[Allen Drury]] dated August 4, 1953 reported that Dulles had refused to tell McCarthy Bundy's explanation.[^13] McCarthy replied on August 3 that Bundy's contributions to Hiss predated his CIA employment and that Congress was entitled to information about improper conduct by the agency's top officers.[^14]
In July 1953 [[Joseph McCarthy]], as chairman of the [[Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations]], wrote to Dulles about [[William P. Bundy]], an employee of the Central Intelligence Agency, whom McCarthy linked to a $400 contribution to the defense of [[Alger Hiss]].[^11] McCarthy's letter of July 27, 1953 said the contribution "raises the gravest question as to his holding a sensitive post in an intelligence agency."[^12] The CIA reply of July 22, 1953, signed by [[Alba W. Doan]] as director, gave the agency's account of Bundy's disclosure on his March 1951 application and of the field investigation and loyalty determinations that followed. It deferred comment on the reasons Bundy gave for the contribution until a review was complete.[^11] A newspaper article by [[Allen Drury]] dated August 4, 1953 reported that Dulles had refused to tell McCarthy Bundy's explanation, and reported that on July 22 Dulles informed McCarthy of the results of a CIA security check on Bundy and of Bundy's 1940 membership in the United Public Workers of America.[^13] Dulles's reply of August 1, 1953, as quoted in that article, read: "After most careful consideration of your letter, I feel that the proper course to pursue is to follow the procedure described in the President's executive order," and he declined to comment on certain phases of the matter pending the conclusion of those proceedings.[^13] McCarthy replied on August 3 that Bundy's contributions to Hiss predated his CIA employment and that Congress was entitled to information about improper conduct by the agency's top officers.[^14] An FBI memorandum of July 10, 1953 recorded that Dulles told the Bureau's liaison agent [[Sam Papich]] he had taken the position that permitting CIA employees to testify before the McCarthy committee would be prejudicial to the interests of the United States, that he had been in touch with the White House about the position and had its support, and that he wanted to know where McCarthy obtained his information; Papich answered that the Bureau was not supplying it.[^15]
On October 22, 1953 Dulles wrote to McCarthy that a check of the agency's reproduction facilities had found that "no classified CIA material is printed in the main GPO plant." The letter answered press reports that CIA classified material had been printed at the [[Government Printing Office]]. It said the agency's legislative counsel had informed the subcommittee's staff of these facts on August 12, 1953, and it asked that the letter be placed in the record.[^15]
On October 22, 1953 Dulles wrote to McCarthy that a check of the agency's reproduction facilities had found that "no classified CIA material is printed in the main GPO plant." The letter answered press reports that CIA classified material had been printed at the [[Government Printing Office]]. It said the agency's legislative counsel had informed the subcommittee's staff of these facts on August 12, 1953, and it asked that the letter be placed in the record.[^16]
### MKULTRA: The Sandoz Panic and the Olson Death
Dulles approved MKULTRA on April 13, 1953, ten days after Richard Helms proposed a program for the "covert use of biological and chemical materials," with an initial $300,000 exempt from normal financial controls and payable blindly on the signatures of Gottlieb and TSS chief [[Willis Gibbons]]. Acting in a climate of Cold War urgency, that same month Dulles approved a $240,000 payment after an intelligence report claimed [[Sandoz]] wanted to sell 10 kilograms of [[LSD]] on the open market; CIA officers flew to Switzerland with a black bag of cash only to learn Sandoz had produced barely 40 grams in fifteen years, the entire panic stemming from a military attaché who confused milligrams with kilograms. When [[Frank Olson]] died in November 1953 after Gottlieb dosed him with LSD at [[Deep Creek Lodge]], Dulles ordered Inspector General [[Lyman Kirkpatrick]] to investigate; the resulting reprimands were softened through six drafts and placed in no personnel file.[^16]
Dulles approved MKULTRA on April 13, 1953, ten days after Richard Helms proposed a program for the "covert use of biological and chemical materials," with an initial $300,000 exempt from normal financial controls and payable blindly on the signatures of Gottlieb and TSS chief [[Willis Gibbons]]. Acting in a climate of Cold War urgency, that same month Dulles approved a $240,000 payment after an intelligence report claimed [[Sandoz]] wanted to sell 10 kilograms of [[LSD]] on the open market; CIA officers flew to Switzerland with a black bag of cash only to learn Sandoz had produced barely 40 grams in fifteen years, the entire panic stemming from a military attaché who confused milligrams with kilograms. When [[Frank Olson]] died in November 1953 after Gottlieb dosed him with LSD at [[Deep Creek Lodge]], Dulles ordered Inspector General [[Lyman Kirkpatrick]] to investigate; the resulting reprimands were softened through six drafts and placed in no personnel file.[^17]
### Rockefeller's Special Group and the Human Ecology Front
Under Eisenhower, Dulles reported all CIA covert operations, including MKULTRA, the coups, and assassination planning, to the NSC "[[Special Group]]" chaired by [[Nelson Rockefeller]], the structure formalized by NSC 5412/2 in December 1955 that gave the president plausible deniability; in a 1955 "Family Jewels" briefing Dulles described the full range of covert programs to Rockefeller's board. When MKULTRA needed a research hospital, Dulles sought Rockefeller's approval for a scheme to channel CIA money through private foundations to win matching federal grants for a wing at [[Georgetown University Hospital]]. The program's primary funding front, the [[Society for the Investigation of Human Ecology]], was organized at Dulles's initiative through [[Harold Wolff]], the Cornell neurologist who had treated Dulles's brain-damaged son; Dulles attended one of its first board meetings. His relationship with [[D. Ewen Cameron]] predated the funding: in November 1945, still with the OSS, Dulles had sent Cameron to Nuremberg to assess whether [[Rudolf Hess]] was fit to stand trial.[^17]
Under Eisenhower, Dulles reported all CIA covert operations, including MKULTRA, the coups, and assassination planning, to the NSC "[[Special Group]]" chaired by [[Nelson Rockefeller]], the structure formalized by NSC 5412/2 in December 1955 that gave the president plausible deniability; in a 1955 "Family Jewels" briefing Dulles described the full range of covert programs to Rockefeller's board. When MKULTRA needed a research hospital, Dulles sought Rockefeller's approval for a scheme to channel CIA money through private foundations to win matching federal grants for a wing at [[Georgetown University Hospital]]. The program's primary funding front, the [[Society for the Investigation of Human Ecology]], was organized at Dulles's initiative through [[Harold Wolff]], the Cornell neurologist who had treated Dulles's brain-damaged son; Dulles attended one of its first board meetings. His relationship with [[D. Ewen Cameron]] predated the funding: in November 1945, still with the OSS, Dulles had sent Cameron to Nuremberg to assess whether [[Rudolf Hess]] was fit to stand trial.[^18]
### Bay of Pigs and Forced Resignation
@ -90,25 +90,31 @@ The Bay of Pigs invasion of April 17-19, 1961 was the catastrophic failure that
Kennedy publicly accepted responsibility but was privately furious. He reportedly told aide [[Ted Sorensen]] that he wanted to "splinter the CIA into a thousand pieces and scatter it to the winds" - a remark almost certainly apocryphal in its precise wording but consistent with his documented anger. The Taylor Commission's findings and the classified Kirkpatrick IG report both pointed to fundamental CIA failures in planning, execution, and judgment.
Dulles submitted his resignation in September 1961; it was formally accepted November 29, 1961. He was replaced by [[John McCone]]. The CIA's own history states that a "humiliated President Kennedy did not wait for either report before cleaning house at CIA" and that he accepted resignations from Dulles and from Deputy Director for Plans Richard Bissell, who stayed at their posts until their successors were selected a few months later.[^18] Bissell and Cabell were also forced out. CIA veterans viewed their dismissal as Kennedy scapegoating the agency for a failure the [[White House]] had co-created by canceling the air strikes.[^1]
Dulles submitted his resignation in September 1961; it was formally accepted November 29, 1961. He was replaced by [[John McCone]]. The CIA's own history states that a "humiliated President Kennedy did not wait for either report before cleaning house at CIA" and that he accepted resignations from Dulles and from Deputy Director for Plans Richard Bissell, who stayed at their posts until their successors were selected a few months later.[^19] Bissell and Cabell were also forced out. CIA veterans viewed their dismissal as Kennedy scapegoating the agency for a failure the [[White House]] had co-created by canceling the air strikes.[^1]
### The Warren Commission
On November 29, 1963 - exactly two years after Dulles's forced resignation - President Lyndon Johnson appointed the Warren Commission to investigate Kennedy's assassination. Among the seven commissioners Johnson named was Allen Dulles despite Kennedy’s firing of Dulles.[^19]
On November 29, 1963 - exactly two years after Dulles's forced resignation - President Lyndon Johnson appointed the Warren Commission to investigate Kennedy's assassination. Among the seven commissioners Johnson named was Allen Dulles despite Kennedy’s firing of Dulles.[^20]
The investigation was examining whether CIA-connected parties (specifically the anti-Castro exile networks and organized crime figures that Dulles had directly overseen) had any role in the assassination. He was now in a position to shape what evidence the Commission sought, what witnesses it called, and what conclusions it reached regarding the CIA programs he had run.
Dulles was reportedly among the most active commissioners in shaping the investigation's scope. He briefed commissioners on CIA history and procedures. Book V of the Church Committee's final report states that, with the exception of Dulles, it is unlikely anyone on the Warren Commission knew of the CIA's assassination efforts, and that Dulles knew of the plots with underworld figures that had taken place during his tenure as Director of Central Intelligence.[^20] The Church Committee's 1975 interim report states that Dulles "did not inform the other members about the plots that had occurred during his term as DCI,"[^21] and also states that "it is not entirely certain that Dulles was ever made aware of the true nature of the underworld operation."[^22] The [[ZR/RIFLE]] assassination plotting program was, in the same period, not disclosed to the Commission at the agency level by [[Richard Helms]] as Deputy Director for Plans. Helms testified that Dulles "was sitting right there" in the Commission's deliberations and "knew about this," and that he did not know what Dulles had said to the Commission about the plots.[^23] The CIA's failure to disclose the assassination plots to the Warren Commission was documented by the Church Committee in 1975; Dulles's role as both a commissioner and the former DCI who had authorized the programs is the structural conflict of interest the Commission's composition created.
Dulles was reportedly among the most active commissioners in shaping the investigation's scope. He briefed commissioners on CIA history and procedures. Book V of the Church Committee's final report states that, with the exception of Dulles, it is unlikely anyone on the Warren Commission knew of the CIA's assassination efforts, and that Dulles knew of the plots with underworld figures that had taken place during his tenure as Director of Central Intelligence.[^21] The Church Committee's 1975 interim report states that Dulles "did not inform the other members about the plots that had occurred during his term as DCI,"[^22] and also states that "it is not entirely certain that Dulles was ever made aware of the true nature of the underworld operation."[^23] The [[ZR/RIFLE]] assassination plotting program was, in the same period, not disclosed to the Commission at the agency level by [[Richard Helms]] as Deputy Director for Plans. Helms testified that Dulles "was sitting right there" in the Commission's deliberations and "knew about this," and that he did not know what Dulles had said to the Commission about the plots.[^24] The CIA's failure to disclose the assassination plots to the Warren Commission was documented by the Church Committee in 1975; Dulles's role as both a commissioner and the former DCI who had authorized the programs is the structural conflict of interest the Commission's composition created.
Angleton testified that Dulles consulted him before agreeing to President Johnson's request that he serve, that the two were in frequent contact, and that they informally discussed the progress of the investigation and what further work the CIA could do.[^24] At the January 22, 1964 executive session, the Commission took up a report that [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] had been a paid FBI informant. Dulles asked whether the purpose of such a hire could have been to penetrate the [[Fair Play for Cuba Committee]]. He said that practically any American could obtain a passport good for anywhere, and that the Passport Bureau had no record of Oswald's defection. Near the end of the meeting, Dulles said: "I think this record ought to be destroyed."[^25] FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]]'s files held an index card on Dulles that cross-referenced a November 29, 1963 memorandum.[^26]
Angleton testified that Dulles consulted him before agreeing to President Johnson's request that he serve, that the two were in frequent contact, and that they informally discussed the progress of the investigation and what further work the CIA could do.[^25] At the January 22, 1964 executive session, the Commission took up a report that [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] had been a paid FBI informant. Dulles asked whether the purpose of such a hire could have been to penetrate the [[Fair Play for Cuba Committee]]. He said that practically any American could obtain a passport good for anywhere, and that the Passport Bureau had no record of Oswald's defection. Near the end of the meeting, Dulles said: "I think this record ought to be destroyed."[^26] FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]]'s files held an index card on Dulles that cross-referenced a November 29, 1963 memorandum.[^27]
The [[HSCA|House Select Committee on Assassinations]] (1979) found that the Warren Commission's failure to investigate adequately the possibility of a conspiracy was "attributable in part to the failure of the Commission to receive all the relevant information that was in the possession of other agencies and departments of the Government," and that the CIA "was deficient in its collection and sharing of information both prior to and subsequent to the assassination."[^27] The report does not name Dulles in those findings. It states that the committee did not ignore the possibility that certain CIA officials who knew that close scrutiny of United States-Cuban relations could have exposed the CIA-Mafia plots might have tried to keep the CIA's or the Warren Commission's inquiry from the question of Cuban complicity, and that it determined that only Deputy Director Helms was in a position to have both the knowledge and the power to accomplish such a cover-up and was satisfied, on the basis of its investigation, that it was "highly unlikely he in fact did so."[^28] It found that the details of the AMLASH plot and the CIA-Mafia plots should have been provided to the Warren Commission.[^29]
The [[HSCA|House Select Committee on Assassinations]] (1979) found that the Warren Commission's failure to investigate adequately the possibility of a conspiracy was "attributable in part to the failure of the Commission to receive all the relevant information that was in the possession of other agencies and departments of the Government," and that the CIA "was deficient in its collection and sharing of information both prior to and subsequent to the assassination."[^28] The report does not name Dulles in those findings. It states that the committee did not ignore the possibility that certain CIA officials who knew that close scrutiny of United States-Cuban relations could have exposed the CIA-Mafia plots might have tried to keep the CIA's or the Warren Commission's inquiry from the question of Cuban complicity, and that it determined that only Deputy Director Helms was in a position to have both the knowledge and the power to accomplish such a cover-up and was satisfied, on the basis of its investigation, that it was "highly unlikely he in fact did so."[^29] It found that the details of the AMLASH plot and the CIA-Mafia plots should have been provided to the Warren Commission.[^30]
### Dallas Council on World Affairs and Neil Mallon
A Dallas News editorial of October 27, 1953 refers to a meeting of the Dallas Council on World Affairs the previous week, which had drawn interest in what the head of the Central Intelligence Agency might say.[^31] On February 27, 1954, Dulles wrote to Vice President [[Richard Nixon|Richard M. Nixon]] that a Texas correspondent had sent him a copy of a February 24, 1954 letter that the correspondent had written to Nixon about the council. Dulles described the council as "an excellent forum of persons who take a deep interest in our foreign relations." He wrote that he had known [[Neil Mallon]] "for several years," and that Mallon had made "a real accomplishment in organizing the Council and keeping it a live and vigorous organization." The routing block of the letter shows a copy sent to Mallon.[^32] On February 5, 1958, the council's executive director, Roger Kennedy, wrote to Dulles asking him to speak in Dallas in April or May; Dulles's reply to Kennedy, dated February 13, 1958 (drafted February 7), declined the invitation at that time.[^33] The council's letterhead on Kennedy's letter lists [[Earle Cabell]] and "H. N. Mallon" (executive committee) among its members. The Handbook of Texas names Earle Cabell's brother as Charles Pearre Cabell, deputy director of the Central Intelligence Agency from 1953.[^34]
[[Anthony L. Kimery]]'s article in the CovertAction Information Bulletin (number 41, Summer 1992) states that Mallon, a Dresser Industries chairman, "steered prospective candidates for spy work to Dulles and often provided cover employment to CIA operatives." Kimery's article gives this as its own claim.[^35]
### Death and Legacy
Dulles spent his post-CIA years writing, lecturing, and defending the covert action programs he had built. His book *The Craft of Intelligence* (1963) was the first major public account of CIA operations by a former director. He died in Washington on January 29, 1969, of influenza complicated by pneumonia, eighteen months before the full extent of MKULTRA and the assassination plots became public.
The 2022 report of the United Nations Eminent Person summarized the argument of Greg Poulgrain's 2020 book, *JFK vs. Allen Dulles: Battleground Indonesia*, which posits that Dulles formed a motive to remove [[Dag Hammarskjöld]] following a policy conflict over the United Nations' intended intervention in the dispute over the sovereignty of West New Guinea.[^30] The report recorded Poulgrain's proposition that the Operation Celeste documents, which refer to a plan to kill Hammarskjöld by causing his plane to crash, mention Dulles by name, stating: "UNO is becoming troublesome and it is felt that Hammarskjöld should be removed. Allen Dulles agrees and has promised full cooperation from his people."[^30] Poulgrain compared this with the Church Committee's account of Dulles expressing a "wish [to] give every possible support" to a plan to kill Lumumba.[^30] The report stated that it was not necessary at that stage to assess the probative value of Poulgrain's information, and that it underscored the importance of "proving or disproving the veracity of the Operation Celeste hypothesis and Dulles's alleged involvement (as relied on by Poulgrain)."[^31]
The 2022 report of the United Nations Eminent Person summarized the argument of Greg Poulgrain's 2020 book, *JFK vs. Allen Dulles: Battleground Indonesia*, which posits that Dulles formed a motive to remove [[Dag Hammarskjöld]] following a policy conflict over the United Nations' intended intervention in the dispute over the sovereignty of West New Guinea.[^36] The report recorded Poulgrain's proposition that the Operation Celeste documents, which refer to a plan to kill Hammarskjöld by causing his plane to crash, mention Dulles by name, stating: "UNO is becoming troublesome and it is felt that Hammarskjöld should be removed. Allen Dulles agrees and has promised full cooperation from his people."[^36] Poulgrain compared this with the Church Committee's account of Dulles expressing a "wish [to] give every possible support" to a plan to kill Lumumba.[^36] The report stated that it was not necessary at that stage to assess the probative value of Poulgrain's information, and that it underscored the importance of "proving or disproving the veracity of the Operation Celeste hypothesis and Dulles's alleged involvement (as relied on by Poulgrain)."[^37]
### Footnotes
@ -126,20 +132,26 @@ The 2022 report of the United Nations Eminent Person summarized the argument of
[^12]: Letter from Joseph R. McCarthy, Chairman, Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, to Allen W. Dulles, July 27, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080022-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080022-7
[^13]: Allen Drury, "McCarthy Warns CIA Head Fight on Bundy Isn't Over," newspaper article, August 4, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP74-00297R000401370024-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp74-00297r000401370024-4
[^14]: Letter from Joseph R. McCarthy to Allen W. Dulles, August 3, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080020-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080020-9
[^15]: Letter from Allen W. Dulles to Joseph R. McCarthy, October 22, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP86B00269R000100130103-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp86b00269r000100130103-2
[^16]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979, Chapter 4; "Project MKULTRA, the CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification," Joint Senate Hearing, August 3, 1977.
[^17]: Gerard Colby and Charlotte Dennett, *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon*. HarperCollins, 1995, Ch. 18; John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979, Chapter 9.
[^18]: Warner, Michael, "The CIA's Internal Probe of the Bay of Pigs Affair: Lessons Unlearned," *Studies in Intelligence*, Winter 1998-1999. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Internal-Probe-Bay-Pigs.pdf
[^19]: Executive Order 11130, "Appointing a Commission To Report Upon the Assassination of President John F. Kennedy," November 29, 1963. The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-11130-appointing-commission-report-upon-the-assassination-president-john-f
[^20]: U.S. Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *The Investigation of the Assassination of President John F. Kennedy: Performance of the Intelligence Agencies*, Book V, Final Report, April 23, 1976, pp. 67-68. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_V.pdf
[^21]: U.S. Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders: An Interim Report*, Senate Report No. 94-465, 1975, p. 269, note 1. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
[^22]: *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, p. 267. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
[^23]: Book V, p. 70 (Helms testimony of July 18, 1975). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_V.pdf
[^24]: Book V, p. 69 (note 134, Angleton testimony of February 6, 1976, pp. 31-34). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_V.pdf
[^25]: Warren Commission, executive session transcript, January 22, 1964, 5:30 to 7:00 p.m. https://aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcexec/pdf/WcEx0122.pdf
[^26]: U.S. Assassination Records Review Board, memorandum by Ronald G. Haron, "Assassination Records Among the Files of J. Edgar Hoover (FBI-36)," January 8, 1998. https://documents3.theblackvault.com/documents/jfkfiles/NARA-Oct2017/ARRB/RHARON/HARON/FBIMEM.002.pdf
[^27]: House Select Committee on Assassinations, *Report,* H. Rept. 95-1828, 95th Cong., 2d sess. (1979), summary Findings I.D.4 and I.D.5(b) (p. 4). https://archive.org/details/reportofselectco1979unit
[^28]: House Select Committee on Assassinations, *Report,* H. Rept. 95-1828, p. 128. https://archive.org/details/reportofselectco1979unit
[^29]: House Select Committee on Assassinations, *Report,* H. Rept. 95-1828, pp. 112-116. https://archive.org/details/reportofselectco1979unit
[^30]: A/76/892, report of the Eminent Person, August 25, 2022, paragraphs 241 to 244. https://documents.un.org/api/symbol/access?s=A%2F76%2F892&l=en&t=pdf
[^31]: A/76/892, paragraph 246. https://documents.un.org/api/symbol/access?s=A%2F76%2F892&l=en&t=pdf
[^15]: Federal Bureau of Investigation memorandum, "Information Concerning Allen W. Dulles," July 10, 1953, FBI file 62-HQ-80750, "FBI Files on CIA Liaison," section 31, https://archive.org/details/FBI-CIA-Liaison
[^16]: Letter from Allen W. Dulles to Joseph R. McCarthy, October 22, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP86B00269R000100130103-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp86b00269r000100130103-2
[^17]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979, Chapter 4; "Project MKULTRA, the CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification," Joint Senate Hearing, August 3, 1977.
[^18]: Gerard Colby and Charlotte Dennett, *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon*. HarperCollins, 1995, Ch. 18; John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979, Chapter 9.
[^19]: Warner, Michael, "The CIA's Internal Probe of the Bay of Pigs Affair: Lessons Unlearned," *Studies in Intelligence*, Winter 1998-1999. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Internal-Probe-Bay-Pigs.pdf
[^20]: Executive Order 11130, "Appointing a Commission To Report Upon the Assassination of President John F. Kennedy," November 29, 1963. The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-11130-appointing-commission-report-upon-the-assassination-president-john-f
[^21]: U.S. Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *The Investigation of the Assassination of President John F. Kennedy: Performance of the Intelligence Agencies*, Book V, Final Report, April 23, 1976, pp. 67-68. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_V.pdf
[^22]: U.S. Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders: An Interim Report*, Senate Report No. 94-465, 1975, p. 269, note 1. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
[^23]: *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, p. 267. https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
[^24]: Book V, p. 70 (Helms testimony of July 18, 1975). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_V.pdf
[^25]: Book V, p. 69 (note 134, Angleton testimony of February 6, 1976, pp. 31-34). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_V.pdf
[^26]: Warren Commission, executive session transcript, January 22, 1964, 5:30 to 7:00 p.m. https://aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcexec/pdf/WcEx0122.pdf
[^27]: U.S. Assassination Records Review Board, memorandum by Ronald G. Haron, "Assassination Records Among the Files of J. Edgar Hoover (FBI-36)," January 8, 1998. https://documents3.theblackvault.com/documents/jfkfiles/NARA-Oct2017/ARRB/RHARON/HARON/FBIMEM.002.pdf
[^28]: House Select Committee on Assassinations, *Report,* H. Rept. 95-1828, 95th Cong., 2d sess. (1979), summary Findings I.D.4 and I.D.5(b) (p. 4). https://archive.org/details/reportofselectco1979unit
[^29]: House Select Committee on Assassinations, *Report,* H. Rept. 95-1828, p. 128. https://archive.org/details/reportofselectco1979unit
[^30]: House Select Committee on Assassinations, *Report,* H. Rept. 95-1828, pp. 112-116. https://archive.org/details/reportofselectco1979unit
[^31]: "World Affairs Council," editorial, Dallas News, October 27, 1953, CIA reading room clipping, CIA-RDP70-00058R000100080037-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp70-00058r000100080037-2
[^32]: Allen W. Dulles, letter to the Honorable Richard M. Nixon, Vice-President of the United States, February 27, 1954, with distribution "cc - Neil Mallon," CIA-RDP80R01731R000900110025-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r000900110025-8
[^33]: Roger Kennedy, Executive Director, Dallas Council on World Affairs, letter of February 5, 1958 to Allen Dulles, Central Intelligence Agency, with council letterhead, and Dulles's reply to Kennedy drafted February 7 and dated February 13, 1958, CIA-RDP80B01676R003800110043-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003800110043-4
[^34]: Michael V. Hazel, "Cabell, Earle," and "Cabell, Charles Pearre," Handbook of Texas Online, Texas State Historical Association (brothers; sons of Ben E. and Sadie Pearre Cabell; Earle on the Dallas Council on World Affairs; Charles deputy director of the CIA from 1953). https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/cabell-earle ; https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/cabell-charles-pearre
[^35]: Anthony L. Kimery, "George Bush and the CIA: In the Company of Friends," CovertAction Information Bulletin no. 41 (Summer 1992), passage on Henry Neil Mallon, CIA-RDP99-01448R000401570011-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401570011-0
[^36]: A/76/892, report of the Eminent Person, August 25, 2022, paragraphs 241 to 244. https://documents.un.org/api/symbol/access?s=A%2F76%2F892&l=en&t=pdf
[^37]: A/76/892, paragraph 246. https://documents.un.org/api/symbol/access?s=A%2F76%2F892&l=en&t=pdf

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@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
---
created: 2026-05-15
updated: 2026-05-17
updated: 2026-10-26
title: Dean Acheson
aliases:
- Dean Gooderham Acheson
@ -22,6 +22,11 @@ relations:
role: "recipient of the report of February 1, 1951"
start: 1951-02
fn: 4
- type: relative_of
with: "[[William P. Bundy]]"
role: "son-in-law; William P. Bundy married Mary Acheson in 1943"
start: 1943
fn: 6
---
Dean Gooderham Acheson (April 11, 1893 - October 12, 1971) was [[United States|U.S.]] Secretary of State from 1949 to 1953 under President [[Harry Truman]], and one of the principal architects of American [[Cold War]] foreign policy. Acheson helped design the [[Truman Doctrine]], [[NATO]], and the [[Marshall Plan]], and was responsible for approving [[NSC-68]] - the 1950 policy document that militarized the "containment" strategy [[George Kennan]] had formulated, over Kennan's explicit objections. Acheson's memoir, *Present at the Creation* (Norton, 1969), took its title from his self-assessment of having helped build the postwar international order.[^1]
@ -54,9 +59,13 @@ The [[Korean War]] that began June 1950 dominated the second half of Acheson's t
The war eventually led to Truman's firing of General [[Douglas MacArthur]] in April 1951 after MacArthur publicly challenged Truman's authority over war strategy - a civil-military confrontation that Acheson supported Truman in resolving in favor of civilian control.[^5]
### Son-in-law, William P. Bundy
[[William P. Bundy]] married [[Mary Acheson]], Acheson's daughter, in 1943. He later held posts at the CIA, the Defense Department and the State Department.[^6] In July 1953 the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations chairman [[Joseph McCarthy]] pressed the CIA about Bundy's $400 contribution to the defense of [[Alger Hiss]]. A newspaper report of August 4, 1953 said that Bundy's stated reason for the contribution was to help his father-in-law, Dean Acheson, in clearing Hiss.[^7]
### Legacy
Acheson was a target of Senator [[Joseph McCarthy]]'s attacks, primarily over the "loss" of [[China]] to communism - which McCarthy attributed to State Department subversion - and over Acheson's refusal to condemn former State Department official Alger Hiss following Hiss's conviction for perjury in connection with Soviet espionage. McCarthy called Acheson's State Department a "Dean Acheson College of Cowardly Communist Containment."
Acheson was a target of Senator Joseph McCarthy's attacks, primarily over the "loss" of [[China]] to communism - which McCarthy attributed to State Department subversion - and over Acheson's refusal to condemn former State Department official Alger Hiss following Hiss's conviction for perjury in connection with Soviet espionage. McCarthy called Acheson's State Department a "Dean Acheson College of Cowardly Communist Containment."
After leaving government, Acheson returned to law practice and remained influential in Democratic foreign policy circles, advising subsequent administrations informally. He won the [[Pulitzer Prize]] for History in 1970 for *Present at the Creation*. He died at Sandy Spring, Maryland, on October 12, 1971.
@ -67,3 +76,5 @@ After leaving government, Acheson returned to law practice and remained influent
[^3]: FRUS 1950, volume IV, Document 127 (Truman to Acheson, March 1, 1950) and Document 131 (Barrett to Acheson, March 6, 1950) with the editorial note on Acheson's discussion with Truman. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950v04/d131
[^4]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman," p. 238 (the report's final date and Acheson's receipt on February 15, 1951).
[^5]: Brands, H.W. *The General vs. the President: MacArthur and Truman at the Brink of Nuclear War.* Doubleday, 2016. Hogan, Michael J. *A Cross of Iron: Harry S. Truman and the Origins of the National Security State, 1945-1954.* Cambridge University Press, 1998.
[^6]: William P. Bundy Papers (MC189), Biography/History, Princeton University Library, https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/PRIN_MUDD_MC189
[^7]: Allen Drury, "McCarthy Warns CIA Head Fight on Bundy Isn't Over," newspaper article, August 4, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP74-00297R000401370024-4, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp74-00297r000401370024-4

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---
title: Donald Barr
aliases:
- Donald Barr
- Donald Barr (1921-2004)
- Donald Barr (educator)
created: 2026-10-26
updated: 2026-10-26
category: "Scientists & Researchers"
tags:
- Person
- OSS
- Education
- Headmaster
- Dalton
- Hackley
- Columbia
- Epstein
- ScienceFiction
summary: "Donald Barr (1921-2004) was an OSS veteran, Columbia engineering dean and Science Honors Program director, headmaster of the Dalton School from 1964 to 1974 and of Hackley from 1975, and the father of William Barr."
location: "New York, New York"
born: 1921-08-02
died: 2004-02-05
relations:
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Columbia University]]"
end: 1964
role: "instructor in English, then assistant to the dean and assistant dean, School of Engineering"
fn: 2
- type: head_of
with: "[[Columbia University Science Honors Program]]"
start: 1958
end: 1964
role: "director"
fn: 7
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Office of Strategic Services]]"
role: "Army service with the OSS in Washington and Europe; Research and Analysis Branch (brief), per the CIA review of his son's memoir"
fn: 1
- type: head_of
with: "[[Dalton School]]"
start: 1964
end: 1974
role: "headmaster"
fn: 18
- type: head_of
with: "[[Hackley School]]"
start: 1975
role: "headmaster (still in post December 1985)"
fn: 1
- type: member_of
with: "[[National Council on Educational Research]]"
start: 1982
end: 1988
role: "member, nominated by Ronald Reagan May 28, 1982; reappointed December 11, 1985"
fn: 30
- type: appointed
with: "[[Jeffrey Epstein]]"
start: 1974
role: "teacher of mathematics and physics; hire attributed to Barr by some accounts, left open by others"
fn: 23
- type: relative_of
with: "[[William Barr]]"
role: "father"
fn: 4
---
Donald Barr (August 2, 1921 to February 5, 2004) was an American educator and writer. He served with the [[Office of Strategic Services]] (OSS) in the Second World War, ran the Science Honors Program at [[Columbia University]]'s School of Engineering, was headmaster of the [[Dalton School]] in [[New York City]] from 1964 to 1974 and of the [[Hackley School]] in [[Tarrytown, New York]] from 1975, and sat on the federal [[National Council on Educational Research]]. He wrote a book on American education, two science-fiction novels and children's science books. He was the father of [[William Barr]], who served as [[U.S. Attorney General|attorney general]] from 1991 to 1993 and again from 2019 to 2020.[^1][^2] He is a different man from [[Donald Barrios]], a Miami figure of a similar name.
### Columbia and the Office of Strategic Services
Barr was born in Manhattan, majored in mathematics and anthropology at [[Columbia College]] and graduated in 1941. He went into the Army and served with the OSS in Washington, D.C., and Europe.[^1][^2] [[Marie Brenner]] wrote in [[Vanity Fair]] that "during the war, Barr joined the OSS" and afterward taught English at Columbia.[^3] The [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] [[Center for the Study of Intelligence]] review of his son's memoir, *One Damn Thing After Another* (William Morrow, 2022), refers to the elder Barr's "brief service in the Research and Analysis Branch of the Office of Strategic Services during World War II."[^4] The Gale reference notice on his death says he "joined the Army as part of the OSS," without dates.[^5]
The [[National Archives and Records Administration|National Archives]] holds OSS personnel files in Record Group 226, Entry 224. Its name database, dated December 23, 2010, lists a "Barr, Donald" with a T-5 serial number 36647447 and, on the following line, a Pfc serial number 39227927, in box 38.[^6] The database gives no middle initial, birthplace or unit, and records found do not establish whether either serial belongs to the Columbia graduate.
After the war Barr returned to Columbia, taught in the English department, and received a master's degree from the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences in 1950 in English and comparative literature while completing course requirements for a doctorate.[^2] The Gale notice gives the master's year as 1951 and says he completed coursework without writing a dissertation.[^5] He also taught field-work courses in sociology and political science at the School of Engineering. In 1955 the Engineering School asked him to oversee its efforts to identify promising elementary and secondary science students, and he moved into the Engineering Dean's Office.[^2] The Gale notice dates his service as assistant to the dean of the School of Engineering from 1956 to 1959, followed by about five years as assistant dean of the Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science.[^5]
### Science Honors Program
The Columbia School of Engineering announced the Science Honors Program on June 10, 1958: sixty selected high-school students from the New York area would attend Saturday classes and conferences on the Morningside Heights campus, taught by university faculty. The program ran under Columbia's Joint Program for Technical Education, which had been set up in 1956 with funds from the [[Hebrew Technical Institute]] of New York, and the institute made an additional grant of $25,000 to staff and equip it. [[John R. Dunning]], dean of the School of Engineering, explained the program at the announcement. The advisory board included the anthropologist [[Margaret Mead]], the educator [[Paul F. Brandwein]] and Barr, who was listed as director.[^7]
In September 1959 *Consulting Engineer* reported that the program had planned for 60 students, received about 220 nominees, and enlarged the first class to 75 and then to 150 after the [[Fund for the Advancement of Education]], a [[Ford Foundation]] subsidiary, matched the Hebrew Technical Institute grant. Barr, quoted as director, said of the intelligence tests used in selection, "We do not put a great deal of emphasis on the I.Q. tests, however," and described the first-semester lectures as ranging from "the genetics of marine fungi to switching theory."[^8] By 1963 *Nature and Science*, the magazine of the [[American Museum of Natural History]], listed him on its national board of editors as director of the Science Honors Program.[^9]
Barr became assistant dean of the Engineering faculty in 1959. In 1963 the [[National Science Foundation]], which had supported the Science Honors Program, asked him to administer its Cooperative College-School Program, which he did until he became headmaster at Dalton the following year.[^2] The 2004 New York Times obituary says the program he established "served as a model for similar programs elsewhere administered by the National Science Foundation."[^1]
In an October 30, 1976 paper for the [[National Institute of Education]], Barr recalled that roughly seventeen years earlier he had been directing a study of underachievement among high-ability students in New York City public high schools under a grant from a middle-sized foundation, and at the same time "a massive enrichment program for gifted high-school students at Columbia University" that had used up "its original grant from a very small foundation." He wrote that when he asked the middle-sized foundation for $50,000 for the enrichment program, its executive director declined and told him, "If you wanted to found a symphony orchestra of chimpanzees, I could get you $100,000 tomorrow."[^10]
### Writing
*Who Pushed Humpty Dumpty?*, a book on American education, was first published in 1971 by [[Atheneum Publishers]], with [[Charles Scribner's Sons|Scribner]] also listed as a publisher.[^11] The 1972 printing carries the subtitle *Dilemmas in American Education Today*. In it Barr wrote that "in the spring of 1964" Dalton "hired me as headmaster."[^12] The [[SF Encyclopedia]] gives the title as *Who Pushed Humpty Dumpty, or The Education of a Headmaster*.[^13] The [[Dalton School Archives]] catalogues the book among publications by Dalton staff, and also an article by Barr, "Sex, Love, and Modern Education," in [[Columbia College Today]] for fall 1967.[^14]
*Space Relations: A Slightly Gothic Interplanetary Tale* was published in 1973 in New York by [[Charterhouse (publisher)|Charterhouse]], a division of [[David McKay Company]], with copyright in Barr's name and Library of Congress catalog card number 73-79958. A [[Fawcett Publications|Fawcett]] Crest paperback followed, first printed in February 1975. The dedication reads "To MAB. with thirty years' love," and is followed by a stanza from [[Richard Wagner]]'s opera *[[Tannhäuser]]* and two other epigraphs, one from [[Alfred North Whitehead]] on human sacrifice and slavery.[^15] The protagonist, John Armbruster Craig, is a 38-year-old official of the Extraterrestrial Service whose physiological record is held by the Health Executive's computer in Bethesda, with an identifier branded on his forearm (pp. 7-8). He is being examined before a mission to the planet Kossar to negotiate a treaty, and he had earlier spent two years as a slave in the mines of Treghast (pp. 11-13). Later chapters show people taken from ships listed by sex, approximate age and ship at a slave compound and sold at auction (pp. 38-39, 49-50). A woman addressed as Lady Morgan tells Craig she will give him the name Smitty and that he is "attached to my person" (excerpt on the front leaf).[^15] The SF Encyclopedia describes the novel as a space opera with literary analogues to its plot and lists a second novel, *A Planet in Arms* (Fawcett, 1981).[^13]
[[Wayne Madsen]], writing in September 2019, read the novel as a portrait of sexual slavery and as a parallel to the residences of [[Jeffrey Epstein]] in New York, New Mexico, Paris and the Virgin Islands, and read the Wagner epigraph as an admiration for fascism. He described the elder Barr as "influential in hiring" Epstein.[^16]
Barr's children's nonfiction includes *The How and Why Wonder Book of Atomic Energy* (1961) and *The How and Why Wonder Book of Building* (1964).[^5] The Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers Association's notice adds that he wrote textbooks in science and mathematics while at Columbia.[^17]
### Dalton School, 1964 to 1974
*Time* reported on April 5, 1971 that "the board of trustees picked a stubborn new headmaster in 1964," a former assistant dean at Columbia's engineering school who "arrived at Dalton with a dim view of 'orthodox' progressive education's emphasis on emotional development." He carried out trustee decisions to make the all-girl high school coeducational and to more than double the school to 1,000 students, sent his own four sons to Horace Mann, added tests to supplement written evaluations, wrote on teenage sex, and tried to ban blue jeans and long hair on boys. In 1970 he expelled five sixth-graders, and at a November 1970 board meeting a faction of trustees asked for his removal; an evaluation committee was named and, two months later, the board voted unanimously to keep him. In March 1971 supporters circulated a 21-page memorandum naming the PTA president as a plotter against him, and a mail poll of parents run by the Honest Ballot Association went 435 to 300 against the PTA president.[^18] The Dalton School Archives holds a personnel series for Barr covering 1964 to 1972, and a folder of the 1971 *Time* items, a parent's letter of May 24, 1971 and "Education: Notes from a Controversialist" (August 1971).[^14] Brenner reported that a 1971 *New York* magazine article, "The Parents' Revolt at Dalton," covered the dispute.[^3]
On February 20, 1974 the [[New York Times]] reported, under the headline "Barr Quits Dalton School Post, Charging Trustees' Interference," that Barr had resigned "in protest of what he considers the trustee's interference with his leadership." In a letter to faculty and parents the day before he wrote, "I am not comfortable with the definition of board-head relations that I see becoming current in schools everywhere." The board said the resignation "was not requested and not expected." [[Richard Ravitch]], president of the board, said, "The issue is the prerogatives of the board and the headmaster." The article recalled that "a faction of the former board and some of the parents sought his ouster in 1971," and reported that in January 1974 the school had dismissed clerical and administrative staff and announced that more than half a dozen teaching positions would be eliminated in the fall, with the board having hired an outside committee to study the school. Barr said he would remain until June 7. Enrollment was 1,254.[^19]
Marie Brenner, interviewed by [[NPR]] in December 2019, said that Barr "began running afoul of many of the parents at the Dalton School because he became progressively more conservative," that parents and trustees mounted "an immense pushback against what many of them called the Captain Queeg who was running the Dalton School," and that his son watched him being "criticized quite publicly in The New York Times, in New York magazine, in the early 1970s." Of the end of his tenure she said, "he was allowed legally to resign."[^20] In *Vanity Fair* she quoted Ravitch: "I brought in the dean of the Harvard School of Education and the head of Teachers College to evaluate Barr... I fired him. It took years to get him out, but we did it." Brenner wrote that Barr announced his resignation "as part of an arrangement" and that the Dalton yearbook after his departure said, "The whole of Dalton owes a great debt to Donald Barr."[^3]
The 2004 obituary says his "sometimes stormy tenure ended in 1974 with his departure after disputes with the trustees over budget priorities and his disciplinarian approach to substance abuse."[^1] The Dalton archives hold the issues of the student newspaper, *The Daltonian*, of February 6 and March 14, 1974; the catalogue entry for the March 14 issue says it covers Barr's resignation.[^14] Peter Branch, then upper school director, was appointed interim headmaster; his appointment began July 1, 1974, and Barr's contract expired June 30, according to what Branch told [[Thomas Volscho]].[^21]
In his deposition before the [[House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform]] on August 18, 2025, William Barr was asked whether his father's role as Dalton headmaster had been a consideration in the Ethics Office analysis of his continued involvement in the Epstein matters. He answered: "Actually, I don't even think... I don't know whether I was aware of that at that time. Obviously not. It's not pertinent at all."[^22]
### Jeffrey Epstein's hiring
The school's own newspaper is the earliest record. Volscho reported in the [[Daily Beast]] on July 12, 2019 that the September 1974 issue of *The Daltonian* announced Epstein had joined the mathematics department and would also teach physics, that Epstein's arrival followed the summer of 1974, and that Epstein later confirmed in a deposition that he taught there from 1974 to 1976. Volscho wrote that reports of a 1973 start are incorrect because the 1973-74 yearbook does not mention him, and that Barr resigned in February 1974, "seven months before Jeffrey Epstein began teaching there that fall." He wrote that "it is possible that Donald Barr may have hired Epstein, if he made personnel decisions long in advance," that *The Daltonian* showed the school lost four mathematics teachers before the 1974-75 year, and that the school may therefore have hired Epstein "in part, out of an urgent need to fill vacant positions." In an update Volscho added that Branch did not recall hiring Epstein and was relatively certain that Barr, or possibly the head of the mathematics department, had hired him, because hiring decisions were typically made in the spring; Branch also said Barr liked to hire unconventional teachers.[^21]
The New York Times reported on July 12, 2019 ([[Mike Baker]] and [[Amy Julia Harris]]) that Epstein, from Brooklyn, "was just 21 when he joined the faculty at Dalton, arriving without a college degree," and that the student newspaper reported in September 1974 that he was starting as a math and physics teacher. The article states: "In February 1974, Mr. Barr had announced that he was resigning as headmaster, protesting the meddling by the board of trustees, but that he would stay on until the end of the school year. It is unclear whether Mr. Barr hired Mr. Epstein during that time." It quotes Susan Semel, a Dalton social studies teacher from the 1960s into the 1980s and the author of a history of the school: "Barr didn't care about credentials as long as you were interesting and knew your stuff." It reports that Dalton officials did not respond to requests for comment.[^23] Semel told NPR in July 2019 that Barr made several unconventional hires, while NPR wrote that it was "unclear if he hired Epstein," and that "Donald Barr would hire young people, and not necessarily young people who had a lot of credentials."[^24]
Brenner wrote in *Vanity Fair* that for his teaching staff Barr "brought in photographers, White Russian aristocrats, anti-Castro Cuban grandees, and a group of gifted college dropouts, including one Jeffrey Epstein," and that William Barr "recently claimed he hadn't made the Dalton-Epstein connection until he read about it in the press."[^3] [[Calder McHugh]], writing for [[Yahoo Finance]] on July 13, 2019 from anonymous former students, stated that "Donald Barr, Dalton's headmaster and father of Attorney General Bill Barr, hired Epstein to teach math and science," placing Epstein at the school "in the early 1970s" for about two years, with appearances in Dalton yearbooks of 1975 and 1976; the article says the school did not respond to a request for comment.[^25]
On Epstein's departure, Branch told the Times that Epstein "was a young teacher who didn't come up to snuff... So, ultimately, he was asked to leave," and that he had no recollection of complaints about conduct.[^23] In the update to Volscho's article, Branch said that mathematics and science faculty had asked him what he was going to do about Epstein, that his teaching had not improved over the previous year, and that he then informed Epstein it was time to move on. Volscho also wrote that Epstein told the school he was not returning after the 1975-76 year, and that [[Edward Jay Epstein]] had been told by investigators from [[Kroll]], retained by [[L Brands]], that Epstein had faked his resume to obtain the Dalton job.[^21]
### Hackley School and federal advisory work
The 2004 obituary says that "the next year" Barr became headmaster of Hackley, "where he soon dismissed more than two dozen students for disruptive conduct and poor academic performance."[^1] Columbia College Today also dates the move to the year after his departure from Dalton.[^2] The Gale notice says he received stronger parental support at Hackley and strengthened programs in academic subjects and the arts.[^5] The New York Times reported on March 13, 1977, in "Barr Puts His Stamp on Hackley," that he had run a private school "in the cramped confines of Manhattan before becoming headmaster of the Hackley School on an 83-acre campus in Tarrytown."[^26]
At the National Institute of Education's November 17-19, 1976 Curriculum Development Conference in Washington, the conference report records Barr's warning to the institute about its wish for synthesis: "Don't treat our statements as data!"[^27] His paper of October 30, 1976 for the institute's Curriculum Development Task Force, signed from Hackley School, set out two models of sponsorship. The first, the "Culture Ministry" approach, he identified with "a congeries of governmental agencies, major foundations, big test publishers, big textbook publishers" and a network of consultants, in which projects are designed "de haut en bas." He recommended that the institute separate the initiation and funding of projects, limit grant size, and avoid "incursions into or arrangements with the private sector."[^10] The February 8, 1977 task force report on the institute's role lists him among those consulted,[^28] and a 1977 National School Boards Association report on career education carries his contribution under the heading "Beware of implementation which destroys the ideals."[^29]
President [[Ronald Reagan]] announced on May 28, 1982 his intention to nominate Barr, "headmaster of the Hackley School in Tarrytown, N.Y.," to the National Council on Educational Research, to succeed Helen S. Astin for the remainder of a term expiring in 1982 and then a full term.[^30] On December 11, 1985 Reagan reappointed him for a term expiring September 30, 1988; the announcement describes him as then headmaster of Hackley and gives his birth as August 2, 1921, in New York City.[^31]
### Death
Barr died on February 5, 2004, of heart failure, at a hospital in [[Langhorne, Pennsylvania]]. He was 82. His wife had died in 2001, and he was survived by four sons, among them William, and eight grandchildren.[^2][^17] The New York Times published an obituary on February 10, 2004, headed "Donald Barr, 82, Headmaster And Science Honors Educator."[^1]
[^1]: Wolfgang Saxon, "Donald Barr, 82, Headmaster And Science Honors Educator," *The New York Times*, February 10, 2004, section B, p. 8 (national edition). https://www.nytimes.com/2004/02/10/nyregion/donald-barr-82-headmaster-and-science-honors-educator.html
[^2]: "Obituaries," *Columbia College Today*, May 2004, class of 1941 (compiled by Lisa Palladino). https://web.archive.org/web/20190905000723/https://www.college.columbia.edu/cct_archive/may04/obituaries1.html
[^3]: Marie Brenner, "'I Had No Problem Being Politically Different': Young William Barr Among the Manhattan Liberals," *Vanity Fair*, October 7, 2019 (December 2019 issue). https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2019/10/the-untold-tale-of-young-william-barr
[^4]: Central Intelligence Agency, Center for the Study of Intelligence, review essay on William P. Barr, *One Damn Thing After Another: Memoirs of an Attorney General* (William Morrow, 2022), *Studies in Intelligence* 67, no. 1 (extracts, March 2023). https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/4-Review-Essay-Barr-Memoir.pdf
[^5]: Gale, "Barr, Donald 1921-2004," obituary notice, *Something About the Author*, as reproduced at Encyclopedia.com. https://www.encyclopedia.com/children/scholarly-magazines/barr-donald-1921-2004
[^6]: National Archives and Records Administration, Records of the Office of Strategic Services, RG 226, Entry 224, OSS Personnel Files, name database dated 12/23/2010. https://www.archives.gov/iwg/declassified-records/rg-226-oss/personnel-database.pdf
[^7]: "College Science Courses for Gifted Secondary Pupils," *School and Society* 86, no. 2141 (November 22, 1958), p. 422. https://archive.org/details/sim_usa-today_1958-11-22_86_2141
[^8]: Marjorie Oden, "Field Notes," *Consulting Engineer* 13, no. 3 (September 1959), pp. 149-153. https://archive.org/details/sim_consulting-engineer_1959-09_13_3
[^9]: *Nature and Science* (American Museum of Natural History / Doubleday), national board of editors listing, 1963. https://archive.org/details/naturescience01amer
[^10]: Donald Barr, "Educational Policy and Curriculum Design," paper for the National Institute of Education Curriculum Development Task Force, October 30, 1976 (ERIC ED 170 251). https://archive.org/details/micro_IA41153549_0619
[^11]: Open Library, catalog record for *Who pushed Humpty Dumpty?* by Donald Barr, first publication year 1971, publishers Atheneum and Scribner. https://openlibrary.org/search.json?q=who+pushed+humpty+dumpty+barr
[^12]: Donald Barr, *Who Pushed Humpty Dumpty? Dilemmas in American Education Today* (Atheneum, 1972 printing). https://archive.org/details/whopushedhumptyd0000dona
[^13]: [JC], entry "Barr, Donald," *SF Encyclopedia*. https://sf-encyclopedia.com/entry/barr_donald
[^14]: Dalton School Archives, agent record "Barr, Donald, Headmaster, 1921-2004," personnel series 1964-1972, the 1971 *Time* items, *The Daltonian* issues of February 6 and March 14, 1974, and published-materials entries for *Who Pushed Humpty Dumpty?* (1971) and "Sex, Love, and Modern Education," *Columbia College Today*, fall 1967. https://daltonarchives.libraryhost.com/agents/people/276
[^15]: Donald Barr, *Space Relations: A Slightly Gothic Interplanetary Tale* (Charterhouse, New York, 1973; Fawcett Crest paperback, first printing February 1975), copyright page, dedication, epigraphs and text, pp. 7-13, 38-39, 49-50. https://archive.org/details/space-relations
[^16]: Wayne Madsen, "Daddy Dearest: the weirdness of Donald Barr, the father of Trump's mob lawyer Attorney General," *Wayne Madsen Report*, September 26, 2019. https://archive.org/details/Madsen190930
[^17]: Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers Association, "RIP: Donald Barr (1921-2004)," February 11, 2004. https://www.sfwa.org/2004/02/11/donald-barr-1921-2004
[^18]: "Education: The Dalton Brawl," *Time*, April 5, 1971, pp. 44-45. https://time.com/archive/6814618/education-the-dalton-brawl/
[^19]: Gene I. Maeroff, "Barr Quits Dalton School Post, Charging Trustees' Interference," *The New York Times*, February 20, 1974, p. 41. https://www.nytimes.com/1974/02/20/archives/barr-quits-dalton-school-post-charging-trustees-interference.html
[^20]: Rachel Martin, interview with Marie Brenner, "'Vanity Fair': Father-Son Dynamic May Explain Tenure Of AG Barr," NPR, December 10, 2019 (as carried by KJZZ). https://www.kjzz.org/politics/2019-12-10/vanity-fair-father-son-dynamic-may-explain-tenure-of-ag-barr
[^21]: Thomas Volscho, "Jeffrey Epstein Dodged Questions About Sex With His Dalton Prep School Students," *The Daily Beast*, July 12, 2019 (updated September 27, 2019). https://web.archive.org/web/20200117212831/https://www.thedailybeast.com/jeffrey-epstein-dodged-questions-about-sex-with-his-dalton-prep-school-students
[^22]: Deposition of William P. Barr, House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, August 18, 2025, p. 51. https://oversight.house.gov/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/Barr-Transcript.pdf
[^23]: Mike Baker and Amy Julia Harris, "Jeffrey Epstein Taught at Dalton. His Behavior Was Noticed," *The New York Times*, July 12, 2019 (print: July 15, 2019, p. A16, "New Teacher in Gold Chains, and Lingering Questions Over Conduct"). https://web.archive.org/web/20200107115402/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/12/nyregion/jeffrey-epstein-dalton-teacher.html
[^24]: Cat Schuknecht, "A Young Jeffrey Epstein Made An Impression On His High School Students," NPR, July 19, 2019. https://www.npr.org/2019/07/19/742725946/a-young-jeffrey-epstein-made-an-impression-on-his-high-school-students
[^25]: Calder McHugh, "Jeffrey Epstein's prep-school students remember their 'flamboyantly' dressed teacher," Yahoo Finance, July 13, 2019. https://finance.yahoo.com/news/jeffrey-epstein-dalton-school-math-teacher-yearbook-photos-125122535.html
[^26]: Gene I. Maeroff, "Barr Puts His Stamp on Hackley," *The New York Times*, March 13, 1977. https://www.nytimes.com/1977/03/13/archives/barr-puts-his-stamp-on-hackley.html
[^27]: Nel Noddings, *A Report of the NIE Curriculum Development Conference (Washington, D.C., November 17-19, 1976)*, National Institute of Education (ERIC ED 144 217). https://archive.org/details/micro_IA41153363_0430
[^28]: Jon Schaffarzick and Gary Sykes, *NIE's Role in Curriculum Development: Findings, Policy Options, and Recommendations*, National Institute of Education, February 8, 1977 (ERIC ED 140 401). https://archive.org/details/micro_IA41153432_0608
[^29]: National School Boards Association, *Career Education*, Research Report 1977-3 (ERIC ED 146 399), contents and section "Barr: Beware of implementation which destroys the ideals." https://archive.org/details/micro_IA41153504_0724
[^30]: The American Presidency Project, "Nomination of 10 Members of the National Council on Educational Research, and Designation of Chairman," May 28, 1982. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/nomination-10-members-the-national-council-educational-research-and-designation-chairman
[^31]: The American Presidency Project, "Appointment of Three Members of the National Council on Educational Research," December 11, 1985. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/appointment-three-members-the-national-council-educational-research

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---
created: 2026-10-26
updated: 2026-10-26
aliases:
- F. Trubee Davison
- Trubee Davison
- Frederick Trubee Davison
- Fredrick Trubee Davison
- Brig. Gen. Trubee Davison
- F.T. Davison
category: "Intelligence & Government"
tags:
- Person
- SkullAndBones
- YaleUniversity
- FirstYaleUnit
- NavalAviation
- AssistantSecretaryOfWar
- AmericanMuseumOfNaturalHistory
- CentralIntelligenceAgency
- PeacockPoint
- JPMorgan
- RedCross
- Geronimo
- NationalCrimeCommission
- ArmyAirForces
summary: "Founder of the First Yale Unit, Assistant Secretary of War for Air, president of the American Museum of Natural History and CIA Assistant Director for Personnel."
born: 1896-02-07
died: 1974-11-14
location: "Locust Valley, New York"
relations:
- type: member_of
with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
start: 1917
role: "member of the Yale class of 1918"
fn: 17
- type: founded
with: "[[First Yale Unit]]"
start: 1916
end: 1917
role: "organized the Yale volunteer aviation group that became the first unit of the Navy air reserve"
fn: 16
- type: appointed
with: "[[Calvin Coolidge]]"
start: 1926
end: 1933
role: "Assistant Secretary of War for Air, appointed July 16, 1926"
fn: 3
- type: member_of
with: "[[New York State Assembly]]"
start: 1922
end: 1926
role: "member for the Nassau County 2nd District"
fn: 39
- type: head_of
with: "[[American Museum of Natural History]]"
start: 1933
end: 1951
role: "president, elected January 1933 to succeed Henry Fairfield Osborn"
fn: 54
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Central Intelligence Agency]]"
start: 1951
end: 1952
role: "Assistant Director for Personnel, assistant to Walter Bedell Smith"
fn: 61
- type: reported_to
with: "[[Walter Bedell Smith]]"
start: 1951
end: 1952
role: "assistant to the Director of Central Intelligence"
fn: 61
- type: member_of
with: "[[American Museum of Natural History]]"
start: 1923
role: "trustee, later honorary trustee"
fn: 52
- type: head_of
with: "[[National Crime Commission]]"
start: 1925
end: 1936
role: "chairman"
fn: 3
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Army Air Forces]]"
start: 1941
end: 1945
role: "colonel, later brigadier general (promoted June 3, 1945), Special Projects Division"
fn: 3
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Henry P. Davison]]"
role: "son"
fn: 7
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Henry P. Davison Jr.]]"
role: "younger brother"
fn: 7
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Artemus L. Gates]]"
role: "brother-in-law, husband of his sister Alice Davison"
fn: 7
- type: spouse_of
with: "[[Dorothy Peabody Davison]]"
role: "wife"
fn: 69
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Endicott Peabody Davison]]"
role: "son"
fn: 20
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Daniel Pomeroy Davison]]"
role: "son"
fn: 19
---
Frederick Trubee Davison (February 7, 1896 to November 14, 1974) was born in [[New York City]], graduated from the [[Groton School]] in 1914, and was a member of [[Skull and Bones]] in the class of 1918 at [[Yale University]] and a graduate of [[Columbia Law School]] (1922). He organized the [[First Yale Unit]] of naval aviators, was a member of the [[New York State Assembly]] from 1922 to 1926 and [[Assistant Secretary of War]] for Air from 1926 to 1933, chaired the [[National Crime Commission]], and was president of the [[American Museum of Natural History]] from 1933 to 1951. He was promoted to brigadier general in the [[Army Air Forces]] on June 3, 1945, and from July 1951 to April 1952 served the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] as Assistant Director for Personnel.[^1][^2][^3][^4] He was the son of [[Henry P. Davison]], a senior partner of [[J. P. Morgan & Company]] and a chairman of the [[American Red Cross]] War Council.[^5]
### Family and the Morgan partnership
The family collection at the [[Pritzker Military Museum & Library]] records that Henry Pomeroy Davison was born in [[Troy, Pennsylvania]] in 1867 and began as a bookkeeper in a bank managed by a family member.[^5] He met his future wife, [[Mary Kate Trubee]], at a bank in [[Bridgeport, Connecticut]], and they married on April 13, 1893.[^5] Three years later the couple moved to New York City, where Davison held a position at the [[Astor Place Bank]], later became president of the [[Liberty National Bank]] and took part in founding the [[Bankers Trust Company]].[^5] The finding aid states that he became a senior partner of J. P. Morgan & Company in 1909.[^5]
Kate Trubee Davison organized the Nassau County chapter of the American Red Cross in 1917 and chaired it for twenty-seven years, according to the same finding aid.[^6] The finding aid lists the children as Alice, born in 1899 and married to [[Artemus L. Gates]] in 1922; [[Henry P. Davison Jr.]], born April 3, 1898; Frances, born in 1903 and married to [[Ward Cheney]] in 1926; and Frederick Trubee, born February 7, 1896.[^7]
The finding aid traces the career of Henry Davison Jr. in some detail. He served in the [[American Ambulance Corps]] in France during the First World War and spent a year at [[Cambridge University]]. In 1929 he became a partner at J. P. Morgan & Company, in 1940 a vice president and director when the firm became an incorporated bank and trust company, in 1953 senior vice president, and in 1955 president. After the firm merged with [[Guaranty Trust Company]] he was elected vice chairman of [[Morgan Guaranty Trust]], and he died on July 2, 1961.[^8]
The finding aid says that Henry Davison attended a secret meeting at [[Jekyll Island]], Georgia, in 1910, and states: "Many believe this meeting led to the creation of the [[Federal Reserve]]."[^9]
[[Antony C. Sutton]]'s 1983 chart of families places the Davison family under J. P. Morgan, beside the [[Rockefeller family]] and the Payne family under [[Standard Oil]], the [[Harriman family]] under railroads and the [[Weyerhaeuser family]] under lumber.[^10] In his text Sutton wrote that "some of his partners were" members of the society, and that the senior Davison's "son H.P. Davison, Jr. was initiated in 1920."[^11]
On May 10, 1917, President [[Woodrow Wilson]] appointed a War Council for the American National Red Cross. In his 1919 history of the organization, Henry Davison wrote that "I was asked to take the chairmanship."[^12] He wrote that the council "went out of existence on February 28th, 1919."[^13] The first War Fund drive, held in the week of June 18 to June 25, 1917, reported subscriptions of approximately $114,000,000 according to the same appendix.[^13] Davison wrote that the council met at Red Cross headquarters during the day, and that in the evenings "we continued them at my house in Washington."[^14]
The family estate was at [[Peacock Point]], [[Locust Valley, New York]], on [[Long Island]]; a [[Yale News]] article reproduces a photograph captioned "Henry P. Davison in helmet, and Albert Ditman in glasses by F-boat at Peacock Point, Long Island, ca. 1916."[^15] The Navy history describes the Davison home at Locust Valley and the family memorabilia kept there.[^16]
### Yale and Skull and Bones
Davison entered Yale in the class of 1918, and the crew he joined in June 1916 became the core of the aviation group he went on to lead.[^1] Sutton's index of members by class year lists "Davison, Fredrick Trubee" under the class of 1918 and "Davison, Harry Pomeroy" under the class of 1920.[^17] The younger brother appears as "H.P. Davison, Jr." in Sutton's text.[^11]
The [[Yale Alumni Magazine]] reported in May 2006 that [[Marc Wortman]], researching Davison's war years in the F. Trubee Davison Papers at [[Sterling Memorial Library]], had found a letter dated June 7, 1918, from [[Winter Mead]], class of 1919, to Davison. The magazine quoted the letter's account of a skull "exhumed from its tomb at [[Fort Sill]] by your club," with the magazine's bracketed expansions of its abbreviations.[^18] The magazine reported that the yearbook entries for [[Charles C. Haffner Jr.]], Mead and Davison confirmed that all three were members of the society, and that Haffner's entry placed him at the artillery school at Fort Sill between August 1917 and July 1918.[^18] The magazine also stated that Mead was not at Fort Sill.[^18] The letter is one of the documents cited in the rumor that members took [[Geronimo]]'s skull from Fort Sill.
Davison's sons are also recorded as members. The [[Covert Action Information Bulletin]], in its 1990 article on the society, stated that two of Davison's sons, [[Endicott Peabody Davison]] and [[Daniel Pomeroy Davison]], were also Bonesmen.[^19] The Yale Alumni Magazine identified Endicott Peabody Davison, class of 1945, as a son of Trubee Davison, and reported that he took part in a meeting with the San Carlos Apache chairman [[Ned Anderson]] at which the Bonesmen produced a display case with a skull "like the one in the photo."[^20] Sutton's post-war list of Morgan partners includes Henry P. Davison, Jr. (The Order '20) and Daniel P. Davison (The Order '49).[^21]
Sutton's chart lists [[Henry L. Stimson]] among the old-line families, and the Yale obituary record for 1950 to 1951 lists Stimson, class of 1888, with Skull and Bones among his activities.[^10][^22]
### The First Yale Unit
The Navy's account of naval aviation in the First World War calls Davison "the young man most responsible for the formation of the unit."[^16] The Yale crew was in training on June 13, 1916, when President Woodrow Wilson ordered additional troops to the Mexican border. Davison recalled that "It could never be said that the race with Harvard was forgotten," adding that "it did lose magnitude as the prospect of war with Mexico loomed larger."[^16] Several crew members had agreed beforehand that they would enter aviation if war came.[^16]
The original group included [[Allan Ames]], Henry P. Davison Jr., [[John Farwell]], Artemus L. Gates, [[Erl Gould]], [[Robert A. Lovett]], [[Albert Sturtevant]], [[John Vorys]] and [[C. D. Wiman]]. The Navy history adds [[Wellesley Laud-Brown]] and Albert Ditman as the two non-Yale men.[^16] Among the men consulted about how the group could learn to fly was [[John Hays Hammond Jr.]], then governor of the [[Aero Club of America]], who referred the youths to [[Henry Woodhouse]]. Woodhouse and [[Robert Peary]] had proposed a line of air stations along the East Coast, and the Yale men were to be trained as pilots of the first Aerial Coastal Patrol Unit.[^16]
[[Rodman Wanamaker]], who ran a flying school at [[Port Washington, New York]], supplied one Curtiss flying boat and the instructor [[David McCulloch]].[^23] The Navy history describes the summer at Locust Valley and the unit's maneuvers off [[Sandy Hook]] with a fleet of battleships, destroyers and coastal patrol boats.[^23] That fall the unit received two seaplanes from friends and neighbors, one of them from Davison's father, then a partner in the J. P. Morgan firm.[^23]
The Navy history lists further members who joined as 1917 arrived, among them Charles Beach, Graham Brush, Reginald Coombe, [[David Ingalls]], Robert Ireland, Francis Lynch, [[Kenneth MacLeish]], Archibald McIlwaine, Curtis Read, Russell Read, [[William A. Rockefeller]], Kenneth Smith, W. P. Thompson, C. M. Stewart and Samuel Walker.[^23] Davison conceded that the coastal defense idea was remote from the trouble with Mexico, and said that "But the plan was essentially sound and during the World War I period was adopted by the Navy Department."[^16]
Davison had seen war-ravaged Paris on trips to Europe with his father, and in 1915 he joined the [[American Ambulance Field Service]], transporting soldiers to hospitals outside [[Paris]].[^24] The Yale News account states that on March 24, 1917, at the [[Naval Submarine Base New London]] in [[New London, Connecticut]], the pilots formally enlisted as the Navy's first air reserve squadron, and that Davison was given the rank of lieutenant, junior grade.[^24] Seven others were given the rank of ensign and the rest were made petty officers.[^24] In March 1917 the unit moved to [[West Palm Beach, Florida]], under a Navy lieutenant, [[E. O. McDonnell]], and its members were enrolled in the Navy.[^25] At Palm Beach the pilots flew solo, practiced shooting at kites with machine guns mounted in airplanes, dropped dummy bombs on targets and learned to land in tight spaces.[^26]
The Yale News account adds that the unit was also the subject of the society's tapping. On April 19, 1917, Tap Day in New Haven, two representatives from Yale arrived in Florida to tap students at noon. Davison was the first tapped for Skull and Bones, and eleven other members of the First Yale Unit were tapped with him.[^27]
The Yale News photograph captions record that Kenneth MacLeish was shot down over [[Belgium]] and was never found.[^28] The Navy history states that Sturtevant was the first naval aviator brought down in combat and that David Ingalls became the Navy's first ace.[^29]
### The crash of July 28, 1917
Paine records that the flying tests for naval aviators were to begin on July 28, 1917, before a board of [[Commander Read]], Lieutenant Commander Johnson and Lieutenant McDonnell.[^30] Davison was injured in a seaplane accident at [[Huntington, New York]] on that date, on his final examination flight.[^31] The Navy history states: "It was ironic that Davison was one of the few of the Yale unit who never earned his wings. He was injured in a crash on his final examination flight."[^31]
[[Ralph D. Paine]]'s 1925 history of the unit, *The First Yale Unit*, describes the flight. Davison climbed steadily, came down in a spiral toward a yacht near which he meant to alight, and appeared to stretch his glide too far on a turn. The machine side-slipped and pitched into the harbor, and Lieutenant McDonnell plunged in to free Davison's legs from the wires.[^30]
Paine quotes Davison's own report to the Commandant of the [[Third Naval District]], which reads: "I was injured in a seaplane accident on July 28th, 1917, while on duty with the detachment of the Naval Reserve Flying Corps at Huntington, Long Island, and was removed to [[St. Luke's Hospital]], New York."[^32] A Navy memorandum quoted by Paine states that a Board of Medical Survey recommended two months' sick leave, extended by periods of two months because the injury "would keep him unfit for duty for a considerable length of time."[^33] Paine describes him as "a man with a broken back," the fracture of a vertebra having injured the tissues of the spinal cord, and records six weeks in the hospital before he could be moved to his own home.[^34] The Air Force biography states that he was "badly injured, suffering a broken back, in the crash of a seaplane he was piloting on a training flight over Huntington Bay, New York," and that he was awarded the [[Navy Cross]] in 1919. The citation credits him with "exceptionally meritorious service in a duty of great responsibility in the organization of the first Yale Aviation Unit which formed the nucleus of the first Naval Reserve Flying Corps, from which the U.S. Naval Aviation Force, Foreign Service, afterwards grew."[^3][^35]
Paine wrote that during the period of training "their able leader, Lieutenant Trubee Davison, crashed and broke his back," and that in spite of the handicap "he continued to direct and inspire his comrades."[^36] Paine also recalled Davison limping into his office in [[London]] after the Armistice, still badly crippled, to locate the grave of a member of the unit killed in France.[^37]
Davison never received his wings. In 1966, at the fiftieth anniversary celebration of the naval air reserve, Vice Admiral [[Paul Ramsey]], then Deputy Chief of Naval Operations (Air), presented him with a set of Navy wings and designated him an honorary Naval Aviator. The Navy history lists the wings among his memorabilia at Locust Valley, along with five college diplomas, his Army and Navy commissioning papers, a citation for the Navy Cross and his Yale letter for crew.[^38]
### New York State Assembly
The Nassau County 2nd District seat in the New York State Assembly is listed for "F. Trubee Davison" from 1922 to 1926, after [[Theodore Roosevelt]] held it for 1920 and 1921.[^39] The family finding aid gives the same span.[^2]
In August 1925 [[Time (magazine)|Time]] reported that the organizers of the National Crime Commission had chosen Davison as chairman, a man of twenty-nine who was then a member of the New York Assembly.[^40]
### Assistant Secretary of War for Air
The Air Force biography records that Davison "on July 16, 1926, was appointed Assistant Secretary of War, having previously spent five years in the New York Legislature," and lists "Assistant Secretary of War (Air) from 1926 to 1933."[^3] The Congressional Directory corrected to January 13, 1933 lists F. Trubee Davison as Assistant Secretary of War in the War Department, and the edition corrected to June 3, 1933 lists the office of Assistant Secretary of War as "[Vacant.]" beside a separate entry for The Assistant Secretary of War, Harry H. Woodring.[^41] A 1951 [[Associated Press]] item and the 1974 [[New York Times]] obituary both gave the span as 1926 to 1932. The Springfield Sun of July 1951 placed him in the "[[Calvin Coolidge|Coolidge]] and [[Herbert Hoover|Hoover]] Administrations," and the Navy history gives the service as "late in the '20's and early '30's," for six years.[^42][^43][^44][^45]
In August 1932 Time reported that David Ingalls had resigned as Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Aeronautics and taken the Republican nomination for Governor of Ohio, while Davison, "remaining in the Cabinet," had declared himself a candidate for the Republican nomination for Governor of New York, in a telegram to [[James L. Downey]], the Nassau County committeeman who had offered to withdraw as candidate for Attorney General to give Davison the head of the ticket.[^46]
A telegram of March 26, 1927, from the [[Secretary of State]] to the chargé in [[Haiti]], printed in the [[Foreign Relations of the United States]] for 1927, opens with the words "For Secretary of War Davis." It relays a message to [[Admiral Williams]] that "Henderson with 1,500 marines will be sent, arriving [[Shanghai]] in about 30 days," and states that a regiment of infantry from [[Manila]] could reach Shanghai in seven days if the situation demanded. The message is signed "Davison," and the volume's editorial note identifies the signatory as "F. Trubee Davison, Assistant Secretary of War."[^47]
Other Yale Unit members held the parallel posts. David Ingalls was Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Air from 1929 to 1932. Robert A. Lovett served as Assistant Secretary of War for Air in the Second World War and was Secretary of Defense from 1951 to 1953. Artemus L. Gates was Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Air from September 1941 to July 1945.[^44] John Vorys, another member of the unit, served four terms as a Congressman from Ohio.[^44] Lovett's post was held in the War Department under Henry L. Stimson, who served as Secretary of War from July 10, 1940, to September 21, 1945.[^48]
Yale News reproduces a photograph taken December 12, 1928, of "Assistant Secretary of War for Aviation F. Trubee Davison, [[Charles Lindbergh]], [[Harry Guggenheim]], and [[Edward T. Warner]], assistant secretary of the Navy for aviation" in Washington.[^49] The Air Force biography adds that Davison was commissioned a colonel in the Specialist Reserve Corps of the Army on September 12, 1927, and that he was chairman of the National Crime Commission from 1925 to 1936; Time reported in August 1925 that the organizers of the commission had chosen him as chairman, at the age of twenty-nine.[^3][^40]
### Second World War
In June 1941 Davison was assigned to Headquarters, Air Force Combat Command, [[Bolling Field]], as Acting Deputy Chief of Staff and aide-de-camp to Lieutenant General [[Delos C. Emmons]]. In January 1943 he went to Headquarters, Army Air Forces, as A-1 of the Air Staff, later Special Projects Officer, and in March 1943 became Chief of the Special Projects Division, responsible for having ready "an adequate plan for demobilization of the Army." He represented the Army Air Forces on the Interdepartmental Group on Material Demobilization Planning and on the subcommittee on the disposal of transport aircraft under the "Baruch plan," and dealt with the Office of the Under Secretary of War on contract termination and the disposal of surpluses.[^3] The American Museum of Natural History recorded that on June 5, 1941 its president "was granted indefinite leave of absence in order to take up his duties as Colonel in the Air Corps, U. S. Army," and that an Administrative Committee of trustees (A. Perry Osborn, Malcolm P. Aldrich, Cleveland E. Dodge, [[E. Roland Harriman]] and H. B. Clark) was created to consult with the First Vice-President.[^50] He was promoted to brigadier general on June 3, 1945 and received the Army Distinguished Service Medal in October 1945.[^3] The Springfield Sun editorial of July 1951 describes the same service as Assistant Chief of the Air Staff in charge of personnel under [[Henry H. Arnold]].[^51]
### American Museum of Natural History
The museum's roster of trustees lists "Davison, Frederick Trubee" from 1923, and "Davison, Henry P." from 1916 to 1922.[^52] The museum's annual report for 1922 records that his father, elected to the board on February 7, 1916, served as Treasurer and Chairman of the Finance Committee until his death on May 6, 1922, and that at his suggestion the board appointed an Advisory Committee on Investments of financial experts.[^53]
The annual report for 1933 states: "Upon the retirement of President [[Henry Fairfield Osborn]] from the Presidency of the Museum, on January 9, 1933, in order that he might devote himself to his scientific researches, Professor Osborn was elected Honorary President for life. His resignation, after twenty-five years as President of the Board of Trustees, was accepted with great regret. Mr. Frederick Trubee Davison was elected to the Presidency."[^54] The 1932 report, in Osborn's final acknowledgments, welcomed "his warm personal friend, F. Trubee Davison, fifth President of the American Museum," and named the "Jesup-Morgan-Osborn principles" that the new administration was expected to continue.[^55] The 1933 volume opens with Davison's first report as president, written "entering upon its duties as a layman," which thanks "my distinguished predecessor, Professor Henry Fairfield Osborn, who for twenty-five years exerted outstanding qualities of leadership." It states that the museum had 1,102,096 visitors in 1933; that the late Harry Payne Whitney's offer of $750,000 for the South Oceanic Bird Wing, conditioned on matching city funds, left the city a quarter of a million dollars short of its pledge, and that the trustees offered to buy $250,000 of city bonds to cover it; and that [[Charles Hayden]] and the [[Reconstruction Finance Corporation]] had made possible the Hayden Planetarium, the federal government agreeing to purchase bonds for its building.[^54] The report also records the donation by Colonel and Mrs. Lindbergh of the airplane they used on their Arctic and Pacific flights.[^54]
The museum held the Third International Congress of Eugenics in its halls from August 21 to 23, 1932, during Osborn's presidency, and partially opened its Hall of the Natural History of Man on that occasion; the same report lists Davison among the trustees re-elected to the Class of 1937.[^55] The 1933 report records the annual meeting of January 8, 1934, at which the officers re-elected were President F. Trubee Davison, First Vice-President [[J. P. Morgan Jr.]], Second Vice-President Cleveland E. Dodge, Treasurer James H. Perkins and Secretary Clarence L. Hay. It also records that [[John D. Rockefeller III]] was elected in 1933 to fill the vacancy created by the resignation of [[Frederick F. Brewster]], and that [[Frederick M. Warburg]] was elected to the vacancy left by his father, [[Felix Warburg]].[^54]
The 1933 report lists the "Davison African Expedition Fund" among the museum's special funds, with a balance of $50,561.04 under the name F. Trubee Davison, and states that "President F. Trubee Davison returned from Africa the middle of October with five elephants to complete the group in the new African Hall," "Financed by President Davison."[^54] The 1974 Times obituary adds that he and his wife, with [[Martin Johnson]] and [[Osa Johnson]], made the 1933 field trip to Africa.[^45] The annual report for 1952 describes the "Davison-Willis Expedition to Madagascar, organized by F. Trubee Davison," which brought back ethnographic objects, photographs and color-film records of native crafts and ceremonies to the Department of Anthropology.[^56]
The annual report for 1950 opens with the statement of his successor, [[Alexander M. White]]: "In June, 1951, a change of command took place at the Museum, Trubee Davison turning over the helm to me after eighteen years of leadership. They had not been easy years for any institution, covering as they did the depression period of the thirties and World War II." The report thanks Davison and the late A. Perry Osborn "for successfully piloting the ship through this stormy period." The officers for 1951 to 1952 list "President Emeritus, F. Trubee Davison," with White as president, Malcolm P. Aldrich as First Vice-President and E. Roland Harriman as Treasurer.[^57] The Navy history states that Davison retired in 1951 "after 18 years as president of the Museum of Natural History in New York," and the Springfield Sun editorial describes him as "president of the American Museum of Natural History for almost 18 years, and had planned to retire in October."[^38][^58] The Times obituary states that he remained an honorary trustee until his death and was "instrumental in the drive to obtain funds that helped the museum overcome many financial crises and eventually to build the Hayden Planetarium."[^45]
### Central Intelligence Agency
The Associated Press reported in July 1951 that "Brig. Gen. Trubee Davison, former Assistant Secretary of War for Air, will join the Central Intelligence Agency on July 16."[^59] The item states that a CIA spokesman confirmed he would become "a principal assistant" to "Lt. Gen. [[Walter Bedell Smith]], head of the agency," and that "He will not replace any other assistant." The spokesman added that Davison "probably would do personnel work."[^60] The 1974 Times obituary states that in July 1951 he became director of personnel of the Agency and assistant to Smith, and that "He left his post the following April, when it was announced that he had completed his mission of organizing the C.I.A.'s personnel."[^45]
The Springfield Sun editorial, headed "General Smith Names A Deputy," reports that Davison had "been appointed director of personnel and assistant to Lieut. General Walter Bedell Smith, chief of the Central Intelligence Agency."[^61] It says he had been "serving as a leader of civil defense in Nassau County, New York," and that in June 1941 he "became an Air Force colonel, retiring as a one-star general after serving as Assistant Chief of the Air Staff in charge of personnel" under Arnold, whom it calls "the late General of the Air Force."[^51] The editorial describes him as "a flier, a lawyer, an administrator, a politician, a combat veteran of two wars."[^51] The same editorial says that the CIA "has been rather unfortunate in its chiefs."[^51]
In the Agency's own papers he appears as Assistant Director for Personnel. A memorandum of September 10, 1951 from [[Allen Dulles]], then Deputy Director of Central Intelligence, is addressed to "Trubee Davison, Esq. (Asst. Director, Personnel)" and asks whether he or a member of his staff could arrange to see an individual named in attached correspondence.[^62] A CIA official routing slip carries a memorandum dated September 11, 1951, from Davison to the Deputy Director of Central Intelligence, whose text includes the line "I will see this fellow myself," followed by the initials "F.T.D."[^63]
Davison chaired the Agency's Career Service Committee. The minutes of its second meeting, on October 1, 1951, list "F. Trubee Davison - AD/Personnel, Chairman" with Matthew Baird, Director of Training. They record that the committee separated a "Trainee Program" from a "Career Service Program," that "the establishment of a Career Corps, as such, had been disapproved by the DCI," that of the first class of nineteen trainees sixteen had recently graduated and fourteen had been placed, and that a working group would take up a proposed two-year service requirement for selection.[^64] On October 3, 1951 the committee's executive secretary asked the Director of Personnel and the General Counsel to nominate representatives to five working groups (trainees, employee rating, rotation, career benefits and extension training), citing a memorandum "from General Davison entitled 'Career Service Committee'" of September 28, 1951.[^65] The minutes of the committee's fourteenth meeting, in January 1952, list Davison as AD/Personnel with Matthew Baird and [[Sherman Kent]], Assistant Director for National Estimates, and record the committee's review of a Personnel Evaluation Report and of "Selection Criteria for Participation in CIA Career Service Program."[^66]
The Covert Action Information Bulletin reported, citing the New York Times of July 5, 1951, that Davison was the agency's director of personnel in 1951.[^67] State Department papers of May 1951 in the same CIA files, concerning the working group on plans for the new Psychological Strategy Board, name W. P. Davison, executive secretary of the Psychological Operations Coordinating Board; he is a different person.[^68]
### Family after 1951 and death
The Yale News photograph of a 1966 reunion of the First Yale Unit identifies his wife as [[Dorothy Peabody Davison]].[^69] The Times obituary states that he died on the night of Thursday, November 14, 1974 at his home on Peacock Point, Locust Valley, aged 78; that he was survived by his widow and three sons, Endicott, Daniel and Gates; and that the funeral service was held at St. John's of Lattingtown Episcopal Church, Locust Valley. It states that he was "lamed for life by a plane crash during his service in World War I" and had taught himself to walk without crutches and ultimately without a cane.[^45] The Library of Congress name authority and the museum's archives catalog both give his dates as 1896 to 1974.[^70] The family finding aid at the Pritzker Military Museum & Library gives his death as 1976.[^71]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Yale News, "Defending Allied skies: Yale's pioneering pilots form first naval aviation unit" (August 17, 2014), text on Frederick Trubee Davison, class of 1918 (1896 to 1974), with captions from the F. Trubee Davison papers, 1882 to 1961, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library. https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit
[^2]: Pritzker Military Museum & Library, Davison Family Collection, biographical note on Frederick Trubee Davison (born February 7, 1896; First Yale Unit; New York State Assembly, Nassau County 2nd District, 1922 to 1926; Director of Personnel, CIA; Assistant Secretary of War in charge of aviation). https://www.pritzkermilitary.org/sites/default/files/files/Davison_Finding_Aid_Feb_2018.pdf
[^3]: United States Air Force, "Brigadier General Frederick Trubee Davison," official biography (current as of October 2024): born New York, February 7, 1896; Groton 1914; Yale 1918; Columbia Law 1922; appointed Assistant Secretary of War July 16, 1926; Assistant Secretary of War (Air) 1926 to 1933; Chairman, National Crime Commission, 1925 to 1936; wartime assignments; brigadier general June 3, 1945; Navy Cross (1919) and Army Distinguished Service Medal (October 1945); July 28, 1917 crash. https://web.archive.org/web/20250401000815/https://www.af.mil/About-Us/Biographies/Display/Article/3928479/frederick-trubee-davison/
[^4]: United States Air Force biography and *New York Times*, November 16, 1974 (see the Air Force biography and Times obituary cited above). https://web.archive.org/web/20240107180328/https://www.nytimes.com/1974/11/16/archives/f-trubee-davison-dies-at-78-led-natural-history-museum-aviation.html
[^5]: Pritzker Military Museum & Library, Davison Family Collection (PMML ID 320755, Call No. PAPERS 00013), biographical note on Henry Pomeroy Davison, finding aid written by Kathryn Hofherr (June 2008) and updated by Andrea Martinez (2018). https://www.pritzkermilitary.org/sites/default/files/files/Davison_Finding_Aid_Feb_2018.pdf
[^6]: Pritzker Military Museum & Library, Davison Family Collection, biographical note on Kate Trubee Davison (Nassau County chapter, 1917, chairman for twenty-seven years). https://www.pritzkermilitary.org/sites/default/files/files/Davison_Finding_Aid_Feb_2018.pdf
[^7]: Pritzker Military Museum & Library, Davison Family Collection, biographical note on the children (Alice, Henry Jr., Frances, Frederick Trubee). https://www.pritzkermilitary.org/sites/default/files/files/Davison_Finding_Aid_Feb_2018.pdf
[^8]: Pritzker Military Museum & Library, Davison Family Collection, biographical note on Henry Pomeroy Davison Jr. (American Ambulance Corps in France; a year at Cambridge; partner at J. P. Morgan & Company 1929; vice president and director 1940; senior vice president 1953; president 1955; vice chairman after the merger with Guaranty Trust; died July 2, 1961). https://www.pritzkermilitary.org/sites/default/files/files/Davison_Finding_Aid_Feb_2018.pdf
[^9]: Pritzker Military Museum & Library, Davison Family Collection, biographical note on Henry Pomeroy Davison (senior partner 1909; secret meeting at Jekyll Island, Georgia, the following year; "Many believe this meeting led to the creation of the Federal Reserve."). https://www.pritzkermilitary.org/sites/default/files/files/Davison_Finding_Aid_Feb_2018.pdf
[^10]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chart "Hypothesis Number One," family list including "Davison (J. P. Morgan)," "Rockefeller and Payne (Standard Oil)," "Harriman (railroads)," "Weyerhaeuser (lumber)," and the old-line families including Stimson. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^11]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), text on the Morgan partnership ("some of his partners were"; "whose son H.P. Davison, Jr. was initiated in 1920"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^12]: Henry P. Davison, *The American Red Cross in the Great War* (1919), pp. 7 to 8: "On the 10th of May, 1917, President Wilson appointed a War Council for the American National Red Cross, and I was asked to take the chairmanship." https://archive.org/details/americanredcross0000davi
[^13]: Henry P. Davison, *The American Red Cross in the Great War* (1919), appendix, "The Story in Figures": the War Council "went out of existence on February 28th, 1919." https://archive.org/details/americanredcross0000davi
[^14]: Henry P. Davison, *The American Red Cross in the Great War* (1919), chapter II, "Massing the Forces of Mercy," on the War Council's meetings at Headquarters and at the chairman's house in Washington. https://archive.org/details/americanredcross0000davi
[^15]: Yale News, "Defending Allied skies" (August 17, 2014), photograph caption: "Henry P. Davison in helmet, and Albert Ditman in glasses by F-boat at Peacock Point, Long Island, ca. 1916," F. Trubee Davison papers, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library. https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit
[^16]: Capt. Paul Jayson, USNR, "F. Trubee Davison, Founder of the First Yale Unit," in Adrian O. Van Wyen and the editors of Naval Aviation News, *Naval Aviation in World War I* (1969), p. 21 ("the young man most responsible for the formation of the unit"; June 13, 1916 training and Mexican border; Davison's Mexico quotation; Locust Valley memorabilia). https://archive.org/details/navalaviationinw00wash
[^17]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year: "Davison, Fredrick Trubee" under the class of 1918 and "Davison, Harry Pomeroy" under the class of 1920. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^18]: Kathrin Day Lassila and Mark Alden Branch, "Whose Skull and Bones?," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2006 (Wayback Machine capture of June 14, 2006), including the letter of June 7, 1918 from Winter Mead '19 to Davison '18 quoted with the magazine's expansions, Mead's location, and the yearbook entries for Haffner, Mead and Davison. https://web.archive.org/web/20060614215733/http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/2006_05/notebook.html
[^19]: "Bush's Boy's Club: Skull and Bones," *Covert Action Information Bulletin*, no. 33 (Winter 1990), pp. 20 to 22, listing Endicott Peabody Davison and Daniel Pomeroy Davison among the members. https://archive.org/details/CAIB33
[^20]: Lassila and Branch, "Whose Skull and Bones?," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2006 (Wayback Machine capture of June 14, 2006), on Endicott Peabody Davison '45, "a son of Trubee Davison," and the display case produced at the meeting with Ned Anderson. https://web.archive.org/web/20060614215733/http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/2006_05/notebook.html
[^21]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), list of post-World War II partners of J. P. Morgan: "Henry P. Davison, Jr. (The Order '20)" and "Daniel P. Davison (The Order '49)." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^22]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1950-1951*, entry "Henry Lewis Stimson, B.A. 1888," p. 11 (Skull and Bones among his activities).
[^23]: Jayson, *Naval Aviation in World War I* (1969), p. 22 (crew list including Henry P. Davison Jr., Lovett, Gates and Vorys; non-Yale men; John Hayes Hammond Jr. and Henry Woodhouse; Woodhouse and Admiral Peary's coastal plan). https://archive.org/details/navalaviationinw00wash
[^24]: Yale News, "Defending Allied skies" (August 17, 2014), text on Davison's service with the American Ambulance Field Service in 1915, the enlistment of the pilots at the Naval Submarine Base in New London on March 24, and his rank of lieutenant, junior grade. https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit
[^25]: Jayson, *Naval Aviation in World War I* (1969), p. 22 (March 1917 transfer to West Palm Beach under Lieutenant E. O. McDonnell, enrolled in the Navy). https://archive.org/details/navalaviationinw00wash
[^26]: Yale News, "Defending Allied skies" (August 17, 2014), text on the unit's training at Palm Beach, Florida, in 1917. https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit
[^27]: Yale News, "Defending Allied skies" (August 17, 2014), text on Tap Day, April 19 (1917): two representatives from Yale arrived in Florida "to 'tap' their fellow students at noon"; Davison "was the first to be tapped (Skull & Bones) as were 11 other members of the First Yale Unit." https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit
[^28]: Yale News, "Defending Allied skies" (August 17, 2014), photograph caption: "Kenneth MacLeish, who was shot down over Belgium, was never found, a casualty of war." https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit
[^29]: Jayson, *Naval Aviation in World War I* (1969), p. 22 (Sturtevant the first naval aviator brought down in combat; Ingalls the Navy's first ace). https://archive.org/details/navalaviationinw00wash
[^30]: Ralph D. Paine, *The First Yale Unit* (1925), account of the flying tests set to begin July 28, the examining board, and the seaplane's descent and loss of control near the yacht at Huntington. https://archive.org/details/firstyaleunit0000ralp
[^31]: Jayson, *Naval Aviation in World War I* (1969), p. 23 ("It was ironic that Davison was one of the few of the Yale unit who never earned his wings. He was injured in a crash on his final examination flight."). https://archive.org/details/navalaviationinw00wash
[^32]: Paine, *The First Yale Unit* (1925), quotation of Davison's report to the Commandant of the Third Naval District. https://archive.org/details/firstyaleunit0000ralp
[^33]: Paine, *The First Yale Unit* (1925), Davison's report and the Board of Medical Survey recommendation of two months' sick leave, extended in two-month periods, "a broken back." https://archive.org/details/firstyaleunit0000ralp
[^34]: Paine, *The First Yale Unit* (1925), chapter "Trubee, the Crippled Leader" (the fracture of a vertebra; six weeks in St. Luke's Hospital before removal to his home). https://archive.org/details/firstyaleunit0000ralp
[^35]: United States Air Force, "Brigadier General Frederick Trubee Davison," official biography (Navy Cross citation, 1919). https://web.archive.org/web/20250401000815/https://www.af.mil/About-Us/Biographies/Display/Article/3928479/frederick-trubee-davison/
[^36]: Paine, *The First Yale Unit* (1925), text on the period of training ("their able leader, Lieutenant Trubee Davison, crashed and broke his back"; "he continued to direct and inspire his comrades"). https://archive.org/details/firstyaleunit0000ralp
[^37]: Paine, *The First Yale Unit* (1925), author's recollection of Davison in London after the Armistice. https://archive.org/details/firstyaleunit0000ralp
[^38]: Jayson, *Naval Aviation in World War I* (1969), p. 21 (1966 presentation of Navy wings by Vice Admiral Paul Ramsey; retirement in 1951 "after 18 years as president of the Museum of Natural History in New York"; memorabilia list). https://archive.org/details/navalaviationinw00wash
[^39]: Political Graveyard, "Members of the New York State Assembly, 1920-29," Nassau County 2nd District: "Theodore Roosevelt 1920-21" and "F. Trubee Davison 1922-26." https://politicalgraveyard.com/geo/NY/ofc/asmbly1920s.html
[^40]: "Political Notes: Crime Chairman," *Time*, August 24, 1925 (National Crime Commission chairmanship; Davison identified as twenty-nine and a member of the New York Assembly). https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,720818,00.html
[^41]: *Official Congressional Directory*, 72nd Congress, 2nd session, edition corrected to January 13, 1933 (War Department listing for the Assistant Secretary of War, F. Trubee Davison), and 73rd Congress, 1st session, edition corrected to June 3, 1933 (Assistant Secretary of War, "[Vacant.]"; The Assistant Secretary of War, Harry H. Woodring). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CDIR-1933-01-13/text/CDIR-1933-01-13.txt ; https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CDIR-1933-06-03/text/CDIR-1933-06-03.txt
[^42]: Associated Press item, "F. Trubee Davison to Join CIA in Personnel Post," CIA reading room, document CIA-RDP78-04718A000500180115-2 (released May 10, 2000): "Gen. Davison was Assistant Secretary of War for Air from 1926 to 1932. He has been president of the American Museum of Natural History in New York since 1933." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp78-04718a000500180115-2
[^43]: "General Smith Names A Deputy," editorial, *Springfield (Ohio) Sun*, July 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00001R000300090028-6: "He was Assistant Secretary of War in the Coolidge and Hoover Administrations." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000300090028-6
[^44]: Jayson, *Naval Aviation in World War I* (1969), p. 23 (Davison as Assistant Secretary of War for Air, "late in the '20's and early '30's"; Ingalls as Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Air 1929 to 1932; Lovett as Assistant Secretary of War for Air and later Secretary of Defense 1951 to 1953; Gates as Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Air September 1941 to July 1945). https://archive.org/details/navalaviationinw00wash
[^45]: "F. Trubee Davison Dies at 78. Led Natural History Museum. Aviation Pioneer Served as Assistant War Secretary, C.I.A. Personnel Director," *New York Times*, November 16, 1974 (death on Thursday night at Peacock Point, Locust Valley; Assembly 1922 to 1926; "From 1926 to 1932 he was Assistant Secretary of War for Air"; museum trustee and president; CIA July 1951 to April 1952; 1933 Africa trip with Martin and Osa Johnson; survivors; funeral). https://web.archive.org/web/20240107180328/https://www.nytimes.com/1974/11/16/archives/f-trubee-davison-dies-at-78-led-natural-history-museum-aviation.html
[^46]: "National Affairs: Friends & Candidates," *Time*, August 15, 1932. https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,744164,00.html
[^47]: *Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, 1927*, vol. II, document 73, telegram from the Secretary of State to the Chargé in Haiti (Gross), Washington, March 26, 1927, with the editorial note identifying "F. Trubee Davison, Assistant Secretary of War." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1927v02/d73
[^48]: Henry L. Stimson and McGeorge Bundy, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), title page (Secretary of War 1940 to 1945).
[^49]: Yale News, "Defending Allied skies" (August 17, 2014), photograph caption: "Assistant Secretary of War for Aviation F. Trubee Davison, Colonel Charles Lindbergh, Harry Guggenheim, and Edward T. Warner, assistant secretary of the Navy for aviation in Washington, D.C.," Harris & Ewing, December 12, 1928, Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division. https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit
[^50]: American Museum of Natural History, *Annual Report for the Year 1941*, report of the Secretary, p. 38 (leave of absence, June 5, 1941; Administrative Committee), and the First Vice-President's statement "on behalf of President F. Trubee Davison, who is on active war service." https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/items/8899eea9-1f49-4312-b3dd-8a4f579400f4
[^51]: "General Smith Names A Deputy," *Springfield (Ohio) Sun*, July 1951, CIA-RDP75-00001R000300090028-6: "serving as a leader of civil defense in Nassau County, New York"; "in June of 1941 he became an Air Force colonel, retiring as a one-star general after serving as Assistant Chief of the Air Staff in charge of personnel under the late General of the Air Force 'Hap' Arnold"; "a flier, a lawyer, an administrator, a politician, a combat veteran of two wars." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000300090028-6
[^52]: American Museum of Natural History, *Annual Report for the Year 1922*, roster of trustees since 1869 ("Davison, Frederick Trubee 1923-"; "Davison, Henry P. 1916-1922"). https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/items/c9a7e200-0163-48f4-9d8c-9689e0992af6
[^53]: American Museum of Natural History, *Annual Report for the Year 1922*, "Memorials to Trustees Davison and Cuyler and Curator Allen," pp. 20 to 21. https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/items/c9a7e200-0163-48f4-9d8c-9689e0992af6
[^54]: American Museum of Natural History, *Annual Report for the Year 1933* (Sixty-fifth Annual Report), "Report of the President" (pp. 1 to 4), "Changes in the Board of Trustees" (pp. 53 to 54), expedition notes and Report of the Treasurer (Davison African Expedition Fund). https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/items/03786359-9347-4dbf-a201-0a9319dccccd
[^55]: American Museum of Natural History, *Annual Report for the Year 1932*, president's final acknowledgments (pp. 36 to 37), "Changes in the Board of Trustees" (p. 112), and the reports on the Third International Congress of Eugenics held in the Museum, August 21 to 23, 1932. https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/items/4c320241-c3ab-4722-b36b-e0e13566adab
[^56]: American Museum of Natural History, *Annual Report for the Year 1952*, Department of Anthropology (the Davison-Willis Expedition to Madagascar). https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/items/c72e95f0-6528-44fc-96a4-e940d102b1dd
[^57]: American Museum of Natural History, *Annual Report for the Year 1950* (published 1951), statement of the President (Alexander M. White) and list of officers and trustees, 1951 to 1952. https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/items/9c2b388c-1708-473d-b885-2ca62dcc2890
[^58]: "General Smith Names A Deputy," *Springfield (Ohio) Sun*, July 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00001R000300090028-6: "president of the American Museum of Natural History for almost 18 years, and had planned to retire in October." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000300090028-6
[^59]: Associated Press item, CIA-RDP78-04718A000500180115-2: "Brig. Gen. Trubee Davison, former Assistant Secretary of War for Air, will join the Central Intelligence Agency on July 16." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp78-04718a000500180115-2
[^60]: Associated Press item, CIA-RDP78-04718A000500180115-2: "a principal assistant" to "Lt. Gen. Walter Bedell Smith, head of the agency"; "He will not replace any other assistant"; "probably would do personnel work." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp78-04718a000500180115-2
[^61]: "General Smith Names A Deputy," *Springfield (Ohio) Sun*, July 1951, CIA-RDP75-00001R000300090028-6: "has been appointed director of personnel and assistant to Lieut. General Walter Bedell Smith, chief of the Central Intelligence Agency." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000300090028-6
[^62]: Memorandum from Allen W. Dulles to "Trubee Davison, Esq. (Asst. Director, Personnel)," September 10, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003100020077-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003100020077-6
[^63]: Memorandum from F. Trubee Davison dated September 11, 1951, "MEMORANDUM FOR: Deputy Director of Central Intelligence," with the note "I will see this fellow myself," initialed "F.T.D.," on a Central Intelligence Agency Official Routing Slip, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003100090067-0. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003100090067-0
[^64]: "Minutes of 2nd Career Service Committee Meeting," October 1, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80-01826R000400090089-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-01826r000400090089-6
[^65]: Memoranda of the Executive Secretary, Career Service Committee, "Career Service Working Groups," October 3, 1951, CIA reading room documents CIA-RDP80-01826R000400030018-0 and CIA-RDP80-01826R000400030022-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-01826r000400030018-0 ; https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-01826r000400030022-5
[^66]: "Minutes of 14th Career Service Committee Meeting," dated January 21, 1952, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80-01826R000400090006-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-01826r000400090006-7
[^67]: "Bush's Boy's Club: Skull and Bones," *Covert Action Information Bulletin*, no. 33 (Winter 1990), pp. 20 to 22, citing the *New York Times*, July 5, 1951, for Davison as the CIA's director of personnel in 1951. https://archive.org/details/CAIB33
[^68]: Memorandum from the Assistant Secretary of State (Edward W. Barrett) to Lt. Gen. Walter Bedell Smith, May 1951, "State Department Members for Working Group on Plans for Psychological Strategy Board," CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003400010031-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003400010031-4
[^69]: Yale News, "Defending Allied skies" (August 17, 2014), photograph caption of Trubee Davison recalling the muster at the fiftieth anniversary reunion of the First Yale Unit in 1966, "His wife, Dorothy Peabody Davison, stands behind him." https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit
[^70]: Library of Congress Name Authority File, "Davison, Frederick Trubee, 1896-1974" (n2001120423), and American Museum of Natural History Archives Catalog, "Davison, Frederick Trubee, 1896-1974." https://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n2001120423.html ; https://data.library.amnh.org/archives/agents/people/241
[^71]: Pritzker Military Museum & Library, Davison Family Collection, biographical note on Frederick Trubee Davison ("Trubee died in 1976."). https://www.pritzkermilitary.org/sites/default/files/files/Davison_Finding_Aid_Feb_2018.pdf

512
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/George H.W. Bush.md
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@ -27,40 +27,40 @@ relations:
with: "[[Gerald R. Ford]]"
role: "Director of Central Intelligence"
start: 1976-01-30
fn: 31
fn: 37
- type: director_of
with: "[[Central Intelligence Agency]]"
role: "Director of Central Intelligence"
start: 1976-01-30
end: 1977-01-20
fn: 31
fn: 37
- type: reported_to
with: "[[Ronald Reagan]]"
role: "Vice President"
start: 1981-01-20
end: 1989-01-20
fn: 113
fn: 119
- type: head_of
with: "[[United States]]"
role: "President of the United States"
start: 1989-01-20
end: 1993-01-20
fn: 113
fn: 119
- type: subject_of
with: "[[October Surprise]]"
start: 1993-01-03
fn: 98
fn: 104
- type: member_of
with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
fn: 4
- type: employed_by
with: "[[The Carlyle Group]]"
role: "Senior adviser on Asia"
fn: 152
fn: 158
- type: participant_in
with: "[[South Florida Drug Task Force]]"
start: 1982-01-28
fn: 22
fn: 28
---
George H.W. Bush served as the Vice President under President [[Ronald Reagan]] and later as the 41st President of the United States. He was present at a meeting of Reagan's high command following the Israeli bombing of the Iraqi nuclear reactor at [[Osirak bombing]] in June 1981, where he agreed that some sanctions against [[Israel]] were essential.[^1] The same history of Israel's nuclear program includes the Vela incident of September 1979, the double flash recorded by an American Vela satellite over the South Atlantic.[^1]
@ -83,249 +83,255 @@ On October 20, 1942 at Washington, the [[Alien Property Custodian]], Leo T. Crow
Bush moved to Odessa, Texas in 1948, worked for Dresser Industries from 1950, and that year formed an oil development company in Midland that merged with another company three years later to create [[Zapata Petroleum]]. In 1954 he became president of the subsidiary Zapata Off-Shore Company and moved the company and his family to Houston.[^2] WhoWhatWhy reports that Zapata Petroleum began in 1953 "through joint efforts with Thomas J. Devine, a CIA staffer who had resigned his agency position that same year." The article quotes a CIA memorandum of November 29, 1975 that describes Devine as an "oil wild-catting associate of Mr. Bush."[^11] The same article quotes a 1968 memorandum that places Devine back in agency work under commercial cover from 1963.[^12] WhoWhatWhy also reports that the CIA documents were released in 1998 from a batch of records provided to the [[House Select Committee on Assassinations]].[^12]
The corporation that later carried the Zapata name filed with the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] under the former conformed names Zapata Off Shore Co, dated from January 15, 1969, and Zapata Norness Inc, dated from March 14, 1972. Its fiscal 1994 annual report states that "Zapata Corporation is a Delaware corporation organized in 1954."[^13] Electronic filings on EDGAR begin on February 8, 1994, and the company's record under Central Index Key 109177 starts from that period.[^14]
The CIA biographical sheet lists Bush as an oil field supply salesman for Dresser Industries in Midland, Texas, from 1948 to 1951, and records the formation of Bush-Overbey Oil Development, Inc., in 1951.[^13] The Miller Center biography dates his arrival in Midland to 1950, after an equipment-clerk job for an oil company in Odessa in 1948, and places the formation of the oil development company in 1950.[^2]
Two 1988 accounts tie the Dresser job to Neil Mallon, head of Dresser Industries. [[Bob Woodward]] and [[Walter Pincus]] reported that Mallon gave Bush his first job out of Yale.[^14] [[Randall Rothenberg]] reported that Bucky Bush described Mallon as a family friend who "could charm the fangs off a snake," and who offered George a bottom-of-the-ladder job at Dresser Industries in Midland, Texas.[^15] [[Anthony L. Kimery]] wrote that Bush began his career as a salesman for IDECO, a Dresser subsidiary.[^16]
In *All the Best*, Bush wrote that "I accepted the job from Neil Mallon and drove our 1947 Studebaker (a graduation gift from my parents) to Odessa, Texas," described Mallon as "Yale classmate of my Dad's" and "an intimate family friend," and wrote that the couple changed the name of their third son "from Henry to Neil" because "We wanted to name him for Neil Mallon, whose name was really Henry."[^17] In *Looking Forward* he called Mallon "a friend and a mentor second only to my father," and wrote that he became "a full-fledged Ideco salesman, selling drilling bits."[^18] On April 12, 1951 he wrote to "Mr. H.N. Mallon, Dresser Industries, Dallas, Texas": "Dear Neil, This will let you know that we are in business."[^17]
The corporation that later carried the Zapata name filed with the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] under the former conformed names Zapata Off Shore Co, dated from January 15, 1969, and Zapata Norness Inc, dated from March 14, 1972. Its fiscal 1994 annual report states that "Zapata Corporation is a Delaware corporation organized in 1954."[^19] Electronic filings on EDGAR begin on February 8, 1994, and the company's record under Central Index Key 109177 starts from that period.[^20]
### The 1963 Hoover Memorandum
In 1997 the [[Assassination Records Review Board]] asked the CIA about a memorandum dated November 29, 1963 that carries the name of [[J. Edgar Hoover]]. The Review Board's letter of December 18, 1997 quotes the memorandum's statement that "the substance of the foregoing information [on the assassination of President Kennedy] was orally furnished to Mr. George Bush of the Central Intelligence Agency."[^15] The letter describes the document as "dated November 29,1963, prepared under the name of John Edgar Hoover."[^15]
In 1997 the [[Assassination Records Review Board]] asked the CIA about a memorandum dated November 29, 1963 that carries the name of [[J. Edgar Hoover]]. The Review Board's letter of December 18, 1997 quotes the memorandum's statement that "the substance of the foregoing information [on the assassination of President Kennedy] was orally furnished to Mr. George Bush of the Central Intelligence Agency."[^21] The letter describes the document as "dated November 29,1963, prepared under the name of John Edgar Hoover."[^21]
The routing of the memorandum is recorded in two conflicting ways. A Review Board staff memorandum of January 8, 1998 describes it as concerning Hoover's conversation with President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] about the assassination, and says the memorandum is located in Johnson O&C File 92.[^16] A CIA memorandum by Michelle Combs to T. Jeremy Gunn, dated July 15, 1998, describes it as a memorandum from Hoover to the director of the Bureau of Intelligence and Research at the State Department.[^17]
The routing of the memorandum is recorded in two conflicting ways. A Review Board staff memorandum of January 8, 1998 describes it as concerning Hoover's conversation with President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] about the assassination, and says the memorandum is located in Johnson O&C File 92.[^22] A CIA memorandum by Michelle Combs to T. Jeremy Gunn, dated July 15, 1998, describes it as a memorandum from Hoover to the director of the Bureau of Intelligence and Research at the State Department.[^23]
The Review Board's letter quotes the CIA as having confirmed that "the search query included George Herbert Walker Bush prior to 1970." The letter asks the agency to determine whether George Herbert Walker Bush is the person to whom the memorandum refers.[^15] A CIA memorandum from J. Barry Harrelson to Gunn, dated February 25, 1998, states that the search "determined the Agency has no record of any association with George Herbert Walker Bush during the 1963 time period."[^18]
The Review Board's letter quotes the CIA as having confirmed that "the search query included George Herbert Walker Bush prior to 1970." The letter asks the agency to determine whether George Herbert Walker Bush is the person to whom the memorandum refers.[^21] A CIA memorandum from J. Barry Harrelson to Gunn, dated February 25, 1998, states that the search "determined the Agency has no record of any association with George Herbert Walker Bush during the 1963 time period."[^24]
The Combs memorandum records that the only other "George Bush" serving in the CIA in 1963 was a junior analyst who has repeatedly denied being the "George Bush" referenced in the memorandum. It also cites an entry in the calendar of Director [[Allen Dulles]] for October 4, 1961 that names an Army major general George Bush, with "no indication if this General Bush could be the referenced George Bush."[^17]
The Combs memorandum records that the only other "George Bush" serving in the CIA in 1963 was a junior analyst who has repeatedly denied being the "George Bush" referenced in the memorandum. It also cites an entry in the calendar of Director [[Allen Dulles]] for October 4, 1961 that names an Army major general George Bush, with "no indication if this General Bush could be the referenced George Bush."[^23]
An undated Review Board draft request bearing Gunn's name refers to an affidavit of George William Bush dated September 21, 1988.[^19]
An undated Review Board draft request bearing Gunn's name refers to an affidavit of George William Bush dated September 21, 1988.[^25]
In 1988 Stephen Hart issued a statement answering a report by [[Joseph McBride]] that appeared in The Nation on July 16, 1988. WhoWhatWhy quotes the statement as concluding: "Must be another George Bush."[^20] McBride described the response as "rather detailed for a ritual non-denial."[^20]
In 1988 Stephen Hart issued a statement answering a report by [[Joseph McBride]] that appeared in The Nation on July 16, 1988. WhoWhatWhy quotes the statement as concluding: "Must be another George Bush."[^26] McBride described the response as "rather detailed for a ritual non-denial."[^26]
The CIA's 1998 answer, the Review Board staff's account of it, the 1988 statement and the 1988 affidavit all concern the same name. The records do not establish which George Bush the memorandum means.
### The South Florida Drug Task Force and the Medellín Cartel
As Vice President, Bush oversaw anti-drug efforts as head of the South Florida Drug Task Force while the administration simultaneously protected Contra-connected drug traffickers. The contradiction between Bush's public anti-drug posture and the covert reality of the Contra supply chain became a recurring theme in the [[Dark Alliance]] narrative.[^21]
As Vice President, Bush oversaw anti-drug efforts as head of the South Florida Drug Task Force while the administration simultaneously protected Contra-connected drug traffickers. The contradiction between Bush's public anti-drug posture and the covert reality of the Contra supply chain became a recurring theme in the [[Dark Alliance]] narrative.[^27]
Reagan's statement of January 28, 1982 announced the federal anticrime task force for southern Florida: "To coordinate this effort, I am today announcing the establishment of a special task force, headed by Vice President George Bush, to analyze the problems and determine what steps we must take during the period of aggravated crime incidence."[^22] In a statement to a 1988 Senate subcommittee, Admiral [[Daniel Murphy]] said: "The President appointed Vice President Bush to direct the task force comprised of the Secretaries of State, Defense, Transportation, Treasury, Health and Human Service, and the Attorney General."[^23]
Reagan's statement of January 28, 1982 announced the federal anticrime task force for southern Florida: "To coordinate this effort, I am today announcing the establishment of a special task force, headed by Vice President George Bush, to analyze the problems and determine what steps we must take during the period of aggravated crime incidence."[^28] In a statement to a 1988 Senate subcommittee, Admiral [[Daniel Murphy]] said: "The President appointed Vice President Bush to direct the task force comprised of the Secretaries of State, Defense, Transportation, Treasury, Health and Human Service, and the Attorney General."[^29]
The [[Kerry Committee]] report, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy* (1988), states: "These cables led to a 1982 meeting between Vice President Bush, Admiral Daniel Murphy and Bahamian Prime Minister [[Lynden Pindling]], at which the Norman's Cay problem was raised. The Vice President chastised the Prime Minister for what was taking place."[^24]
The [[Kerry Committee]] report, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy* (1988), states: "These cables led to a 1982 meeting between Vice President Bush, Admiral Daniel Murphy and Bahamian Prime Minister [[Lynden Pindling]], at which the Norman's Cay problem was raised. The Vice President chastised the Prime Minister for what was taking place."[^30]
The [[Medellin Cartel|Medellín Cartel]] reportedly made a deal with Vice President Bush. Informant Allen Raul Rudd told federal officials that [[Pablo Escobar]] described "an agreement or relationship between Bush and the American government and members of the Medellín cartel which resulted in planes flying guns to the cartel in [[Colombia]]." Escobar claimed to have a picture of Bush posing with Medellín cartel leader [[Jorge Ochoa]] in front of suitcases full of money, held as blackmail to be released at "the appropriate time."[^21]
The [[Medellin Cartel|Medellín Cartel]] reportedly made a deal with Vice President Bush. Informant Allen Raul Rudd told federal officials that [[Pablo Escobar]] described "an agreement or relationship between Bush and the American government and members of the Medellín cartel which resulted in planes flying guns to the cartel in [[Colombia]]." Escobar claimed to have a picture of Bush posing with Medellín cartel leader [[Jorge Ochoa]] in front of suitcases full of money, held as blackmail to be released at "the appropriate time."[^27]
### Contra Connections and the War on Drugs
At the same time Reagan and Bush were publicly whipping the American public into a frenzy over street-corner crack dealers, [[Oliver North]] and other top administration officials were livid that Contra-connected drug trafficker General [[Jose Bueso Rosa]] had even been charged with a crime. North's computer messages about Bueso Rosa illustrated how skewed the Reagan administration's sense of justice had become regarding its "War on Drugs." [[Scott Weekly]], a figure connected to the CIA and the Hasenfus shootdown, claimed on tape that he reported to people who reported to Bush.[^25]
At the same time Reagan and Bush were publicly whipping the American public into a frenzy over street-corner crack dealers, [[Oliver North]] and other top administration officials were livid that Contra-connected drug trafficker General [[Jose Bueso Rosa]] had even been charged with a crime. North's computer messages about Bueso Rosa illustrated how skewed the Reagan administration's sense of justice had become regarding its "War on Drugs." [[Scott Weekly]], a figure connected to the CIA and the Hasenfus shootdown, claimed on tape that he reported to people who reported to Bush.[^31]
### Political Career Before the CIA
Bush became Republican Party chairman in Harris County, Texas, lost the 1964 Senate race to Ralph Yarborough, won the House seat for Houston's Seventh District in 1966 and was reelected in 1968. He lost the 1970 Senate race to [[Lloyd Bentsen]]. In December 1970 President [[Richard Nixon]] nominated him as ambassador to the [[United Nations]]; in 1973 Nixon moved him to the chairmanship of the [[Republican National Committee]], which he held through the Watergate period until Nixon's resignation in August 1974. President [[Gerald R. Ford]] then made him chief of the U.S. Liaison Office in the People's Republic of China, and in 1975 asked him to direct the CIA. After Ford lost in 1976, Bush offered to stay as director and [[Jimmy Carter]] declined.[^2] [[James C. Oberwetter]], the spokesman for [[Hunt Oil Company]] in a 1977 episode involving the FBI, had been press secretary to Congressman Bush.[^26]
Bush became Republican Party chairman in Harris County, Texas, lost the 1964 Senate race to Ralph Yarborough, won the House seat for Houston's Seventh District in 1966 and was reelected in 1968. He lost the 1970 Senate race to [[Lloyd Bentsen]]. In December 1970 President [[Richard Nixon]] nominated him as ambassador to the [[United Nations]]; in 1973 Nixon moved him to the chairmanship of the [[Republican National Committee]], which he held through the Watergate period until Nixon's resignation in August 1974. President [[Gerald R. Ford]] then made him chief of the U.S. Liaison Office in the People's Republic of China, and in 1975 asked him to direct the CIA. After Ford lost in 1976, Bush offered to stay as director and [[Jimmy Carter]] declined.[^2] [[James C. Oberwetter]], the spokesman for [[Hunt Oil Company]] in a 1977 episode involving the FBI, had been press secretary to Congressman Bush.[^32]
### Out of Office, 1977 to 1981
In January 1977, as chairman of the [[National Foreign Intelligence Board]], Bush wrote to Vice Admiral [[Bobby Ray Inman]], then vice director of the [[Defense Intelligence Agency]], thanking him for a year of advice to the board.[^27] [[U.S. News & World Report]] stated on April 7, 1980 that Bush was a present or former member of the [[Trilateral Commission]]; the magazine reported that he "resigned from the organization in 1978" and quoted him as saying that "to suggest that those that belong to the commission . . . are involved in a conspiracy is absurd."[^28] Bush announced his candidacy for the Republican nomination on May 1, 1979.[^2] [[William H. Draper III]] was national cochairman of the finance committee for Bush's 1980 presidential campaign, according to the White House announcement of March 18, 1981 nominating Draper to head the [[Export-Import Bank of the United States]].[^29] Bush ran on the Reagan ticket and won the vice presidency in the November 1980 election.[^2]
In January 1977, as chairman of the [[National Foreign Intelligence Board]], Bush wrote to Vice Admiral [[Bobby Ray Inman]], then vice director of the [[Defense Intelligence Agency]], thanking him for a year of advice to the board.[^33] [[U.S. News & World Report]] stated on April 7, 1980 that Bush was a present or former member of the [[Trilateral Commission]]; the magazine reported that he "resigned from the organization in 1978" and quoted him as saying that "to suggest that those that belong to the commission . . . are involved in a conspiracy is absurd."[^34] Bush announced his candidacy for the Republican nomination on May 1, 1979.[^2] [[William H. Draper III]] was national cochairman of the finance committee for Bush's 1980 presidential campaign, according to the White House announcement of March 18, 1981 nominating Draper to head the [[Export-Import Bank of the United States]].[^35] Bush ran on the Reagan ticket and won the vice presidency in the November 1980 election.[^2]
### Director of Central Intelligence, 1976 to 1977
On November 3, 1975 President Gerald R. Ford announced at a news conference that he intended to nominate Ambassador Bush, then the [[United States]] representative to the People's Republic of China, as [[Director of Central Intelligence]], succeeding [[William Colby]].[^30] Bush was sworn in as Director of Central Intelligence on January 30, 1976.[^31] As director of central intelligence in 1976 Bush was briefed on the CIA's remote-viewing research at [[Stanford Research Institute]] after the agency learned that Soviet visitors were "questioning Puthoff and Targ at SRI," and left office before reacting.[^32]
On November 3, 1975 President Gerald R. Ford announced at a news conference that he intended to nominate Ambassador Bush, then the [[United States]] representative to the People's Republic of China, as [[Director of Central Intelligence]], succeeding [[William Colby]].[^36] Bush was sworn in as Director of Central Intelligence on January 30, 1976.[^37] As director of central intelligence in 1976 Bush was briefed on the CIA's remote-viewing research at [[Stanford Research Institute]] after the agency learned that Soviet visitors were "questioning Puthoff and Targ at SRI," and left office before reacting.[^38]
The Senate Armed Services Committee reported the nomination through Senator [[John Tower]]. Hearings were held on December 15 and 16, 1975. Bush told the committee that "I do feel we need a covert capability," and pledged to "faithfully try to testify before the appropriate oversight committees of the U.S. Congress."[^33] The committee's report of December 18, 1975 recommends confirmation "subject to the nominee's commitment to respond to requests to appear and testify before any duly constituted committee."[^33] The committee approved him 12 to four. The full United States Senate followed in January with a 64 to 27 vote, after a two-hour debate, according to [[Studies in Intelligence]].[^34]
The Senate Armed Services Committee reported the nomination through Senator [[John Tower]]. Hearings were held on December 15 and 16, 1975. Bush told the committee that "I do feel we need a covert capability," and pledged to "faithfully try to testify before the appropriate oversight committees of the U.S. Congress."[^39] The committee's report of December 18, 1975 recommends confirmation "subject to the nominee's commitment to respond to requests to appear and testify before any duly constituted committee."[^39] The committee approved him 12 to four. The full United States Senate followed in January with a 64 to 27 vote, after a two-hour debate, according to [[Studies in Intelligence]].[^40]
In a memorandum to the recipients of National Intelligence Estimate 11-3/8-76, Bush called the estimate "the official appraisal of the Director of Central Intelligence." He wrote that "there is a negative aspect that is already clear and which concerns me deeply; namely, the selective leaks regarding the details of the process and, worse, the substantive conclusions developed by the 'Team B' panel that was concerned with Soviet strategic objectives." He added: "There is no truth to such allegations."[^35]
In a memorandum to the recipients of National Intelligence Estimate 11-3/8-76, Bush called the estimate "the official appraisal of the Director of Central Intelligence." He wrote that "there is a negative aspect that is already clear and which concerns me deeply; namely, the selective leaks regarding the details of the process and, worse, the substantive conclusions developed by the 'Team B' panel that was concerned with Soviet strategic objectives." He added: "There is no truth to such allegations."[^41]
The Team B report, "Soviet Strategic Objectives: An Alternative View," describes the experiment as "undertaken by the DCI on behalf of the [[President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board]]." It names [[Richard Pipes]] as team leader and lists William Van Cleave, [[Daniel O. Graham]], Thomas Wolfe and John Vogt as members. An advisory panel included Foy Kohler, Paul Nitze, Seymour Weiss, Jasper Welch and Paul Wolfowitz. The report states that its views "do not represent either coordinated National Intelligence or the views of the Director of Central Intelligence."[^36]
The Team B report, "Soviet Strategic Objectives: An Alternative View," describes the experiment as "undertaken by the DCI on behalf of the [[President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board]]." It names [[Richard Pipes]] as team leader and lists William Van Cleave, [[Daniel O. Graham]], Thomas Wolfe and John Vogt as members. An advisory panel included Foy Kohler, Paul Nitze, Seymour Weiss, Jasper Welch and Paul Wolfowitz. The report states that its views "do not represent either coordinated National Intelligence or the views of the Director of Central Intelligence."[^42]
William Beecher broke the Team B story in the [[Boston Globe]] on October 20, 1976, according to the editors' note in the Foreign Relations volume. A story by [[David Binder]] in the [[New York Times]] of December 26, 1976 reported the estimate's findings and drew in part on an interview with Bush.[^35] On January 19, 1977 Bush wrote to Cherne, chairman of the President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board, about Team B's recommendations.[^37]
William Beecher broke the Team B story in the [[Boston Globe]] on October 20, 1976, according to the editors' note in the Foreign Relations volume. A story by [[David Binder]] in the [[New York Times]] of December 26, 1976 reported the estimate's findings and drew in part on an interview with Bush.[^41] On January 19, 1977 Bush wrote to Cherne, chairman of the President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board, about Team B's recommendations.[^43]
On February 11, 1976 Bush announced new guidelines governing the agency's relations with the American press. The guideline states: "Effective immediately, CIA will not enter into any paid or contractual relationship with any full-time or part-time news correspondent accredited by any U.S. news service, newspaper, periodical, radio or television network or station."[^38] The report of the [[Church Committee]], chaired by [[Frank Church]], also states that the CIA had maintained covert relationships with about 50 journalists, and that Bush "undertook as one of his first actions to recognize the 'special status afforded the American media under our Constitution.'"[^39]
On February 11, 1976 Bush announced new guidelines governing the agency's relations with the American press. The guideline states: "Effective immediately, CIA will not enter into any paid or contractual relationship with any full-time or part-time news correspondent accredited by any U.S. news service, newspaper, periodical, radio or television network or station."[^44] The report of the [[Church Committee]], chaired by [[Frank Church]], also states that the CIA had maintained covert relationships with about 50 journalists, and that Bush "undertook as one of his first actions to recognize the 'special status afforded the American media under our Constitution.'"[^45]
On February 10, 1976 the [[Washington Star]] reported that Bush, according to a CIA spokesman, "has urged executives of The New York Times and CBS news to support the agency's efforts to keep secret the names of journalists who have aided intelligence operations."[^40]
On February 10, 1976 the [[Washington Star]] reported that Bush, according to a CIA spokesman, "has urged executives of The New York Times and CBS news to support the agency's efforts to keep secret the names of journalists who have aided intelligence operations."[^46]
In June 1976 the Washington Star reported that U.S. District Judge [[June Green]] ordered CIA Director Bush "not to destroy the files gathered by the CIA." Green also granted an appeal that the files be "protected" pending a civil action by the [[American Civil Liberties Union]]. The files were part of [[Operation CHAOS]] and had been gathered by the CIA at the request of Presidents Lyndon B. Johnson and Richard Nixon, who feared extensive foreign influence on domestic unrest.[^41]
In June 1976 the Washington Star reported that U.S. District Judge [[June Green]] ordered CIA Director Bush "not to destroy the files gathered by the CIA." Green also granted an appeal that the files be "protected" pending a civil action by the [[American Civil Liberties Union]]. The files were part of [[Operation CHAOS]] and had been gathered by the CIA at the request of Presidents Lyndon B. Johnson and Richard Nixon, who feared extensive foreign influence on domestic unrest.[^47]
The [[Letelier assassination]] in Washington in September 1976 brought Chile into the Director's correspondence. On September 29, 1976 Senator [[Daniel Inouye]] wrote to Bush thanking him for a briefing, and noted that [[Orlando Letelier]] "was recently discussed at a high-level policy meeting within the Chilean government."[^42] On October 9, 1976 [[U.S. Attorney General|Attorney General]] [[Edward Levi]] wrote to Bush that "the Central Intelligence Agency may be in a position to obtain information bearing on these violent activities."[^43] [[Brent Scowcroft]] endorsed the request on October 21, 1976.[^43]
The [[Letelier assassination]] in Washington in September 1976 brought Chile into the Director's correspondence. On September 29, 1976 Senator [[Daniel Inouye]] wrote to Bush thanking him for a briefing, and noted that [[Orlando Letelier]] "was recently discussed at a high-level policy meeting within the Chilean government."[^48] On October 9, 1976 [[U.S. Attorney General|Attorney General]] [[Edward Levi]] wrote to Bush that "the Central Intelligence Agency may be in a position to obtain information bearing on these violent activities."[^49] [[Brent Scowcroft]] endorsed the request on October 21, 1976.[^49]
A 1980 radio interview transcript in the CIA reading room quotes a speaker, identified only as "MAN," who refers to "our book" and says: "we've been able to establish that George Bush personally handled the information from Paraguay in this intervening week, and discussed it with [[Vernon Walters]], and together made the decision, first of all, to say, 'No, we have nothing to do with this mission.'"[^44] The transcript does not identify the speaker further.
A 1980 radio interview transcript in the CIA reading room quotes a speaker, identified only as "MAN," who refers to "our book" and says: "we've been able to establish that George Bush personally handled the information from Paraguay in this intervening week, and discussed it with [[Vernon Walters]], and together made the decision, first of all, to say, 'No, we have nothing to do with this mission.'"[^50] The transcript does not identify the speaker further.
The Paraguayan material concerned two Chileans traveling on Paraguayan passports under false names. A later Foreign Relations volume records that in July 1976 presidential adviser Conrado Pappalardo approached Ambassador [[George Landau|George W. Landau]] in Asunción about the two. Pappalardo said they would contact "then-U.S. Deputy Director of Central Intelligence General Vernon Walters."[^45] A memorandum by [[Eugene Propper|Propper]], quoted in the same volume, states that the CIA advised that Walters had retired from the agency on July 2, 1976.[^46]
The Paraguayan material concerned two Chileans traveling on Paraguayan passports under false names. A later Foreign Relations volume records that in July 1976 presidential adviser Conrado Pappalardo approached Ambassador [[George Landau|George W. Landau]] in Asunción about the two. Pappalardo said they would contact "then-U.S. Deputy Director of Central Intelligence General Vernon Walters."[^51] A memorandum by [[Eugene Propper|Propper]], quoted in the same volume, states that the CIA advised that Walters had retired from the agency on July 2, 1976.[^52]
On August 11, 1976 Bush wrote a memorandum headed "The Death of Roselli," concerning the murder of [[Johnny Roselli]]. In it he wrote, "I told him that I would like to see the FBI get into the Roselli case." He wrote that he was "most anxious to see the matter fully investigated so that the CIA would be officially exonerated."[^47]
On August 11, 1976 Bush wrote a memorandum headed "The Death of Roselli," concerning the murder of [[Johnny Roselli]]. In it he wrote, "I told him that I would like to see the FBI get into the Roselli case." He wrote that he was "most anxious to see the matter fully investigated so that the CIA would be officially exonerated."[^53]
The memorandum records that calls to Senators had suggested that the CIA was involved in the murder, and that he had asked Attorney General Levi to bring the FBI into the case.[^47]
The memorandum records that calls to Senators had suggested that the CIA was involved in the murder, and that he had asked Attorney General Levi to bring the FBI into the case.[^53]
On the Letelier investigation, Propper, Assistant Attorney General [[J. Stanley Pottinger]] and Bush met to decide how far the CIA could help with the Cuban exile side of the inquiry.[^48] Newspaper clippings that the defendants in *United States v. Sampol* filed to show prejudicial publicity described "a carefully worded agreement placing the Letelier case in a 'national security' status." Defense counsel for [[Guillermo Novo]] and others told the jury that "the CIA and not the Chilean government masterminded the Letelier assassination," and the appeal brief rested the theory on Michael Townley's CIA contacts and on a Fort Lauderdale firm, [[Audio Intelligence Devices]], where Townley spent the morning of September 21, 1976.[^49] The Washington Post reported on November 1, 1976 a belief at the CIA that Chilean operatives had not carried out the bombing, which Bush was said to have expressed to Secretary of State [[Henry A. Kissinger]] the week before.[^50] On November 5, 1976 Assistant Attorney General [[Richard Thornburgh]] asked the State Department to arrange interviews in Caracas of [[Orlando Bosch]], [[Luis Posada Carriles]] and two others held in connection with the [[Cubana Flight 455 bombing]], naming Propper and FBI special agents [[Carter Cornick]] and Raul Salinas as the investigators to be sent.[^51]
On the Letelier investigation, Propper, Assistant Attorney General [[J. Stanley Pottinger]] and Bush met to decide how far the CIA could help with the Cuban exile side of the inquiry.[^54] Newspaper clippings that the defendants in *United States v. Sampol* filed to show prejudicial publicity described "a carefully worded agreement placing the Letelier case in a 'national security' status." Defense counsel for [[Guillermo Novo]] and others told the jury that "the CIA and not the Chilean government masterminded the Letelier assassination," and the appeal brief rested the theory on Michael Townley's CIA contacts and on a Fort Lauderdale firm, [[Audio Intelligence Devices]], where Townley spent the morning of September 21, 1976.[^55] The Washington Post reported on November 1, 1976 a belief at the CIA that Chilean operatives had not carried out the bombing, which Bush was said to have expressed to Secretary of State [[Henry A. Kissinger]] the week before.[^56] On November 5, 1976 Assistant Attorney General [[Richard Thornburgh]] asked the State Department to arrange interviews in Caracas of [[Orlando Bosch]], [[Luis Posada Carriles]] and two others held in connection with the [[Cubana Flight 455 bombing]], naming Propper and FBI special agents [[Carter Cornick]] and Raul Salinas as the investigators to be sent.[^57]
When Bosch entered the United States on February 18, 1988, Acting Associate Attorney General [[Joe D. Whitley]] ordered him excluded on January 23, 1989, writing that "For 30 years Bosch has been resolute and unwavering in his advocacy of terrorist violence." In 1990, over the Justice Department's objection, the Bush White House released him.[^52] The Bush administration also agreed in 1990 to lift sanctions on Chile if the new civilian government prosecuted [[Manuel Contreras]] and [[Pedro Espinoza]] for the Letelier murder, in which [[Ronni Moffitt]] also died; the two served their terms at [[Punta Peuco]].[^53]
When Bosch entered the United States on February 18, 1988, Acting Associate Attorney General [[Joe D. Whitley]] ordered him excluded on January 23, 1989, writing that "For 30 years Bosch has been resolute and unwavering in his advocacy of terrorist violence." In 1990, over the Justice Department's objection, the Bush White House released him.[^58] The Bush administration also agreed in 1990 to lift sanctions on Chile if the new civilian government prosecuted [[Manuel Contreras]] and [[Pedro Espinoza]] for the Letelier murder, in which [[Ronni Moffitt]] also died; the two served their terms at [[Punta Peuco]].[^59]
The Foreign Relations volume on Panama prints a memorandum of conversation dated October 6, 1976 that is catalogued among the "DCI (Bush) Files on Noreiga." Its source note records "Three pages not declassified."[^54] The document concerns [[Manuel Noriega]], whose relations with the agency the volume documents.
The Foreign Relations volume on Panama prints a memorandum of conversation dated October 6, 1976 that is catalogued among the "DCI (Bush) Files on Noreiga." Its source note records "Three pages not declassified."[^60] The document concerns [[Manuel Noriega]], whose relations with the agency the volume documents.
On October 18, 1976 Bush wrote to Defense Secretary [[Donald Rumsfeld]] on the subject of leaks, in a letter that refers to "where these vicious leaks came from."[^55]
On October 18, 1976 Bush wrote to Defense Secretary [[Donald Rumsfeld]] on the subject of leaks, in a letter that refers to "where these vicious leaks came from."[^61]
[[Joseph Trento]] wrote in *Prelude to Terror* that in 1976, after the Church Committee hearings, [[Alexandre de Marenches]] of the French [[SDECE]] organized an informal consortium, the [[Safari Club]], in coordination with Bush. Trento lists its members as the SDECE, Saudi Arabia's General Intelligence Directorate under [[Kamal Adham]], Egypt's [[Mukhabarat]], Morocco's DST under Ahmed Dlimi, and the CIA, with the purpose of continuing anti-Soviet covert operations in Africa and the [[Middle East]] that congressional restrictions had made difficult for the agency; he places Egypt's service in the group as the supplier of Soviet-compatible weapons for operations in the Horn of Africa.[^56] De Marenches maintained personal relationships with American directors including Bush and [[William J. Casey]].[^57]
[[Joseph Trento]] wrote in *Prelude to Terror* that in 1976, after the Church Committee hearings, [[Alexandre de Marenches]] of the French [[SDECE]] organized an informal consortium, the [[Safari Club]], in coordination with Bush. Trento lists its members as the SDECE, Saudi Arabia's General Intelligence Directorate under [[Kamal Adham]], Egypt's [[Mukhabarat]], Morocco's DST under Ahmed Dlimi, and the CIA, with the purpose of continuing anti-Soviet covert operations in Africa and the [[Middle East]] that congressional restrictions had made difficult for the agency; he places Egypt's service in the group as the supplier of Soviet-compatible weapons for operations in the Horn of Africa.[^62] De Marenches maintained personal relationships with American directors including Bush and [[William J. Casey]].[^63]
In Angola the CIA's Operation IAFEATURE (1975 to 1976) supported [[UNITA]] and the [[FNLA]] against the [[MPLA]], with [[Congo|Zaire]] as the logistics base; the Church Committee and later writers record William Colby and then Bush as the directors who managed it. The program was ended by the [[Clark Amendment]], section 404 of Public Law 94-329, enacted June 30, 1976.[^58]
In Angola the CIA's Operation IAFEATURE (1975 to 1976) supported [[UNITA]] and the [[FNLA]] against the [[MPLA]], with [[Congo|Zaire]] as the logistics base; the Church Committee and later writers record William Colby and then Bush as the directors who managed it. The program was ended by the [[Clark Amendment]], section 404 of Public Law 94-329, enacted June 30, 1976.[^64]
[[William Barr|William P. Barr]] worked at the agency from 1973 to 1977 while attending law school, and as assistant legislative counsel under Director Bush in 1976 worked against legislation of Representatives [[Michael Harrington]] and [[Bella Abzug]] that would have required notice to people whose mail the agency had opened under [[HTLINGUAL]]. Barr later joined the White House domestic policy staff, where he worked with [[C. Boyden Gray]], counsel to Vice President Bush, and in 1988 helped screen vice-presidential candidates through [[Robert Kimmitt]].[^59]
[[William Barr|William P. Barr]] worked at the agency from 1973 to 1977 while attending law school, and as assistant legislative counsel under Director Bush in 1976 worked against legislation of Representatives [[Michael Harrington]] and [[Bella Abzug]] that would have required notice to people whose mail the agency had opened under [[HTLINGUAL]]. Barr later joined the White House domestic policy staff, where he worked with [[C. Boyden Gray]], counsel to Vice President Bush, and in 1988 helped screen vice-presidential candidates through [[Robert Kimmitt]].[^65]
### Israel's Nuclear Program and Israeli Channels
In March 1976 [[Carl E. Duckett]] openly discussed Israel's nuclear weapons at an informal seminar, stating that Israel was estimated to have ten to twenty nuclear weapons "available for use." Hersh wrote that the disclosure forced Bush, the newly installed director, to issue a public statement assuming "full responsibility," and that it led to Duckett's retirement. Duckett later acknowledged that rumors of his drinking were the stated reason for his departure but insisted that the real issue was Bush's unwillingness to promote him. Hersh adds that Duckett's 1974 estimate remained the official American estimate until the early 1980s.[^60]
In March 1976 [[Carl E. Duckett]] openly discussed Israel's nuclear weapons at an informal seminar, stating that Israel was estimated to have ten to twenty nuclear weapons "available for use." Hersh wrote that the disclosure forced Bush, the newly installed director, to issue a public statement assuming "full responsibility," and that it led to Duckett's retirement. Duckett later acknowledged that rumors of his drinking were the stated reason for his departure but insisted that the real issue was Bush's unwillingness to promote him. Hersh adds that Duckett's 1974 estimate remained the official American estimate until the early 1980s.[^66]
[[Ari Ben-Menashe]] wrote that he briefed [[Nachum Admoni]] in July 1986 on the Israeli intelligence network's arms sales to Iran for Vice President Bush.[^61] The Israeli arms dealer [[Al Schwimmer]], a special adviser to Prime Minister [[Shimon Peres]] from September 1984 at a salary of one shekel a year, met President Reagan and Vice President Bush in that capacity.[^62] Ben-Menashe also wrote that Israeli intelligence believed [[Amiram Nir]]'s death in 1988 to have been a CIA operation intended to keep his testimony from embarrassing Peres, Reagan or Bush.[^61]
[[Ari Ben-Menashe]] wrote that he briefed [[Nachum Admoni]] in July 1986 on the Israeli intelligence network's arms sales to Iran for Vice President Bush.[^67] The Israeli arms dealer [[Al Schwimmer]], a special adviser to Prime Minister [[Shimon Peres]] from September 1984 at a salary of one shekel a year, met President Reagan and Vice President Bush in that capacity.[^68] Ben-Menashe also wrote that Israeli intelligence believed [[Amiram Nir]]'s death in 1988 to have been a CIA operation intended to keep his testimony from embarrassing Peres, Reagan or Bush.[^67]
On January 20, 1991 President Bush telephoned Prime Minister [[Yitzhak Shamir]] twice from Camp David, at 3 a.m. and 11:30 a.m. Washington time, to thank Israel for its "restraint" in not retaliating for the Iraqi Scud attacks. The spokesman [[Marlin Fitzwater]] quoted the president as telling Shamir: "I understand the anguish of your people and your Government." [[Lawrence Eagleburger]] and [[Paul Wolfowitz]] were sent to Israel, and American crews arrived to operate [[Patriot]] missile batteries.[^63] According to the counterintelligence history "Decade of the Spy," Bush denied clemency to [[Jonathan Pollard]] in January 1993.[^64]
On January 20, 1991 President Bush telephoned Prime Minister [[Yitzhak Shamir]] twice from Camp David, at 3 a.m. and 11:30 a.m. Washington time, to thank Israel for its "restraint" in not retaliating for the Iraqi Scud attacks. The spokesman [[Marlin Fitzwater]] quoted the president as telling Shamir: "I understand the anguish of your people and your Government." [[Lawrence Eagleburger]] and [[Paul Wolfowitz]] were sent to Israel, and American crews arrived to operate [[Patriot]] missile batteries.[^69] According to the counterintelligence history "Decade of the Spy," Bush denied clemency to [[Jonathan Pollard]] in January 1993.[^70]
### Stargate, Center Lane, and the Army
The [[Stargate Project]] appears in the record through the agency's own accounts. [[Kenneth A. Kress]], writing in Studies in Intelligence for the winter of 1977, states that "During November of 1976, Director George Bush became aware that official Soviets were visiting and questioning Puthoff and Targ at SRI about their work in parapsychology. Mr. Bush requested and received a briefing on CIA's investigations into parapsychology. Before there was any official reaction, he left the Agency."[^32]
The [[Stargate Project]] appears in the record through the agency's own accounts. [[Kenneth A. Kress]], writing in Studies in Intelligence for the winter of 1977, states that "During November of 1976, Director George Bush became aware that official Soviets were visiting and questioning Puthoff and Targ at SRI about their work in parapsychology. Mr. Bush requested and received a briefing on CIA's investigations into parapsychology. Before there was any official reaction, he left the Agency."[^38]
Kress also writes that Director [[Stansfield Turner]] stated publicly that the CIA "has had operational interest in parapsychology."[^65]
Kress also writes that Director [[Stansfield Turner]] stated publicly that the CIA "has had operational interest in parapsychology."[^71]
As vice president, in 1983 (the chronology's date reads as March 31 or August 3), Bush "was briefed for thirty minutes concerning [[Center Lane|CENTER LANE]] related activities by Dr. [[Jack Vorona]], DIA," the Army's remote-viewing unit, with "Adm. Murphy, C/S," and "Mr. Gregg" present ([[Donald Gregg]]). The [[United States Army Intelligence and Security Command]] (INSCOM) chronology records that "the briefing was well received and the Vice President was interested and impressed."[^66] A memorandum for the record by Major Gerald Fox dated April 1, 1983 lists the three projects used on March 31, 1983 to brief the Vice President, among them Project 8034, described as a "[[KGB]] agent."[^67] Vorona of the DIA is the first-named member of the November 1978 oversight group of the [[Grill Flame]] committee and the first-listed attendee in February 1979.[^68]
As vice president, in 1983 (the chronology's date reads as March 31 or August 3), Bush "was briefed for thirty minutes concerning [[Center Lane|CENTER LANE]] related activities by Dr. [[Jack Vorona]], DIA," the Army's remote-viewing unit, with "Adm. Murphy, C/S," and "Mr. Gregg" present ([[Donald Gregg]]). The [[United States Army Intelligence and Security Command]] (INSCOM) chronology records that "the briefing was well received and the Vice President was interested and impressed."[^72] A memorandum for the record by Major Gerald Fox dated April 1, 1983 lists the three projects used on March 31, 1983 to brief the Vice President, among them Project 8034, described as a "[[KGB]] agent."[^73] Vorona of the DIA is the first-named member of the November 1978 oversight group of the [[Grill Flame]] committee and the first-listed attendee in February 1979.[^74]
According to an Air War College research report by Dolan M. McKelvy citing Ronald McRae's *Mind Wars* (1984), CIA director Bush in 1976 enthusiastically gave [[Edgar Mitchell]] "permission to organize high-level seminars at the CIA to discuss possible intelligence applications" of parapsychology; the report says that interest waned in 1977 when Stansfield Turner replaced Bush.[^69]
According to an Air War College research report by Dolan M. McKelvy citing Ronald McRae's *Mind Wars* (1984), CIA director Bush in 1976 enthusiastically gave [[Edgar Mitchell]] "permission to organize high-level seminars at the CIA to discuss possible intelligence applications" of parapsychology; the report says that interest waned in 1977 when Stansfield Turner replaced Bush.[^75]
### The Vice President's Briefings and Travel
On April 2, 1982 Casey sent Secretary of State [[Alexander M. Haig, Jr.]] a "Quick Intelligence Assessment on Falkland Affairs" referring to "the Argentine invasion Friday," with a copy to Vice President Bush.[^70] In a letter to *Time* in January 1982, Assistant Secretary of State [[John H. Holdridge]] wrote that Bush had confirmed during a visit to Australia that there had been no CIA involvement in the [[Nugan Hand Bank]], and that Frank Church had said the Senate committee found no evidence implicating the agency. A CBS broadcast of September 22, 1982 quoted former bank executive [[Neil Evans]], who had immunity, as saying: "We were to become the paymasters for the CIA around the world."[^71] [[Michael Hand]] was the bank's co-founder.
On April 2, 1982 Casey sent Secretary of State [[Alexander M. Haig, Jr.]] a "Quick Intelligence Assessment on Falkland Affairs" referring to "the Argentine invasion Friday," with a copy to Vice President Bush.[^76] In a letter to *Time* in January 1982, Assistant Secretary of State [[John H. Holdridge]] wrote that Bush had confirmed during a visit to Australia that there had been no CIA involvement in the [[Nugan Hand Bank]], and that Frank Church had said the Senate committee found no evidence implicating the agency. A CBS broadcast of September 22, 1982 quoted former bank executive [[Neil Evans]], who had immunity, as saying: "We were to become the paymasters for the CIA around the world."[^77] [[Michael Hand]] was the bank's co-founder.
On April 12, 1986 Vice President Bush flew to Marib in North Yemen and dedicated the refinery of the Alif field that Hunt Oil had found in 1984, the first oil discovered in the country. [[Ray Hunt]], head of the company, sat on the President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board from 2001.[^72]
On April 12, 1986 Vice President Bush flew to Marib in North Yemen and dedicated the refinery of the Alif field that Hunt Oil had found in 1984, the first oil discovered in the country. [[Ray Hunt]], head of the company, sat on the President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board from 2001.[^78]
On January 20, 1987 Bush said that an American "in terrorist hands is tortured and, in the case of William Buckley, killed," referring to the CIA's Beirut station chief [[William Buckley]].[^73] On August 17, 1988 he called the death of Pakistan's President [[Zia ul-Haq]] in a [[C-130]] explosion "a great tragedy."[^74] [[Celerino Castillo]] said that on or about January 14, 1986 he tried to alert Vice President Bush at a U.S. embassy party in Guatemala that "something funny" was going on at [[Ilopango Airbase]], and described what followed: "But he just shook my hand, smiled and walked away from me."[^75]
On January 20, 1987 Bush said that an American "in terrorist hands is tortured and, in the case of William Buckley, killed," referring to the CIA's Beirut station chief [[William Buckley]].[^79] On August 17, 1988 he called the death of Pakistan's President [[Zia ul-Haq]] in a [[C-130]] explosion "a great tragedy."[^80] [[Celerino Castillo]] said that on or about January 14, 1986 he tried to alert Vice President Bush at a U.S. embassy party in Guatemala that "something funny" was going on at [[Ilopango Airbase]], and described what followed: "But he just shook my hand, smiled and walked away from me."[^81]
### Gregg, Rodriguez, and the Vice President's Office
At a February 1988 hearing on the testimony of [[Danilo Blandon]], Senator [[John Kerry]] addressed a call to Castro: "while Vice President Bush denied that he made the call, and I do accept his word, it also was learned last night on McNeil-Lehrer that a former NSC staffer admitted that, indeed, there was prior notice given to Castro."[^76]
At a February 1988 hearing on the testimony of [[Danilo Blandon]], Senator [[John Kerry]] addressed a call to Castro: "while Vice President Bush denied that he made the call, and I do accept his word, it also was learned last night on McNeil-Lehrer that a former NSC staffer admitted that, indeed, there was prior notice given to Castro."[^82]
Blandon also described [[Felix Rodriguez]] as "the liaison for providing weapons to the Contras in El Salvador."[^77] Walsh's chapter 29 states that Gregg "arranged for Rodriguez to meet Vice President Bush on January 22, 1985. According to Gregg, the purpose of the meeting was to inform Bush that Rodriguez wanted to work in El Salvador against the guerrillas."[^78] The meeting took place in the Old Executive Office Building, where Rodriguez was "watching a television report on the Bush family."[^78]
Blandon also described [[Felix Rodriguez]] as "the liaison for providing weapons to the Contras in El Salvador."[^83] Walsh's chapter 29 states that Gregg "arranged for Rodriguez to meet Vice President Bush on January 22, 1985. According to Gregg, the purpose of the meeting was to inform Bush that Rodriguez wanted to work in El Salvador against the guerrillas."[^84] The meeting took place in the Old Executive Office Building, where Rodriguez was "watching a television report on the Bush family."[^84]
The 1988 hearing record gives the date of that meeting as February 22, a month later than Walsh's date. In the July 1988 hearings Rodriguez said that he had passed to the FBI and CIA, early in 1985, information from [[Ramon Milian Rodriguez]], whom he called a liar, and in later questioning by Kerry said he met Vice President Bush on February 22.[^79] Rodriguez also answered a question from Kerry: "No, sir. I didn't go there that often as people have publicized."[^79]
The 1988 hearing record gives the date of that meeting as February 22, a month later than Walsh's date. In the July 1988 hearings Rodriguez said that he had passed to the FBI and CIA, early in 1985, information from [[Ramon Milian Rodriguez]], whom he called a liar, and in later questioning by Kerry said he met Vice President Bush on February 22.[^85] Rodriguez also answered a question from Kerry: "No, sir. I didn't go there that often as people have publicized."[^85]
Part IX of Walsh's report states that Gregg "claimed that, notwithstanding the Administration's interest in the success of the contras, he never mentioned any information regarding contra resupply to Vice President Bush."[^80] The Kerry report says that before Murphy's 1987 trips to Panama he met with officials including "the Vice President's National Security Advisor, Donald Gregg."[^81]
Part IX of Walsh's report states that Gregg "claimed that, notwithstanding the Administration's interest in the success of the contras, he never mentioned any information regarding contra resupply to Vice President Bush."[^86] The Kerry report says that before Murphy's 1987 trips to Panama he met with officials including "the Vice President's National Security Advisor, Donald Gregg."[^87]
### Iran-Contra and the Pardons
The executive summary of the final report of the [[Lawrence Walsh|Independent Counsel]] states that the investigation "did not develop evidence that proved that Vice President Bush violated any criminal statute. Contrary to his public pronouncements, however, he was fully aware of the Iran arms sales."[^82] The summary adds that "Bush was regularly briefed, along with the President, on the Iran arms sales, and he participated in discussions to obtain third-country support for the contras." It states that the Independent Counsel "obtained no evidence that Bush was aware of the diversion."[^82] The same summary says that the pardon of [[Caspar Weinberger]] on December 24, 1992 "pre-empted a trial in which defense counsel indicated that they intended to call Bush as a witness."[^82]
The executive summary of the final report of the [[Lawrence Walsh|Independent Counsel]] states that the investigation "did not develop evidence that proved that Vice President Bush violated any criminal statute. Contrary to his public pronouncements, however, he was fully aware of the Iran arms sales."[^88] The summary adds that "Bush was regularly briefed, along with the President, on the Iran arms sales, and he participated in discussions to obtain third-country support for the contras." It states that the Independent Counsel "obtained no evidence that Bush was aware of the diversion."[^88] The same summary says that the pardon of [[Caspar Weinberger]] on December 24, 1992 "pre-empted a trial in which defense counsel indicated that they intended to call Bush as a witness."[^88]
Chapter 28 of the report, headed "George Bush," records that Bush told the FBI in December 1986, and was deposed by the Independent Counsel on January 11, 1988, that he had been regularly informed of events connected with the arms sales, including the 1985 Israeli missile shipments. Walsh writes that these statements "conflicted with his more extreme public assertions that he was 'out of the loop' regarding the operational details of the Iran initiative."[^83] Walsh also writes that "The criminal investigation of Bush was regrettably incomplete."[^83]
Chapter 28 of the report, headed "George Bush," records that Bush told the FBI in December 1986, and was deposed by the Independent Counsel on January 11, 1988, that he had been regularly informed of events connected with the arms sales, including the 1985 Israeli missile shipments. Walsh writes that these statements "conflicted with his more extreme public assertions that he was 'out of the loop' regarding the operational details of the Iran initiative."[^89] Walsh also writes that "The criminal investigation of Bush was regrettably incomplete."[^89]
In 1988 Bush told the [[Washington Post]], "The President and I cooperated fully with the various investigations, turned over thousands of documents and directed our staffs to do the same."[^84] In September 1992 he said, "I have nothing to explain."[^84]
In 1988 Bush told the [[Washington Post]], "The President and I cooperated fully with the various investigations, turned over thousands of documents and directed our staffs to do the same."[^90] In September 1992 he said, "I have nothing to explain."[^90]
Part IX of the report, on the White House investigations, states that the Independent Counsel "concluded that no criminal charges should be brought against President Reagan, Vice President Bush, Meese or Regan because the belated production of notes and other documents delayed the investigation beyond the point where it could be effective."[^85] The same part states that senior advisers including Vice President Bush "were informed in 1985 of presidential approval of the transactions." It also says that the Independent Counsel "found considerable evidence that the President and the Vice President knew about and, in some instances, directly participated in contra-funding efforts during this period."[^85]
Part IX of the report, on the White House investigations, states that the Independent Counsel "concluded that no criminal charges should be brought against President Reagan, Vice President Bush, Meese or Regan because the belated production of notes and other documents delayed the investigation beyond the point where it could be effective."[^91] The same part states that senior advisers including Vice President Bush "were informed in 1985 of presidential approval of the transactions." It also says that the Independent Counsel "found considerable evidence that the President and the Vice President knew about and, in some instances, directly participated in contra-funding efforts during this period."[^91]
The diary is the subject of a separate passage. Walsh writes that "[t]he personal diary of Vice President Bush was disclosed to Independent Counsel only in December 1992, despite early and repeated requests for such documents."[^86] On December 11, 1992 [[Chester Paul Beach]], associate counsel to President Bush, informed the Independent Counsel that a diary kept by Bush from his vice presidency had not been produced. The report describes it as consisting of "Bush's nightly dictation concerning the events of the day."[^86] The first entry, dated November 4, 1986, describes "the beginning of what I hope will be an accurate diary." An entry for November 5, 1986 reads: "I'm one of the few people that know fully the details."[^87]
The diary is the subject of a separate passage. Walsh writes that "[t]he personal diary of Vice President Bush was disclosed to Independent Counsel only in December 1992, despite early and repeated requests for such documents."[^92] On December 11, 1992 [[Chester Paul Beach]], associate counsel to President Bush, informed the Independent Counsel that a diary kept by Bush from his vice presidency had not been produced. The report describes it as consisting of "Bush's nightly dictation concerning the events of the day."[^92] The first entry, dated November 4, 1986, describes "the beginning of what I hope will be an accurate diary." An entry for November 5, 1986 reads: "I'm one of the few people that know fully the details."[^93]
The report records a document request that reached the vice president's office. C. Boyden Gray and John Schmitz told office heads that the request "covers all personal and official records of OVP staff members."[^88]
The report records a document request that reached the vice president's office. C. Boyden Gray and John Schmitz told office heads that the request "covers all personal and official records of OVP staff members."[^94]
After the pardons, Bush refused to be interviewed unless the interview was limited to his non-production of the diary and personal notes. The Independent Counsel declined those conditions. In late February 1993 Bush's counsel set out six professed obstacles to a deposition.[^84] The report states that a grand jury subpoena was not issued because the office did not believe there was an appropriate likelihood of a criminal prosecution.[^86]
After the pardons, Bush refused to be interviewed unless the interview was limited to his non-production of the diary and personal notes. The Independent Counsel declined those conditions. In late February 1993 Bush's counsel set out six professed obstacles to a deposition.[^90] The report states that a grand jury subpoena was not issued because the office did not believe there was an appropriate likelihood of a criminal prosecution.[^92]
On December 24, 1992 Bush issued Proclamation 6518, granting pardons to Caspar Weinberger, [[Robert McFarlane]], [[Elliott Abrams]], [[Dewey Clarridge]], [[Clair George]] and [[Alan Fiers]]. In the proclamation Bush wrote that "the common denominator of their motivation ... was patriotism." He described the prosecutions as "a profoundly troubling development in the political and legal climate of our country: the criminalization of policy differences. ... The proper target is the President, not his subordinates; the proper forum is the voting booth, not the courtroom."[^89]
On December 24, 1992 Bush issued Proclamation 6518, granting pardons to Caspar Weinberger, [[Robert McFarlane]], [[Elliott Abrams]], [[Dewey Clarridge]], [[Clair George]] and [[Alan Fiers]]. In the proclamation Bush wrote that "the common denominator of their motivation ... was patriotism." He described the prosecutions as "a profoundly troubling development in the political and legal climate of our country: the criminalization of policy differences. ... The proper target is the President, not his subordinates; the proper forum is the voting booth, not the courtroom."[^95]
Walsh responded that the pardon of Weinberger "undermines the principle that no man is above the law."[^90] The Fourth Interim Report of February 8, 1993 includes the phrase "prevent full disclosure of some new key fact to the American people," and states that the pardon "thwarted the public airing of new and disturbing facts about the actions of Weinberger and other senior Executive Branch officials."[^91]
Walsh responded that the pardon of Weinberger "undermines the principle that no man is above the law."[^96] The Fourth Interim Report of February 8, 1993 includes the phrase "prevent full disclosure of some new key fact to the American people," and states that the pardon "thwarted the public airing of new and disturbing facts about the actions of Weinberger and other senior Executive Branch officials."[^97]
The [[Tower Commission]] also examined the Vice President's contacts with Israeli channels. Its report records that "The Vice President was in Israel on July 29. While there, he met with Nir." The Vice President told the board that, before the meeting, he had been uneasy and tried to call [[John Poindexter]].[^92] Bush related that his discussion with Amiram Nir "was generally about counterterrorism. There was no discussion of specifics relating to arms going to the Iranians, e.g., the price of TOW missiles was never raised."[^92] The report also contains the phrase that the interests of the United States were "in the grip of the Israelis."[^92]
The [[Tower Commission]] also examined the Vice President's contacts with Israeli channels. Its report records that "The Vice President was in Israel on July 29. While there, he met with Nir." The Vice President told the board that, before the meeting, he had been uneasy and tried to call [[John Poindexter]].[^98] Bush related that his discussion with Amiram Nir "was generally about counterterrorism. There was no discussion of specifics relating to arms going to the Iranians, e.g., the price of TOW missiles was never raised."[^98] The report also contains the phrase that the interests of the United States were "in the grip of the Israelis."[^98]
At the National Security Planning Group meeting of June 25, 1984, the minutes record Casey saying: "We need the legal opinion which makes clear that the US has the authority to facilitate third country funding for the anti-Sandinistas." Vice President Bush asked: "How can anyone object to the US encouraging third parties to provide help to the anti-Sandinistas under the finding? The only problem that might come up is if the United States were to promise to give these third parties something in return so that some people could interpret this as some kind of an exchange." Robert McFarlane proposed "that there be no authority for anyone to seek third party support for the anti-Sandinistas until we have the information we need," and Reagan said: "If such a story gets out, we'll all be hanging by our thumbs in front of the White House until we find out who did it." The meeting took place under the [[Boland Amendment]].[^93]
At the National Security Planning Group meeting of June 25, 1984, the minutes record Casey saying: "We need the legal opinion which makes clear that the US has the authority to facilitate third country funding for the anti-Sandinistas." Vice President Bush asked: "How can anyone object to the US encouraging third parties to provide help to the anti-Sandinistas under the finding? The only problem that might come up is if the United States were to promise to give these third parties something in return so that some people could interpret this as some kind of an exchange." Robert McFarlane proposed "that there be no authority for anyone to seek third party support for the anti-Sandinistas until we have the information we need," and Reagan said: "If such a story gets out, we'll all be hanging by our thumbs in front of the White House until we find out who did it." The meeting took place under the [[Boland Amendment]].[^99]
The [[The Enterprise (Iran-Contra)|Enterprise]] ran the Contra supply operation through the Ilopango Airbase in [[El Salvador]], where CIA Hangar No. 4 was turned over to its operations in 1985; Felix Rodriguez, who had connections to Gregg, then National Security Adviser to the Vice President, coordinated aircraft and logistics there.[^94]
The [[The Enterprise (Iran-Contra)|Enterprise]] ran the Contra supply operation through the Ilopango Airbase in [[El Salvador]], where CIA Hangar No. 4 was turned over to its operations in 1985; Felix Rodriguez, who had connections to Gregg, then National Security Adviser to the Vice President, coordinated aircraft and logistics there.[^100]
In 1992 Bush asked former Attorney General [[Griffin Bell]] to assist in seeking the release of Bush's Iran-Contra deposition, and on December 30, 1992 the White House press secretary issued a statement on the investigation.[^95] Barr later said that at the end of the administration he advised Bush to pardon Weinberger "and about five others," and of the Iran-Contra pardons: "I certainly did not oppose any of them."[^96] [[Christopher Drogoul]], the Atlanta BNL manager, was indicted on February 28, 1991, the day after Bush ordered the ceasefire in the [[Gulf War]].[^97]
In 1992 Bush asked former Attorney General [[Griffin Bell]] to assist in seeking the release of Bush's Iran-Contra deposition, and on December 30, 1992 the White House press secretary issued a statement on the investigation.[^101] Barr later said that at the end of the administration he advised Bush to pardon Weinberger "and about five others," and of the Iran-Contra pardons: "I certainly did not oppose any of them."[^102] [[Christopher Drogoul]], the Atlanta BNL manager, was indicted on February 28, 1991, the day after Bush ordered the ceasefire in the [[Gulf War]].[^103]
### The October Surprise
The October Surprise allegation concerns whether the 1980 Reagan campaign delayed the release of the American hostages held in Iran until after the election. The [[House October Surprise Task Force]] issued its joint report on January 3, 1993 as Calendar No. 634 of the 102d Congress.[^98]
The October Surprise allegation concerns whether the 1980 Reagan campaign delayed the release of the American hostages held in Iran until after the election. The [[House October Surprise Task Force]] issued its joint report on January 3, 1993 as Calendar No. 634 of the 102d Congress.[^104]
In the task force's account of Ari Ben-Menashe's claims about the Paris meetings of October 1980, he remained in the foyer, and "[j]ust prior to the meeting Mehdi Karrubi arrived, followed shortly by George Bush and William Casey by way of an elevator reserved for this purpose."[^99] The report records that Ben-Menashe "had told reporters for [[Newsweek]] magazine that he was positive he had seen George Bush at the Paris meetings on both October 19 and October 20, 1980." The report also notes that Sukkot fell on September 25 in 1980.[^99]
In the task force's account of Ari Ben-Menashe's claims about the Paris meetings of October 1980, he remained in the foyer, and "[j]ust prior to the meeting Mehdi Karrubi arrived, followed shortly by George Bush and William Casey by way of an elevator reserved for this purpose."[^105] The report records that Ben-Menashe "had told reporters for [[Newsweek]] magazine that he was positive he had seen George Bush at the Paris meetings on both October 19 and October 20, 1980." The report also notes that Sukkot fell on September 25 in 1980.[^105]
The task force concludes that Ben-Menashe's account of the October meetings, "like his other October Surprise allegations, is a total fabrication."[^99] On Ben-Menashe's account of a meeting at the L'Enfant Plaza hotel in Washington, which he tied to the [[Iran-Israel Joint Committee]], the task force wrote that "Ben-Menashe's account is demonstrably false from beginning to end."[^100] It states that the personnel records supplied by the Government of Israel, with Ben-Menashe's contemporaneous handwritten answers to the questions he had to answer for the External Relations Department when traveling abroad, showed that he did not travel outside Israel in October 1980, and that exit stamps on his civilian passport indicated the same.[^99]
The task force concludes that Ben-Menashe's account of the October meetings, "like his other October Surprise allegations, is a total fabrication."[^105] On Ben-Menashe's account of a meeting at the L'Enfant Plaza hotel in Washington, which he tied to the [[Iran-Israel Joint Committee]], the task force wrote that "Ben-Menashe's account is demonstrably false from beginning to end."[^106] It states that the personnel records supplied by the Government of Israel, with Ben-Menashe's contemporaneous handwritten answers to the questions he had to answer for the External Relations Department when traveling abroad, showed that he did not travel outside Israel in October 1980, and that exit stamps on his civilian passport indicated the same.[^105]
On Bush's whereabouts the task force reports that Secret Service records place him in Washington on October 19 and campaigning on October 20, 1980. It states that "these records and testimony conclusively prove candidate George Bush's whereabouts in October, 1980," and that "The Task Force has determined that Bush did not travel to Paris during the period of time in question as has been alleged by many October Surprise witnesses."[^101] The report generalizes the point: "In almost all instances, the evidence clearly establishes the presence of major alleged participants in Paris meetings to be someplace else, doing something else."[^102]
On Bush's whereabouts the task force reports that Secret Service records place him in Washington on October 19 and campaigning on October 20, 1980. It states that "these records and testimony conclusively prove candidate George Bush's whereabouts in October, 1980," and that "The Task Force has determined that Bush did not travel to Paris during the period of time in question as has been alleged by many October Surprise witnesses."[^107] The report generalizes the point: "In almost all instances, the evidence clearly establishes the presence of major alleged participants in Paris meetings to be someplace else, doing something else."[^108]
[[Richard Brenneke]] testified that a pilot, Rupp, flew Bush, Casey and others to Paris. The task force records that at Brenneke's trial in Oregon in 1990 he retracted his earlier testimony that he had seen Bush and Allen at the meeting.[^103] The task force states that "Brenneke's testimony that he was in Paris is false." Brenneke's 1980 daily calendar "indicates that he was in the Pacific Northwest when he claimed to have been in Paris."[^104] The report also says that Brenneke "played a central role in falsely propagating the October Surprise allegations for financial and personal reasons."[^104]
[[Richard Brenneke]] testified that a pilot, Rupp, flew Bush, Casey and others to Paris. The task force records that at Brenneke's trial in Oregon in 1990 he retracted his earlier testimony that he had seen Bush and Allen at the meeting.[^109] The task force states that "Brenneke's testimony that he was in Paris is false." Brenneke's 1980 daily calendar "indicates that he was in the Pacific Northwest when he claimed to have been in Paris."[^110] The report also says that Brenneke "played a central role in falsely propagating the October Surprise allegations for financial and personal reasons."[^110]
A 1988 Senate subcommittee report summarizes Brenneke's claims that he had "personally discussed the operation with members of the Vice President's staff." The subcommittee concluded that although Brenneke produced thousands of pages of documents relating to proposed arms deals, "there is no evidence that any of them ever came to fruition." It also found that Brenneke "received completely fabricated information about arms deals from undercover agents of the Customs Service."[^105]
A 1988 Senate subcommittee report summarizes Brenneke's claims that he had "personally discussed the operation with members of the Vice President's staff." The subcommittee concluded that although Brenneke produced thousands of pages of documents relating to proposed arms deals, "there is no evidence that any of them ever came to fruition." It also found that Brenneke "received completely fabricated information about arms deals from undercover agents of the Customs Service."[^111]
The task force examined the calendar of William J. Casey. It records a July 30, 1980 entry for a 6:45 p.m. dinner with George Bush at the Alibi Club.[^106] The report's analysis of Casey's movements states that "The evidence strongly indicates that Casey departed the United States on July 27, arrived in London on July 28, and departed London for the United States on July 29."[^107] Loose calendar pages for July 26 and 27, October 21, October 29, November 3 through 11, and November 13 are listed as missing. The task force states that "[t]he dates July 26th and October 21st are of particular interest to the Task Force."[^108]
The task force examined the calendar of William J. Casey. It records a July 30, 1980 entry for a 6:45 p.m. dinner with George Bush at the Alibi Club.[^112] The report's analysis of Casey's movements states that "The evidence strongly indicates that Casey departed the United States on July 27, arrived in London on July 28, and departed London for the United States on July 29."[^113] Loose calendar pages for July 26 and 27, October 21, October 29, November 3 through 11, and November 13 are listed as missing. The task force states that "[t]he dates July 26th and October 21st are of particular interest to the Task Force."[^114]
[[Robert Parry]] reported in 2011 on a memorandum for the record that Beach wrote on November 4, 1991. The memorandum records that State Department legal adviser Edwin D. Williamson told Beach that the department held material that included "a cable from the Madrid embassy indicating that Bill Casey was in town, for purposes unknown."[^109] Parry writes that "there's no indication that the White House told investigators about Williamson's information," and that the Bush library withholds nearly a quarter of its roughly 4,800 pages.[^109]
[[Robert Parry]] reported in 2011 on a memorandum for the record that Beach wrote on November 4, 1991. The memorandum records that State Department legal adviser Edwin D. Williamson told Beach that the department held material that included "a cable from the Madrid embassy indicating that Bill Casey was in town, for purposes unknown."[^115] Parry writes that "there's no indication that the White House told investigators about Williamson's information," and that the Bush library withholds nearly a quarter of its roughly 4,800 pages.[^115]
The task force also records Reagan's statements. In a June 15, 1991 interview Reagan said, "I did some things actually the other way, to try and be of help in getting those hostages." In a sworn written answer dated October 23, 1992 he wrote that "I and Reagan/Bush campaign officials made it clear by our conduct and statements during the campaign that we were supportive of the Carter administration efforts to secure the release of American hostages held in Iran."[^110]
The task force also records Reagan's statements. In a June 15, 1991 interview Reagan said, "I did some things actually the other way, to try and be of help in getting those hostages." In a sworn written answer dated October 23, 1992 he wrote that "I and Reagan/Bush campaign officials made it clear by our conduct and statements during the campaign that we were supportive of the Carter administration efforts to secure the release of American hostages held in Iran."[^116]
Ben-Menashe's account of the Paris meeting names others besides Bush and Casey. He wrote that [[George Cave]], Robert McFarlane and Donald Gregg attended; that [[Simon Gabbay]] coordinated the October 1980 meeting between Israeli and Iranian delegations that included Bush, Casey and [[Mehdi Karrubi]], with the aim of eliminating direct contact between Israeli and Iranian embassy personnel; and that [[Uri Simchoni]] was part of the Israeli delegation.[^61] Cave also attended a meeting in [[Santiago]] in late 1986, according to Ben-Menashe, where American officials reaffirmed their intention to maintain arms channels to Iraq.[^61] [[Barbara Honegger]] published *October Surprise* (Tudor Publishing, 1989), one of the first extended accounts of the allegations; she alleged meetings in Madrid in July 1980 and in Paris in October 1980 involving Casey, Bush and European intermediaries including de Marenches.[^111]
Ben-Menashe's account of the Paris meeting names others besides Bush and Casey. He wrote that [[George Cave]], Robert McFarlane and Donald Gregg attended; that [[Simon Gabbay]] coordinated the October 1980 meeting between Israeli and Iranian delegations that included Bush, Casey and [[Mehdi Karrubi]], with the aim of eliminating direct contact between Israeli and Iranian embassy personnel; and that [[Uri Simchoni]] was part of the Israeli delegation.[^67] Cave also attended a meeting in [[Santiago]] in late 1986, according to Ben-Menashe, where American officials reaffirmed their intention to maintain arms channels to Iraq.[^67] [[Barbara Honegger]] published *October Surprise* (Tudor Publishing, 1989), one of the first extended accounts of the allegations; she alleged meetings in Madrid in July 1980 and in Paris in October 1980 involving Casey, Bush and European intermediaries including de Marenches.[^117]
[[Cheri Seymour]] wrote in *The Last Circle* that the attorney [[Paul Wilcher]] believed his client [[Gunther Karl Russbacher]] to be a political prisoner persecuted because he allegedly flew former President Bush to Paris to meet leading Iranians to make a deal to supply Iran with weapons in exchange for keeping the 52 American hostages until after the November election. On or about May 21, 1993 Wilcher hand-delivered a 100-page letter to Attorney General [[Janet Reno]] claiming that holdover Justice Department employees from the Reagan-Bush era were responsible for government cover-ups; he was interviewed by [[Carl Stern]], Reno's public relations officer, on or about June 11, and his body was found in his apartment on June 23, 1993. [[Sarah McClendon]], a White House correspondent and friend of Wilcher, wrote that Wilcher held the Russbacher belief.[^112] Seymour also wrote that [[Michael Riconosciuto]], a source of [[Danny Casolaro]]'s investigation of [[The Octopus]], claimed that he and an associate named Brian personally carried $40 million to Iranian officials for that purpose.[^112]
[[Cheri Seymour]] wrote in *The Last Circle* that the attorney [[Paul Wilcher]] believed his client [[Gunther Karl Russbacher]] to be a political prisoner persecuted because he allegedly flew former President Bush to Paris to meet leading Iranians to make a deal to supply Iran with weapons in exchange for keeping the 52 American hostages until after the November election. On or about May 21, 1993 Wilcher hand-delivered a 100-page letter to Attorney General [[Janet Reno]] claiming that holdover Justice Department employees from the Reagan-Bush era were responsible for government cover-ups; he was interviewed by [[Carl Stern]], Reno's public relations officer, on or about June 11, and his body was found in his apartment on June 23, 1993. [[Sarah McClendon]], a White House correspondent and friend of Wilcher, wrote that Wilcher held the Russbacher belief.[^118] Seymour also wrote that [[Michael Riconosciuto]], a source of [[Danny Casolaro]]'s investigation of [[The Octopus]], claimed that he and an associate named Brian personally carried $40 million to Iranian officials for that purpose.[^118]
### The Presidency: Panama, Appointees and Executive Actions
Bush was inaugurated as the 41st President on January 20, 1989.[^113] [[Dick Cheney]] recalled in the Miller Center oral history of the Bush presidency that "Panama was a great training experience for us as an administration. We had the opportunity to have an objective, have to use force, coordinate with the Congress, deal with the public, all of those things that come with using the force." The invasion of [[Panama]] in December 1989 removed Manuel Noriega; [[Colin Powell]], then Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, said in the same project: "Nobody even remembers the Panama war. You don't ever hear of it. But I viewed it as the template of how we should do things."[^114] Seymour wrote that the [[Cali Drug Cartel]] was contrasted with the Medellin Cartel, which Noriega chose to support, ultimately leading to his ousting by Bush; she wrote that the DEA's Centac 21 task force, which had targeted [[Gilberto Rodriguez Orejuela]] and [[Jose Santacruz Londono]] in the 1978 indictments, was dismantled under the Reagan and Bush administrations, leaving disgruntled agents to suspect a CIA connection.[^112] Seymour added that Bush reportedly made secret visits to Damascus for hostage negotiations, and that after Desert Storm Bush and Secretary of State [[James A. Baker III]] encouraged [[Syria]] and Israel to recognize each other's Lebanese occupation zones under a 1990 accord that left Syria in control of the Bekaa Valley.[^112]
Bush was inaugurated as the 41st President on January 20, 1989.[^119] [[Dick Cheney]] recalled in the Miller Center oral history of the Bush presidency that "Panama was a great training experience for us as an administration. We had the opportunity to have an objective, have to use force, coordinate with the Congress, deal with the public, all of those things that come with using the force." The invasion of [[Panama]] in December 1989 removed Manuel Noriega; [[Colin Powell]], then Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, said in the same project: "Nobody even remembers the Panama war. You don't ever hear of it. But I viewed it as the template of how we should do things."[^120] Seymour wrote that the [[Cali Drug Cartel]] was contrasted with the Medellin Cartel, which Noriega chose to support, ultimately leading to his ousting by Bush; she wrote that the DEA's Centac 21 task force, which had targeted [[Gilberto Rodriguez Orejuela]] and [[Jose Santacruz Londono]] in the 1978 indictments, was dismantled under the Reagan and Bush administrations, leaving disgruntled agents to suspect a CIA connection.[^118] Seymour added that Bush reportedly made secret visits to Damascus for hostage negotiations, and that after Desert Storm Bush and Secretary of State [[James A. Baker III]] encouraged [[Syria]] and Israel to recognize each other's Lebanese occupation zones under a 1990 accord that left Syria in control of the Bekaa Valley.[^118]
The Cox Committee counted twelve national-interest determinations for launches of commercial satellites on Chinese rockets between 1989 and early 1998, three by President Bush and nine by [[Bill Clinton]]; the last, of February 18, 1998, applied to the Loral-built [[Chinasat-8]] satellite, a company then headed by [[Bernard L. Schwartz]].[^115] [[National Security Directive 67]], signed by Bush on March 30, 1992, replaced the lettered programs of the [[National Reconnaissance Office]] with three functional directorates, and the existence of the office was declassified on September 18, 1992.[^116] Bush's report to Congress of September 1991 under the [[Iraq Sanctions Act of 1990]] stated that "United States suppliers did not contribute directly to Iraq's conventional or nonconventional weapons capability." Gonzalez said that after Iraq invaded Kuwait in August 1990, [[SerVaas Inc.]] renegotiated a brass-plant contract with its Iraqi counterparts and sold it through a foreign holding company to escape the president's order freezing Iraqi assets.[^117] The prime minister of [[Jamaica]], [[Michael Manley]], sworn in again on February 13, 1989, said that he planned to travel to Washington to meet Bush, congressional leaders and officials of the [[Drug Enforcement Administration]].[^118]
The Cox Committee counted twelve national-interest determinations for launches of commercial satellites on Chinese rockets between 1989 and early 1998, three by President Bush and nine by [[Bill Clinton]]; the last, of February 18, 1998, applied to the Loral-built [[Chinasat-8]] satellite, a company then headed by [[Bernard L. Schwartz]].[^121] [[National Security Directive 67]], signed by Bush on March 30, 1992, replaced the lettered programs of the [[National Reconnaissance Office]] with three functional directorates, and the existence of the office was declassified on September 18, 1992.[^122] Bush's report to Congress of September 1991 under the [[Iraq Sanctions Act of 1990]] stated that "United States suppliers did not contribute directly to Iraq's conventional or nonconventional weapons capability." Gonzalez said that after Iraq invaded Kuwait in August 1990, [[SerVaas Inc.]] renegotiated a brass-plant contract with its Iraqi counterparts and sold it through a foreign holding company to escape the president's order freezing Iraqi assets.[^123] The prime minister of [[Jamaica]], [[Michael Manley]], sworn in again on February 13, 1989, said that he planned to travel to Washington to meet Bush, congressional leaders and officials of the [[Drug Enforcement Administration]].[^124]
Richard Thornburgh continued as Attorney General under Bush through 1991, resigning in August 1991 to run for the Senate.[^119] [[Kenneth Starr]] was the 39th Solicitor General from 1989 to 1993 under Bush.[^120] [[Steve Forbes|Malcolm S. Forbes Jr.]], president of [[Forbes]] magazine, was renominated to the Board for International Broadcasting, which oversees [[Radio Free Europe]], by the Bush White House on January 4, 1990 and again on June 19, 1992, each time with designation as chairman.[^121] [[Jay Lefkowitz]] served under Bush as deputy executive secretary of the [[Domestic Policy Council]] and director of cabinet affairs.[^122] [[Loretta Preska]] was appointed a judge of the [[U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York]] by Bush in 1992.[^123] Lawrence Eagleburger, president of [[Kissinger Associates]] from 1984 to 1989, was deputy secretary of state under Baker and secretary of state in the last weeks of the administration; Brent Scowcroft, vice chairman of the firm's Washington office, became national security adviser in January 1989.[^124]
Richard Thornburgh continued as Attorney General under Bush through 1991, resigning in August 1991 to run for the Senate.[^125] [[Kenneth Starr]] was the 39th Solicitor General from 1989 to 1993 under Bush.[^126] [[Steve Forbes|Malcolm S. Forbes Jr.]], president of [[Forbes]] magazine, was renominated to the Board for International Broadcasting, which oversees [[Radio Free Europe]], by the Bush White House on January 4, 1990 and again on June 19, 1992, each time with designation as chairman.[^127] [[Jay Lefkowitz]] served under Bush as deputy executive secretary of the [[Domestic Policy Council]] and director of cabinet affairs.[^128] [[Loretta Preska]] was appointed a judge of the [[U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York]] by Bush in 1992.[^129] Lawrence Eagleburger, president of [[Kissinger Associates]] from 1984 to 1989, was deputy secretary of state under Baker and secretary of state in the last weeks of the administration; Brent Scowcroft, vice chairman of the firm's Washington office, became national security adviser in January 1989.[^130]
### Iraq, Osirak, and the Teicher Declaration
The Teicher declaration of January 31, 1995, on the [[Iran-Iraq War]], filed in the Florida prosecution of [[Carlos Cardoen]] and others, states in paragraph 7 that a secret 1986 message from Reagan to [[Saddam Hussein]], urging a stepped-up air war against Iran, was delivered by Vice President Bush to [[Hosni Mubarak]], who passed it to Saddam Hussein. The declaration also states that Teicher wrote Bush's talking points for the 1986 meeting with Mubarak.[^125] A corrective declaration filed in October 1996 addresses paragraphs 15 through 18.[^126]
The Teicher declaration of January 31, 1995, on the [[Iran-Iraq War]], filed in the Florida prosecution of [[Carlos Cardoen]] and others, states in paragraph 7 that a secret 1986 message from Reagan to [[Saddam Hussein]], urging a stepped-up air war against Iran, was delivered by Vice President Bush to [[Hosni Mubarak]], who passed it to Saddam Hussein. The declaration also states that Teicher wrote Bush's talking points for the 1986 meeting with Mubarak.[^131] A corrective declaration filed in October 1996 addresses paragraphs 15 through 18.[^132]
### The BNL and Iraqgate Record
The Atlanta branch of Banca Nazionale del Lavoro extended credits to [[Iraq]] that the [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]] examined in February 1993. The committee reports that a National Security Council Deputies Committee meeting on May 29, 1990 was held "to resolve the issue of the second $500 million tranche," and that [[Robert M. Gates]] chaired it.[^127] Barr and Richard opposed going forward with the second tranche, citing the prosecutor's intent to indict Iraqi officials who were involved in "significant criminal violations." The meeting's conclusion was "that the Iraqi government simply be advised that the U.S. would not go forward with the second tranche until the investigation in Atlanta was completed."[^127] The indictment in Atlanta was returned on February 28, 1991.[^127]
The Atlanta branch of Banca Nazionale del Lavoro extended credits to [[Iraq]] that the [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]] examined in February 1993. The committee reports that a National Security Council Deputies Committee meeting on May 29, 1990 was held "to resolve the issue of the second $500 million tranche," and that [[Robert M. Gates]] chaired it.[^133] Barr and Richard opposed going forward with the second tranche, citing the prosecutor's intent to indict Iraqi officials who were involved in "significant criminal violations." The meeting's conclusion was "that the Iraqi government simply be advised that the U.S. would not go forward with the second tranche until the investigation in Atlanta was completed."[^133] The indictment in Atlanta was returned on February 28, 1991.[^133]
On October 2, 1989 Bush signed [[National Security Directive 26]], classified SECRET. It states that the government "should propose economic and political incentives for Iraq to moderate its behavior and to increase our influence with Iraq," and that "any illegal use of chemical and/or biological weapons will lead to economic and political sanctions."[^128]
On October 2, 1989 Bush signed [[National Security Directive 26]], classified SECRET. It states that the government "should propose economic and political incentives for Iraq to moderate its behavior and to increase our influence with Iraq," and that "any illegal use of chemical and/or biological weapons will lead to economic and political sanctions."[^134]
The [[Commodity Credit Corporation Iraq Program]] ran alongside the BNL loans. On October 6, 1989 Secretary of State Baker assured [[Tariq Aziz]] that American concern over proliferation was worldwide and not directed at Iraq; the department then offered Iraq 500 million dollars in guarantees, with a second 500 million to follow "after successful conclusion of the BNL investigation," a condition Iraq rejected.[^129] Friedman wrote in *Spider's Web* on the [[BNL Scandal]] that the House Banking Committee under Gonzalez documented the Reagan administration's and the early Bush administration's consistent support for Iraq's weapons procurement networks, including knowledge of chemical weapons use.[^130]
The [[Commodity Credit Corporation Iraq Program]] ran alongside the BNL loans. On October 6, 1989 Secretary of State Baker assured [[Tariq Aziz]] that American concern over proliferation was worldwide and not directed at Iraq; the department then offered Iraq 500 million dollars in guarantees, with a second 500 million to follow "after successful conclusion of the BNL investigation," a condition Iraq rejected.[^135] Friedman wrote in *Spider's Web* on the [[BNL Scandal]] that the House Banking Committee under Gonzalez documented the Reagan administration's and the early Bush administration's consistent support for Iraq's weapons procurement networks, including knowledge of chemical weapons use.[^136]
In a 1992 statement in the House, Representative [[Henry B. Gonzalez]] quoted the sentence "United States suppliers did not contribute directly to Iraq's conventional or nonconventional weapons capability." He added that "[s]everal Bush administration officials in a position to know the truth have testified before Congress about the United States role in enhancing Iraq's military capability."[^131] The White House's unclassified summary of September 1991 uses different language on the same question.[^132]
In a 1992 statement in the House, Representative [[Henry B. Gonzalez]] quoted the sentence "United States suppliers did not contribute directly to Iraq's conventional or nonconventional weapons capability." He added that "[s]everal Bush administration officials in a position to know the truth have testified before Congress about the United States role in enhancing Iraq's military capability."[^137] The White House's unclassified summary of September 1991 uses different language on the same question.[^138]
### BCCI and the Gulf Finance Network
The Senate report on the Bank of Credit and Commerce International, prepared by Senators John Kerry and [[Hank Brown]] and published in December 1992, describes a figure named Lake who "received $200,000 in payments from Abu Dhabi last fall in connection with this work." The report says he was performing, "as a volunteer, in an unpaid position," the job of "deputy manager to President Bush's re-election campaign."[^133] Kerry, then subcommittee chairman, said at a hearing on March 18, 1992: "I do not believe that Mr. Lake should be sitting in on White House campaign strategy meetings while he is also providing strategy to Sheikh Zayed on how to deal with problems arising out of his ownership of BCCI."[^133]
The Senate report on the Bank of Credit and Commerce International, prepared by Senators John Kerry and [[Hank Brown]] and published in December 1992, describes a figure named Lake who "received $200,000 in payments from Abu Dhabi last fall in connection with this work." The report says he was performing, "as a volunteer, in an unpaid position," the job of "deputy manager to President Bush's re-election campaign."[^139] Kerry, then subcommittee chairman, said at a hearing on March 18, 1992: "I do not believe that Mr. Lake should be sitting in on White House campaign strategy meetings while he is also providing strategy to Sheikh Zayed on how to deal with problems arising out of his ownership of BCCI."[^139]
The report's chapter on [[Ed Rogers]] quotes Rogers's resignation letter, which states that "The ethics atmosphere at the Bush White House was to go the extra mile...."[^134] The report places [[Sam Bamieh]] in Bush's Team 100 fundraising program in 1988.[^135] It also records that [[Richard Helms]] wrote to Vice President Bush on behalf of [[Mohammed Rahim Motaghi Irvani|Irvani]] on October 29, 1987.[^136]
The report's chapter on [[Ed Rogers]] quotes Rogers's resignation letter, which states that "The ethics atmosphere at the Bush White House was to go the extra mile...."[^140] The report places [[Sam Bamieh]] in Bush's Team 100 fundraising program in 1988.[^141] It also records that [[Richard Helms]] wrote to Vice President Bush on behalf of [[Mohammed Rahim Motaghi Irvani|Irvani]] on October 29, 1987.[^142]
The Justice Department's response to Kerry's inquiry about its February 1990 letters states that "The first letter by Mr. Saphos is obviously worded poorly."[^137] A July 24, 1990 letter from Deputy Assistant Attorney General [[Bruce Navarro]] to Kerry also appears in the record.[^138] The report asks whether the Customs undercover investigation of BCCI "is the kind of investigation that President Bush and the Congress desire."[^139]
The Justice Department's response to Kerry's inquiry about its February 1990 letters states that "The first letter by Mr. Saphos is obviously worded poorly."[^143] A July 24, 1990 letter from Deputy Assistant Attorney General [[Bruce Navarro]] to Kerry also appears in the record.[^144] The report asks whether the Customs undercover investigation of BCCI "is the kind of investigation that President Bush and the Congress desire."[^145]
### Stephens, Bath and the Gulf Financiers
[[Jackson Stephens]] of [[Stephens Inc.]] gave to Reagan, Bush and Clinton, and in 1977 introduced the Bank of Credit and Commerce International to the American bank it would secretly acquire.[^140] [[Peter Truell]] and [[Larry Gurwin]] wrote in 1992 that Stephens backed Bush that year while employees of Stephens Inc. gave more money to the Clinton campaign than the employees of all but two other firms; they also wrote that [[Hillary Clinton]], then Hillary Rodham, did legal work in 1978 for Systematics Inc. when it was sued over the stock accumulation for [[Agha Hasan Abedi]].[^141] The firm gave 100,000 dollars to a dinner for President Bush in May 1991, and family members and employees gave more than 83,000 dollars to Clinton by the summer of 1992; [[Worthen Bank]], whose chairman [[Curt Bradbury]] had been a Stephens officer, extended the Clinton campaign a 3.5 million dollar line of credit.[^142]
[[Jackson Stephens]] of [[Stephens Inc.]] gave to Reagan, Bush and Clinton, and in 1977 introduced the Bank of Credit and Commerce International to the American bank it would secretly acquire.[^146] [[Peter Truell]] and [[Larry Gurwin]] wrote in 1992 that Stephens backed Bush that year while employees of Stephens Inc. gave more money to the Clinton campaign than the employees of all but two other firms; they also wrote that [[Hillary Clinton]], then Hillary Rodham, did legal work in 1978 for Systematics Inc. when it was sued over the stock accumulation for [[Agha Hasan Abedi]].[^147] The firm gave 100,000 dollars to a dinner for President Bush in May 1991, and family members and employees gave more than 83,000 dollars to Clinton by the summer of 1992; [[Worthen Bank]], whose chairman [[Curt Bradbury]] had been a Stephens officer, extended the Clinton campaign a 3.5 million dollar line of credit.[^148]
[[James R. Bath]] told *Time* in 1991 that his friendship with Bush dated from their service in the Guard and that he was only "slightly" acquainted with the then-President.[^143] [[Craig Unger]] wrote in *Salon* in 2004 that the second name on a Guard order, released earlier under the Freedom of Information Act to the researcher Marty Heldt, was Bath's, and that the White House redacted it when it released George W. Bush's military records in March 2004; Bath confirmed that he was the man named and said: "Geo did not use drugs."[^144] [[Lucy Komisar]] wrote in 2007 that in 1976, when Bush headed the CIA, the agency sold some planes of its proprietary airline [[Air America]] to Skyway, "a company owned by Bath and Bin Mahfouz"; she wrote that [[Khalid bin Mahfouz]]'s family bought 20 to 30 percent of BCCI for nearly one billion dollars, and that when [[Harken Energy]] got into financial trouble in 1987 Stephens helped it obtain 25 million dollars from [[Union Bank of Switzerland]] and a board seat went to the Harken shareholder [[Abdullah Taha Bakhsh]], "whose chief banker was BCCI shareholder Bin Mahfouz." Harken's proxy statement of April 25, 1994 listed Bakhsh with 6,935,364 shares, 11.66 percent of its common stock.[^145] *Time* described Bakhsh as the reclusive Saudi who bought an 11 percent stake in Harken, of which George W. Bush was a director.[^146]
[[James R. Bath]] told *Time* in 1991 that his friendship with Bush dated from their service in the Guard and that he was only "slightly" acquainted with the then-President.[^149] [[Craig Unger]] wrote in *Salon* in 2004 that the second name on a Guard order, released earlier under the Freedom of Information Act to the researcher Marty Heldt, was Bath's, and that the White House redacted it when it released George W. Bush's military records in March 2004; Bath confirmed that he was the man named and said: "Geo did not use drugs."[^150] [[Lucy Komisar]] wrote in 2007 that in 1976, when Bush headed the CIA, the agency sold some planes of its proprietary airline [[Air America]] to Skyway, "a company owned by Bath and Bin Mahfouz"; she wrote that [[Khalid bin Mahfouz]]'s family bought 20 to 30 percent of BCCI for nearly one billion dollars, and that when [[Harken Energy]] got into financial trouble in 1987 Stephens helped it obtain 25 million dollars from [[Union Bank of Switzerland]] and a board seat went to the Harken shareholder [[Abdullah Taha Bakhsh]], "whose chief banker was BCCI shareholder Bin Mahfouz." Harken's proxy statement of April 25, 1994 listed Bakhsh with 6,935,364 shares, 11.66 percent of its common stock.[^151] *Time* described Bakhsh as the reclusive Saudi who bought an 11 percent stake in Harken, of which George W. Bush was a director.[^152]
### Hinckley
John W. Hinckley Jr. shot President Reagan on March 30, 1981. The [[Houston Post]] reported that Neil Bush, a son of Vice President Bush, had been scheduled to have dinner the day after the shooting with [[Scott Hinckley]], the brother of the gunman. WhoWhatWhy reports that the story was picked up by the Associated Press and UPI.[^147]
John W. Hinckley Jr. shot President Reagan on March 30, 1981. The [[Houston Post]] reported that Neil Bush, a son of Vice President Bush, had been scheduled to have dinner the day after the shooting with [[Scott Hinckley]], the brother of the gunman. WhoWhatWhy reports that the story was picked up by the Associated Press and UPI.[^153]
At a press conference the day after the shooting, Neil Bush acknowledged that Scott Hinckley had also been at his house "a couple of months earlier, at his surprise birthday party." Neil Bush said, "I have no idea."[^147]
At a press conference the day after the shooting, Neil Bush acknowledged that Scott Hinckley had also been at his house "a couple of months earlier, at his surprise birthday party." Neil Bush said, "I have no idea."[^153]
The vice president's press secretary, [[Peter Teeley]], told a UPI reporter, as WhoWhatWhy quotes him: "I don't know a damn thing about it. All I know is what you're telling me." Teeley said that the vice president "made no mention of it whatsoever."[^147]
The vice president's press secretary, [[Peter Teeley]], told a UPI reporter, as WhoWhatWhy quotes him: "I don't know a damn thing about it. All I know is what you're telling me." Teeley said that the vice president "made no mention of it whatsoever."[^153]
The diary of [[Chase Untermyer]], a Bush aide, records that "Neil and Sharon do know Hinckley's brother (in Denver) and were planning to have dinner with them tomorrow night."[^147]
The diary of [[Chase Untermyer]], a Bush aide, records that "Neil and Sharon do know Hinckley's brother (in Denver) and were planning to have dinner with them tomorrow night."[^153]
WhoWhatWhy also reports, citing an Associated Press item of April 1, 1981, that the Department of Energy told the Hinckley family's oil business that it might be penalized about $2 million.[^148]
WhoWhatWhy also reports, citing an Associated Press item of April 1, 1981, that the Department of Energy told the Hinckley family's oil business that it might be penalized about $2 million.[^154]
### Franklin Cover-Up Allegations
[[John DeCamp]] wrote on the Franklin matter in Nebraska. An advertisement for his book, reproduced in a compilation of material gathered by [[Ted Gunderson]], states that the book "contains numerous references to President George Bush."[^149]
[[John DeCamp]] wrote on the Franklin matter in Nebraska. An advertisement for his book, reproduced in a compilation of material gathered by [[Ted Gunderson]], states that the book "contains numerous references to President George Bush."[^155]
The same compilation relays a 1989 report in the [[Washington Times]] by [[George Archibald]] that key Reagan and Bush administration officials were ensnared in a federal probe tied to an escort service and [[Craig Spence]].[^150]
The same compilation relays a 1989 report in the [[Washington Times]] by [[George Archibald]] that key Reagan and Bush administration officials were ensnared in a federal probe tied to an escort service and [[Craig Spence]].[^156]
### Allegations in the Casolaro and Mind-Control Literature
Seymour wrote that the Royal Canadian Mounted Police inquirer [[Sean McDade]] told her that Canadian officials might have bought the PROMIS software unlawfully from officials of the Reagan and Bush administrations, that the RCMP had traced banking transactions supporting this, and that a successful inquiry "could cause the entire U.S. Republican Party to be dismantled."[^112] In September 2001 Admiral Daniel Murphy, who had served as chief of staff to Vice President Bush during the first Reagan term when the PROMIS misappropriations began, told [[Bill Hamilton]] of [[INSLAW]] that he had a "hunch" that there was still another use of PROMIS that INSLAW had not yet discovered; Murphy died on September 21, 2001.[^112]
Seymour wrote that the Royal Canadian Mounted Police inquirer [[Sean McDade]] told her that Canadian officials might have bought the PROMIS software unlawfully from officials of the Reagan and Bush administrations, that the RCMP had traced banking transactions supporting this, and that a successful inquiry "could cause the entire U.S. Republican Party to be dismantled."[^118] In September 2001 Admiral Daniel Murphy, who had served as chief of staff to Vice President Bush during the first Reagan term when the PROMIS misappropriations began, told [[Bill Hamilton]] of [[INSLAW]] that he had a "hunch" that there was still another use of PROMIS that INSLAW had not yet discovered; Murphy died on September 21, 2001.[^118]
[[Project Monarch]] is described in a 1996 PROBE article by A.B.H. Alexander, which reports the claim of Cathy O'Brien that she delivered messages to foreign leaders including Mexican President [[Carlos Salinas]] on behalf of Vice President Bush, using keyword-triggered personality compartments.[^151]
[[Project Monarch]] is described in a 1996 PROBE article by A.B.H. Alexander, which reports the claim of Cathy O'Brien that she delivered messages to foreign leaders including Mexican President [[Carlos Salinas]] on behalf of Vice President Bush, using keyword-triggered personality compartments.[^157]
### The Carlyle Group
In March 2002 Tim Shorrock wrote in [[The Nation]] that "Bush is Carlyle's senior adviser on Asia and makes his money by giving speeches at Carlyle's investment conferences."[^152] The article quotes [[William Conway]] of [[The Carlyle Group]] describing "the cast of ex-Presidents and former officials, including George H.W. Bush, James Baker III and Frank Carlucci, on its payroll."[^152]
In March 2002 Tim Shorrock wrote in [[The Nation]] that "Bush is Carlyle's senior adviser on Asia and makes his money by giving speeches at Carlyle's investment conferences."[^158] The article quotes [[William Conway]] of [[The Carlyle Group]] describing "the cast of ex-Presidents and former officials, including George H.W. Bush, James Baker III and Frank Carlucci, on its payroll."[^158]
### Appointees in the Epstein Record
Lefkowitz, who served under Bush at the Domestic Policy Council, was later the principal defense negotiator of the September 2007 [[Epstein non-prosecution agreement]] between [[Jeffrey Epstein]] and the U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of Florida; he retired from [[Kirkland & Ellis]] in March 2026, saying he would not have taken the Epstein matter "knowing what we all know now."[^153] Starr was a partner at Kirkland before and after his service as Solicitor General.[^153] Preska, whom Bush appointed in 1992, took over [[Giuffre v. Maxwell]] after the death of Judge Robert W. Sweet in 2019 and ruled until 2026 on the release of its sealed discovery.[^154] Federal Election Commission records show a 1988 contribution to Bush by [[Philip Scaturro]], whose contributions otherwise went mostly to Democratic candidates.[^155]
Lefkowitz, who served under Bush at the Domestic Policy Council, was later the principal defense negotiator of the September 2007 [[Epstein non-prosecution agreement]] between [[Jeffrey Epstein]] and the U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of Florida; he retired from [[Kirkland & Ellis]] in March 2026, saying he would not have taken the Epstein matter "knowing what we all know now."[^159] Starr was a partner at Kirkland before and after his service as Solicitor General.[^159] Preska, whom Bush appointed in 1992, took over [[Giuffre v. Maxwell]] after the death of Judge Robert W. Sweet in 2019 and ruled until 2026 on the release of its sealed discovery.[^160] Federal Election Commission records show a 1988 contribution to Bush by [[Philip Scaturro]], whose contributions otherwise went mostly to Democratic candidates.[^161]
### Unidentified Aerial Phenomena and the FBI Vault
A letter to FBI Director [[William S. Sessions]], held in the Bureau's vault, is quoted by [[Larry Holzwarth]] in a HistoryCollection article. The letter states that "President Bush (George H. W. Bush), when asked about UFOs, told the person asking 'You don't know the half of it.'" The letter writer reminds the director that Bush "was formerly with the CIA." Because the letter calls Bush "President," it can date only from January 1989 onward.[^156]
A letter to FBI Director [[William S. Sessions]], held in the Bureau's vault, is quoted by [[Larry Holzwarth]] in a HistoryCollection article. The letter states that "President Bush (George H. W. Bush), when asked about UFOs, told the person asking 'You don't know the half of it.'" The letter writer reminds the director that Bush "was formerly with the CIA." Because the letter calls Bush "President," it can date only from January 1989 onward.[^162]
The astrophysicist [[Eric Davis]] recalled Bush telling him that humans made contact with aliens at a secretive New Mexico air base in 1964. The account was published by OK! Magazine on November 24, 2025 and carried by AOL, and is tied to the documentary *The Age of Disclosure*. When Bush asked for more details, he was told that he did not have a need-to-know.[^157]
The astrophysicist [[Eric Davis]] recalled Bush telling him that humans made contact with aliens at a secretive New Mexico air base in 1964. The account was published by OK! Magazine on November 24, 2025 and carried by AOL, and is tied to the documentary *The Age of Disclosure*. When Bush asked for more details, he was told that he did not have a need-to-know.[^163]
### Footnotes
@ -341,148 +347,154 @@ The astrophysicist [[Eric Davis]] recalled Bush telling him that humans made con
[^10]: Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 248, Washington, October 20, 1942, *Federal Register*, November 7, 1942, pp. 9097-9098.
[^11]: Russ Baker, "CIA Helped Bush Senior In Oil Venture," WhoWhatWhy, January 7, 2007, quoting a CIA memorandum of November 29, 1975. https://whowhatwhy.org/2007/01/07/cia-bush-senior-oil-venture/
[^12]: Russ Baker, "CIA Helped Bush Senior In Oil Venture," WhoWhatWhy, January 7, 2007, citing a 1968 memorandum and the 1998 release of CIA documents. https://whowhatwhy.org/2007/01/07/cia-bush-senior-oil-venture/
[^13]: Zapata Corporation, annual report on Form 10-K for fiscal 1994, filed December 29, 1994, accession 0000899243-94-000388, Item 1 and filer header (former conformed names), CIK 109177.
[^14]: SEC EDGAR filing history for CIK 109177 (Zapata Corporation and successor names); start of electronic filings February 8, 1994.
[^15]: Assassination Records Review Board, letter to John Pereira, December 18, 1997, CIA release 104-10336-10008.
[^16]: Assassination Records Review Board staff memorandum by Haron, January 8, 1998 (FBIMEM.002).
[^17]: CIA memorandum from Michelle Combs to T. Jeremy Gunn, July 15, 1998 (CIA-IR09).
[^18]: CIA memorandum from J. Barry Harrelson to T. Jeremy Gunn, February 25, 1998, within release 104-10336-10008.
[^19]: Assassination Records Review Board draft request, "George Bush," undated, bearing Gunn's name.
[^20]: WhoWhatWhy, "Classic Who: GHW Bush and the JFK Assassination," October 24, 2017, reporting Stephen Hart's 1988 statement and Joseph McBride's report in *The Nation*, July 16, 1988. https://whowhatwhy.org/2017/10/24/classic-ghw-bush-jfk-assassination/
[^21]: Gary Webb, *Dark Alliance* (Seven Stories Press, 1998), ch. 13, "The wrong kind of friends."
[^22]: Ronald Reagan, "Statement Announcing the Establishment of a Federal Anticrime Task Force for Southern Florida," January 28, 1982. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/statement-announcing-the-establishment-federal-anticrime-task-force-for-southern-florida
[^23]: *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Hrg. 100-773, pt. 4 (July 1988), statement of Adm. Daniel J. Murphy, pp. 224-225. https://archive.org/details/micro_IA41152832_0009
[^24]: Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Prt. 100-165 (1988), p. 19. https://archive.org/details/Kerry-Report-Drugs-Contras
[^25]: Gary Webb, *Dark Alliance* (Seven Stories Press, 1998), ch. 20, "It is a sensitive matter."
[^26]: FBI Headquarters file on H.L. Hunt, part 2 (FOIA release), Hunt Oil Company and Estate of H.L. Hunt press releases, March 4 and April 1, 1977, https://archive.org/details/foia_Hunt_H.L.-HQ-2 ; Marie Fagnant (Assassination Records Review Board staff), "Summary of Dallas Figures," memorandum, July 31, 1997; Bill Porterfield, "H.L. Hunt's Long Goodbye," *Texas Monthly*, March 1975. https://www.texasmonthly.com/news-politics/h-l-hunts-long-goodbye/
[^27]: George Bush, Chairman, National Foreign Intelligence Board, letter to Vice Admiral Bobby R. Inman, January 1977 (DCI/IC 77-0402), CIA CREST copy CIA-RDP80M00165A002600030024-8. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80M00165A002600030024-8
[^28]: "We've Been Asked: What Is the Trilateral Commission?" *U.S. News & World Report*, April 7, 1980, p. 37, reprinted in Congressional Research Service, *The Trilateral Commission*, Issue Packet IP0092 (Library of Congress, 1981).
[^29]: Ronald Reagan, "Nomination of William H. Draper III To Be President and Chairman of the Export-Import Bank of the United States," March 18, 1981, The American Presidency Project. https://presidency.ucsb.edu/node/247393
[^30]: "The President's News Conference," November 3, 1975. The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/the-presidents-news-conference-60
[^31]: "Remarks at the Swearing In of George Bush as Director of Central Intelligence," January 30, 1976. The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-the-swearing-george-bush-director-central-intelligence
[^32]: Kenneth A. Kress, "Parapsychology in Intelligence: A Personal Review and Conclusions," *Studies in Intelligence* 21, no. 4 (winter 1977), p. 15. CIA reading room CIA-RDP96-00791R000200030040-0. Reprinted with the author's January 1999 postscript in *Journal of Scientific Exploration* 13, no. 1 (1999).
[^33]: Senate nomination record for George H. W. Bush as Director of Central Intelligence, hearings of December 15-16, 1975, and committee report of December 18, 1975. CIA reading room CIA-RDP91-00901R000100050001-3.
[^34]: Center for the Study of Intelligence, "Intelligence and Congress: The Nomination of George H. W. Bush as DCI," *Studies in Intelligence* 65, no. 4 (December 2021). https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Article_Intel_Congress_Nomination_ofGHWBush_as_DCI_Studies_65_4_December2021.pdf
[^35]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXV, doc. 170, memorandum from Director of Central Intelligence Bush to recipients of National Intelligence Estimate 11-3/8-76, with editorial note citing William Beecher, *Boston Globe*, October 20, 1976, and David Binder, *New York Times*, December 26, 1976.
[^36]: "Soviet Strategic Objectives: An Alternative View, Report of Team B." CIA reading room CIA-RDP91M00696R001000110006-8.
[^37]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXV, doc. 174, Bush to Cherne, January 19, 1977.
[^38]: Church Committee, *Final Report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities*, Book I, p. 455 (1976). https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel01unit
[^39]: Church Committee, *Final Report*, Book I, p. 193. https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel01unit
[^40]: Norman Kempster, *Washington Star*, February 10, 1976. CIA reading room CIA-RDP99-00498R000100040124-3.
[^41]: "'Operation Chaos' Files Ordered Held," *Washington Star*, June 16, 1976. CIA reading room CIA-RDP90-01208R000100170029-4.
[^42]: Letter from Daniel K. Inouye to George Bush, September 29, 1976. CIA reading room 03303946.
[^43]: Letter from Edward H. Levi to George Bush, October 9, 1976, with Scowcroft's endorsement of October 21, 1976. *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. E-11, pt. 2, doc. 250.
[^44]: CIA reading room document 05535911, 1980 radio interview transcript (speaker identified as "MAN").
[^45]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980*, vol. XXIV, doc. 209.
[^46]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980*, vol. XXIV, doc. 217, memorandum quoted in the volume.
[^47]: Memorandum by George Bush, "The Death of Roselli," August 11, 1976. CIA reading room 00508811.
[^48]: Timothy S. Robinson, "The Letelier Case," *The Washington Post*, May 21, 1978, p. A4, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP99-00498R000100050048-7, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-00498r000100050048-7.
[^49]: Brief for Appellants, *United States v. Sampol*, Nos. 79-1541 and 79-1542 (D.C. Cir. 1979), https://www.latinamericanstudies.org/MNC/Letelier-appeal.pdf ; Petition of the United States for Rehearing and Suggestion for Rehearing En Banc, *United States v. Sampol* (D.C. Cir., October 29, 1980), https://www.latinamericanstudies.org/MNC/Letelier-rehearing.pdf.
[^50]: "No New Leads Uncovered by Letelier Probe," *The Washington Post*, November 1, 1976, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP99-00498R000100020097-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-00498r000100020097-6
[^51]: Secretary of State to American Embassy Caracas, "Interrogation of Bosch," telegram 1976STATE277225, November 11, 1976, quoting Richard L. Thornburgh's letter of November 5, 1976, Department of State, released 2006; Zach Dorfman, "Codename: Chilbom," *The Atavist Magazine*, no. 59, June 21, 2016. https://magazine.atavist.com/2016/codename-chilbom
[^52]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Associate Attorney General, *In the Matter of Orlando Bosch-Avila*, decision of Acting Associate Attorney General Joe D. Whitley in exclusion proceedings, January 23, 1989; National Security Archive, "Bombing of Cuban Jetliner 30 Years Later," Electronic Briefing Book 202, October 5, 2006.
[^53]: Peter Kornbluh, "A Modicum of Justice for Ronni Karpen Moffitt," *The Nation*, September 2026.
[^54]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXII, Panama, doc. 133, memorandum of conversation, October 6, 1976, source note.
[^55]: Letter from George Bush to Donald H. Rumsfeld, October 18, 1976. CIA reading room CIA-RDP79-00498A000600090009-7.
[^56]: Joseph Trento, *Prelude to Terror: The Rogue CIA and the Legacy of America's Private Intelligence Network* (Carroll & Graf, 2005), pp. 52-108; Alexandre de Marenches and David Andelman, *The Fourth World War* (Random House, 1992); Church Committee, S. Rept. 94-755, 1976.
[^57]: Roger Faligot and Pascal Krop, *La Piscine: Les Services Secrets Français, 1944-1984* (Seuil, 1985); Alexandre de Marenches and Christine Ockrent, *Dans le Secret des Princes* (Stock, 1986).
[^58]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, S. Rept. 94-465, 1975; Ludo De Witte, *The Assassination of Lumumba* (Verso, 2001); International Security Assistance and Arms Export Control Act of 1976, Public Law 94-329, 90 Stat. 729 (June 30, 1976), sec. 404.
[^59]: Miller Center, University of Virginia, "William P. Barr Oral History," interview of April 5, 2001, George H. W. Bush Oral History Project. https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-oral-histories/william-p-barr-oral-history
[^60]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), ch. 18.
[^61]: Ari Ben-Menashe, *Profits of War: Inside the Secret U.S.-Israeli Arms Network* (Sheridan Square Press, 1992; TrineDay reprint, 2015).
[^62]: *The Tower Commission Report: The Full Text of the President's Special Review Board* (New York: Bantam Books and Times Books, 1987), pp. 24-25, 30-31; Tom Tugend, "Al Schwimmer, Israel Air Force pioneer, dies at 94," *Jewish Journal* (Los Angeles), June 12, 2011; JTA Staff, "Pardoned American served Israel in 1948," Jewish Telegraphic Agency, February 28, 2001.
[^63]: Maureen Dowd, "War in the Gulf: The President; Bush Urges Israeli Restraint in Phone Appeals to Shamir," *The New York Times*, January 20, 1991, p. 16. https://www.nytimes.com/1991/01/20/world/war-gulf-president-bush-urges-israeli-restraint-phone-appeals-shamir.html
[^64]: "Decade of the Spy," undated counterintelligence history extract, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book 407, Doc. 14. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB407/docs/EBB-PollardDoc14.pdf
[^65]: Kress, "Parapsychology in Intelligence," *Studies in Intelligence* 21, no. 4 (winter 1977), p. 16. CIA reading room CIA-RDP96-00791R000200030040-0.
[^66]: US Army Intelligence and Security Command, "List of Events from September 1977 to January 1986," entry for 1983. CIA reading room CIA-RDP96-00788R001100020001-8.
[^67]: Memorandum for the record, "Briefing," Major Gerald Fox, April 1, 1983, CIA-RDP96-00788R001700270002-4. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001700270002-4
[^68]: Defense Intelligence Agency, S-1004/DT-1, "Minutes of the Meeting, DoD Grill Flame Committee," November 28, 1978, CIA-RDP96-00788R002000130006-1; "Minutes of the Grill Flame Committee Meeting, 14 Feb 79," CIA-RDP96-00788R002000130002-5.
[^69]: Dolan M. McKelvy, *Psychic Warfare: Exploring the Mind Frontier*, Air War College research report, Air University, CIA-RDP96-00789R001001420001-3, citing Ronald M. McRae, *Mind Wars* (1984), p. 103. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00789r001001420001-3
[^70]: William J. Casey to Alexander M. Haig, Jr., April 2, 1982, with "Quick Intelligence Assessment on Falkland Affairs (April 2, 1982)," CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP84B00049R000701780017-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84b00049r000701780017-6
[^71]: John H. Holdridge, letter, "Australian Intrigue," *Time*, January 3, 1982, CIA-RDP90-00806R000200820017-1, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000200820017-1 ; CBS, "The Nugan Hand Bank," Evening News transcript, September 22, 1982, CIA-RDP90-00552R000201840002-6, https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201840002-6
[^72]: "Vice President George Bush, completing a 10-day trip aimed...," United Press International, April 12, 1986, https://www.upi.com/Archives/1986/04/12/Vice-President-George-Bush-completing-a-10-day-trip-aimed/5692513666000/ ; "Top-secret cronies," *Salon*, November 17, 2005, https://www.salon.com/2005/11/17/pfiab/
[^73]: Bill Gertz, "Vice President confirms Buckley was tortured and killed," *Washington Times*, January 21, 1987, CIA-RDP90-00965R000302310058-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000302310058-3
[^74]: Denholm Barnetson, "President Mohammad Zia ul-Haq, U.S. Ambassador Arnold Raphel and...," United Press International, August 17, 1988. https://www.upi.com/Archives/1988/08/17/President-Mohammad-Zia-ul-Haq-US-Ambassador-Arnold-Raphel-and/3467587793600/
[^75]: Dennis Bernstein and Robert Knight (Pacific News Service), report published by *Salon*, October 8, 1996. https://www.salon.com/1996/10/08/news_555/
[^76]: *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Hrg. 100-773, pt. 2 (February 1988), Senator Kerry, pp. 265-266.
[^77]: *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Hrg. 100-773, pt. 2 (February 1988), testimony of Danilo Blandon, pp. 136-137.
[^78]: Lawrence E. Walsh, *Final Report of the Independent Counsel for Iran/Contra Matters*, vol. I, ch. 29, citing Gregg grand jury testimony of October 9, 1987 and Rodriguez grand jury testimony of December 4, 1987. https://irp.fas.org/offdocs/walsh/chap_29.htm
[^79]: *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Hrg. 100-773, pt. 4 (July 1988), Rodriguez testimony, p. 344.
[^80]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, Part IX, p. 443. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/part_ix.htm
[^81]: Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Prt. 100-165 (1988), p. 96. https://archive.org/details/Kerry-Report-Drugs-Contras
[^82]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, Executive Summary, p. xviii. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/execsum.htm
[^83]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, "George Bush," pp. 473-474. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/chap_28.htm
[^84]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, p. 479 and note 67 (*Los Angeles Times*, September 11, 1992; *Washington Post*, 1988).
[^85]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, Part IX, "Investigations of the White House," pp. 443-444. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/part_ix.htm
[^86]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, pp. 474-475, on the diary, the pardons and the grand jury.
[^87]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, p. 480 and note 74 (diary entries of November 4 and 5, 1986).
[^88]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, p. 478.
[^89]: Proclamation 6518, Granting Pardons, December 24, 1992, 107 *Stat.* 2606-2607.
[^90]: Brown University, Thomas J. Dodd Research Center, Iran-Contra materials, "The Pardons," quoting Walsh's response to the pardon of Caspar Weinberger. https://webhelper.brown.edu/cheit/
[^91]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. II, Fourth Interim Report to Congress, February 8, 1993, pp. 585-587.
[^92]: *The Tower Commission Report*, February 26, 1987, pp. 383-384. https://archive.org/details/towercommission00unit
[^93]: National Security Planning Group minutes, June 25, 1984, "Central America," National Security Archive, *The Iran-Contra Affair 20 Years On*, EBB 210, document 2 (IC 00463), pp. 12, 14. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB210/2-NSPG%20minutes%206-25-84%20(IC%2000463).pdf ; Iran-Contra report, ch. 26, pp. 403-404.
[^94]: Walsh, *Final Report of the Independent Counsel for Iran/Contra Matters*, vol. I, ch. 29 (Gregg and Rodriguez); Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Narcotics, Terrorism and International Operations, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Prt. 100-165 (1989), p. 96.
[^95]: George Bush, "Statement by Press Secretary Fitzwater on the Iran-Contra Investigation," December 30, 1992, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/statement-press-secretary-fitzwater-the-iran-contra-investigation ; U.S. Department of Justice, "Griffin Boyette Bell," Attorneys General biographies.
[^96]: Miller Center, University of Virginia, "William P. Barr Oral History," interview of April 5, 2001, George H. W. Bush Oral History Project (remarks on Bua, Lacey, Civiletti, inherent authority, and the pardons). https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-oral-histories/william-p-barr-oral-history
[^97]: Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *The Intelligence Community's Involvement in the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro (BNL) Affair*, S. Prt. 103-12 (February 1993), pp. 4-5, 10; Lacey, Report of the Independent Counsel, Serial No. 103-95, pp. 344-345; "Drogoul gets 37 months in BNL bank scandal," United Press International, December 9, 1993; *United States v. Drogoul*, 1 F.3d 1546 (11th Cir. 1993).
[^98]: *Joint Report of the Task Force to Investigate Certain Allegations Concerning the Holding of American Hostages by Iran in 1980*, 102d Cong., 2d sess., January 3, 1993, Calendar No. 634. https://archive.org/details/6199732-Joint-Report-of-the-October-Surprise-Task-Force
[^99]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 148.
[^100]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 110.
[^101]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, pp. 172-173.
[^102]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 175.
[^103]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 149, citing the Rupp sentencing (D. Colo., September 23, 1988) and the Brenneke trial (D. Or., May 3, 1990).
[^104]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, pp. 150-151.
[^105]: Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Prt. 100-165 (1988), pp. 131-132. https://archive.org/details/Kerry-Report-Drugs-Contras
[^106]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 90, Casey calendar.
[^107]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 102.
[^108]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, pp. 20-21, missing calendar pages.
[^109]: Robert Parry, "October Surprise Evidence Surfaces," *Consortium News*, July 14, 2011. https://consortiumnews.com/2011/07/14/october-surprise-evidence-surfaces/
[^110]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, pp. 173-174, Reagan statements.
[^111]: Barbara Honegger, *October Surprise* (New York: Tudor Publishing, 1989).
[^112]: Cheri Seymour, *The Last Circle: Danny Casolaro's Investigation into the Octopus and the PROMIS Software Scandal* (TrineDay, 2010).
[^113]: Miller Center, University of Virginia, "George H. W. Bush: Key Events." https://millercenter.org/president/bush/key-events
[^114]: Miller Center, "Statecraft: The Bush 41 Team," "Proving ground: How the December 1989 invasion of Panama shaped the Bush 41 foreign policy team," quoting Richard Cheney and Colin Powell in the George H. W. Bush Oral History Project. https://millercenter.org/statecraftmovie/proving-ground
[^115]: U.S. House of Representatives, Select Committee on U.S. National Security and Military/Commercial Concerns with the People's Republic of China, Report (H. Rept. 105-851), vol. III, ch. 9, p. 50. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRPT-105hrpt851/pdf/GPO-CRPT-105hrpt851.pdf
[^116]: Bruce Berkowitz, *The National Reconnaissance Office at 50 Years: A Brief History* (Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance, September 2011), pp. 20-21, 23-26.
[^117]: Henry B. Gonzalez, "Brass Factory in Iraq," *Congressional Record*, House, September 25, 1992, p. H9502; Gonzalez floor statement of August 10, 1992.
[^118]: Gayle Young, "Socialists Take the Helm in Jamaica. Manley hopes to strengthen US ties by aiding war on drugs," *The Christian Science Monitor*, February 14, 1989. https://www.csmonitor.com/1989/0214/ojam.html
[^119]: "Richard Lewis Thornburgh," Office of the Attorney General, U.S. Department of Justice, *Attorneys General of the United States*; Miller Center, "Richard Thornburgh."
[^120]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Solicitor General, "Solicitor General: Kenneth W. Starr," historical biography (updated September 18, 2023). https://www.justice.gov/osg/bio/kenneth-w-starr
[^121]: George Bush, "Nomination of Malcolm S. Forbes, Jr., To Be a Member of the Board for International Broadcasting, and Designation as Chairman," January 4, 1990, The American Presidency Project, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/264564 ; George Bush, "Digest of Other White House Announcements," June 19, 1992, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/391789
[^122]: U.S. Department of State, "Jay Lefkowitz, Special Envoy, Human Rights in North Korea," biography, released May 25, 2006. https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ei/biog/66929.htm ; The White House (George W. Bush archives), "Personnel Announcement," January 31, 2002.
[^123]: Federal Judicial Center, "Preska, Loretta A.," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/preska-loretta
[^124]: Henry B. Gonzalez, "Kissinger Associates, Scowcroft, Eagleburger, Stoga, Iraq, and BNL," *Congressional Record*, House, April 28, 1992, pp. H2694-H2701. https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/congress/1992_cr/h920428g.htm
[^125]: Declaration of Howard R. Teicher, *United States v. Carlos Cardoen et al.*, No. 93-241-CR-Highsmith (S.D. Fla., January 31, 1995), para. 7. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB82/iraq61.pdf
[^126]: Corrective declaration of Howard R. Teicher, docket 679, *United States v. Cardoen* (October 31, 1996). Archive.org item utf-893cr-241-de-679.
[^127]: Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *The Intelligence Community's Involvement in the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro (BNL) Affair*, S. Prt. 103-12 (February 1993). https://intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/publications/10312.pdf
[^128]: National Security Directive 26, "U.S. Policy Toward the Persian Gulf," October 2, 1989, classified SECRET. George H. W. Bush Presidential Library copy.
[^129]: General Accounting Office, report on Iraq's participation in the Commodity Credit Corporation's GSM-102 and GSM-103 export credit guarantee programs, GAO/NSIAD-91-76, November 1990, appendix I; Henry B. Gonzalez, "Continuing Saga of Attempts to Thwart BNL Investigation," *Congressional Record*, House, May 18, 1992, pp. H3370-H3373; "Bush's embarrassing Lavoro scandal," *The Baltimore Sun*, April 28, 1992.
[^130]: Alan Friedman, *Spider's Web: The Secret History of How the White House Illegally Armed Iraq* (Bantam Books, 1993).
[^131]: Representative Henry B. Gonzalez, *Congressional Record*, 1992. https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/congress/1992_cr/h920925g.htm
[^132]: White House, unclassified summary of Iraq sanctions and weapons exports, September 1991.
[^133]: Senate Foreign Relations Committee, *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140 (December 1992), p. 461. https://archive.org/details/thebcciaffair_202003
[^134]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, p. 542, chapter on Ed Rogers.
[^135]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, p. 538.
[^136]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, Helms letters to Vice President Bush, October 29, 1987.
[^137]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, Justice Department response on the February 1990 letters by Mr. Saphos.
[^138]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, letter of Deputy Assistant Attorney General Bruce Navarro to Senator Kerry, July 24, 1990.
[^139]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, p. 508.
[^140]: "Jackson Thomas Stephens (1923-2005)," *Encyclopedia of Arkansas*; *Financial General Bankshares, Inc. v. Metzger*, 523 F. Supp. 744 (D.D.C. 1981); 680 F.2d 768 (D.C. Cir. 1982).
[^141]: Peter Truell and Larry Gurwin, *False Profits: The Inside Story of BCCI, the World's Most Corrupt Financial Empire* (Houghton Mifflin, 1992), ch. 18 and p. 428. https://archive.org/details/bypetertruellauthorlarrygurwinauthorfalseprofitsth
[^142]: "Meet The Family That Bankrolled Clinton," *The Seattle Times*, January 31, 1993, https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/?date=19930131&slug=1682819 ; House Committee on Government Reform and Oversight, *Investigation of Political Fundraising Improprieties and Possible Violations of Law*, H. Rept. 105-829 (1998), vol. 2; Roger Morris, *Partners in Power* (Henry Holt, 1996); Truell and Gurwin, *False Profits*, pp. 41 and 428.
[^143]: Jonathan Beaty, "A Mysterious Mover of Money and Planes," *Time*, October 28, 1991. https://time.com/archive/6718843/a-mysterious-mover-of-money-and-planes/
[^144]: Craig Unger, "Mystery man," *Salon*, April 28, 2004. https://www.salon.com/2004/04/28/james_bath/
[^145]: Lucy Komisar, "Questions Linger About Bushes and BCCI," Inter Press Service, April 4, 2007, https://www.ipsnews.net/2007/04/finance-questions-linger-about-bushes-and-bcci/ ; Harken Energy Corporation, proxy statement (Schedule 14A), filed April 25, 1994, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/313478/0000950134-94-000454.txt
[^146]: Richard Behar, "Global Intrigue: The Wackiest Rig in Texas," *Time*, October 28, 1991. https://time.com/archive/6718865/global-intrigue-the-wackiest-rig-in-texas/
[^147]: WhoWhatWhy, "Bush Angle to Reagan Shooting Still Unresolved as Hinckley Walks," August 16, 2016, reporting the *Houston Post* story, Neil Bush's press conference, Peter Teeley's statement to UPI, and the Untermyer diary. https://whowhatwhy.org/2016/08/16/bush-angle-reagan-shooting-still-unresolved-hinckley-walks/
[^148]: WhoWhatWhy (2016), citing an Associated Press item of April 1, 1981, on the Department of Energy notice to the Hinckley family business.
[^149]: Ted L. Gunderson compilation, *FBI The Finders*, advertisement for John DeCamp's book. https://archive.org/details/ted-gunderson-fbi-the-finders
[^150]: Ted L. Gunderson compilation, *FBI The Finders*, relaying a *Washington Times* report by George Archibald (1989).
[^151]: A.B.H. Alexander, "Sex, Drugs, the CIA, MIND CONTROL and Your Children," *PROBE*, c. 1996.
[^152]: Tim Shorrock, "Crony Capitalism Goes Global," *The Nation*, March 14, 2002. https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/crony-capitalism-goes-global/
[^153]: "Jeffrey Epstein's Disgraced Lawyer Jay Lefkowitz Who Secured Sweetheart Deal Leaves Firm," *The Daily Beast*, March 2026; U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Solicitor General, "Solicitor General: Kenneth W. Starr"; U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA02847284.
[^154]: *Brown v. Maxwell; Dershowitz v. Giuffre*, 929 F.3d 41 (2d Cir. 2019), Nos. 18-2868, 16-3945-cv(L) (July 3, 2019). https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/4636340/brown-v-maxwell-dershowitz-v-giuffre/
[^155]: Federal Election Commission, Schedule A individual contributions, API query contributor_name "SCATURRO, PHILIP" (41 results). https://api.open.fec.gov/v1/schedules/schedule_a/?contributor_name=SCATURRO%2C%20PHILIP
[^156]: Larry Holzwarth, "FBI Files: Unexplained Phenomenon Files from the FBI's Vault," HistoryCollection, quoting an anonymous letter to FBI Director William S. Sessions. https://historycollection.com/unexplained-phenomenon-files-from-the-fbis-vault/6/
[^157]: Allie Fasanella, "George H. W. Bush 'Knew' Humans Made Contact With Aliens in 1964," *OK! Magazine*, November 24, 2025, carried by AOL. https://www.aol.com/articles/george-h-w-bush-knew-161144400.html
[^13]: Central Intelligence Agency, "Biographical Information on George H. W. Bush," undated sheet, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP99-01448R000401590001-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401590001-9
[^14]: Bob Woodward and Walter Pincus, "Bush Opened Up To Secret Yale Society," Washington Post, dated August 7, 1988 in the CIA reading room record, CIA-RDP99-01448R000401580058-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401580058-8
[^15]: Randall Rothenberg, "In Search of George Bush," March 6, 1988, CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP99-01448R000401580078-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401580078-6
[^16]: Anthony L. Kimery, "George Bush and the CIA: In the Company of Friends," CovertAction Information Bulletin no. 41 (Summer 1992), CIA-RDP99-01448R000401570011-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401570011-0
[^17]: George Bush, *All the Best, George Bush: My Life in Letters and Other Writings* (New York: Scribner, 1999), biographical note on Neil Mallon, the account of the move to Odessa, the letter of April 12, 1951, and the passage on naming the third son. https://archive.org/details/allbestgeorgebus0000bush
[^18]: George Bush with Victor Gold, *Looking Forward* (New York: Doubleday, 1987). https://archive.org/details/lookingforward00bush
[^19]: Zapata Corporation, annual report on Form 10-K for fiscal 1994, filed December 29, 1994, accession 0000899243-94-000388, Item 1 and filer header (former conformed names), CIK 109177.
[^20]: SEC EDGAR filing history for CIK 109177 (Zapata Corporation and successor names); start of electronic filings February 8, 1994.
[^21]: Assassination Records Review Board, letter to John Pereira, December 18, 1997, CIA release 104-10336-10008.
[^22]: Assassination Records Review Board staff memorandum by Haron, January 8, 1998 (FBIMEM.002).
[^23]: CIA memorandum from Michelle Combs to T. Jeremy Gunn, July 15, 1998 (CIA-IR09).
[^24]: CIA memorandum from J. Barry Harrelson to T. Jeremy Gunn, February 25, 1998, within release 104-10336-10008.
[^25]: Assassination Records Review Board draft request, "George Bush," undated, bearing Gunn's name.
[^26]: WhoWhatWhy, "Classic Who: GHW Bush and the JFK Assassination," October 24, 2017, reporting Stephen Hart's 1988 statement and Joseph McBride's report in *The Nation*, July 16, 1988. https://whowhatwhy.org/2017/10/24/classic-ghw-bush-jfk-assassination/
[^27]: Gary Webb, *Dark Alliance* (Seven Stories Press, 1998), ch. 13, "The wrong kind of friends."
[^28]: Ronald Reagan, "Statement Announcing the Establishment of a Federal Anticrime Task Force for Southern Florida," January 28, 1982. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/statement-announcing-the-establishment-federal-anticrime-task-force-for-southern-florida
[^29]: *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Hrg. 100-773, pt. 4 (July 1988), statement of Adm. Daniel J. Murphy, pp. 224-225. https://archive.org/details/micro_IA41152832_0009
[^30]: Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Prt. 100-165 (1988), p. 19. https://archive.org/details/Kerry-Report-Drugs-Contras
[^31]: Gary Webb, *Dark Alliance* (Seven Stories Press, 1998), ch. 20, "It is a sensitive matter."
[^32]: FBI Headquarters file on H.L. Hunt, part 2 (FOIA release), Hunt Oil Company and Estate of H.L. Hunt press releases, March 4 and April 1, 1977, https://archive.org/details/foia_Hunt_H.L.-HQ-2 ; Marie Fagnant (Assassination Records Review Board staff), "Summary of Dallas Figures," memorandum, July 31, 1997; Bill Porterfield, "H.L. Hunt's Long Goodbye," *Texas Monthly*, March 1975. https://www.texasmonthly.com/news-politics/h-l-hunts-long-goodbye/
[^33]: George Bush, Chairman, National Foreign Intelligence Board, letter to Vice Admiral Bobby R. Inman, January 1977 (DCI/IC 77-0402), CIA CREST copy CIA-RDP80M00165A002600030024-8. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80M00165A002600030024-8
[^34]: "We've Been Asked: What Is the Trilateral Commission?" *U.S. News & World Report*, April 7, 1980, p. 37, reprinted in Congressional Research Service, *The Trilateral Commission*, Issue Packet IP0092 (Library of Congress, 1981).
[^35]: Ronald Reagan, "Nomination of William H. Draper III To Be President and Chairman of the Export-Import Bank of the United States," March 18, 1981, The American Presidency Project. https://presidency.ucsb.edu/node/247393
[^36]: "The President's News Conference," November 3, 1975. The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/the-presidents-news-conference-60
[^37]: "Remarks at the Swearing In of George Bush as Director of Central Intelligence," January 30, 1976. The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-the-swearing-george-bush-director-central-intelligence
[^38]: Kenneth A. Kress, "Parapsychology in Intelligence: A Personal Review and Conclusions," *Studies in Intelligence* 21, no. 4 (winter 1977), p. 15. CIA reading room CIA-RDP96-00791R000200030040-0. Reprinted with the author's January 1999 postscript in *Journal of Scientific Exploration* 13, no. 1 (1999).
[^39]: Senate nomination record for George H. W. Bush as Director of Central Intelligence, hearings of December 15-16, 1975, and committee report of December 18, 1975. CIA reading room CIA-RDP91-00901R000100050001-3.
[^40]: Center for the Study of Intelligence, "Intelligence and Congress: The Nomination of George H. W. Bush as DCI," *Studies in Intelligence* 65, no. 4 (December 2021). https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Article_Intel_Congress_Nomination_ofGHWBush_as_DCI_Studies_65_4_December2021.pdf
[^41]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXV, doc. 170, memorandum from Director of Central Intelligence Bush to recipients of National Intelligence Estimate 11-3/8-76, with editorial note citing William Beecher, *Boston Globe*, October 20, 1976, and David Binder, *New York Times*, December 26, 1976.
[^42]: "Soviet Strategic Objectives: An Alternative View, Report of Team B." CIA reading room CIA-RDP91M00696R001000110006-8.
[^43]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXXV, doc. 174, Bush to Cherne, January 19, 1977.
[^44]: Church Committee, *Final Report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities*, Book I, p. 455 (1976). https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel01unit
[^45]: Church Committee, *Final Report*, Book I, p. 193. https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel01unit
[^46]: Norman Kempster, *Washington Star*, February 10, 1976. CIA reading room CIA-RDP99-00498R000100040124-3.
[^47]: "'Operation Chaos' Files Ordered Held," *Washington Star*, June 16, 1976. CIA reading room CIA-RDP90-01208R000100170029-4.
[^48]: Letter from Daniel K. Inouye to George Bush, September 29, 1976. CIA reading room 03303946.
[^49]: Letter from Edward H. Levi to George Bush, October 9, 1976, with Scowcroft's endorsement of October 21, 1976. *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. E-11, pt. 2, doc. 250.
[^50]: CIA reading room document 05535911, 1980 radio interview transcript (speaker identified as "MAN").
[^51]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980*, vol. XXIV, doc. 209.
[^52]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980*, vol. XXIV, doc. 217, memorandum quoted in the volume.
[^53]: Memorandum by George Bush, "The Death of Roselli," August 11, 1976. CIA reading room 00508811.
[^54]: Timothy S. Robinson, "The Letelier Case," *The Washington Post*, May 21, 1978, p. A4, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP99-00498R000100050048-7, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-00498r000100050048-7.
[^55]: Brief for Appellants, *United States v. Sampol*, Nos. 79-1541 and 79-1542 (D.C. Cir. 1979), https://www.latinamericanstudies.org/MNC/Letelier-appeal.pdf ; Petition of the United States for Rehearing and Suggestion for Rehearing En Banc, *United States v. Sampol* (D.C. Cir., October 29, 1980), https://www.latinamericanstudies.org/MNC/Letelier-rehearing.pdf.
[^56]: "No New Leads Uncovered by Letelier Probe," *The Washington Post*, November 1, 1976, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP99-00498R000100020097-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-00498r000100020097-6
[^57]: Secretary of State to American Embassy Caracas, "Interrogation of Bosch," telegram 1976STATE277225, November 11, 1976, quoting Richard L. Thornburgh's letter of November 5, 1976, Department of State, released 2006; Zach Dorfman, "Codename: Chilbom," *The Atavist Magazine*, no. 59, June 21, 2016. https://magazine.atavist.com/2016/codename-chilbom
[^58]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Associate Attorney General, *In the Matter of Orlando Bosch-Avila*, decision of Acting Associate Attorney General Joe D. Whitley in exclusion proceedings, January 23, 1989; National Security Archive, "Bombing of Cuban Jetliner 30 Years Later," Electronic Briefing Book 202, October 5, 2006.
[^59]: Peter Kornbluh, "A Modicum of Justice for Ronni Karpen Moffitt," *The Nation*, September 2026.
[^60]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976*, vol. XXII, Panama, doc. 133, memorandum of conversation, October 6, 1976, source note.
[^61]: Letter from George Bush to Donald H. Rumsfeld, October 18, 1976. CIA reading room CIA-RDP79-00498A000600090009-7.
[^62]: Joseph Trento, *Prelude to Terror: The Rogue CIA and the Legacy of America's Private Intelligence Network* (Carroll & Graf, 2005), pp. 52-108; Alexandre de Marenches and David Andelman, *The Fourth World War* (Random House, 1992); Church Committee, S. Rept. 94-755, 1976.
[^63]: Roger Faligot and Pascal Krop, *La Piscine: Les Services Secrets Français, 1944-1984* (Seuil, 1985); Alexandre de Marenches and Christine Ockrent, *Dans le Secret des Princes* (Stock, 1986).
[^64]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, S. Rept. 94-465, 1975; Ludo De Witte, *The Assassination of Lumumba* (Verso, 2001); International Security Assistance and Arms Export Control Act of 1976, Public Law 94-329, 90 Stat. 729 (June 30, 1976), sec. 404.
[^65]: Miller Center, University of Virginia, "William P. Barr Oral History," interview of April 5, 2001, George H. W. Bush Oral History Project. https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-oral-histories/william-p-barr-oral-history
[^66]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), ch. 18.
[^67]: Ari Ben-Menashe, *Profits of War: Inside the Secret U.S.-Israeli Arms Network* (Sheridan Square Press, 1992; TrineDay reprint, 2015).
[^68]: *The Tower Commission Report: The Full Text of the President's Special Review Board* (New York: Bantam Books and Times Books, 1987), pp. 24-25, 30-31; Tom Tugend, "Al Schwimmer, Israel Air Force pioneer, dies at 94," *Jewish Journal* (Los Angeles), June 12, 2011; JTA Staff, "Pardoned American served Israel in 1948," Jewish Telegraphic Agency, February 28, 2001.
[^69]: Maureen Dowd, "War in the Gulf: The President; Bush Urges Israeli Restraint in Phone Appeals to Shamir," *The New York Times*, January 20, 1991, p. 16. https://www.nytimes.com/1991/01/20/world/war-gulf-president-bush-urges-israeli-restraint-phone-appeals-shamir.html
[^70]: "Decade of the Spy," undated counterintelligence history extract, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book 407, Doc. 14. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB407/docs/EBB-PollardDoc14.pdf
[^71]: Kress, "Parapsychology in Intelligence," *Studies in Intelligence* 21, no. 4 (winter 1977), p. 16. CIA reading room CIA-RDP96-00791R000200030040-0.
[^72]: US Army Intelligence and Security Command, "List of Events from September 1977 to January 1986," entry for 1983. CIA reading room CIA-RDP96-00788R001100020001-8.
[^73]: Memorandum for the record, "Briefing," Major Gerald Fox, April 1, 1983, CIA-RDP96-00788R001700270002-4. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00788r001700270002-4
[^74]: Defense Intelligence Agency, S-1004/DT-1, "Minutes of the Meeting, DoD Grill Flame Committee," November 28, 1978, CIA-RDP96-00788R002000130006-1; "Minutes of the Grill Flame Committee Meeting, 14 Feb 79," CIA-RDP96-00788R002000130002-5.
[^75]: Dolan M. McKelvy, *Psychic Warfare: Exploring the Mind Frontier*, Air War College research report, Air University, CIA-RDP96-00789R001001420001-3, citing Ronald M. McRae, *Mind Wars* (1984), p. 103. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp96-00789r001001420001-3
[^76]: William J. Casey to Alexander M. Haig, Jr., April 2, 1982, with "Quick Intelligence Assessment on Falkland Affairs (April 2, 1982)," CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP84B00049R000701780017-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84b00049r000701780017-6
[^77]: John H. Holdridge, letter, "Australian Intrigue," *Time*, January 3, 1982, CIA-RDP90-00806R000200820017-1, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000200820017-1 ; CBS, "The Nugan Hand Bank," Evening News transcript, September 22, 1982, CIA-RDP90-00552R000201840002-6, https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201840002-6
[^78]: "Vice President George Bush, completing a 10-day trip aimed...," United Press International, April 12, 1986, https://www.upi.com/Archives/1986/04/12/Vice-President-George-Bush-completing-a-10-day-trip-aimed/5692513666000/ ; "Top-secret cronies," *Salon*, November 17, 2005, https://www.salon.com/2005/11/17/pfiab/
[^79]: Bill Gertz, "Vice President confirms Buckley was tortured and killed," *Washington Times*, January 21, 1987, CIA-RDP90-00965R000302310058-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000302310058-3
[^80]: Denholm Barnetson, "President Mohammad Zia ul-Haq, U.S. Ambassador Arnold Raphel and...," United Press International, August 17, 1988. https://www.upi.com/Archives/1988/08/17/President-Mohammad-Zia-ul-Haq-US-Ambassador-Arnold-Raphel-and/3467587793600/
[^81]: Dennis Bernstein and Robert Knight (Pacific News Service), report published by *Salon*, October 8, 1996. https://www.salon.com/1996/10/08/news_555/
[^82]: *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Hrg. 100-773, pt. 2 (February 1988), Senator Kerry, pp. 265-266.
[^83]: *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Hrg. 100-773, pt. 2 (February 1988), testimony of Danilo Blandon, pp. 136-137.
[^84]: Lawrence E. Walsh, *Final Report of the Independent Counsel for Iran/Contra Matters*, vol. I, ch. 29, citing Gregg grand jury testimony of October 9, 1987 and Rodriguez grand jury testimony of December 4, 1987. https://irp.fas.org/offdocs/walsh/chap_29.htm
[^85]: *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Hrg. 100-773, pt. 4 (July 1988), Rodriguez testimony, p. 344.
[^86]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, Part IX, p. 443. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/part_ix.htm
[^87]: Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Prt. 100-165 (1988), p. 96. https://archive.org/details/Kerry-Report-Drugs-Contras
[^88]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, Executive Summary, p. xviii. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/execsum.htm
[^89]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, "George Bush," pp. 473-474. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/chap_28.htm
[^90]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, p. 479 and note 67 (*Los Angeles Times*, September 11, 1992; *Washington Post*, 1988).
[^91]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, Part IX, "Investigations of the White House," pp. 443-444. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/part_ix.htm
[^92]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, pp. 474-475, on the diary, the pardons and the grand jury.
[^93]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, p. 480 and note 74 (diary entries of November 4 and 5, 1986).
[^94]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. I, ch. 28, p. 478.
[^95]: Proclamation 6518, Granting Pardons, December 24, 1992, 107 *Stat.* 2606-2607.
[^96]: Brown University, Thomas J. Dodd Research Center, Iran-Contra materials, "The Pardons," quoting Walsh's response to the pardon of Caspar Weinberger. https://webhelper.brown.edu/cheit/
[^97]: Walsh, *Final Report*, vol. II, Fourth Interim Report to Congress, February 8, 1993, pp. 585-587.
[^98]: *The Tower Commission Report*, February 26, 1987, pp. 383-384. https://archive.org/details/towercommission00unit
[^99]: National Security Planning Group minutes, June 25, 1984, "Central America," National Security Archive, *The Iran-Contra Affair 20 Years On*, EBB 210, document 2 (IC 00463), pp. 12, 14. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB210/2-NSPG%20minutes%206-25-84%20(IC%2000463).pdf ; Iran-Contra report, ch. 26, pp. 403-404.
[^100]: Walsh, *Final Report of the Independent Counsel for Iran/Contra Matters*, vol. I, ch. 29 (Gregg and Rodriguez); Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Narcotics, Terrorism and International Operations, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Prt. 100-165 (1989), p. 96.
[^101]: George Bush, "Statement by Press Secretary Fitzwater on the Iran-Contra Investigation," December 30, 1992, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/statement-press-secretary-fitzwater-the-iran-contra-investigation ; U.S. Department of Justice, "Griffin Boyette Bell," Attorneys General biographies.
[^102]: Miller Center, University of Virginia, "William P. Barr Oral History," interview of April 5, 2001, George H. W. Bush Oral History Project (remarks on Bua, Lacey, Civiletti, inherent authority, and the pardons). https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-oral-histories/william-p-barr-oral-history
[^103]: Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *The Intelligence Community's Involvement in the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro (BNL) Affair*, S. Prt. 103-12 (February 1993), pp. 4-5, 10; Lacey, Report of the Independent Counsel, Serial No. 103-95, pp. 344-345; "Drogoul gets 37 months in BNL bank scandal," United Press International, December 9, 1993; *United States v. Drogoul*, 1 F.3d 1546 (11th Cir. 1993).
[^104]: *Joint Report of the Task Force to Investigate Certain Allegations Concerning the Holding of American Hostages by Iran in 1980*, 102d Cong., 2d sess., January 3, 1993, Calendar No. 634. https://archive.org/details/6199732-Joint-Report-of-the-October-Surprise-Task-Force
[^105]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 148.
[^106]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 110.
[^107]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, pp. 172-173.
[^108]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 175.
[^109]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 149, citing the Rupp sentencing (D. Colo., September 23, 1988) and the Brenneke trial (D. Or., May 3, 1990).
[^110]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, pp. 150-151.
[^111]: Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations, *Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy*, S. Prt. 100-165 (1988), pp. 131-132. https://archive.org/details/Kerry-Report-Drugs-Contras
[^112]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 90, Casey calendar.
[^113]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, p. 102.
[^114]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, pp. 20-21, missing calendar pages.
[^115]: Robert Parry, "October Surprise Evidence Surfaces," *Consortium News*, July 14, 2011. https://consortiumnews.com/2011/07/14/october-surprise-evidence-surfaces/
[^116]: Joint Report of the October Surprise Task Force, pp. 173-174, Reagan statements.
[^117]: Barbara Honegger, *October Surprise* (New York: Tudor Publishing, 1989).
[^118]: Cheri Seymour, *The Last Circle: Danny Casolaro's Investigation into the Octopus and the PROMIS Software Scandal* (TrineDay, 2010).
[^119]: Miller Center, University of Virginia, "George H. W. Bush: Key Events." https://millercenter.org/president/bush/key-events
[^120]: Miller Center, "Statecraft: The Bush 41 Team," "Proving ground: How the December 1989 invasion of Panama shaped the Bush 41 foreign policy team," quoting Richard Cheney and Colin Powell in the George H. W. Bush Oral History Project. https://millercenter.org/statecraftmovie/proving-ground
[^121]: U.S. House of Representatives, Select Committee on U.S. National Security and Military/Commercial Concerns with the People's Republic of China, Report (H. Rept. 105-851), vol. III, ch. 9, p. 50. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRPT-105hrpt851/pdf/GPO-CRPT-105hrpt851.pdf
[^122]: Bruce Berkowitz, *The National Reconnaissance Office at 50 Years: A Brief History* (Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance, September 2011), pp. 20-21, 23-26.
[^123]: Henry B. Gonzalez, "Brass Factory in Iraq," *Congressional Record*, House, September 25, 1992, p. H9502; Gonzalez floor statement of August 10, 1992.
[^124]: Gayle Young, "Socialists Take the Helm in Jamaica. Manley hopes to strengthen US ties by aiding war on drugs," *The Christian Science Monitor*, February 14, 1989. https://www.csmonitor.com/1989/0214/ojam.html
[^125]: "Richard Lewis Thornburgh," Office of the Attorney General, U.S. Department of Justice, *Attorneys General of the United States*; Miller Center, "Richard Thornburgh."
[^126]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Solicitor General, "Solicitor General: Kenneth W. Starr," historical biography (updated September 18, 2023). https://www.justice.gov/osg/bio/kenneth-w-starr
[^127]: George Bush, "Nomination of Malcolm S. Forbes, Jr., To Be a Member of the Board for International Broadcasting, and Designation as Chairman," January 4, 1990, The American Presidency Project, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/264564 ; George Bush, "Digest of Other White House Announcements," June 19, 1992, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/391789
[^128]: U.S. Department of State, "Jay Lefkowitz, Special Envoy, Human Rights in North Korea," biography, released May 25, 2006. https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ei/biog/66929.htm ; The White House (George W. Bush archives), "Personnel Announcement," January 31, 2002.
[^129]: Federal Judicial Center, "Preska, Loretta A.," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/preska-loretta
[^130]: Henry B. Gonzalez, "Kissinger Associates, Scowcroft, Eagleburger, Stoga, Iraq, and BNL," *Congressional Record*, House, April 28, 1992, pp. H2694-H2701. https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/congress/1992_cr/h920428g.htm
[^131]: Declaration of Howard R. Teicher, *United States v. Carlos Cardoen et al.*, No. 93-241-CR-Highsmith (S.D. Fla., January 31, 1995), para. 7. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB82/iraq61.pdf
[^132]: Corrective declaration of Howard R. Teicher, docket 679, *United States v. Cardoen* (October 31, 1996). Archive.org item utf-893cr-241-de-679.
[^133]: Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, *The Intelligence Community's Involvement in the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro (BNL) Affair*, S. Prt. 103-12 (February 1993). https://intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/publications/10312.pdf
[^134]: National Security Directive 26, "U.S. Policy Toward the Persian Gulf," October 2, 1989, classified SECRET. George H. W. Bush Presidential Library copy.
[^135]: General Accounting Office, report on Iraq's participation in the Commodity Credit Corporation's GSM-102 and GSM-103 export credit guarantee programs, GAO/NSIAD-91-76, November 1990, appendix I; Henry B. Gonzalez, "Continuing Saga of Attempts to Thwart BNL Investigation," *Congressional Record*, House, May 18, 1992, pp. H3370-H3373; "Bush's embarrassing Lavoro scandal," *The Baltimore Sun*, April 28, 1992.
[^136]: Alan Friedman, *Spider's Web: The Secret History of How the White House Illegally Armed Iraq* (Bantam Books, 1993).
[^137]: Representative Henry B. Gonzalez, *Congressional Record*, 1992. https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/congress/1992_cr/h920925g.htm
[^138]: White House, unclassified summary of Iraq sanctions and weapons exports, September 1991.
[^139]: Senate Foreign Relations Committee, *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140 (December 1992), p. 461. https://archive.org/details/thebcciaffair_202003
[^140]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, p. 542, chapter on Ed Rogers.
[^141]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, p. 538.
[^142]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, Helms letters to Vice President Bush, October 29, 1987.
[^143]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, Justice Department response on the February 1990 letters by Mr. Saphos.
[^144]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, letter of Deputy Assistant Attorney General Bruce Navarro to Senator Kerry, July 24, 1990.
[^145]: *The BCCI Affair*, S. Prt. 102-140, p. 508.
[^146]: "Jackson Thomas Stephens (1923-2005)," *Encyclopedia of Arkansas*; *Financial General Bankshares, Inc. v. Metzger*, 523 F. Supp. 744 (D.D.C. 1981); 680 F.2d 768 (D.C. Cir. 1982).
[^147]: Peter Truell and Larry Gurwin, *False Profits: The Inside Story of BCCI, the World's Most Corrupt Financial Empire* (Houghton Mifflin, 1992), ch. 18 and p. 428. https://archive.org/details/bypetertruellauthorlarrygurwinauthorfalseprofitsth
[^148]: "Meet The Family That Bankrolled Clinton," *The Seattle Times*, January 31, 1993, https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/?date=19930131&slug=1682819 ; House Committee on Government Reform and Oversight, *Investigation of Political Fundraising Improprieties and Possible Violations of Law*, H. Rept. 105-829 (1998), vol. 2; Roger Morris, *Partners in Power* (Henry Holt, 1996); Truell and Gurwin, *False Profits*, pp. 41 and 428.
[^149]: Jonathan Beaty, "A Mysterious Mover of Money and Planes," *Time*, October 28, 1991. https://time.com/archive/6718843/a-mysterious-mover-of-money-and-planes/
[^150]: Craig Unger, "Mystery man," *Salon*, April 28, 2004. https://www.salon.com/2004/04/28/james_bath/
[^151]: Lucy Komisar, "Questions Linger About Bushes and BCCI," Inter Press Service, April 4, 2007, https://www.ipsnews.net/2007/04/finance-questions-linger-about-bushes-and-bcci/ ; Harken Energy Corporation, proxy statement (Schedule 14A), filed April 25, 1994, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/313478/0000950134-94-000454.txt
[^152]: Richard Behar, "Global Intrigue: The Wackiest Rig in Texas," *Time*, October 28, 1991. https://time.com/archive/6718865/global-intrigue-the-wackiest-rig-in-texas/
[^153]: WhoWhatWhy, "Bush Angle to Reagan Shooting Still Unresolved as Hinckley Walks," August 16, 2016, reporting the *Houston Post* story, Neil Bush's press conference, Peter Teeley's statement to UPI, and the Untermyer diary. https://whowhatwhy.org/2016/08/16/bush-angle-reagan-shooting-still-unresolved-hinckley-walks/
[^154]: WhoWhatWhy (2016), citing an Associated Press item of April 1, 1981, on the Department of Energy notice to the Hinckley family business.
[^155]: Ted L. Gunderson compilation, *FBI The Finders*, advertisement for John DeCamp's book. https://archive.org/details/ted-gunderson-fbi-the-finders
[^156]: Ted L. Gunderson compilation, *FBI The Finders*, relaying a *Washington Times* report by George Archibald (1989).
[^157]: A.B.H. Alexander, "Sex, Drugs, the CIA, MIND CONTROL and Your Children," *PROBE*, c. 1996.
[^158]: Tim Shorrock, "Crony Capitalism Goes Global," *The Nation*, March 14, 2002. https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/crony-capitalism-goes-global/
[^159]: "Jeffrey Epstein's Disgraced Lawyer Jay Lefkowitz Who Secured Sweetheart Deal Leaves Firm," *The Daily Beast*, March 2026; U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Solicitor General, "Solicitor General: Kenneth W. Starr"; U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA02847284.
[^160]: *Brown v. Maxwell; Dershowitz v. Giuffre*, 929 F.3d 41 (2d Cir. 2019), Nos. 18-2868, 16-3945-cv(L) (July 3, 2019). https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/4636340/brown-v-maxwell-dershowitz-v-giuffre/
[^161]: Federal Election Commission, Schedule A individual contributions, API query contributor_name "SCATURRO, PHILIP" (41 results). https://api.open.fec.gov/v1/schedules/schedule_a/?contributor_name=SCATURRO%2C%20PHILIP
[^162]: Larry Holzwarth, "FBI Files: Unexplained Phenomenon Files from the FBI's Vault," HistoryCollection, quoting an anonymous letter to FBI Director William S. Sessions. https://historycollection.com/unexplained-phenomenon-files-from-the-fbis-vault/6/
[^163]: Allie Fasanella, "George H. W. Bush 'Knew' Humans Made Contact With Aliens in 1964," *OK! Magazine*, November 24, 2025, carried by AOL. https://www.aol.com/articles/george-h-w-bush-knew-161144400.html

28
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Jeffrey Epstein.md
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@ -30,8 +30,15 @@ relations:
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Dalton School]]"
start: 1974
end: 1976
role: "mathematics and physics teacher"
fn: 1
- type: appointed
with: "[[Donald Barr]]"
reverse: true
start: 1974
role: "teacher of mathematics and physics; hire attributed to Barr by some accounts, left open by others"
fn: 170
- type: director_of
with: "[[Wexner Foundation]]"
start: 1992
@ -198,7 +205,7 @@ relations:
end: 2002
fn: 61
created: 2026-06-18
updated: 2026-10-09
updated: 2026-10-26
---
Jeffrey Epstein (January 20, 1953 to August 10, 2019) was an American financier and convicted sex offender who, with his companion [[Ghislaine Maxwell]], ran a sex-trafficking operation that recruited and abused dozens of underage girls across his residences in [[Manhattan]], [[Palm Beach, Florida|Palm Beach]], [[New Mexico]], the [[U.S. Virgin Islands]], and [[Paris]]. He built a social and financial network that encompassed technology billionaires ([[Peter Thiel]], [[Bill Gates]], [[Elon Musk]], [[Reid Hoffman]], [[Mark Zuckerberg]]), heads of state and politicians ([[Bill Clinton]], [[Ehud Barak]], [[Prince Andrew]], [[Donald Trump]]), diplomats and intelligence officials ([[William Burns]], [[Vitaly Churkin]]), financiers and executives ([[Leslie Wexner]], [[Leon Black]], [[Tom Pritzker]], [[Howard Lutnick]]), and prominent scientists ([[Martin Nowak]], [[Marvin Minsky]], [[George Church]], [[Stephen Hawking]]) brokered through the literary agent [[John Brockman]]. The source of his fortune was never satisfactorily explained, his long association with [[Robert Maxwell|Robert Maxwell's]] daughter raised documented intelligence questions, and his death in federal custody in 2019 was ruled a suicide over disputes that have not been resolved.[^1][^2][^3]
@ -207,8 +214,12 @@ Jeffrey Epstein (January 20, 1953 to August 10, 2019) was an American financier
Epstein was born in [[Brooklyn]], New York, and raised in the Sea Gate and [[Coney Island]] area in a working-class Jewish family; his father worked for the [[New York City]] parks department. He attended Lafayette High School, then [[Cooper Union]] and the Courant Institute at [[New York University]], leaving both without a degree. In 1974 he was hired to teach mathematics and physics at the [[Dalton School]], the elite Upper East Side preparatory school, despite having no degree and no teaching credential. The headmaster during the period of his hiring was [[Donald Barr]], the novelist and educator who was the father of the future [[U.S. Attorney General]] [[William Barr]], whose [[Department of Justice]] would later oversee the federal case and the jail in which Epstein died. Accounts differ on whether Barr personally hired Epstein, since Barr resigned the headmastership in 1974.[^1][^4]
Barr announced his resignation in February 1974, and the [[New York Times]] reported on February 20, 1974 that he would remain until June 7.[^168] [[Thomas Volscho]] reported in the [[Daily Beast]] on July 12, 2019 that the September 1974 issue of the Dalton student newspaper, *The Daltonian*, announced that Epstein had joined the mathematics department and would also teach physics, that Epstein later confirmed in a deposition that he taught there from 1974 to 1976, and that the school had lost four mathematics teachers before the 1974-75 year. [[Peter Branch]], interim headmaster from July 1, 1974, told Volscho that he did not recall hiring Epstein and was "relatively certain Barr or possibly the head of the Math Department hired Epstein because hiring decisions were typically made in the spring." Volscho added that the State Education Department reported no teaching license on file for Epstein, and that [[Edward Jay Epstein]] had claimed that investigators from [[Kroll]], hired by [[L Brands]], told him Epstein had faked his resume to get the Dalton job.[^169] The New York Times wrote on July 12, 2019 ([[Mike Baker]] and [[Amy Julia Harris]]) that the student newspaper reported in September 1974 that Epstein was starting as a math and physics teacher, and that "It is unclear whether Mr. Barr hired Mr. Epstein" after the February 1974 resignation announcement; it quoted Branch that Epstein "didn't come up to snuff" and was asked to leave.[^170] [[Marie Brenner]] wrote in *Vanity Fair* that Barr brought in "a group of gifted college dropouts, including one Jeffrey Epstein," and that William Barr "recently claimed he hadn't made the Dalton-Epstein connection until he read about it in the press."[^171] [[Calder McHugh]] wrote for [[Yahoo Finance]] on July 13, 2019 that Barr "hired Epstein to teach math and science," and placed Epstein at Dalton "in the early 1970s," with appearances in the yearbooks of 1975 and 1976.[^172] [[Wayne Madsen]] described Barr as "influential in hiring" Epstein.[^173]
At Dalton, Epstein cultivated the parents of his students, and a connection there brought him to [[Bear Stearns]], the investment bank then led by [[Alan Greenberg]]. He joined in 1976, worked in the special products division advising wealthy clients on tax strategy, and rose to limited partner. The firm and Epstein gave varying accounts of the departure, which has been attributed to a Regulation D securities violation and to an internal inquiry. After leaving he ran a consulting company, [[International Assets Group]], out of his apartment in the Solo building on East 66th Street, and around 1988 he established [[J. Epstein & Co.]], which he said managed money exclusively for clients worth more than one billion dollars; in 2003 he said he had run it "for the last 15 years."[^1][^3][^5]
The archive of the Dalton School holds a folder titled "Physics A, B, A-B, and Advanced Physics, Assignments, Epstein, 1975-1976" in its physics records.[^174] [[Snopes]] reported that Epstein began as a mathematics and physics teacher in September 1974, citing a New York Times review of the school's yearbooks, and that he was fired at the end of the 1975-76 school year; it quoted Branch telling the [[Miami Herald]] that Epstein "had not adequately grown as a new teacher to the standard of the school."[^175] In a 2009 deposition, as [[NPR]] reported in 2019, Epstein answered "No" when asked whether he had any "sexual contact" with female students he taught at Dalton, and invoked the Fifth, Sixth and 14th Amendments when asked whether he had dated a former Dalton student.[^176]
Epstein resigned from Bear Stearns on March 12, 1981, the day after [[Seagram]] announced its tender offer for [[St. Joe Minerals]]. The [[Securities and Exchange Commission]], investigating insider trading in St. Joe and told that Epstein had information about trading at Bear Stearns, took his testimony on April 1, 1981. He said management had fined him 2,500 dollars over a possible "Reg D" violation, a loan of about 20,000 dollars to his friend Warren Eisenstein to buy stock, together with "carelessness" over expenses, and that rumors had tied his exit to "an illicit affair with a secretary." Bear Stearns paid his bonus of about 100,000 dollars. [[James Cayne]] said Epstein "left Bear Stearns of his own volition"; a former Bear executive told Fox Business in 2019 that he "left at our invitation ... it was very serious stuff"; [[Steven Hoffenberg]] claimed Epstein told him he had been caught executing "illegal operations." The SEC brought no insider-trading charges against anyone at Bear Stearns in the St. Joe matter.[^5][^6]
Epstein stayed a major Bear Stearns customer. His company [[Financial Trust Company]] stated in a 2009 verified complaint that "since 1981, Epstein has conducted hundreds of millions of dollars in transactions with Bear Stearns for his own, as well as his clients', accounts," with the firm's senior management. From at least 2000 to 2007 he chaired [[Liquid Funding]] Ltd., a [[Bermuda]] company partly owned by Bear Stearns that held mortgage-backed securities, a directorship disclosed in the [[Paradise Papers]]. Fox Business reported that he had about 60 million dollars in the Bear Stearns High-Grade Structured Credit Strategies Enhanced Leverage Fund, which collapsed in June 2007. On August 6, 2007, according to the 2009 complaint, Cayne told Epstein to "hold tight" to Financial Trust's 120,000 Bear shares; Financial Trust sold the last 100,000 on March 17, 2008 at 3.41 dollars and sued Bear Stearns in the District Court of the Virgin Islands (Civil No. 2009/106).[^6][^7][^8]
@ -223,9 +234,9 @@ After his release Hoffenberg publicly claimed that Epstein had been a co-archite
### Leslie Wexner and the Source of Wealth
Leslie Wexner, the founder of [[The Limited]], [[L Brands]], [[Victoria's Secret]], and [[Bath & Body Works]], met Epstein in the mid-1980s and made him his money manager and confidant. In 1991 Wexner granted Epstein sweeping power of attorney, authority to borrow money, sign checks, buy and sell property, and hire and fire on his behalf. Epstein joined the board of the [[Wexner Foundation]] in 1992, in the seat of Wexner's mother, Bella Wexner. Wexner transferred to Epstein the use of, and eventually title to, the seven-story townhouse at [[9 East 71st Street]] in Manhattan, one of the largest private residences in the city, under a 1998 purchase agreement secured by a 10 million dollar note; in December 2011 the Epstein-owned Nine East 71st Street Corporation transferred the house to Maple, Inc., another Epstein entity. Wexner also co-founded the [[Mega Group]], a club of wealthy Jewish businessmen and philanthropists, with the Seagram heir [[Charles Bronfman]].[^3][^5][^11]
Leslie Wexner, the founder of [[The Limited]], L Brands, [[Victoria's Secret]], and [[Bath & Body Works]], met Epstein in the mid-1980s and made him his money manager and confidant. In 1991 Wexner granted Epstein sweeping power of attorney, authority to borrow money, sign checks, buy and sell property, and hire and fire on his behalf. Epstein joined the board of the [[Wexner Foundation]] in 1992, in the seat of Wexner's mother, Bella Wexner. Wexner transferred to Epstein the use of, and eventually title to, the seven-story townhouse at [[9 East 71st Street]] in Manhattan, one of the largest private residences in the city, under a 1998 purchase agreement secured by a 10 million dollar note; in December 2011 the Epstein-owned Nine East 71st Street Corporation transferred the house to Maple, Inc., another Epstein entity. Wexner also co-founded the [[Mega Group]], a club of wealthy Jewish businessmen and philanthropists, with the Seagram heir [[Charles Bronfman]].[^3][^5][^11]
Wexner cut ties with Epstein around 2007, and in 2019 he stated publicly that Epstein had "misappropriated vast sums" from him and his family, an amount reported as more than 46 million dollars, which Wexner said he had recovered. The mechanics of how a single client's fortune translated into Epstein's own remained opaque. A December 2025 [[New York Times]] investigation concluded that Epstein built his apparent wealth through "scams, theft and lies" rather than financial acumen, that his billionaire status was exaggerated, and that the Wexner relationship was central to whatever fortune he actually held. A May 2003 [[JPMorgan Chase|JPMorgan]] due-diligence report stated that Epstein, "through the trading of his accounts and that of Leslie Wexner," generated "one of the largest annual revenue flows of private clients in the private bank."[^3][^12]
Wexner cut ties with Epstein around 2007, and in 2019 he stated publicly that Epstein had "misappropriated vast sums" from him and his family, an amount reported as more than 46 million dollars, which Wexner said he had recovered. The mechanics of how a single client's fortune translated into Epstein's own remained opaque. A December 2025 New York Times investigation concluded that Epstein built his apparent wealth through "scams, theft and lies" rather than financial acumen, that his billionaire status was exaggerated, and that the Wexner relationship was central to whatever fortune he actually held. A May 2003 [[JPMorgan Chase|JPMorgan]] due-diligence report stated that Epstein, "through the trading of his accounts and that of Leslie Wexner," generated "one of the largest annual revenue flows of private clients in the private bank."[^3][^12]
An August 15, 2019 FBI Criminal Investigative Division document, released in 2026, listed eight people as co-conspirators, among them Wexner, [[Jean-Luc Brunel]] and [[Lesley Groff]]; the Justice Department removed the redaction of Wexner's name in February 2026 after Representative [[Thomas Massie]] raised it. A representative for Wexner said prosecutors told his lawyers in 2019 that he was "neither a co-conspirator nor target in any respect." In Israel a March 1, 2026 criminal complaint asked police to investigate the Wexner Foundation's 2.3 million dollar payments to Ehud Barak, after a January 30, 2026 Justice Department release showed Epstein's lawyer [[Darren Indyke]] writing in December 2005 that he "was involved in the negotiation and execution" of Barak's contract.[^13][^14]
@ -289,7 +300,7 @@ The civil settlements that followed were written into the criminal agreement. Ep
### The Agreement in Court and in Review
The deal's leniency became the subject of the [[Miami Herald]] series "Perversion of Justice" by the reporter [[Julie K. Brown]] in 2018, which revived the case. In February 2019 Judge Marra ruled that prosecutors had violated the [[Crime Victims' Rights Act]] by hiding the agreement from victims. The Justice Department then recused the Southern District of Florida from the litigation and assigned the U.S. Attorney's Office for the Northern District of Georgia to defend it. On April 15, 2021 the en banc [[United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit]] denied Courtney Wild's mandamus petition, holding that the Act gives victims no freestanding pre-charge remedy while declining to decide whether the rights attach before charges; the Supreme Court denied certiorari on February 22, 2022.[^22][^52][^53]
The deal's leniency became the subject of the Miami Herald series "Perversion of Justice" by the reporter [[Julie K. Brown]] in 2018, which revived the case. In February 2019 Judge Marra ruled that prosecutors had violated the [[Crime Victims' Rights Act]] by hiding the agreement from victims. The Justice Department then recused the Southern District of Florida from the litigation and assigned the U.S. Attorney's Office for the Northern District of Georgia to defend it. On April 15, 2021 the en banc [[United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit]] denied Courtney Wild's mandamus petition, holding that the Act gives victims no freestanding pre-charge remedy while declining to decide whether the rights attach before charges; the Supreme Court denied certiorari on February 22, 2022.[^22][^52][^53]
The Office of Professional Responsibility had declined in May 2011 to investigate a claim by Professor [[Paul Cassell]] that "improper influences" produced the agreement, citing its policy of not investigating matters that "could have been addressed in the course of litigation, unless a court has made a specific finding of misconduct." It opened a review on February 6, 2019 after a December 3, 2018 letter from Senator [[Ben Sasse]]. Acosta, who had become U.S. Secretary of Labor under Donald Trump, resigned in July 2019. The office's November 2020 report found that Acosta had not committed professional misconduct and "did not find evidence that his decision was based on corruption or other impermissible considerations, such as Epstein's wealth, status, or associations," but concluded that resolving the case through the agreement "constitutes poor judgment," that "the NPA was a flawed mechanism," and that the government's conduct "gave victims and the public the misimpression that the government had colluded with Epstein's counsel to keep the NPA secret from the victims." It found that the supervisors other than Acosta had "left the USAO, were transitioning to other jobs, or were absent at critical junctures."[^37][^54]
@ -612,3 +623,12 @@ The 2025 and 2026 releases produced resignations and removals without prosecutio
[^165]: "Summers Resigns From OpenAI Board Amid Backlash Over Epstein Emails." *The Harvard Crimson,* November 19, 2025. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2025/11/19/summers-resigns-open-ai/ ; "Larry Summers banned for life from American Economic Association." Associated Press via *Fortune,* December 3, 2025. https://fortune.com/2025/12/03/larry-summers-banned-for-life-from-american-economic-association
[^166]: Chapman, Michelle. "Thomas Pritzker steps down from Hyatt board, saying he deeply regrets association with Epstein." Associated Press via *PBS NewsHour,* February 17, 2026. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/thomas-pritzker-steps-down-from-hyatt-board-saying-he-deeply-regrets-association-with-epstein
[^167]: *CBS News,* February 2026, on Ruemmler's resignation as Goldman Sachs general counsel. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/kathryn-ruemmler-resigning-from-goldman-sachs-epstein-files/
[^168]: Maeroff, Gene I. "Barr Quits Dalton School Post, Charging Trustees' Interference." *The New York Times,* February 20, 1974, p. 41. https://www.nytimes.com/1974/02/20/archives/barr-quits-dalton-school-post-charging-trustees-interference.html
[^169]: Volscho, Thomas. "Jeffrey Epstein Dodged Questions About Sex With His Dalton Prep School Students." *The Daily Beast,* July 12, 2019 (updated September 27, 2019). https://www.thedailybeast.com/jeffrey-epstein-dodged-questions-about-sex-with-his-dalton-prep-school-students
[^170]: Baker, Mike, and Amy Julia Harris. "Jeffrey Epstein Taught at Dalton. His Behavior Was Noticed." *The New York Times,* July 12, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/12/nyregion/jeffrey-epstein-dalton-teacher.html
[^171]: Brenner, Marie. "'I Had No Problem Being Politically Different': Young William Barr Among the Manhattan Liberals." *Vanity Fair,* October 7, 2019. https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2019/10/the-untold-tale-of-young-william-barr
[^172]: McHugh, Calder. "Jeffrey Epstein's prep-school students remember their 'flamboyantly' dressed teacher." *Yahoo Finance,* July 13, 2019. https://finance.yahoo.com/news/jeffrey-epstein-dalton-school-math-teacher-yearbook-photos-125122535.html
[^173]: Madsen, Wayne. "Daddy Dearest: the weirdness of Donald Barr, the father of Trump's mob lawyer Attorney General." *Wayne Madsen Report,* September 26, 2019. https://archive.org/details/Madsen190930
[^174]: "Physics A, B, A-B, and Advanced Physics, Assignments, Epstein, 1975-1976," Box 047, The Dalton School Archives, Academic Affairs by Department: Science, Physics (2.4.9). https://daltonarchives.libraryhost.com/repositories/2/archival_objects/2640
[^175]: Snopes. "Did Bill Barr's Father 'Mentor' Jeffrey Epstein and Write a 'Bizarre' Novel?" https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/bill-barr-jeffrey-epstein-book/
[^176]: Schuknecht, Cat. "A Young Jeffrey Epstein Made An Impression On His High School Students." *NPR,* July 19, 2019. https://www.npr.org/2019/07/19/742725946/a-young-jeffrey-epstein-made-an-impression-on-his-high-school-students

7
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/McGeorge Bundy.md
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@ -74,7 +74,7 @@ McGeorge Bundy served as Special Assistant to the President for National Securit
### Yale, Skull and Bones, and the Council on Foreign Relations
Bundy majored in mathematics at [[Yale University]] and returned to [[Harvard University]] and its Society of Fellows after the war.[^3] [[Ron Rosenbaum]]'s 1977 [[Esquire]] article on [[Skull and Bones]] names Bundy among the society's members, together with [[Averell Harriman]], [[Henry L. Stimson]], [[Henry Luce]] and Supreme Court Justice [[Potter Stewart]], and places Bundy's brother [[William P. Bundy]] and [[William F. Buckley]] in the CIA after their years in the society.[^4] The membership index that [[Antony C. Sutton]] reproduces lists Bundy under the class of 1940 and his brother William P. Bundy under the class of 1939.[^5] Sutton writes that while McGeorge Bundy was in the White House, William P. Bundy "was in key positions relating to the Far East in Defense and State Departments," and that by acting jointly "the Bundy brothers could have controlled absolutely the flow of information relating to Vietnam from Intelligence, State and DOD." Sutton adds: "We are not saying this happened. We believe it to be a hypothesis worthy of examination."[^6] The [[Council on Foreign Relations]] lists Bundy among the members who joined in 1946.[^7]
Bundy majored in mathematics at [[Yale University]] and returned to [[Harvard University]] and its Society of Fellows after the war.[^3] [[Ron Rosenbaum]]'s 1977 [[Esquire]] article on [[Skull and Bones]] names Bundy among the society's members, together with [[Averell Harriman]], [[Henry L. Stimson]], [[Henry Luce]] and Supreme Court Justice [[Potter Stewart]], and places Bundy's brother [[William P. Bundy]] and [[William F. Buckley Jr.]] in the CIA after their years in the society.[^4] Rosenbaum wrote that one could ask "Bill Bundy or Bill Buckley, both of whom went into the C.I.A. after leaving Bones," whether their Skull and Bones experience "was useful training for the clandestine trade," and asked McGeorge Bundy whether he "wrestled naked in a mud pile" as part of his initiation.[^4] The membership index that [[Antony C. Sutton]] reproduces lists Bundy under the class of 1940 and his brother William P. Bundy under the class of 1939.[^5] Sutton writes that while McGeorge Bundy was in the White House, William P. Bundy "was in key positions relating to the Far East in Defense and State Departments," and that by acting jointly "the Bundy brothers could have controlled absolutely the flow of information relating to Vietnam from Intelligence, State and DOD." Sutton adds: "We are not saying this happened. We believe it to be a hypothesis worthy of examination."[^6] The [[Council on Foreign Relations]] lists Bundy among the members who joined in 1946.[^7]
### On Active Service in Peace and War
@ -154,7 +154,7 @@ On September 23, 1966 Bundy wrote to Julius A. Stratton, then chairman of the bo
### William P. Bundy
William P. Bundy, McGeorge Bundy's brother, was Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs in November 1965.[^46] He joined the Central Intelligence Agency's Office of National Estimates in 1951 as chief of staff and liaison to the National Security Council staff, and served on the board of directors of the Council on Foreign Relations from 1964 to 1972.[^47]
William P. Bundy, McGeorge Bundy's brother, was Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs in November 1965.[^46] He joined the Central Intelligence Agency's Office of National Estimates in 1951 as chief of staff and liaison to the National Security Council staff, and served on the board of directors of the Council on Foreign Relations from 1964 to 1972.[^47] The Washington Post obituary of October 7, 2000 calls William the older brother of McGeorge Bundy and records that he was sometimes known as "the other Bundy."[^48] On June 3, 1964, after the Honolulu conference, McGeorge Bundy wrote on William Bundy's notes of the conference, "Hitting the North is required."[^49] On August 5, 1964, Rusk told William Bundy that McGeorge Bundy and George Ball were "going over the final touches" of the Tonkin Gulf resolution.[^50]
### Footnotes
@ -205,3 +205,6 @@ William P. Bundy, McGeorge Bundy's brother, was Assistant Secretary of State for
[^45]: Ford Foundation, "Annual Report 1966" (fiscal year ended September 30, 1966), International Affairs section, p. 34. https://www.fordfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/1966-annual-report.pdf
[^46]: Memorandum from Gordon Chase to Bundy, "World Disarmament Conference," November 20, 1965, footnote identifying "your brother William Bundy, Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs," *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. XXXIII, doc. 373, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v33/d373
[^47]: William P. Bundy Papers (MC189), Biography/History, Public Policy Papers, Princeton University Library, https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/PRIN_MUDD_MC189
[^48]: Bart Barnes, "William Bundy, Dies," The Washington Post, October 7, 2000, https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/2000/10/07/william-bundy-dies/1348f410-94d0-40cb-9ee9-d8fad6603457/
[^49]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, vol. I, doc. 193, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d193
[^50]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, vol. I, doc. 293, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d293

151
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/Prescott Bush.md
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@ -50,20 +50,20 @@ relations:
role: "one of seven directors according to the incorporation documents reported by the Guardian; registered holder of one share in Vesting Order No. 248"
start: 1924-08-04
end: 1942-10-20
fn: 24
fn: 25
- type: director_of
with: "[[Pennsylvania Water and Power Company]]"
role: "chairman of the board, early 1940s"
fn: 39
fn: 44
- type: director_of
with: "[[Dresser Industries]]"
role: "director"
fn: 37
fn: 38
- type: director_of
with: "[[CBS]]"
role: "director, from 1932"
start: 1932
fn: 38
fn: 43
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Brown Brothers Harriman]]"
role: "partner"
@ -71,7 +71,7 @@ relations:
- type: partner_of
with: "[[W. Averell Harriman]]"
role: "partner at Brown Brothers Harriman"
fn: 38
fn: 43
- type: partner_of
with: "[[E. Roland Harriman]]"
role: "partner at Brown Brothers Harriman"
@ -83,16 +83,16 @@ relations:
- type: head_of
with: "[[United Service Organizations]]"
role: "national campaign chairman"
fn: 42
fn: 47
- type: member_of
with: "[[National War Fund]]"
role: "vice president and executive committee member; national campaign chairman"
fn: 43
fn: 48
- type: member_of
with: "[[Planned Parenthood Federation of America]]"
role: "treasurer of the 1947 national fund-raising campaign"
start: 1947
fn: 53
fn: 58
- type: spouse_of
with: "[[Dorothy Walker Bush]]"
start: 1921
@ -139,65 +139,67 @@ The Guardian also reported that the Harriman papers contain a wartime profile of
### Union Banking Corporation and Vesting Order No. 248
A Treasury Department memorandum dated August 18, 1941, from E. G. May to [[John W. Pehle]], with the subject "Union Banking Corporation," states that the corporation, incorporated August 4, 1924, was "wholly owned by the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N.V., of Rotterdam, The Netherlands," that the investigation "produced no evidence as to the ownership of this Dutch bank," and that its president, [[Cornelius Lievense|Cornelis Lievense]], believed it possible that Baron [[Heinrich Thyssen]], brother of [[Fritz Thyssen]], might own a substantial interest. It records that in 1931 to 1933 the corporation made gold purchases of over eight million dollars, of which about three million dollars was shipped abroad and $3,085,000 was delivered to the [[Federal Reserve Bank]] on June 15, 1934, and that during the Munich crisis in the fall of 1938 the corporation held two million dollars in currency in a New York safe deposit box, later deposited in its account with Brown Brothers Harriman.[^22] The Guardian dates the same memorandum August 16, 1941.[^22]
A Treasury Department memorandum dated August 18, 1941, from E. G. May to [[John W. Pehle]], with the subject "Union Banking Corporation," states that the corporation, incorporated August 4, 1924, was "wholly owned by the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N.V., of Rotterdam, The Netherlands," that the investigation "produced no evidence as to the ownership of this Dutch bank," and that its president, [[Cornelius Lievense|Cornelis Lievense]], believed it possible that Baron [[Heinrich Thyssen]], brother of [[Fritz Thyssen]], might own a substantial interest. It records that in 1931 to 1933 the corporation made gold purchases of over eight million dollars, of which about three million dollars was shipped abroad and $3,085,000 was delivered to the [[Federal Reserve Bank]] on June 15, 1934, and that during the Munich crisis in the fall of 1938 the corporation held two million dollars in currency in a New York safe deposit box, later deposited in its account with Brown Brothers Harriman.[^22] The Guardian dates the same memorandum August 16, 1941.[^22] On January 14, 1941, Knight Woolley, a partner of Brown Brothers Harriman, wrote to the New York superintendent of banks, [[William R. White]], on behalf of "E. R. Harriman, Ray Morris, Prescott S. Bush and our manager, H. D. Pennington," who are named in the letter as the corporation's directors. The letter says that the directors, Bush among them, "feel they might be under some embarrassment because of their connection with the bank" if the United States entered the war, and asks the superintendent for "a frank expression" on what action they should take. White replied on May 13, 1941 that the department "would be gratified if these gentlemen could find it possible to remain on the board during this period of uncertainty."[^23]
The Guardian reported that on July 30, 1942 the New York Herald-Tribune ran an article headed "Hitler's Angel Has $3m in US Bank," and that the Alien Property Custodian then opened an investigation.[^23] On October 20, 1942 the Custodian, [[Leo T. Crowley]], signed Vesting Order No. 248 under the [[Trading with the Enemy Act]]. Part (a) vested all 4,000 shares of $100 par value common stock of the corporation and lists the registered owners: E. Roland Harriman with 3,991 shares; Lievense with 4; and Harold D. Pennington, Ray Morris, Prescott S. Bush, [[H. J. Kouwenhoven]] and Johann G. Groeninger with 1 share each. The order states that the shares "are held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N. V., Rotterdam, The Netherlands, which bank is owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family, nationals of Germany and/or Hungary." Part (b) vested all indebtedness owing by the corporation to Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart and to the August Thyssen-Bank of [[Berlin]], including security rights in collateral.[^2]
The Guardian reported that on July 30, 1942 the New York Herald-Tribune ran an article headed "Hitler's Angel Has $3m in US Bank," and that the Alien Property Custodian then opened an investigation.[^24] On October 20, 1942 the Custodian, [[Leo T. Crowley]], signed Vesting Order No. 248 under the [[Trading with the Enemy Act]]. Part (a) vested all 4,000 shares of $100 par value common stock of the corporation and lists the registered owners: E. Roland Harriman with 3,991 shares; Lievense with 4; and Harold D. Pennington, Ray Morris, Prescott S. Bush, [[H. J. Kouwenhoven]] and Johann G. Groeninger with 1 share each. The order states that the shares "are held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N. V., Rotterdam, The Netherlands, which bank is owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family, nationals of Germany and/or Hungary." Part (b) vested all indebtedness owing by the corporation to Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart and to the August Thyssen-Bank of [[Berlin]], including security rights in collateral.[^2]
Aris and Campbell reported that the incorporation documents "list him as one of seven directors" and show that he owned one share worth $125.[^24] They reported that [[Homer Jones]], chief of the Alien Property Custodian's investigation and research division, sent a memorandum to the custodian's executive committee within weeks of the investigation, naming the bank's directors including Bush and describing the shares as "held by the above named individuals, however, solely as nominees for the Bank voor Handel, Rotterdam, Holland, which is owned by one or more of the Thyssen family."[^25]
Aris and Campbell reported that the incorporation documents "list him as one of seven directors" and show that he owned one share worth $125.[^25] They reported that [[Homer Jones]], chief of the Alien Property Custodian's investigation and research division, sent a memorandum to the custodian's executive committee within weeks of the investigation, naming the bank's directors including Bush and describing the shares as "held by the above named individuals, however, solely as nominees for the Bank voor Handel, Rotterdam, Holland, which is owned by one or more of the Thyssen family."[^26]
The Guardian quoted [[John Loftus]], a former federal prosecutor, who disputed that Bush held only a token share, citing sources "in the banking and intelligence communities" and suggesting that the Bush family, "through George Herbert Walker and Prescott," received $1.5 million from the involvement. The article added: "There is, however, no paper trail to this sum."[^26] The Guardian reported that the Bush family and the United States government deny the claims, and quoted a statement by the [[Anti-Defamation League]] that the "charges are untenable and politically motivated" and that Prescott Bush "was neither a Nazi nor a Nazi sympathiser."[^27]
The Guardian quoted [[John Loftus]], a former federal prosecutor, who disputed that Bush held only a token share, citing sources "in the banking and intelligence communities" and suggesting that the Bush family, "through George Herbert Walker and Prescott," received $1.5 million from the involvement. The article added: "There is, however, no paper trail to this sum."[^27] The Guardian reported that the Bush family and the United States government deny the claims, and quoted a statement by the [[Anti-Defamation League]] that the "charges are untenable and politically motivated" and that Prescott Bush "was neither a Nazi nor a Nazi sympathiser."[^28]
### Holland-American, Seamless Steel and Silesian-American
Vesting Order No. 259, executed October 28, 1942 and published in the Federal Register of December 19, 1942, vested all 500 shares of $100 par value stock of the [[Seamless Steel Equipment Corporation]], a New York corporation, registered in the name of Cornelis Lievense and held for the benefit of Press- und Walzwerk A.G. of [[Düsseldorf]] and of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart.[^28] Vesting Order No. 261, executed the same day, vested all 500 shares of the [[Holland-American Trading Corporation]], registered to E. Roland Harriman (491), C. Lievense (4), and one share each to H. D. Pennington, Ray Morris, Knight Woolley, H. J. Kouwenhoven and J. G. Groeninger, all held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart.[^29] The Guardian described these two companies as affiliates against which "further seizures were made" after the Union Banking Corporation seizure.[^30]
Vesting Order No. 259, executed October 28, 1942 and published in the Federal Register of December 19, 1942, vested all 500 shares of $100 par value stock of the [[Seamless Steel Equipment Corporation]], a New York corporation, registered in the name of Cornelis Lievense and held for the benefit of Press- und Walzwerk A.G. of [[Düsseldorf]] and of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart.[^29] Vesting Order No. 261, executed the same day, vested all 500 shares of the [[Holland-American Trading Corporation]], registered to E. Roland Harriman (491), C. Lievense (4), and one share each to H. D. Pennington, Ray Morris, Knight Woolley, H. J. Kouwenhoven and J. G. Groeninger, all held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart.[^30] The Guardian described these two companies as affiliates against which "further seizures were made" after the Union Banking Corporation seizure.[^31]
In Silesian American Corporation v. Clark, 332 U.S. 469, reargued November 12, 1947 and decided December 8, 1947, Justice [[Stanley Reed]] wrote for the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] that the Alien Property Custodian executed Vesting Order No. 370 on November 17, 1942, finding the property to belong to a national of Germany. The property was a block of common and a block of preferred stock in the Silesian American Corporation, a Delaware corporation, which before August 31, 1939 stood in the stock book in the name of [[Non Ferrum]], a Swiss corporation of Zurich, held, according to the Custodian's order, for [[Bergwerksgesellschaft Georg von Giesche's Erben]], a German corporation. The corporation had been a debtor under Chapter X of the Bankruptcy Act since July 30, 1941; its majority stockholder was the Silesian Holding Company, also a Delaware corporation; the Court affirmed the lower courts' order that the corporation issue new certificates to the Custodian.[^31] The Guardian wrote that "By November, the Silesian-American Company, another of Prescott Bush's ventures, had also been seized."[^32]
In Silesian American Corporation v. Clark, 332 U.S. 469, reargued November 12, 1947 and decided December 8, 1947, Justice [[Stanley Reed]] wrote for the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] that the Alien Property Custodian executed Vesting Order No. 370 on November 17, 1942, finding the property to belong to a national of Germany. The property was a block of common and a block of preferred stock in the Silesian American Corporation, a Delaware corporation, which before August 31, 1939 stood in the stock book in the name of [[Non Ferrum]], a Swiss corporation of Zurich, held, according to the Custodian's order, for [[Bergwerksgesellschaft Georg von Giesche's Erben]], a German corporation. The corporation had been a debtor under Chapter X of the Bankruptcy Act since July 30, 1941; its majority stockholder was the Silesian Holding Company, also a Delaware corporation; the Court affirmed the lower courts' order that the corporation issue new certificates to the Custodian.[^32] The Guardian wrote that "By November, the Silesian-American Company, another of Prescott Bush's ventures, had also been seized."[^33]
The Guardian reported that [[John Buchanan]], a Miami magazine journalist, published findings from the vesting files in the [[New Hampshire Gazette]] in 2003.[^33] The Gazette of November 7, 2003 carried an article headed "Bush: Nazi Dealings Continued Until 1951," which stated that after the seizures of late 1942 of five enterprises he managed for Thyssen, Bush "failed to divest himself of more than a dozen 'enemy national' relationships that continued until as late as 1951, newly-discovered U.S. government documents reveal." It named W. Averell Harriman and E. Roland Harriman as partners in the ventures and gave 1924 to 1951 as the span of transactions conducted by Brown Brothers Harriman.[^34]
The Guardian reported that [[John Buchanan]], a Miami magazine journalist, published findings from the vesting files in the [[New Hampshire Gazette]] in 2003.[^34] The Gazette of November 7, 2003 carried an article headed "Bush: Nazi Dealings Continued Until 1951," which stated that after the seizures of late 1942 of five enterprises he managed for Thyssen, Bush "failed to divest himself of more than a dozen 'enemy national' relationships that continued until as late as 1951, newly-discovered U.S. government documents reveal." It named W. Averell Harriman and E. Roland Harriman as partners in the ventures and gave 1924 to 1951 as the span of transactions conducted by Brown Brothers Harriman.[^35]
### Consolidated Silesian Steel and John Foster Dulles
Aris and Campbell wrote that the [[Consolidated Silesian Steel Company]] (CSSC), a Silesian steel and mining company, was linked to Bush in National Archives documents declassified in 2003. They quoted the writer [[Eva Schweitzer]]: "SAC held coal mines and definitely owned CSSC between 1934 and 1935, but when SAC was vested there was no trace of CSSC." The article cites a New York Times article of March 18, 1934 as stating that [[Friedrich Flick]] owned two-thirds of CSSC while "American interests" held the rest.[^35]
Aris and Campbell wrote that the [[Consolidated Silesian Steel Company]] (CSSC), a Silesian steel and mining company, was linked to Bush in National Archives documents declassified in 2003. They quoted the writer [[Eva Schweitzer]]: "SAC held coal mines and definitely owned CSSC between 1934 and 1935, but when SAC was vested there was no trace of CSSC." The article cites a New York Times article of March 18, 1934 as stating that [[Friedrich Flick]] owned two-thirds of CSSC while "American interests" held the rest.[^36]
The Guardian quoted a January 1933 letter from Knight Woolley to W. Averell Harriman: "The Consolidated Silesian Steel Company situation has become increasingly complicated, and I have accordingly brought in Sullivan and Cromwell, in order to be sure that our interests are protected." It continues: "After studying the situation Foster Dulles is insisting that their man in Berlin get into the picture and obtain the information which the directors here should have. You will recall that Foster is a director and he is particularly anxious to be certain that there is no liability attaching to the American directors." The Guardian identified the reference as to [[John Foster Dulles]] of [[Sullivan and Cromwell]], and the letter as concerning the Polish government's drive to nationalize the plant.[^36]
The Guardian quoted a January 1933 letter from Knight Woolley to W. Averell Harriman: "The Consolidated Silesian Steel Company situation has become increasingly complicated, and I have accordingly brought in Sullivan and Cromwell, in order to be sure that our interests are protected." It continues: "After studying the situation Foster Dulles is insisting that their man in Berlin get into the picture and obtain the information which the directors here should have. You will recall that Foster is a director and he is particularly anxious to be certain that there is no liability attaching to the American directors." The Guardian identified the reference as to [[John Foster Dulles]] of [[Sullivan and Cromwell]], and the letter as concerning the Polish government's drive to nationalize the plant.[^37]
### Directorships: Dresser Industries, CBS and Pennsylvania Water and Power
Wills wrote that Bush "ended up on the boards of many firms he underwrote, including CBS." Quoting Bush: "In 1929 we bought Dresser Company of Bradford, Pennsylvania for four million dollars, and we sold securities against that company and refinanced it, you see, so that we retained a substantial measure of control."[^37] Wills reports that Bush served on the board of [[Dresser Industries]] and made his Yale friend Neil Mallon its chief executive, and that when George H.W. Bush went from Yale to Texas in 1948 he was hired by Mallon to work for a Dresser subsidiary. Bush recalled: "I was Neil Mallon's chief adviser and consultant in connection with every move that he made with that business during that period of twenty years."[^37]
Wills wrote that Bush "ended up on the boards of many firms he underwrote, including CBS." Quoting Bush: "In 1929 we bought Dresser Company of Bradford, Pennsylvania for four million dollars, and we sold securities against that company and refinanced it, you see, so that we retained a substantial measure of control."[^38] Wills reports that Bush served on the board of [[Dresser Industries]] and made his Yale friend Neil Mallon its chief executive, and that when George H.W. Bush went from Yale to Texas in 1948 he was hired by Mallon to work for a Dresser subsidiary. Bush recalled: "I was Neil Mallon's chief adviser and consultant in connection with every move that he made with that business during that period of twenty years."[^38]
Wills places Bush's CBS board seat in 1932, when [[William S. Paley]] came to the firm with Herbert Swope to arrange the purchase of a half interest in the [[CBS]] company, owned by [[Paramount Pictures]], for five million dollars. Paley could raise half, and the Harriman firm raised the other two and a half million; Bush recalled that "Averell put me on it." Wills wrote that Bush "went onto the CBS board to watch what was being done with the investment."[^38]
The Handbook of Texas entry on Dresser Industries states that Prescott Bush, then "a W. A. Harriman and Company executive," had been involved in the 1928 conversion of Dresser into a public company, and that "he served on the board of directors for twenty-two years."[^39] The company histories date the sale of the family business to W. A. Harriman and Company to 1928, and Bush's own recollection, quoted above, dates the purchase to 1929. Neil Mallon became president and chief executive in 1928, when the company was converted.[^40] The 1979 company history lists Mallon as president from 1929 to 1962.[^41] Bill Minutaglio wrote that Prescott Bush called Mallon "a very able fellow" and hand-selected him to head Dresser.[^42]
The [[Hagley Museum and Library]] describes the [[Pennsylvania Water and Power Company]] as a company whose board Bush joined as chairman in the early 1940s: "Joining the company as Chairman of the Board in the early 1940s was Wall Street executive banker and later U.S. senator, Prescott S. Bush."[^39] In a 1942 letter to company president [[John Abbet Walls]], Bush wrote: "Mr. Buckner's death raises, of course, the question of replacement on the board, and I am not forgetting that we should also replace Mr. Gleason this spring."[^40] The company's presidential records are Hagley Accession 2627 and span 1905 to 1946.[^41]
Wills places Bush's CBS board seat in 1932, when [[William S. Paley]] came to the firm with Herbert Swope to arrange the purchase of a half interest in the [[CBS]] company, owned by [[Paramount Pictures]], for five million dollars. Paley could raise half, and the Harriman firm raised the other two and a half million; Bush recalled that "Averell put me on it." Wills wrote that Bush "went onto the CBS board to watch what was being done with the investment."[^43]
The [[Hagley Museum and Library]] describes the [[Pennsylvania Water and Power Company]] as a company whose board Bush joined as chairman in the early 1940s: "Joining the company as Chairman of the Board in the early 1940s was Wall Street executive banker and later U.S. senator, Prescott S. Bush."[^44] In a 1942 letter to company president [[John Abbet Walls]], Bush wrote: "Mr. Buckner's death raises, of course, the question of replacement on the board, and I am not forgetting that we should also replace Mr. Gleason this spring."[^45] The company's presidential records are Hagley Accession 2627 and span 1905 to 1946.[^46]
### The USO and the National War Fund
Frank Coffey's official photographic history of the [[United Service Organizations]] states that under national campaign chairman [[Thomas E. Dewey]] the organization had raised over $16 million, and that in 1942 Dewey resigned. The book reproduces a USO appeal letter signed "Prescott S. Bush, National Campaign Chairman," printed with [[John D. Rockefeller Jr.]] as honorary chairman.[^42]
Frank Coffey's official photographic history of the [[United Service Organizations]] states that under national campaign chairman [[Thomas E. Dewey]] the organization had raised over $16 million, and that in 1942 Dewey resigned. The book reproduces a USO appeal letter signed "Prescott S. Bush, National Campaign Chairman," printed with [[John D. Rockefeller Jr.]] as honorary chairman.[^47]
The [[National War Fund]], the federation of war-relief and USO appeals that ran from 1943 to 1947, listed Bush among its vice presidents and on its executive committee. Its Speakers Handbook, issued as of August 13, 1945, names as president [[Winthrop W. Aldrich]] and as vice presidents Jean B. Adoue Jr. of Texas, Prescott S. Bush of New York, Robert M. Hanes of North Carolina, Francis P. Matthews of Nebraska, Walter Rothschild of New York, Edward L. Ryerson of Illinois, Robert G. Sproul of California and Henry M. Wriston of Rhode Island. Its executive committee includes Aldrich, Bush, [[Henry R. Luce]] and Rockefeller; its budget committee chairman was [[Gerard Swope]].[^43] The Fund's official history, by Harold J. Seymour, names Bush "National Campaign Chairman" and describes him as the sixth man picked in the formation of the leadership, "Averill Harriman's banking partner."[^44]
The [[National War Fund]], the federation of war-relief and USO appeals that ran from 1943 to 1947, listed Bush among its vice presidents and on its executive committee. Its Speakers Handbook, issued as of August 13, 1945, names as president [[Winthrop W. Aldrich]] and as vice presidents Jean B. Adoue Jr. of Texas, Prescott S. Bush of New York, Robert M. Hanes of North Carolina, Francis P. Matthews of Nebraska, Walter Rothschild of New York, Edward L. Ryerson of Illinois, Robert G. Sproul of California and Henry M. Wriston of Rhode Island. Its executive committee includes Aldrich, Bush, [[Henry R. Luce]] and Rockefeller; its budget committee chairman was [[Gerard Swope]].[^48] The Fund's official history, by Harold J. Seymour, names Bush "National Campaign Chairman" and describes him as the sixth man picked in the formation of the leadership, "Averill Harriman's banking partner."[^49]
### Allen Dulles and the Central Intelligence Agency
The [[Central Intelligence Agency]] reading-room collection holds correspondence between Bush and the Agency's directors from his first year in the Senate. [[Allen Dulles]] answered a letter of January 27, 1953 from Bush about the employment of a person Bush had recommended on February 3, 1953, addressing him "Dear Pres," and wrote on April 2, 1953 that a person Bush had asked about was not being considered for any appointment and that he did not know in what connection the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] might be inquiring into the person's background.[^45] An internal memorandum approved by Dulles in 1957 records that Bush, recently returned from a trip to Europe on which he gathered information on [[NATO]] and the defenses of Western Europe, was interested in the case of [[John Downey]], and recommends that the Agency debrief him on the trip and brief him on Downey together.[^46]
The [[Central Intelligence Agency]] reading-room collection holds correspondence between Bush and the Agency's directors from his first year in the Senate. [[Allen Dulles]] answered a letter of January 27, 1953 from Bush about the employment of a person Bush had recommended on February 3, 1953, addressing him "Dear Pres," and wrote on April 2, 1953 that a person Bush had asked about was not being considered for any appointment and that he did not know in what connection the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] might be inquiring into the person's background.[^50] An internal memorandum approved by Dulles in 1957 records that Bush, recently returned from a trip to Europe on which he gathered information on [[NATO]] and the defenses of Western Europe, was interested in the case of [[John Downey]], and recommends that the Agency debrief him on the trip and brief him on Downey together.[^51]
Dulles replied on September 8, 1959 to a letter in which Bush, a member of the Senate Committee on Armed Services, had forwarded a correspondent's letter about charges made against the Agency in the New York Mirror column of [[Lee Mortimer]]. Dulles wrote that an Agency representative had met Mortimer in August, that all individuals the Agency employed were investigated, and that Mortimer's statement about CIA accountability to Congress was not entirely accurate.[^47] Acting Director [[Charles P. Cabell]] wrote on June 21, 1960 that Dulles had left before seeing Bush's letter of June 3, and thanked him for sending a Hartford Courant editorial and an article by Donald McLachlan.[^48]
Dulles replied on September 8, 1959 to a letter in which Bush, a member of the Senate Committee on Armed Services, had forwarded a correspondent's letter about charges made against the Agency in the New York Mirror column of [[Lee Mortimer]]. Dulles wrote that an Agency representative had met Mortimer in August, that all individuals the Agency employed were investigated, and that Mortimer's statement about CIA accountability to Congress was not entirely accurate.[^52] Acting Director [[Charles P. Cabell]] wrote on June 21, 1960 that Dulles had left before seeing Bush's letter of June 3, and thanked him for sending a Hartford Courant editorial and an article by Donald McLachlan.[^53]
On October 18, 1960 Dulles wrote to Bush at Greenwich that he had noted a planned trip to Latin America and offered to brief him before his departure and to receive his observations on his return. Bush answered on October 25, 1960: "Tracy Barnes did call and I shall work out an engagement through him in order that I may get a briefing which, heaven knows, I need," adding "Dorothy and I speak of you many times. We appreciate so much our friendship with you and Clover."[^49] [[John A. McCone]], Dulles's successor, wrote Bush on November 8, 1961 that he had read the correspondence concerning Bogota, Colombia, enclosed in Bush's recent letter, and had forwarded it to the officials concerned with Colombia, and wrote again on January 8, 1962 about a person Bush had brought to his attention.[^50] A September 6, 1961 Senate extension of remarks by Bush is titled "Central Intelligence Agency: A Guardian of the National Security."[^51]
On October 18, 1960 Dulles wrote to Bush at Greenwich that he had noted a planned trip to Latin America and offered to brief him before his departure and to receive his observations on his return. Bush answered on October 25, 1960: "Tracy Barnes did call and I shall work out an engagement through him in order that I may get a briefing which, heaven knows, I need," adding "Dorothy and I speak of you many times. We appreciate so much our friendship with you and Clover."[^54] [[John A. McCone]], Dulles's successor, wrote Bush on November 8, 1961 that he had read the correspondence concerning Bogota, Colombia, enclosed in Bush's recent letter, and had forwarded it to the officials concerned with Colombia, and wrote again on January 8, 1962 about a person Bush had brought to his attention.[^55] A September 6, 1961 Senate extension of remarks by Bush is titled "Central Intelligence Agency: A Guardian of the National Security."[^56]
Wills wrote that Bush "was a strong backer of the CIA, of its covert operations, and of its director, Allen Dulles," and that his only criticism of the [[Bay of Pigs]] was that [[John F. Kennedy]] did not "go through with that enterprise" when it bogged down.[^52]
Wills wrote that Bush "was a strong backer of the CIA, of its covert operations, and of its director, Allen Dulles," and that his only criticism of the [[Bay of Pigs]] was that [[John F. Kennedy]] did not "go through with that enterprise" when it bogged down.[^57]
### Planned Parenthood
The [[Margaret Sanger Papers Project]] at [[New York University]] states that Bush "in 1947 served as the treasurer of Planned Parenthood's first nationwide fund-raising campaign" and shared the masthead of the [[Planned Parenthood Federation of America]] with [[Margaret Sanger]] at a time when contraception was illegal in Connecticut.[^53] The Project places columnist [[Drew Pearson]]'s disclosure of the ties, in a national television commentary just days before the election, in the 1950 Senate race, which Bush lost by about a thousand votes, and states that the family vehemently denied any association with the organization.[^54] George H.W. Bush wrote in a 1973 foreword: "Many political observers felt a sufficient number of voters were swayed by his alleged contacts with the birth controllers to cost him the election."[^55] Wills places Pearson's column late in the 1952 campaign, stating that Pearson wrote that Bush was a president of the Birth Control League, that Bush "supported Planned Parenthood" without being an officer of the League, and that Bush bought special broadcast time and distributed fliers after Mass asking Catholics to tune in.[^56]
The [[Margaret Sanger Papers Project]] at [[New York University]] states that Bush "in 1947 served as the treasurer of Planned Parenthood's first nationwide fund-raising campaign" and shared the masthead of the [[Planned Parenthood Federation of America]] with [[Margaret Sanger]] at a time when contraception was illegal in Connecticut.[^58] The Project places columnist [[Drew Pearson]]'s disclosure of the ties, in a national television commentary just days before the election, in the 1950 Senate race, which Bush lost by about a thousand votes, and states that the family vehemently denied any association with the organization.[^59] George H.W. Bush wrote in a 1973 foreword: "Many political observers felt a sufficient number of voters were swayed by his alleged contacts with the birth controllers to cost him the election."[^60] Wills places Pearson's column late in the 1952 campaign, stating that Pearson wrote that Bush was a president of the Birth Control League, that Bush "supported Planned Parenthood" without being an officer of the League, and that Bush bought special broadcast time and distributed fliers after Mass asking Catholics to tune in.[^61]
### Senate, 1950 to 1963
Wills wrote that Bush lost the 1950 special election for the seat vacated by Raymond Baldwin to [[William Benton]] by "a thousand votes," with 862,000 votes cast, after a primary against [[Vivian Kellems]]; that Bush had first deferred to Luce, who had expressed interest in the seat; and that in 1952 [[Clare Boothe Luce]] competed with Bush for the nomination to fill the vacancy created by the death of Senator [[James O'Brien McMahon]].[^57] The Biographical Directory records that Bush was elected on November 4, 1952 to fill that vacancy, was reelected in 1956, was not a candidate in 1962 and resumed banking and investment work.[^1] Wills wrote that Bush won the 1952 special election against [[Abraham Ribicoff]]; that Bush attacked Averell Harriman during the campaign, saying Harriman's "political thinking and judgment have been completely changed since he ceased active participation in our firm years ago to enter government"; and that Bush appeared on a platform with [[Joseph McCarthy]] in Connecticut that year.[^58]
Wills wrote that Bush lost the 1950 special election for the seat vacated by Raymond Baldwin to [[William Benton]] by "a thousand votes," with 862,000 votes cast, after a primary against [[Vivian Kellems]]; that Bush had first deferred to Luce, who had expressed interest in the seat; and that in 1952 [[Clare Boothe Luce]] competed with Bush for the nomination to fill the vacancy created by the death of Senator [[James O'Brien McMahon]].[^62] The Biographical Directory records that Bush was elected on November 4, 1952 to fill that vacancy, was reelected in 1956, was not a candidate in 1962 and resumed banking and investment work.[^1] Wills wrote that Bush won the 1952 special election against [[Abraham Ribicoff]]; that Bush attacked Averell Harriman during the campaign, saying Harriman's "political thinking and judgment have been completely changed since he ceased active participation in our firm years ago to enter government"; and that Bush appeared on a platform with [[Joseph McCarthy]] in Connecticut that year.[^63]
Wills reported that [[Sherman Adams]] arranged the first of many golf matches between Bush and President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], that Bush organized a dinner for the President at [[Burning Tree Club]], that Bush served on the Banking and Currency Committee, and that in 1960 he chaired the platform subcommittee on labor.[^59]
Wills reported that [[Sherman Adams]] arranged the first of many golf matches between Bush and President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], that Bush organized a dinner for the President at [[Burning Tree Club]], that Bush served on the Banking and Currency Committee, and that in 1960 he chaired the platform subcommittee on labor.[^64]
On December 2, 1954 the Senate adopted Senate Resolution 301, censuring Joseph McCarthy, by a vote of 67 to 22. Bush voted yea.[^60] Before the vote Bush spoke in support of a substitute motion, telling the Senate that "No question of free speech is involved. Free speech does not mean unrestrained," and referring to his statement of December 1.[^61] Wills wrote that Bush called Adams to suggest that Eisenhower invite Senator Arthur Watkins, who chaired the censure committee, to dinner at the White House.[^59]
On December 2, 1954 the Senate adopted Senate Resolution 301, censuring Joseph McCarthy, by a vote of 67 to 22. Bush voted yea.[^65] Before the vote Bush spoke in support of a substitute motion, telling the Senate that "No question of free speech is involved. Free speech does not mean unrestrained," and referring to his statement of December 1.[^66] Wills wrote that Bush called Adams to suggest that Eisenhower invite Senator Arthur Watkins, who chaired the censure committee, to dinner at the White House.[^64]
On May 29, 1956 the Senate agreed, 41 to 39, to an amendment offered by Senator [[William F. Knowland]] of [[California]] to the Senate's highway bill. Bush voted in the negative.[^62] On June 26, 1956 the Senate agreed to the conference report on the bill by 89 votes to 1, and Bush voted yea.[^63]
On May 29, 1956 the Senate agreed, 41 to 39, to an amendment offered by Senator [[William F. Knowland]] of [[California]] to the Senate's highway bill. Bush voted in the negative.[^67] On June 26, 1956 the Senate agreed to the conference report on the bill by 89 votes to 1, and Bush voted yea.[^68]
### Footnotes
@ -223,44 +225,49 @@ On May 29, 1956 the Senate agreed, 41 to 39, to an amendment offered by Senator
[^20]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: "Three sets of archives spell out Prescott Bush's involvement": the Harriman papers at the Library of Congress, vesting order number 248 at the National Archives, and the National Archives files on IG Farben. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
[^21]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004, on documents from the Harriman papers including a letter from Prescott Bush to the financial editor of the New York Journal American. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
[^22]: Treasury Department memorandum, E. G. May to J. W. Pehle, August 18, 1941 (date line typed and endorsed in Pehle's hand "Aug 18, 1941"), "Re: Union Banking Corporation," ref. 9-151, declassified by NARA: incorporation August 4, 1924; wholly owned by the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N.V.; Cornelis Lievense; Baron Heinrich Thyssen; gold purchases 1931-1933; $3,085,000 delivered to the Federal Reserve Bank June 15, 1934; fall 1938 safe deposit box with two million dollars in currency, later deposited with Brown Brothers Harriman. https://archive.org/details/BushDocuments0008b-LetterJ.W.PebleToMay. The Guardian's article of September 25, 2004 quotes the report as "of August 16 1941."
[^23]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: "The trouble started on July 30 1942 when the New York Herald-Tribune ran an article entitled 'Hitler's Angel Has $3m in US Bank.'" https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
[^24]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: "the incorporation documents, which list him as one of seven directors, show he owned one share in UBC worth $125." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
[^25]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004, describing and quoting a memorandum from Homer Jones to the executive committee of the Alien Property Custodian from National Archives vesting files. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
[^26]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004, on John Loftus: his sources in "the banking and intelligence communities" and "the Bush family, through George Herbert Walker and Prescott, got $1.5m out of the involvement. There is, however, no paper trail to this sum." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
[^27]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: "The US government and the Bush family deny all the claims against them"; the Anti-Defamation League statement of 2003 that "These charges are untenable and politically motivated ... Prescott Bush was neither a Nazi nor a Nazi sympathiser." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
[^28]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 259, "All of the Capital Stock of Seamless Steel Equipment Corporation," executed October 28, 1942 (F.R. Doc. 42-13530, filed December 18, 1942), *Federal Register* 7 (December 19, 1942), pp. 10626-10627. https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-register-find_1942-12-19_7_248
[^29]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 261, "All of the Capital Stock of Holland-American Trading Corporation," executed October 28, 1942 (F.R. Doc. 42-13532, filed December 18, 1942), *Federal Register* 7 (December 19, 1942), p. 10627, holder table. https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-register-find_1942-12-19_7_248
[^30]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: "Having gone through the books of the bank, further seizures were made against two affiliates, the Holland-American Trading Corporation and the Seamless Steel Equipment Corporation." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
[^31]: *Silesian American Corporation v. Clark*, 332 U.S. 469, 68 S.Ct. 179 (reargued November 12, 1947; decided December 8, 1947), opinion of Justice Reed: Vesting Order No. 370 of November 17, 1942; Non Ferrum Gesellschaft, Zurich; Bergwerksgesellschaft Georg von Giesche's Erben; Chapter X debtor since July 30, 1941; Silesian Holding Company; "Judgment affirmed." https://law.resource.org/pub/us/case/reporter/US/332/332.US.469.6.html
[^32]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
[^33]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: John Buchanan, "a Miami-based magazine journalist who started examining the files while working on a screenplay," published his findings in the *New Hampshire Gazette*. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
[^34]: "Bush: Nazi Dealings Continued Until 1951," *New Hampshire Gazette*, Vol. 248, No. 3, November 7, 2003, "Federal Documents," as reprinted at raoul-wallenberg.eu. https://www.raoul-wallenberg.eu/2003
[^35]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: the CSSC passage, the Schweitzer quotation, and the reference to a *New York Times* article of March 18, 1934. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
[^36]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004, quoting the January 1933 letter from Knight Woolley to Averill Harriman. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
[^37]: Garry Wills, "Father Knows Best," *The New York Review of Books*, November 5, 1992: "Prescott ended up on the boards of many firms he underwrote, including CBS"; the 1929 purchase of the Dresser Company of Bradford, Pennsylvania for four million dollars; Neil Mallon as chief executive; George H.W. Bush hired in 1948 by Mallon for a Dresser subsidiary. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
[^38]: Wills, "Father Knows Best," 1992, quoting Bush's oral history: "Averell put me on it"; "Prescott went onto the CBS board to watch what was being done with the investment." https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
[^39]: Hagley Museum and Library, Pennsylvania Water & Power Company presidential records (Acc. 2627), historical introduction. https://hagley.org/node/968
[^40]: Hagley Museum and Library, Acc. 2627, 1942 letter from Prescott S. Bush to John Abbet Walls, as quoted in the Hagley account. https://hagley.org/node/968
[^41]: Hagley Museum and Library, Acc. 2627, Pennsylvania Water & Power Company presidential records, 1905 to 1946. https://hagley.org/node/968
[^42]: Frank Coffey, *Always Home: 50 Years of the USO* (Washington: Brassey's, 1991): under national campaign chairman Thomas Dewey the USO "had raised over $16 million"; "In 1942 Dewey resigned"; appeal letter signed "Prescott S. Bush, National Campaign Chairman, United Service Organizations, Inc." with "Honorary Chairman John D. Rockefeller, Jr." https://archive.org/details/alwayshome50year00coff
[^43]: National War Fund, *Speakers Handbook* (issued as of August 13, 1945), p. 38, "Officers of National War Fund": president Winthrop W. Aldrich; vice presidents including Prescott S. Bush, New York; executive committee including Aldrich, Bush, Henry R. Luce and John D. Rockefeller, Jr.; Gerard Swope, chairman, Budget Committee. https://archive.org/details/SpeakersHandbook001
[^44]: Harold J. Seymour, *Design for Giving: The Story of the National War Fund, Inc., 1943-1947* (New York: Harper, 1947), on the selection of "Prescott S. Bush, Averill Harriman's banking partner" as "the sixth man" and "Prescott S. Bush, National Campaign Chairman." https://archive.org/details/designforgivings0000haro
[^45]: Allen W. Dulles to Prescott Bush, February 3, 1953, replying to Bush's letter of January 27, 1953, CIA-RDP80R01731R001600070003-9; Dulles to Bush, April 2, 1953, CIA-RDP80R01731R001600070139-9. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R001600070003-9 ; https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R001600070139-9
[^46]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of General Counsel, memorandum for the Director of Central Intelligence, "Senator Prescott Bush (R., Conn.)," signed by John S. Warner, Legislative Counsel, with Allen W. Dulles's approval, 1957, CIA-RDP80R01731R000200010068-9. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R000200010068-9
[^47]: Allen W. Dulles to Prescott Bush, September 8, 1959, on the New York Mirror column of Lee Mortimer, CIA-RDP80R01731R000100080046-7. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R000100080046-7
[^48]: C. P. Cabell, Acting Director, to Prescott Bush, June 21, 1960, CIA-RDP80B01676R000900030010-1. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80B01676R000900030010-1
[^49]: Allen W. Dulles to Prescott Bush, October 18, 1960, CIA-RDP80B01676R000900040026-3; Prescott Bush to Allen Dulles, October 25, 1960, on United States Senate stationery, marked "Personal," CIA-RDP80B01676R000900040027-2. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80B01676R000900040027-2
[^50]: John A. McCone to Prescott Bush, November 8, 1961 (Bogota, Colombia), CIA-RDP80B01676R000700190021-4; McCone to Bush, January 8, 1962, CIA-RDP80B01676R002800230007-2. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80B01676R000700190021-4
[^51]: "Central Intelligence Agency: A Guardian of the National Security," extension of remarks of Hon. Prescott Bush of Connecticut in the Senate of the United States, Wednesday, September 6, 1961, CIA-RDP70-00058R000200120158-2. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP70-00058R000200120158-2
[^52]: Wills, "Father Knows Best," 1992. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
[^53]: New York University Sanger Papers Project, Newsletter No. 44 (Winter 2006/2007), "Bush Family Planning": Sanger "shared the Planned Parenthood Federation of America (PPFA) masthead with the current president's grandfather ... Prescott S. Bush, who in 1947 served as the treasurer of Planned Parenthood's first nationwide fund-raising campaign." https://sanger.hosting.nyu.edu/articles/bush_family_planning/
[^54]: New York University Sanger Papers Project, Newsletter No. 44: Drew Pearson's broadcast "just days before the election"; "Bush lost by about a thousand votes in a state with a large Catholic population"; the family "vehemently denied that Prescott Bush had any association with the PPFA." https://sanger.hosting.nyu.edu/articles/bush_family_planning/
[^55]: George H. W. Bush, foreword to Phyllis Tilson Piotrow, *World Population Crisis: The United States Response* (1973), p. vii, as quoted in Newsletter No. 44. https://sanger.hosting.nyu.edu/articles/bush_family_planning/
[^56]: Wills, "Father Knows Best," 1992: "Late in the campaign, Drew Pearson wrote a column saying that Bush was a president of the Birth Control League. Actually, though he supported Planned Parenthood, Bush was not an officer of the Birth Control League." https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
[^57]: Wills, "Father Knows Best," 1992, quoting Bush: "I lost by a thousand votes to Bill Benton, when there were 862,000 votes cast"; Luce's interest in the seat; the 1952 contest with Clare Boothe Luce after McMahon's death. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
[^58]: Wills, "Father Knows Best," 1992: the Ribicoff race, Bush's speech on Harriman, and Bush's appearance with McCarthy. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
[^59]: Wills, "Father Knows Best," 1992: Adams, golf, Burning Tree dinner, Watkins suggestion, Banking and Currency Committee, 1960 platform subcommittee. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
[^60]: *Congressional Record*, vol. 100, 83rd Congress, 2d session, Senate proceedings of December 2, 1954, roll-call vote on Senate Resolution 301: yeas 67, nays 22, "Bush" among the yeas. https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_august-19-december-2-1954_100
[^61]: *Congressional Record*, vol. 100, December 1 and 2, 1954, remarks of Mr. Bush in support of the substitute motion: "No question of free speech is involved. Free speech does not mean unrestrained"; reference to his statement of December 1, "printed in the Congressional Record at page 16270." https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_august-19-december-2-1954_100
[^62]: *Congressional Record*, vol. 102, 84th Congress, 2d session, May 29, 1956, vote "on agreeing to the amendment offered by the Senator from California [Mr. KNOWLAND]": yeas 41, nays 39, "Bush" among the nays. https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_may-22-june-11-1956_102
[^63]: *Congressional Record*, vol. 102, 84th Congress, 2d session, June 26, 1956, vote "on agreeing to the conference report": yeas 89, nay 1 (Long), "Bush" among the yeas. https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_june-12-29-1956_102
[^23]: Kris Millegan, *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), reprint of the Woolley letter of January 14, 1941 and the White reply of May 13, 1941, pp. 214 to 217. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^24]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: "The trouble started on July 30 1942 when the New York Herald-Tribune ran an article entitled 'Hitler's Angel Has $3m in US Bank.'" https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
[^25]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: "the incorporation documents, which list him as one of seven directors, show he owned one share in UBC worth $125." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
[^26]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004, describing and quoting a memorandum from Homer Jones to the executive committee of the Alien Property Custodian from National Archives vesting files. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
[^27]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004, on John Loftus: his sources in "the banking and intelligence communities" and "the Bush family, through George Herbert Walker and Prescott, got $1.5m out of the involvement. There is, however, no paper trail to this sum." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
[^28]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: "The US government and the Bush family deny all the claims against them"; the Anti-Defamation League statement of 2003 that "These charges are untenable and politically motivated ... Prescott Bush was neither a Nazi nor a Nazi sympathiser." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
[^29]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 259, "All of the Capital Stock of Seamless Steel Equipment Corporation," executed October 28, 1942 (F.R. Doc. 42-13530, filed December 18, 1942), *Federal Register* 7 (December 19, 1942), pp. 10626-10627. https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-register-find_1942-12-19_7_248
[^30]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 261, "All of the Capital Stock of Holland-American Trading Corporation," executed October 28, 1942 (F.R. Doc. 42-13532, filed December 18, 1942), *Federal Register* 7 (December 19, 1942), p. 10627, holder table. https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-register-find_1942-12-19_7_248
[^31]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: "Having gone through the books of the bank, further seizures were made against two affiliates, the Holland-American Trading Corporation and the Seamless Steel Equipment Corporation." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
[^32]: *Silesian American Corporation v. Clark*, 332 U.S. 469, 68 S.Ct. 179 (reargued November 12, 1947; decided December 8, 1947), opinion of Justice Reed: Vesting Order No. 370 of November 17, 1942; Non Ferrum Gesellschaft, Zurich; Bergwerksgesellschaft Georg von Giesche's Erben; Chapter X debtor since July 30, 1941; Silesian Holding Company; "Judgment affirmed." https://law.resource.org/pub/us/case/reporter/US/332/332.US.469.6.html
[^33]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
[^34]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: John Buchanan, "a Miami-based magazine journalist who started examining the files while working on a screenplay," published his findings in the *New Hampshire Gazette*. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
[^35]: "Bush: Nazi Dealings Continued Until 1951," *New Hampshire Gazette*, Vol. 248, No. 3, November 7, 2003, "Federal Documents," as reprinted at raoul-wallenberg.eu. https://www.raoul-wallenberg.eu/2003
[^36]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: the CSSC passage, the Schweitzer quotation, and the reference to a *New York Times* article of March 18, 1934. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
[^37]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004, quoting the January 1933 letter from Knight Woolley to Averill Harriman. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
[^38]: Garry Wills, "Father Knows Best," *The New York Review of Books*, November 5, 1992: "Prescott ended up on the boards of many firms he underwrote, including CBS"; the 1929 purchase of the Dresser Company of Bradford, Pennsylvania for four million dollars; Neil Mallon as chief executive; George H.W. Bush hired in 1948 by Mallon for a Dresser subsidiary. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
[^39]: Darwin Payne, "Dresser Industries: A Legacy in Energy and Natural Resources," Handbook of Texas Online, Texas State Historical Association, section on the 1928 conversion and the directorship of Prescott Bush. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/dresser-industries
[^40]: Dresser Industries, Inc., entry in the International Directory of Company Histories (St. James Press), reproduced on Encyclopedia.com, section on the 1928 sale to W. A. Harriman and Company and Mallon's selection as president. https://encyclopedia.com/books/politics-and-business-magazines/dresser-industries-inc
[^41]: Darwin Payne, *Initiative in Energy: Dresser Industries, Inc., 1880-1978* (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979), list of presidents. https://archive.org/details/initiativeinener00payn_0
[^42]: Bill Minutaglio, *First Son: George W. Bush and the Bush Family Dynasty* (New York: Three Rivers Press, 2001). https://archive.org/details/firstsongeorgewb0000minu
[^43]: Wills, "Father Knows Best," 1992, quoting Bush's oral history: "Averell put me on it"; "Prescott went onto the CBS board to watch what was being done with the investment." https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
[^44]: Hagley Museum and Library, Pennsylvania Water & Power Company presidential records (Acc. 2627), historical introduction. https://hagley.org/node/968
[^45]: Hagley Museum and Library, Acc. 2627, 1942 letter from Prescott S. Bush to John Abbet Walls, as quoted in the Hagley account. https://hagley.org/node/968
[^46]: Hagley Museum and Library, Acc. 2627, Pennsylvania Water & Power Company presidential records, 1905 to 1946. https://hagley.org/node/968
[^47]: Frank Coffey, *Always Home: 50 Years of the USO* (Washington: Brassey's, 1991): under national campaign chairman Thomas Dewey the USO "had raised over $16 million"; "In 1942 Dewey resigned"; appeal letter signed "Prescott S. Bush, National Campaign Chairman, United Service Organizations, Inc." with "Honorary Chairman John D. Rockefeller, Jr." https://archive.org/details/alwayshome50year00coff
[^48]: National War Fund, *Speakers Handbook* (issued as of August 13, 1945), p. 38, "Officers of National War Fund": president Winthrop W. Aldrich; vice presidents including Prescott S. Bush, New York; executive committee including Aldrich, Bush, Henry R. Luce and John D. Rockefeller, Jr.; Gerard Swope, chairman, Budget Committee. https://archive.org/details/SpeakersHandbook001
[^49]: Harold J. Seymour, *Design for Giving: The Story of the National War Fund, Inc., 1943-1947* (New York: Harper, 1947), on the selection of "Prescott S. Bush, Averill Harriman's banking partner" as "the sixth man" and "Prescott S. Bush, National Campaign Chairman." https://archive.org/details/designforgivings0000haro
[^50]: Allen W. Dulles to Prescott Bush, February 3, 1953, replying to Bush's letter of January 27, 1953, CIA-RDP80R01731R001600070003-9; Dulles to Bush, April 2, 1953, CIA-RDP80R01731R001600070139-9. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R001600070003-9 ; https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R001600070139-9
[^51]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of General Counsel, memorandum for the Director of Central Intelligence, "Senator Prescott Bush (R., Conn.)," signed by John S. Warner, Legislative Counsel, with Allen W. Dulles's approval, 1957, CIA-RDP80R01731R000200010068-9. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R000200010068-9
[^52]: Allen W. Dulles to Prescott Bush, September 8, 1959, on the New York Mirror column of Lee Mortimer, CIA-RDP80R01731R000100080046-7. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R000100080046-7
[^53]: C. P. Cabell, Acting Director, to Prescott Bush, June 21, 1960, CIA-RDP80B01676R000900030010-1. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80B01676R000900030010-1
[^54]: Allen W. Dulles to Prescott Bush, October 18, 1960, CIA-RDP80B01676R000900040026-3; Prescott Bush to Allen Dulles, October 25, 1960, on United States Senate stationery, marked "Personal," CIA-RDP80B01676R000900040027-2. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80B01676R000900040027-2
[^55]: John A. McCone to Prescott Bush, November 8, 1961 (Bogota, Colombia), CIA-RDP80B01676R000700190021-4; McCone to Bush, January 8, 1962, CIA-RDP80B01676R002800230007-2. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80B01676R000700190021-4
[^56]: "Central Intelligence Agency: A Guardian of the National Security," extension of remarks of Hon. Prescott Bush of Connecticut in the Senate of the United States, Wednesday, September 6, 1961, CIA-RDP70-00058R000200120158-2. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP70-00058R000200120158-2
[^57]: Wills, "Father Knows Best," 1992. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
[^58]: New York University Sanger Papers Project, Newsletter No. 44 (Winter 2006/2007), "Bush Family Planning": Sanger "shared the Planned Parenthood Federation of America (PPFA) masthead with the current president's grandfather ... Prescott S. Bush, who in 1947 served as the treasurer of Planned Parenthood's first nationwide fund-raising campaign." https://sanger.hosting.nyu.edu/articles/bush_family_planning/
[^59]: New York University Sanger Papers Project, Newsletter No. 44: Drew Pearson's broadcast "just days before the election"; "Bush lost by about a thousand votes in a state with a large Catholic population"; the family "vehemently denied that Prescott Bush had any association with the PPFA." https://sanger.hosting.nyu.edu/articles/bush_family_planning/
[^60]: George H. W. Bush, foreword to Phyllis Tilson Piotrow, *World Population Crisis: The United States Response* (1973), p. vii, as quoted in Newsletter No. 44. https://sanger.hosting.nyu.edu/articles/bush_family_planning/
[^61]: Wills, "Father Knows Best," 1992: "Late in the campaign, Drew Pearson wrote a column saying that Bush was a president of the Birth Control League. Actually, though he supported Planned Parenthood, Bush was not an officer of the Birth Control League." https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
[^62]: Wills, "Father Knows Best," 1992, quoting Bush: "I lost by a thousand votes to Bill Benton, when there were 862,000 votes cast"; Luce's interest in the seat; the 1952 contest with Clare Boothe Luce after McMahon's death. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
[^63]: Wills, "Father Knows Best," 1992: the Ribicoff race, Bush's speech on Harriman, and Bush's appearance with McCarthy. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
[^64]: Wills, "Father Knows Best," 1992: Adams, golf, Burning Tree dinner, Watkins suggestion, Banking and Currency Committee, 1960 platform subcommittee. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
[^65]: *Congressional Record*, vol. 100, 83rd Congress, 2d session, Senate proceedings of December 2, 1954, roll-call vote on Senate Resolution 301: yeas 67, nays 22, "Bush" among the yeas. https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_august-19-december-2-1954_100
[^66]: *Congressional Record*, vol. 100, December 1 and 2, 1954, remarks of Mr. Bush in support of the substitute motion: "No question of free speech is involved. Free speech does not mean unrestrained"; reference to his statement of December 1, "printed in the Congressional Record at page 16270." https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_august-19-december-2-1954_100
[^67]: *Congressional Record*, vol. 102, 84th Congress, 2d session, May 29, 1956, vote "on agreeing to the amendment offered by the Senator from California [Mr. KNOWLAND]": yeas 41, nays 39, "Bush" among the nays. https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_may-22-june-11-1956_102
[^68]: *Congressional Record*, vol. 102, 84th Congress, 2d session, June 26, 1956, vote "on agreeing to the conference report": yeas 89, nay 1 (Long), "Bush" among the yeas. https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_june-12-29-1956_102

13
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/William Barr.md
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@ -51,11 +51,13 @@ relations:
role: "son"
fn: 6
created: 2025-08-05
updated: 2026-10-12
updated: 2026-10-26
---
William P. Barr worked at the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] from 1973 to 1977 while attending law school at night. "During my tenure at CIA, 1973 to '77, the investigations of the agency started, and I moved to the legislative counsel's office," he recalled; as assistant legislative counsel under Director [[George H.W. Bush]] in 1976 he worked against legislation of Representatives [[Michael Harrington]] and [[Bella Abzug]] that would have required notice to people whose mail the agency had opened under [[HTLINGUAL]]. He then clerked for Judge [[Malcolm Wilkey]] of the [[United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit|D.C. Circuit]], a former head of the Justice Department's Criminal Division, who telephoned Bush for a reference. After private practice and the Reagan transition he joined the [[White House]] domestic policy staff, where he worked with [[C. Boyden Gray]], counsel to Vice President Bush. In 1988 he helped screen vice-presidential candidates through [[Robert Kimmitt]].[^1]
His father, [[Donald Barr]], had served briefly in the Research and Analysis Branch of the [[Office of Strategic Services]] during the Second World War.[^9] Barr began seasonal employment at the CIA in June 1971, while pursuing a graduate degree at [[Columbia University]], and wrote in his 2022 memoir, *One Damn Thing After Another*: "I want a career in intelligence.... My strategy is to make myself an attractive candidate by becoming an expert on China."[^9]
### Justice Department, 1989-1993
Gray, who wanted in the [[Office of Legal Counsel]] "someone in that position who believed in executive authority," asked Barr to take it in 1989; Barr was "the White House's choice," acceptable to Attorney General [[Richard Thornburgh]]. At the Office of Legal Counsel he took part in the planning of the legal basis for the invasion of [[Panama]] and the arrest of [[Manuel Noriega]] in December 1989. He became deputy attorney general in 1990 and acting attorney general in August 1991, during the seizure of the Talladega federal prison by Cuban detainees, and served as attorney general until January 1993.[^1]
@ -78,11 +80,11 @@ At the end of the administration Barr advised Bush to pardon [[Caspar Weinberger
### Attorney General, 2019
Barr resigned from the board of [[Dominion Energy]] effective February 12, 2019, before his confirmation as attorney general.[^5] His department oversaw the federal prosecution of [[Jeffrey Epstein]] that year. His father, [[Donald Barr]], was headmaster of the [[Dalton School]] in New York during the period in which Epstein, a college dropout, was hired there to teach; accounts differ on whether Donald Barr personally hired him.[^6]
Barr resigned from the board of [[Dominion Energy]] effective February 12, 2019, before his confirmation as attorney general.[^5] His department oversaw the federal prosecution of [[Jeffrey Epstein]] that year. His father, Donald Barr, was headmaster of the [[Dalton School]] in New York during the period in which Epstein, a college dropout, was hired there to teach; accounts differ on whether Donald Barr personally hired him.[^6] The [[New York Times]] wrote on July 12, 2019 that Donald Barr announced in February 1974 that he was resigning as headmaster but would stay until the end of the school year, and that "It is unclear whether Mr. Barr hired Mr. Epstein during that time."[^10] [[Peter Branch]], interim headmaster from July 1, 1974, told [[Thomas Volscho]] that he did not recall hiring Epstein and was "relatively certain Barr or possibly the head of the Math Department hired Epstein."[^11] [[Marie Brenner]] wrote in *Vanity Fair* that Barr "recently claimed he hadn't made the Dalton-Epstein connection until he read about it in the press."[^12] Interviewed by [[NPR]] in December 2019, Brenner said that Barr watched his father "being criticized quite publicly in The New York Times, in New York magazine, in the early 1970s" as he entered college.[^13]
In a deposition before the House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform on August 18, 2025, Barr was asked whether he had recused himself from the Justice Department's review of the Florida prosecution and plea agreement of Epstein. He answered, "No, I didn't recuse myself." He said that the Southern District of New York investigation was "the only thing that I was aware of going on when I was there," and that "I don't recall playing a role in the review of that." He said he had considered whether to recuse from the New York matter, and that the decision not to recuse was made on input from the department's ethics office, by his recollection. Asked about the 2019 Office of Professional Responsibility inquiry into the Florida plea deal, he said, "I wasn't hovering over that or involved in that."[^7]
Asked about his father's role as headmaster of the Dalton School, Barr said, "It's not pertinent at all." Asked about [[Kirkland & Ellis]] representing Epstein in the non-prosecution negotiations, and about his former employment with the firm, he said, "I actually don't think I would've had to recuse myself from that. But I just was never involved in that."[^8]
Asked whether his father's role as headmaster of the Dalton School had been a consideration in the Ethics Office analysis, Barr answered, "Actually, I don't even think... I don't know whether I was aware of that at that time. Obviously not. It's not pertinent at all." Asked about [[Kirkland & Ellis]] representing Epstein in the non-prosecution negotiations, and about his former employment with the firm, he said, "I actually don't think I would've had to recuse myself from that. But I just was never involved in that."[^8]
### Footnotes
@ -94,3 +96,8 @@ Asked about his father's role as headmaster of the Dalton School, Barr said, "It
[^6]: "The 'Epstein-Barr' Problem of New York City's Dalton School." *Law and Crime,* July 13, 2019, which states that Epstein was hired "by the school's headmaster Donald Barr in the mid 1970's". https://web.archive.org/web/2019/https://lawandcrime.com/high-profile/the-epstein-barr-problem-of-new-york-citys-dalton-school/
[^7]: Deposition of William P. Barr, House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, August 18, 2025, pp. 47-48. https://oversight.house.gov/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/Barr-Transcript.pdf
[^8]: Same transcript, pp. 51 and 92-93.
[^9]: Central Intelligence Agency, Center for the Study of Intelligence, review essay on William P. Barr, *One Damn Thing After Another: Memoirs of an Attorney General* (William Morrow, 2022), *Studies in Intelligence* 67, no. 1 (extracts, March 2023). https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/4-Review-Essay-Barr-Memoir.pdf
[^10]: Mike Baker and Amy Julia Harris, "Jeffrey Epstein Taught at Dalton. His Behavior Was Noticed," *The New York Times,* July 12, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/12/nyregion/jeffrey-epstein-dalton-teacher.html
[^11]: Thomas Volscho, "Jeffrey Epstein Dodged Questions About Sex With His Dalton Prep School Students," *The Daily Beast,* July 12, 2019 (updated September 27, 2019). https://www.thedailybeast.com/jeffrey-epstein-dodged-questions-about-sex-with-his-dalton-prep-school-students
[^12]: Marie Brenner, "'I Had No Problem Being Politically Different': Young William Barr Among the Manhattan Liberals," *Vanity Fair,* October 7, 2019. https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2019/10/the-untold-tale-of-young-william-barr
[^13]: Rachel Martin, interview with Marie Brenner, "'Vanity Fair': Father-Son Dynamic May Explain Tenure Of AG Barr," *NPR,* December 10, 2019. https://www.kjzz.org/politics/2019-12-10/vanity-fair-father-son-dynamic-may-explain-tenure-of-ag-barr

303
10 - PEOPLE/(A-G)/William F. Buckley Jr..md Normal file
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@ -0,0 +1,303 @@
---
created: 2026-10-26
updated: 2026-10-26
title: William F. Buckley Jr.
aliases:
- William F. Buckley
- William F. Buckley, Jr.
- William Frank Buckley Jr.
- William Frank Buckley, Jr.
- WFB
tags:
- Person
- Author
- Journalist
- NationalReview
- FiringLine
- SkullAndBones
- Yale
- CIA
- MexicoCity
- OfficeOfPolicyCoordination
- EHowardHunt
- Watergate
- YoungAmericansForFreedom
- SharonStatement
- ConservativeMovement
- BuckleyFamily
category: "Authors & Journalists"
summary: "Writer and editor who founded National Review in 1955, hosted Firing Line from 1966 to 1999, and by his own account served as a CIA agent in Mexico City from 1951 under E. Howard Hunt."
born: 1925-11-24
died: 2008-02-27
location: "New York, New York"
relations:
- type: member_of
with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
role: "member, Yale class of 1950"
fn: 1
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Central Intelligence Agency]]"
start: 1951
end: 1952
role: "agent, Mexico City station"
fn: 2
- type: reported_to
with: "[[Howard Hunt]]"
start: 1951
end: 1952
role: "chief of the Office of Policy Coordination station in Mexico City, described by Buckley as his immediate boss"
fn: 2
- type: founded
with: "[[National Review]]"
start: 1955-11-19
role: "founder, editor and publisher"
fn: 41
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Young Americans for Freedom]]"
start: 1960-09-11
role: "host of the founding meeting at Sharon, Connecticut"
fn: 49
- type: participant_in
with: "[[1965 New York City mayoral election]]"
start: 1965-06-24
end: 1965-11-02
role: "candidate of the Conservative Party of New York"
fn: 50
- type: member_of
with: "[[United States Information Agency]]"
start: 1969-05-28
role: "member, United States Advisory Commission on Information"
fn: 58
- type: participant_in
with: "[[United Nations]]"
start: 1973
role: "public delegate to the General Assembly"
fn: 61
- type: director_of
with: "[[Catawba Corporation]]"
role: "member of the board of directors"
fn: 10
- type: director_of
with: "[[Starr Broadcasting Group]]"
role: "chairman of the board of directors; majority stockholder"
fn: 42
- type: investigated
with: "[[Federal Bureau of Investigation]]"
reverse: true
start: 1969-06-02
role: "special inquiries for presidential appointments, June 1969 and August 1973"
fn: 43
- type: relative_of
with: "[[James L. Buckley]]"
role: "brother"
fn: 63
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Priscilla Buckley]]"
role: "sister"
fn: 31
- type: relative_of
with: "[[William F. Buckley Sr.]]"
role: "father"
fn: 25
- type: spouse_of
with: "[[Patricia Buckley]]"
start: 1950-07-06
role: "wife"
fn: 25
---
William Frank Buckley Jr. (November 24, 1925 to February 27, 2008) was an American writer, editor and television host. He founded [[National Review]] in 1955, hosted [[Firing Line]] from 1966 to 1999, and was a member of [[Skull and Bones]] at [[Yale University]].[^1] He served as an agent of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] in [[Mexico City]] under [[Howard Hunt|E. Howard Hunt]] beginning in 1951, and wrote of that service in his own words in 2005.[^2] A CIA station chief of the same name, kidnapped in [[Beirut]] in 1984, has a separate page at [[William Buckley]].
### Family and the Mexican oil business
William Frank Buckley Sr. (born July 11, 1881 in Washington, Texas) took a law degree at the University of Texas, worked as a Spanish translator at the Texas Land Office, and began practicing law in Mexico City on November 1, 1908. The FBI headquarters file on his son records that he set up his own office in 1909 and was joined within two or three years by his brothers, Claude H. Buckley and Edmund L. Buckley, under the firm name Buckley & Buckley. The firm opened an office at [[Tampico]] about 1911 and "represented a number of large oil companies." The father left the firm in 1913 or 1914 and entered the oil business. In about 1919 he sent an organization into Venezuela and formed the Pantepec Oil Company, of which he was president for many years; the file states that the company was financed in the 1920s by E. A. Pierce & Company, later Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner & Beane.[^3]
A biography published by the [[University of Oklahoma Press]] in 2023, John A. Adams's *William F. Buckley Sr.: Witness to the Mexican Revolution, 1908-1922*, with a foreword by [[James L. Buckley]], describes him as having built the Pantepec Oil Company, "the most profitable small petroleum producer in Mexico," and as having "ultimately was expelled from the country."[^4] An item from a Mexico City newspaper of December 1921, reprinted in the FBI file, reports a statement by the father to a representative of the *Excelsior* at San Antonio, Texas: "After residing in Mexico during thirteen years and during which time I acquired property valued at several million dollars, I was ordered to leave the country on Wednesday, November 23rd." In the same statement he attributed his expulsion to his opposition to President Obregon's government and said he had sent memorials on conditions in Mexico to the State Department in Washington.[^5] A Bureau summary memorandum of the 1950s gives the expulsion as 1922 "by the Obregon Government allegedly for activities opposing the Obregon Government," and records that the Bureau held its own main file on the father.[^6]
The oil interests passed to the next generation. A son, John William Buckley, a Yale graduate of 1942 and an Army intelligence officer in North Africa and France, was president of [[Catawba Oil Explorations Company]], which the FBI file describes as representing "various Venezuelan companies, a Canadian company, and an Ecuadorian company."[^7] A biographical directory entry reproduced in the same file lists him as president and director of "Can. So. Petroleum, Ltd." from 1954 and as president of United Canso Oil & Gas Ltd. and Pantepec International, Inc.[^8] A directory entry for James L. Buckley in the file lists him as vice president and director of Catawba Corp. from 1953 to 1970.[^9]
A background check on William F. Buckley Jr., opened in June 1969 when the White House nominated him to a federal advisory body, records in a memorandum of June 12, 1969 that "The Catawba Corporation is apparently controlled by the Buckley family and Mr. Buckley is on the Board of Directors."[^10] In August 1973, when the Bureau updated the check for a second appointment, a Catawba Corporation officer in New York told agents that the appointee "continues to be a director" and that the president of the corporation was John Buckley, the appointee's brother.[^11]
### Yale and Skull and Bones
Buckley attended St. John's Beaumont College in Old Windsor, England, in 1938 and 1939, the Millbrook School in New York from 1940 to 1943, and the University of Mexico in 1943.[^12] He was inducted into the United States Army on August 10, 1944, accepted a commission as second lieutenant on May 12, 1945, and was discharged on May 27, 1946; he resigned from the Officers' Reserve Corps on March 8, 1949.[^13] Yale records reviewed by the FBI in June 1969 show that he entered Yale in September 1946, received his B.A. on June 12, 1950, and was appointed assistant instructor of Spanish for 1947 through 1951 but resigned the appointment in November 1950.[^14]
A memorandum of October 20, 1950 from [[Louis B. Nichols]] to [[Clyde Tolson]] records that Buckley "was the editor of the Daily News" the year before, meaning the [[Yale Daily News]], and that he had sponsored a forum at which Nichols spoke. Nichols called him in New Haven, arranged for him to call at the Bureau on October 25, and wrote that "An Agent in Mr. Jones office will take Buckley on a very special tour."[^15] A later summary records that Nichols had spoken at the 1949 forum on the Bureau's position, that Buckley acted as its chairman before an audience of about 500, and that Buckley and his wife were given "a very special tour of Bureau facilities" and met the Director on October 25, 1950.[^6] In April 1953 Buckley told Nichols that he was writing a book "to counteract the [[Alan Barth]] and Biddle books denouncing loyalty and security investigations."[^16]
The membership of Skull and Bones is recorded in [[Antony C. Sutton]]'s index of members by class year, which lists "Buckley, William Frank Jr." in the class of 1950 beside, among others, William Henry Draper III, Thomas Henry Guinzburg, Evan Griffith Galbraith, Sidney Lovett and William Hitchcock MacLeish. The same index lists "Buckley, James Lane" in the class of 1944, "Buckley, Fergus Reid" in 1952 and "Buckley, Christopher Taylor" in 1975, and a passage on communications names "William Buckley ('50) of National Review" among Bonesmen.[^1] In Sutton's list of members of The Order and the Council on Foreign Relations, Buckley appears as "Editor, National Review and The Order's house conservative." Sutton also wrote that "National Review published by William Buckley (The Order) runs a perpetual deficit. presumably made up by Buckley," and that "So far as we can trace, only William F. Buckley is a member of the Bilderbergers and The Order."[^17]
[[Ron Rosenbaum]]'s article "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones" in *Esquire* of September 1977 places Buckley in the sequence of Bonesmen who entered the CIA. Rosenbaum wrote that one could ask "Bill Bundy or Bill Buckley, both of whom went into the C.I.A. after leaving Bones," whether their Skull and Bones experience was useful training for the clandestine trade. He wrote that [[William Sloane Coffin Jr.|William Sloane Coffin Jr.]] "headed for the C.I.A. not long after graduation from Bones," and that "the man Coffin tapped for Bones, William F. Buckley Jr., was himself tapped by the C.I.A. the following year."[^18] "Bill Bundy" is [[William P. Bundy]]. The same passage asks [[McGeorge Bundy]] whether he "wrestled naked in a mud pile" as part of his initiation, and the article describes Blackford Oakes, the hero of Buckley's spy novel *Saving the Queen*, as "a true-blue Bonesman."[^18]
[[Kris Millegan]]'s *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003) lists "Bill Buckley (S&B '50)" and "James Buckley (S&B '44)" among Bonesmen connected with the intelligence community, together with Coffin (S&B '49) and "Dino Pionzio (S&B '50), CIA Deputy Chief of Station during Allende overthrow," and writes that "Bush tapped Coffin, who tapped Buckley." Elsewhere the book says that Buckley "had a family oil business in Mexico" and "was a close ally to CIA covert operations manager E. Howard Hunt."[^19] The *Covert Action Information Bulletin* reported in 1990 that, according to "several experts on the CIA," Buckley began cooperating with the Agency in Mexico City in 1952, where Hunt was station chief.[^20]
### God and Man at Yale
*God and Man at Yale: The Superstitions of "Academic Freedom"* was published by the Henry Regnery Company in 1951.[^21] A summary memorandum in the FBI file notes that the columnist George Sokolsky wrote "most favorably concerning Buckley and his book" in his column of October 15, 1951.[^6] In his 1974 memoir E. Howard Hunt wrote that he met Buckley through [[James Burnham]], a former professor of philosophy whom Hunt described as "a consultant to OPC on virtually every subject of interest to our organization." Through Burnham, Hunt wrote, he was to meet "a young Yale graduate, William F. Buckley, Jr., whose God and Man at Yale was stirring great controversy within the Eastern academic establishment." Hunt added that Burnham told him Buckley was looking for "the optimum way of working against the Stalinists" and that Buckley was trilingual in English, Spanish and French.[^22]
Michael Isikoff, writing for SpyTalk in June 2025 about a new biography of Buckley by Sam Tanenhaus, placed the book's publication in the fall of 1951. He recorded that McGeorge Bundy, then a Harvard professor, reviewed it in *The Atlantic* as "A twisted, ignorant young man," and wrote that "At the time of the publication of his book, Buckley was secretly on the payroll of the CIA."[^23]
### Mexico City, 1951 to 1952
Hunt wrote that he volunteered to open the [[Office of Policy Coordination]] station in Mexico City, beginning in the late summer of 1950, and that "First on my list was Bill Buckley, who readily agreed and set about working out details of his cover."[^22] The Office of Policy Coordination was the covert-action office within the CIA. Isikoff wrote that Buckley was "an undercover officer working out of the agency's Mexico City station," posing "as a businessman trying to break into the import-export trade under the alias 'Geoffrey T. Bolgiano.'"[^23]
Hunt's memoir places Buckley among his first recruited agents in Mexico: "One by one, my outside agents were arriving in Mexico, Bill Buckley among the first, with his pregnant wife, Pat." Hunt wrote that he and Buckley frequently lunched "at what was then the only good French restaurant in Mexico City."[^24] Buckley's wife was Patricia Taylor, whom he married on July 6, 1950.[^25]
Hunt assigned Buckley to help [[Eudocio Ravines]], a Chilean former Communist living under an alias in Mexico City, to finish *The Yenan Way* and translate it into English. "For several months this project occupied most of Buckley's time; and when the English translation had been accepted in New York by Scribner's, Buckley decided to leave Mexico and CIA." Hunt wrote that Buckley was "thinking either of purchasing the *American Mercury* magazine, which had been on the downgrade for several years, or founding a magazine of his own."[^26]
A 1985 article in *The Spotlight*, a weekly newspaper, attributes to an anonymous source the claim that Buckley "inaugurated this era of CIA potboilers," and says that in "1952 or '53" [[Allen Dulles]] developed "a personal interest in a well-known Chilean defector, Eudocio Ravines," whom the CIA flew from Paris to a safehouse in Mexico City, where Buckley, "then working as a Clandestine Services operative," was assigned to revise a manuscript that [[Charles Scribner's Sons]] then published as *The Yenan Way*. The article names Hunt as the officer who supervised the project.[^27]
Buckley's own accounts agree with Hunt on the sequence. In a *National Review* piece of November 1, 2005 he wrote: "When in 1951 I was inducted into the CIA as a deep cover agent, the procedures for disguising my affiliation and my work were unsmilingly comprehensive. It was three months before I was formally permitted to inform my wife what the real reason was for going to Mexico City to live. If, a year later, I had been apprehended, dosed with sodium pentothal, and forced to give out the names of everyone I knew in the CIA, I could have come up with exactly one name, that of my immediate boss (E. Howard Hunt, as it happened)." He added that "In my case, it was 15 years after reentry into the secular world before my secret career in Mexico was blown, harming no one except perhaps some who might have been put off by my deception," and recalled that in 1980 a former president of Mexico seated next to him at a ski-area restaurant asked what he had done when he lived in Mexico, and that he answered: "I tried to undermine your regime, Mr. President."[^2]
In a *Paris Review* interview of summer 1996, asked how much of his novels was true, Buckley said: "I poach on history to the extent that I can. For instance, when I was in the CIA it was reported to me that the evidence was overwhelming that the destruction of Constantin Oumansky's airplane" was "an act of terrorism, executed by Stalin." Oumansky was the Soviet ambassador to Mexico.[^28] *Reader's Digest* reported in January 1986 that Blackford Oakes, the hero of *Saving the Queen*, "went to Yale and was later recruited by the CIA. So, indeed, was Buckley, who in 1951 served in Mexico under Howard Hunt." The article quotes Buckley: "My admiration for the mission of the CIA," he stressed, "was never confused with any evaluation of its overall effectiveness." It says that after leaving the Agency he wrote in *National Review* that "The attempted assassination of Sukarno has all the look of an 'operation' by the CIA: everyone got killed except the appointed victim."[^29] The same article records that at the fifteenth-anniversary party of *Firing Line* in 1981, when President [[Ronald Reagan]] telephoned with congratulations, Buckley told him: "By the way, I have Gordon Liddy and Howard Hunt here. Do you have any instructions?"[^29]
The published biographical entries for Buckley that the FBI collected in 1969 list his early 1950s employment as "Sr. editor American Mercury, 1952" in one edition of a biographical directory and "Asso. editor Am. Mercury, 1952" in another.[^25] The Bureau's inquiry of June 1969 recorded that the Yale alumni office's records showed Buckley indicating, on May 22, 1952, employment with *The American Mercury* as associate editor. [[William Bradford Huie]], whom the Bureau described as a former owner and editor of the magazine, told an agent at Miami Beach that Buckley "was only associated with the magazine approximately 2 to 3 months" and could not recall his position or title.[^30] His sister [[Priscilla Buckley]] appears in a directory entry in the same file as "reports officer CIA, Washington, 1951-53."[^31]
At the 1985 libel trial of [[Liberty Lobby]], the publisher of *The Spotlight*, against *National Review* and Buckley in federal court in Washington, Liberty Lobby's attorney [[Mark Lane]] accused Buckley in his closing argument of working with Hunt "to put Spotlight out of business." The *Washington Times* reported that "Hunt was Mr. Buckley's supervisor when he worked briefly for the CIA in Mexico City during the early 1950s, according to testimony in the present trial." The jury found on October 25, 1985 that Liberty Lobby had libeled *National Review* and awarded $1,001 in damages.[^32]
### Hunt, the children and the estate
Hunt wrote in a footnote that he and his wife had asked Buckley "to become guardian of our children and executor of our estate in the event of our death." Buckley, Hunt wrote, was "already the children's godfather," and "Bill agreed."[^26] Hunt's wife died on December 8, 1972, when [[United Air Lines Flight 553]] crashed while approaching [[Chicago Midway International Airport|Midway Airport]] in Chicago.[^33]
Hunt's earlier path crossed the family in Spain. Hunt wrote that when he arrived in Madrid in 1964, he and his family moved by prearrangement into the apartment owned by Buckley's brother [[Reid Buckley]], who was summering on Spain's northern coast.[^34]
On January 17, 1973 Hunt flew to San Francisco, and the next morning he appeared at station KQED in the *Firing Line* taping, before students from Mills College. Hunt wrote that Buckley had telephoned to ask whether he could tape the segment, that Hunt replied that discussing Watergate would be against his interests, and that Buckley "had no intention of putting me in so difficult a position" and wanted instead to discuss the CIA and foreign policy with Mario Lazo.[^35] [[Alvin Felzenberg]] wrote that in the preface to Buckley's 1975 collection *Execution Eve and Other Contemporary Ballads* Buckley explained that he had written little on Watergate between December 1972 and April 1973 because he felt "greatly encumbered," unable to reveal details a friend had confided to him about the friend's part in several misdeeds on Nixon's behalf, and that he absented himself from *National Review* editorial meetings when Watergate was discussed. Felzenberg identified the friend as Hunt and wrote that Hunt telephoned Buckley ten days after his wife's death to say that she had named Buckley alternate executor of her estate.[^36]
In August 1973 an FBI background check on Buckley, opened for a government appointment, recorded a statement by [[Arthur Schlesinger Jr.]] that Buckley "is a good friend of E. Howard Hunt, connected with the Watergate break-in, and is the godfather of some of his children." Schlesinger told agents that he "would not recommend him for a government position," and described him as a loyal American citizen.[^37]
Hunt wrote that after his conviction in the Watergate case, Maryland authorities removed him as executor of his wife's estate, and that his successor under the terms of her will was "William F. Buckley, Jr."[^38] The same footnote describes the effect: "Thus stripped of even the right to engage in litigation, I realized that I was on my way to becoming a nonperson, though still very much a taxpayer."[^38]
After Hunt's Senate testimony, he wrote, the Senate "received several thousand telegrams and letters in the wake of my testimony and those were answered by a small committee William Buckley established in my behalf at his National Review offices." Hunt wrote that "Buckley solicited funds to pay for my legal defense and, when returns were disappointing, suggested my retaining his personal attorney, C. Dickerman Williams, at no cost to me."[^39] A Baltimore lawyer, William Snyder Jr., "who had been handling my wife's estate at Buckley's request," also assisted him.[^39]
On his release, Hunt wrote, he traveled to New York with Snyder and they went to "Buckley's town house at noon," where Hunt found one of his sons "with Pat and Bill Buckley and Dick Williams." After lunch "we discussed my situation and decided that for the present I would make no public statements or appearances." Hunt added that he remembered "Buckley's jovial comment" that he had better not attend his appeal, "for every time I'd been in court I'd lost."[^40]
### National Review
The first issue of *National Review* was dated November 19, 1955. Its opening statement by Buckley said that the magazine "stands athwart history, yelling Stop, at a time when no one is inclined to do so, or to have much patience with those who so urge it."[^41] A profile of Buckley in the CIA's files, from *Reader's Digest* of January 1986, states that $350,000 was raised to start the magazine, plus $100,000 from Buckley's family, and that the magazine had been running annual deficits of $450,000 to $550,000 in recent years.[^29]
A 1969 interview summarized in the FBI file, with an unnamed interviewee, describes Buckley as "considered a financial wizard inasmuch as he succeeded in publishing the 'National Review' for many years in spite of the fact the magazine operated at a financial loss." The same interviewee said Buckley "has offset losses by soliciting contributions from friends and subscribers."[^42] The file records that [[Peter Starr]], president of Starr Broadcasting Group of [[Omaha, Nebraska]], who had known and worked for Buckley since 1954, told agents that the company had been founded "with Mr. Buckley's financial backing," and that Buckley was its majority stockholder and chairman of the board.[^42] The file also records that Buckley had been on the Bureau's Special Correspondents List until May 25, 1967, when he was removed "after writing a mock editorial of the New York Times" for *National Review*.[^43]
In a letter to Nichols of July 30, 1957, summarized in a Bureau memorandum of December 5, 1957, Buckley advised that a Mexican colonel, Emiliano Izaguirre, had asked him to arrange an introduction to the Director because he had information to give. The memorandum records that Buckley referred the colonel to another office and that the person he referred him to "refused to see" him.[^44]
A CIA file holds letters from [[Whittaker Chambers]] to Buckley. One, dated March 10, 1957 and addressed "Dear Bill," begins: "My silence has lasted too long." It recalls that "Mr. Allen Dulles said words to this effect: 'There seems no reason to suppose that the Russian mind is not the equal of the American mind,'" and continues: "Perhaps Bukharin's last words should hang in Mr. Dulles' office too, in the offices of both Mr. Dulleses." The CIA's copy bears a check mark beside the Dulles passage.[^45]
A CIA file holds a 1966 clipping from the *New York Daily News* reporting that the [[Historic Research Foundation]], of which Buckley was a trustee, planned a $2,000 grant to study the [[Warren Commission]] report. The clipping states that the idea "originated with William F. Buckley Jr., editor of the National Review."[^46] In 1968 the *New York Times* reported that Buckley was starting a newsletter to expose "Communist intrigues" in American life. Buckley said the publication would become "the rallying point for the forces struggling to restore an ordered America."[^47]
A 1971 CIA clipping from the *San Bernardino Sun-Telegram* describes a set of "secret Vietnam documents" that *National Review* published, with dispatches attributed to former Secretary of State [[Dean Rusk]] and to the CIA. The article quotes Buckley as saying the purpose was to demonstrate that "the Pentagon and the CIA are not composed of incompetents."[^48]
### Young Americans for Freedom and the Sharon Statement
[[Young Americans for Freedom]] was founded at a meeting at Buckley's home in Sharon, Connecticut. The organization's own history states that the [[Sharon Statement]] was adopted on September 11, 1960 "by a group of 100 young conservatives who convened at the home of William F. Buckley in Sharon, Connecticut," and that the meeting was held "with the purpose of creating Young Americans for Freedom."[^49] The statement opens: "In this time of moral and political crises, it is the responsibility of the youth of America to affirm certain eternal truths." Its first clause holds "That foremost among the transcendent values is the individual's use of his God-given free will, whence derives his right to be free from the restrictions of arbitrary force."[^49]
The organization names Ronald Reagan as its honorary national chairman. The statement's tenth clause reads: "That the forces of international Communism are, at present, the greatest single threat to these liberties."[^49] The FBI file records that in April 1953 Buckley was president of the Intercollegiate Society of Individualists.[^6]
### The 1965 mayoral campaign
Buckley ran for mayor of New York in 1965 as the candidate of the [[Conservative Party of New York]]. He announced his candidacy at the Overseas Press Club on June 24, 1965, after telling the party chairman, [[J. Daniel Mahoney]], on June 7 that he would accept the nomination.[^50] The *Ripon Forum* of November 1965 reports that polls had shown him "up to 18%" of the vote, that he polled "only 13.4%," that Buckley "drew more heavily from Beame than Lindsay," and that [[Samuel Lubell]] found Buckley voters listing their second choice as "7-5 Beame over Lindsay." It reports a Buckley worker at Conservative headquarters who, when a network announced [[John Lindsay]] as the winner over [[Abraham Beame]], concluded: "Oh, my God, Buckley has elected Lindsay."[^51] Lindsay won with 45.3 percent to Beame's 41.3 percent.[^50]
Buckley's account of the campaign, *The Unmaking of a Mayor*, appeared in 1966.[^52] J. Daniel Mahoney was the attorney who argued *National Review*'s libel case against Liberty Lobby in 1985.[^53]
### Firing Line
*Firing Line* ran from 1966 to 1999. The Hoover Institution holds the broadcast records for the program, 1966 to 1999, in 190 manuscript boxes and 222 oversize boxes, with an episode guide, transcripts and program research files.[^54] A *New York Times* report by Val Adams, filed in the CIA reading room, announced the series in early 1966: "Firing Line With William Buckley" was to be presented by WOR-TV on Saturdays from 10 to 11 P.M., with a different opponent each week, and with [[Theodore Sorensen]], the former special counsel to President Kennedy, considering an invitation to debate Buckley on the first program. The article describes Buckley as "the Conservative party's mayoralty candidate last year" and says R.K.O. General Productions would syndicate the series.[^55]
On January 21, 1973, WETA in Washington broadcast a *Firing Line* segment on the CIA and Cuba with Hunt and the Havana lawyer Mario Lazo. Buckley introduced Hunt as having been "intimately involved as an official in the CIA in the Bay of Pigs." He then said: "The presiding judge and Mr. Hunt's own lawyer have forbidden him to speak about Watergate."[^56] Hunt had pleaded guilty in the Watergate case the previous Monday. Asked whether he had been arrested, Hunt said: "I was never arrested." Later in the segment he said: "I was never a fugitive." Asked whether the Watergate break-in could have been a CIA operation, Hunt answered: "perhaps I shouldn't have answered your earlier question as definitively as I did," and he cited the CIA's support of the National Student Association as a domestic operation.[^56]
On September 29, 1974, *Firing Line* broadcast a segment on the CIA in Chile with [[Edward Korry]], the former ambassador to Chile. Buckley described the controversy over the role of the CIA in Chile during the [[Salvador Allende]] years and asked Korry whether he acknowledged the testimony of CIA Director [[William Colby]] to a congressional committee.[^57]
### Nixon administration appointments
On May 28, 1969 President [[Richard Nixon]] announced his intention to nominate Buckley to the United States Advisory Commission on Information, the advisory body of the [[United States Information Agency]]; the nomination of June 13, 1969 was for a three-year term expiring January 27, 1972, in place of Sigurd S. Larmon.[^58] A syndicated column by Drew Pearson and [[Jack Anderson]] of May 1969, printed in the *Philadelphia Bulletin* and held in the CIA files, reported that Buckley would replace Larmon of Young and Rubicam on the commission.[^59] The FBI inquiry opened on June 2, 1969 at White House request, with instructions that no neighborhood investigation be conducted without Bureau approval; the Bureau's memorandum of June 12 states that persons interviewed "furnished favorable comments."[^43]
The Nixon Library's finding aid for Buckley lists a photograph of June 9, 1970 of Nixon meeting Buckley, [[Frank Shakespeare]], director of the Information Agency, and [[Henry Kissinger]], and one of December 7, 1970 of Nixon with the commission, whose members included Frank Stanton of CBS, Hobart Lewis of *Reader's Digest*, [[James Michener]], John Shaheen of Shaheen Natural Resources, and Buckley.[^60] The same guide lists a National Security Council name file on Buckley covering May 1970 to August 1972, a letter from Buckley to [[Pat Buchanan]] of December 19, 1972 on a list of campaign contributors, and a memorandum from Buchanan to [[H. R. Haldeman]] of January 4, 1973 on a letter from Buckley, with handwritten notes added by Higby and [[John Dean]].[^60]
Buckley was named a public delegate to the [[United Nations]] General Assembly in 1973.[^61] *Reader's Digest* reported in 1986 that Reagan had joked during the 1980 campaign about appointing Buckley an ambassador, and that Buckley was later sounded out about the post of ambassador to the United Nations and said no.[^29]
### The CIA reading room file
The CIA's reading room holds a series of items on Buckley's public activities. They include a letter of April 10, 1978 from Buckley to Director of Central Intelligence [[Stansfield Turner]] ("Dear Stan"), in which Buckley wrote that "the Hartford Courant's precis of what you said is not really distorted," that he was "very happy to hear from you about Tom Polgar," who "wrote me an indignant letter," and that he found [[Frank Snepp]]'s treatment of Polgar "not entirely unsympathetic." Buckley asked whether Turner had objections to his publishing Turner's letter in his editor's column in *National Review*. A letter of October 3, 1979 from Buckley to Turner accepts an invitation, says that he cannot attend on November 14, and asks that Turner's people find a date when he is free.[^62]
### James L. Buckley
James L. Buckley, Buckley's brother, served in the United States Senate from January 1971 to January 1977, elected on the Conservative Party line in 1970.[^63] The CIA reading room holds letters from him to Turner in 1977 and to [[William Casey]] in 1982.[^64] Millegan lists him among Bonesmen connected with the intelligence community.[^19] The *Covert Action Information Bulletin* reported in 1990 that he was Under Secretary of State for Security Assistance, Science and Technology in 1981 and 1982, and cited Donald Freed and Fred Landis, *Death in Washington* (1980), for the statement that on September 14, 1976, a week before the assassination of [[Orlando Letelier]], [[Michael Townley]] and [[Guillermo Novo]] visited Senator Buckley's office in New York.[^20]
### H.L. Hunt
Buckley's comment on [[H.L. Hunt]] appears on the Hunt page in the account of his will and estate. Texas Monthly reported in March 1975 that in a column published shortly after Hunt's death Buckley declared that Hunt had left "capitalism a bad name, not, goodness knows, by frenzies of extravagance, but by his eccentric understanding of public affairs, his yahoo bigotry and his appallingly bad manners."[^65]
### Skull and Bones and the 1992 campaign
The [[George H.W. Bush]] Presidential Library's file FOIA 2009-0116-F, on the society, describes its contents as "related to the Skull and Bones Society at Yale University, of which George H. W. Bush and his father [[Prescott Bush]] were both members."[^66] The file contains "correspondence from President Bush to William F. Buckley, Jr. and [[Thomas W. Ludlow Ashley]] regarding an article Buckley wrote for National Review." The article "responded to Pat Buchanan's characterization of Bush's foreign policy as 'Skull and Bones foreign policy' during the 1992 campaign."[^66]
### Last years
Buckley died at his home in Stamford, Connecticut, on February 27, 2008, at the age of 82. His son Christopher told the *New York Times* that he had suffered from diabetes and emphysema and was found at his desk in the study of his home.[^67]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1950 (Buckley, William Frank Jr.; Draper, William Henry III; Galbraith, Evan Griffith; Guinzburg, Thomas Henry; Lovett, Sidney; MacLeish, William Hitchcock). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^2]: William F. Buckley Jr., "Who Did What?", *National Review*, November 1, 2005. https://www.nationalreview.com/2005/11/who-did-what-william-f-buckley-jr/
[^3]: FBI headquarters file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 1, family memorandum on William Frank Buckley Sr., dated March 27 (birth, University of Texas, Texas Land Office, practice in Mexico City from November 1, 1908, Buckley & Buckley, Tampico office, Pantepec Oil Company, E. A. Pierce & Company). https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1
[^4]: John A. Adams, *William F. Buckley Sr.: Witness to the Mexican Revolution, 1908-1922* (University of Oklahoma Press, 2023), publisher's description, with foreword by James L. Buckley. https://www.oupress.com/9780806191829/william-f-buckley-sr
[^5]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 2, summary of the December 1921 edition of a Mexico City daily reporting a statement made by William Frank Buckley Sr. to a representative of the *Excelsior* at San Antonio, Texas; the file gives the statement as reportedly made. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-2
[^6]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 1, summary memorandum of December 5, 1957 (Nichols and the 1949 Yale forum, about 500 attendees; visit of October 25, 1950; Sokolsky column of October 15, 1951; president of the Intercollegiate Society of Individualists as of April 1953; main file on Buckley Sr., expelled from Mexico in 1922). https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1
[^7]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 1, entry for John William Buckley, president of Catawba Oil Explorations Company. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1
[^8]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 2, biographical directory entry "Buckley, John William, petroleum co. exec." (born June 22, 1920; Yale 1942). https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-2
[^9]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 2, biographical directory entry for James Lane Buckley ("v.p dir. Catawba Corp., 1953-70"). https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-2
[^10]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 2, memorandum W. V. Cleveland to Mr. Gale, June 12, 1969, subject William Frank Buckley, Jr., Special Inquiry, White House. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-2
[^11]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 2, teletype of August 1973 reporting an interview at the Catawba Corporation, New York ("appointee continues to be a director"; "the president of the corporation is John Buckley, brother of the appointee"). https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-2
[^12]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 2, teletype of June 1969 reporting Yale alumni office records (St. John's Beaumont College 1938-39; Millbrook School 1940-43; University of Mexico 1943). https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-2
[^13]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 2, report on military records, National Personnel Records Center, reviewed June 3, 1969. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-2
[^14]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 2, report of June 7, 1969 on Yale Alumni Office, Registrar's Office and Dean's Office records (entered September 1946; B.A. June 12, 1950; assistant instructor of Spanish, 1947 through 1951, resigned November 1950; defeated in 1968 election for the Yale Corporation board). https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-2
[^15]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 1, memorandum L. B. Nichols to Mr. Tolson, October 20, 1950, with Buckley's letter of October 19, 1950. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1
[^16]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 1, summary memorandum (April 1953 contact with Nichols on a book "to counteract the Alan Barth and Biddle books"). https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1
[^17]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), list of members of The Order and the Council on Foreign Relations; passage on the Order and the media ("The Order" is Sutton's term; the quoted phrases are his own); passage on the Bilderbergers. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^18]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977 (passages on Bill Bundy, Bill Buckley, McGeorge Bundy, Coffin and Blackford Oakes). https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977
[^19]: Kris Millegan, ed., *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (2003), list of Bonesmen connected with the intelligence community and the profile passage on Publisher William F. Buckley (S&B 1950); the Millegan statements are the editor's own.
[^20]: "Bush's Boy's Club: Skull and Bones," *Covert Action Information Bulletin*, no. 33 (Winter 1990), pp. 20 to 22, citing Donald Freed and Fred Landis, *Death in Washington: The Murder of Orlando Letelier* (1980), p. 168. https://archive.org/details/CAIB33
[^21]: William F. Buckley Jr., *God and Man at Yale: The Superstitions of "Academic Freedom"* (Henry Regnery Company, 1951). https://archive.org/details/godmanatyale0000will
[^22]: E. Howard Hunt, *Undercover: Memoirs of an American Secret Agent* (G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1974), pp. 68-69. https://archive.org/details/undercovermemoirsofanamericansecretagent
[^23]: Michael Isikoff, "William F. Buckley, Jr., CIA Spy," SpyTalk, June 9, 2025, on Sam Tanenhaus, *Buckley: The Life and the Revolution That Changed America* (Random House, 2025). https://www.spytalk.co/p/william-f-buckley-jr-cia-spy
[^24]: Hunt, *Undercover* (1974), p. 73. https://archive.org/details/undercovermemoirsofanamericansecretagent
[^25]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 2, biographical directory entries for "Buckley, William Frank, Jr." ("m. Patricia Taylor, July 6, 1950"; "Asso. editor Am. Mercury, 1952" in one edition and "Sr. editor American Mercury, 1952" in another). https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-2
[^26]: Hunt, *Undercover* (1974), pp. 77-78 (text and footnote). https://archive.org/details/undercovermemoirsofanamericansecretagent
[^27]: CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP91-00587R000100610009-7, *The Spotlight*, July 29, 1985, "Buckley Sets Precedent." The statements are those of the anonymous source quoted by the newspaper. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp91-00587r000100610009-7
[^28]: Sam Vaughan, "William F. Buckley Jr., The Art of Fiction No. 146," *The Paris Review*, no. 139 (Summer 1996). https://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/1395/the-art-of-fiction-no-146-william-f-buckley-jr
[^29]: Irwin Ross, profile of William F. Buckley Jr., *Reader's Digest*, January 1986, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP90-00965R000200920007-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00965r000200920007-5
[^30]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 2, teletype of June 1969 (Yale alumni office record of May 22, 1952; Huie described as former owner and editor) and Birmingham field office report on the interview of William Bradford Huie, whose synopsis states that he "verified BUCKLEY'S employment at American Mercury during Spring of 1952." https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-2
[^31]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 2, biographical directory entry "Buckley, Priscilla Langford, mag. exec." (daughter of William Frank and Aloise Steiner Buckley). https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-2
[^32]: "National Review Wins $1,001 in Libel Suit Against Liberty Lobby," *The Washington Post*, October 26, 1985. https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1985/10/26/national-review-wins-1001-in-libel-suit-against-liberty-lobby/aa0b6085-a6f8-4cc7-a571-d39892b18343/
[^33]: National Transportation Safety Board, *Aircraft Accident Report: United Air Lines, Inc., Boeing 737, N9031U, Chicago-Midway Airport, Chicago, Illinois, December 8, 1972* (1973), catalog record at the Transportation Research Board. https://trid.trb.org/View/10614 ; Hunt, *Undercover* (1974). https://archive.org/details/undercovermemoirsofanamericansecretagent
[^34]: Hunt, *Undercover* (1974), pp. 134-135. https://archive.org/details/undercovermemoirsofanamericansecretagent
[^35]: Hunt, *Undercover* (1974), pp. 291-292. https://archive.org/details/undercovermemoirsofanamericansecretagent
[^36]: Alvin S. Felzenberg, excerpt on Buckley and Hunt, "Watergate Burglar Howard Hunt Was William Buckley's Deep Throat," *The Daily Beast*, May 13, 2017. https://www.thedailybeast.com/watergate-burglar-howard-hunt-was-william-buckleys-deep-throat
[^37]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 2, teletype from the New Haven office to the Director, August 15, 1973, reporting the interview of Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. (the teletype is in capitals; quoted here in lower case). https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-2
[^38]: Hunt, *Undercover* (1974), p. 293 (footnote). https://archive.org/details/undercovermemoirsofanamericansecretagent
[^39]: Hunt, *Undercover* (1974), pp. 322-323. https://archive.org/details/undercovermemoirsofanamericansecretagent
[^40]: Hunt, *Undercover* (1974), p. 327. https://archive.org/details/undercovermemoirsofanamericansecretagent
[^41]: William F. Buckley Jr., "Our Mission Statement," *National Review*, November 19, 1955, reproduced by the National Review Institute. https://nrinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Our-Mission-Statement.pdf
[^42]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 2, special inquiry interview summaries, June 1969 (the interviewee's name is withheld; Peter H. Starr, president of Starr Broadcasting Group, Incorporated, Omaha, Nebraska). https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-2
[^43]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 2, memoranda W. V. Cleveland to Mr. Gale of June 2, 1969 (Special Correspondents List until May 25, 1967; no neighborhood investigation) and June 12, 1969 (persons interviewed "furnished favorable comments"). https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-2
[^44]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 1, summary memorandum of December 5, 1957 (letter of July 30, 1957 from Buckley to Nichols; Colonel Emiliano Izaguirre). https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1
[^45]: Letter from Whittaker Chambers to William F. Buckley Jr., March 10, 1957, as printed in *National Review*, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP75-00001R000100020108-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000100020108-6
[^46]: CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP73-00475R000202020001-1, *New York Daily News*, September 8, 1966, "Buckley Group Plans Warren Report Study." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp73-00475r000202020001-1
[^47]: CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP88-01314R000100310006-5, Henry Raymont, "Buckley Starting Newsletter to Expose Leftist Influence," *New York Times*, 1968. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01314r000100310006-5
[^48]: CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP80-01601R000300360081-4, *San Bernardino Sun-Telegram*, July 23, 1971, "The Misadventure of Buckley." https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80-01601R000300360081-4
[^49]: Young America's Foundation, "The Sharon Statement: A Timeless Declaration of Conservative Principles," May 4, 2016 (text of the statement as published). https://yaf.org/news/the-sharon-statement/
[^50]: Alvin S. Felzenberg, "'Demand a Recount!': William F. Buckley's Quixotic 1965 Run for NYC Mayor," *HistoryNet*, August 1, 2018. https://historynet.com/demand-a-recount-bill-buckleys-quixotic-1965-run-for-nyc-mayor/
[^51]: *The Ripon Forum*, vol. 1, no. 7 (November 1965). https://riponsociety.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/1965-11_Vol-1_No-7.pdf
[^52]: William F. Buckley Jr., *The Unmaking of a Mayor* (1966). https://archive.org/details/unmakingofmayor0000will
[^53]: George Archibald, "Jury begged not to let Buckley 'punish and destroy' Spotlight," *Washington Times*, October 25, 1985, p. 3-A, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP90-00845R000201140006-4. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00845R000201140006-4
[^54]: Hoover Institution, *Firing Line (Television Program) Broadcast Records, 1966-1999*, finding aid (extent: 190 manuscript boxes and 222 oversize boxes). https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt6m3nc88c/
[^55]: Val Adams, "Buckley Signed for TV Debates," *New York Times*, early 1966 (the item calls Buckley "the Conservative party's mayoralty candidate last year"), CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP88-01365R000300200003-2. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP88-01365R000300200003-2
[^56]: *Firing Line*, WETA-TV, January 21, 1973, transcript, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP84-00499R000200010003-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84-00499r000200010003-1
[^57]: *Firing Line*, WETA-TV, September 29, 1974, transcript, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP09T00207R001000020024-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp09t00207r001000020024-7
[^58]: Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum, Nixon Almanac, May 28, 1969 (5 Weekly Comp. Pres. Doc. 759, announcement of intention to nominate William F. Buckley, Jr., as a member of the United States Advisory Commission on Information) and June 13, 1969 (nomination for the term expiring January 27, 1972, vice Sigurd S. Larmon). https://www.nixonlibrary.gov/index.php/research/almanac/may-28-1969 ; https://www.nixonlibrary.gov/index.php/research/almanac/june-13-1969
[^59]: CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP88-01315R000300460003-9, Drew Pearson and Jack Anderson, "Nixon Giving Buckley High Post in USIA," *Philadelphia Bulletin*, May 1969. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01315r000300460003-9
[^60]: Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum, "Resources for William F. Buckley" (finding aid: WHPO-3649, June 9, 1970; WHPO-5220, December 7, 1970; NSC name files, box 809; WHSF contested files, box 16, folder 15). https://www.nixonlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/2023-08/william_f._buckley.pdf
[^61]: "William F. Buckley, Jr.," *Encyclopaedia Britannica*. https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-F-Buckley-Jr
[^62]: Letter from William F. Buckley Jr. to Stansfield Turner, April 10, 1978, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP05T00644R000501490003-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp05t00644r000501490003-3 ; letter from Buckley to Turner, October 3, 1979, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP83-00156R001000100004-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83-00156r001000100004-2
[^63]: Voteview, biographical record of James Lane Buckley (Senate service January 1971 to January 1977; Conservative Party of New York, 1970 election). https://voteview.com/person/13100/james-lane-buckley ; Associated Press obituary of James L. Buckley, August 2023, describing him as the brother of William F. Buckley Jr. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/amp/politics/james-buckley-conservative-senator-and-brother-of-late-writer-william-f-buckley-dies-at-100
[^64]: CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP05T00644R000501480007-0, letter from James L. Buckley to Stansfield Turner, October 10, 1977. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP05T00644R000501480007-0 ; CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP83M00914R001000060041-4, letter from James L. Buckley to William J. Casey, June 28, 1982. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83m00914r001000060041-4
[^65]: Bill Porterfield, "H.L. Hunt's Long Goodbye," *Texas Monthly*, March 1975. https://www.texasmonthly.com/news-politics/h-l-hunts-long-goodbye/
[^66]: George H.W. Bush Presidential Library, "Records on Skull and Bones Society," FOIA 2009-0116-F, scope and content note, processed August 2009. https://www.bush41library.gov/download/file/4777
[^67]: *New York Times* obituary of William F. Buckley Jr., February 2008, as reprinted by the History News Network. https://historynewsnetwork.org/article/47800

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---
aliases:
- William P. Bundy
- William Bundy
- William Putnam Bundy
- Bill Bundy
- W. P. Bundy
category: "Intelligence & Government"
tags:
- Person
- CIA
- OfficeOfNationalEstimates
- AlgerHiss
- JosephMcCarthy
- BayOfPigs
- CubanMissileCrisis
- Vietnam
- GulfOfTonkin
- PentagonPapers
- SkullAndBones
- ForeignAffairs
- CouncilOnForeignRelations
- Bletchley
- Ultra
- DeanAcheson
summary: "William P. Bundy, son-in-law of Dean Acheson, served in the CIA's Office of National Estimates and the Pentagon, then as Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs from 1964 to 1969."
born: 1917-09-24
died: 2000-10-06
location: "Princeton, New Jersey"
relations:
- type: relative_of
with: "[[McGeorge Bundy]]"
role: "brother"
fn: 2
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Harvey H. Bundy]]"
role: "father"
fn: 2
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Dean Acheson]]"
role: "father-in-law"
fn: 2
- type: spouse_of
with: "[[Mary Acheson]]"
start: 1943
fn: 1
- type: member_of
with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
start: 1939
fn: 8
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Covington & Burling]]"
start: 1947
end: 1951
fn: 1
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Central Intelligence Agency]]"
start: 1951-06
role: "Office of National Estimates; chief of staff and liaison to the National Security Council staff"
fn: 11
- type: investigated
with: "[[Joseph McCarthy]]"
reverse: true
start: 1953-07
end: 1953-08
role: "Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations chairman's inquiry into his $400 contribution to the defense of Alger Hiss"
fn: 13
- type: appointed
with: "[[John F. Kennedy]]"
start: 1961
role: "Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs"
fn: 1
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Department of Defense]]"
start: 1961
end: 1964
role: "Deputy Assistant Secretary, then Assistant Secretary of Defense, for International Security Affairs"
fn: 1
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Bay of Pigs]]"
start: 1961-02
end: 1961-03
role: "attended the White House meetings of March 11, 15, 16 and 29, 1961 on the Trinidad and Zapata plans"
fn: 19
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Cuban Missile Crisis]]"
start: 1962-10
role: "deliberations, per the Washington Post obituary and the Princeton finding aid"
fn: 2
- type: appointed
with: "[[Lyndon B. Johnson]]"
start: 1964
role: "Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs"
fn: 1
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Department of State]]"
start: 1964
end: 1969
role: "Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (renamed East Asian and Pacific Affairs)"
fn: 1
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Center for International Studies]]"
start: 1969
role: "senior research associate at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology"
fn: 2
- type: director_of
with: "[[Council on Foreign Relations]]"
start: 1964
end: 1972
role: "board of directors"
fn: 1
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Council on Foreign Relations]]"
start: 1972
end: 1984
role: "editor of Foreign Affairs"
fn: 41
created: 2026-10-26
updated: 2026-10-26
---
William Putnam Bundy (September 24, 1917 to October 6, 2000) was a staff officer of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], a Defense Department and State Department official, and editor of [[Foreign Affairs]].[^1] He was the son of [[Harvey H. Bundy]], the older brother of [[McGeorge Bundy]], and the son-in-law of [[Dean Acheson]].[^2]
### Family
The [[Washington Post]] reported that Bundy was born in Washington, where his father was serving as counsel to the World War I Food Administration.[^2] [[Antony C. Sutton]] wrote that Harvey Hollister Bundy was born in Grand Rapids, Michigan in 1888, died in 1963, was initiated into [[Skull and Bones]] in 1909, and served as law clerk to Justice [[Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.]] in 1914 and 1915, a clerkship Sutton noted [[Alger Hiss]] also held in 1929 and 1930.[^3] [[Henry L. Stimson]] appointed Harvey H. Bundy Assistant Secretary of State, and Stimson's memoir records the appointment as filling a gap left by the death of a senior officer with economic experience.[^4] Harvey H. Bundy was present by invitation at the meeting of the wartime [[Interim Committee]] on May 31, 1945, whose secretary recorded him among the attendees with Stimson and the committee's scientists.[^5]
Sutton listed the elder Bundy's five children: Harvey Hollister Bundy Jr. (Yale 1938, which Sutton recorded as not initiated into Skull and Bones), William Putnam Bundy (initiated 1939), McGeorge Bundy (initiated 1940), Harriet Lowell Bundy, who married Gaspar d'Andelot Belin of [[Covington & Burling]], and Katharine Lawrence Bundy, who married Hugh Auchincloss Jr.[^6] The Post obituary calls William Bundy the older brother of McGeorge Bundy and records that he was sometimes known as "the other Bundy."[^2]
In 1943 he married Mary Acheson, daughter of Dean Acheson.[^1] The couple had three children.[^2] Sutton described the connection as the "Whitney-Stimson-Bundy-Acheson Chain of Influence," wrote that Dean Acheson was a member of Scroll and Key at Yale, and that Acheson's son David was a member of Skull and Bones; Sutton also wrote that Acheson and Belin were former partners of Covington & Burling, the firm where Bundy worked from 1947 to 1951.[^7]
### Groton, Yale and Skull and Bones
Bundy attended [[Groton School]] (completed 1935) and [[Yale University]] (Yale College, 1939), and he attended the [[Harvard University|Harvard Graduate School]] in 1940.[^1] The Post reported that he was a trustee of Yale for 20 years.[^2]
Sutton's index of members by class year lists "William Putnam Bundy" in the class of 1939 of Skull and Bones, with the notation "CIA, Editor Foreign Affairs."[^8] [[Ron Rosenbaum]] wrote in [[Esquire]] in September 1977 that a reader could ask Bill Bundy or [[William F. Buckley Jr.|William F. Buckley]], "both of whom went into the C.I.A. after leaving Bones," whether the society's experience was useful training for the clandestine trade; the same passage names McGeorge Bundy.[^9] The Covert Action Information Bulletin stated in 1990 that "William Bundy is a Bonesman from the class of 1939."[^10]
### Army service and Bletchley Park
Bundy served in the United States Army from 1941 to 1946. During the war he commanded an [[Army Signal Corps]] unit that worked with the British at [[Bletchley Park]] on the [[Ultra]] operation, which broke high-level German Enigma ciphers. He received the Legion of Merit and was made a member of the Order of the British Empire.[^1] The Post quoted his later writing: "Although I have done many interesting things in my life and known many interesting people, my work at Bletchley Park was the most satisfying of my career."[^2] The Covert Action Information Bulletin wrote that his intelligence career began in the [[Office of Strategic Services]] during the war.[^10]
After law school at [[Harvard Law School]], which he finished in 1947, he worked for four years at Covington & Burling in Washington.[^1]
### Office of National Estimates, from 1951
A CIA letter to [[Joseph McCarthy]] dated July 22, 1953 states that Bundy joined the agency in June 1951 and was attached to the [[Office of National Estimates]], and that from June 1952 he served as assistant to the agency's adviser on the National Security Council's planning board.[^11] A report by [[Allen Drury]] of August 4, 1953 describes him as assistant to the adviser of the Office of National Estimates and as serving on the planning board of the [[National Security Council]].[^12] The Princeton finding aid records his post as chief of staff of the office and liaison to the National Security Council staff.[^1] The Post wrote that his work in the office included evaluating information gathered by field operatives, and quoted him: "I'm not the kind of fellow you can make a spook out of."[^2]
The Covert Action Information Bulletin gave his CIA service as 1951 to 1961, and Sutton gave the same years, adding that Bundy's four years at Covington & Burling suggested to him that Bundy "probably had CIA dealings" in the 1947 to 1951 period.[^6][^10] In 1960 Bundy was staff director of the President's Commission on National Goals.[^1][^2] The Bulletin quoted a foreword by Bundy to a book on the counter-insurgency era in which he wrote that "the preservation of liberal values, for America and other nations, required the use of the full range of U.S. power, including if necessary, its more shady applications."[^10]
### The Hiss defense fund and the McCarthy letters, 1953
In July 1953 McCarthy, as chairman of the [[Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations]], wrote to [[Allen Dulles]], director of the CIA, about Bundy's contribution to the defense of Alger Hiss. McCarthy's information was that Bundy had given $400 to the defense and had joined the [[United Public Workers of America]], which McCarthy identified as the Communist front organization to which Bundy belonged.[^11][^13]
An FBI memorandum of July 10, 1953 recorded that Dulles told the Bureau's liaison agent, [[Sam Papich]], that he had taken the position that it would be prejudicial to the interests of the United States to permit CIA employees to testify before the McCarthy committee, that he had been in touch with the White House about that position and had its support, and that he wanted to know where McCarthy obtained his information. Papich answered that the Bureau was not supplying it.[^14]
The agency's reply of July 22, 1953 confirmed the $400 contribution. It said that the reasons Bundy gave for the contribution were not in accord, in substantial respects, with the reasons given in the matter then under review, and that comment on those reasons would await a re-evaluation of his case under Executive Order 10450. The reply stated that the agency's files showed a field investigation of the three general allegations and a favorable determination by the CIA Loyalty Board and by the Loyalty Review Board of the [[Civil Service Commission]]. It also stated that Bundy had joined the union, attended one meeting and resigned, and that the record did not indicate membership in any other organization within the scope of McCarthy's third question.[^11] Drury reported that Dulles had told McCarthy that Bundy had joined the union in the summer of 1940 while working at the [[Library of Congress]], and that the exchange followed a conversation between the two on July 14.[^12]
According to the Drury report, Bundy's explanation was that he had contributed to help his father-in-law, Dean Acheson, in clearing Hiss.[^12]
McCarthy replied on July 27, 1953 that the confirmation of the contribution "raises the gravest question as to his holding a sensitive post in an intelligence agency," adding that a good part of that work "must involve the detection of activities of people such as Alger Hiss."[^15] He asked Dulles to explain Bundy's reasons more fully.[^15]
Dulles replied on August 1. The Drury report quotes the reply: "After most careful consideration of your letter, I feel that the proper course to pursue is to follow the procedure described in the President's executive order," and Dulles declined to comment on certain phases of the matter pending the conclusion of those proceedings.[^12] McCarthy's letter of August 3 answered that Dulles's position was extremely revealing, and that Congress was entitled to information about improper conduct by the agency's top officers. He wrote that "the last man in the world who would try to protect and hide the facts" about an officer's "contributions to a convicted traitor" would be the head of the CIA.[^16] The Drury report of August 4 carried McCarthy's statement that the full matter would be submitted to his subcommittee and to the Senate when it returned.[^12]
A syndicated column clipped into the FBI's liaison file described Bundy as "the CIA man under both Smith and Allen Dulles, who gave the $400 for the Hiss defense," a son-in-law of Acheson and "a member of the Acheson coterie," and reported that Senator [[Mike Monroney]] had defended the agency on the Senate floor against McCarthy's inquiry. A later Bureau memorandum noted that "the wide publicity given to the William Bundy matter" and Dulles's encounter with McCarthy had placed Dulles in "a most uncomfortable position."[^17] Sutton wrote that McCarthy "wanted to call William Bundy as a witness before the Committee and found the establishment strongly arrayed against this idea," and suggested that the establishment's reaction concerned more than McCarthy's treatment of witnesses.[^6]
### Defense Department, 1961 to 1964
The Princeton finding aid records his appointment as Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs in 1961 and his service as Assistant Secretary of Defense for the same office from 1963 to 1964. It describes him as a political appointee under [[John F. Kennedy]] and [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] from 1961 to 1969.[^1] The Washington Post wrote that he was a lifelong Democrat who joined the Kennedy administration as deputy assistant secretary of defense.[^2]
The Foreign Relations of the United States volume on Cuba lists him at the planning of the Bay of Pigs invasion. On February 7, 1961 he attended, for the Defense Department, a three-hour meeting in the office of Assistant Secretary of State [[Thomas C. Mann]], chaired by [[Adolf Berle]] of the State Department's Latin American Task Force, with [[Richard Bissell]], [[Tracy Barnes]] and Colonel J. C. King of the CIA, [[Richard Goodwin]] of the White House staff and Haydn Williams of Defense.[^18] The President's appointment book places William Bundy at the White House meetings of March 11 (Trinidad plan, with Allen Dulles, Bissell, [[Robert S. McNamara]], [[Dean Rusk]] and McGeorge Bundy), March 15 and 16 (the revised Zapata plan) and March 29, 1961, at which the tentative D-Day of April 5 was postponed.[^19][^20][^21][^22] The Princeton finding aid places the Bay of Pigs deliberations in the years of his State Department post; the operation took place in April 1961, when he held the Defense appointment. The Post obituary describes his participation in those deliberations, and in those on the Cuban Missile Crisis, as part of his service as deputy assistant secretary of defense.[^1][^2]
In the summer of 1961, apparently at his instigation, an interagency group began meeting at lunch on Tuesdays. His record of the October 3, 1961 luncheon lists [[Walt Rostow]], [[U. Alexis Johnson]], George McGhee, Robert Amory, Bissell, Fowler, [[Paul Nitze]], General Parker and Bundy, and records a discussion of Vietnam.[^23] After the [[Maxwell Taylor]] mission to Vietnam, McNamara asked Bundy to draft a memorandum on whether the United States should make a "Berlin-type" commitment to Vietnam; the draft is dated November 5, 1961 and the editors of the Foreign Relations series state that Bundy recalled finishing it on a Sunday and sending it to the President only after extensive discussions with the Joint Chiefs and revisions to its last part.[^24] His drafts of a McNamara memorandum of November 8 (marked "Not used") and of a November 28 telegram to the Pacific commander are also printed.[^25]
In September 1963 Bundy accompanied McNamara to [[Vietnam]]; on October 3 he appears as Deputy Assistant Secretary in the record of the meeting that prepared the report on that trip, and an October 3 draft of its annex on Vietnam named him as drafter.[^26] On November 20, 1963, after the Honolulu meeting, McGeorge Bundy sent him a draft of National Security Action Memorandum 273 for comment.[^27] When [[Henry Cabot Lodge Jr.]] sent [[W. Averell Harriman]] a paper on "neutralization" of North Vietnam in December 1963, William Bundy, reviewing his papers after leaving State, called it "a bizarre aberration" that was "never considered or taken seriously by anyone, so far as I know."[^28]
### Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs, 1964 to 1969
Bundy held the post of Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs (then titled Far Eastern Affairs) from 1964 to 1969.[^1] On May 15, 1964 he wrote to Rusk that Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. was urging covert air strikes against North Vietnam and that the record of Lodge's earlier talk with Rusk in Saigon did not support Lodge's account of it; he called Lodge "fairly woolly."[^29] The [[Pentagon Papers]] chronology records that President Johnson designated him coordinating executive in National Security Action Memorandum 288 and that on May 23, 1964 he presented members of the Southeast Asia executive committee a 30-day scenario of graduated military and political pressure on North Vietnam.[^30] On June 3, 1964, after the Honolulu conference, Bundy sent Rusk his notes, which McNamara, Taylor and [[John McCone]] also received; McGeorge Bundy wrote on the source text, "Hitting the North is required," and Johnson met the two Bundys with Rusk, McNamara, Taylor and McCone that evening.[^31]
The Pentagon Papers record that McGeorge Bundy's memorandum of June 15, 1964 announcing a meeting on a Congressional resolution on Southeast Asia enclosed a memorandum by W. P. Bundy dated June 12 on "Probable Developments and [the] Case for Congressional Resolution on Southeast Asia," together with a draft resolution.[^32] The chronology entry for that memorandum states that it "called for a Congressional Resolution right away to demonstrate U.S. resolve (especially to Souvanna and Khanh) and provide flexibility for executive action."[^33] A draft resolution on Southeast Asia prepared in the State Department is dated May 24, 1964; the editors describe it as among "working papers, no official standing" prepared for the executive committee meeting that day.[^34]
On August 4, 1964, the day of a second reported attack in the [[Gulf of Tonkin]], Bundy was on vacation in Massachusetts. Rusk called him back to Washington.[^35] The National Security Council met that evening, and the summary of the meeting printed an attached "Draft Joint Resolution on Southeast Asia"; the editors state there is "no indication on the source text of the drafter."[^36] A Department of State telegram to the Embassy in Saigon sent at 6:35 p.m. that evening was drafted by [[Michael V. Forrestal]] and cleared by William Bundy.[^37] In a telephone call with Rusk on August 5, Bundy asked about the resolution; Rusk replied that McGeorge Bundy and [[George Ball]] were "going over the final touches," and asked him and [[John T. McNaughton]] to prepare a ten-minute statement for the next morning's House and Senate hearings.[^38] The Pentagon Papers chronology records that the President sent Congress a message requesting a joint resolution of support, and that "identical draft resolutions prepared by the executive branch" were introduced by Senator [[J. William Fulbright]] in the Senate and by Representative Morgan in the House.[^39]
A University of Houston Digital History essay describes Bundy as "one of the chief architects of the Vietnam War and coauthor of the Tonkin Gulf Resolution."[^40] A 1972 press item likewise described him as having been "an architect of U.S. policy in Vietnam" at the State Department.[^41]
In the NSC Principals' deliberations of late 1964, a working group paper of November 21, 1964, "Courses of Action in Southeast Asia," was drafted by William Bundy and McNaughton; the editors state that Bundy prepared a first draft on November 17 that was revised after the working group's meeting of November 19.[^42] The Pentagon Papers record that after the Principals' meeting of November 28 to 30 Bundy was charged with preparing a draft National Security Action Memorandum on a two-phase program, a thirty-day period of slightly increased pressure followed by air strikes against [[North Vietnam]], and that the Principals decided not to call his draft a memorandum.[^43]
On January 6, 1965 Bundy sent Rusk notes prepared with Forrestal and Leonard Unger on the South Vietnamese situation: "Saigon morale in all quarters is now very shaky indeed," he wrote, and he attributed it to a widespread feeling that the United States was "not ready for stronger action and indeed is possibly looking for a way out."[^44] On February 15 and 18, 1965 he sent Rusk a memorandum of unresolved questions on a negotiating position and a draft "Sequence of Actions" reflecting a proposal discussed that morning at the White House with the President, McGeorge Bundy, Ball and Ambassador Llewellyn Thompson.[^45] After helping Ball prepare his June 28, 1965 paper urging withdrawal, Bundy disagreed with its conclusion and wrote a "Middle Way" course of action sent to the President on July 1; the editors cite his unpublished memoir for the account.[^46]
The Foreign Relations volume on Indonesia, Malaysia-Singapore and the Philippines prints two memoranda addressed to Bundy by [[William Colby]], then Chief of the Far East Division of the CIA's Directorate of Operations: one of November 1, 1965 in the Philippines file and one of December 3, 1965 in the Indonesia file on State Department liaison.[^47] On November 5, 1965 Bundy sent Rusk an assessment of the Philippine election between [[Ferdinand Marcos]] and Diosdado Macapagal, drafted by the officer in charge of Philippine affairs.[^48]
### Newsweek, MIT and the Council on Foreign Relations, 1969 to 1972
Bundy left government in May 1969 and taught at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]; the Post wrote that he joined the staff of the Center for International Studies there for three years.[^1][^2] From 1970 to 1972 he was a part-time columnist for [[Newsweek]], rotating with George Ball and [[Zbigniew Brzezinski]].[^1] He served on the board of directors of the [[Council on Foreign Relations]] from 1964 to 1972 and was a trustee of the [[American Assembly]] from 1964 to 1984.[^1] By the end of 1971, the Post reported, he had concluded that all United States forces should be withdrawn from Vietnam, and he said that the Johnson administration had made "considerable mistakes" in informing the public.[^2]
### Foreign Affairs, 1972 to 1984
A 1972 press item from the CIA reading room reports that Bundy would succeed [[Hamilton Fish Armstrong]] as editor of Foreign Affairs, a post Armstrong had held for 43 years, beginning in the fall of 1972. The item describes him as a former Assistant Secretary of State who was then a senior research associate at MIT; Bundy says in it that he has "been in this field since 1951" and planned a book on American involvement in Vietnam, written as history rather than as a personal reminiscence.[^41] The Princeton finding aid gives his editorship as 1972 to 1984. Bundy donated the journal correspondence series to the Mudd Library of Princeton University in 1994.[^1]
From 1985 to 1987 he was a visiting professor at the [[Woodrow Wilson School]] of [[Princeton University]].[^1]
### A Tangled Web, 1998
After 1987 Bundy devoted his time to a critical history of American foreign policy in the [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] and [[Henry Kissinger|Kissinger]] period, including the later years of the [[Vietnam War]]. The book was published in 1998 as *A Tangled Web: The Making of Foreign Policy in the Nixon Presidency*.[^1][^49] The Post quoted a Book World review calling it "a sharply critical study of the Nixon-Kissinger foreign policy."[^2]
### Death
Bundy died of heart ailments on October 6, 2000, at age 83, at his home in Princeton, New Jersey.[^1][^2] His papers are held at the Princeton University Library as the William P. Bundy Papers (MC189).[^1]
### Footnotes
[^1]: William P. Bundy Papers (MC189), Biography/History, Public Policy Papers, Princeton University Library, https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/PRIN_MUDD_MC189
[^2]: Bart Barnes, "William Bundy, Dies," *The Washington Post*, October 7, 2000, https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/2000/10/07/william-bundy-dies/1348f410-94d0-40cb-9ee9-d8fad6603457/
[^3]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section "Harvey Hollister Bundy," https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^4]: Henry L. Stimson and McGeorge Bundy, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1948), ch. VII, p. 193 (appointment of Harvey H. Bundy as Assistant Secretary, after the death of an officer named Cotton).
[^5]: "Notes of the Interim Committee Meeting, Thursday, 31 May 1945," signed R. Gordon Arneson, Secretary, Records of the Army Corps of Engineers (RG 77), Manhattan Engineer District, Harrison-Bundy files, folder 100, in National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 162, Document 12, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/12.pdf
[^6]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment*, sections "William P. Bundy" and the Bundy family (children of Harvey Hollister Bundy; Covington & Burling; the 1953 McCarthy passage), https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^7]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment*, section "The Whitney-Stimson-Bundy-Acheson Chain of Influence," https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^8]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment*, index of members by class year, entry "1939 William Putnam Bundy CIA, Editor Foreign Affairs," https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^9]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977.
[^10]: "Skull & Bones," *Covert Action Information Bulletin* no. 33 (Winter 1990), pp. 20-22 (passages on William Bundy, including the foreword to *The Counter-Insurgency Era*).
[^11]: Letter from the Central Intelligence Agency to Joseph R. McCarthy, July 22, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080014-6, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080014-6
[^12]: Allen Drury, "McCarthy Warns CIA Head Fight on Bundy Isn't Over," newspaper article, August 4, 1953 (including the text of Dulles to McCarthy, August 1, 1953), CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP74-00297R000401370024-4, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp74-00297r000401370024-4
[^13]: Letter from Joseph R. McCarthy, Chairman, Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, to Allen W. Dulles, July 27, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080022-7, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080022-7
[^14]: Federal Bureau of Investigation memorandum, "Information Concerning Allen W. Dulles," July 10, 1953, in FBI file 62-HQ-80750, "FBI Files on CIA Liaison," section 31, https://archive.org/details/FBI-CIA-Liaison
[^15]: Letter from Joseph R. McCarthy, Chairman, Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, to Allen W. Dulles, July 27, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080022-7, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080022-7
[^16]: Letter from Joseph R. McCarthy to Allen W. Dulles, August 3, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080020-9, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080020-9
[^17]: FBI file 62-HQ-80750, "FBI Files on CIA Liaison," section 31 (syndicated column on Senator Monroney's Senate speech, 1953, and Bureau memorandum on adverse publicity concerning the CIA, August 1953), https://archive.org/details/FBI-CIA-Liaison
[^18]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. X, Cuba, January 1961-September 1962, doc. 38, Memorandum for the Record, "Meeting on Cuba," February 7, 1961, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d38
[^19]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. X, doc. 59, editorial note on the White House meeting of March 11, 1961, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d59
[^20]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. X, doc. 65, editorial note on the meeting of March 15, 1961, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d65
[^21]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. X, doc. 66, editorial note on the meeting of March 16, 1961, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d66
[^22]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. X, doc. 74, editorial note on the meeting of March 29, 1961, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d74
[^23]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. I, Vietnam, 1961, doc. 144, Memorandum for the Record by the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs (Bundy), October 5, 1961, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v01/d144
[^24]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. I, doc. 214, Draft Memorandum From the Secretary of Defense to the President, November 5, 1961, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v01/d214
[^25]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. I, doc. 226 (draft of November 8, 1961) and doc. 289 (telegram of November 28, 1961), https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v01/d226
[^26]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, Vietnam, August-December 1963, doc. 150 (September 26, 1963), doc. 172 (October 3, 1963) and doc. 175 (annex, October 4, 1963), https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d175
[^27]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, doc. 331, National Security Action Memorandum No. 273 and editorial note, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d331
[^28]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. IV, doc. 342, Lodge to Harriman, December 3, 1963, and footnote 4 quoting Bundy's papers, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d342
[^29]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. I, Vietnam, 1964, doc. 158, Bundy to Rusk, May 15, 1964, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d158
[^30]: *The Pentagon Papers*, Gravel edition, vol. III (Boston: Beacon Press, 1971), chronology entry for May 23, 1964, https://archive.org/details/pentagonpapersde02beac
[^31]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. I, doc. 193, Bundy to Rusk, "Highlights of Honolulu Conference," June 3, 1964, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d193
[^32]: *The Pentagon Papers*, Gravel edition, vol. III, account of the June 15, 1964 meeting and its six enclosures, https://archive.org/details/pentagonpapersde02beac
[^33]: *The Pentagon Papers*, Gravel edition, vol. III, chronology, p. 128, entry for June 12, 1964, https://archive.org/details/pentagonpapersde02beac
[^34]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. I, doc. 169, Draft Congressional Resolution Prepared in the Department of State, May 24, 1964, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d169
[^35]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. I, doc. 276, editorial note on the August 4, 1964 meeting, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d276
[^36]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. I, doc. 278, "Summary Notes of the 538th Meeting of the National Security Council," August 4, 1964, with attached "Draft Joint Resolution on Southeast Asia," https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d278
[^37]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. I, doc. 279, Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Vietnam, August 4, 1964, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d279
[^38]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. I, doc. 293, Memorandum of a Telephone Conversation Between the Secretary of State and the Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (Bundy), August 5, 1964, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d293
[^39]: *The Pentagon Papers*, Gravel edition, vol. III, chronology entries for August 5 to 11, 1964, https://archive.org/details/pentagonpapersde02beac
[^40]: University of Houston Digital History, William Bundy biography in the Vietnam exploration, https://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/active_learning/explorations/vietnam/bundy2.cfm
[^41]: "William Bundy to Head Foreign Affairs Journal," press item, 1972, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP88-01314R000100540012-3, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01314r000100540012-3
[^42]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. I, doc. 418, Paper Prepared by the National Security Council Working Group, "Courses of Action in Southeast Asia," November 21, 1964, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v01/d418
[^43]: *The Pentagon Papers*, Gravel edition, vol. III, chronology, p. 136, and "Military Pressures Against North Vietnam, Feb. 1964-Jan. 1965," p. 245, https://archive.org/details/pentagonpapersde02beac
[^44]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. II, Vietnam, January-June 1965, doc. 15, Bundy to Rusk, January 6, 1965, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v02/d15
[^45]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. II, doc. 122 (Bundy to Rusk, February 15, 1965) and doc. 136 (draft paper, February 18, 1965), https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v02/d136
[^46]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. III, Vietnam, June-December 1965, doc. 41, Memorandum by the Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (Bundy), July 1, 1965, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v03/d41
[^47]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. XXVI, Indonesia; Malaysia-Singapore; Philippines, doc. 316 (Colby to Bundy, November 1, 1965) and doc. 180 (Colby to Bundy, December 3, 1965), https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v26/d180
[^48]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968*, vol. XXVI, doc. 317, Bundy to Rusk, "Philippine National Elections," November 5, 1965, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v26/d317
[^49]: William P. Bundy, *A Tangled Web: The Making of Foreign Policy in the Nixon Presidency* (New York: Hill and Wang, 1998), catalogue record, https://catalog.lib.kyushu-u.ac.jp/ja/recordID/1000161811

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---
aliases:
- E. Roland Harriman
- Roland Harriman
- Edward Roland Noel Harriman
- Edward Roland Harriman
- E. R. N. Harriman
- Bunny Harriman
category: "Business & Finance"
tags:
- Person
- BrownBrothersHarriman
- SkullAndBones
- UnionBankingCorporation
- UnionPacific
- AmericanRedCross
- ThyssenFamily
- AlienPropertyCustodian
- HarnessRacing
- Banking
- Harriman
summary: "E. Roland Harriman, Averell Harriman's brother, chaired the Union Pacific from 1946 to 1969, led the American Red Cross from 1950 to 1973, and held 3,991 of the 4,000 Union Banking shares vested in 1942."
born: 1895-12-24
died: 1978-02-16
location: "New York, New York"
created: 2026-10-26
updated: 2026-10-26
relations:
- type: relative_of
with: "[[W. Averell Harriman]]"
role: "Brother"
fn: 1
- type: relative_of
with: "[[E. H. Harriman]]"
role: "Son"
fn: 1
- type: member_of
with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
start: 1917
role: "Member, Yale class of 1917"
fn: 1
- type: spouse_of
with: "[[Gladys C. C. Fries]]"
start: 1917
role: "Wife"
fn: 5
- type: employed_by
with: "[[W. A. Harriman & Co.]]"
start: 1920
role: "Vice president, per Millegan and Sutton's 1932 directors table"
fn: 9
- type: partner_of
with: "[[Brown Brothers Harriman]]"
start: 1926
role: "Partner of Harriman Brothers & Co. from October 30, 1926; partner of the merged firm from January 1, 1931"
fn: 13
- type: director_of
with: "[[Union Pacific Railroad]]"
start: 1920
role: "Director from 1920; listed in the annual reports for 1926 to 1930"
fn: 15
- type: head_of
with: "[[Union Pacific Railroad]]"
start: 1946
end: 1969
role: "Chairman of the Board of Directors; honorary chairman from January 30, 1969 until his death"
fn: 15
- type: director_of
with: "[[Union Banking Corporation]]"
start: 1932
role: "Director in the 1932 table of Antony C. Sutton, Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler"
fn: 24
- type: owned
with: "[[Union Banking Corporation]]"
start: 1942
end: 1942
role: "Registered holder of 3,991 of 4,000 shares in Vesting Order Number 248, October 20, 1942"
fn: 28
- type: director_of
with: "[[Newsweek]]"
role: "Director, per Sutton (1976); no dates given"
fn: 23
- type: head_of
with: "[[American Red Cross]]"
start: 1950
end: 1973
role: "President from December 1, 1950; styled chairman by 1955; principal officer under the presidential appointment until his resignation effective March 31, 1973"
fn: 41
- type: member_of
with: "[[Council on Foreign Relations]]"
role: "Listed in the November 1951 table of corporations with officers who are members"
fn: 43
- type: head_of
with: "[[Hambletonian Society]]"
start: 1970
role: "Chairman of the board, per the Society's 1975 commemorative booklet"
fn: 49
- type: head_of
with: "[[Boys' Clubs of New York]]"
start: 1962
role: "Chairman of the board, per Creamer (1962) and Kouwenhoven (1968)"
fn: 52
---
E. Roland Harriman (Edward Roland Noel Harriman, December 24, 1895 to February 16, 1978) was the younger son of the railroad financier [[E. H. Harriman]] and the brother of [[W. Averell Harriman]]. He was a member of [[Skull and Bones]] in the [[Yale University]] class of 1917, organized the banking house of [[Harriman Brothers & Co.]] with his brother, became a partner of [[Brown Brothers Harriman]], and was the largest registered holder of [[Union Banking Corporation]] when the [[Alien Property Custodian]] vested the company in 1942. He was chairman of the board of the [[Union Pacific Railroad]] from 1946 to 1969 and, by appointment of the President of the United States, the principal officer of the [[American Red Cross]] from December 1, 1950 to March 31, 1973.[^1]
### Childhood and Yale
The Yale class history of 1917 gives his birth date as December 24, 1895, in New York City, and lists his schooling as the Bovee School, the Pine Lodge School in Lakewood, New Jersey, and [[Groton School]]. It records his father as E. H. Harriman, who died in 1909 at Arden, New York, and his mother as Mary Williamson (Averell) Harriman. The entry states that "There are two sons and three daughters in the family." Its list of Yale relatives names Averell Harriman of the class of 1913, described as a brother, and George Brown of the class of 1918. He rowed on the freshman and varsity crews, was a governor of the [[University Club]], and served on the Triennial Committee. The entry reads "He is a member of Psi Upsilon and Skull and Bones." It states that he expected to enter the railroad business and gives Arden, New York, as his permanent address.[^1]
[[Antony C. Sutton]] wrote that the elder Harriman "sent both his sons to Yale," and that "William Averell Harriman (113) and Edward Roland Noel Harriman (17) joined The Order."[^2] The membership list in the 2003 compilation *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones*, edited by [[Kris Millegan]], places him among the senior society members of the class of 1917.[^3]
Two early associations recur in the later record. [[John A. Kouwenhoven]] recorded that Roland Harriman and [[Robert A. Lovett]] met in 1903, when both were eight years old, and that the two boys became friends. He also recorded that in 1915 Harriman took a group of friends, among them [[Ellery Sedgwick James]], on the family yacht to San Francisco.[^4] He married Gladys Fries of New York City in 1917, the year he graduated from Yale.[^5]
His mother, Mary Williamson Averell Harriman, established the [[Eugenics Record Office]] at [[Cold Spring Harbor]] in October 1910, according to a report in the [[New York Times]]; the report states that she provided funds for the office and its annual running expenses, that her contributions over eight years exceeded 500,000 dollars, and that [[John D. Rockefeller]] and others gave additional assistance.[^6] The Cold Spring Harbor image archive on the American eugenics movement lists the 1910 donation by the widow of E. H. Harriman as 10,000 dollars and holds the letter from [[Charles Davenport]] to Mrs. E. H. Harriman, and the [[Carnegie Institution of Washington]] accepted the office from her as a gift.[^7] Land given to New York State by his mother after his father's death forms the greater part of Harriman State Park.[^5]
### W. A. Harriman & Co. and Harriman Brothers & Co.
The [[Time]] report of December 1930 stated that "In 1919 William Averell Harriman and his brother, Edward Roland Noel Harriman, formed W. A. Harriman & Co."[^8] Millegan wrote that Averell "hired his little brother Edward Roland 'Bunny' Harriman as a vice president" of the firm.[^9] Sutton's 1976 account gives a later date for the same firm: "In 1922 Roland and Averell formed W. A. Harriman & Company."[^10]
[[Garry Wills]] wrote that the bank Harriman Brothers & Co. "was not founded until 1926," by which time the brothers were confident enough to place a classmate, [[Knight Woolley]], in its presidency.[^11]
The banking house Roland Harriman and his brother organized, Harriman Brothers & Co., preceded the 1930 merger with Brown Brothers.[^12] The firm's partner table gives October 30, 1926, as Roland Harriman's date of partnership, describes him as co-founder with his brother of W. A. Harriman & Co., and gives January 1, 1931, as his date in the merged firm, Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., where he is listed as resident in New York.[^13]
The merger was announced in December 1930. The Time report counted sixteen partners in the new firm, eleven of them Yale graduates, and named Ellery Sedgwick James as a classmate of Roland Harriman, [[Prescott Bush]] and Knight Woolley.[^8] James had talked with Roland Harriman about "working under one roof" even before the stock market crash of 1929, and the merger had probably been "in the cards" since 1903.[^14]
### Union Pacific
The Union Pacific's annual report for 1968 states that his service began in 1920, when he was elected a director of the company.[^15] The annual reports for 1926 to 1930 list E. Roland Harriman of Arden, New York, among the directors, with his brother W. A. Harriman and, as chairman of the board, Judge [[Robert Scott Lovett]].[^16] Robert Lovett was elected a director in 1926, at a time when "Both Averell and Roland Harriman were directors of the road."[^17] The Library of Congress chronology for the papers of Averell Harriman gives his chairmanship of the board of the Union Pacific as 1932 to 1946.[^18]
The company's report for 1968 states that Roland Harriman had been chairman of the board of directors of the railroad since 1946.[^15] On November 2, 1950, [[Harry S. Truman]] described him at a news conference as a partner in Brown Brothers Harriman "and chairman of the board of directors of the Union Pacific Railroad."[^19] The reports for 1951, 1955, 1959, 1960 and 1965 print his name at the head of the directors as chairman, with Robert A. Lovett as chairman of the executive committee in the report for 1955.[^20] He was primarily responsible, the 1968 report states, for the formation of the Union Pacific Railroad Foundation in 1955.[^15]
On January 30, 1969, the company announced a new holding company, Union Pacific Corporation. [[Frank E. Barnett]], chief executive officer of the railroad since January 1, 1967, was elected chairman of the board and chief executive; Harriman became honorary chairman, remaining a director, a member of the executive committee and chairman of the trustees of the Foundation.[^15] The reports of the holding company list him as honorary chairman and as a partner of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. through 1975.[^21] The report for 1978 records that he served as chairman from 1946 to 1969 and as honorary chairman until his death on February 16, 1978, and that his service spanned nearly sixty years.[^22]
Sutton wrote in 1976 that "Still later Roland became chairman of the board of Union Pacific Railroad," and he also named Roland Harriman a director of [[Newsweek]] and of the [[Mutual Life Insurance Company of New York]], a member of the board of governors of the American Red Cross, and a member of the [[American Museum of Natural History]].[^23]
### Union Banking Corporation
Sutton's 1976 table of the directors of the Union Banking Corporation for 1932 lists "E. Roland HARRIMAN" as "Vice president of W. A. Harriman & Co., New York," and states in the text that he was a director of the company. Sutton described the corporation as "a joint Thyssen-Harriman operation" and as controlled by the [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]] of Rotterdam, which he called a Thyssen front bank in Holland.[^24] Sutton called [[H. J. Kouwenhoven]], listed in the same table, Roland Harriman's "fellow-director" at the company.[^25] His 1983 book lists eight directors for 1932 in its section "The Union Banking Connection."[^26]
A Treasury Department memorandum from Mr. May to [[J. W. Pehle]], dated August 18, 1941, with reference 9-151, reports that the investigation "produced no evidence as to the ownership of this Dutch bank." It records that the corporation was wholly owned by the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, that gold purchases of more than eight million dollars were made in 1931 to 1933, of which $3,085,000 was delivered to the [[Federal Reserve Bank]] on June 15, 1934, and that in the fall of 1938 the corporation held two million dollars in currency in a New York safe deposit box, later deposited in its account with Brown Brothers Harriman.[^27]
On October 20, 1942, the Alien Property Custodian, [[Leo T. Crowley]], signed Vesting Order Number 248 under the [[Trading with the Enemy Act]]. The order vested "all of the capital stock of Union Banking Corporation, a New York corporation," consisting of 4,000 shares of $100 par value common stock. It names the registered owners and their holdings: E. Roland Harriman, 3,991 shares; [[Cornelius Lievense]], 4; [[Harold D. Pennington]], 1; [[Ray Morris]], 1; Prescott S. Bush, 1; H. J. Kouwenhoven, 1; and [[Johann G. Groeninger]], 1. The order states that the shares were held for the benefit of the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N.V., of Rotterdam, "which bank is owned or controlled by members of the [[Thyssen family]], nationals of Germany and/or Hungary." The order was filed November 6, 1942, under F.R. Doc. 42-11568, and published in the [[Federal Register]] of November 7, 1942, at pages 9097 and 9098.[^28] Four of the seven registered holders are listed in the Brown Brothers Harriman partner table.[^13]
The vesting order for [[Holland-American Trading Corporation]], executed October 28, 1942, and published in the Federal Register of December 19, 1942, lists Roland Harriman as the registered holder of 491 of its 500 shares. Lievense holds 4, and Pennington, Ray Morris, Knight Woolley, H. J. Kouwenhoven and Groeninger one share each.[^29] The [[Guardian]] reported in 2004 that the incorporation documents of the Union Banking Corporation list [[George H. W. Bush]]'s father, Prescott Bush, as one of seven directors.[^30]
### World War II
During [[World War II]], Roland Harriman was manager of the North Atlantic Area of the American Red Cross, and the firm's partners devoted much of their time to war work. Prescott Bush became national campaign chairman of the combined wartime fund drives in 1942.[^31] After the war he became a member of the Red Cross board of governors, then its vice chairman, and in 1947 chaired the committee on reorganization of the society.[^19]
### Red Cross, 1950 to 1973
On November 2, 1950, Truman announced at a White House news conference that Harriman would succeed General [[George Marshall|George C. Marshall]] as president of the American Red Cross on December 1, 1950. Marshall had held the post since September 22, 1949, and had continued in it after his appointment as [[United States Secretary of Defense]]. Truman described Harriman as a brother of Averell Harriman, then Special Assistant to the President.[^19] The post was held by presidential appointment under the congressional charter of the society. Kouwenhoven wrote that Harriman was reappointed by Presidents [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], [[John F. Kennedy]] and [[Lyndon B. Johnson]].[^32]
Truman addressed him as president of the society in letters of April 1951, on the 1951 fund campaign, and July 1951, on the flood disaster in Kansas, Missouri and Oklahoma.[^33] On January 9, 1953, Harriman wrote to President-elect Eisenhower that, under the by-laws and by tradition, the President of the United States becomes honorary chairman of the Red Cross; Eisenhower accepted on January 24, 1953, in a letter addressed to Harriman as president.[^34] At the society's convention of June 24, 1953, Eisenhower told the audience that Harriman had come to his office to say that his term was up, and had been told, "As long as I am there, as far as I am concerned, he will be here."[^35]
By August 1955 the title had changed. Eisenhower referred to a telegram from "E. Roland Harriman, Chairman of the Red Cross" during the hurricane and flood disaster in the northeastern states, and the following day to Harriman as the Chairman, who would make the allocations to the stricken areas.[^36] A Red Cross news release of early 1956, preserved in a [[Central Intelligence Agency]] file, announces an additional appeal of eight million dollars after "the worst disaster year in American history," relayed by Harriman as chairman after a meeting of the executive committee of the board of governors, on a report from [[Ellsworth Bunker]] as president.[^37] On November 29, 1956 Eisenhower released a telegram from Harriman as chairman supporting the emergency appeal for Hungarian relief, and at the national convention of May 20, 1957 the President's opening words addressed Harriman as chairman and General [[Alfred M. Gruenther]] as president.[^38]
The society's annual report for the year ended June 30, 1959, lists Harriman as chairman and corporate officer, with Gruenther as president and General [[Lucius D. Clay]] among the vice chairmen. The members of the board of governors appointed by the President of the United States were Harriman, [[Loy W. Henderson]], Deputy Under Secretary of State; Julian B. Baird, Under Secretary of the Treasury; [[Thomas S. Gates Jr.]], Deputy Secretary of Defense; Charles C. Finucane, Assistant Secretary of Defense; and Dr. Frank Brown Berry, Assistant Secretary of Defense. The elected members included a physicist from Los Alamos, New Mexico, and the Secretary of the Treasury was honorary treasurer. A copy of the report sits in a CIA file with a letter of February 19, 1960 from [[Allen Dulles|Allen W. Dulles]] to Gruenther.[^39]
On May 13, 1971, [[Richard Nixon]] wrote to "Chairman, American National Red Cross" Harriman reappointing him as governor of the corporation for a term of three years from June 12, 1971, and designating him to act as the principal officer of the corporation with such title and functions as the by-laws prescribe. At the convention the following week Nixon noted that Harriman was about to serve his eighth term as chairman.[^40] On February 19, 1973, the White House announced that [[Frank Stanton]] would be appointed to succeed Harriman as principal officer and member of the board of governors, effective April 1, 1973; the announcement states that Harriman resigned effective March 31, 1973, and that he had held the two positions since December 1, 1950.[^41] The society's 1977 annual report lists Stanton as chairman of the Board of Governors and [[Jimmy Carter]] as honorary chairman.[^42]
### Council on Foreign Relations
A November 1951 table of corporations with officers who were members of the [[Council on Foreign Relations]], held in a CIA Reading Room document, lists Brown Brothers Harriman with E. Roland Harriman, Ray Morris, Knight Woolley and Thomas McCance. The same document lists him among the individual contributors to the Council's 25th Anniversary Fund for 1946 to 1950, with the notation "over 5 years."[^43]
### Harness racing
Robert Creamer's Sports Illustrated profile of July 9, 1962, "Harriman of Goshen," describes him as chairman of the Union Pacific, an active partner of Brown Brothers Harriman, head of the American Red Cross for more than a decade, chairman of the Boys' Clubs of New York, and the owner of the Arden Homestead in the Ramapo hills.[^44] He began driving trotting horses as a boy and drove in the Saturday matinee races at Goshen, New York by the age of fifteen or sixteen. He recalled that his father bought the site of Good Time Park because he wanted land to straighten a curve in the Erie Railroad, and decided to keep the track; the Historic Track in the village he described as bought earlier.[^44] The history of Goshen published in 1960 states that E. H. Harriman leased the Historic Track in 1894, that the Orange County Driving Park Association, its owner, remained under controlling interest of the Harriman family, that Roland Harriman had been the mainstay of the track and of the sport for nearly forty years, and that in 1926 William H. Cane purchased the Good Time course from the Harriman brothers.[^45]
According to Creamer, Harriman invited some twenty leading breeders and owners to dinner at his home in New York in the 1920s, after the publication of the breeding register and year book had lapsed in 1923, and told them that trotting was "going to hell in a hack." The group formed the Trotting Horse Club of America. Harriman went to Chicago and bought the Register and the Year Book, which he gave to the club. The Hambletonian Society, separate from the club but similar in membership, established the Hambletonian Stake.[^44] The Society's 1975 commemorative booklet reproduces a wire sent by Harriman to racing leaders around the country inviting them to a gathering of "committee of fifty best friends of trotting" at Indianapolis on November 11 to 13, "to discuss these matters for the good of our sport," and states that the current United States Trotting Association sprang from it.[^46] Creamer quotes him on the decade of effort to unify the three rival associations, and quotes the veteran trotting man Lawrence Sheppard that "Harriman was responsible for the formation of the Trotting Club, and he played a leading role in the establishment of the U.S. Trotting Association."[^44] A history of the sport published in 1970 records that the presidency of the association was offered to Harriman and that he declined.[^47]
Harriman and his nephew, Major [[Elbridge T. Gerry]], owned the colt Titan Hanover, driven by Harry Pownall, which won the Hambletonian Stake at Good Time Park on August 8, 1945, in a field of nineteen; the racing commission barred wagering on the colt.[^48] Creamer lists Star's Pride, owned jointly with Lawrence B. Sheppard, and Horican as other Harriman trotters, names his wife as the first woman to drive a harness horse a mile in better than two minutes, and gives Harriman and Gerry as partners in the Arden Homestead Stable and the Orange County Driving Park Association.[^44] The booklet of 1975 lists E. Roland Harriman as chairman of the board of the Hambletonian Society, and a history of the sport of 1970 lists him in the same office.[^49] He presented the Hambletonian trophy to the winning owner in the races the booklet reports, including the last Hambletonian held at Goshen, in 1956.[^50]
### Other offices
Creamer wrote that Harriman built the Bear Mountain Bridge, the first major bridge to span the Hudson River and the longest suspension bridge in the world when it opened in 1924, as a private venture under state charter that reverted to state control in 1940.[^44] A history of the Harriman trails records Roland Harriman as president of the bridge company, which opened the bridge on Thanksgiving Day 1924.[^51]
E. H. Harriman founded the first of the Boys' Clubs in a basement on Tompkins Square in New York. After his death his sons continued to support and direct the clubs' work, and Roland Harriman was chairman of the board of the clubs in 1962 and, as Kouwenhoven wrote in 1968, was then chairman.[^52]
### Politics
Wills wrote that Roland Harriman balanced his brother's close ties to Franklin D. Roosevelt by donating heavily to the Republicans.[^53] In 1946 Prescott Bush asked his permission to seek a seat in the House of Representatives. Wills wrote that Roland Harriman said a House race was beneath a Brown Brothers Harriman partner and that it might be different for the Senate.[^53] Prescott Bush served as a United States senator from Connecticut from 1952 to 1962.[^54] Creamer quoted him on his brother: "He and I are on opposite sides of the fence politically, but it's never caused the slightest difficulty between us," adding, "Ave is my favorite Democrat."[^44]
### Philanthropy, memoir and death
The Gladys and Roland Harriman Foundation gave one million dollars to the Society of the New York Hospital to establish a professorship in geriatrics, an endowment that the hospital's annual report attributes to Mrs. E. Roland Harriman and "the late Mr. Harriman."[^55] His memoir, *I Reminisce*, was published by Doubleday in 1975 and runs to 280 pages.[^56]
The Library of Congress finding aid for the papers of Averell Harriman gives Roland Harriman's dates as 1895 to 1978. It lists a family folder labeled "Harriman, E. Roland (brother) and Gladys, 1906-1972," a correspondence file labeled "Harriman, E. Roland, 1925-1934," and a folder of condolences "on his death, 1978."[^57] A finding aid for the Brown Brothers Harriman records at [[New York University]] indexes him under the same dates.[^58]
### Footnotes
[^1]: *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. 1 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1917), entry for Edward Roland Noel Harriman, "Bunny," pp. 105 to 106 in the class history's biographical section. https://archive.org/details/historyofclassofOOmurr
[^2]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), section "The Harriman Family," and index of members by class year, class of 1917. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^3]: Kris Millegan, ed., *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), membership list "Senior Society, Class of 1917." https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^4]: John A. Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking: An Historical Portrait of a Great Private Bank, Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., 1818-1968* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1968), pp. 16 to 17. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^5]: Robert Creamer, "Harriman of Goshen," *Sports Illustrated*, July 9, 1962, pp. 32 to 37, passages on his marriage in 1917 and on Harriman State Park. https://archive.org/details/Sports-Illustrated-1962-07-09
[^6]: "Harriman philanthropy to have a board of scientific directors," *The New York Times*, as transcribed by the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory DNA Learning Center: the office "was established at Cold Spring Harbor, L. I., in October, 1910, by Mrs. E. H. Harriman"; her contributions over an eight-year period "amounted to more than $500,000"; "additional assistance of John D. Rockefeller and others." https://dnalc.cshl.edu/view/10495-%2DHarriman-philanthropy-to-have-a-board-of-scientific-directors-The-New-York-Times.html
[^7]: Image Archive on the American Eugenics Movement, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, theme "Eugenics Record Office (ERO)," including the 1910 donation of 10,000 dollars by the widow of E. H. Harriman, a Davenport letter to Mrs. E. H. Harriman, and "Transfer of ERO," *Eugenical News* vol. 3. https://www.eugenicsarchive.org/html/eugenics/static/themes/20.html
[^8]: "Business: Brown-Harriman," *Time*, December 22, 1930. https://time.com/archive/6746405/business-brown-harriman/
[^9]: Millegan, *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), p. 39, chapter on the business ties of the 1920s.
[^10]: Antony C. Sutton, *Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler* (1976), pp. 106 to 107.
[^11]: Garry Wills, "Father Knows Best," *The New York Review of Books*, November 5, 1992, account of the Harriman firms and Bush's partnership. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
[^12]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 9 to 10, account of the 1930 merger.
[^13]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), partner table, pp. 231 to 235.
[^14]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 16 to 17, account of the 1930 merger and of James's talk with Harriman before the 1929 crash.
[^15]: Union Pacific Railroad Company, *Annual Report* for 1968, "Chairman Harriman" and "Top Management Changes." https://archive.org/details/001-union-pacific-annual-reports
[^16]: Union Pacific Railroad Company, annual reports for 1926 through 1930, lists of directors (December 31 of each year). https://archive.org/details/001-union-pacific-annual-reports
[^17]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 16 to 17, account of Robert A. Lovett's 1926 election as a Union Pacific director.
[^18]: Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, *W. Averell Harriman Papers: A Finding Aid to the Collection in the Library of Congress* (revised 2016), biographical note, entries for 1932 to 1946. https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms003012
[^19]: Harry S. Truman, The President's News Conference, November 2, 1950, item 1, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/the-presidents-news-conference-574
[^20]: Union Pacific Railroad Company, annual reports for 1951, 1955, 1959, 1960 and 1965, lists of directors and officers. https://archive.org/details/001-union-pacific-annual-reports
[^21]: Union Pacific Corporation, annual reports for 1969, 1972, 1973, 1974 and 1975, lists of directors. https://archive.org/details/001-union-pacific-annual-reports
[^22]: Union Pacific Corporation, *Annual Report 1978*, notice of the death of E. Roland Harriman. https://archive.org/details/001-union-pacific-annual-reports
[^23]: Sutton, *Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler* (1976), pp. 106 to 107.
[^24]: Sutton, *Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler* (1976), p. 103 (Table 7-1 and text on the 1932 directors and the joint Thyssen-Harriman operation).
[^25]: Sutton, *Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler* (1976), p. 107.
[^26]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), section "The Union Banking Connection," with the table of the eight directors in 1932.
[^27]: Treasury Department memorandum, Mr. May to Mr. J. W. Pehle, August 18, 1941, "Re: Union Banking Corporation," ref. 9-151, with handwritten notation by J. W. Pehle, declassified by NARA (authority NND 960103). Copy in an archive.org collection of Bush-related documents. https://archive.org/details/BushDocuments0008b-LetterJ.W.PebleToMay
[^28]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 248, "All of the Capital Stock of Union Banking Corporation and Certain Indebtedness Owing by It," executed October 20, 1942, signed Leo T. Crowley, F.R. Doc. 42-11568, filed November 6, 1942, 7 *Federal Register* 9097 (November 7, 1942). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf
[^29]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 261, "All of the Capital Stock of Holland-American Trading Corporation," executed October 28, 1942 (F.R. Doc. 42-13532, filed December 18, 1942), *Federal Register* 7 (December 19, 1942), p. 10627, holder table of 500 shares. https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-register-find_1942-12-19_7_248
[^30]: Ben Aris and Duncan Campbell, "How Bush's grandfather helped Hitler's rise to power," *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004, quoting the incorporation documents. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
[^31]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 203 (war work of the partners).
[^32]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 203 (post-war public service of the partners; index entry "American Red Cross work of, 203").
[^33]: Harry S. Truman, Letter to the President of the Red Cross on the Progress of the Fund Campaign, April 5, 1951 (released April 6), and Letter to the President, American National Red Cross, on the Flood Disaster Areas in the Middle West, July 19, 1951, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/letter-the-president-the-red-cross-the-progress-the-fund-campaign and https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/letter-the-president-american-national-red-cross-the-flood-disaster-areas-the-middle-west
[^34]: Dwight D. Eisenhower, Letter to the President of the American National Red Cross Accepting the Position of Honorary Chairman, released January 29, 1953, dated January 24, 1953, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/letter-the-president-the-american-national-red-cross-accepting-the-position-honorary
[^35]: Dwight D. Eisenhower, Remarks at the American Red Cross Convention, June 24, 1953, with the editors' note that "Mr. Harriman" was E. Roland Harriman, President of the American National Red Cross. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-the-american-red-cross-convention
[^36]: Dwight D. Eisenhower, Remarks on the Hurricane-Flood Disaster in the Northeastern States, August 22, 1955, and Remarks Following a Meeting With the Governors of Flood-Stricken States at Bradley Field, Hartford, Connecticut, August 23, 1955. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-the-hurricane-flood-disaster-the-northeastern-states and https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-following-meeting-with-the-governors-flood-stricken-states-bradley-field-hartford
[^37]: American National Red Cross News Service, "'Worst Disaster Year' Forces Raise in Red Cross Fund Quotas," 1956, CIA-RDP78-04718A002200010023-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp78-04718a002200010023-3
[^38]: Dwight D. Eisenhower, Statement in Support of Red Cross Disaster Appeal for Relief in Hungary, November 29, 1956, and Remarks at the Opening of the National Convention of the American Red Cross, May 20, 1957, with the editors' note identifying Harriman and Gruenther as Chairman and President. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/statement-the-president-support-red-cross-disaster-appeal-for-relief-hungary-and-hungarian and https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-the-opening-the-national-convention-the-american-red-cross
[^39]: *The American National Red Cross Annual Report for the year ended June 30, 1959*, lists of the Board of Governors and corporate officers, with letter from Allen W. Dulles of February 19, 1960, CIA-RDP80B01676R003600060072-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003600060072-0
[^40]: Richard Nixon, Letter Reappointing E. Roland Harriman as Chairman of the American National Red Cross (dated May 13, 1971, released May 15), and Remarks at the Annual Convention of the American National Red Cross, May 19, 1971, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/letter-reappointing-e-roland-harriman-chairman-the-american-national-red-cross and https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-the-annual-convention-the-american-national-red-cross
[^41]: "Announcement of Appointment of Frank Stanton as Principal Officer and a Member of the Board of Governors of the Red Cross," February 19, 1973, *Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents*, vol. 9, no. 8 (February 26, 1973). https://archive.org/details/sim_weekly-compilation-of-presidential-documents_1973-02-26_9_8
[^42]: *The American National Red Cross, 1977 Annual Report*, list of the Board of Governors and officers. https://archive.org/details/americannational0000amer
[^43]: Council on Foreign Relations, Receipts (1946-1951), Research Budget, with Contributions of Corporations, Individual Contributions to the 25th Anniversary Fund and Corporations with Officers who are members of the Council on Foreign Relations, November 1951, 8 pages, CIA-RDP80R01731R001100170005-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001100170005-1
[^44]: Robert Creamer, "Harriman of Goshen," *Sports Illustrated*, July 9, 1962, pp. 32 to 37. https://archive.org/details/Sports-Illustrated-1962-07-09
[^45]: Elizabeth Sharts, *Land o' Goshen, Then and Now* (Goshen, N.Y.: The Bookmill, 1960), chapter on the Historic Track. https://archive.org/details/landogoshenthenn00shar_0
[^46]: Fred Huff, *The Hambletonian, 1926-1975* (Hayes Fair Acres, Inc., 1975), the Hambletonian Society's 50th anniversary booklet, text on the 1930s. https://archive.org/details/hambiltonian
[^47]: Philip A. Pines, *The Complete Book of Harness Racing* (New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1970), entry on the United States Trotting Association and its first presidency. https://archive.org/details/completebookofha00pine
[^48]: Tom Gahagan, "Titan Hanover Wins the Hambletonian," reprinted in Huff, *The Hambletonian, 1926-1975* (1975), with photographs of the owner and the cup. https://archive.org/details/hambiltonian
[^49]: Huff, *The Hambletonian, 1926-1975* (1975), list of officers; Pines, *The Complete Book of Harness Racing* (1970), list of Hambletonian Society officers. https://archive.org/details/hambiltonian
[^50]: Huff, *The Hambletonian, 1926-1975* (1975), photograph captions of the 1956 Hambletonian at Goshen and of the trophy presentation to Gibson White. https://archive.org/details/hambiltonian
[^51]: William J. Myles, *Harriman Trails: A Guide and History* (New York-New Jersey Trail Conference, 2010 edition), passage on the Bear Mountain Bridge. https://archive.org/details/harrimantrailsgu0000myle_c5b2
[^52]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 139 (passage on the Boys' Clubs founded by E. H. Harriman; index entry "Boys' Clubs, 139"); Creamer, "Harriman of Goshen" (1962).
[^53]: Wills, "Father Knows Best" (1992), account of Roland Harriman's political giving and of the 1946 House seat. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
[^54]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 203 (passage on the partners' public service after 1945).
[^55]: *Annual Report*, The Society of the New York Hospital, report year following Harriman's death, notice of the Irving Sherwood Wright Professorship in Geriatrics. https://archive.org/details/annualreportsoci1976newy
[^56]: E. Roland Harriman, *I Reminisce* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1975), 280 pages, Open Library record. https://openlibrary.org/works/OL7090329W
[^57]: Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, *W. Averell Harriman Papers* finding aid (2016), name index entry "Harriman, E. Roland (Edward Roland), 1895-1978," family series Box 2 ("Harriman, E. Roland (brother) and Gladys, 1906-1972"), general correspondence Box 28 ("Harriman, E. Roland, 1925-1934"), and Box 7 ("Harriman, E. Roland, condolences on his death, 1978"). https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms003012
[^58]: New York University Special Collections, *Guide to the Brown Brothers Harriman Records, 1696-1973, 1995*, MS 78, name index entry "Harriman, E. Roland (Edward Roland), 1895-1978."

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---
aliases:
- Henry R. Luce
- Henry Robinson Luce
category: "Authors & Journalists"
tags:
- Person
- TimeInc
- Life
- Fortune
- SkullAndBones
- YaleUniversity
- AmericanCentury
- CIAMedia
- CDJackson
- ChinaLobby
- UnitedChinaRelief
- NationalWarFund
- Zapruder
- LSD
- ClareBoothe
- CenturyGroup
summary: "Henry Robinson Luce, Yale class of 1920 and co-founder of Time Inc., whose 1941 essay on the American Century ran in Life, and whose associates appear in CIA, psychological warfare, Zapruder film and LSD records."
born: 1898-04-03
died: 1967-02-28
location: "New York, New York"
created: 2026-10-26
updated: 2026-10-26
relations:
- type: founded
with: "[[Time Inc.]]"
start: 1923
role: "co-founded with Briton Hadden as Time Incorporated"
fn: 1
- type: founded
with: "[[Life (magazine)|Life]]"
start: 1936
fn: 1
- type: founded
with: "[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]]"
start: 1930
fn: 1
- type: head_of
with: "[[Time Inc.]]"
start: 1929
end: 1964
role: "sole head of the company after the death of Briton Hadden; retired 1964"
fn: 1
- type: member_of
with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
start: 1919
role: "elected to the society in the Yale tap day of May 15, 1919 (class of 1920)"
fn: 3
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Century Group]]"
start: 1940
role: "member who advocated aid to Great Britain, including the transfer of old destroyers"
fn: 7
- type: member_of
with: "[[National War Fund]]"
start: 1945
role: "executive committee, officers list as of August 13, 1945"
fn: 24
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Rockefeller Brothers Fund Special Studies Project]]"
start: 1956
role: "conversation with Henry Kissinger about the project, per the Luce papers"
fn: 25
- type: spouse_of
with: "[[Clare Boothe Luce]]"
start: 1935
fn: 1
- type: informant_for
with: "[[Central Intelligence Agency]]"
role: "briefed Allen Dulles after foreign trips, according to Bernstein's account of CIA officials"
fn: 30
---
Henry Robinson Luce (April 3, 1898 to February 28, 1967) was an American magazine publisher who co-founded [[Time Inc.]] with [[Briton Hadden]] in 1923 and ran the company until his retirement in 1964. He was born in [[Tengchow]], [[China]], to Presbyterian missionaries, graduated from [[Yale University]] in 1920, and was elected to [[Skull and Bones]] in the tap day of May 15, 1919.[^1][^2][^3] [[Life (magazine)|Life]] printed his 1941 essay "The American Century," and his associates and wife appear in the record of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], the psychological warfare apparatus of the Eisenhower administration, the Zapruder film and the LSD experiments of the 1950s and 1960s.
### Childhood in China, Hotchkiss and Yale
Luce was born at Tengchow (now Penglai) to the Reverend Dr. Henry Winters Luce and Elizabeth Middleton Luce. He spent the first fourteen years of his life in China apart from a visit to the United States in 1906 and 1907, attended the Chefoo School, a British-run preparatory school in northern China, studied briefly at St. Albans School in England in 1912, and entered the [[Hotchkiss School]] in Lakeville, Connecticut, the following year.[^1]
He entered Yale in 1916 and served as managing editor of the [[Yale Daily News]]. A member of the Yale ROTC Field Artillery Unit, he left college to train army recruits at the end of the First World War, was discharged as a second lieutenant at the end of 1918, returned to New Haven and graduated in 1920. Hadden, a classmate from Hotchkiss and Yale, was in the same class.[^1] After graduation Luce spent a year studying history at [[University of Oxford|Oxford]], and in 1921 took work as a reporter with the [[Chicago Daily News]] and then the [[Baltimore News]].[^1]
### Skull and Bones
The Harvard Crimson printed a special dispatch from New Haven dated May 15, 1919, reporting the men elected to the senior societies at Yale in that year's tap day. The Skull and Bones list read: DeForest Van Slyck, James McHenry, Joseph Weir Sargent, L. G. Adams, Daniel R. Winter, Henry R. Luce, John M. Hincks, Harry P. Davison, Theodore L. Safford, Morehead Patterson, Briton Hadden, Alfred C. Schermerhorn, Frank P. Hefflefinger, Francis T. Hobson and David L. Ingalls.[^3] The name index to [[Antony C. Sutton]]'s 1983 study of the society lists the class of 1920 with "Hadden, Briton" and "Luce, Henry Robinson."[^2]
Sutton's section on communications states that "There has been a significant penetration into communications," and gives as its first example "Henry Luce of Time-Life is in The Order."[^4] In 1977 [[Ron Rosenbaum]] named Luce among the society's members in an article in [[Esquire]]. Rosenbaum wrote of Bones reunions: "Where else can you hear Archibald MacLeish take on Henry Luce in a soul-versus-capital debate with no holds barred?"[^5]
### Time Incorporated and the Luce magazines
Luce left his job at the Baltimore News in 1922 to concentrate on a news magazine with Hadden. Together they formed Time Incorporated, and the first issue of [[Time]] appeared in New York in 1923.[^1] Luce married Lila Hotz on December 22, 1923; the couple had two sons, and the marriage ended in divorce in 1935.[^1] Hadden died in 1929, after which Luce became the sole head of the company.[^1] The company started [[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]] in 1930, the [[The March of Time]] radio series in 1931 and Life in 1936. In 1935 Luce married [[Clare Boothe Luce|Clare Boothe Brokaw]], a playwright and former managing editor of [[Vanity Fair]]; the Library of Congress chronology of her papers gives the date as November 23, 1935.[^1][^6] Sports Illustrated followed in 1954.[^1]
### The Century Group, Willkie and the Council for Democracy
In the early years of the Second World War Luce belonged to the Century Group, which advocated assistance to Great Britain; his papers include materials on the group's effort to persuade the [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] administration to provide Britain with old United States destroyers.[^1][^7] He was one of the driving forces behind the 1940 Republican presidential candidacy of [[Wendell Willkie]], and Clare Boothe Luce campaigned for Willkie in New York and Connecticut.[^1][^6]
The Luce papers hold a file on the [[Council for Democracy]] for 1940 to 1942, including a draft "Statement of Faith for Coordinating Council for Democracy" with Luce's handwritten response.[^8] [[C. D. Jackson]], then a Time Inc. executive, was president of the council in 1940, and his papers include a folder of correspondence with Luce on the role of "Harry Luce" in it and another listing criticism of the council as a "Luce front" organization.[^9]
### The American Century
Life printed "The American Century" under Luce's name across pages 61 to 65 of its February 17, 1941 issue.[^10] The essay argued that the twentieth century was "America's first century as a dominant power in the world," and that the world of that century "must be to a significant degree an American Century."[^10] Luce called on the United States to "undertake now to be the Good Samaritan of the entire world," and urged that American trade be planned on large terms. "We think of Asia as being worth only a few hundred millions a year to us," he wrote, and he continued that Asia would be worth "four, five, ten billions of dollars a year" to the country if Americans thought on those terms.[^10]
The program had four parts. The essay described America as "the principal guarantor of the freedom of the seas" and as "the dynamic leader of world trade." It pictured the country sending out "technical and artistic skills" in the form of "Engineers, scientists, doctors, movie men, makers of entertainment, developers of airlines, builders of roads, teachers, educators." The last section named America as "the powerhouse of the ideals of Freedom and Justice."[^10]
The essay addressed the war in Europe and the isolationist position in the United States, and it closed on Roosevelt. Luce wrote that "Our only chance now to make it work is in terms of a vital international economy and in terms of an international moral order," and that Roosevelt "must succeed where [[Woodrow Wilson]] failed."[^10]
### China, the China Lobby and United China Relief
The biographical note of Luce's papers records that through the 1950s and 1960s he was continuously involved in charities related to the Presbyterian Church, Yale and China, and that he "led a concerted campaign to provide aid to China under the aegis of the United China Relief."[^1] [[United China Relief]] was founded in New York in February 1941 in an attempt to consolidate several smaller agencies already aiding China. A Colorado College thesis by Sam Schoenecker wrote that Luce loaned prominent journalists from Time Inc. to the organization, and that the prominence of Time Inc. employees in its marketing raised questions about Luce's control over its picture of China.[^11][^12] The same thesis describes Luce as one of the influential figures associated with the [[China Lobby]].[^11]
The folder list of the papers records the relationship at the level of the files. A United China Relief folder for 1939 to 1950 and 1956 notes that the organization later changed its name to "United Service to China," and includes a memorandum from Douglas Auchincloss to Luce describing a meeting with [[Pearl S. Buck]] and correspondence from Buck, [[Herbert Hoover]], [[Cordell Hull]] and [[Joseph P. Kennedy]].[^13] Another folder holds the English translation of [[Chiang Kai-shek]]'s greeting to supporters of China through United China Relief on the thirty-third national day of the Republic of China, the reports "Five Years of United China Relief," minutes of the Committee on American Activities of the United Service to China, and the "Appeal to Americans: Stand By Our Chinese Friends Now!"[^14] A further folder includes "Russell Birdwell's Preliminary Plan for The Free China Movement."[^15]
Madame Chiang's 1943 tour of the United States is documented in two folders. One includes the press release of the Citizens Committee to Welcome Mme. Chiang Kai-shek, the speech she gave at Madison Square Garden, programs from her appearances in San Francisco, Chicago and Los Angeles, and a draft memorandum by United China Relief executives, "Items for Consultation with Madame Chiang Kai-shek." The other holds a letter marked "secret" announcing that she had left for the United States and a letter from Luce to her describing his impressions of China after a 1945 trip.[^16][^17] A folder on the China Institute in America includes a memorandum from Charles L. Stillman on his impressions of Taiwan and a transcript of an NBC interview with Chiang Kai-shek, and Luce delivered the speech at the dedication of China House on August 27, 1944.[^18][^19] A further folder includes correspondence from the Committee of One Million Against the Admission of Communist China to the United Nations, a "Formosa Report" from Kip Finch, and a draft of "The Luce Scholarship Foundation for Yenching University."[^20]
Luce's trip files show visits to China in 1941, with a handwritten report titled "China: To the Mountains," in 1945, with invitations in Chinese from [[T. V. Soong]] and Chiang Kai-shek, cables, a diary, and an outline of Nationalist and Communist strength in Shantung, and in 1946. Further files cover trips to Formosa and Hong Kong and to Indochina in 1952 and 1953, and travel to Taiwan and Vietnam in 1964.[^21][^22][^23] The files for Luce's correspondence with Jackson from 1945 list a "Chungking Diary, Oct.1945, by Luce" among its topics.[^9]
The papers of C. D. Jackson at the [[Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library]] include a folder titled "China-America Council," described as covering the "Time Inc. relationship with council," and a general-file entry for "Time coverage of events in Asia and China, 1937."[^9]
### National War Fund
The [[National War Fund]] issued a speakers handbook dated as of August 13, 1945. Its officers list names [[Winthrop W. Aldrich]] as president and [[Prescott Bush]] as a vice president for New York. The executive committee lists "Henry R. Luce" with Aldrich, Bush and [[John D. Rockefeller Jr.]], and [[Gerard Swope]], listed as chairman of the budget committee, appears on the same committee.[^24]
### Rockefeller Brothers Fund Special Studies Project
The Luce papers at the [[New-York Historical Society]] include a file on the [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund]] Special Studies Project, dated 1956 to 1963 with a 1974 addition. The file contains a memo regarding a conversation between Luce and [[Henry A. Kissinger]] about the project, and correspondence from Kissinger and [[Nelson Rockefeller|Nelson A. Rockefeller]].[^25] Luce is listed on the roster of Panel II, "International Security: The Military Aspect," alongside [[Laurance Rockefeller]].[^26]
### C. D. Jackson and the psychological warfare apparatus
Jackson was appointed assistant to the president of Time Inc. in 1931 and a vice president in 1940. He was managing director of Time-Life International in 1945 and publisher of Fortune in 1949, and became publisher of Life in 1960; his papers at the Eisenhower Library describe him as one of Luce's vice presidents who supervised the company's overseas activities in the late 1940s.[^9] The papers include his correspondence with Luce and with [[John K. Jessup]].[^9]
The finding aid for Jackson's papers sets a condition on any use: "Permission of Time Incorporated is required to cite or quote materials originated by any individual in his capacity as an official of Time Incorporated."[^9] Jackson served in psychological warfare with the [[Office of War Information]] during the Second World War, as deputy chief of the Psychological Warfare Branch at Allied Force Headquarters in 1943 and deputy chief of the Psychological Warfare Division at SHAEF in 1944 and 1945. His Luce correspondence for 1943 and 1944 lists OWI and PWB personnel and operations among its subjects.[^9] He was president of the [[Free Europe Committee]], which directed [[Radio Free Europe]], from 1951 to 1952, and the finding aid describes him as an active participant in Radio Free Europe from its founding in 1949 until his death in 1964. He then became special assistant to President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] for international affairs in 1953 and 1954. The finding aid states that he "took the lead in preparing" the Atoms for Peace speech delivered at the United Nations on December 8, 1953.[^9]
The Eisenhower Library's records for Jackson, 1953 and 1954, state that "As Special Assistant to the President, Jackson worked closely with the Psychological Strategy Board and the Operations Coordinating Board, and served as an official member of the latter." The same finding aid records that the [[Psychological Strategy Board]] was authorized by President Truman in June 1951, and that the Jackson Committee recommended abolishing it in favor of the Operations Coordinating Board, a change completed in September 1953.[^27]
The correspondence series of the Jackson papers carries the Luces through the Eisenhower years. The folder for Luce in 1951 and 1952 lists "Vietnam, Bao Dai, Ho Chi Minh," and "qualifications for CDJ's job." The folder for Henry and Clare in 1953 lists "Trieste issue; Italy-U.S. relations." The third 1954 folder lists "Indochina-role of DDE, W.B. Smith, Dulles, and French; Adm. Radford; A. Dulles; Dienbienphu." The 1955 folders list Formosa, Quemoy and Matsu, and the 1956 folder lists "Free Europe Comm.; RFE," Suez and "CIA." Jackson's own log for 1954 lists "CIA plans" and "Prince Bernhard-Bilderberg Conf." beside Luce and [[Walter Bedell Smith]].[^9]
Jackson was one of eleven members of the [[Quantico Vulnerabilities Panel]], which met at [[Quantico, Virginia|Quantico]] from June 5 to 10, 1955 under the chairmanship of [[Walt Rostow]].[^28]
### Covert relationships with the CIA
The minutes of the CIA Deputies' Meeting of July 21, 1952 record [[Frank Wisner]] noting that the agency was prepared to talk to Luce's representative whenever he came to Washington, and that it had enough material on hand to allow Time or Life to publish an exclusive story on the Duclos affair beyond the information already made public. Asked by Director Walter Bedell Smith about authenticity, Wisner said the agency was 90 percent positive about the information.[^29]
In "The CIA and the Media," a cover story in [[Rolling Stone]] on October 20, 1977, [[Carl Bernstein]] listed the executives who "lent their cooperation to the Agency." They included [[William S. Paley]] of the [[Columbia Broadcasting System]], "Henry Luce of Time Inc.," [[Arthur Hays Sulzberger]] of the [[New York Times]], [[Barry Bingham Sr.]] of the [[Louisville Courier-Journal]] and [[James Copley]] of the Copley News Service.[^30] Bernstein wrote that [[Allen Dulles]] "often interceded with his good friend, the late Henry Luce," who "readily allowed certain members of his staff to work for the Agency and agreed to provide jobs and credentials for other CIA operatives who lacked journalistic experience." He wrote that Luce "made it a regular practice to brief Dulles or other high Agency officials" after his trips abroad, and that in the 1950s and early 1960s Time's foreign correspondents attended CIA "briefing" dinners similar to those the agency held for CBS.[^30] Bernstein also wrote, citing CIA and Senate sources, that agency files contain written agreements with former foreign correspondents and stringers for Time and Newsweek.[^30]
Bernstein described C. D. Jackson as "Luce's personal emissary to the CIA." He wrote that Jackson "approved specific arrangements for providing CIA employees with Time-Life cover," and that some of these arrangements were made with the knowledge of "Luce's wife, Clare Boothe." He also wrote that Jackson, while a Time executive, coauthored a CIA-sponsored study recommending reorganization of the American intelligence services in the early 1950s. [[Hedley Donovan]], who took over editorial direction of all Time Inc. publications in 1959, denied any knowledge of such arrangements. "I was never approached and I'd be amazed if Luce approved such arrangements," Donovan said. "Luce had a very scrupulous regard for the difference between journalism and government."[^30]
The [[Church Committee]] took up the subject in Book I of its 1976 final report. Chapter X.B, "Covert Relationships With the United States Media," records that the CIA maintained covert relationships with "about 50 American journalists or employees of U.S. media organizations" until February 1976, as part of a network of several hundred foreign individuals who provided intelligence and at times attempted to influence foreign opinion through covert propaganda.[^31] The report notes that [[George H. W. Bush]], the new director, pledged that "CIA will not enter into any paid or contractual relationship with any full-time or part-time news correspondent accredited by any U.S. news service, newspaper, periodical, radio or television network or station."[^31] In the covert action chapter the committee quotes the February 11, 1976 announcement (it begins "Effective immediately"), records that "More than a dozen United States news organizations and commercial publishing houses formerly provided cover for CIA agents abroad," that "A few of these organizations were unaware that they provided this cover," and states that the use of American journalists and media organizations for clandestine operations "is a threat to the integrity of the press."[^32]
### The Zapruder film
After the assassination of [[John F. Kennedy]], [[Abraham Zapruder]] took his film to a Dallas processing plant, had three copies made, gave two to representatives of the [[United States Secret Service|Secret Service]], and sold the original and one copy to Life for a reported $150,000, according to a memorandum by [[Sheryl Walter]] of the [[Assassination Records Review Board]].[^33] A 1998 account by Jim DiEugenio in the journal Probe, which draws on an interview with [[Richard Stolley]], who was then working for Time-Life, states that Stolley got the print rights for $50,000, and that two days later, after viewing the film in New York, the company bought all rights for $150,000.[^34]
Zapruder told the [[Warren Commission]] that he had received $25,000 and that he had given it to the family of [[J. D. Tippit]]. The review board memorandum records that this sum "apparently was the first of six payments for the film and its copy."[^33] At the commission's request a representative of Life brought the original to the commission's offices and screened it several times, because "the original had considerably more detail and more there to study than any of the copies, since in the photographic process each time you copy you lose some detail."[^33]
DiEugenio wrote that "Reportedly, C. D. Jackson of Time-Life, who was close to Allen Dulles, was so upset by what the film depicted he decided to restrict what that company would show through its mass market magazines." He wrote that Life never showed the film in anything like its entirety, that the company sued [[Josiah Thompson]], whom it had allowed to see the film, over stills in his book Six Seconds in Dallas, and that in 1969 [[Jim Garrison]] subpoenaed the film from Time-Life for the trial of [[Clay Shaw]] in New Orleans.[^34]
The Walter memorandum dates Time-Life's notice to the National Archives that it was considering a donation of its rights to 1974. A review board letter of April 21, 1995 to [[Harry M. Johnston III]], general counsel of [[Time Warner]], gives the notice from [[Lawrence Layburne]], then a vice president of Time Inc., as 1975.[^33][^35] Time Inc. donated a first and a second generation copy to the government and sold the copyright in the original to the Zapruders for "$1 and other valuable consideration."[^35] The original was placed with the [[National Archives and Records Administration]] at the Zapruders' request for storage, and no deed of gift for the original was executed.[^33] In 1993 Henry Zapruder asked for possession of the film, and the archive declined to give it to him.[^33]
A review board letter of May 1, 1995 to [[E. Gabriel Perle]], a former general counsel of Time Inc., reported that from the company's files "it appears that the Zapruders do have legal title to the original film as well as ownership of the copyright," and that Time Inc. had been constrained by terms in the original contract.[^36] The Walter memorandum records a reported $40,000 that the Zapruders had collected from [[Oliver Stone]] for use of the film in [[JFK (film)|JFK]].[^33] On August 3, 1999 the Justice Department announced that an arbitration panel had awarded the heirs of Abraham Zapruder $16 million for the film.[^37]
### LSD and the Luce magazines
The first Time article on LSD, "Dream Stuff," ran in 1954 and reported on the drug as an adjunct to psychotherapy. In May 1957 Life published R. Gordon Wasson's account of a mushroom ceremony in Mexico in its Great Adventure series, a seventeen-page spread with color photographs. [[Martin A. Lee]] and [[Bruce Shlain]] wrote in their 1985 book [[Acid Dreams]] that Wasson was then a vice president of [[J. P. Morgan and Company]].[^38][^39]
Lee and Shlain wrote that Luce "turned on a half-dozen times in the late 1950s and early 1960s under the supervision of Dr. Sidney Cohen," a Los Angeles psychiatrist attached to UCLA and the Veterans Hospital, and that Cohen also gave the drug to Clare Boothe Luce. Their notes cite W. A. Swanberg's biography Luce and His Empire (p. 463) and Wilfred Sheed's Clare Boothe Luce (p. 125) for the count.[^38] Jack Shafer wrote in Slate that [[Alan Brinkley]]'s biography of Luce limits the discussion to about three pages and says Henry took the drug once or perhaps twice, against Clare's multiple trips.[^39]
The Library of Congress finding aid for the Clare Boothe Luce papers states that she "experimented with LSD under the tutelage of Gerald Heard and Sidney Cohen," and lists a subject file "LSD (drug)" holding clippings for 1961 to 1963 and 1983. Her correspondents include [[Gerald Heard]] and Cohen.[^6] The authors of Acid Dreams quote her remarks on the [[Dick Cavett]] program of April 9, 1982: "Oh, sure, we all took acid. It was a creative group, my husband and I and Huxley and Isherwood." The book gives her comment on the drug's use by others, "We wouldn't want everyone doing too much of a good thing," from [[Abbie Hoffman]]'s memoir Soon to Be a Major Motion Picture, p. 73.[^38]
[[Stephen Siff]] wrote that both Luces reviewed the 1963 Life article "The Chemical Mind-Changers" before publication, and that Time covered LSD earlier and more often than other magazines.[^39] According to Shafer's summary of Siff's reconstruction from Clare Boothe Luce's papers, Luce's first trip was taken at Clare's urging with Cohen observing in Phoenix, and a trip of Clare's on March 11, 1959 was interrupted by a telephone call from [[Richard Nixon]], which she declined.[^39] Brinkley's biography, as Shafer summarizes it, reports her later statement that LSD "saved our marriage."[^39] [[Andrew Heiskell]], a former Life publisher, recalled in a Columbia University oral history that Luce announced at a New York banquet that he and Clare "were taking LSD!"[^39]
### Clare Boothe Luce, Congress and the Italian embassy
Clare Boothe Luce served two terms in the House of Representatives, from 1943 to 1947, after joining the Republican Party in 1940.[^6] The Library of Congress chronology of her papers lists her as ambassador to Italy for 1953 to 1956, and the Office of the Historian records her as a non-career appointee from Connecticut, appointed ambassador extraordinary and plenipotentiary to Italy on March 2, 1953, presenting her credentials on May 4, 1953 and leaving the post on December 27, 1956.[^6][^40] The biographical note of Henry Luce's papers states that after her appointment he opened an office in Rome and divided his time between Italy and the United States from 1953 to 1956.[^1] The embassy papers in her collection include records "relating to missions, investigations, and projects undertaken by the embassy" and papers on the Trieste crisis.[^6]
Eisenhower nominated her ambassador to Brazil in 1959; the Senate confirmed the nomination and she withdrew before taking office after her remarks about Senator [[Wayne Morse]] during the confirmation hearings.[^6][^40] The Jackson papers list a folder on the "attack on C. Luce and mission to Brazil in 1959."[^9] The Library of Congress chronology records her as a member of the [[President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board]] for 1973 to 1977 and 1980 to 1986, and the series of her papers for the board runs from 1974 to 1987, with classified material in the 1981 to 1987 folders.[^6]
[[Jennet Conant]] documents that [[Roald Dahl]] was assigned during the war to cultivate Clare Boothe Luce for political intelligence. Dahl later described the assignment as the worst of the war, reportedly saying that she "talked too much both before and after."[^41]
### Death and papers
Luce died in Phoenix, Arizona on February 28, 1967. His papers include files on memorial services at the Madison Avenue Presbyterian Church and at Time Inc. in New York, and on memorial services held at Tung Hai University in Taiwan.[^1][^42]
The Luce papers at the New-York Historical Society were divided after his death. Records classed as business became part of the Time Inc. archives, and records classed as personal became part of the Henry R. Luce papers. Some of his files were given to the [[Library of Congress]], with copies of the more prominent records kept in his papers.[^1] The Clare Boothe Luce papers at the Library of Congress (MSS30759, 1862 to 1997) include Henry Luce's correspondence with Clare, general and "V.I.P." correspondence, scrapbooks, speeches, "Time-Life memoranda," a will and writings.[^6]
### Footnotes
[^1]: New-York Historical Society, Henry R. Luce papers, MS 3014, biographical note and series description. https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms3014_henry_luce/all
[^2]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull and Bones* (1983), name index, class of 1920. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^3]: "Tap Day Results!," special dispatch from New Haven, May 15, 1919, *The Harvard Crimson*, May 16, 1919. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1919/5/16/tap-day-results-pnew-haven-conn/
[^4]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), section on communications.
[^5]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977
[^6]: Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, *Clare Boothe Luce Papers: A Finding Aid* (MSS30759; prepared by Nan Thompson Ernst, revised 2016), chronology, scope and content note, and container list (President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board, 1974-1987; Subject File, "LSD (drug)"). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003044.pdf
[^7]: New-York Historical Society, Henry R. Luce papers, MS 3014, Series I, Box 26, Folder 7 (Century Group, destroyers for Great Britain). https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms3014_henry_luce/all
[^8]: New-York Historical Society, Henry R. Luce papers, MS 3014, Series V, Box 147, Folder 3, "Council for Democracy, 1940-1942." https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms3014_henry_luce/all
[^9]: Eisenhower Library, C. D. Jackson Papers, A72-26 (processed July 1973), biographical sketch, scope and content note, special restriction note, chronology, and folder list including "China-America Council," "Do-Misc.," the "Council for Democracy" folders, the "Luce, Henry R." correspondence folders for 1943 to 1956, "Luce, Clare," and "Log-1954." https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/finding-aids/pdf/jackson-cd-papers.pdf
[^10]: Henry R. Luce, "The American Century," *Life*, February 17, 1941, vol. 10, no. 7, pp. 61-65. https://archive.org/details/Life-1941-02-17-Vol-10-No-7
[^11]: Sam Schoenecker, "Justifying Hegemony: Henry Luce, United China Relief, and the Orientalist Framework for Global Intervention," Colorado College thesis. https://digitalcc.coloradocollege.edu/record/8568
[^12]: Schoenecker, "Justifying Hegemony," on the loan of Time Inc. journalists to United China Relief and on the prominence of Time Inc. employees in its marketing.
[^13]: New-York Historical Society, Henry R. Luce papers, MS 3014, Series I, Box 3, Folders 7-8, "China - United China Relief, 1939-1950, 1956." https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms3014_henry_luce/all
[^14]: New-York Historical Society, Henry R. Luce papers, MS 3014, Series V, Box 146, Folder 3 (United China Relief / United Service to China). https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms3014_henry_luce/all
[^15]: New-York Historical Society, Henry R. Luce papers, MS 3014, Series V, Box 110, Folder 2 (Russell Birdwell, Free China Movement). https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms3014_henry_luce/all
[^16]: New-York Historical Society, Henry R. Luce papers, MS 3014, Series V, Box 114, Folder 1, "Chiang Kai-shek, Madame - Tour of the U.S in 1943, 1942-1943." https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms3014_henry_luce/all
[^17]: New-York Historical Society, Henry R. Luce papers, MS 3014, Series V, Box 113, Folder 5, "Chiang Kai-shek (Mr. and Mrs.) - Miscellaneous, 1942-1966." https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms3014_henry_luce/all
[^18]: New-York Historical Society, Henry R. Luce papers, MS 3014, Series V, Box 146, Folder 6 (China Institute in America). https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms3014_henry_luce/all
[^19]: New-York Historical Society, Henry R. Luce papers, MS 3014, Series I, Box 3, Folder 5, "China Institute and China House, 1944-1972." https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms3014_henry_luce/all
[^20]: New-York Historical Society, Henry R. Luce papers, MS 3014, Series V, Box 147, Folder 2 (Committee of One Million; Yenching University). https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms3014_henry_luce/all
[^21]: New-York Historical Society, Henry R. Luce papers, MS 3014, Series I, Box 17, Folder 4, "Trips - China, 1941," and Box 18, Folders 5-6, "Trips - China, 1945." https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms3014_henry_luce/all
[^22]: New-York Historical Society, Henry R. Luce papers, MS 3014, Series I, "Trips - China, 1946," and Box 21, Folder 4, "Trips - Far East - Formosa (Taiwan) and Hong Kong, 1952." https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms3014_henry_luce/all
[^23]: New-York Historical Society, Henry R. Luce papers, MS 3014, Series I, "Trips - Far East - Indochina (Vietnam), 1952" and the 1964 Far East trip files. https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms3014_henry_luce/all
[^24]: National War Fund, *Speakers Handbook* (issued as of August 13, 1945), p. 38, "Officers of National War Fund." https://archive.org/details/SpeakersHandbook001
[^25]: New-York Historical Society, Henry R. Luce papers, MS 3014, Series I, Box 13, Folder 1, "Rockefeller Brothers Fund Special Studies Project, 1956-1963, 1974." https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms3014_henry_luce/all
[^26]: Rockefeller Brothers Fund Special Studies Project, Panel II, "International Security: The Military Aspect," roster in the 1961 volume, as cited on the Laurance Rockefeller page.
[^27]: Eisenhower Library, "Jackson, C.D.: Records, 1953-54," introduction to the PSB-OCB series. https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/finding-aids/pdf/jackson-cd-records.pdf
[^28]: Eisenhower Presidential Library, Richard M. Bissell Jr. Papers, Walt and Eugene Rostow Series, Boxes 1-3 (as cited on the Time page). https://eisenhower.archives.gov/sites/default/files/finding-aids/pdf/bissell-richard-m-jr-papers/walt-and-eugene-rostow-series.pdf
[^29]: Central Intelligence Agency, Deputies' Meeting minutes, Monday, July 21, 1952, p. 1. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/1952-07-21.pdf
[^30]: Carl Bernstein, "The CIA and the Media," *Rolling Stone*, October 20, 1977. Reprint PDF on archive.org. https://ia600409.us.archive.org/23/items/carl-bernstein-cia-and-the-media/Carl%20Bernstein%20CIA%20and%20the%20Media.pdf
[^31]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Final Report, Book I: Foreign and Military Intelligence*, S. Rep. No. 94-755 (1976), Chapter X.B, "Covert Relationships with the United States Media," pp. 191-192. https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel01unit
[^32]: Church Committee, *Final Report, Book I* (1976), covert action chapter, "The Covert Use of U.S. Journalists and Media Institutions," pp. 454-455. https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel01unit
[^33]: Assassination Records Review Board, Sheryl Walter, memorandum, "Zapruder film update," April 6, 1995, ARRB file ZP45MT. https://documents3.theblackvault.com/documents/jfkfiles/NARA-Oct2017/ARRB/SWALTER/WP-DOCS/ZAPRUDER/ZP45MT.WPD.pdf
[^34]: Jim DiEugenio, history of the film's ownership, *Probe* vol. 5, no. 6 (September-October 1998), reproduced as "The Zapruder Film Comes to Home Video," kennedysandking.com, October 15, 1998, citing Richard Stolley's interview on *Burden of Proof*, July 18, 1998. https://www.kennedysandking.com/john-f-kennedy-articles/333
[^35]: Assassination Records Review Board, letter to Harry M. Johnston III, general counsel, Time Warner Inc., April 21, 1995, ARRB file TMLF421. https://documents3.theblackvault.com/documents/jfkfiles/NARA-Oct2017/ARRB/SWALTER/WP-DOCS/ZAPRUDER/TMLF421.WPD.pdf
[^36]: Assassination Records Review Board, letter to E. Gabriel Perle, May 1, 1995, ARRB file ZPTHXGP. https://documents3.theblackvault.com/documents/jfkfiles/NARA-Oct2017/ARRB/SWALTER/WP-DOCS/ZAPRUDER/ZPTHXGP.WPD.pdf
[^37]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Public Affairs, press release on the Zapruder film arbitration, August 3, 1999. https://www.justice.gov/archive/opa/pr/1999/August/339civ.htm
[^38]: Martin A. Lee and Bruce Shlain, *Acid Dreams: The CIA, LSD, and the Sixties Rebellion* (New York: Grove Press, 1985), ch. 3, "Under the Mushroom, Over the Rainbow," and chapter notes (Swanberg, *Luce and His Empire*, p. 463; Sheed, *Clare Boothe Luce*, p. 125; Cavett, April 9, 1982; Hoffman, *Soon to Be a Major Motion Picture*, p. 73). https://archive.org/details/LeeShlainAcidDreamsTheCompleteSocialHistoryOfLSDGrove1985
[^39]: Jack Shafer, "The Time and Life Acid Trip," *Slate*, June 2010, summarizing Stephen Siff, "Henry Luce's Strange Trip: Coverage of LSD in Time and Life, 1954-68," *Journalism History* (2008), Alan Brinkley, *The Publisher: Henry Luce and His American Century* (2010), and Andrew Heiskell's Columbia University oral history. https://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/press_box/2010/06/the_time_and_life_acid_trip.html
[^40]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, "Ann Clare Boothe Luce," Chiefs of Mission record. https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/luce-ann-clare-boothe
[^41]: Jennet Conant, *The Irregulars: Roald Dahl and the British Spy Ring in Wartime Washington* (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2008), as cited on the Time page.
[^42]: New-York Historical Society, Henry R. Luce papers, MS 3014, Series I, Box 5, Folder 6, "Death of HRL - Memorial Services." https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms3014_henry_luce/all

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10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Howard Hunt.md
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@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
---
created: 2026-05-15
updated: 2026-10-09
updated: 2026-10-26
title: Howard Hunt
aliases:
- E. Howard Hunt
@ -25,12 +25,19 @@ born: 1918-10-09
died: 2007-01-23
location: "Washington, D.C."
relations:
- type: reported_to
with: "[[William F. Buckley Jr.]]"
reverse: true
start: 1951
end: 1952
role: "Buckley worked under Hunt as an OPC agent in Mexico City, by Buckley's own account"
fn: 7
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Office of Technical Service]]"
start: 1971-07
end: 1971-08
role: "the Technical Services Division supplied alias documents, disguise materials, a tape recorder and a Tessina camera; assistance stopped August 27, 1971"
fn: 7
fn: 13
---
Everette Howard Hunt Jr. (October 9, 1918 - January 23, 2007) was a [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] officer and prolific spy novelist who participated in two of the most significant CIA covert operations of the Cold War era - the 1954 [[Guatemala]]n coup ([[Operation PBSUCCESS]]) and the 1961 [[Bay of Pigs]] invasion - before his involvement in the [[Watergate]] burglary of June 1972 made him one of the most publicly known CIA officers in American history.[^1]
@ -65,19 +72,27 @@ Hunt retired on April 30, 1970, and went to work for the [[Robert R. Mullen Comp
In March 1972, at the direction of [[Charles Colson]], he flew to [[Denver]] in a wig and with alias documents supplied by the agency to question the [[ITT Corporation|ITT]] lobbyist [[Dita Beard]] in her hospital room. The House subcommittee that examined the agency's part in Watergate listed the visit among the misuses of its assistance. On July 26, 1973, the Watergate special prosecutor's office asked the agency whether it knew of "any intelligence or undercover activities performed by Howard Hunt and/or [[G. Gordon Liddy|Gordon Liddy]] for ITT," of arrangements between ITT and the Mullen firm, or of any employment of the ITT publicist [[Hal Hendrix]]. The released reply addresses only the Mullen firm and an ITT office in [[Coral Gables, Florida|Coral Gables]].[^6]
### Mexico City station, 1950 to 1952
Hunt wrote that he volunteered to open the [[Office of Policy Coordination]] station in [[Mexico City]] in the late summer of 1950.[^7] Hunt wrote that he met [[William F. Buckley Jr.]] through [[James Burnham]], and that the first name on his list of recruits was Buckley, the Yale graduate whose *God and Man at Yale* was then stirring controversy: "First on my list was Bill Buckley, who readily agreed and set about working out details of his cover."[^8] Hunt assigned Buckley to help [[Eudocio Ravines]] complete *The Yenan Way* and translate it into English. When Scribner's accepted the translation, Buckley "decided to leave Mexico and CIA."[^9] Buckley wrote in *National Review* in 2005 that he was inducted into the CIA in 1951 as a deep cover agent and that the only name he could have given up was that of "my immediate boss (E. Howard Hunt, as it happened)."[^10]
Hunt wrote that he and his wife had asked Buckley to become guardian of their children and executor of their estate, and that Buckley, "already the children's godfather," agreed.[^11] When Hunt visited [[Madrid]] he stayed in the apartment of Buckley's brother [[Reid Buckley]].[^12]
### Watergate
By 1971, Hunt had been nominally retired from the CIA and was working as a consultant to the White House under Charles Colson, a senior aide to President [[Richard Nixon]]. Nixon's "plumbers" unit - tasked with plugging information leaks and conducting political intelligence operations - recruited Hunt for various activities, including the burglary of [[Daniel Ellsberg]]'s psychiatrist's office in September 1971.
In July and August 1971, while working for the White House, Hunt went to the CIA's technical services for help with an operation. On July 22, 1971 he met the Deputy Director of Central Intelligence, General [[Robert E. Cushman Jr.]], who directed the technical service to help him. On July 23 he received alias documents in the name "Edward Joseph Warren," a wig, glasses and a speech alteration device. He then obtained a tape recorder in a typewriter case and a Tessina camera disguised in a tobacco pouch. The technical officers became concerned at the escalation of his requests, and on August 27, 1971 Cushman told [[John Ehrlichman]] that further assistance could not be given. The camera was returned that day as unsuitable. The Technical Services Division had no further association with Hunt after August 1971.[^7] The staff report appended to Senator [[Howard Baker]]'s views in the Senate Watergate Committee's final report states that a TSD memorandum of August 27, 1971 showed Hunt's request for a New York telephone answering service about to be implemented, that the CIA kept a file on Hunt's activities entitled "Mr. Edward" outside its normal filing system, and that testimony indicated film the TSD developed for Hunt and Liddy was of Lewis Fielding's office.[^8]
In July and August 1971, while working for the White House, Hunt went to the CIA's technical services for help with an operation. On July 22, 1971 he met the Deputy Director of Central Intelligence, General [[Robert E. Cushman Jr.]], who directed the technical service to help him. On July 23 he received alias documents in the name "Edward Joseph Warren," a wig, glasses and a speech alteration device. He then obtained a tape recorder in a typewriter case and a Tessina camera disguised in a tobacco pouch. The technical officers became concerned at the escalation of his requests, and on August 27, 1971 Cushman told [[John Ehrlichman]] that further assistance could not be given. The camera was returned that day as unsuitable. The Technical Services Division had no further association with Hunt after August 1971.[^13] The staff report appended to Senator [[Howard Baker]]'s views in the Senate Watergate Committee's final report states that a TSD memorandum of August 27, 1971 showed Hunt's request for a New York telephone answering service about to be implemented, that the CIA kept a file on Hunt's activities entitled "Mr. Edward" outside its normal filing system, and that testimony indicated film the TSD developed for Hunt and Liddy was of Lewis Fielding's office.[^14]
On the night of June 17, 1972, Hunt organized and directed the team that broke into the [[Democratic National Committee]] headquarters at the [[Watergate complex]] in Washington - the burglary that produced five arrests, triggered the Senate investigation and Special Prosecutor investigation, and ultimately led to Nixon's resignation in August 1974.
Hunt was convicted of conspiracy, burglary, and wiretapping and sentenced to 35 years, subsequently reduced. He served approximately 33 months in federal prison. His wife Dorothy died in a plane crash in December 1972, with some researchers suggesting the crash was not accidental; the official ruling was that it was an accident.[^9]
Hunt was convicted of conspiracy, burglary, and wiretapping and sentenced to 35 years, subsequently reduced. He served approximately 33 months in federal prison. His wife Dorothy died in a plane crash in December 1972, with some researchers suggesting the crash was not accidental; the official ruling was that it was an accident.[^15]
The [[CIA Office of Security|Office of Security]] reported to the inspector general on May 22, 1975, for the [[Church Committee]], that in November 1963 Hunt "was assigned to DDP/CA Staff, Office of the Chief, Headquarters; however, apparently Mr. Hunt had collateral duties with DDP/Domestic Operations Division/Facilities Branch," from November 1961 to February 1965, and that "neither Mr. Hunt nor Mr. McCord were in charge of Mexican operations at the time of the Kennedy assassination."[^10]
After Hunt's conviction, Maryland authorities removed him as executor of his wife's estate, and his successor under the terms of her will was Buckley.[^16] Hunt wrote that he taped a *Firing Line* program with Buckley at KQED in San Francisco on January 18, 1973, with students from Mills College in the audience, and that the Buckley-run committee at *National Review* answered the telegrams and letters that followed his Senate testimony and solicited funds for his legal defense, and that Buckley suggested he retain Buckley's attorney C. Dickerman Williams at no cost.[^17] Hunt also recorded dining with Pat and Bill Buckley and Williams.[^18] In August 1973 an FBI background check on Buckley recorded that [[Arthur Schlesinger Jr.]] understood "Buckley is a good friend of E. Howard Hunt, connected with the Watergate break-in, and is the godfather of some of his children."[^19]
Helms's secretary [[Elizabeth Dunlevy]] testified in 1974 that Hunt "had always been grateful to her for arranging a loan in connection with the terrible financial strain involving his daughter"; the agency's observer noted that Helms had placed the call that produced a loan of about 12,000 dollars.[^11]
The [[CIA Office of Security|Office of Security]] reported to the inspector general on May 22, 1975, for the [[Church Committee]], that in November 1963 Hunt "was assigned to DDP/CA Staff, Office of the Chief, Headquarters; however, apparently Mr. Hunt had collateral duties with DDP/Domestic Operations Division/Facilities Branch," from November 1961 to February 1965, and that "neither Mr. Hunt nor Mr. McCord were in charge of Mexican operations at the time of the Kennedy assassination."[^20]
Helms's secretary [[Elizabeth Dunlevy]] testified in 1974 that Hunt "had always been grateful to her for arranging a loan in connection with the terrible financial strain involving his daughter"; the agency's observer noted that Helms had placed the call that produced a loan of about 12,000 dollars.[^21]
### Kennedy Assassination Statements
@ -95,8 +110,18 @@ Hunt died of pneumonia on January 23, 2007, in [[Miami, Florida|Miami]].[^1]
[^4]: West, Ashley. "Unknowing Ray Horsch, Episode 1: Youth," *The Rialto Report,* Podcast 171, September 13, 2026, audio at 18:34 to 22:49; Central Intelligence Agency, "Wackenhut Corporation, SF# 493 364," memorandum for the record, July 28, 1975, JFK Assassination Records Collection, record 104-10130-10454.
[^5]: "E. Howard Hunt: Utilization by Central Cover Staff," 1970, CIA Reading Room document C00660613; Gahagen, Robert D., "Request for CSA concerning E. Howard Hunt," June 3, 1970, C00297384; "Letter of Recommendation Written by Mr. Helms," July 20, 1973, C00609297.
[^6]: House Committee on Armed Services, Special Subcommittee on Intelligence, *Inquiry into the Alleged Involvement of the Central Intelligence Agency in the Watergate and Ellsberg Matters,* 93rd Cong., 1973; Ruth, Henry S., Jr., letter to John S. Warner, July 26, 1973, C01482382; "Inquiry Regarding Possible ITT Association with CIA and Robert R. Mullen and Company," August 7, 1973, C01367838.
[^7]: U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Armed Services, Special Subcommittee on Intelligence, *Inquiry into the Alleged Involvement of the Central Intelligence Agency in the Watergate and Ellsberg Matters*, 93rd Cong., statement of Dr. James R. Schlesinger, May 11, 1973, pp. 1-3 (the Hunt narrative is on pp. 2-3), and testimony of General Robert E. Cushman, Jr. The hearing index also lists Hunt's testimony at p. 471. https://archive.org/details/InquiryIntoTheAllegedInvolvementOfCIAInTheWatergateAndEllsbergMatters
[^8]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), "Appendix to Views of Senator Baker," pp. 1135-1141, and p. 119. https://archive.org/details/WatergateErvinCommitteeReport
[^9]: Summers, Anthony. *The Arrogance of Power: The Secret World of Richard Nixon.* Viking, 2000. Hougan, Jim. *Secret Agenda: Watergate, Deep Throat, and the CIA.* Random House, 1984.
[^10]: Kane, Charles W., Director of Security. Memorandum for the Inspector General, "Senate Select Committee on Intelligence Operations, Request," May 22, 1975, JFK record 104-10106-10619.
[^11]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Legislative Counsel, memorandum for the record, "Select Committee Testimony of 6 February 1974," OLC 74-0197, February 6, 1974. CIA Reading Room, document 01474420.
[^7]: E. Howard Hunt, *Undercover: Memoirs of an American Secret Agent* (G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1974), p. 69. https://archive.org/details/undercovermemoirsofanamericansecretagent
[^8]: Hunt, *Undercover* (1974), pp. 69-70.
[^9]: Hunt, *Undercover* (1974), p. 77.
[^10]: William F. Buckley Jr., "Who Did What?", *National Review*, November 1, 2005. https://www.nationalreview.com/2005/11/who-did-what-william-f-buckley-jr/
[^11]: Hunt, *Undercover* (1974), pp. 77-78 (text and footnote).
[^12]: Hunt, *Undercover* (1974), pp. 134-135.
[^13]: U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Armed Services, Special Subcommittee on Intelligence, *Inquiry into the Alleged Involvement of the Central Intelligence Agency in the Watergate and Ellsberg Matters*, 93rd Cong., statement of Dr. James R. Schlesinger, May 11, 1973, pp. 1-3 (the Hunt narrative is on pp. 2-3), and testimony of General Robert E. Cushman, Jr. The hearing index also lists Hunt's testimony at p. 471. https://archive.org/details/InquiryIntoTheAllegedInvolvementOfCIAInTheWatergateAndEllsbergMatters
[^14]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, *Final Report*, S. Rept. 93-981 (June 1974), "Appendix to Views of Senator Baker," pp. 1135-1141, and p. 119. https://archive.org/details/WatergateErvinCommitteeReport
[^15]: Summers, Anthony. *The Arrogance of Power: The Secret World of Richard Nixon.* Viking, 2000. Hougan, Jim. *Secret Agenda: Watergate, Deep Throat, and the CIA.* Random House, 1984.
[^16]: Hunt, *Undercover* (1974), p. 293 (footnote).
[^17]: Hunt, *Undercover* (1974), pp. 322-323.
[^18]: Hunt, *Undercover* (1974), p. 327; the *Firing Line* taping at KQED, pp. 291-292.
[^19]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 2, teletype from the New Haven office, August 15, 1973. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-2
[^20]: Kane, Charles W., Director of Security. Memorandum for the Inspector General, "Senate Select Committee on Intelligence Operations, Request," May 22, 1975, JFK record 104-10106-10619.
[^21]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Legislative Counsel, memorandum for the record, "Select Committee Testimony of 6 February 1974," OLC 74-0197, February 6, 1974. CIA Reading Room, document 01474420.

50
10 - PEOPLE/(H-M)/Joseph McCarthy.md
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@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ born: 1908-11-14
died: 1957-05-02
location: "Grand Chute, Wisconsin"
created: 2025-08-05
updated: 2026-10-14
updated: 2026-10-26
relations:
- type: head_of
with: "[[Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations]]"
@ -38,13 +38,13 @@ relations:
role: "subcommittee chairman until stepping aside; Welch exchange of June 9, 1954"
start: 1954
end: 1954
fn: 35
fn: 37
- type: subject_of
with: "[[Select Committee to Study Censure Charges]]"
role: "subject of the committee's inquiry under S. Res. 301; censure recommended on two categories"
start: 1954
end: 1954
fn: 37
fn: 39
- type: subject_of
with: "[[Tydings Committee]]"
role: "subject of the subcommittee's inquiry into his Wheeling charges"
@ -84,29 +84,31 @@ Testimony in the closed sessions also reached the [[Federal Bureau of Investigat
In July 1953 McCarthy wrote to the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] about [[William P. Bundy]], then an agency employee. McCarthy's information was that Bundy had contributed $400 to the defense of [[Alger Hiss]] and had been a member of the [[United Public Workers of America]].[^28] On July 27, 1953 McCarthy, as chairman of the subcommittee, wrote to [[Allen Dulles]] that the contribution "raises the gravest question as to his holding a sensitive post in an intelligence agency," given the agency's work in detecting people such as Hiss.[^29]
The CIA reply, signed by [[Alba W. Doan]] as director, stated that Bundy had disclosed the $400 contribution on his March 1951 application for employment, and that the reasons he gave for it were not in accord, in certain respects, with those in McCarthy's letter. It recorded that Bundy had joined the union in the summer of 1940 while working at the [[Library of Congress]], attended one meeting and resigned after two months. It said the three allegations had been the subject of a complete field investigation, a personal interview and favorable determinations by the [[CIA Loyalty Board|CIA Loyalty Board]] and the [[Loyalty Review Board]] of the [[Civil Service Commission]]. Bundy had been attached to the agency's Office of Estimates since joining in 1951.[^28]
The CIA reply, signed by [[Alba W. Doan]] as director, stated that Bundy had disclosed the $400 contribution on his March 1951 application for employment, and that the reasons he gave for it were not in accord, in certain respects, with those in McCarthy's letter. It recorded that Bundy had joined the union in the summer of 1940 while working at the [[Library of Congress]], attended one meeting and resigned after two months. It said the three allegations had been the subject of a complete field investigation, a personal interview and favorable determinations by the [[CIA Loyalty Board|CIA Loyalty Board]] and the [[Loyalty Review Board]] of the [[Civil Service Commission]]. Bundy had been attached to the agency's Office of Estimates since joining in 1951. The reply deferred further comment on the reasons Bundy gave until the re-evaluation of his case under Executive Order 10450 was complete, and said that the record did not indicate that he had belonged to any other organization within the scope of McCarthy's third question.[^28]
[[Allen Drury]] reported on August 4, 1953 that in the exchange of letters Dulles had refused to tell McCarthy Bundy's explanation for the contribution.[^30] McCarthy's reply of August 3 argued that Bundy's contacts with and contributions to Hiss predated his CIA employment, and that Congress was entitled to information about improper conduct by the agency's top officers.[^31]
[[Allen Drury]] reported on August 4, 1953 that in the exchange of letters Dulles had refused to tell McCarthy Bundy's explanation for the contribution.[^30] Dulles replied on August 1, 1953; the reply, as quoted in the newspaper report of August 4, read: "After most careful consideration of your letter, I feel that the proper course to pursue is to follow the procedure described in the President's executive order," and Dulles declined to comment on certain phases of the matter pending the conclusion of those proceedings.[^30] McCarthy's reply of August 3 argued that Bundy's contacts with and contributions to Hiss predated his CIA employment, and that Congress was entitled to information about improper conduct by the agency's top officers.[^31] The letter called Dulles's insistence that Congress was not entitled to that information "extremely revealing," wrote that the head of the CIA would be "the last man in the world" to protect and hide the facts about an officer's "contributions to a convicted traitor," and said that the full matter would be submitted to his subcommittee and to the Senate when it returned.[^31]
The dispute widened to the printing of CIA material. On August 11, 1953 the CIA's [[Office of Legislative Counsel]] recorded that Cohn had telephoned about testimony that CIA classified material had been printed in the main [[Government Printing Office]] plant.[^32] On October 22, 1953 Dulles wrote to McCarthy that a check of the agency's reproduction facilities had found that "no classified CIA material is printed in the main GPO plant." He said the agency's legislative counsel, [[Walter Fforzheimer]], had informed the subcommittee's staff of these facts on August 12, and he asked that the letter be placed in the record.[^33]
An FBI memorandum of July 10, 1953 recorded that Dulles told the Bureau's liaison agent he would not permit CIA employees to testify before the McCarthy committee, that the White House supported the position, and that he wanted to know where McCarthy obtained his information.[^32] [[Antony C. Sutton]] wrote that McCarthy "wanted to call William Bundy as a witness before the Committee and found the establishment strongly arrayed against this idea."[^33]
The dispute widened to the printing of CIA material. On August 11, 1953 the CIA's [[Office of Legislative Counsel]] recorded that Cohn had telephoned about testimony that CIA classified material had been printed in the main [[Government Printing Office]] plant.[^34] On October 22, 1953 Dulles wrote to McCarthy that a check of the agency's reproduction facilities had found that "no classified CIA material is printed in the main GPO plant." He said the agency's legislative counsel, [[Walter Fforzheimer]], had informed the subcommittee's staff of these facts on August 12, and he asked that the letter be placed in the record.[^35]
### The Marshall speech, 1951
On June 14, 1951 McCarthy addressed the Senate on the career of General [[George C. Marshall]], then Secretary of Defense and formerly Secretary of State. The printed speech has sections headed "The Gospel of Fear," "They Planned It That Way," "Infamy So Black" and "Review of Marshall's Activities." It states: "How can we account for our present situation unless we believe that men high in this Government are concerting to deliver us to disaster? This must be the product of a great conspiracy, a conspiracy on a scale so immense as to dwarf any previous such venture in the history of man." It names [[Dean Acheson]] as one of those who "must be high on the roster" of the conspiracy.[^34]
On June 14, 1951 McCarthy addressed the Senate on the career of General [[George C. Marshall]], then Secretary of Defense and formerly Secretary of State. The printed speech has sections headed "The Gospel of Fear," "They Planned It That Way," "Infamy So Black" and "Review of Marshall's Activities." It states: "How can we account for our present situation unless we believe that men high in this Government are concerting to deliver us to disaster? This must be the product of a great conspiracy, a conspiracy on a scale so immense as to dwarf any previous such venture in the history of man." It names [[Dean Acheson]] as one of those who "must be high on the roster" of the conspiracy.[^36]
### The Army-McCarthy hearings, 1954
The Army alleged that McCarthy had sought special treatment for one of his former staff members. The subcommittee's investigation of the Army became the [[Special Senate Investigation on Charges and Countercharges|Special Senate Investigation on Charges and Countercharges]] involving [[Robert T. Stevens]], [[John G. Adams]], [[H. Struve Hensel]], McCarthy, Cohn and Carr. The [[Army-McCarthy hearings]] ran from March 16 to June 17, 1954 and were broadcast on national television. McCarthy temporarily stepped down as chairman and as a member, [[Karl Mundt]] presided as acting chairman, and [[Henry Dworshak]] was seated in McCarthy's place. The Senate report on the hearings was dated August 31, 1954.[^35]
The Army alleged that McCarthy had sought special treatment for one of his former staff members. The subcommittee's investigation of the Army became the [[Special Senate Investigation on Charges and Countercharges|Special Senate Investigation on Charges and Countercharges]] involving [[Robert T. Stevens]], [[John G. Adams]], [[H. Struve Hensel]], McCarthy, Cohn and Carr. The [[Army-McCarthy hearings]] ran from March 16 to June 17, 1954 and were broadcast on national television. McCarthy temporarily stepped down as chairman and as a member, [[Karl Mundt]] presided as acting chairman, and [[Henry Dworshak]] was seated in McCarthy's place. The Senate report on the hearings was dated August 31, 1954.[^37]
On June 9, 1954 (Part 59 of the hearings) Army special counsel [[Joseph Welch]] told McCarthy, after McCarthy raised the [[National Lawyers Guild]] membership of a young lawyer from Welch's firm: "Let us not assassinate this lad further, Senator. You have done enough. Have you no sense of decency, sir, at long last? Have you left no sense of decency?" The remark was addressed to McCarthy. Immediately before it Welch had told Cohn "I meant to do you no personal injury, and if I did, I beg your pardon," and McCarthy answered that Welch had been "baiting Mr. Cohn here for hours."[^36]
On June 9, 1954 (Part 59 of the hearings) Army special counsel [[Joseph Welch]] told McCarthy, after McCarthy raised the [[National Lawyers Guild]] membership of a young lawyer from Welch's firm: "Let us not assassinate this lad further, Senator. You have done enough. Have you no sense of decency, sir, at long last? Have you left no sense of decency?" The remark was addressed to McCarthy. Immediately before it Welch had told Cohn "I meant to do you no personal injury, and if I did, I beg your pardon," and McCarthy answered that Welch had been "baiting Mr. Cohn here for hours."[^38]
### Censure, 1954
The Senate created the [[Select Committee to Study Censure Charges]] under [[Senate Resolution 301|S. Res. 301]], chaired by [[Arthur V. Watkins]] of [[Utah]], with [[Edwin C. Johnson]] as vice chairman and members including [[John C. Stennis]], [[Frank Carlson]], [[Francis Case]] and [[Sam J. Ervin Jr.]].[^37] The committee's report divided the charges into five categories. It recommended censure on the category of contempt of the Senate or a senatorial committee and on the category concerning the treatment of [[Ralph W. Zwicker]], a brigadier general of the Army. It recommended against censure on the other three categories.[^37]
The Senate created the [[Select Committee to Study Censure Charges]] under [[Senate Resolution 301|S. Res. 301]], chaired by [[Arthur V. Watkins]] of [[Utah]], with [[Edwin C. Johnson]] as vice chairman and members including [[John C. Stennis]], [[Frank Carlson]], [[Francis Case]] and [[Sam J. Ervin Jr.]].[^39] The committee's report divided the charges into five categories. It recommended censure on the category of contempt of the Senate or a senatorial committee and on the category concerning the treatment of [[Ralph W. Zwicker]], a brigadier general of the Army. It recommended against censure on the other three categories.[^39]
The contempt category arose from McCarthy's dealings with the subcommittee on privileges and elections of the [[Senate Committee on Rules and Administration]], which had acted on a resolution introduced in 1951 by [[William Benton]] and on the 1950 Maryland senatorial election. The Senate had voted 60 to 0 in [[Senate Resolution 300]] to affirm that subcommittee's jurisdiction and the integrity of its members.[^38] On the category concerning classified information, the committee found that McCarthy had offered, in the course of his defense before the subcommittee, to make public a document bearing the markings of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, "Personal and Confidential via Liaison," concerning possible espionage at a defense installation. It found that the 2¼-page document had been taken in part from a 15-page interdepartmental memorandum from the FBI to the Army dated January 15, 1951, marked confidential, and that McCarthy knew in May 1953, when he acquired it, that it had been extracted in part from a document containing security information.[^39] The committee wrote that McCarthy "committed grave error" in offering to make public a classified document, but that "[t]hese mitigating circumstances are such that we do not recommend censure on the specifications included in category III."[^40]
The contempt category arose from McCarthy's dealings with the subcommittee on privileges and elections of the [[Senate Committee on Rules and Administration]], which had acted on a resolution introduced in 1951 by [[William Benton]] and on the 1950 Maryland senatorial election. The Senate had voted 60 to 0 in [[Senate Resolution 300]] to affirm that subcommittee's jurisdiction and the integrity of its members.[^40] On the category concerning classified information, the committee found that McCarthy had offered, in the course of his defense before the subcommittee, to make public a document bearing the markings of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, "Personal and Confidential via Liaison," concerning possible espionage at a defense installation. It found that the 2¼-page document had been taken in part from a 15-page interdepartmental memorandum from the FBI to the Army dated January 15, 1951, marked confidential, and that McCarthy knew in May 1953, when he acquired it, that it had been extracted in part from a document containing security information.[^41] The committee wrote that McCarthy "committed grave error" in offering to make public a classified document, but that "[t]hese mitigating circumstances are such that we do not recommend censure on the specifications included in category III."[^42]
On the Zwicker category the committee concluded that "the conduct of Senator McCarthy toward General Zwicker was reprehensible, and that for this conduct he should be censured by the Senate."[^41] The Senate condemned McCarthy by a vote of 67 to 22 on December 2, 1954, for abuse and noncooperation with the subcommittee on privileges and elections.[^42]
On the Zwicker category the committee concluded that "the conduct of Senator McCarthy toward General Zwicker was reprehensible, and that for this conduct he should be censured by the Senate."[^43] The Senate condemned McCarthy by a vote of 67 to 22 on December 2, 1954, for abuse and noncooperation with the subcommittee on privileges and elections.[^44]
### Footnotes
@ -141,14 +143,16 @@ On the Zwicker category the committee concluded that "the conduct of Senator McC
[^29]: Letter from Joseph R. McCarthy, Chairman, Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, to Allen W. Dulles, July 27, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080022-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080022-7
[^30]: Allen Drury, "McCarthy Warns CIA Head Fight on Bundy Isn't Over," newspaper article, August 4, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP74-00297R000401370024-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp74-00297r000401370024-4
[^31]: Letter from Joseph R. McCarthy to Allen W. Dulles, August 3, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80M01009A000100080020-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80m01009a000100080020-9
[^32]: CIA Office of Legislative Counsel, journal entry for Tuesday, August 11, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP91-00682R000200090091-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp91-00682r000200090091-4
[^33]: Letter from Allen W. Dulles to Joseph R. McCarthy, October 22, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP86B00269R000100130103-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp86b00269r000100130103-2
[^34]: Congressional Record, vol. 97, pt. 5, June 14, 1951, Senate proceedings, remarks of Senator McCarthy on General Marshall, passage "Infamy So Black" at p. 6602. https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_may-28-june-27-1951_97
[^35]: U.S. Senate, "McCarthy and Army-McCarthy Hearings," describing the Army allegation, the Special Senate Investigation, the hearing dates of March 16 to June 17, 1954, the broadcast, Mundt as acting chairman, Dworshak's seating and the August 31, 1954 report. https://www.senate.gov/about/powers-procedures/investigations/mccarthy-and-army-mccarthy-hearings.htm
[^36]: Special Senate Investigation on Charges and Countercharges Involving Secretary of the Army Robert T. Stevens, John G. Adams, H. Struve Hensel and Senator Joe McCarthy, Roy M. Cohn, and Francis P. Carr, Hearings before the Special Subcommittee on Investigations, 83d Cong., 2d sess., Part 59 (June 9, 1954), pp. 2428 to 2429. https://archive.org/details/specialsenateinv59unit
[^37]: Select Committee to Study Censure Charges, Report on Resolution to Censure, S. Rept. 83-2508, 83d Cong., 2d sess. (1954), roster and recommendations pursuant to S. Res. 301. Copy in CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP91-00965R000500040014-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp91-00965r000500040014-7
[^38]: Select Committee to Study Censure Charges, S. Rept. 83-2508, Category I, Part A and Part B (findings on Senate Resolution 187, introduced by Senator Benton on August 6, 1951, and Senate Resolution 300, adopted 60 to 0). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp91-00965r000500040014-7
[^39]: Select Committee to Study Censure Charges, Report on Resolution to Censure, Category III, Parts B and C (document with FBI markings; 15-page FBI memorandum of January 15, 1951), pp. 42 to 44. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp91-00965r000500040014-7
[^40]: Select Committee to Study Censure Charges, S. Rept. 83-2508, Category III and its conclusions, pp. 44 to 45 ("grave error" on p. 44, "[t]hese mitigating circumstances" on p. 45). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp91-00965r000500040014-7
[^41]: Select Committee to Study Censure Charges, S. Rept. 83-2508, Category V, Conclusions, p. 61, concerning Brigadier General Ralph W. Zwicker. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp91-00965r000500040014-7
[^42]: U.S. Senate, "Senate Censure Table," entry for Joseph R. McCarthy (R-WI), December 2, 1954, condemned 67 to 22, with the stated charge of abuse and noncooperation with the Subcommittee on Privileges and Elections. https://www.senate.gov/about/powers-procedures/censure.htm
[^32]: Federal Bureau of Investigation memorandum, "Information Concerning Allen W. Dulles," July 10, 1953, FBI file 62-HQ-80750, "FBI Files on CIA Liaison," section 31, https://archive.org/details/FBI-CIA-Liaison
[^33]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section "William P. Bundy," https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^34]: CIA Office of Legislative Counsel, journal entry for Tuesday, August 11, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP91-00682R000200090091-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp91-00682r000200090091-4
[^35]: Letter from Allen W. Dulles to Joseph R. McCarthy, October 22, 1953, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP86B00269R000100130103-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp86b00269r000100130103-2
[^36]: Congressional Record, vol. 97, pt. 5, June 14, 1951, Senate proceedings, remarks of Senator McCarthy on General Marshall, passage "Infamy So Black" at p. 6602. https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_may-28-june-27-1951_97
[^37]: U.S. Senate, "McCarthy and Army-McCarthy Hearings," describing the Army allegation, the Special Senate Investigation, the hearing dates of March 16 to June 17, 1954, the broadcast, Mundt as acting chairman, Dworshak's seating and the August 31, 1954 report. https://www.senate.gov/about/powers-procedures/investigations/mccarthy-and-army-mccarthy-hearings.htm
[^38]: Special Senate Investigation on Charges and Countercharges Involving Secretary of the Army Robert T. Stevens, John G. Adams, H. Struve Hensel and Senator Joe McCarthy, Roy M. Cohn, and Francis P. Carr, Hearings before the Special Subcommittee on Investigations, 83d Cong., 2d sess., Part 59 (June 9, 1954), pp. 2428 to 2429. https://archive.org/details/specialsenateinv59unit
[^39]: Select Committee to Study Censure Charges, Report on Resolution to Censure, S. Rept. 83-2508, 83d Cong., 2d sess. (1954), roster and recommendations pursuant to S. Res. 301. Copy in CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP91-00965R000500040014-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp91-00965r000500040014-7
[^40]: Select Committee to Study Censure Charges, S. Rept. 83-2508, Category I, Part A and Part B (findings on Senate Resolution 187, introduced by Senator Benton on August 6, 1951, and Senate Resolution 300, adopted 60 to 0). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp91-00965r000500040014-7
[^41]: Select Committee to Study Censure Charges, Report on Resolution to Censure, Category III, Parts B and C (document with FBI markings; 15-page FBI memorandum of January 15, 1951), pp. 42 to 44. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp91-00965r000500040014-7
[^42]: Select Committee to Study Censure Charges, S. Rept. 83-2508, Category III and its conclusions, pp. 44 to 45 ("grave error" on p. 44, "[t]hese mitigating circumstances" on p. 45). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp91-00965r000500040014-7
[^43]: Select Committee to Study Censure Charges, S. Rept. 83-2508, Category V, Conclusions, p. 61, concerning Brigadier General Ralph W. Zwicker. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp91-00965r000500040014-7
[^44]: U.S. Senate, "Senate Censure Table," entry for Joseph R. McCarthy (R-WI), December 2, 1954, condemned 67 to 22, with the stated charge of abuse and noncooperation with the Subcommittee on Privileges and Elections. https://www.senate.gov/about/powers-procedures/censure.htm

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---
aliases:
- Neil Mallon
- H. Neil Mallon
- Henry Neil Mallon
- Henry N. Mallon
- H. N. Mallon
category: "Business & Finance"
tags:
- Person
- DresserIndustries
- SkullAndBones
- DallasCouncilOnWorldAffairs
- ForeignPolicyAssociation
- GeorgeHWBush
- PrescottBush
- AllenDulles
- CentralIntelligenceAgency
- Cincinnati
- YaleUniversity
- Dallas
summary: "Yale 1917 Skull and Bones member who ran Dresser Industries from 1928 to 1962, founded the Dallas Council on World Affairs in 1951, and hired George H.W. Bush in 1948."
born: 1895-01-11
died: 1983
location: "Dallas, Texas"
created: 2026-10-26
updated: 2026-10-26
relations:
- type: member_of
with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
role: "member, Yale class of 1917"
fn: 1
- type: head_of
with: "[[Dresser Industries]]"
role: "president and chief executive officer, later chairman of the board"
start: 1928
end: 1962
fn: 2
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Continental Can Company]]"
role: "general manager, Chicago operations"
fn: 11
- type: founded
with: "[[Dallas Council on World Affairs]]"
start: 1951
fn: 3
- type: director_of
with: "[[Foreign Policy Association]]"
role: "director at large, class of 1950"
start: 1949
fn: 21
- type: director_of
with: "[[General Minerals Corporation]]"
role: "director of the Dallas uranium exploration company"
start: 1955
fn: 23
---
Henry Neil Mallon (born January 11, 1895, in [[Cincinnati, Ohio]]) was a member of [[Skull and Bones]] in the [[Yale University]] class of 1917 who served as president and chief executive of [[Dresser Industries]] from 1928 until his retirement in 1962.[^1][^2] He founded the [[Dallas Council on World Affairs]] in 1951,[^3] corresponded with [[Allen Dulles]] in the 1950s,[^4] and hired [[George H.W. Bush]] for a Dresser subsidiary after Bush left Yale in 1948.[^5]
### Yale and the Class of 1917
Mallon was the son of [[Guy Ward Mallon]], a Yale graduate of 1885 who was senior partner in the Cincinnati law firm of [[Mallon & Vordenberg]]. His mother was Hannah Neil of [[Columbus, Ohio]], before her marriage.[^1] He prepared at the [[Hughes High School]] in Cincinnati and at the [[Taft School]] in [[Watertown, Connecticut]]. At Yale he played on the class baseball team and the varsity basketball team, was chosen an all-collegiate guard by the [[Intercollegiate Basketball League]], and served as a vice president of the [[Yale University Young Men's Christian Association]].[^1] Throughout his college course he roomed with [[Clive C. Day]]. The class history lists his Yale relatives as an uncle, [[Neil Bernard Mallon]] of the class of 1896, and a brother, [[John Howard Mallon]] of 1919.[^1] Isaac Collier Gifford, a member of the same class, lists "Neil Mallon, '17" among his Yale relatives in the same history.[^6]
The class history states of him: "He is a member of [[Psi Upsilon]] and Skull and Bones." It also says that Mallon "expects to enter business with the [[Superior Portland Cement Company]]," and gives his permanent address as Cincinnati.[^1] The same history names [[E. Roland Harriman]] as a member of Psi Upsilon and Skull and Bones and lists his brother [[W. Averell Harriman]], of the class of 1913, among his Yale relatives. It gives the same membership to [[Knight Woolley]].[^7] It gives [[Prescott Bush]] the words "He belongs to the [[Whiffenpoofs]], Psi Upsilon, and Skull and Bones."[^8] The index of members by class year in [[Antony C. Sutton]]'s 1983 study of the society lists "Mallon, Henry Neil" under the class of 1917.[^9] The corporate history of Dresser published in 1979 records that Harriman, Bush, Woolley and Mallon had been fellow members of the society.[^10]
### Army Service and the Fort Sill Account
The company history of Dresser Industries says that Mallon "had seen the war's end as a major" before he took a job in [[Chicago|Chicago, Illinois]] with the [[Continental Can Company]], where he rose to general manager.[^11] A 1989 biography of Bush states that Mallon, at 23, had been the army's youngest major.[^12] [[Kris Millegan]] wrote that Bush and Mallon were both commissioned in the Field Artillery after graduation, and he gives Mallon's assignment as "Captain Henry Mallon 323d Regiment Field Artillery."[^13]
The [[Yale Alumni Magazine]] reported in 2006 that a centennial history of the society by [[F. O. Matthiessen]] names [[Ellery Sedgwick James|Ellery James]], Henry Neil Mallon and Prescott Bush, all of the class of 1917, among the men who were at [[Fort Sill]] in early 1918 and who unearthed a skull there.[^14] The same article reports a letter of June 7, 1918, from [[Winter Mead]] to [[F. Trubee Davison]], which [[Marc Wortman]] found in the Davison papers at [[Sterling Memorial Library]]. The printed text reads "exhumed from its tomb at Fort Sill by your club & the K[night] Haffner," and the magazine ties [[Charles C. Haffner Jr.]] to the artillery school at Fort Sill between August 1917 and July 1918.[^15]
### Continental Can and the 1928 Purchase of Dresser
A 1928 directory of directors lists Mallon at a Cincinnati address.[^16] In 1928 the Dresser family sold the business to [[W. A. Harriman & Company]], an investment-banking firm that intended to make the company a public company with separate ownership and management. The number of shares rose from 5,000 to 300,000. Of these, 100,000 were designated Class A and offered at $48 each, and the remainder were Class B, held back until 1931. The aging [[Fred Miller]], who had run the business, stayed on as chairman of the board in a consultative capacity, and Mallon became president at the age of thirty-three.[^11] The Handbook of Texas entry on the company by [[Darwin Payne]] gives the same sequence. It states that Mallon "was selected as president and chief executive officer" and held that position until his retirement in 1962. It also says that Prescott Bush "had been a W. A. Harriman and Company executive who had been involved in the conversion of Dresser to a public company, and he served on the board of directors for twenty-two years."[^2]
Payne's 1979 history of the company lists the presidents of Dresser Industries with Fred A. Miller as president from 1911 to 1929 and Mallon from 1929 to 1962, and it describes the principals of the Harriman firm, among them E. Roland Harriman, as sons of the railroad magnate [[E. H. Harriman]].[^17] The same history says that Mallon had never been to [[Bradford, Pennsylvania]], the site of the Dresser Manufacturing plant, before the purchase.[^17] [[Garry Wills]] quoted Prescott Bush's recollection that dates the purchase to 1929: "In 1929 we bought Dresser Company of Bradford, Pennsylvania for four million dollars, and we sold securities against that company and refinanced it, you see, so that we retained a substantial measure of control."[^18] The company histories give 1928 and Bush's recollection gives 1929.
Dresser's own annual report for the fiscal year 1993 gives a different corporate lineage. The company "was incorporated under the laws of Delaware in 1956 as a successor to a Pennsylvania corporation organized in 1938 by the consolidation of S. R. Dresser Manufacturing Company and Clark Bros. Company," and both predecessors were "carrying on businesses founded in 1880."[^19]
### Dresser Under Mallon, 1928 to 1962
The company history reports a gross profit of $1.29 million for 1929, despite the October 1929 stock market crash. It describes the threat to Dresser's couplings business from welding, which led to a program of acquisitions.[^2][^11] A [[Toronto]] plant opened in 1931 as a subsidiary, the Dresser Manufacturing Company, Ltd., after Canada limited imports. Profit for 1932 was $11,621. In 1933 Dresser bought the common stock of the Bryant Heater Company for $65,000, and in 1937 it acquired the Clark Brothers Company of [[Olean, New York]], a maker of gas engines and compressors, which merged with Dresser in 1938.[^11] The merger is the 1938 consolidation recorded in the later annual report.[^19] Between 1930 and the entry of the United States into the war, Dresser also acquired makers of valves, heaters and pumps.[^2]
During the Second World War the company supplied pipeline components to military posts, engines for freighters, and aircraft parts including landing gear, wing flaps and bomb doors. One of its most urgent assignments was at the secret [[Manhattan Project]]. Sales for 1944 were just under $55 million.[^11] The company's [[Pacific Pumps]] subsidiary of Huntington Park, California, supplied more than six hundred pumps to [[Oak Ridge, Tennessee]].[^17] The company's name changed to Dresser Industries in October 1944, and operations moved to [[Cleveland, Ohio]] five months later; the new Cleveland offices opened on March 19, 1945.[^11][^17]
[[International Derrick and Equipment Company]] (IDECO), a maker of derricks and drilling rigs, was acquired by Dresser in 1944.[^17] In November 1945 the company acquired [[Security Engineering]] of [[Whittier, California]], a maker of drilling bits.[^11][^17] In November 1949 it bought the [[Magnet Cove Barium Corporation]] of [[Houston|Houston, Texas]], for $2.8 million. The company history says that Magnet Cove was later known as Magcobar.[^11] The same history credits the executive vice president [[John O'Connor]] with persuading the [[Soviet Union]] to build a $6 million natural gas liquefaction plant outside [[Moscow]]. The plant was slated for completion in 1949, fell victim to a [[United States Department of Commerce]] trade ban early in 1948, and was unfinished until 1954.[^11]
The headquarters moved to [[Dallas, Texas]] in 1950, which the company history describes as moving the company to "the epicenter of the U.S. oil business."[^2][^11] A July 1955 issue of the magazine of the [[Dallas Chamber of Commerce]] counted nine affiliated Dresser companies: Ideco and the Security Engineering Division in Dallas, and Clark, Dresser-Ideco, Dresser Manufacturing, Lane-Wells, Magcobar, Pacific and Roots-Connersville elsewhere. The same issue reports that Security Engineering was moving its executive offices from Whittier to Dallas, and that Clark Brothers had built a 5,500 kilowatt gas turbine power plant, mounted on a railroad car, under a Navy contract.[^20] Mallon announced his retirement in early 1962, after his sixty-seventh birthday, effective March 19;[^2][^17] [[John Lawrence]] succeeded as head of the company and served until 1970.[^17]
### Foreign Policy Association, Uranium and Dallas Civic Posts
A proxy for the annual meeting of the [[Foreign Policy Association]] on December 10, 1949, printed in its Foreign Policy Bulletin, lists "H. Neil Mallon" as a director at large in the class of 1950 and describes him as president of Dresser Industries, Cleveland, Ohio.[^21] [[Dan Smoot]] later wrote that Mallon was "a former official of the Foreign Policy Association."[^22]
The July 1955 issue of the Dallas Chamber of Commerce magazine reports the formation of the General Minerals Corporation, headed by S. Y. Guthrie, to engage in exploration, development and processing of uranium, which absorbed the Dallas firm Research, Inc., a company that had done development work for the [[Atomic Energy Commission]]. The directors named are Guthrie, H. Neil Mallon, [[Everett DeGolyer]], Thomas A. Knight, Malcolm E. Wilson Sr., [[A. H. Meadows]], and Gordon Simpson, all of Dallas, with Kenneth M. Willson of Carmel, California, and P. H. Freeney of Pierre, South Dakota.[^23] The same issue pictures Mallon with [[Joe C. Thompson]] and [[Angus G. Wynne Jr.]] on the Chamber's Aviation Committee, whose chairman before 1954 was [[Stanley Marcus]]; the committee's 1952 studies led to a January 1953 bond issue of $10.5 million for [[Dallas Love Field]].[^24]
Smoot's book *The Invisible Government* quotes a November 11, 1958 report in the Dallas Morning News that a steering group "composed of Dallas and Southwestern business, industrial and educational leaders" had laid the groundwork, in a weekend meeting at [[Southern Methodist University]], for a Dallas Committee for Economic Development and a research center at the university, and that the group included [[George C. McGhee]] and Neil Mallon. Smoot added that Dresser Industries was among the corporations listed as contributors to the [[Council on Foreign Relations]] in its 1960-61 fiscal year, in a list that also includes [[Brown Brothers Harriman]] and the Continental Can Company.[^22][^25]
### The Dallas Council on World Affairs
The World Affairs Council of Dallas/Fort Worth says on its history page that the council was founded in 1951, when Dresser Industries' chairman and president Henry Neil Mallon "saw the need for a local institution to encourage citizen understanding, engagement, and involvement in international affairs." He gathered a select group from the corporate and civic communities to form the Dallas Council on World Affairs. The page lists seventeen founders, among them [[J. Woodall Rodgers]], [[Brooks Keller]], [[John A. Steel]], [[Charles P. Storey]], [[Tom E. Braniff]], [[J. C. Karcher]] and Stanley Marcus. The council's top award is named the H. Neil Mallon Award.[^3] A 2011 resolution of the Texas House of Representatives recites that the council, "Founded in 1951," presents its annual H. Neil Mallon Award.[^26]
A [[Dallas News]] editorial of October 27, 1953, held in the CIA reading room as a clipping, refers to the council's meeting the previous week, which had drawn interest in what the head of the Central Intelligence Agency might say. The editorial credits "H. N. Mallon, Mr. Costin, and others" with the council's start: "Under the aegis of H. N. Mallon, Mr. Costin, and others, the Dallas Council on World Affairs has proved itself in the short span of only two years to be an extremely valuable adjunct to the educational life of the community."[^27] [[Glen Costin]] is named in the same editorial as the council's executive director.
On February 27, 1954, Dulles wrote to Vice President [[Richard Nixon|Richard M. Nixon]] about the council. A Texas correspondent had sent Dulles a copy of his own February 24, 1954 letter to Nixon on the council, and Dulles described the council as "an excellent forum of persons who take a deep interest in our foreign relations." Dulles wrote of "Neil Mallon, whom I have known for several years," and of his "real accomplishment in organizing the Council and keeping it a live and vigorous organization." The distribution block of the letter shows a copy sent to Mallon.[^4]
On February 5, 1958, the council's executive director, Roger Kennedy, wrote to Dulles at the Central Intelligence Agency, thanking him for seeing Kennedy in Washington and for "such well-upholstered transportation to my next appointment," and saying the council would be grateful to hear him in Dallas in April or May "on the record and for an audience of substantial size." Dulles's reply to Kennedy, dated February 13, 1958 (drafted February 7), declined the invitation at that time.[^28] The council's letterhead, printed on the Kennedy letter, lists "H. N. Mallon" among its members, marked as a member of the executive committee. It also lists [[Earle Cabell]], Judge [[Sarah T. Hughes]], [[Karl Hoblitzelle]], George C. McGhee, [[Trammell Crow]], Stanley Marcus and A. H. Meadows. The officers printed on it are [[W. W. Overton Jr.]], chairman of the board, and Charles E. Beard, president.[^28]
The Handbook of Texas entry on Earle Cabell, mayor of Dallas from 1961 and later a congressman, names the Dallas Council on World Affairs among the civic organizations he had served as president or director, and names his brothers as Ben and [[Charles P. Cabell|Charles]]. The entry on Charles Pearre Cabell, born in Dallas in 1903, states that he was deputy director of the Central Intelligence Agency from 1953 until his retirement as a four-star general.[^29][^30] Earle Cabell greeted President [[John F. Kennedy]] at Love Field on November 22, 1963 and rode in the motorcade.[^29]
### Central Intelligence Agency Contacts
[[Anthony L. Kimery]]'s article "George Bush and the CIA: In the Company of Friends" appeared in the CovertAction Information Bulletin, number 41 (Summer 1992). Kimery wrote that Mallon "was a friend to numerous ranking Cold War era intelligence officials, including Allen Dulles," and that "Mallon steered prospective candidates for spy work to Dulles and often provided cover employment to CIA operatives."[^31] Kimery wrote that Dresser "had routinely served as a CIA cover," and gave as his basis for that statement interviews in 1990 and 1991 with two former Operations Directorate field officers, one of whom claimed to have worked for Dresser as his cover. His note for the sentence on Mallon's recruiting cites a March 25, 1953 letter from Prescott Bush to the president's national security adviser.[^31] For the wider point about Yale's ties to the agency, Kimery cites [[Robin W. Winks]]'s account of the Yale recruiting connection and quotes Winks that Yale "influenced the CIA more than any other institution."[^32]
Kimery also wrote that Mallon introduced the Russian-born petroleum geologist [[George de Mohrenschildt]] to Bush at about the time Mallon gave Bush responsibility for dealings with East-bloc oil officials, and that a Yugoslav oil official who came to the United States in 1948 to talk to Dresser went directly to Bush in Midland.[^31]
Millegan wrote that on April 10, 1953, Mallon sent a letter to Dulles about a proposed meeting at the [[Carlton Hotel]], at which Mallon, Prescott Bush and Dulles discussed the use of drilling rigs in the [[Caribbean]]. Millegan wrote that Dresser Industries had "often provided cover employment to CIA operatives."[^33]
The [[Washington Post]] profile by [[Bob Woodward]] and [[Walter Pincus]], dated August 7, 1988 in the CIA reading room copy, names Mallon, head of Dresser Industries, as the man who gave Bush his first job out of Yale, and as a member of the society in the Bush family tradition.[^34]
### George H.W. Bush at Dresser, 1948 to 1951
In the volume of his letters published as All the Best, George Bush describes Mallon in a biographical note as a "Yale classmate of my Dad's" and "an intimate family friend," and writes: "I accepted the job from Neil Mallon and drove our 1947 Studebaker (a graduation gift from my parents) to Odessa, Texas."[^35] In Looking Forward (1987, written with Victor Gold), Bush described Mallon as "a friend and a mentor second only to my father." Bush wrote that he became "a full-fledged Ideco salesman, selling drilling bits," that Dresser headquarters later sent word transferring him to Midland, and that when he traveled to Dresser headquarters in Dallas to give Mallon news of his decision to leave, "at age twenty-six, I didn't just respect Neil, I was awed by him."[^36]
A 1989 biography states that in 1948 Mallon offered to take on Bush as the company's only trainee that year and arranged a trainee's spot in Ideco.[^12] A 2007 biography quotes Mallon as having told Bush: "What you need to do is head out to Texas."[^37] A CIA biographical sheet on Bush lists him as an "Oil field supply salesman, Dresser Industries, [[Midland, Texas]], 1948-51," and records that he formed [[Bush-Overbey Oil Development]], Inc., in 1951.[^5] In a 1988 profile preserved in the same CIA file, [[Randall Rothenberg]] reported that "A family friend, Neil Mallon, a man who 'could charm the fangs off a snake,' according to [[Bucky Bush]], offered George a bottom-of-the-ladder job in Midland, Tex., at Dresser Industries, his large oil company."[^38]
Bush's letters in All the Best include one to "Mr. H.N. Mallon, Dresser Industries, Dallas, Texas," dated April 12, 1951, which begins "Dear Neil, This will let you know that we are in business," and a letter in which Bush wrote that he had decided to remain with Dresser Industries and had "a great feeling of loyalty to Dresser and to Mr. Mallon." Bush also recalled that leaving was difficult "especially because of my great respect for Neil Mallon," and that Mallon was "supportive and even encouraged" him to start out on his own.[^35]
Bush wrote of the birth of the couple's third son in All the Best that the baby's name was changed "from Henry to Neil" and that "We wanted to name him for Neil Mallon, whose name was really Henry."[^35] The son, [[Neil Bush]], was born in Midland on January 22, 1955.[^39]
Wills wrote that Prescott Bush, while serving on the Dresser board, "made his old Yale friend, Neil Mallon, the chief executive," and quoted Prescott Bush: "I was Neil Mallon's chief adviser and consultant in connection with every move that he made with that business during that period of twenty years."[^18] Wills also wrote that when George H.W. Bush went from Yale to Texas in 1948, he was hired by Mallon to work for a Dresser subsidiary.[^18] [[Bill Minutaglio]] wrote that Prescott Bush called Mallon "a very able fellow" and hand-selected him to head Dresser, and that Mallon "really was almost a member of the Bush-Walker family."[^40] [[Richard Ben Cramer]] wrote that Mallon had been "unofficial godfather" to the Bush children.[^41]
### Footnotes
[^1]: George Mosher Murray and others, *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. 1 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1917), entry for Henry Neil Mallon, pp. 231 to 232: birth on January 11, 1895 in Cincinnati, parentage, Hughes High School and Taft School, athletics, Dwight Hall work, "He is a member of Psi Upsilon and Skull and Bones," roommates, Yale relatives, "Mallon expects to enter business with the Superior Portland Cement Company," and the Cincinnati permanent address. https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr
[^2]: Darwin Payne, "Dresser Industries: A Legacy in Energy and Natural Resources," *Handbook of Texas Online*, Texas State Historical Association. Sections on the 1928 conversion by W. A. Harriman and Company, Mallon's selection as president and chief executive officer and his retirement in 1962, the directorship of Prescott Bush, the welding threat and acquisition program, the acquisitions between 1930 and the entry of the United States into the war, and the 1950 move of headquarters to Dallas. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/dresser-industries
[^3]: World Affairs Council of Dallas/Fort Worth, history page, stating that the council was founded in 1951 when Dresser Industries' chairman and president Henry Neil Mallon saw the need for a local institution, listing the seventeen founders, and naming the H. Neil Mallon Award. https://support.dfwworld.org/oldsite/who-we-are/our-history
[^4]: Allen W. Dulles, Director of Central Intelligence, letter to the Honorable Richard M. Nixon, Vice-President of the United States, February 27, 1954, with distribution "cc - Neil Mallon." CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R000900110025-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r000900110025-8
[^5]: Central Intelligence Agency, "Biographical Information on George H. W. Bush," undated sheet, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP99-01448R000401590001-9, listing "Oil field supply salesman, Dresser Industries, Midland, Texas, 1948-51" and Bush-Overbey Oil Development, Inc., formed 1951, Midland, Texas. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401590001-9
[^6]: Murray and others, *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen*, vol. 1 (1917), entry for Isaac Collier Gifford, listing Albert Hoysradt '77, Guy Mallon '85 and Neil Mallon '17 as Yale relatives. https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr
[^7]: Murray and others, *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen*, vol. 1 (1917), entries for Edward Roland Noel Harriman (member of Psi Upsilon and Skull and Bones; relatives include William Averell Harriman, '13, a brother) and Knight Woolley ("He belongs to Psi Upsilon and Skull and Bones"). https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr
[^8]: Murray and others, *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen*, vol. 1 (1917), entry for Prescott Sheldon Bush, pp. 105 to 106, "He belongs to the Whiffenpoofs, Psi Upsilon, and Skull and Bones." https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr
[^9]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1917, entry "Mallon, Henry Neil." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^10]: Darwin Payne, *Initiative in Energy: Dresser Industries, Inc., 1880-1978* (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979), chapter "New Command in a Troubled Era," on the Harriman firm's purchase and the Skull and Bones membership shared by Harriman, Bush, Woolley and Mallon. https://archive.org/details/initiativeinener00payn_0
[^11]: Dresser Industries, Inc., entry in the *International Directory of Company Histories* (St. James Press), reproduced on Encyclopedia.com. Sections on the 1928 sale to W. A. Harriman and Company, the share structure and the Class B shares held until 1931, Fred Miller's consultative chairmanship, Mallon's Continental Can Company career as general manager in Chicago, his age of thirty-three in 1928, his service as a major at the war's end, the 1929 gross profit of $1.29 million, the Toronto subsidiary of 1931, the 1932 profit of $11,621, the 1933 Bryant Heater purchase for $65,000, the 1937 acquisition and 1938 merger of Clark Brothers, wartime production including the Manhattan Project assignment and 1944 sales, the October 1944 name change, the move to Cleveland, the acquisition of Security Engineering in 1945, the Soviet gas liquefaction plant arranged by John O'Connor, the acquisition of Magnet Cove Barium Corporation of Houston in November 1949 for $2.8 million (later Magcobar), and the 1950 move of headquarters to Dallas. https://encyclopedia.com/books/politics-and-business-magazines/dresser-industries-inc
[^12]: Fitzhugh Green, *George Bush: An Intimate Portrait* (New York: Hippocrene Books, 1989), passages on Mallon as "the army's youngest major" at 23, on his 1948 offer to take Bush on as the company's only trainee that year, and on the trainee's spot arranged in Ideco (International Derrick and Equipment Company). https://archive.org/details/georgebushintima00gree
[^13]: Kris Millegan, ed., *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), section "Skull & Bones: What Did You Do in the Secret War, Daddy?" and the passage on the commissions of Prescott Bush and Henry Mallon in the Field Artillery, with the line "Captain Henry Mallon 323d Regiment Field Artillery." The text of the book reprints material that first appeared online in July 1996. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^14]: Kathrin Day Lassila and Mark Alden Branch, "Whose Skull and Bones?", *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2006, reporting the centennial history by F. O. Matthiessen '23 and its statement that Ellery James '17, Henry Neil Mallon '17 and Prescott Bush '17 were at Fort Sill in early 1918 and among the six Bonesmen who unearthed the skull. https://web.archive.org/web/20060614215733/http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/2006_05/notebook.html
[^15]: Lassila and Branch, "Whose Skull and Bones?", *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2006, on the letter of June 7, 1918 from Winter Mead '19 to F. Trubee Davison '18, found by Marc Wortman in the F. Trubee Davison Papers at Sterling Memorial Library, and on the yearbook entry for Charles C. Haffner Jr. The printed text of the letter reads "The skull of the worthy Geronimo the Terrible, exhumed from its tomb at Fort Sill by your club & the K[night] Haffner." https://web.archive.org/web/20060614215733/http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/2006_05/notebook.html
[^16]: *Poor's Register of Directors* (1928), Ohio, Cincinnati listings, entry "Mallon, Henry Neil," with a Norwood Station address in Cincinnati. https://archive.org/details/poorsregisterofd00poor
[^17]: Darwin Payne, *Initiative in Energy: Dresser Industries, Inc., 1880-1978* (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979): the list of presidents (Miller 1911 to 1929; Mallon 1929 to 1962; Lawrence 1962 to 1970); the Harriman principals; Mallon never having been to Bradford; the opening of the Cleveland offices on March 19, 1945; the caption stating Ideco "was acquired by Dresser in 1944"; Security Engineering Company of Whittier, California, joining Dresser on November 1, 1945; Pacific Pumps' pumps for Oak Ridge; and Mallon's retirement announcement effective March 19 in early 1962 after his sixty-seventh birthday. https://archive.org/details/initiativeinener00payn_0
[^18]: Garry Wills, "Father Knows Best," *The New York Review of Books*, November 5, 1992: Prescott Bush's recollection of buying Dresser Company of Bradford, Pennsylvania in 1929 for four million dollars; Prescott Bush serving on the Dresser board and making Neil Mallon chief executive; Prescott Bush's statement "I was Neil Mallon's chief adviser and consultant in connection with every move that he made with that business during that period of twenty years"; and George H.W. Bush's hiring by Mallon in 1948. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
[^19]: Dresser Industries, Inc., Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended October 31, 1993, filed January 28, 1994, Item 1, Business. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/30099/0000950131-94-000055.txt
[^20]: *Dallas* (magazine of the Dallas Chamber of Commerce), vol. 34, no. 7 (July 1955): the passage on the nine affiliated Dresser Industries companies; "Security Engineering Moves to Dallas"; and "New Mobile Power Plant." https://archive.org/details/sim_dallas_1955-07_34_7
[^21]: Foreign Policy Association, proxy for the annual meeting of December 10, 1949, in *Foreign Policy Bulletin*, vol. 29, no. 7 (November 25, 1949): nominees for director, class of 1950, "H. Neil Mallon," director at large, and the brief "Who's Who" entry "H. NEIL MALLON, President, Dresser Industries, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio." https://archive.org/details/sim_foreign-policy-bulletin_1949-11-25_29_7
[^22]: Dan Smoot, *The Invisible Government* (Americanist Library edition), p. 58: Smoot's text on Neil Mallon as "then Chairman of the Board of Dresser Industries and a former official of the Foreign Policy Association," founder of the Dallas Council on World Affairs in 1951. https://archive.org/details/b-001-014-093_202207
[^23]: *Dallas* (magazine of the Dallas Chamber of Commerce), vol. 34, no. 7 (July 1955): report on the General Minerals Corporation, headed by S. Y. Guthrie, absorbing Research, Inc., and listing its directors including H. Neil Mallon, Everett DeGolyer and Al H. Meadows. https://archive.org/details/sim_dallas_1955-07_34_7
[^24]: *Dallas* (magazine of the Dallas Chamber of Commerce), vol. 34, no. 7 (July 1955): the Chamber's Aviation Committee, photograph captioned with H. Neil Mallon, Joe C. Thompson and Angus Wynne Jr., the chairmanship of Stanley Marcus succeeded in 1954 by Wynne, the 1952 studies, and the January 1953 bond issue of $10,500,000 for Love Field. https://archive.org/details/sim_dallas_1955-07_34_7
[^25]: Smoot, *The Invisible Government*, chapter 1, list of firms contributing to the Council on Foreign Relations in fiscal year 1960-61 ("Corporation Service"), including Brown Brothers, Harriman and Co., Continental Can Company and Dresser Industries, Inc.; and the Dallas Morning News report of November 11, 1958, as quoted at p. 58, on the steering group at Southern Methodist University that included George McGhee and Neil Mallon. https://archive.org/details/b-001-014-093_202207
[^26]: Texas House of Representatives, House Resolution No. 2088, 82nd Legislature (2011), on the World Affairs Council of Dallas/Fort Worth's presentation of the H. Neil Mallon Award on September 22, 2011, reciting "Founded in 1951." https://capitol.texas.gov/tlodocs/82R/billtext/pdf/HR02088F.pdf
[^27]: "World Affairs Council," editorial, *Dallas News*, October 27, 1953, CIA reading room clipping, document CIA-RDP70-00058R000100080037-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp70-00058r000100080037-2
[^28]: Roger Kennedy, Executive Director, Dallas Council on World Affairs, letter of February 5, 1958 to Allen Dulles, Central Intelligence Agency, with the council's letterhead listing its officers and members (executive committee members marked with an asterisk), and Dulles's reply to Kennedy drafted February 7 and dated February 13, 1958. CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80B01676R003800110043-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003800110043-4
[^29]: Michael V. Hazel, "Cabell, Earle," *Handbook of Texas Online*, Texas State Historical Association: son of Ben E. and Sadie (Pearre) Cabell; brothers Ben and Charles; president or director of civic organizations including the Dallas Council on World Affairs; mayor of Dallas from 1961; at Love Field and in the motorcade on November 22, 1963. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/cabell-earle
[^30]: "Cabell, Charles Pearre," *Handbook of Texas Online*, Texas State Historical Association: son of Ben E. and Sadie E. (Pearre) Cabell; born in Dallas on October 11, 1903; deputy director of the Central Intelligence Agency from 1953 until his retirement in 1963. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/cabell-charles-pearre
[^31]: Anthony L. Kimery, "George Bush and the CIA: In the Company of Friends," *CovertAction Information Bulletin*, no. 41 (Summer 1992): passages on Henry Neil Mallon as chairman of Dresser Industries and the IDECO job; the sentence on Mallon's recruiting and cover employment, with its note citing a March 25, 1953 letter from Prescott Bush to the president's national security adviser; the description of IDECO as a Dresser subsidiary that "had routinely served as a CIA cover," with note 8 citing interviews in 1990 and 1991 with two former Operations Directorate field officers; and the passage on George de Mohrenschildt and the Yugoslav oil official of 1948. CIA reading room copy, document CIA-RDP99-01448R000401570011-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401570011-0
[^32]: Robin W. Winks, *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939 to 1961* (New York: William Morrow, 1987), chapter 1 and p. 35, as quoted in Kimery, "George Bush and the CIA," CIA-RDP99-01448R000401570011-0: Yale "influenced the CIA more than any other institution." https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401570011-0
[^33]: Kris Millegan, *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), section "What Did You Do in the Secret War, Daddy?", on a letter from Mallon to Allen Dulles dated April 10, 1953, a proposed meeting at the Carlton Hotel with Prescott Bush, the discussion of drilling rigs in the Caribbean, and the phrase "often provided cover employment to CIA operatives." https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^34]: Bob Woodward and Walter Pincus, "Bush Opened Up To Secret Yale Society: Turning Points in a Life Built on Alliances," *Washington Post*, dated August 7, 1988 in the CIA reading room record, CIA reading room copy, document CIA-RDP99-01448R000401580058-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401580058-8
[^35]: George Bush, *All the Best, George Bush: My Life in Letters and Other Writings* (New York: Scribner, 1999), biographical note on Neil Mallon; Bush's account of accepting the job from Mallon and driving to Odessa; the letter of April 12, 1951 to H. N. Mallon, Dresser Industries, Dallas; the letter stating his decision to remain with Dresser and his loyalty to Mr. Mallon; his account of leaving Dresser; the chronology entry for Neil Mallon Bush; and the passage on naming the third son for Neil Mallon. https://archive.org/details/allbestgeorgebus0000bush
[^36]: George Bush with Victor Gold, *Looking Forward* (New York: Doubleday, 1987): "Neil Mallon was a friend and a mentor second only to my father"; "I became a full-fledged Ideco salesman, selling drilling bits"; "Dresser headquarters sent word transferring me to Midland"; and the trip to Dresser headquarters in Dallas "to break the news to Neil. At age twenty-six, I didn't just respect Neil, I was awed by him." https://archive.org/details/lookingforward00bush
[^37]: Diana Childress, *George H.W. Bush* (Minneapolis: Twenty-First Century Books, 2007), chapter "Learning the Oil Business": Mallon, "a close family friend," saying "What you need to do is head out to Texas and those oil fields." https://archive.org/details/georgehwbush0000chil
[^38]: Randall Rothenberg, "In Search of George Bush," dated March 6, 1988, newspaper clipping in the CIA file, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP99-01448R000401580078-6, quoting Bucky Bush on Neil Mallon's offer of a job in Midland, Texas. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401580078-6
[^39]: Arleen McGrath Heiss, *Barbara Bush* (New York: Chelsea House, 1992), text and chronology: "Neil Mallon Bush was born January 22, 1955," in Midland. https://archive.org/details/barbarabush00heis
[^40]: Bill Minutaglio, *First Son: George W. Bush and the Bush Family Dynasty* (New York: Three Rivers Press, 2001): Prescott Bush's description of Mallon as "a very able fellow," his selection of Mallon to head Dresser, and the statement that Mallon "really was almost a member of the Bush-Walker family." https://archive.org/details/firstsongeorgewb0000minu
[^41]: Richard Ben Cramer, *Being Poppy: A Portrait of George Herbert Walker Bush* (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2013): Mallon as Bush's father's "great friend (and fellow Bonesman)" and "unofficial godfather" to the Bush children. https://archive.org/details/beingpoppyportra0000cram

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---
aliases:
- Robert Lovett
- Robert Abercrombie Lovett
category: "Intelligence & Government"
tags:
- Person
- RobertLovett
- BrownBrothersHarriman
- SkullAndBones
- FirstYaleUnit
- UnionPacific
- DefenseSecretary
- MarshallPlan
- NSC68
- CovertAction
- NationalSecurityAgency
- CubanMissileCrisis
summary: "Brown Brothers Harriman partner who served as Secretary of Defense from 1951 to 1953, sat on the board that reviewed CIA covert action in 1956, and received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1963."
born: 1895-09-14
died: 1986-05-07
location: "Locust Valley, New York"
created: 2026-10-26
updated: 2026-10-26
relations:
- type: partner_of
with: "[[Brown Brothers Harriman]]"
role: "partner from January 1, 1926; left for Washington December 16, 1940; rejoined the partnership June 1, 1946 to May 15, 1947, April 1, 1949 to October 3, 1950, and from March 1, 1953 (partner table)"
start: 1926
end: 1940
fn: 9
- type: member_of
with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
role: "member, class of 1918 (per Sutton's membership index)"
start: 1914
end: 1918
fn: 5
- type: appointed
with: "[[Department of War]]"
role: "Assistant Secretary of War for Air"
start: 1941
end: 1945
fn: 1
- type: appointed
with: "[[Department of State]]"
role: "Under Secretary of State"
start: 1947-07-01
end: 1949-01-20
fn: 21
- type: appointed
with: "[[Department of Defense]]"
role: "Deputy Secretary of Defense"
start: 1950-10-04
end: 1951-09-17
fn: 1
- type: appointed
with: "[[Department of Defense]]"
role: "Secretary of Defense"
start: 1951-09-17
end: 1953-01-20
fn: 1
- type: reported_to
with: "[[Henry L. Stimson]]"
role: "air assistant to the Secretary of War"
start: 1940-11
end: 1941-12
fn: 12
- type: director_of
with: "[[Union Pacific Railroad]]"
role: "director and member of the executive committee"
start: 1926
fn: 8
- type: head_of
with: "[[Union Pacific Railroad]]"
role: "chairman of the executive committee"
start: 1953-05-28
fn: 3
- type: director_of
with: "[[Rockefeller Foundation]]"
role: "trustee; chairman of the finance committee, April 1954 to April 1955"
start: 1954
end: 1955
fn: 48
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Subcommittee on National Policy Machinery]]"
role: "first public witness, February 23, 1960 (open and executive sessions)"
start: 1960-02-23
fn: 40
- type: member_of
with: "[[Strategic Missile Evaluation Committee]]"
role: "member (Teapot Committee)"
start: 1953-06-16
end: 1954-02-08
fn: 21
- type: member_of
with: "[[President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board]]"
role: "member, President's Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities"
start: 1956-01-13
fn: 21
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Cuban Missile Crisis]]"
role: "listed among others present at the National Security Council meeting of October 21, 1962; attended a planning meeting on October 24, 1962"
start: 1962-10-21
end: 1962-10-24
fn: 46
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Robert Scott Lovett]]"
role: "son"
fn: 10
- type: spouse_of
with: "[[Adele Quartley Brown]]"
role: "married 1919"
start: 1919
fn: 8
---
Robert Abercrombie Lovett (September 14, 1895 to May 7, 1986) was a partner of [[Brown Brothers Harriman]] who served as Assistant Secretary of War for Air from 1941 to 1945, Under Secretary of State from 1947 to 1949, and Secretary of Defense from 1951 to 1953.[^1] He was a Yale student who became a naval pilot in 1916 and was among the men that [[F. Trubee Davison]] recruited into the group that became the [[First Yale Unit]].[^2] Lovett sat on the Truman and Eisenhower intelligence advisory bodies, was a trustee of the [[Rockefeller Foundation]], was the first public witness before the Senate Subcommittee on National Policy Machinery in 1960, and appears in the records of the Kennedy transition and the Cuban missile crisis.
### Yale and the First Yale Unit
Lovett was born in [[Huntsville, Texas]].[^1] He was in his junior year at [[Yale University]] when the First World War began. He left school, enlisted in the [[United States Navy]], and became a pilot in 1916. The Defense Department biography says he flew briefly with the [[British Naval Air Service]] on patrol and in combat missions and received a Navy Cross for setting up the first naval bombardment squadron. His Yale bachelor's degree was conferred in absentia in 1918.[^1] The biography printed in the Senate subcommittee record of 1960 gives his schooling as the Hill School in Pottstown, Pennsylvania, from 1909 to 1914, Yale from 1914 to 1917 ("entered service First World War 3/24/17"), Harvard Law School from 1919 to 1920 and a Harvard business administration course in 1920 and 1921, and his naval rank as Lieutenant Commander, U.S. Naval Reserve, from 1917 to 1919.[^3]
The First Yale Unit grew out of a group of students that Davison assembled in 1916. The Yale University news service's history of the unit lists Lovett, class of 1918, among the men Davison recruited into the coastal patrol unit, along with [[Allan Ames]], [[John Farwell]], [[Artemus Gates]], [[Earl Gould]], [[Albert Sturtevant]] and [[John Vorys]].[^2] A photograph captioned in the same article places Lovett among the members of the Aerial Coastal Patrol at Port Washington, Long Island, in 1916.[^2] In a 1971 oral history with the [[Harry S. Truman Library]], Lovett described Vorys as a Yale classmate and club mate and said the two had been "in the same flying unit abroad."[^4]
Antony C. Sutton's membership index places Robert Abercrombie Lovett in the class of 1918 of [[Skull and Bones]].[^5] The 1960 subcommittee biography records that Lovett entered naval service on March 24, 1917.[^3] Kris Millegan wrote in 2003 that Lovett, whom he called "Harriman's childhood friend," had been "tapped into Skull & Bones by Prescott Bush's cell of '17," and he attributed the account to the biography [[George Bush: The Unauthorized Biography]].[^6] [[Prescott Bush]] and [[E. Roland Harriman]] were members of the class of 1917, and that class's published history records each of them as a member of the society.[^7]
### Brown Brothers Harriman and Union Pacific
Lovett married [[Adele Quartley Brown]], daughter of the senior partner [[James Brown]], in 1919.[^8] The firm's history by [[John A. Kouwenhoven]] records that he joined [[Brown Brothers & Co.]] in 1921, was granted a power of attorney in January 1925, and was admitted to partnership on January 1, 1926.[^8] The Defense Department biography places his 1921 start at the [[National Bank of Commerce]] in New York, where he was a clerk, and dates his full partnership to 1926.[^1] The biography printed in the 1960 subcommittee record gives the sequence as clerk at the National Bank of Commerce from 1921 to 1923, clerk at Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. from 1923, and partner in 1926.[^3] The partner table in the firm's history records his departure for Washington on December 16, 1940, and his rejoining the partnership for the periods June 1, 1946 to May 15, 1947, April 1, 1949 to October 3, 1950, and from March 1, 1953.[^9] The 1960 subcommittee biography gives the same resignation and readmission dates (resigned December 16, 1940; readmitted June 1, 1946; resigned May 15, 1947; readmitted April 1, 1949; resigned October 1950; readmitted March 1953) and records that he became chairman of the executive committee of the Union Pacific on May 28, 1953.[^3]
In 1926 Lovett was also elected a director of the [[Union Pacific Railroad]] and a member of its executive committee.[^8] The firm's history records that he and E. Roland Harriman met as eight-year-old boys in 1903.[^8] His father, [[Robert Scott Lovett]], was described in a 1930 article in Time as the "longtime personal attorney and close friend of the late Edward Henry Harriman and now chairman of his Union Pacific."[^10] The 1955 annual report of the railroad lists Lovett among its directors and names him chairman of the executive committee as of January 1, 1956.[^11]
### Assistant Secretary of War for Air
Lovett's first government post was with [[Henry L. Stimson]], the Secretary of War. Stimson's memoir records that Lovett "arrived in November, 1940, to be Stimson's air assistant."[^12] The memoir describes him as "a naval pilot of distinguished skill in World War I" and says that "Lovett possessed incisive judgment and a pertinent wit."[^12] Stimson wrote that Lovett "served Stimson in all matters affecting the Air Forces as Patterson served in procurement and supply."[^12] The firm's history gives a different sequence, dating a call to Washington in June 1940 as special assistant to the Secretary of War, while the partner table dates the post from December 1940 to April 1941.[^9]
In the memoir's account of the Department's division of labor, aircraft "was Lovett's field," and Stimson "confined his labors mainly to the vigorous support of the Air Forces' theory of strategic bombing."[^13] After seeing a new radar set in action, Stimson put Lovett to work to make sure that radar production was at its maximum speed.[^14] Stimson wrote the citation for the Distinguished Service Medal awarded to Patterson, [[John J. McCloy]], Lovett and Bundy.[^15] The firm's history quotes the citation calling Lovett "the eyes, ears, and hands of the Secretary of War in respect to the growth of that enormous American air power."[^8]
Millegan wrote that on October 22, 1945, Secretary of War [[Robert P. Patterson]] created a committee chaired by Lovett to advise the government on the postwar organization of American intelligence, and that Lovett pressed for "a virtual resumption of the wartime Office of Strategic Services."[^6]
### Under Secretary of State
In his 1971 oral history, Lovett described being called by [[Harry S. Truman]] to become Under Secretary of State under [[George Marshall|George C. Marshall]]. Truman told him, "I've got to get a new Secretary of State and I've signed up General Marshall on the condition which he made that you'd come down and be his Under Secretary."[^16] Lovett answered that he had to check with his partners and that "the New York State Bank Department has to approve."[^16] He said the State Department then had, "really, two Under Secretaries," and that Marshall's instructions made him responsible for economic matters.[^17]
Lovett recalled the bipartisan period in which "we had Greek-Turkish aid, we had the Berlin airlift, we had the Marshall plan, and we had the NATO organization."[^18] He credited the President's leadership and, "very largely," Senator [[Arthur H. Vandenberg]]'s chairmanship of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, "with whom I was always completely frank."[^19] An April 1948 telegram from the ambassador in London, [[Lewis W. Douglas]], marked for Lovett's eyes only, refers to Lovett's conversations with Vandenberg. The editors of the [[Foreign Relations of the United States]] volume note a Lovett memorandum of conversation of April 11, 1948 that opens with a reference to European union, and no other record of substantive discussion of the subject between Lovett and Vandenberg before the reported meeting.[^20]
The State Department's list of officials gives Lovett's service as Under Secretary of State from July 1, 1947 to January 20, 1949.[^21] The Defense Department biography describes Lovett and Marshall as running the State Department as Secretary and Under Secretary "from January 1947 to January 1949."[^1]
### Deputy Secretary and Secretary of Defense
Marshall became Secretary of Defense in September 1950 and insisted that Lovett be appointed as his deputy. Lovett became the second Deputy Secretary of Defense on October 4, 1950.[^1] The Defense Department biography says that Lovett was the first Deputy Secretary to debate with the services over materiel and to testify before the House and Senate appropriations committees on budgetary issues.[^1] When Marshall stepped down in September 1951, Lovett succeeded him, serving from September 17, 1951 to January 20, 1953. He was the first of five Deputy Secretaries in history to become Secretary.[^1]
The Senate Committee on Armed Services reported the nomination, and on September 14, 1951 the Senate took it up. [[William Langer]] of North Dakota objected to considering it and then asked whether the nominee was "Dr. Robert Morss Lovett, who was formerly Governor of the Virgin Islands." The majority leader, Ernest McFarland, answered that the nominee had been Deputy Secretary of Defense, and Senator [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] added that Robert A. Lovett "was born in Huntsville, Tex." [[Everett Dirksen]] said that "we have had a very considerable experience with Robert Morss Lovett in the past, when he was investigated by the Appropriations Committee of the House of Representatives." Langer withdrew his objection, and the nomination was confirmed without objection.[^22]
The Department's role in the national security review that produced NSC 68 is recorded in the volume of the Foreign Relations of the United States covering 1950. At a State-Defense Policy Review Group meeting on March 16, 1950, Lovett, listed as a consultant, spent the morning studying the group's working drafts. His overall comment was that the paper was "very good" and its logic sound, and he suggested that its conclusions be written in what he called "Hemingway sentences."[^23] The final text of the report is dated April 7, 1950.[^23] A memorandum of March 22, 1950 by [[Paul Nitze]] lists Lovett among the persons the working group consulted.[^24] On October 10, 1950, Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] recorded that he had discussed with Lovett "work which he is doing on NSC 68/1."[^25]
### The Korean War Build-Up
Lovett told the Jackson subcommittee in 1960 that when he returned to the Department in the autumn of 1950, "the Korean war having broken out," the first full budget the three military departments submitted asked for "something over $100 billion," that the screening reduced it to about $62 or $63 billion, and that Congress provided "something over $60 billion for fiscal 1952," from a level "in that order of magnitude" of $14 billion.[^26] On December 28, 1951 Truman met in the Cabinet Room with the Secretaries of State, the Treasury and Defense, the military chiefs, the Director for Mutual Security, the Director of Defense Mobilization and the Director of the Bureau of the Budget, and directed Lovett to work with the Budget Director to stretch out the defense build-up "because of material and fiscal considerations." Lovett's letter to Truman of January 4, 1952 proposed new obligational authority for fiscal 1953 of $49,002,758,000 (Army $14.3 billion, Navy $13,314,155,000, Air Force $20,922,338,000, Office of the Secretary of Defense $466,265,000) and an expenditure limit of $86.5 billion for the eighteen months from January 1, 1952 to June 30, 1953.[^27]
At the 122nd meeting of the National Security Council on September 3, 1952, which took up the status report NSC 135 and the reappraisal NSC 135/1, Acheson said that he was "scared to death to have so many copies of so vital a document around." The minutes record that Lovett "strongly supported the anxieties of the Secretary of State," said his security people "were very worried about certain portions of the report," and wanted all copies turned back to the Executive Secretary. The Council directed that all outstanding copies of NSC 135 be recalled.[^28] Lovett's letter of resignation is dated November 25, 1952. Truman accepted it on January 8, 1953, effective January 20, 1953, and wrote of Lovett's "vision and deep understanding of international as well as domestic affairs."[^29]
### The Office of Policy Coordination
A memorandum of March 30, 1950 from [[George F. Kennan]] records that [[National Security Council]] directive NSC 10/2 of June 1948 established an Office of Special Projects, later the [[Office of Policy Coordination]], in the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] to plan and conduct covert operations. Kennan's designation as the State Department's representative for that purpose was made known to the National Security Council "by a letter signed August 13, 1948 by Mr. Lovett."[^30] A State Department memorandum of October 15, 1952 states that "it was the concept of General Marshall, Mr. Forrestal, Mr. Lovett and Mr. Kennan, when OPC was set up in the spring of 1948," that political warfare activities of covert means "was of primary interest to the Department of State." The same memorandum says the operation was placed, "faute de mieux, within the framework of the CIA."[^31]
### Psychological Strategy Board and Communications Intelligence
The first meeting of the [[Psychological Strategy Board]], held on July 2, 1951, was attended by [[Walter Bedell Smith]], Lovett as Deputy Secretary of Defense, [[Gordon Gray]], [[Allen Dulles]] and Edward Barrett for the Under Secretary of State.[^32]
On October 24, 1952 President Truman addressed a memorandum on communications intelligence to Secretary of State Acheson and Secretary of Defense Lovett.[^33] The volume's editorial note records that in October 1952 the President and the National Security Council adopted most of the recommendations of the [[Brownell Committee]], issued a revised version of NSCID No. 9 on October 24, 1952, and created the [[National Security Agency]] in place of the Armed Forces Security Agency. The Secretary of Defense became executive agent for communications intelligence for the government as a whole, subordinate to a special committee of the National Security Council consisting of himself and the Secretary of State. The Brownell Committee report is held at the [[National Archives and Records Administration]] (RG 457, SRH-123), and a declassified version appears in [[George A. Brownell]]'s account of the agency's origins.[^34]
### Teapot Committee and the 1956 Board
The State Department's list of persons records that Lovett served as a member of the [[Strategic Missile Evaluation Committee]], known as the Teapot Committee, from June 16, 1953 to February 8, 1954, and as a member of the [[President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board|President's Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities]] from January 13, 1956.[^21]
A December 22, 1955 memorandum from the Secretary of State's special assistant for intelligence and research, Armstrong, to Secretary of State [[John Foster Dulles]] listed the expected members of the new board as General John E. Hull, Admiral Richard Connolly, General James Doolittle, James Killian, David Bruce, Benjamin Fairless and Morris Hadley. Lovett is not on that list.[^35] The board was established by Executive Order 10656 of February 6, 1956.[^36]
### The Bruce-Lovett Report
According to Grose, two elder statesmen, [[David K. E. Bruce|David Bruce]] and Lovett, "prepared a report for President Dwight Eisenhower in the fall of 1956" that criticized the CIA's "kingmaking" in the Third World.[^37] The Center for the Study of Intelligence newsletter of Spring 1995 says that Bruce and Lovett "had been charter members" of the board, and reports that the CIA History Staff checked the board's CIA files and the Eisenhower Library and found "no reference to such a report."[^38]
Schlesinger quoted the report and wrote that it found that "no one, other than those in the CIA immediately concerned with their day to day operation, has any detailed knowledge of what is going on." In his account, a "horde of CIA representatives" was exerting "significant, almost unilateral influences" on the formulation of foreign policy, and the report asked whether anyone in an authoritative position was weighing "the long-range wisdom of activities which have entailed our virtual abandonment of the international 'golden rule.'"[^39] Schlesinger wrote that in December 1956 the full board passed on to Eisenhower its concern about "the extremely informal and somewhat exclusive methods" used for clandestine projects, and that in January 1961 the board said, "We have been unable to conclude that, on balance, all of the covert action programs undertaken by CIA up to this time have been worth the risk or the great expenditure of manpower, money and other resources involved."[^39]
Schlesinger also wrote that when [[Richard Bissell]] and others briefed the board on the Cuban project in late 1960, "its members, Lovett particularly, registered dismay."[^39] Lovett told the Taylor board of inquiry on the Bay of Pigs in 1961, as Grose reported, that Bruce "was very much disturbed" and that "instead of completing the report in thirty days we took two months or more."[^37]
### The Jackson Subcommittee, 1960
On February 23, 1960 Lovett was the first public witness in the hearings of the Subcommittee on National Policy Machinery of the Senate Committee on Government Operations, chaired by [[Henry M. Jackson]]. Jackson introduced him as "Mr. National Security" and said: "I believe at the present time he is serving in an advisory capacity in connection with our intelligence organization." The witness was listed as a partner of Brown Brothers, Harriman & Co. and chairman of the executive committee of the Union Pacific Railroad Company.[^40]
Lovett's prepared statement said that his comments rested "for the most part on notes made some 8 years ago" in connection with "a report submitted in November 1952." He described the "foulup factor" in the "clashes of group needs" built into the executive departments, and warned that the doctrine of "concurrences," unless policed, could "blanket the whole executive branch with an embalmed atmosphere." For the Department of Defense he listed conditions that included that the military professionals "should be contributors to and not makers of national political policies," that committees had become "positive menaces to the prompt and orderly conduct of business," and that "the only thing more dangerous than an external enemy is a group of home-grown military sycophants." He tied turnover of civilian executives to the "conflict of interest" laws and to the pension rights of men who left business, and defended "split papers" from the Joint Chiefs of Staff. For the State Department he said the Secretary's workload was "already at the dangerous level," answered "an emphatic 'yes'" to lightening the Secretary's negotiating duties, and proposed a new Cabinet-rank "Minister of Foreign Affairs" under the Secretary.[^41]
In questioning, Lovett said he was "personally confident" that whatever was needed for security could be done without "materially downgrading the position of this country," and told Jackson that Soviet statements in the material field had "a high order of reliability."[^26] Responding to Senator [[Mike Mansfield]] on the conflict-of-interest laws, he said they needed to be "modernized" and cited General Motors, with 283,090,000 shares outstanding, and Standard Oil Company (New Jersey), with more than 214 million, to illustrate what "substantial" meant. He told Senator [[Karl Mundt]] that on an inspection trip to Germany he had been given the information collected from the questioning of leading German industrialists and war production leaders, that "one of these was Dr. Albert Speer," and that Speer's opinion, as Lovett related it, was that the German economy collapsed in part because under a dictatorship a department head who "got the nod from Hitler" went ahead "as a little dictator" with no performance audit.[^26]
Senator Prescott Bush, a guest of the subcommittee as a member of the Armed Services Committee, told Lovett that "since your leaving the Government in 1953, in January, you have been connected in an advisory capacity with our Central Intelligence Agency from time to time," and asked for comment. Jackson answered that the subject belonged in executive session, because the agreement he had reached with the President put matters touching the National Security Council there, and invited a general remark. Lovett said: "I have observed the operation through the President's Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities now for, I think it is, 3 years, and in my opinion its improvement over the time when I formerly knew it more intimately has been remarkable. I would consider it today a very reliable, high-grade arm of Government."[^26]
The executive session opened at 12:05 p.m., with Charles A. Haskins, a senior staff member of the National Security Council, among those present. Lovett described the Council as designed to serve as "a kind of 'Court of Domestic and Foreign Relations' before which, with the President presiding, both Departments could present their views," doubted that it could operate "in a mass atmosphere," and said that [[James Forrestal]] "was one of the leading spirits" in that design and in the hope of "staff continuity." He said that he had taken part in "the discussions which preceded" the National Security Act, that a President "in his own protection must insist on being informed and not merely protected by his aides," and that George C. Marshall "simply would not tolerate" the opposite. Jackson closed by stating that the transcript "will be treated as confidential at this time."[^42]
Press accounts of the testimony, among them a column by [[Walter Lippmann]] on March 1 and a Senate speech by [[J. William Fulbright]], were read as describing [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]. Mundt wrote to Lovett on March 30, 1960 asking what he had meant by "the President." Lovett replied on April 4 that the expression meant "a President," or "any President," that he had given the same answer by telephone to Gordon Gray, the President's special assistant, that the paragraphs on the National Security Council "were excised from my public statement and were given in executive session in accordance, I am informed, with the terms of an understanding reached at the request of the White House," and that "I know of no way to keep them from trying it on for size." [[Jacob Javits]] placed the exchange, with a column by [[Arthur Krock]], in the Congressional Record on May 17, 1960.[^43]
### The Kennedy Transition
President-elect [[John F. Kennedy]] first offered the post of Secretary of Defense to Lovett. The Defense Department biography of [[Robert S. McNamara]] states that "When Lovett declined, Kennedy chose Robert S. McNamara on Lovett's recommendation."[^44]
Gerard Colby and Charlotte Dennett wrote in *Thy Will Be Done* that Lovett, then a trustee of the Rockefeller Foundation, declined State, Defense and Treasury in December 1960 and recommended [[Dean Rusk]], then the Foundation's president, for Secretary of State.[^45]
### The Cuban Missile Crisis
The minutes of the 506th meeting of the National Security Council, held in the Oval Room on October 21, 1962, list among those present "Others: Mr. Robert Lovett."[^46] On October 24, 1962, a memorandum by [[Walt Whitman Rostow]], chairman of the planning subcommittee of the Executive Committee of the National Security Council, records that "Representatives of State and Defense, the Attorney General, and Mr. Lovett, met to consider the course of action to be followed" with respect to Soviet vessels that had altered course and those still proceeding toward Cuba. The memorandum recommends that the vessels that had altered course be intercepted, trailed and photographed without interference, and that the vessels still bound for Cuba be stopped and searched in accordance with the Presidential proclamation.[^47]
### Later Life, Foundation and Honors
The Rockefeller Foundation's trustee list for April 1954 to April 1955 includes Lovett and Dean Rusk. Lovett also served on the foundation's executive committee and was chairman of its finance committee.[^48] The Defense Department biography says that after 1953 Lovett "participated on several presidential commissions and continued to work for Brown Brothers Harriman."[^1]
James Forrestal, the former Secretary of Defense, was at Lovett's house at [[Hobe Sound, Florida]] in the days before his committal to the naval hospital in April 1949. Captain [[George N. Raines]], Forrestal's attending psychiatrist, testified to the board that inquired into Forrestal's death that he attended a meeting at Lovett's house on March 31, 1949 with Lovett and Artemus Gates.[^49]
The Congressional Research Service tally of the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]] lists Lovett among the 1963 recipients.[^50] The tally cites the remarks of Lyndon B. Johnson at the presentation of the Medal of Freedom awards on December 6, 1963, in the Public Papers of the Presidents.[^50] Lovett died in [[Locust Valley, New York]] on May 7, 1986.[^1]
### Papers
The Harry S. Truman Library holds a Lovett collection of five scrapbooks of newspaper clippings and photographs from his service as Assistant Secretary of War for Air, dated 1940 to 1943. The library notes that the collection contains no information on his career after 1949.[^51] Yale University's Manuscripts and Archives catalogues a Robert Abercrombie Lovett Papers collection, MS 1617, covering 1919 to 1986, which it describes as correspondence, speeches, photographs and memorabilia from periods outside government service.[^52]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Robert A. Lovett, biography, Historical Office, Office of the Secretary of Defense, Deputy Secretaries of Defense series (archived copy, November 23, 2023). https://history.defense.gov/DOD-History/Deputy-Secretaries-of-Defense/Article-View/Article/585251/robert-a-lovett/ (archived copy: https://web.archive.org/web/2023/https://history.defense.gov/DOD-History/Deputy-Secretaries-of-Defense/Article-View/Article/585251/robert-a-lovett/)
[^2]: "Defending Allied Skies: Yale's Pioneering Pilots Form First Naval Aviation Unit," Yale News, August 17, 2014, including the photograph caption of the Aerial Coastal Patrol at Port Washington, Long Island, 1916. https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit
[^3]: *Organizing for National Security* (1960), Exhibit IV, "Biographies," entry for Robert Abercrombie Lovett, p. 233.
[^4]: "Oral History Interview with Robert A. Lovett," July 7, 1971, Harry S. Truman Library, transcript p. 3 (Vorys, Eaton and the flying unit abroad). https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/oral-histories/lovettra
[^5]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2002), membership index by class year, class of 1918 (Lovett, Robert Abercrombie). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^6]: Kris Millegan, *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2003), the roster section, which includes the Lovett entry, the account of the Lovett Committee of October 22, 1945, and the November 14, 1945 appearance before the Secretaries of State, War and Navy, and which cites the biography *George Bush: The Unauthorized Biography* for the membership.
[^7]: *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. I (Yale University Press, 1917), entries for Edward Roland Noel Harriman and Prescott Sheldon Bush ("He is a member of Psi Upsilon and Skull and Bones"). https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr
[^8]: John A. Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking: An Historical Portrait of a Great Private Bank, Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., 1818-1968* (Doubleday, 1968), pp. 17 to 18 (marriage in 1919, 1921 entry, power of attorney, 1903 meeting with E. Roland Harriman, election as director of the Union Pacific in 1926), and pp. 202 to 203 (Distinguished Service Medal citation). https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^9]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), "Partners of Brown Brothers & Co. and Brown Brothers Harriman & Co." table, pp. 231 to 235, entry for Robert Abercrombie Lovett, and the notes on his Washington service.
[^10]: "Business: Brown-Harriman," *Time*, December 22, 1930, on the partners of the firm, including the description of Robert A. Lovett as "longtime personal attorney and close friend of the late Edward Henry Harriman and now chairman of his Union Pacific." https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,740853,00.html
[^11]: Union Pacific Railroad, 1955 Annual Report, list of directors and "Executive Committee (January 1, 1956)." https://uphs.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/1955_Annual-Report_OCR.pdf
[^12]: Henry L. Stimson and McGeorge Bundy, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (Harper & Brothers, 1948), p. 338 (Lovett's arrival in November 1940 as air assistant, his character, and his work with Patterson). Full text: https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.506235
[^13]: Stimson and Bundy, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), p. 463 (the division of responsibilities among the Secretary's assistants, with aircraft as "Lovett's field").
[^14]: Stimson and Bundy, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), p. 509 (radar production and the instruction to Lovett).
[^15]: Stimson and Bundy, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (1948), p. 659 (Stimson's authorship of the Distinguished Service Medal citations for Patterson, McCloy, Lovett and Bundy). The memoir's text does not specify which Bundy.
[^16]: "Oral History Interview with Robert A. Lovett," July 7, 1971, Harry S. Truman Library, transcript pp. 4 to 7, including the account of the call from the President and the New York State Bank Department approval. https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/oral-histories/lovettra
[^17]: "Oral History Interview with Robert A. Lovett," July 7, 1971, Harry S. Truman Library, transcript p. 10 (the two Under Secretaries and the economic responsibilities given by General Marshall).
[^18]: "Oral History Interview with Robert A. Lovett," July 7, 1971, Harry S. Truman Library, transcript p. 1 (the bipartisan period and the Marshall Plan and NATO).
[^19]: "Oral History Interview with Robert A. Lovett," July 7, 1971, Harry S. Truman Library, transcript p. 2 (Vandenberg and the Senate Foreign Relations Committee).
[^20]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1948*, volume III, Western Europe, document 72, telegram from the Ambassador in the United Kingdom (Douglas) to the Secretary of State, April 16, 1948, with the editors' note 3. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1948v03/d72
[^21]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, list of persons, entry for Lovett, Robert A. (Assistant Secretary of War for Air until December 1945; Under Secretary of State from July 1, 1947 to January 20, 1949; Deputy Secretary of Defense from 1950 to 1951; Secretary of Defense from 1951 to 1953; member of the Strategic Missile Evaluation Committee, June 16, 1953 to February 8, 1954; member of the President's Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities from January 13, 1956). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/persons
[^22]: *Congressional Record*, vol. 97, Senate, September 14, 1951, pp. 11366 and 11372 (nomination of Robert A. Lovett to be Secretary of Defense; colloquy of Senators McFarland, Langer, Johnson of Texas and Dirksen; confirmation). https://archive.org/details/sim_congressional-record-proceedings-and-debates_september-13-october-02-1951_97
[^23]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950*, volume I, National Security Affairs; Foreign Economic Policy, document 70, record of the meeting of the State-Defense Policy Review Group, March 16, 1950 (Lovett as consultant; his comments on the draft; "Hemingway sentences"; the editors' note that the final text is NSC 68 of April 7, 1950). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950v01/d70
[^24]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950*, volume I, document 72, memorandum by the Director of the Policy Planning Staff (Nitze) to the Secretary of State, March 22, 1950 (the numbered list of persons consulted, including Robert A. Lovett). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950v01/d72
[^25]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950*, volume I, document 130, memorandum of conversation by the Secretary of State, October 10, 1950 ("work which he is doing on NSC 68/1"). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950v01/d130
[^26]: *Organizing for National Security* (1960), questioning of Lovett, February 23, 1960, pp. 20 to 38 (budget, p. 21; Germany and Speer, p. 27; conflict-of-interest laws, pp. 32 to 33; Senator Bush and the Central Intelligence Agency, pp. 36 to 37).
[^27]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954, National Security Affairs*, volume II, part 1, document 2, the Secretary of Defense (Lovett) to the President, January 4, 1952. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v02p1/d2
[^28]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954, National Security Affairs*, volume II, part 1, document 21, memorandum of discussion at the 122nd meeting of the National Security Council, September 3, 1952. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v02p1/d21
[^29]: Harry S. Truman, "Letter Accepting Resignation of Robert A. Lovett as Secretary of Defense," January 9, 1953 (dated January 8), with the editorial note on Lovett's service and his resignation letter of November 25, 1952, Truman Library public papers. https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/public-papers/371/letter-accepting-resignation-robert-lovett-secretary-defense
[^30]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 4, memorandum from the Counselor of the Department of State (Kennan) to the Under Secretary of State (Webb), March 30, 1950 (NSC 10/2; letter of August 13, 1948). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d4
[^31]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 129, memorandum from Robert P. Joyce of the Policy Planning Staff to the Under Secretary of State (Bruce), October 15, 1952. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d129
[^32]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 78, minutes of the meeting of the Psychological Strategy Board, July 2, 1951. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d78
[^33]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 132, memorandum from President Truman to Secretary of State Acheson and Secretary of Defense Lovett, October 24, 1952. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d132
[^34]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, editorial note on the reorganization of communications intelligence in October 1952 (the revised NSCID No. 9 appears as Document 257), and the note on the Brownell Committee report (National Archives, RG 457, SRH-123); George A. Brownell, *The Origins and Development of the National Security Agency* (Aegean Park Press, 1981). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d257
[^35]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 247, memorandum from the Secretary of State's Special Assistant for Intelligence and Research (Armstrong) to Secretary of State Dulles, December 22, 1955. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d247
[^36]: Executive Order 10656, February 6, 1956, establishing the President's Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities, printed in the *Federal Register* on February 8, 1956 (21 Fed. Reg. 859).
[^37]: Peter Grose, *Gentleman Spy: The Life of Allen Dulles* (Houghton Mifflin, 1994), pp. 444 to 448, as excerpted at https://cryptome.org/0001/bruce-lovett.htm.
[^38]: Central Intelligence Agency, Center for the Study of Intelligence Newsletter, no. 3 (Spring 1995), "The Elusive 'Bruce-Lovett Report.'" https://web.archive.org/web/2005/https://www.cia.gov/csi/bulletin/csi3.htm
[^39]: Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., *Robert Kennedy and His Times* (Houghton Mifflin, 1978), pp. 455 to 458, as excerpted at https://cryptome.org/0001/bruce-lovett.htm. The quotations are Schlesinger's account of the report and of the board's statements.
[^40]: *Organizing for National Security: Hearings before the Subcommittee on National Policy Machinery of the Committee on Government Operations, United States Senate, 86th Congress, Second Session*, Part 1 (Government Printing Office, 1960), February 23, 1960, Jackson's introduction of the witness, pp. 11 to 12. https://archive.org/details/HearingsOnOrganizingForNationalSecurity1960
[^41]: *Organizing for National Security* (1960), statement of Robert A. Lovett, February 23, 1960, pp. 12 to 20.
[^42]: *Organizing for National Security* (1960), executive session testimony of Robert A. Lovett, February 23, 1960, pp. 41 to 45.
[^43]: *Congressional Record*, Appendix, May 17, 1960, extension of remarks of Senator Jacob K. Javits, "Statement of Hon. Robert Lovett to National Policy Machinery Subcommittee," with the letters of Senator Karl E. Mundt (March 30, 1960) and Lovett (April 4, 1960) and Arthur Krock, "How To Make a Shoe Fit Any Foot," *New York Times*, April 14, 1960. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp91-00965r000300090057-7
[^44]: Robert S. McNamara, biography, Historical Office, Office of the Secretary of Defense (archived copy, 2024). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/https://history.defense.gov/Multimedia/Biographies/Article-View/Article/571271/robert-s-mcnamara/
[^45]: Gerard Colby with Charlotte Dennett, *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon: Nelson Rockefeller and Evangelism in the Age of Oil* (HarperCollins, 1995), chapters 12, 18 and 23.
[^46]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, volume XI, Cuban Missile Crisis and Aftermath, document 38, minutes of the 506th meeting of the National Security Council, October 21, 1962, with the list of participants. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v11/d38
[^47]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, volume XI, document 57, memorandum from Walt W. Rostow, chairman of the Planning Subcommittee of the Executive Committee of the National Security Council, to President Kennedy, October 24, 1962. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v11/d57
[^48]: Rockefeller Foundation, Annual Report 1954, "Trustees," "Executive Committee" and "Finance Committee" lists for April 1954 to April 1955. https://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/Annual-Report-1954-1.pdf
[^49]: Willcutts Report on Forrestal's Death, Forrestal Papers, Box 94, Folder 11, Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University, testimony of Captain George N. Raines. https://findingaids.princeton.edu/catalog/MC051_c04531
[^50]: Congressional Research Service, *Presidential Medal of Freedom*, report R47639 (2025), table of recipients (Robert Abercrombie Lovett, 1963) and note 11 (remarks at the presentation of the Medal of Freedom awards, December 6, 1963, *Public Papers of the Presidents: Lyndon B. Johnson, 1963-1964*, Book I, pp. 29 to 34). https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/2025-01-14_R47639_940fe50c831c8809a4866e8c9449fa9b9a89e460.html
[^51]: Harry S. Truman Library, "Lovett, Robert A. Papers," personal papers collection description (dates 1940 to 1943). https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/personal-papers/robert-lovett-papers
[^52]: Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, Robert Abercrombie Lovett Papers, MS 1617 (1919 to 1986), as listed in the Social Networks and Archival Context record "Robert Abercrombie Lovett papers, 1919-1986." https://snaccooperative.org/vocab_administrator/resources/6351500

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@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ relations:
- type: relative_of
with: "[[E. Roland Harriman]]"
role: "Brother"
fn: 10
fn: 12
- type: head_of
with: "[[W. A. Harriman & Co.]]"
start: 1920
@ -80,31 +80,31 @@ relations:
start: 1946
end: 1948
role: "Ambassador to the United Kingdom, then Secretary of Commerce; later Special Representative in Europe"
fn: 43
fn: 45
- type: appointed
with: "[[Harry S. Truman]]"
reverse: true
start: 1951-10-11
role: "Director for Mutual Security, nominated"
fn: 47
fn: 49
- type: director_of
with: "[[Council on Foreign Relations]]"
start: 1952
end: 1953
role: "Director"
fn: 49
fn: 51
- type: head_of
with: "[[New York]]"
start: 1955
end: 1958
role: "Governor of New York"
fn: 51
fn: 53
- type: appointed
with: "[[John F. Kennedy]]"
reverse: true
start: 1962-09-21
role: "Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs, later Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs"
fn: 54
fn: 56
- type: spouse_of
with: "[[Pamela Harriman]]"
start: 1971
@ -115,7 +115,7 @@ W. Averell Harriman (1891 to 1986) was a son of the railroad financier [[E. H. H
### Family and Yale
Harriman was born in New York on November 15, 1891, attended [[Groton School]] and received his B.A. from Yale in 1913.[^1][^2] His mother, [[Mary Averell Harriman]], was the civic activist whose letters to him run into the 1930s in his papers, and the [[Library of Congress]] records his membership of the [[Palisades Interstate Park Commission]] from 1915 to 1954.[^3][^1] The [[Eugenics Record Office]] at [[Cold Spring Harbor]] was established in October 1910 by Mrs. E. H. Harriman, who according to a report of the [[New York Times]] provided funds for the office and its annual running expenses, her contributions over eight years amounting to more than 500,000 dollars; the report adds the "additional assistance of John D. Rockefeller and others." The Cold Spring Harbor image archive lists the donation as 10,000 dollars in 1910 and holds [[Charles Davenport]]'s letter to Mrs. E. H. Harriman about the first training class, and the [[Carnegie Institution of Washington]] accepted the office from her as a gift.[^4][^5]
Harriman was born in New York on November 15, 1891, attended [[Groton School]] and received his B.A. from Yale in 1913.[^1][^2] His mother, [[Mary Averell Harriman]], was the civic activist whose letters to him run into the 1930s in his papers, and the [[Library of Congress]] records his membership of the [[Palisades Interstate Park Commission]] from 1915 to 1954.[^1][^3] The [[Eugenics Record Office]] at [[Cold Spring Harbor]] was established in October 1910 by Mrs. E. H. Harriman, who according to a report of the [[New York Times]] provided funds for the office and its annual running expenses, her contributions over eight years amounting to more than 500,000 dollars; the report adds the "additional assistance of John D. Rockefeller and others." The Cold Spring Harbor image archive lists the donation as 10,000 dollars in 1910 and holds [[Charles Davenport]]'s letter to Mrs. E. H. Harriman about the first training class, and the [[Carnegie Institution of Washington]] accepted the office from her as a gift.[^4][^5]
[[Antony C. Sutton]] places Harriman among the initiates of Skull and Bones in 1913 and writes that "Like other initiates Harriman has carefully expunged membership from the public record."[^6] [[Ron Rosenbaum]] listed him among the members of the society in an article in [[Esquire]] in September 1977, together with [[McGeorge Bundy]], [[Henry L. Stimson]], [[Henry Luce]] and [[Potter Stewart]].[^7] [[Jacques Leslie]] wrote in [[Salon]] in March 2000 that Harriman was among the members named by students of his era.[^8]
@ -123,83 +123,83 @@ Sutton writes that E. H. Harriman bought into the Union Pacific after the crash
### Union Pacific and Illinois Central
The Library of Congress chronology lists Harriman as vice president of the Union Pacific from 1915 to 1917, director of the [[Illinois Central Railroad]] from 1915 to 1946, chairman of the Illinois Central executive committee from 1931 to 1942, and chairman of the board of the Union Pacific from 1932 to 1946.[^1] A report of December 1930 describes Judge Lovett as the "now chairman" of E. H. Harriman's Union Pacific.[^10] Sutton's chronology adds that in 1917 Harriman became a director of the [[Guaranty Trust Company]], and states that the Harriman family's holding of about one third of Guaranty stock was put into a [[J. P. Morgan and Company]] voting trust in 1912, when Mrs. Edward Harriman sold 8,000 of the 20,000 outstanding shares to Morgan.[^11][^12] The finding aid states that Harriman "took charge of the Union Pacific Railroad" in the early 1930s and was credited with reviving the line during the worst years of the Depression.[^3]
The Library of Congress chronology lists Harriman as vice president of the Union Pacific from 1915 to 1917, director of the [[Illinois Central Railroad]] from 1915 to 1946, chairman of the Illinois Central executive committee from 1931 to 1942, and chairman of the board of the Union Pacific from 1932 to 1946.[^1] His brother E. Roland Harriman succeeded him as chairman of the board of the Union Pacific in 1946 and held the post until January 30, 1969, according to the company's annual report for 1968; the same report states that Roland Harriman was elected a director in 1920.[^10] On November 2, 1950, [[Harry S. Truman]] announced at a news conference that Roland Harriman, "a brother of Averell Harriman, Special Assistant to me," would become president of the [[American Red Cross]] on December 1, 1950.[^11] A report of December 1930 describes Judge Lovett as the "now chairman" of E. H. Harriman's Union Pacific.[^12] Sutton's chronology adds that in 1917 Harriman became a director of the [[Guaranty Trust Company]], and states that the Harriman family's holding of about one third of Guaranty stock was put into a [[J. P. Morgan and Company]] voting trust in 1912, when Mrs. Edward Harriman sold 8,000 of the 20,000 outstanding shares to Morgan.[^13][^14] The finding aid states that Harriman "took charge of the Union Pacific Railroad" in the early 1930s and was credited with reviving the line during the worst years of the Depression.[^3]
### Shipping and the Hamburg-American Line
The Library of Congress lists Harriman as chairman of the board of the [[Merchant Shipbuilding Corporation]] from 1917 to 1925.[^1] On August 16, 1920 the chairman of the [[United States Shipping Board]], [[William S. Benson]], announced co-operative working agreements between the American Ship and Commerce Corporation of New York and the [[Hamburg-American Line]] of Germany, to run for 20 years. Each party was to supply equal tonnage to services between the United States and Germany, each was to act as the other's agent in its home country, and the American corporation was to supply passenger ships not exceeding 40,000 gross tons within a year. Benson said: "There is no German money in the American end of the business nor is there any agreement for German investment in any American companies."[^13] A report of 1930 states that in 1920 Harriman "set out to make the U. S. great upon the sea, formed an alliance with Hamburg-American Line," and was "Thwarted in the fulfillment of this."[^10]
The Library of Congress lists Harriman as chairman of the board of the [[Merchant Shipbuilding Corporation]] from 1917 to 1925.[^1] On August 16, 1920 the chairman of the [[United States Shipping Board]], [[William S. Benson]], announced co-operative working agreements between the American Ship and Commerce Corporation of New York and the [[Hamburg-American Line]] of Germany, to run for 20 years. Each party was to supply equal tonnage to services between the United States and Germany, each was to act as the other's agent in its home country, and the American corporation was to supply passenger ships not exceeding 40,000 gross tons within a year. Benson said: "There is no German money in the American end of the business nor is there any agreement for German investment in any American companies."[^15] A report of 1930 states that in 1920 Harriman "set out to make the U. S. great upon the sea, formed an alliance with Hamburg-American Line," and was "Thwarted in the fulfillment of this."[^12]
The Harriman papers contain incoming and outgoing cable files with the Hamburg-American Line for 1920 to 1926 and with [[Wilhelm Cuno]] for 1920 to 1931, a file on the sale of the United American Lines steamers to the Hamburg-American Line in 1926, and a Hamburg-American Line subject file for 1933 to 1937.[^14]
The Harriman papers contain incoming and outgoing cable files with the Hamburg-American Line for 1920 to 1926 and with [[Wilhelm Cuno]] for 1920 to 1931, a file on the sale of the United American Lines steamers to the Hamburg-American Line in 1926, and a Hamburg-American Line subject file for 1933 to 1937.[^16]
### W. A. Harriman and Company
The Library of Congress lists Harriman as chairman of the board of W. A. Harriman and Company from 1920 to 1931; a report of December 1930 states that he and his brother formed the firm in 1919. The same report says the firm "was one of the first to enter Europe after the War, made many a loan in Germany," was active in Polish financing, financed Silesian zinc mines with the [[Anaconda Copper Mining Company|Anaconda]] group, and in 1929 backed the Aviation Corporation together with [[Lehman Brothers]].[^1][^10] Sutton's chronology lists 1920 as the year the firm was established with Roland Harriman as vice president.[^11]
The Library of Congress lists Harriman as chairman of the board of W. A. Harriman and Company from 1920 to 1931; a report of December 1930 states that he and his brother formed the firm in 1919. The same report says the firm "was one of the first to enter Europe after the War, made many a loan in Germany," was active in Polish financing, financed Silesian zinc mines with the [[Anaconda Copper Mining Company|Anaconda]] group, and in 1929 backed the Aviation Corporation together with [[Lehman Brothers]].[^1][^12] Sutton's chronology lists 1920 as the year the firm was established with Roland Harriman as vice president.[^13]
### The Georgian manganese concession
The Soviet government concluded a concession contract with the American company "Harriman ('The Georgian Manganese' Stock Company)" dated June 12, 1925, relating to property nationalized by the Georgian Soviet decrees; the Soviet side cited it in 1936 as an example of a concession made by the Union government for property nationalized by a constituent republic.[^15] The Hoover Institution holds an agreement of 1925 between the Tchitouri Manganese Exporting Society (Tchemo) and W. A. Harriman and Company, and the Harriman papers list a Tchemo agreement and a syndicate agreement of June 12, 1925, an assignment from W. A. Harriman and Company of July 18, 1925, property of voting trustees of August 10, 1925, and an ore-shipment contract of November 1925.[^16][^17] Sutton gives the date of the concession agreement as July 12, 1925, states that four million dollars was spent on mechanizing the mines and on a loading elevator at [[Poti]], and writes that the chairman of the Georgian Manganese Company was Matthew C. Brush, whom he calls the Order's "front man." Sutton's chronology dates the formation of the company to 1923.[^18][^11]
The Soviet government concluded a concession contract with the American company "Harriman ('The Georgian Manganese' Stock Company)" dated June 12, 1925, relating to property nationalized by the Georgian Soviet decrees; the Soviet side cited it in 1936 as an example of a concession made by the Union government for property nationalized by a constituent republic.[^17] The Hoover Institution holds an agreement of 1925 between the Tchitouri Manganese Exporting Society (Tchemo) and W. A. Harriman and Company, and the Harriman papers list a Tchemo agreement and a syndicate agreement of June 12, 1925, an assignment from W. A. Harriman and Company of July 18, 1925, property of voting trustees of August 10, 1925, and an ore-shipment contract of November 1925.[^18][^19] Sutton gives the date of the concession agreement as July 12, 1925, states that four million dollars was spent on mechanizing the mines and on a loading elevator at [[Poti]], and writes that the chairman of the Georgian Manganese Company was Matthew C. Brush, whom he calls the Order's "front man." Sutton's chronology dates the formation of the company to 1923.[^13][^20]
A report of March 1926 ranked the manganese rights obtained by the Harriman interests second among the concessions granted to foreigners, after the Volga timber concessions given to the former German chancellor [[Joseph Wirth]]. A report of July 1927 states that the Soviets had reconfirmed the concession and that the British had been using their offices to thwart it.[^19][^20] The Library of Congress lists a trip to the USSR in 1926 and the investment as running 1925 to 1928; its files include Harriman's correspondence while in the USSR for 1926 and 1927, his resignation in 1928, a termination agreement of August 21 to 28, 1928, and Soviet notes from 1928 to 1943.[^1][^17] The Soviet Bureau of Foreign Concessions announced in July 1928 the "amicable termination" of the 22-year concession after three years, with the 3,500,000 dollars spent by the concessionaires to be treated as a loan repaid by the Soviet government.[^21] Sutton wrote that the Soviets expropriated the concessions of the 1920s, including Harriman's, usually without reimbursement, and that Harriman took three million dollars in Soviet bonds as compensation. Sutton quotes a statement of Harriman to [[John B. Stetson Jr.]] of the State Department: "Mr. Harriman said that they expect to drop about three million dollars which they would charge off to experience."[^22]
A report of March 1926 ranked the manganese rights obtained by the Harriman interests second among the concessions granted to foreigners, after the Volga timber concessions given to the former German chancellor [[Joseph Wirth]]. A report of July 1927 states that the Soviets had reconfirmed the concession and that the British had been using their offices to thwart it.[^21][^22] The Library of Congress lists a trip to the USSR in 1926 and the investment as running 1925 to 1928; its files include Harriman's correspondence while in the USSR for 1926 and 1927, his resignation in 1928, a termination agreement of August 21 to 28, 1928, and Soviet notes from 1928 to 1943.[^1][^19] The Soviet Bureau of Foreign Concessions announced in July 1928 the "amicable termination" of the 22-year concession after three years, with the 3,500,000 dollars spent by the concessionaires to be treated as a loan repaid by the Soviet government.[^23] Sutton wrote that the Soviets expropriated the concessions of the 1920s, including Harriman's, usually without reimbursement, and that Harriman took three million dollars in Soviet bonds as compensation. Sutton quotes a statement of Harriman to [[John B. Stetson Jr.]] of the State Department: "Mr. Harriman said that they expect to drop about three million dollars which they would charge off to experience."[^24]
A second Soviet-related business, the Russian Finance and Construction Corporation, is documented in the Harriman papers for 1921 to 1952, including its consolidation with the Georgia Manganese Company in 1927 and an agreement with the Soviet government in 1928. A folder in the same files is titled "Reynders, John V. W. re J. Henry Schroder Banking Corp. acquisition of Thyssen stock, 1940."[^23] The Georgian National Archives hold a photograph of Harriman in Poti dated about 1920 to 1921, and the description attached to the image states that "Harriman's company held the concession for the Chiatura manganese mines during this period."[^24] Sutton writes that Harriman participated in [[Ruskombank]], the first Soviet commercial bank, whose first vice president for foreign operations was Max May of Guaranty Trust Company.[^25]
A second Soviet-related business, the Russian Finance and Construction Corporation, is documented in the Harriman papers for 1921 to 1952, including its consolidation with the Georgia Manganese Company in 1927 and an agreement with the Soviet government in 1928. A folder in the same files is titled "Reynders, John V. W. re J. Henry Schroder Banking Corp. acquisition of Thyssen stock, 1940."[^25] The Georgian National Archives hold a photograph of Harriman in Poti dated about 1920 to 1921, and the description attached to the image states that "Harriman's company held the concession for the Chiatura manganese mines during this period."[^26] Sutton writes that Harriman participated in [[Ruskombank]], the first Soviet commercial bank, whose first vice president for foreign operations was Max May of Guaranty Trust Company.[^27]
### Brown Brothers Harriman
On December 22, 1930 the merger of Brown Brothers and Company and the Harriman firms was reported as completed "last week"; the report counts 16 partners in the new firm of Brown Bros., Harriman and Company, eleven of them Yale graduates, and notes that partner [[Ellery Sedgwick James]] was a classmate of the Harriman partners Edward Roland Noel Harriman, [[Prescott Bush]] and [[Knight Woolley]], and that Robert A. Lovett was the son of Judge Lovett.[^10] The firm's own history states that the merger was first discussed among six partners in November 1930, that twelve of 17 partners had graduated from Yale, and that in 1931 an emergency infusion of 10 million dollars from Averell and Roland Harriman averted collapse after Germany declared a standstill on debt payments to foreign creditors.[^26] A finding aid for the firm's records gives 1931 as the year Brown Brothers merged with the Harriman interests.[^27] The printed circular announcing the union, dated January 2, 1931, states that "effective January 1, 1931" the businesses of Brown Brothers & Co., Harriman Brothers & Co. and W. A. Harriman & Co., Inc. were united in Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.[^28] The firm's partner table gives October 30, 1926 as the date Averell and Roland Harriman became partners of the Harriman bank (organized on St. Patrick's Day 1927 under the name W. A. Harriman & Co. and renamed Harriman Brothers & Co.), and January 1, 1931 to October 31, 1946 as his term as general partner of the merged firm, with limited partner status afterward.[^28] The firm's history records that he chaired the Department of Commerce Business Advisory Council from 1937 to 1939 and served with the N.R.A., the [[National Defense Advisory Commission]] and the [[Office of Production Management]] before going to Great Britain for lend-lease.[^28] [[Zachary Karabell]] wrote that the merger was announced on December 12, 1930, and that Harriman "was flush with the millions provided by his father's fortune" but "his business was struggling as well."[^29] The Library of Congress lists Harriman as a partner from 1931 to 1946, and holds a cable file of Brown Brothers Harriman for 1931.[^1][^14] The report describes Brown Brothers as formed in 1825 by Alexander Brown, with an associate house, Brown, Shipley and Company, in which Montagu Norman had been a partner before becoming head of the Bank of England. Sutton's chronology gives 1933 for the merger and lists the Brown Brothers Harriman partners who were members of the society, including Averell Harriman (class of 1913) and Roland Harriman (class of 1917).[^11]
On December 22, 1930 the merger of Brown Brothers and Company and the Harriman firms was reported as completed "last week"; the report counts 16 partners in the new firm of Brown Bros., Harriman and Company, eleven of them Yale graduates, and notes that partner [[Ellery Sedgwick James]] was a classmate of the Harriman partners Edward Roland Noel Harriman, [[Prescott Bush]] and [[Knight Woolley]], and that Robert A. Lovett was the son of Judge Lovett.[^12] The firm's own history states that the merger was first discussed among six partners in November 1930, that twelve of 17 partners had graduated from Yale, and that in 1931 an emergency infusion of 10 million dollars from Averell and Roland Harriman averted collapse after Germany declared a standstill on debt payments to foreign creditors.[^28] A finding aid for the firm's records gives 1931 as the year Brown Brothers merged with the Harriman interests.[^29] The printed circular announcing the union, dated January 2, 1931, states that "effective January 1, 1931" the businesses of Brown Brothers & Co., Harriman Brothers & Co. and W. A. Harriman & Co., Inc. were united in Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.[^30] The firm's partner table gives October 30, 1926 as the date Averell and Roland Harriman became partners of the Harriman bank (organized on St. Patrick's Day 1927 under the name W. A. Harriman & Co. and renamed Harriman Brothers & Co.), and January 1, 1931 to October 31, 1946 as his term as general partner of the merged firm, with limited partner status afterward.[^30] The firm's history records that he chaired the Department of Commerce Business Advisory Council from 1937 to 1939 and served with the N.R.A., the [[National Defense Advisory Commission]] and the [[Office of Production Management]] before going to Great Britain for lend-lease.[^30] [[Zachary Karabell]] wrote that the merger was announced on December 12, 1930, and that Harriman "was flush with the millions provided by his father's fortune" but "his business was struggling as well."[^31] The Library of Congress lists Harriman as a partner from 1931 to 1946, and holds a cable file of Brown Brothers Harriman for 1931.[^1][^16] The report describes Brown Brothers as formed in 1825 by Alexander Brown, with an associate house, Brown, Shipley and Company, in which Montagu Norman had been a partner before becoming head of the Bank of England. Sutton's chronology gives 1933 for the merger and lists the Brown Brothers Harriman partners who were members of the society, including Averell Harriman (class of 1913) and Roland Harriman (class of 1917).[^13]
### Union Banking Corporation
A Treasury Department memorandum of August 18, 1941, from Mr. May to [[J. W. Pehle]], subject "Union Banking Corporation," states that the corporation, incorporated August 4, 1924, was wholly owned by the [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]] of Rotterdam, that the investigation "produced no evidence as to the ownership of this Dutch bank," and that its president, Cornelis Lievense, believed Baron [[Heinrich Thyssen]] might own a substantial interest. It records gold purchases of over eight million dollars in 1931 to 1933, of which 3,085,000 dollars was delivered to the Federal Reserve Bank on June 15, 1934, and states that "In the fall of 1938, during the Munich crisis, Union Banking Corporation held two million dollars in currency in a safe deposit box in New York, but this sum was subsequently deposited in the company's account with Brown Brothers, Harriman."[^30]
A Treasury Department memorandum of August 18, 1941, from Mr. May to [[J. W. Pehle]], subject "Union Banking Corporation," states that the corporation, incorporated August 4, 1924, was wholly owned by the [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]] of Rotterdam, that the investigation "produced no evidence as to the ownership of this Dutch bank," and that its president, Cornelis Lievense, believed Baron [[Heinrich Thyssen]] might own a substantial interest. It records gold purchases of over eight million dollars in 1931 to 1933, of which 3,085,000 dollars was delivered to the Federal Reserve Bank on June 15, 1934, and states that "In the fall of 1938, during the Munich crisis, Union Banking Corporation held two million dollars in currency in a safe deposit box in New York, but this sum was subsequently deposited in the company's account with Brown Brothers, Harriman."[^32]
On October 20, 1942 the [[Alien Property Custodian]], Leo T. Crowley, signed Vesting Order Number 248, vesting the 4,000 shares of Union Banking Corporation, published in the [[Federal Register]] on November 7, 1942. The registered owners were E. Roland Harriman with 3,991 shares, [[Cornelius Lievense]] with 4, and Harold D. Pennington, Ray Morris, Prescott S. Bush, H. J. Kouwenhoven and Johann G. Groeninger with one share each. The order states that the shares were held for the benefit of the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, which it describes as owned or controlled by members of the [[Thyssen family]]. W. Averell Harriman is not among the registered owners.[^31] Sutton writes that "the Harrimans had a financial interest in" the corporation, that Roland was a director, and that Averell Harriman, Roland Harriman, E. S. James and Knight Woolley were "through the Union Bank (in which they held a major interest) prime financial backers of Hitler"; he lists eight directors in 1932: E. Roland Harriman, H. J. Kouwenhoven, Knight Woolley, Cornelius Lievense, Ellery Sedgwick James, Johann Groninger, J. L. Guinter and Prescott Sheldon Bush.[^32] A [[Council on Foreign Relations]] table of November 1951 lists Brown Brothers Harriman officers who were members as E. Roland Harriman, Ray Morris, Knight Woolley and Thomas McCance.[^33]
On October 20, 1942 the [[Alien Property Custodian]], Leo T. Crowley, signed Vesting Order Number 248, vesting the 4,000 shares of Union Banking Corporation, published in the [[Federal Register]] on November 7, 1942. The registered owners were E. Roland Harriman with 3,991 shares, [[Cornelius Lievense]] with 4, and Harold D. Pennington, Ray Morris, Prescott S. Bush, H. J. Kouwenhoven and Johann G. Groeninger with one share each. The order states that the shares were held for the benefit of the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, which it describes as owned or controlled by members of the [[Thyssen family]]. W. Averell Harriman is not among the registered owners.[^33] Sutton writes that "the Harrimans had a financial interest in" the corporation, that Roland was a director, and that Averell Harriman, Roland Harriman, E. S. James and Knight Woolley were "through the Union Bank (in which they held a major interest) prime financial backers of Hitler"; he lists eight directors in 1932: E. Roland Harriman, H. J. Kouwenhoven, Knight Woolley, Cornelius Lievense, Ellery Sedgwick James, Johann Groninger, J. L. Guinter and Prescott Sheldon Bush.[^34] A [[Council on Foreign Relations]] table of November 1951 lists Brown Brothers Harriman officers who were members as E. Roland Harriman, Ray Morris, Knight Woolley and Thomas McCance.[^35]
### Today, Newsweek and the Business Advisory Council
The Library of Congress lists Harriman as co-founder with [[Vincent Astor]] of the weekly Today in 1933, merged with [[Newsweek]] in 1937, and as chairman of the [[Business Advisory Council]] from 1937 to 1939; he held the position of Administrator and special assistant at the [[National Recovery Administration]] in 1934 and 1935 and founded the Sun Valley ski resort in Idaho in 1935 and 1936.[^1] On September 11, 1933 Astor and Harriman announced a weekly, Today, to be edited by [[Raymond Moley]].[^34] On March 17, 1961 [[Philip Graham]] sent [[Alfred Friendly]] to Rome to secure a pledge from Harriman, "an early Newsweek backer," to sell his 13 percent holding in Newsweek to the [[Washington Post]].[^35]
The Library of Congress lists Harriman as co-founder with [[Vincent Astor]] of the weekly Today in 1933, merged with [[Newsweek]] in 1937, and as chairman of the [[Business Advisory Council]] from 1937 to 1939; he held the position of Administrator and special assistant at the [[National Recovery Administration]] in 1934 and 1935 and founded the Sun Valley ski resort in Idaho in 1935 and 1936.[^1] On September 11, 1933 Astor and Harriman announced a weekly, Today, to be edited by [[Raymond Moley]].[^36] On March 17, 1961 [[Philip Graham]] sent [[Alfred Friendly]] to Rome to secure a pledge from Harriman, "an early Newsweek backer," to sell his 13 percent holding in Newsweek to the [[Washington Post]].[^37]
### Lend-Lease and the Moscow embassy
Harriman became [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]'s special representative to Great Britain with the rank of ambassador in March 1941, serving until September 1943, and chaired the President's special mission to the USSR.[^1][^3] On August 6, 1941 the Secretary of State sent [[Winant]], the ambassador in the United Kingdom, a telegram marked "Personal from Harriman" relaying a conversation with [[Brendan Bracken]], the British Minister of Information, about American belief that Britain was using Lend-Lease materials to foster and retain its commercial exports.[^36]
Harriman became [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]'s special representative to Great Britain with the rank of ambassador in March 1941, serving until September 1943, and chaired the President's special mission to the USSR.[^1][^3] On August 6, 1941 the Secretary of State sent [[Winant]], the ambassador in the United Kingdom, a telegram marked "Personal from Harriman" relaying a conversation with [[Brendan Bracken]], the British Minister of Information, about American belief that Britain was using Lend-Lease materials to foster and retain its commercial exports.[^38]
He was ambassador to the Soviet Union from 1943 to 1946.[^1] A telegram of February 10, 1944 from Moscow reports a conversation with [[Anastas Mikoyan]] about the Persian route and the decorations proposed for the American officers who supervised it.[^37] On February 13, 1944 he wrote to [[Harry Hopkins]] that he did not intend to object to a supplementary agreement to the Third Protocol and that the Department had indicated legal difficulties in arranging a reconstruction credit under the [[Johnson Act]].[^38] Sutton quotes a report of June 30, 1944 from Harriman in Moscow to the State Department in which Stalin is said to have stated that about two-thirds of all the large industrial enterprises in the Soviet Union had been built with United States help or technical assistance.[^39] On February 10, 1944 the Acting Secretary of State had sent Harriman the replies approved by the President to three questions asked by the Polish government.[^40]
He was ambassador to the Soviet Union from 1943 to 1946.[^1] A telegram of February 10, 1944 from Moscow reports a conversation with [[Anastas Mikoyan]] about the Persian route and the decorations proposed for the American officers who supervised it.[^39] On February 13, 1944 he wrote to [[Harry Hopkins]] that he did not intend to object to a supplementary agreement to the Third Protocol and that the Department had indicated legal difficulties in arranging a reconstruction credit under the [[Johnson Act]].[^40] Sutton quotes a report of June 30, 1944 from Harriman in Moscow to the State Department in which Stalin is said to have stated that about two-thirds of all the large industrial enterprises in the Soviet Union had been built with United States help or technical assistance.[^41] On February 10, 1944 the Acting Secretary of State had sent Harriman the replies approved by the President to three questions asked by the Polish government.[^42]
Sutton reproduces an account of a dinner party in 1971 at which, he writes, the journalist [[Edward Weintal]] told Harriman: "You told Roosevelt that you were convinced that the Soviets did not want to introduce a Communist government into Poland." Sutton states that Weintal cited a State Department telegram of February 12, 1944 from Harriman to Roosevelt, that Harriman shouted "If you print anything like that in your book, I'll break your jaw," and that a Washington Post reporter noted the details in a column by [[Maxine Cheshire]] of March 17, 1971.[^41]
Sutton reproduces an account of a dinner party in 1971 at which, he writes, the journalist [[Edward Weintal]] told Harriman: "You told Roosevelt that you were convinced that the Soviets did not want to introduce a Communist government into Poland." Sutton states that Weintal cited a State Department telegram of February 12, 1944 from Harriman to Roosevelt, that Harriman shouted "If you print anything like that in your book, I'll break your jaw," and that a Washington Post reporter noted the details in a column by [[Maxine Cheshire]] of March 17, 1971.[^43]
### Ambassador to the United Kingdom and Secretary of Commerce
The State Department records that Harriman resigned as ambassador to the Soviet Union in February 1946 and assumed his duties as ambassador in the United Kingdom in April 1946.[^42] On April 22, 1948 President Truman accepted his resignation as United States Secretary of Commerce, effective that day, so that he could take up the administration of the European Recovery Program.[^43] The Library of Congress lists the commerce post as 1946 to 1948, and states that Truman named him ambassador to the Court of St. James's before recalling him to Washington to become secretary of commerce.[^1][^3] [[Harry Kern]] and the historian [[Howard Schonberger]] wrote that Kern and Harriman, as Secretary of Commerce, helped to turn American occupation policy in Japan away from democratic reform.[^44]
The State Department records that Harriman resigned as ambassador to the Soviet Union in February 1946 and assumed his duties as ambassador in the United Kingdom in April 1946.[^44] On April 22, 1948 President Truman accepted his resignation as United States Secretary of Commerce, effective that day, so that he could take up the administration of the European Recovery Program.[^45] The Library of Congress lists the commerce post as 1946 to 1948, and states that Truman named him ambassador to the Court of St. James's before recalling him to Washington to become secretary of commerce.[^1][^3] [[Harry Kern]] and the historian [[Howard Schonberger]] wrote that Kern and Harriman, as Secretary of Commerce, helped to turn American occupation policy in Japan away from democratic reform.[^46]
### The Marshall Plan
In May 1948 Truman sent Harriman to Paris as Special Representative in Europe to carry out the European Recovery Program, and he returned to the United States in mid-1950 to become the president's special assistant.[^3] [[Lincoln Gordon]] worked under Harriman on the Marshall Plan mission in London. [[Vernon Walters]] served as Harriman's aide at Marshall Plan headquarters in Paris.[^45] [[Robert R. Mullen]] recalled that he and [[E. Howard Hunt]] both worked for the Marshall Plan in Paris from 1948 to 1950, when [[Dorothy Hunt]] was employed by Harriman.[^46] The Library of Congress files for the period also record his mediation in the British-Iranian oil crisis of 1951 and the Korean War controversy over the dismissal of General [[Douglas MacArthur]].[^3]
In May 1948 Truman sent Harriman to Paris as Special Representative in Europe to carry out the European Recovery Program, and he returned to the United States in mid-1950 to become the president's special assistant.[^3] [[Lincoln Gordon]] worked under Harriman on the Marshall Plan mission in London. [[Vernon Walters]] served as Harriman's aide at Marshall Plan headquarters in Paris.[^47] [[Robert R. Mullen]] recalled that he and [[E. Howard Hunt]] both worked for the Marshall Plan in Paris from 1948 to 1950, when [[Dorothy Hunt]] was employed by Harriman.[^48] The Library of Congress files for the period also record his mediation in the British-Iranian oil crisis of 1951 and the Korean War controversy over the dismissal of General [[Douglas MacArthur]].[^3]
### Mutual Security and the Council on Foreign Relations
The volume of Foreign Relations of the United States for 1951 records that the [[International Security Affairs Committee]] was to be abolished and that Harriman had been nominated as Director for Mutual Security on October 11, 1951; the Library of Congress lists him as director of the [[Mutual Security Agency]] from 1951 to 1953 and chairman of the North Atlantic Commission on Defense Plans in 1951 and 1952.[^47][^1] On December 12, 1950 [[Hamilton Fish Armstrong]] sent Harriman, then at the [[White House]], a statement of a Council study group on aid to Europe, noting in the covering letter that [[Allen Dulles]] had spoken to Harriman about it that morning.[^48] The Council's officers for 1952 to 1953 included Harriman among the directors, and he is listed among the individual donors of 10,000 dollars or more.[^49][^50]
The volume of Foreign Relations of the United States for 1951 records that the [[International Security Affairs Committee]] was to be abolished and that Harriman had been nominated as Director for Mutual Security on October 11, 1951; the Library of Congress lists him as director of the [[Mutual Security Agency]] from 1951 to 1953 and chairman of the North Atlantic Commission on Defense Plans in 1951 and 1952.[^1][^49] On December 12, 1950 [[Hamilton Fish Armstrong]] sent Harriman, then at the [[White House]], a statement of a Council study group on aid to Europe, noting in the covering letter that [[Allen Dulles]] had spoken to Harriman about it that morning.[^50] The Council's officers for 1952 to 1953 included Harriman among the directors, and he is listed among the individual donors of 10,000 dollars or more.[^51][^52]
### Governor of New York
Harriman was governor of New York from 1955 to 1958; the Library of Congress lists the term as 1955 to 1959 and notes that the papers of the governorship are held at Syracuse University.[^51][^1] [[Mary Lasker]] recalled in her Columbia oral history that Harriman asked for suggestions for a commissioner of mental hygiene soon after the election, and that [[Lester Markel]] of the New York Times telephoned to ask whether she knew [[Paul Hoch]], then in charge of research at the institute; Hoch's appointment was announced in July 1955.[^52] The Columbia oral history of [[Grayson Kirk]], held by the Eisenhower Library, covers Harriman's donation of the Arden House estate to [[Columbia University]].[^53]
Harriman was governor of New York from 1955 to 1958; the Library of Congress lists the term as 1955 to 1959 and notes that the papers of the governorship are held at Syracuse University.[^1][^53] [[Mary Lasker]] recalled in her Columbia oral history that Harriman asked for suggestions for a commissioner of mental hygiene soon after the election, and that [[Lester Markel]] of the New York Times telephoned to ask whether she knew [[Paul Hoch]], then in charge of research at the institute; Hoch's appointment was announced in July 1955.[^54] The Columbia oral history of [[Grayson Kirk]], held by the Eisenhower Library, covers Harriman's donation of the Arden House estate to [[Columbia University]].[^55]
### Kennedy administration and Vietnam
By September 1962 Harriman was Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs, and by August 1963 Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs.[^54][^55] On August 24, 1963 the State Department sent telegram 243 to [[Henry Cabot Lodge]] in Saigon, stating that the "US Government cannot tolerate situation in which power lies in Nhu's hands" and instructing the country team to "make detailed plans as to how we might bring about Diem's replacement if this should become necessary." The telegram was signed by [[George Ball]].[^56] A memorandum for the record by [[Victor Krulak]] of the same day records the account of [[Michael Forrestal]] that "Hilsman and Governor Harriman" had converted a proposed course of action into an instruction to Lodge, that it had been sent to the President for approval, and that it was not something on which Defense clearance was desired.[^57] [[Maxwell Taylor]] said in 1981 that the telegram had been drafted by Harriman, [[Roger Hilsman]] and Forrestal and dispatched "without the concurrence of the Defense Department, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, or the CIA," and called it an "end run" in his memoirs; Hilsman maintained that the President and representatives of the agencies concerned had cleared it.[^58]
By September 1962 Harriman was Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs, and by August 1963 Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs.[^56][^57] On August 24, 1963 the State Department sent telegram 243 to [[Henry Cabot Lodge]] in Saigon, stating that the "US Government cannot tolerate situation in which power lies in Nhu's hands" and instructing the country team to "make detailed plans as to how we might bring about Diem's replacement if this should become necessary." The telegram was signed by [[George Ball]].[^58] A memorandum for the record by [[Victor Krulak]] of the same day records the account of [[Michael Forrestal]] that "Hilsman and Governor Harriman" had converted a proposed course of action into an instruction to Lodge, that it had been sent to the President for approval, and that it was not something on which Defense clearance was desired.[^59] [[Maxwell Taylor]] said in 1981 that the telegram had been drafted by Harriman, [[Roger Hilsman]] and Forrestal and dispatched "without the concurrence of the Defense Department, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, or the CIA," and called it an "end run" in his memoirs; Hilsman maintained that the President and representatives of the agencies concerned had cleared it.[^60]
On October 7, 1963 Harriman attended a White House meeting on Brazil with Kennedy, [[Robert McNamara]], [[Edwin Martin]] and Lincoln Gordon, at which Kennedy asked whether the United States might find it desirable to intervene militarily.[^59] On June 19, 1963 he attended the meeting at which Kennedy approved a sabotage program against Cuba, one of the programs later grouped as [[Operation Mongoose]], with [[John McCone]] and McGeorge Bundy present.[^60]
On October 7, 1963 Harriman attended a White House meeting on Brazil with Kennedy, [[Robert McNamara]], [[Edwin Martin]] and Lincoln Gordon, at which Kennedy asked whether the United States might find it desirable to intervene militarily.[^61] On June 19, 1963 he attended the meeting at which Kennedy approved a sabotage program against Cuba, one of the programs later grouped as [[Operation Mongoose]], with [[John McCone]] and McGeorge Bundy present.[^62]
### Laos
Harriman headed the American delegation to the Geneva conference on Laos in 1961 and 1962; the Library of Congress lists him as deputy representative to the conference.[^61][^1] A memorandum of his conversation with the North Vietnamese foreign minister at Geneva on July 22, 1962 records that he said the United States intended to carry out the Laos agreements "in the letter and in the spirit," including the removal of its military personnel from Laos.[^62] The State Department editorial note states that "On July 23, Secretary Rusk signed for the United States the Declaration on the Neutrality of Laos."[^63]
Harriman headed the American delegation to the Geneva conference on Laos in 1961 and 1962; the Library of Congress lists him as deputy representative to the conference.[^1][^63] A memorandum of his conversation with the North Vietnamese foreign minister at Geneva on July 22, 1962 records that he said the United States intended to carry out the Laos agreements "in the letter and in the spirit," including the removal of its military personnel from Laos.[^64] The State Department editorial note states that "On July 23, Secretary Rusk signed for the United States the Declaration on the Neutrality of Laos."[^65]
### Paris peace talks
In October 1968 Harriman and [[Cyrus Vance]] led the American side in the Paris talks on Vietnam. A telegram from the Paris embassy dated October 9, 1968 is headed "From Harriman and Vance" and reports a meeting in which [[Le Duc Tho]], [[Xuan Thuy]] and Lau joined the Americans during a tea break.[^64]
In October 1968 Harriman and [[Cyrus Vance]] led the American side in the Paris talks on Vietnam. A telegram from the Paris embassy dated October 9, 1968 is headed "From Harriman and Vance" and reports a meeting in which [[Le Duc Tho]], [[Xuan Thuy]] and Lau joined the Americans during a tea break.[^66]
### Marriages and papers
The Library of Congress lists Harriman's marriages as 1915 to Kathleen Lanier Lawrence (divorced 1929), 1930 to Marie Norton Whitney (died 1970) and 1971 to [[Pamela Harriman]], formerly Pamela Digby Churchill Hayward. Sutton notes that Pamela Hayward had been married to [[Randolph Churchill]].[^1][^11]
The Library of Congress lists Harriman's marriages as 1915 to Kathleen Lanier Lawrence (divorced 1929), 1930 to Marie Norton Whitney (died 1970) and 1971 to [[Pamela Harriman]], formerly Pamela Digby Churchill Hayward. Sutton notes that Pamela Hayward had been married to [[Randolph Churchill]].[^1][^13]
The W. Averell Harriman Papers in the Library of Congress Manuscript Division run to 346,760 items in 1,041 containers, with series for the Georgian Manganese Company and the Russian Finance and Construction Corporation, and a Classified, Top Secret, Restricted Data and Sensitive Compartmented Information series for 1946 to 1980.[^3] FRUS volume III for 1961 to 1963 records that its documents were drawn from the papers while still in the possession of the late ambassador, and other volumes cite the Chronology File for May to August 1962.[^28][^62]
The W. Averell Harriman Papers in the Library of Congress Manuscript Division run to 346,760 items in 1,041 containers, with series for the Georgian Manganese Company and the Russian Finance and Construction Corporation, and a Classified, Top Secret, Restricted Data and Sensitive Compartmented Information series for 1946 to 1980.[^3] FRUS volume III for 1961 to 1963 records that its documents were drawn from the papers while still in the possession of the late ambassador, and other volumes cite the Chronology File for May to August 1962.[^30][^64]
### Footnotes
@ -212,58 +212,60 @@ The W. Averell Harriman Papers in the Library of Congress Manuscript Division ru
[^7]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977
[^8]: Jacques Leslie, "Smirk from the past," Salon, March 1, 2000. https://www.salon.com/2000/03/01/yale/
[^9]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), Harriman chapter, family section (E. H. Harriman, Judge Robert Scott Lovett, and the initiation of Robert Abercrombie Lovett "with the two Harriman boys, Roland and Averell").
[^10]: "Business: Brown-Harriman," Time, December 22, 1930. https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,740853,00.html
[^11]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), chronology under the heading of an official summary of Averell Harriman's career (marriages; 1920, 1923, 1933 entries; Pamela Hayward and Randolph Churchill).
[^12]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), chronology and the section "The Guaranty Trust Company."
[^13]: "Sanction Plan to Run Ships on German Routes," The Omaha Bee, August 17, 1920, p. 2 (Washington dispatch of August 16, 1920). https://nebnewspapers.unl.edu/lccn/sn99021999/1920-08-17/ed-1/seq-2
[^14]: W. Averell Harriman Papers finding aid, Library of Congress, Special Files: Business (cables incoming and outgoing, Hamburg-American Line 1920 to 1926; Cuno, Wilhelm, 1920 to 1931; Brown Brothers Harriman and Co., 1931), Subject File (Hamburg-American Line, 1933 to 1937, Box 56; United American Lines re sale of steamers, 1926). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003012.pdf
[^15]: Telegram, the Chargé in the Soviet Union (Henderson) to the Secretary of State, Moscow, September 22, 1936, Foreign Relations of the United States, The Soviet Union, 1933 to 1939, document 334. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1933-39/d334
[^16]: W. A. Harriman and Company agreement, 1925, Hoover Institution Library and Archives (Online Archive of California). https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt867nf2wp
[^17]: W. Averell Harriman Papers finding aid, Special Files: Business, Georgian Manganese Company, 1921 to 1946 (Boxes 694 to 709: Tchemo agreement and syndicate agreement of June 12, 1925; W. A. Harriman and Co. assignment of July 18, 1925; property of voting trustees, August 10, 1925; ore shipments, November 1925 contract; Harriman correspondence while in USSR, 1926 to 1927; resignation, 1928; termination agreement, August 21 to 28, 1928; Soviet notes). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003012.pdf
[^18]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), section "How the Order Developed the Stagnant Soviet Union" (concession agreement of July 12, 1925; four million dollars; Matthew C. Brush; State Department Decimal File 316-138-12/331), and the Order chart naming Brush as chairman of the Georgian Manganese Company.
[^19]: "Russia: Concessions," Time, March 15, 1926. https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,736634,00.html
[^20]: Time, July 25, 1927, on the Soviet reconfirmation of the Harriman manganese concession. https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,736830,00.html
[^21]: "Foreign News: Harriman Out," Time, July 16, 1928. https://time.com/archive/6778286/foreign-news-harriman-out/
[^22]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), Harriman chapter, discussing Harriman's article in Look, October 3, 1967, and State Department file 861.637-Harriman (Stetson).
[^23]: W. Averell Harriman Papers finding aid, Special Files: Business, Russian Finance and Construction Corporation, 1921 to 1952 (Boxes 710 to 731). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003012.pdf
[^24]: National Archives of Georgia photograph, "American Industrialist W. Averell Harriman in Poti, c. 1920," institutional description, Internet Archive item. https://archive.org/details/043-harriman-in-poti-with-mikaberidze-c-1920-01
[^25]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), introductory examples of the Order's activity (Ruskombank and Max May of Guaranty Trust).
[^26]: Brown Brothers Harriman, "Joining Forces: The Birth of Brown Brothers Harriman," firm history. https://www.bbh.com/apac/en/bbh-who-we-are/our-story/200-years-of-partnership/joining-forces-the-birth-of-brown-brothers-harriman.html
[^27]: Brown Brothers Harriman records, finding aid, New-York Historical Society collection at NYU. https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms78_brown_brothers_harriman/
[^28]: John A. Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking: An Historical Portrait of a Great Private Bank, Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., 1818-1968* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1968), pp. 12 to 19, 202 and partner table pp. 231 to 234. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^29]: Zachary Karabell, "Inside Money: Brown Brothers Harriman and the American Way of Power," *Financial History* 138 (Summer 2021), Museum of American Finance, pp. 15 to 16. https://archive.org/details/financialhistory138
[^30]: Treasury Department memorandum, Mr. May to Mr. J. W. Pehle, August 18, 1941, "Re: Union Banking Corporation," ref. 9-151, declassified by NARA (NND 960103). https://archive.org/details/BushDocuments0008b-LetterJ.W.PebleToMay
[^31]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 248, executed October 20, 1942, 7 Federal Register 9097 to 9098 (November 7, 1942). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf
[^32]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), introductory examples and section "The Union Banking Connection" (directors in 1932, Roland Harriman as director).
[^33]: Council on Foreign Relations, Receipts (1946-1951), Research Budget, with Contributions of Corporations, Individual Contributions to the 25th Anniversary Fund and Corporations with Officers who are members of the Council on Foreign Relations, November 1951, CIA-RDP80R01731R001100170005-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001100170005-1
[^34]: "Press: Today," *Time*, September 11, 1933. https://time.com/archive/6751591/press-today/
[^35]: "The Press: Newsweek's News," *Time*, March 17, 1961. https://time.com/archive/6829457/the-press-newsweeks-news/
[^36]: Telegram, Secretary of State to the Ambassador in the United Kingdom (Winant), Washington, August 6, 1941, "Personal from Harriman," Foreign Relations of the United States, 1941, vol. III. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1941v03/d14
[^37]: Telegram 440, Ambassador in the Soviet Union (Harriman) to the Secretary of State, Moscow, February 10, 1944, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1944, vol. IV, document 761. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944v04/d761
[^38]: Telegram, Harriman to the Chairman of the President's Soviet Protocol Committee (Hopkins), Moscow, February 13, 1944, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1944, vol. IV, document 957. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944v04/d957
[^39]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), Harriman chapter, citing State Department Decimal File 033.1161 Johnston Eric/6-3044, telegram of June 30, 1944.
[^40]: Telegram, the Acting Secretary of State to the Ambassador in the Soviet Union (Harriman), Washington, February 10, 1944, 8 p.m., Foreign Relations of the United States, 1944, vol. III, document 1162. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944v03/d1162
[^41]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), Harriman chapter, passage on Edward Weintal, citing the Washington Post, March 17, 1971, VIP column by Maxine Cheshire.
[^42]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1946, vol. VI, document 420, editorial headnote. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1946v06/d420
[^43]: Harry S. Truman, Letter to Secretary Harriman Following His Nomination as U.S. Special Representative in Europe, April 22, 1948, Public Papers, Harry S. Truman Library. https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/public-papers/83/letter-secretary-harriman-following-his-nomination-us-special
[^44]: Howard B. Schonberger, *Aftermath of War: Americans and the Remaking of Japan, 1945-1952* (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1989), p. 7.
[^45]: Vernon Walters, *Silent Missions* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1978).
[^46]: Central Intelligence Agency, Central Cover Staff, "Request for CSA concerning E. Howard Hunt," June 3, 1970, CIA Reading Room document C00297384.
[^47]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1951, vol. I, document 769 and its headnote on the Mutual Security Agency. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1951v01/d769
[^48]: Letter, Hamilton Fish Armstrong to W. Averell Harriman, December 12, 1950, CIA-RDP80R01731R003100010004-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003100010004-7
[^49]: Council on Foreign Relations, Annual Report of the Executive Director, 1951-1952, with list of members and by-laws (New York, 1952), Officers and Standing Committees, CIA-RDP80R01731R001200010036-3. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R001200010036-3
[^50]: Council on Foreign Relations, Annual Report, July 1, 1984 to June 30, 1985 (New York, 1985), Campaign for the Council, individual donors of $10,000 or more, CIA-RDP90-00806R000100210066-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000100210066-5
[^51]: Empire State Plaza, Hall of Governors, "W. Averell Harriman, 48th Governor, 1955 to 1958," New York State Office of General Services. https://empirestateplaza.ny.gov/node/3471
[^52]: Columbia University Libraries, Oral History Research Office, Mary Lasker oral history, transcript pages laskerm_1_19_570 and laskerm_1_19_572. https://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/digital/collections/nny/laskerm/transcripts/laskerm_1_19_572.html ; University at Albany, M.E. Grenander Department of Special Collections and Archives, record of a 1956 interview of Dr. Paul H. Hoch, Commissioner of Mental Hygiene. https://archives.albany.edu/description/catalog/apap015aspace_033e27487bc26a06ec8cf9fd535fb0c3
[^53]: Eisenhower Library, Oral History Project, finding aid OH-364, Grayson L. Kirk, interview by David Horrocks, 1975. https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/oral-histories/oral-history-finding-aids/ohfa364.pdf
[^54]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. XXIV, document 423, Memorandum from the Deputy Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs (Johnson) to the Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (Harriman), September 21, 1962. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v24/d423
[^55]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. III, document 243, Memorandum of Telephone Conversation Between the Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs (Harriman) and the Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (Hilsman). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d243
[^56]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. III, document 281, Telegram 243, Department of State to the Embassy in Vietnam, Washington, August 24, 1963, 9:36 p.m. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d281
[^57]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. III, document 282, Memorandum for the Record by Krulak, August 24, 1963. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d282
[^58]: Robert S. Gallagher, "Gen. Maxwell Taylor: Memories of Peace and War," *American Heritage*, vol. 32, no. 3 (April/May 1981), https://www.americanheritage.com/gen-maxwell-taylor-memories-peace-and-war ; *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. III, document 281, source note citing Taylor, *Swords and Plowshares*, pp. 292-294, and Hilsman, *To Move a Nation*, pp. 487-488. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d281
[^59]: National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 465, Document 9 (White House meeting recording, October 7, 1963; present: Kennedy, Harriman, McNamara, Martin, Gordon and others).
[^60]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, S. Rept. 94-465 (1975), p. 337 and pp. 172 to 173 (Special Group minutes and memorandum of June 19, 1963). https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
[^61]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. XXIV, document 106, Paper Prepared by the Head of the Delegation to the Laos Conference (Harriman). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v24/d106
[^62]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. XXIV, document 410, Memorandum of Conversation, Geneva, July 22, 1962, source Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, Harriman Papers, Chronology File, May to August 1962. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v24/d410
[^63]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. XXIV, document 411, Editorial Note. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v24/d411
[^64]: Telegram 805 (Delto), Embassy in France to the Department of State, Paris, October 9, 1968, "From Harriman and Vance," Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964 to 1968, vol. VII, document 54. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v07/d54
[^10]: Union Pacific Railroad Company, *Annual Report* for 1968, "Chairman Harriman" and "Top Management Changes." https://archive.org/details/001-union-pacific-annual-reports
[^11]: Harry S. Truman, The President's News Conference, November 2, 1950, item 1, The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/the-presidents-news-conference-574
[^12]: "Business: Brown-Harriman," Time, December 22, 1930. https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,740853,00.html
[^13]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), chronology under the heading of an official summary of Averell Harriman's career (marriages; 1920, 1923, 1933 entries; Pamela Hayward and Randolph Churchill).
[^14]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), chronology and the section "The Guaranty Trust Company."
[^15]: "Sanction Plan to Run Ships on German Routes," The Omaha Bee, August 17, 1920, p. 2 (Washington dispatch of August 16, 1920). https://nebnewspapers.unl.edu/lccn/sn99021999/1920-08-17/ed-1/seq-2
[^16]: W. Averell Harriman Papers finding aid, Library of Congress, Special Files: Business (cables incoming and outgoing, Hamburg-American Line 1920 to 1926; Cuno, Wilhelm, 1920 to 1931; Brown Brothers Harriman and Co., 1931), Subject File (Hamburg-American Line, 1933 to 1937, Box 56; United American Lines re sale of steamers, 1926). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003012.pdf
[^17]: Telegram, the Chargé in the Soviet Union (Henderson) to the Secretary of State, Moscow, September 22, 1936, Foreign Relations of the United States, The Soviet Union, 1933 to 1939, document 334. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1933-39/d334
[^18]: W. A. Harriman and Company agreement, 1925, Hoover Institution Library and Archives (Online Archive of California). https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt867nf2wp
[^19]: W. Averell Harriman Papers finding aid, Special Files: Business, Georgian Manganese Company, 1921 to 1946 (Boxes 694 to 709: Tchemo agreement and syndicate agreement of June 12, 1925; W. A. Harriman and Co. assignment of July 18, 1925; property of voting trustees, August 10, 1925; ore shipments, November 1925 contract; Harriman correspondence while in USSR, 1926 to 1927; resignation, 1928; termination agreement, August 21 to 28, 1928; Soviet notes). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003012.pdf
[^20]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), section "How the Order Developed the Stagnant Soviet Union" (concession agreement of July 12, 1925; four million dollars; Matthew C. Brush; State Department Decimal File 316-138-12/331), and the Order chart naming Brush as chairman of the Georgian Manganese Company.
[^21]: "Russia: Concessions," Time, March 15, 1926. https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,736634,00.html
[^22]: Time, July 25, 1927, on the Soviet reconfirmation of the Harriman manganese concession. https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,736830,00.html
[^23]: "Foreign News: Harriman Out," Time, July 16, 1928. https://time.com/archive/6778286/foreign-news-harriman-out/
[^24]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), Harriman chapter, discussing Harriman's article in Look, October 3, 1967, and State Department file 861.637-Harriman (Stetson).
[^25]: W. Averell Harriman Papers finding aid, Special Files: Business, Russian Finance and Construction Corporation, 1921 to 1952 (Boxes 710 to 731). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003012.pdf
[^26]: National Archives of Georgia photograph, "American Industrialist W. Averell Harriman in Poti, c. 1920," institutional description, Internet Archive item. https://archive.org/details/043-harriman-in-poti-with-mikaberidze-c-1920-01
[^27]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), introductory examples of the Order's activity (Ruskombank and Max May of Guaranty Trust).
[^28]: Brown Brothers Harriman, "Joining Forces: The Birth of Brown Brothers Harriman," firm history. https://www.bbh.com/apac/en/bbh-who-we-are/our-story/200-years-of-partnership/joining-forces-the-birth-of-brown-brothers-harriman.html
[^29]: Brown Brothers Harriman records, finding aid, New-York Historical Society collection at NYU. https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms78_brown_brothers_harriman/
[^30]: John A. Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking: An Historical Portrait of a Great Private Bank, Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., 1818-1968* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1968), pp. 12 to 19, 202 and partner table pp. 231 to 234. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^31]: Zachary Karabell, "Inside Money: Brown Brothers Harriman and the American Way of Power," *Financial History* 138 (Summer 2021), Museum of American Finance, pp. 15 to 16. https://archive.org/details/financialhistory138
[^32]: Treasury Department memorandum, Mr. May to Mr. J. W. Pehle, August 18, 1941, "Re: Union Banking Corporation," ref. 9-151, declassified by NARA (NND 960103). https://archive.org/details/BushDocuments0008b-LetterJ.W.PebleToMay
[^33]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 248, executed October 20, 1942, 7 Federal Register 9097 to 9098 (November 7, 1942). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf
[^34]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), introductory examples and section "The Union Banking Connection" (directors in 1932, Roland Harriman as director).
[^35]: Council on Foreign Relations, Receipts (1946-1951), Research Budget, with Contributions of Corporations, Individual Contributions to the 25th Anniversary Fund and Corporations with Officers who are members of the Council on Foreign Relations, November 1951, CIA-RDP80R01731R001100170005-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001100170005-1
[^36]: "Press: Today," *Time*, September 11, 1933. https://time.com/archive/6751591/press-today/
[^37]: "The Press: Newsweek's News," *Time*, March 17, 1961. https://time.com/archive/6829457/the-press-newsweeks-news/
[^38]: Telegram, Secretary of State to the Ambassador in the United Kingdom (Winant), Washington, August 6, 1941, "Personal from Harriman," Foreign Relations of the United States, 1941, vol. III. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1941v03/d14
[^39]: Telegram 440, Ambassador in the Soviet Union (Harriman) to the Secretary of State, Moscow, February 10, 1944, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1944, vol. IV, document 761. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944v04/d761
[^40]: Telegram, Harriman to the Chairman of the President's Soviet Protocol Committee (Hopkins), Moscow, February 13, 1944, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1944, vol. IV, document 957. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944v04/d957
[^41]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), Harriman chapter, citing State Department Decimal File 033.1161 Johnston Eric/6-3044, telegram of June 30, 1944.
[^42]: Telegram, the Acting Secretary of State to the Ambassador in the Soviet Union (Harriman), Washington, February 10, 1944, 8 p.m., Foreign Relations of the United States, 1944, vol. III, document 1162. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944v03/d1162
[^43]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), Harriman chapter, passage on Edward Weintal, citing the Washington Post, March 17, 1971, VIP column by Maxine Cheshire.
[^44]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1946, vol. VI, document 420, editorial headnote. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1946v06/d420
[^45]: Harry S. Truman, Letter to Secretary Harriman Following His Nomination as U.S. Special Representative in Europe, April 22, 1948, Public Papers, Harry S. Truman Library. https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/public-papers/83/letter-secretary-harriman-following-his-nomination-us-special
[^46]: Howard B. Schonberger, *Aftermath of War: Americans and the Remaking of Japan, 1945-1952* (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1989), p. 7.
[^47]: Vernon Walters, *Silent Missions* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1978).
[^48]: Central Intelligence Agency, Central Cover Staff, "Request for CSA concerning E. Howard Hunt," June 3, 1970, CIA Reading Room document C00297384.
[^49]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1951, vol. I, document 769 and its headnote on the Mutual Security Agency. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1951v01/d769
[^50]: Letter, Hamilton Fish Armstrong to W. Averell Harriman, December 12, 1950, CIA-RDP80R01731R003100010004-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003100010004-7
[^51]: Council on Foreign Relations, Annual Report of the Executive Director, 1951-1952, with list of members and by-laws (New York, 1952), Officers and Standing Committees, CIA-RDP80R01731R001200010036-3. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R001200010036-3
[^52]: Council on Foreign Relations, Annual Report, July 1, 1984 to June 30, 1985 (New York, 1985), Campaign for the Council, individual donors of $10,000 or more, CIA-RDP90-00806R000100210066-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp90-00806r000100210066-5
[^53]: Empire State Plaza, Hall of Governors, "W. Averell Harriman, 48th Governor, 1955 to 1958," New York State Office of General Services. https://empirestateplaza.ny.gov/node/3471
[^54]: Columbia University Libraries, Oral History Research Office, Mary Lasker oral history, transcript pages laskerm_1_19_570 and laskerm_1_19_572. https://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/digital/collections/nny/laskerm/transcripts/laskerm_1_19_572.html ; University at Albany, M.E. Grenander Department of Special Collections and Archives, record of a 1956 interview of Dr. Paul H. Hoch, Commissioner of Mental Hygiene. https://archives.albany.edu/description/catalog/apap015aspace_033e27487bc26a06ec8cf9fd535fb0c3
[^55]: Eisenhower Library, Oral History Project, finding aid OH-364, Grayson L. Kirk, interview by David Horrocks, 1975. https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/oral-histories/oral-history-finding-aids/ohfa364.pdf
[^56]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. XXIV, document 423, Memorandum from the Deputy Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs (Johnson) to the Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (Harriman), September 21, 1962. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v24/d423
[^57]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. III, document 243, Memorandum of Telephone Conversation Between the Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs (Harriman) and the Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (Hilsman). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d243
[^58]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. III, document 281, Telegram 243, Department of State to the Embassy in Vietnam, Washington, August 24, 1963, 9:36 p.m. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d281
[^59]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. III, document 282, Memorandum for the Record by Krulak, August 24, 1963. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d282
[^60]: Robert S. Gallagher, "Gen. Maxwell Taylor: Memories of Peace and War," *American Heritage*, vol. 32, no. 3 (April/May 1981), https://www.americanheritage.com/gen-maxwell-taylor-memories-peace-and-war ; *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963*, vol. III, document 281, source note citing Taylor, *Swords and Plowshares*, pp. 292-294, and Hilsman, *To Move a Nation*, pp. 487-488. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v03/d281
[^61]: National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 465, Document 9 (White House meeting recording, October 7, 1963; present: Kennedy, Harriman, McNamara, Martin, Gordon and others).
[^62]: Church Committee, *Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders*, S. Rept. 94-465 (1975), p. 337 and pp. 172 to 173 (Special Group minutes and memorandum of June 19, 1963). https://archive.org/details/allegedassassina00unit
[^63]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. XXIV, document 106, Paper Prepared by the Head of the Delegation to the Laos Conference (Harriman). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v24/d106
[^64]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. XXIV, document 410, Memorandum of Conversation, Geneva, July 22, 1962, source Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, Harriman Papers, Chronology File, May to August 1962. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v24/d410
[^65]: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961 to 1963, vol. XXIV, document 411, Editorial Note. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v24/d411
[^66]: Telegram 805 (Delto), Embassy in France to the Department of State, Paris, October 9, 1968, "From Harriman and Vance," Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964 to 1968, vol. VII, document 54. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v07/d54

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10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Antony C. Sutton.md
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@ -36,7 +36,7 @@ relations:
with: "[[Phoenix Letter]]"
start: 1984
role: "editor, Phoenix Letter, vol. 3, no. 8 (October 1984) masthead"
fn: 42
fn: 45
---
Antony Cyril Sutton (1925 to 2002) was born in London, educated at the Universities of London, Göttingen and California, and held a research fellowship at the [[Hoover Institution]] at [[Stanford University]] from 1968 to 1973. He died in [[Reno, Nevada]]. His Hoover studies of Western technology in the Soviet economy were published in three volumes, and his later books covered the financing of the Bolshevik and Nazi movements, the [[Skull and Bones]] and other [[Yale University]] senior societies, and the [[Trilateral Commission]].[^1][^2][^3][^4]
@ -111,29 +111,31 @@ The chart lists nine old-line families with settlement dates and places: Whitney
Sutton wrote that a group of 20 to 30 families had come to dominate the society, and that the families fell into two groups. The first were "old line American families who arrived on the East coast in the 1600s, e.g., Whitney, Lord, Phelps, Wadsworth, Allen, Bundy, Adams." The second were "families who acquired wealth in the last 100 years, sent their sons to Yale and in time became almost old line families, e.g., Harriman, Rockefeller, Payne, Davison."[^37] He wrote that intermarriage among these families was common, and that the Puritan families "either intermarried with financial power" or took in the sons of money.[^36]
Sutton's book calls Charles Phelps Taft, a member of the Yale class of 1918, a nephew of [[William Howard Taft]] and places him at the Twentieth Century Foundation.[^38] The Yale obituary record for William Howard Taft lists a Charles Phelps, 2d, B.A. 1918 and LL.B. 1921, among Taft's own children.[^39] The Yale record of the President's half brother, Charles Phelps Taft (B.A. 1864, 1843 to 1929), lists "Charles P. Taft, 2d, '18" among that half brother's nephews.[^40] The Yale class of 1918 member is therefore the President's son and the nephew of the elder Charles Phelps Taft.
### Brown Brothers Harriman, Union Banking and Prescott Bush
Sutton's account of the [[Brown Brothers Harriman]] partnership says that by the 1970s the firm had "taken in so many of 'the Brotherhood'" that, of its 26 individual partners, "no fewer than 9 were members of The Order."[^38] The list he gives of partners who were members includes [[Prescott Bush]], whom he describes as a partner for over forty years, the father of President George H. W. Bush, and initiated in 1917. It also includes W. Averell Harriman (initiated 1913) and his brother [[E. Roland Harriman]] (initiated 1917).[^38]
Sutton's account of the [[Brown Brothers Harriman]] partnership says that by the 1970s the firm had "taken in so many of 'the Brotherhood'" that, of its 26 individual partners, "no fewer than 9 were members of The Order."[^41] The list he gives of partners who were members includes [[Prescott Bush]], whom he describes as a partner for over forty years, the father of President George H. W. Bush, and initiated in 1917. It also includes W. Averell Harriman (initiated 1913) and his brother [[E. Roland Harriman]] (initiated 1917).[^41]
Sutton devotes a passage to the [[Union Banking Corporation]] of New York. He writes that Union Banking had eight directors, including four members of the Yale class of 1917, that Guaranty Trust was represented by [[Knight Woolley]], that two directors, Kouwenhoven and Groninger, were Nazi directors of the Rotterdam bank [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]], which he identifies as the former von Heydt bank, and that Prescott Bush and [[Ellery Sedgwick James|Ellery S. James]] were partners in Brown Brothers, later Brown Brothers, Harriman.[^38][^39] In The Rise of Hitler he describes Union Banking as a joint Thyssen and Harriman operation, with E. Roland Harriman as a director in 1932.[^39][^40]
Sutton devotes a passage to the [[Union Banking Corporation]] of New York. He writes that Union Banking had eight directors, including four members of the Yale class of 1917, that Guaranty Trust was represented by [[Knight Woolley]], that two directors, Kouwenhoven and Groninger, were Nazi directors of the Rotterdam bank [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]], which he identifies as the former von Heydt bank, and that Prescott Bush and [[Ellery Sedgwick James|Ellery S. James]] were partners in Brown Brothers, later Brown Brothers, Harriman.[^41][^42] In The Rise of Hitler he describes Union Banking as a joint Thyssen and Harriman operation, with E. Roland Harriman as a director in 1932.[^42][^43]
### The Stimson and Bundy chain
The book's section "The Whitney-Stimson-Bundy-Acheson Chain of Influence" follows a family line through a sequence of offices. Sutton wrote that [[Henry L. Stimson]] went to work for the Root firm in 1890 after Yale and Harvard Law School, married the daughter of a Skull and Bones member, was appointed Secretary of War by [[William Howard Taft]] in 1911, and held offices under every president from Taft through Truman except [[Warren G. Harding]].[^41] He wrote that Stimson brought [[Harvey Hollister Bundy]] into the wartime Pentagon as a special assistant, and that Stimson brought Harvey's son [[McGeorge Bundy]] into the Pentagon to work on the 1948 book On Active Service in Peace and War.[^41] Sutton summarized the pattern as Stimson using his office "to advance the career of fellow members of The Order," naming Harvey Hollister Bundy and McGeorge Bundy.[^41]
The book's section "The Whitney-Stimson-Bundy-Acheson Chain of Influence" follows a family line through a sequence of offices. Sutton wrote that [[Henry L. Stimson]] went to work for the Root firm in 1890 after Yale and Harvard Law School, married the daughter of a Skull and Bones member, was appointed Secretary of War by William Howard Taft in 1911, and held offices under every president from Taft through Truman except [[Warren G. Harding]].[^44] He wrote that Stimson brought [[Harvey Hollister Bundy]] into the wartime Pentagon as a special assistant, and that Stimson brought Harvey's son [[McGeorge Bundy]] into the Pentagon to work on the 1948 book On Active Service in Peace and War.[^44] Sutton summarized the pattern as Stimson using his office "to advance the career of fellow members of The Order," naming Harvey Hollister Bundy and McGeorge Bundy.[^44]
Sutton's account of Stimson in the Second World War also refers to the atomic bombing of [[Japan]], which he says Stimson recommended in 1945.[^41]
Sutton's account of Stimson in the Second World War also refers to the atomic bombing of [[Japan]], which he says Stimson recommended in 1945.[^44]
### Phoenix Letter and the Yale senior societies
Sutton's October 1984 issue of the Phoenix Letter, which named him as editor and was published by Research Publications at a Phoenix, Arizona post office box, argues that the three Yale senior societies, Skull and Bones ([[Russell Trust]]), [[Scroll and Key]] (Kingsley Trust) and [[Wolf's Head]] (Phelps Trust), form a network. It states that Scroll and Key had been founded by members of Skull and Bones, and that "three quarters of the inner core" had been identified in his diagram of the society.[^42] The same issue cites [[George Wilson Pierson]]'s official history of Yale, and it states that the [[Elihu]] society catalog lists [[Anson Phelps Stokes]] as a Skull and Bones member and an honorary member of Elihu since its founding in 1903.[^42] The newsletter also says that it had not yet accounted for the power of Edward Mandel House, whom it had earlier identified as a friend of Yale initiates in the society.[^42]
Sutton's October 1984 issue of the Phoenix Letter, which named him as editor and was published by Research Publications at a Phoenix, Arizona post office box, argues that the three Yale senior societies, Skull and Bones ([[Russell Trust Association|Russell Trust]]), [[Scroll and Key]] (Kingsley Trust) and [[Wolf's Head]] (Phelps Trust), form a network. It states that Scroll and Key had been founded by members of Skull and Bones, and that "three quarters of the inner core" had been identified in his diagram of the society.[^45] The same issue cites [[George Wilson Pierson]]'s official history of Yale, and it states that the [[Elihu]] society catalog lists [[Anson Phelps Stokes]] as a Skull and Bones member and an honorary member of Elihu since its founding in 1903.[^45] The newsletter also says that it had not yet accounted for the power of Edward Mandel House, whom it had earlier identified as a friend of Yale initiates in the society.[^45]
Sutton's booklet How the Order Controls Education is catalogued by archive.org with a 1985 date.[^43]
Sutton's booklet How the Order Controls Education is catalogued by archive.org with a 1985 date.[^46]
### Trilaterals Over America and later works
Sutton's book on the Trilateral Commission, in the 1995 edition titled Trilaterals Over America, states that the commission was founded in 1973 by the New York banker [[David Rockefeller]], then chairman of [[Chase Manhattan Bank]], and the Harvard academic [[Zbigniew Brzezinski]], later National Security Adviser to President [[Jimmy Carter]]. Its appendix lists members as of October 1978 and July 1993.[^44] The book refers to an earlier volume, Trilaterals Over Washington, written with [[Patrick M. Wood]] and published in Scottsdale, Arizona, by the August Corporation (the Library of Congress record gives c1978, 1979 printing).[^44][^45] The 1995 book directs readers to the Phoenix Letter, then in its twelfth year, at an address in Billings, Montana.[^44]
Sutton's book on the Trilateral Commission, in the 1995 edition titled Trilaterals Over America, states that the commission was founded in 1973 by the New York banker [[David Rockefeller]], then chairman of [[Chase Manhattan Bank]], and the Harvard academic [[Zbigniew Brzezinski]], later National Security Adviser to President [[Jimmy Carter]]. Its appendix lists members as of October 1978 and July 1993.[^47] The book refers to an earlier volume, Trilaterals Over Washington, written with [[Patrick M. Wood]] and published in Scottsdale, Arizona, by the August Corporation (the Library of Congress record gives c1978, 1979 printing).[^47][^48] The 1995 book directs readers to the Phoenix Letter, then in its twelfth year, at an address in Billings, Montana.[^47]
His later titles include The War on Gold (1977), Energy: The Created Crisis (1979), The Federal Reserve Conspiracy (1995) and Cold Fusion: The Secret Energy Revolution (1999), each catalogued by archive.org.[^46]
His later titles include The War on Gold (1977), Energy: The Created Crisis (1979), The Federal Reserve Conspiracy (1995) and Cold Fusion: The Secret Energy Revolution (1999), each catalogued by archive.org.[^49]
### Death and the 2002 edition
@ -178,12 +180,15 @@ Sutton's copyright page for America's Secret Establishment gives 1983, 1986 and
[^35]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section on the "Addresses" books (the membership lists back to 1832, and the remark about members bound by oath).
[^36]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), Memorandum Number Four, "Who Is In This Secret Society?" (membership of about 2,500 initiates, Hypothesis One) and the chart the text places on page 19.
[^37]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section on the membership history from 1833, including the founders William Huntington Russell and Alphonso Taft and the description of the two groups of families.
[^38]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section on Brown Brothers, Harriman, including the list of partners initiated into The Order in the mid-1970s.
[^39]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section on the directors of Union Banking Corporation (eight directors, four Yale 1917 initiates, Knight Woolley, Kouwenhoven and Groninger, and Ellery S. James and Prescott S. Bush).
[^40]: Sutton, Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler (1976), Table 7-1 and text, p. 103 (Union Banking Corporation directors in 1932, including E. Roland Harriman).
[^41]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section "The Whitney-Stimson-Bundy-Acheson Chain of Influence," points 1 to 4, and the summary bullets that follow.
[^42]: "The Yale Senior Society Program," Phoenix Letter, vol. 3, no. 8 (October 1984), Research Publications, Box 39850, Phoenix, Arizona, pp. 1 to 6.
[^43]: Antony C. Sutton, How the Order Controls Education (1985), archive.org catalogue record.
[^44]: Antony C. Sutton, Trilaterals Over America (1995), Chapter One, "What is the Trilateral Commission?" (founded in 1973 by David Rockefeller, then chairman of Chase Manhattan) and Appendix A, "Membership October 1978 and July 1993."
[^45]: Library of Congress catalog record, Sutton, Antony C., and Patrick M. Wood, Trilaterals Over Washington (Scottsdale, Ariz.: August Corp., c1978, 1979 printing), call number HF1411 .S8864. https://www.loc.gov/item/78078277
[^46]: Archive.org catalogue records for The War on Gold (1977), Energy: The Created Crisis (1979), The Federal Reserve Conspiracy (1995) and Cold Fusion: The Secret Energy Revolution (1999), by Antony C. Sutton.
[^38]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), passage on the Twentieth Century Foundation and Evans Clark, naming "Charles Phelps Taft (The Order '18), nephew of President and Chief Justice William Howard Taft." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^39]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," p. 72 (children: "Charles Phelps, 2d (B.A. 1918, LL.B. 1921)"). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
[^40]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "Charles Phelps Taft, B.A. 1864" (born December 21, 1843; died December 31, 1929; nephews include "William Howard Taft, 2d, '09, Robert A Taft, '10, and Charles P. Taft, 2d, '18"). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
[^41]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section on Brown Brothers, Harriman, including the list of partners initiated into The Order in the mid-1970s.
[^42]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section on the directors of Union Banking Corporation (eight directors, four Yale 1917 initiates, Knight Woolley, Kouwenhoven and Groninger, and Ellery S. James and Prescott S. Bush).
[^43]: Sutton, Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler (1976), Table 7-1 and text, p. 103 (Union Banking Corporation directors in 1932, including E. Roland Harriman).
[^44]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (Trine Day, 2002 edition), section "The Whitney-Stimson-Bundy-Acheson Chain of Influence," points 1 to 4, and the summary bullets that follow.
[^45]: "The Yale Senior Society Program," Phoenix Letter, vol. 3, no. 8 (October 1984), Research Publications, Box 39850, Phoenix, Arizona, pp. 1 to 6.
[^46]: Antony C. Sutton, How the Order Controls Education (1985), archive.org catalogue record.
[^47]: Antony C. Sutton, Trilaterals Over America (1995), Chapter One, "What is the Trilateral Commission?" (founded in 1973 by David Rockefeller, then chairman of Chase Manhattan) and Appendix A, "Membership October 1978 and July 1993."
[^48]: Library of Congress catalog record, Sutton, Antony C., and Patrick M. Wood, Trilaterals Over Washington (Scottsdale, Ariz.: August Corp., c1978, 1979 printing), call number HF1411 .S8864. https://www.loc.gov/item/78078277
[^49]: Archive.org catalogue records for The War on Gold (1977), Energy: The Created Crisis (1979), The Federal Reserve Conspiracy (1995) and Cold Fusion: The Secret Energy Revolution (1999), by Antony C. Sutton.

18
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/Franklin D. Roosevelt.md
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@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
---
created: 2026-06-13
updated: 2026-06-13
updated: 2026-10-26
title: Franklin D. Roosevelt
aliases:
- FDR
@ -13,16 +13,25 @@ tags:
- 1930s
- 1940s
category: "Political Figure"
summary: "Franklin D. Roosevelt was the 32nd U.S. president, in office from 1933 to 1945, who led the country through the Depression and most of World War II and authorized the creation of the OSS and the Manhattan Project."
summary: "Franklin D. Roosevelt was the 32nd U.S. president, in office from 1933 to 1945, who led the country through the Depression and most of World War II and authorized the OSS and the Manhattan Project."
born: 1882-01-30
died: 1945-04-12
location: "Hyde Park, New York"
relations:
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Warren Delano Jr.]]"
role: "maternal grandfather (Franklin D. Roosevelt Library catalogues him as Warren Delano II)"
fn: 2
---
Franklin Delano Roosevelt (January 30, 1882 - April 12, 1945) was the thirty-second president of the [[United States]], elected to four terms from 1933 until his death in office in April 1945. His administration enacted the New Deal response to the Great Depression and led the country through most of [[World War II]].[^1]
### Maternal family
Roosevelt's maternal grandfather, [[Warren Delano Jr.]] (catalogued by the Roosevelt Library as Warren Delano II, 1809 to 1898), sailed to [[Canton]] in 1833 as supercargo on the Commerce, was associated there with Russell Sturgis and Company, and in January 1840 became a partner in [[Russell and Company]], the American commission house at Canton. He remained in Canton and [[Macao]] during the [[Opium War]] and served as acting consul. The panic of 1857 brought him severe losses, and in 1859 he returned to China.[^2] The [[Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library]] holds the Delano family papers, and its finding aid lists the Russell and Company records among the family's China interests.[^2]
### Wartime Intelligence and Science
In July 1941 Roosevelt appointed [[William J. Donovan]] as Coordinator of Information, and in 1942 he authorized the creation of the [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]], the wartime intelligence agency that became the institutional ancestor of the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]. He also approved the [[Manhattan Project]], the secret program to build an atomic bomb, and appointed [[Nelson Rockefeller]] as [[Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs]] to manage hemispheric policy and propaganda.[^2]
In July 1941 Roosevelt appointed [[William J. Donovan]] as Coordinator of Information, and in 1942 he authorized the creation of the [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]], the wartime intelligence agency that became the institutional ancestor of the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]. He also approved the [[Manhattan Project]], the secret program to build an atomic bomb, and appointed [[Nelson Rockefeller]] as [[Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs]] to manage hemispheric policy and propaganda.[^3]
### Death and Succession
@ -31,4 +40,5 @@ Roosevelt died of a cerebral hemorrhage at Warm Springs, [[Georgia]], on April 1
### Footnotes
[^1]: Smith, Jean Edward. *FDR*. Random House, 2007.
[^2]: Colby, Gerard, and Charlotte Dennett. *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon: Nelson Rockefeller and Evangelism in the Age of Oil.* HarperCollins, 1995.
[^2]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Delano family papers, biographical introduction to Warren Delano II, pp. 1-2 of the PDF. https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_delanofamily.pdf
[^3]: Colby, Gerard, and Charlotte Dennett. *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon: Nelson Rockefeller and Evangelism in the Age of Oil.* HarperCollins, 1995.

261
10 - PEOPLE/(N-S)/William Huntington Russell.md Normal file
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@ -0,0 +1,261 @@
---
created: 2026-10-26
updated: 2026-10-26
title: William Huntington Russell
aliases:
- William Huntington Russell
- William H. Russell
- W. H. Russell
- General William Huntington Russell
- General Russell
category: "Political Figure"
tags:
- Person
- WilliamHuntingtonRussell
- SkullAndBones
- RussellTrustAssociation
- YaleUniversity
- PhiBetaKappa
- CollegiateAndCommercialInstitute
- ConnecticutGeneralAssembly
- ConnecticutNationalGuard
- JohnBrown
- KansasFreeState
- RussellAndCompany
summary: "Yale 1833 graduate who co-founded Skull and Bones, was first-named incorporator of its 1856 charter, ran a New Haven military school, and was a Connecticut legislator and militia major general."
born: 1809-08-12
died: 1885-05-19
location: "New Haven, Connecticut"
relations:
- type: founded
with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
role: "co-founder with Alphonso Taft; Bagg (1871) and Richards (2015) date the founding to 1832, Sutton to 1833"
start: 1832
fn: 1
- type: head_of
with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
role: "president of the Russell Trust Association"
start: 1856
fn: 23
- type: founded
with: "[[Collegiate and Commercial Institute]]"
role: "family school for boys in New Haven, later the Collegiate and Commercial Institute"
start: 1836
fn: 4
- type: head_of
with: "[[Collegiate and Commercial Institute]]"
role: "head of the school until his death"
start: 1836
end: 1885-05-19
fn: 53
- type: member_of
with: "[[Phi Beta Kappa]]"
role: "Yale chapter (Connecticut Alpha), class of 1833; corresponding secretary 1837-1838"
start: 1833
end: 1838
fn: 10
- type: member_of
with: "[[Connecticut General Assembly]]"
role: "representative for New Haven"
start: 1846
end: 1847
fn: 31
- type: appointed
with: "[[William A. Buckingham]]"
role: "major general of the Connecticut militia, commissioned July 31, 1862"
start: 1862-07-31
end: 1870
fn: 33
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Princeton University]]"
role: "taught at Princeton, New Jersey"
start: 1833-09
end: 1835-05
fn: 5
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Yale University]]"
role: "tutor in the college"
start: 1835
end: 1836
fn: 5
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Internal Revenue Service]]"
role: "collector of internal revenue, Connecticut, second district"
start: 1868-12
fn: 38
- type: participant_in
with: "[[National Kansas Committee]]"
role: "listed member of the committee"
start: 1857
fn: 39
- type: participant_in
with: "[[John Brown]]"
role: "named trustee of the Kansas Free-State funds under Brown's will of April 13, 1857"
start: 1857-04-13
fn: 41
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Matthew Talcott Russell]]"
role: "father"
fn: 7
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Noadiah Russell]]"
role: "great-great-grandfather, one of the founders of Yale College"
fn: 8
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Thomas Hubbard]]"
role: "father-in-law"
start: 1836-08-29
fn: 5
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Samuel Russell]]"
role: "second cousin (Hamlin genealogy); Millegan calls him cousin, second cousin and uncle in different essays"
fn: 48
---
William Huntington Russell (August 12, 1809 to May 19, 1885) was a [[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]] schoolmaster, a member of the [[Connecticut General Assembly]], a major general of the Connecticut militia and a collector of internal revenue. [[Lyman Bagg]] wrote in 1871 that the [[Yale University]] senior society [[Skull and Bones]] was "originated in 1832" and that "General Russell, the valedictorian of that class, is its reputed founder"; later accounts name him as its co-founder with [[Alphonso Taft]], and the 1856 act that incorporated the society's trust names him first among the incorporators.[^1][^2][^3] He founded the [[Collegiate and Commercial Institute]] in New Haven and headed it until his death.[^4]
### Family
Russell was born in [[Middletown, Connecticut]] on August 12, 1809, the fifth son of [[Matthew Talcott Russell]] and Mary Huntington.[^5][^6] His father, born in Thompson on March 19, 1761, graduated from Yale in 1779, served as a tutor from November 1782 to May 1786, settled in Middletown as a lawyer, was for some years state's attorney for [[Middlesex County, Connecticut|Middlesex County]] and for sixteen years city treasurer, became a deacon in 1798, and died at Winchester, Connecticut, on November 13, 1828. He was named for Colonel Matthew Talcott of Middletown, who had married his aunt and met the expenses of his education.[^7] Mary Huntington was the eldest daughter of the Rev. Enoch Huntington (Yale 1759) of Middletown, and she died on June 9, 1857, nearly eighty-eight years old. The couple had seven daughters and six sons, and the fifth son graduated from Yale in 1833.[^7]
Yale's obituary notice of Russell describes him as "a descendant from one of the founders of the College, each link of the descent having been in his turn a graduate and officer of the institution."[^5] The line runs through the Rev. [[Noadiah Russell]], born at New Haven on July 22, 1659, a [[Harvard University]] graduate of 1681, one of the founders of Yale College, a framer of the [[Saybrook Platform]] and from 1688 the second minister at Middletown. In February 1686 he married Mary Hamlin, daughter of [[Giles Hamlin]] of Middletown.[^8] Their son William was the father of the Rev. William Russell (Yale 1745, pastor at Windsor from 1751 to 1775), of Capt. Samuel Russell, a Middletown merchant, and of the Rev. Noadiah Russell (Yale 1750, pastor at Thompson from 1757 to 1795), the grandfather of William Huntington Russell.[^9]
### Yale, Princeton and the Medical Institution
Bagg wrote that the society's founders belonged to the class that graduated in 1833 and that Russell was "the valedictorian of that class."[^1] [[David A. Richards]] wrote in the [[Yale Alumni Magazine]] in 2015 that the conception of the society "seems to have been that of the 1833 valedictorian, class orator, and secretary of [[Phi Beta Kappa]], William Huntington Russell," and that Russell, Taft and their four cofounders were all members of Phi Beta Kappa.[^2] The Connecticut Alpha chapter's catalogue of August 1838 lists William Huntington Russell and Alphonso Taft among the members of the class of 1833, each marked "Tut. Y.C.," and names "William H. Russell, M.D." as the chapter's corresponding secretary for 1837 and 1838. Of the fourteen names in the Skull and Bones roster for 1833, the catalogue's list for the class carries six: John Campbell Beach, Noah Bishop, Robert Robertson, Russell, Taft and George Ingersoll Wood.[^10][^11]
Russell taught at [[Princeton University]] in [[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]] from September 1833 to May 1835, when he entered on a tutorship at Yale. He studied medicine while tutoring and received the degree of M.D. from Yale in 1838. He resigned the tutorship in September 1836 to open a family school for boys in New Haven, having married on August 29 of that year Mary E., daughter of [[Thomas Hubbard]], professor of surgery in the Medical Institution of [[Yale College]].[^5]
[[Kris Millegan]] wrote that Russell "studied in Germany from 1831-32."[^12] [[Antony C. Sutton]] wrote that "When its co-founder, William Russell, was in Germany in 1831-2, there was no way he could have avoided Hegelian theory and discussion."[^13] Yale's record places him at Princeton from September 1833.[^5]
### The Founding of the Society
Bagg wrote in *Four Years at Yale* that the modern society system at Yale "began in 1832 when a strictly senior society called 'Skull and Bones' was established."[^14] His account of the society reads: "The society was originated in 1832 by fifteen members of the class which graduated the following year. General Russell, the valedictorian of that class, is its reputed founder, and the best known of his associates is Judge Alphonso Taft of Cincinnati. Some injustice in the conferring of Phi Beta Kappa elections seems to have led to its establishment, and apparently it was for some time regarded throughout college as a sort of burlesque convivial club."[^1] Bagg added that "the popular college tradition, that it was transplanted from a German university, is scouted by old neutral graduates as absurd," and that the society's catalogue places the founders in the "third decade of the second period," which "may seem to make in favor of the German university theory, in the minds of many," while "the blank space in place of the eleventh man's name in the list of the founders, may perhaps be thought a straw in the same direction."[^1][^15] The members knew the society as "Eulogia," or the "Eulogian Club."[^16]
Richards dated the founding to 1832 as well. He wrote that Russell, Taft and four cofounders, all of Phi Beta Kappa, invited eight classmates to join them; that the eight included "the only two members of the Class of 1833 from the Western states (Ohio and Illinois)" and "two of the class's seven members hailing from Southern states"; and that "eulogia is Greek for 'a blessing.'" A skull and crossbones drawn over a meeting notice on the chapel door gave the society its name, and its badge carried the number 322.[^2] The roster Sutton prints for the class of 1833 gives fourteen names: Samuel Henshaw Bates, John Campbell Beach, Noah Bishop, John Crump, Benjamin Franklin Davis, Rufus Erastus Hart, Asahel Hooker Lewis, Samuel Davies Marshall, Frederick Ellsworth Mather, Phineas Timothy Miller, Robert Robertson, William Huntington Russell, Alphonso Taft and George Ingersoll Wood.[^11]
Sutton dated the founding to 1833. He wrote that the American chapter "was founded in 1833 at Yale University by General William Huntington Russell and Alphonso Taft who, in 1876, became Secretary of War in the Grant Administration."[^17] He reported the argument that "William Russell imported the society from Germany and so it has been argued the 322 stands for '32 (from 1832), the second chapter, of this German organization."[^18] He wrote that "By contrast, the two founding members, William Huntington Russell and Alphonso Taft, went far."[^19]
Bagg recounted that the faculty once broke in on one of the society's meetings and was persuaded to spare it "by the intercessions and explanations of its founder, then serving as tutor among them."[^1] Russell's tutorship at Yale ran from 1835 to 1836.[^5]
The German origin appears in a pamphlet on the 1876 break-in at the society's hall. Sutton reprints the pamphlet, which reads: "Bones is a chapter of a corps in a German University. It should properly be called, not Skull & Bones Society but Skull & Bones Chapter. General R[...] (Russell), its founder, was in Germany before Senior Year and formed a warm friendship with a leading member of a German society. He brought back with him to college, authority to found a chapter here. Thus was Bones founded."[^20] Millegan reprints the same account in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones*.[^21] Sutton's comment on the pamphlet is that the society "is not American at all. It is a branch of a FOREIGN secret society."[^20]
Bagg described the hall, erected in 1856, as "a grim-looking, windowless, tomb-like structure, of brown sandstone" on High Street near the corner of Chapel, and put the value of the premises at "upwards of $30,000."[^22] Richards described it as "a single forbidding, windowless block in Egypto-Doric style," whose cost was "later estimated at about $30,000."[^2]
### The 1856 Charter
The society held its property through a corporation chartered by the Connecticut General Assembly at its May 1856 session. The act, a certified copy of which the [[Connecticut Secretary of the State]] issued on March 28, 2001, resolved that William H. Russell, [[John S. Beach]], [[Henry B. Harrison]], [[Daniel C. Gilman]], [[Henry T. Blake]] and [[Henry D. White]] were constituted a body corporate under the name of the Russell Trust Association "for the purpose of the intellectual and moral improvement of its members, and for that only." It capped the real and personal estate the association could hold at fifteen thousand dollars and fixed the first meeting at New Haven for the last Wednesday in July 1856.[^3] Bagg listed the same names with their class years ("William H. Russell of '33, John S. Beach of '39, Henry B. Harrison of '46, Henry T. Blake of '48, Henry D. White of '51, and Daniel C. Gilman of '52") and wrote that "the first of whom has since acted as president, the one next to the last as treasurer, of the association."[^1] The member named next to last is White, while Sutton wrote that "Gilman became Treasurer and William H. Russell, the cofounder, was President."[^23] Millegan gives the same arrangement: Gilman "incorporated Skull and Bones as the Russell Trust in 1856, with himself as Treasurer and William H. Russell as President."[^24] In the same passage Millegan places Gilman with [[Timothy Dwight]] and [[Andrew Dickinson White]] in a group of three Bonesmen who "formed a troika which still influences American life today."[^24]
Sutton wrote that "the Russell Trust Association is run entirely by Patriarchs," and that the organization of the Order, as the association and as the Deer Iland Corporation, "is essentially geared towards the post graduation world."[^25]
A resolution of July 1870 raised the ceiling on the association's property to three hundred and fifty thousand dollars. A resolution approved on March 24, 1887 validated a meeting held in November 1885 and the by-laws adopted there, six months after Russell's death. An act approved on July 9, 1943 raised the ceiling to seven hundred thousand dollars, and the members accepted it at New Haven on November 12, 1943, with [[Morris Hadley]] sworn as president.[^26]
### The Collegiate and Commercial Institute
Russell opened a family school for boys in New Haven in 1836. The school, in the words of Yale's obituary notice, "developed into 'The Collegiate and Commercial Institute,' having at times as many as 160 pupils, and educating in the aggregate some four thousand young men." The notice adds that "As early as 1853, it assumed the character of a military school," and that during the Civil War the school "was able ... to furnish about three hundred officers to the Union army, as well as many drill-masters to the volunteer companies in southern Connecticut."[^4]
Bagg's glossary of Yale slang defines a "Russellite" as "a member of Gen. Russell's military school."[^27] Yale graduates taught at the school after college, and the Yale obituary records for 1870 to 1890 carry their entries. One taught there for a year before beginning theological study, another was "fitted for college" there, and a third taught in the school until he entered a tutorship in the college in January 1865.[^28]
The state armed the school. The Quartermaster General's report of April 1, 1862 lists among the property issued to militia organizations "Wm. H. Russell's Military School, New Haven": one 6-pounder rifled bronze gun, its carriage and implements, and a caisson.[^29] The state's return of arms issued for 1871 lists "William H. Russell, New Haven Military School" with 107 cadet muskets and bayonets and 150 cavalry cartridge boxes and plates.[^30]
### Connecticut General Assembly and Militia
He "represented the town in the State Legislature" in 1846 and 1847.[^5] The [[Connecticut Register]] for 1847 lists the New Haven representatives as "William W. Boardman, William H. Russell," and lists a "Russell of New Haven" on the joint standing committee on education.[^31] The same register lists "Ebenezer Jackson, Samuel Russell" as the representatives for Middletown, the town to which [[Samuel Russell]] of [[Russell and Company]] had returned in 1831.[^31][^32]
Sutton wrote that "William Russell was a member of the Connecticut State Legislature in 1846-47, a General in the Connecticut National Guard from 1862-70, and founded the Collegiate and Commercial Institute in New Haven, Connecticut."[^19] Yale's obituary notice states that "Gov. Buckingham appointed him in 1862 Major-General of the Militia of the State, and this position he held for eight years."[^5] The governor was [[William A. Buckingham]]. The Adjutant-General's reports list "William H. Russell, New Haven" as major general commanding the division of the Connecticut National Guard, commissioned July 31, 1862, with Lieutenant Colonel Francis Wayland of New Haven (commissioned July 30, 1864) as assistant adjutant general of the division and Lieutenant Colonel [[F. St. John Lockwood]] of [[Norwalk, Connecticut|Norwalk]] (commissioned September 16, 1862) as division inspector.[^33][^34] The report for the year ending March 1869 prints the commission date as July 31, 1866 and corrects it in its errata to July 31, 1862.[^35]
On September 12, 1866 Russell's headquarters at [[Hartford, Connecticut|Hartford]] issued the special order, signed by Major [[Edward W. Bacon]] as acting assistant adjutant general, directing Lockwood to make "a minute inspection" of the First Brigade, Brig. Gen. Prentice commanding, at the camp near Hartford on September 13 and 14; Lockwood reported to Russell on October 6, 1866 and to the Adjutant General, [[Charles T. Stanton Jr.]], on March 4, 1867.[^33] At the annual state military institute held near Hartford, where militia officers below the rank of colonel were instructed for five days, an educational visitor found Russell in charge: "General Russell, who has charge of the Institute, and commands the militia of the State."[^36] Adjutant General [[Colin M. Ingersoll]] quoted Russell's report to the governor of the previous year in his own report for the year ending March 31, 1871: "Our system is certainly the best we know of."[^37]
### Collector of Internal Revenue
Russell "held the office of Collector of Internal Revenue for five years from December, 1868."[^5] The [[Official Register of the United States]] for September 30, 1869 lists "William H. Russell" of New Haven as collector for the second district of Connecticut.[^38]
### Kansas and John Brown
The [[National Kansas Committee]] reported on January 25, 1857, through its assistant secretary [[Horace White]]. The report counted about two thousand emigrants forwarded to [[Kansas]] by the land route through Iowa and Nebraska, and money receipts by state, with $3,182.13 from Connecticut. [[Franklin Benjamin Sanborn]] printed the committee's membership in *The Life and Letters of John Brown* (1885). The list includes "W. H. Russell, New Haven, Conn." beside [[Samuel Cabot Jr.]], [[Thaddeus Hyatt]] and [[W. W. Hoppin]].[^39] When the [[United States Senate]] select committee on the [[Harpers Ferry]] raid examined [[William F. M. Arny]] on January 16, 1860 and asked who sat on the committee for Connecticut, the answer was "W. H. Russell, of New Haven."[^40]
On April 13, 1857, at [[Boston]], [[John Brown]] signed a will that gave "all trust funds and personal property for the aid of the Free-State cause in Kansas" to [[George L. Stearns]], Samuel Cabot Jr. and "William H. Russell, of New Haven, Conn.," in trust, "to them and the survivor or survivors and their assigns forever." The trustees were to administer the funds "entirely at their discretion."[^41]
On March 18, 1858, [[John Brown Jr.]] met his father at [[Philadelphia]], with [[Frederick Douglass]] and other men, and the two went on to New York and to New Haven, "where they called (March 18) at the house of Mr. W. H. Russell," before traveling on to [[North Elba]].[^42]
In a letter written on the Missouri line on the Kansas side, dated July 20, 1858, and addressed to Sanborn and friends at Boston and Worcester, Brown wrote: "Mr. Russell and other friends at New Haven assured me before I left, that if the Lecompton abomination should pass through Congress something could be done there to relieve me from a difficulty I am in, and which they understand." In a footnote, Sanborn explains the difficulty. Brown had contracted with [[Charles Blair]] to make a thousand pikes, had not completed the payment for lack of money, and feared the contract would be forfeited. "He therefore communicated the facts to Mr. Russell, who was then the head of a military school at New Haven, and had some assurance from him of money to be raised in Connecticut to meet this contract."[^43]
Blair, a blacksmith of [[Collinsville, Connecticut|Collinsville]], testified before the Senate committee in 1860 about the contract. Asked whether the whole weapon, including the screw that connects the handle and the blade, was furnished by the handle maker or by himself, he answered: "We furnished them all, although the ferules and the screw were made at New Haven. The malleable iron was made by a firm in New Haven."[^44]
Other Russells appear in the same records. Sanborn places Brown at the house of "Judge Russell" in Boston in 1859, a judge whom the same volume names as the Hon. Thomas Russell, and Thomas Russell witnessed Brown's will of 1857.[^45] Dr. [[Samuel Gridley Howe]] told the Senate committee that George R. Russell of Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts, was "one of our wealthy, liberal men."[^46] The committee's narrative of the raid names Israel Russell, a justice of the peace at Harpers Ferry taken hostage by Brown's party, and Major Russell of the [[United States Marine Corps]], who reached the town with the marine detachment.[^47] These are different men from William H. Russell of New Haven.
### The Russell Family and Samuel Russell
Samuel Russell, born at Middletown on August 25, 1789, was the son of Capt. John Russell (born August 19, 1765; married Abigail Warner at Middletown on June 29, 1788; died there December 7, 1801), who was the son of Capt. Samuel Russell, the Middletown merchant who was a brother of the Rev. Noadiah Russell (Yale 1750). John Russell and Matthew Talcott Russell were therefore first cousins, and their sons Samuel Russell and William Huntington Russell were second cousins, with William Russell, the son of the Yale founder, as their common great-grandfather.[^9][^48] Samuel Russell married first Mary Osborn and then her sister Frances Ann Osborn; he was a merchant "for many years in the China trade" and a member of the firm of Russell and Company; his children were George Osborn, John Augustus and Samuel Wadsworth Russell, and his widow Frances founded the [[Russell Library]] in Middletown.[^48]
Samuel Russell lived from 1789 to about 1862. The [[Library of Congress]] holds the firm's papers, which date Russell and Company from 1819 at [[Canton]]. After his return to Middletown in 1831 he founded the Russell Manufacturing Company for elastic webbing and speculated in real estate at Chicago and Milwaukee and in Michigan, Ohio, Kentucky and New Jersey; the papers include correspondence on the Turkish opium trade.[^32]
Millegan describes the firm's origins. He wrote that "In 1823, Samuel Russell established Russell and Company for the purpose of acquiring opium in Turkey and smuggling it to China," and that the firm "merged with the Perkins (Boston) syndicate in 1830 and became the primary American opium smuggler." He named [[Warren Delano Jr.]] as one of the firm's chief operators at Canton, "grandfather of Franklin D. Roosevelt."[^49] Millegan also listed other partners of the firm. In his account they included "John Cleve Green (who financed Princeton), Abiel Low (who financed construction of Columbia), Joseph Coolidge and the Perkins, Sturgis and Forbes families."[^49]
Millegan states the relationship three ways in the same book. The opening article refers to "His cousin Samuel Russell's family enterprise," and the China-trade passage reads "William Huntington Russell (S&B 1833), Samuel's cousin, studied in Germany from 1831-32." An essay on the Connecticut families reads "Samuel Russell, second cousin to Bones founder William H., established Russell and Company in 1823." In "Reflecting on the Yale Succession," written as an account of a conversation with his father, he writes that Russell, "valedictorian of the Yale class of 1832," "had founded Skull and Bones with drug money provided by his uncle, Samuel Russell."[^12][^50][^51] A chart in the book describes Samuel Russell as "undisputed king of Middletown" during the formative years of Skull and Bones and names Governor Henry W. Edwards as "Protector of Samuel Russell's opium-financed enterprises, patron of William Huntington Russell's new secret society Skull and Bones."[^52] The essay on the Connecticut families lists the Russell, Pierpont, Edwards, Burr, Griswold, Day, Alsop and Hubbard families as the "multiply-intermarried grouping of families then ruling Connecticut."[^50]
### Death
Russell was stricken by apoplexy at New Haven on May 10, 1885, and the stroke "proved fatal on the 19th of the same month." "General Russell retained his place at the head of his school, and his powers remained almost untouched by age, until his last brief illness." His wife survived him, "with six of their ten children, two daughters and four sons," and the sons were all graduates of Yale.[^53]
### Later Members
Sutton places Taft's later offices beside Russell's career. He lists Taft as Secretary of War in 1876, Attorney General in 1876 to 1877, minister to Austria from 1882 to 1884 and ambassador to Russia in 1884 to 1885.[^19] Later members of the society include [[Henry L. Stimson]] (class of 1888), [[W. Averell Harriman]] (class of 1913) and [[Prescott Bush]] (class of 1917).[^54][^55]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Lyman Bagg, *Four Years at Yale* (New Haven: Henry Holt, 1871), pp. 145 to 147, on the Russell Trust Association, the names in the act with their class years, the founding of the society by fifteen members of the class of 1833, "General Russell, the valedictorian of that class," the faculty break-in, the German tradition and the society's catalogue. https://archive.org/details/fouryearsatyale00baggrich
[^2]: David A. Richards, "The origins of the tomb," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May and June 2015, on the 1832 founding, the "1833 valedictorian, class orator, and secretary of Phi Beta Kappa," Taft as cofounder, the eight invited classmates, the Eulogian Club, the number 322 and the 1856 hall. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4072-the-origins-of-the-tomb
[^3]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, certified copy (March 28, 2001) of "An Act incorporating Russell Trust Association" (1856), as reprinted in Kris Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," pp. 693 to 694. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^4]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University, deceased from June, 1880, to June, 1890*, entry for William Huntington Russell (class of 1833), p. 241, on the family school, the Collegiate and Commercial Institute, its pupils and its military character. https://archive.org/details/1880t90obituary00yaleuoft
[^5]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University, deceased from June, 1880, to June, 1890*, entry for William Huntington Russell, p. 241, on his birth at Middletown on August 12, 1809, his descent from a founder of the college, Princeton from September 1833 to May 1835, the tutorship, the M.D. of 1838, the marriage of August 29, 1836, the legislature of 1846 and 1847, the militia appointment of 1862 and the collectorship. https://archive.org/details/1880t90obituary00yaleuoft
[^6]: *The Hamlin Family* (1900), entry [307] for Matthew Talcott Russell, his marriage at Middletown on September 17, 1797 to Mary Huntington and the list of their children, including William, born August 12, 1809, p. 119. https://archive.org/details/hamlinfamilygene00andr
[^7]: Franklin Bowditch Dexter, *Biographical Sketches of the Graduates of Yale College*, vol. 4 (July 1778 to June 1792) (New York: Henry Holt, 1907), sketch of Matthew Talcott Russell (Yale 1779), pp. 125 to 126. https://archive.org/details/biographicalske05dextgoog
[^8]: *The Hamlin Family: A Genealogy of Capt. Giles Hamlin of Middletown, Connecticut, 1654-1900* (1900), entry [1] for Mary Hamlin and the Rev. Noadiah Russell, p. 36, and entry [307] for Matthew Talcott Russell, p. 119 (descent "Noadiah, William, Mary Hamlin, Giles"). https://archive.org/details/hamlinfamilygene00andr
[^9]: *The Hamlin Family* (1900), entries [97] (Rev. William Russell), [98] (Capt. Samuel Russell, merchant, who died March 14, 1794) and [99] (Rev. Noadiah Russell, clergyman at Thompson 1757 to 1795), pp. 87 to 88. https://archive.org/details/hamlinfamilygene00andr
[^10]: *Catalogue of the Connecticut Alpha of the Phi Beta Kappa*, August 1838, list of officers for 1837-8 ("William H. Russell, M.D. Cor. Secretary") and list of members of 1833, pp. 39 and following. https://archive.org/details/catalogueofconne00phib
[^11]: Sutton (1983), roster of members by class, "Founders" and class of 1833. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^12]: Kris Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), opening article ("His cousin Samuel Russell's family enterprise was the largest American opium smuggler") and the China-trade passage reading "William Huntington Russell (S&B 1833), Samuel's cousin, studied in Germany from 1831-32." https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^13]: Sutton (1983), passage on Hegelian theory: "When its co-founder, William Russell, was in Germany in 1831-2, there was no way he could have avoided Hegelian theory and discussion." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^14]: Bagg (1871), p. 52, on the origin of the secret-society system at Yale and the "modern system, which began in 1832." https://archive.org/details/fouryearsatyale00baggrich
[^15]: Bagg (1871), p. 147, on the catalogue of the society, "Period 2. Decade 3," and the blank space for the eleventh founder. https://archive.org/details/fouryearsatyale00baggrich
[^16]: Bagg (1871), p. 153, on the members' name for the society, "Eulogia," or the "Eulogian Club." https://archive.org/details/fouryearsatyale00baggrich
[^17]: Sutton (1983), Memorandum Number Two on the origins of the Order, opening passage on the American chapter and its 1833 founding. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^18]: Sutton (1983), passage on the number 322 and the argument that "William Russell imported the society from Germany." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^19]: Sutton (1983), passages on the two founding members ("By contrast, the two founding members, William Huntington Russell and Alphonso Taft, went far"), on Russell's Connecticut legislature and National Guard service, and on Taft's later offices. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^20]: Anonymous pamphlet on the 1876 break-in at the society's hall, as quoted in Sutton (1983), Memorandum Two, including "General R[...] (Russell), its founder, was in Germany before Senior Year," and Sutton's comment that Skull & Bones "is not American at all. It is a branch of a FOREIGN secret society." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^21]: Millegan (2003), reprint of the 1876 pamphlet on the break-in at the hall. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^22]: Bagg (1871), p. 145, description of the hall erected in 1856 "on High street, near the corner of Chapel." https://archive.org/details/fouryearsatyale00baggrich
[^23]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chapter on Daniel C. Gilman, stating that "The Order was incorporated as The Russell Trust in 1856" and that "Gilman became Treasurer and William H. Russell, the cofounder, was President." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^24]: Millegan (2003), chapter on Daniel Coit Gilman, passage reading "with himself as Treasurer and William H. Russell as President." https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^25]: Sutton (1983), passages on the Russell Trust Association, "the Russell Trust Association is run entirely by Patriarchs," and the organization of the Order "essentially geared towards the post graduation world." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^26]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, certified copies (March 28, 2001) of the resolution amending the charter (July 1870), the resolution confirming the by-laws (approved March 24, 1887), the act of July 9, 1943 and the certificate of acceptance of November 12, 1943, as reprinted in Millegan (2003), pp. 694 to 695. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^27]: Bagg (1871), p. 47, glossary entry for "Russellite." https://archive.org/details/fouryearsatyale00baggrich
[^28]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale College, deceased from June, 1870, to June, 1880*, entries on pp. 270 and 369, and *Obituary Record* for 1880 to 1890, p. 524. https://archive.org/details/1870t80obituary00yaleuoft ; https://archive.org/details/1880t90obituary00yaleuoft
[^29]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1862, report of the Quartermaster General (John M. Hatheway), April 1, 1862, statement [I], p. 58. https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso1862conn
[^30]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1871, statement [G] of arms and equipment issued ("William H. Russell, New Haven Military School"). https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso18711conn
[^31]: *The Connecticut Register and Official State Calendar for 1847* (Hartford, 1847), House of Representatives by town (New Haven and Middletown) and the joint standing committee on education ("Russell of New Haven"). https://archive.org/details/connecticutregis1847hart
[^32]: Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, "Russell & Co., Guangzhou, China, Records," finding aid (MSS38562), on Samuel Russell (1789 to about 1862), the firm, his return to Middletown in 1831, the Russell Manufacturing Company, his real estate holdings and the Turkish opium correspondence. https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms010075
[^33]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1867, Adjutant-General's report of April 1, 1867, p. 16 (staff of the division: "William H. Russell, New Haven, Commissioned July 31, 1862"; Francis Wayland, assistant adjutant general; F. St. John Lockwood, division inspector) and pp. 39 to 40 (special order of September 12, 1866 and the inspection of the First Brigade). https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso18671conn
[^34]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1870, Adjutant-General's report, p. 9, division staff ("William H. Russell, New Haven, Commissioned July 31, 1862"). https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso18701conn
[^35]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1869, Adjutant-General's report for the year ending March 31, 1869 and errata ("Page 8. Maj. Gen. William H. Russell, commissioned July 31, 1866, read July 31, 1862"). https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso1869conn
[^36]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1869, educational report, passage on a visit to the state military institute at Hartford and a conversation with General Russell. https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso1869conn
[^37]: *Public Documents of the State of Connecticut*, 1871, Adjutant-General's report for the year ending March 31, 1871 (Colin M. Ingersoll), p. 6, quoting Russell's report to the governor of the previous year. https://archive.org/details/publicdocumentso18711conn
[^38]: *Official Register of the United States*, September 30, 1869, list of collectors of internal revenue, Connecticut, second district: William H. Russell, New Haven. https://archive.org/details/sim_united-states-official-register-of-the-united-states_1869-09-30
[^39]: Franklin Benjamin Sanborn, *The Life and Letters of John Brown: Liberator of Kansas, and Martyr of Virginia* (Boston: Roberts Brothers, 1885), p. 352, the report of the National Kansas Committee dated January 25, 1857, its receipts by state and its list of members. https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofjoh00sanb
[^40]: United States Senate, *Report of the Select Committee of the Senate Appointed to Inquire into the Late Invasion and Seizure of the Public Property at Harper's Ferry*, 36th Cong., 1st Sess., S. Rep. No. 278 (June 15, 1860), testimony of William F. M. Arny, January 16, 1860, p. 76. https://archive.org/details/reportselectcommi00unit
[^41]: Sanborn (1885), pp. 385 to 386, text of John Brown's will dated Boston, April 13, 1857. https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofjoh00sanb
[^42]: Sanborn (1885), p. 451, account of the travels of John Brown Jr. and his father, March 1858. https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofjoh00sanb
[^43]: Sanborn (1885), pp. 475 to 476, letter of John Brown to F. B. Sanborn, Missouri line, July 20, 1858, and Sanborn's footnote on the contract with Charles Blair. https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofjoh00sanb
[^44]: S. Rep. No. 278 (1860), testimony of Charles Blair, p. 127. https://archive.org/details/reportselectcommi00unit
[^45]: Sanborn (1885), pp. 385 to 386 (witnesses to the will of April 13, 1857, including Thomas Russell) and p. 508 (Brown at "Judge Russell's house" in Boston in 1859, and "the Hon. Thomas Russell's address"). https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofjoh00sanb
[^46]: S. Rep. No. 278 (1860), testimony of Samuel G. Howe, pp. 166 to 167, on the direction to the house of George R. Russell at Jamaica Plain. https://archive.org/details/reportselectcommi00unit
[^47]: S. Rep. No. 278 (1860), report of the committee, narrative of the invasion, on the hostages (Israel Russell, justice of the peace) and the marine detachment accompanied by "Major Russell, of that corps." https://archive.org/details/reportselectcommi00unit
[^48]: *The Hamlin Family* (1900), entry [302] for Capt. John Russell (son of Samuel, William, Mary Hamlin, Giles), pp. 118 to 119, and entry [638] for Samuel Russell, born at Middletown August 25, 1789, "for many years in the China trade" and member of the firm of Russell & Co., p. 166. https://archive.org/details/hamlinfamilygene00andr
[^49]: Millegan (2003), passages on Russell and Company, its 1823 founding for the opium trade, its 1830 merger with the Perkins syndicate and Warren Delano Jr. at Canton. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^50]: Millegan (2003), essay on the Connecticut families and the origins of the Order, pp. 313 to 314 ("Samuel Russell, second cousin to Bones founder William H.") and pp. 151 to 152 ("General William Huntington Russell, Samuel Russell's cousin"). https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^51]: Millegan, "Reflecting on the Yale Succession," *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), p. 52, passage recounting the author's conversation with his father and the words "had founded Skull and Bones with drug money provided by his uncle, Samuel Russell." https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^52]: Millegan (2003), chart and notes on the Russell family of Middletown and the Connecticut families, pp. 321 to 325 (notes 10, 14 and 15). https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^53]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University, deceased from June, 1880, to June, 1890*, entry for William Huntington Russell, pp. 241 to 242, on his place at the head of his school, the stroke of May 10, 1885, his death on May 19 and his survivors. https://archive.org/details/1880t90obituary00yaleuoft
[^54]: Sutton (1983), index of members by class year: class of 1888 (Stimson, Henry Lewis) and class of 1913 (Harriman, William Averell). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^55]: George Mosher Murray and others, *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. 1 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1917), biographical entries including Prescott Sheldon Bush, pp. 105 to 106. https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr

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10 - PEOPLE/(T-Z)/Dorothy Payne Whitney.md
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@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
---
created: 2026-10-09
updated: 2026-10-09
updated: 2026-10-26
title: Dorothy Payne Whitney
aliases:
- Dorothy Payne Whitney
@ -43,6 +43,14 @@ relations:
with: "[[Michael Whitney Straight]]"
role: son
fn: 3
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Payne Whitney]]"
role: brother
fn: 4
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Harry Payne Whitney]]"
role: brother
fn: 4
- type: founded
with: "[[The New Republic]]"
start: 1914
@ -55,14 +63,14 @@ relations:
with: "[[New School for Social Research]]"
end: 1930
role: board of directors
fn: 13
fn: 14
- type: owned
with: "[[Dartington Hall]]"
start: 1925
fn: 2
- type: founded
with: "[[William C. Whitney Foundation]]"
fn: 15
fn: 16
---
Dorothy Payne Whitney (1887 to 1968) was an heiress of the [[Whitney family]] who helped found [[The New Republic]] with her first husband, [[Willard Straight]], in 1914, and who was among the principal donors to the [[New School for Social Research]] in its first decade. With her second husband, [[Leonard Knight Elmhirst]], she developed [[Dartington Hall]] in [[Devon]] as a progressive experiment that she continued to support until her death.[^1]
@ -71,56 +79,59 @@ Dorothy Payne Whitney (1887 to 1968) was an heiress of the [[Whitney family]] wh
She was the youngest child of Flora Payne and [[William C. Whitney]], a financier and secretary of the Navy under President [[Grover Cleveland]]. By the age of seventeen her mother, stepmother and father had all died, leaving her a large inheritance. At the age of 20 she became president of the [[Junior League of New York]] (1907 to 1909), where she introduced formal training for members and was the driving force behind the Junior League Hotel, a new model of cooperative housing for women.[^1][^2] She married Willard Straight in 1911. Their son, [[Michael Whitney Straight]], was born in 1916, the third and youngest of her children with Straight; the others were [[Whitney Straight]] and [[Beatrice Straight]].[^3]
The Yale Obituary Record entry for her brother [[Payne Whitney]], who died in 1927, lists his surviving siblings as [[Harry Payne Whitney]], Yale 1894, and a sister, the wife of Leonard Knight Elmhirst of Yorkshire, England. The same entry names [[Oliver Hazard Payne]], Yale 1863, as an uncle of Payne Whitney.[^4]
Her papers at [[Cornell University]] (collection #3725, 10 cubic feet, dates 1887 to 1978, most of the material from 1887 to 1926) include notebooks from her school days, guardianship papers, newspaper clippings on her father's death, an inventory of the house at 1130 Fifth Avenue, and correspondence with Willard Straight on their courtship and on his service in France in 1917 and 1918. The finding aid lists her involvement with the New York State Food Commission, the Women's Liberty Loan Committee, the Social Unit Plan, the Junior League, the War Camp Service Committee, the Women's Emergency Committee of the European Relief Council, the New School for Social Research, the Tuberculosis Preventorium for Children, the Pueblos Defense Committee and the Mayor's Committee of Women on National Defense, and states that she supported students at the Bordentown Military Academy and Hobart College.[^2]
### The New Republic
After reading [[Herbert Croly]]'s *[[The Promise of American Life]]* aloud during their honeymoon, the couple invited Croly to lunch. In the fall of 1914 the Straights and Croly founded The New Republic.[^1] [[Alvin Johnson]] wrote that when Croly wanted a weekly, "I will find it," Dorothy Straight said simply.[^4] The Cornell finding aid lists correspondence and statements concerning The New Republic and *Asia* magazines among her papers.[^2]
After reading [[Herbert Croly]]'s *[[The Promise of American Life]]* aloud during their honeymoon, the couple invited Croly to lunch. In the fall of 1914 the Straights and Croly founded The New Republic.[^1] [[Alvin Johnson]] wrote that when Croly wanted a weekly, "I will find it," Dorothy Straight said simply.[^5] The Cornell finding aid lists correspondence and statements concerning The New Republic and *Asia* magazines among her papers.[^2]
In 1922 the magazine was short of money, and its owners wanted the New School terminated so that Straight would provide the magazine with more support.[^5] A New Republic publisher interviewed by the FBI in 1969 said that her family's fund had founded the magazine in 1914 and had been used for its operation until 1954, when [[Gilbert A. Harrison]] bought a controlling interest; the editor of *Antiques*, a magazine owned by the Straight family since about 1930, said that it and The New Republic had shared the same office space in New York.[^6] Her son "enlisted new patrons" after "his mother's withdrawal of support of the magazine."[^3]
In 1922 the magazine was short of money, and its owners wanted the New School terminated so that Straight would provide the magazine with more support.[^6] A New Republic publisher interviewed by the FBI in 1969 said that her family's fund had founded the magazine in 1914 and had been used for its operation until 1954, when [[Gilbert A. Harrison]] bought a controlling interest; the editor of *Antiques*, a magazine owned by the Straight family since about 1930, said that it and The New Republic had shared the same office space in New York.[^7] Her son "enlisted new patrons" after "his mother's withdrawal of support of the magazine."[^3]
### The New School Pledges
As early as 1916 Dorothy Straight and Croly had discussed with [[Charles Austin Beard]] and [[James Harvey Robinson]] the possibility of an independent social science institute. When Beard and Robinson resigned from [[Columbia University]] in 1917, these discussions took on new meaning. Willard Straight, then serving in Europe, warned her away from the two men: "I'm getting a little restive and uncertain about some of these forward looking people."[^1] Beard and Robinson "found sympathetic and resourceful patrons" in Croly and Dorothy Straight, and the "Heir to the Whitney fortune" saw in their school an opportunity.[^7]
As early as 1916 Dorothy Straight and Croly had discussed with [[Charles Austin Beard]] and [[James Harvey Robinson]] the possibility of an independent social science institute. When Beard and Robinson resigned from [[Columbia University]] in 1917, these discussions took on new meaning. Willard Straight, then serving in Europe, warned her away from the two men: "I'm getting a little restive and uncertain about some of these forward looking people."[^1] Beard and Robinson "found sympathetic and resourceful patrons" in Croly and Dorothy Straight, and the "Heir to the Whitney fortune" saw in their school an opportunity.[^8]
She did not heed the warning. She turned the school from a subject of discussion into a realizable dream "by pledging $10,000 a year to the project for ten years."[^1] The school's early pledges were "ten-year pledges of support amounting to nearly $300,000, much of it from Dorothy Straight," and the townhouse the school renovated was "paid for largely by Dorothy Straight."[^8] In Alvin Johnson's *Pioneer's Progress* the founding circle consisted of Robinson, Beard, Thorstein Veblen, Croly, "Mrs. Willard Straight, Mrs. George Bacon, and other liberals," and a women's committee met at the apartment of Caroline Bacon: Mrs. Willard Straight, Mrs. George Haven Putnam, Mrs. Learned Hand, Mrs. Victor Sorchan, and "later Mrs. Thomas W. Lamont."[^9] Johnson wrote of her as "the most generous, Mrs. Straight," who "would leave us if the threatened secession from the board took place" in the crisis of 1922.[^10]
She did not heed the warning. She turned the school from a subject of discussion into a realizable dream "by pledging $10,000 a year to the project for ten years."[^1] The school's early pledges were "ten-year pledges of support amounting to nearly $300,000, much of it from Dorothy Straight," and the townhouse the school renovated was "paid for largely by Dorothy Straight."[^9] In Alvin Johnson's *Pioneer's Progress* the founding circle consisted of Robinson, Beard, Thorstein Veblen, Croly, "Mrs. Willard Straight, Mrs. George Bacon, and other liberals," and a women's committee met at the apartment of Caroline Bacon: Mrs. Willard Straight, Mrs. George Haven Putnam, Mrs. Learned Hand, Mrs. Victor Sorchan, and "later Mrs. Thomas W. Lamont."[^10] Johnson wrote of her as "the most generous, Mrs. Straight," who "would leave us if the threatened secession from the board took place" in the crisis of 1922.[^11]
When Johnson took over as director in April 1922 he wrote to her of the change, in a letter that includes the words "To put it baldly, I have usurped the"; the board members who stayed were Croly, [[Wesley Clair Mitchell]], Caroline Bacon, Dorothy Straight and Emily Putnam.[^11][^12] She sat on the Board of Directors until 1930, after 1925 as Mrs. Leonard Elmhirst.[^13]
When Johnson took over as director in April 1922 he wrote to her of the change, in a letter that includes the words "To put it baldly, I have usurped the"; the board members who stayed were Croly, [[Wesley Clair Mitchell]], Caroline Bacon, Dorothy Straight and Emily Putnam.[^12][^13] She sat on the Board of Directors until 1930, after 1925 as Mrs. Leonard Elmhirst.[^14]
[[Judith Friedlander]] uses a 1952 letter by Johnson to characterize Dorothy and other founders, including [[Learned Hand]] and [[Mary Harriman]], as antisemites. Mastrelli, reviewing the book, writes: "For the record, I am not sure what kind of antisemite Dorothy would have been," and notes "accounts that she aided Johnson in the University in Exile."[^13] The records of the Emergency Committee in Aid of Displaced Foreign Scholars include, in their philanthropic file series, a file titled "Elmhirst Fund 1934-1935."[^14] The Cornell finding aid for her papers states that the New School was "begun with the backing of the Whitney Estate in 1919."[^2]
[[Judith Friedlander]] uses a 1952 letter by Johnson to characterize Dorothy and other founders, including [[Learned Hand]] and [[Mary Harriman]], as antisemites. Mastrelli, reviewing the book, writes: "For the record, I am not sure what kind of antisemite Dorothy would have been," and notes "accounts that she aided Johnson in the University in Exile."[^14] The records of the Emergency Committee in Aid of Displaced Foreign Scholars include, in their philanthropic file series, a file titled "Elmhirst Fund 1934-1935."[^15] The Cornell finding aid for her papers states that the New School was "begun with the backing of the Whitney Estate in 1919."[^2]
### William C. Whitney Foundation
After 1929 she continued to support the school for several years through the [[William C. Whitney Foundation]]; Mastrelli attributes this to the Dartington Hall Trust archives.[^13] In 1969 [[Milton C. Rose]], senior partner of [[Mudge, Rose, Guthrie and Alexander]], told the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] that the foundation was "created by Mr. Straight's parents in memory of his grandfather" and that her son Michael had been its president "since its inception in 1937."[^15] The FBI's summary describes it as a charitable organization that "concerns itself with the arts, having made many grants in the fields of music, dance, theater, and painting." [[Harriett K. Evison]], who had been her social secretary, became assistant secretary-treasurer of the foundation.[^15] A December 1952 newspaper report on testimony before a House committee on tax-exempt foundations records that her son, as president, was questioned on $19,000 in grants.[^16]
After 1929 she continued to support the school for several years through the [[William C. Whitney Foundation]]; Mastrelli attributes this to the Dartington Hall Trust archives.[^14] In 1969 [[Milton C. Rose]], senior partner of [[Mudge, Rose, Guthrie and Alexander]], told the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] that the foundation was "created by Mr. Straight's parents in memory of his grandfather" and that her son Michael had been its president "since its inception in 1937."[^16] The FBI's summary describes it as a charitable organization that "concerns itself with the arts, having made many grants in the fields of music, dance, theater, and painting." [[Harriett K. Evison]], who had been her social secretary, became assistant secretary-treasurer of the foundation.[^16] A December 1952 newspaper report on testimony before a House committee on tax-exempt foundations records that her son, as president, was questioned on $19,000 in grants.[^17]
### Dartington Hall
She married Leonard Knight Elmhirst in 1925.[^3] She met Elmhirst while working on the [[Willard Straight Hall]] project at Cornell, and the couple moved to [[Totnes]] in Devon, bought and restored a medieval property, and set about developing Dartington Hall as a laboratory of experiment for a "many sided life."[^1] She and Elmhirst purchased Dartington Hall, reconstructed the fourteenth-century manor and founded a school on the property.[^2] A second set of her papers from Dartington Hall (collection #3782, 4 cubic feet, 1890 to 1976) includes correspondence on Willard Straight Hall (1920 to 1967), lecture notes, diaries and travel journals, and an inventory of the records room at Dartington Hall.[^17] Her son Michael was educated at Dartington Hall.[^3]
She married Leonard Knight Elmhirst in 1925.[^3] She met Elmhirst while working on the [[Willard Straight Hall]] project at Cornell, and the couple moved to [[Totnes]] in Devon, bought and restored a medieval property, and set about developing Dartington Hall as a laboratory of experiment for a "many sided life."[^1] She and Elmhirst purchased Dartington Hall, reconstructed the fourteenth-century manor and founded a school on the property.[^2] A second set of her papers from Dartington Hall (collection #3782, 4 cubic feet, 1890 to 1976) includes correspondence on Willard Straight Hall (1920 to 1967), lecture notes, diaries and travel journals, and an inventory of the records room at Dartington Hall.[^18] Her son Michael was educated at Dartington Hall.[^3]
### Willard Straight Hall
Willard Straight died of septic pneumonia while serving with the [[American Expeditionary Forces]] in France in 1918, before the school opened.[^3] In his will he asked that Dorothy make Cornell a "more human place." She built Willard Straight Hall, one of the first models of a student union in the [[United States]].[^1] The Cornell finding aid for her papers gives his death as 1919; the finding aid for the Dartington Hall papers and the New York Times give 1918.[^2][^17]
Willard Straight died of septic pneumonia while serving with the [[American Expeditionary Forces]] in France in 1918, before the school opened.[^3] In his will he asked that Dorothy make Cornell a "more human place." She built Willard Straight Hall, one of the first models of a student union in the [[United States]].[^1] The Cornell finding aid for her papers gives his death as 1919; the finding aid for the Dartington Hall papers and the New York Times give 1918.[^2][^18]
### Death
She died in 1968.[^1] The FBI's 1969 summary of her son's background lists her as deceased.[^15]
She died in 1968.[^1] The FBI's 1969 summary of her son's background lists her as deceased.[^16]
### Footnotes
[^1]: "Dorothy Payne Whitney Straight Elmhirst," Histories of The New School, by Tara Mastrelli, May 25, 2018, https://histories.newschool.edu/people/dorothy-payne-whitney-straight-elmhirst.
[^2]: Cornell University Library, Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, "Dorothy Whitney Straight Elmhirst papers," #3725, https://archives.library.cornell.edu/repositories/2/resources/1281.
[^3]: Christopher Lehmann-Haupt, "Michael Straight, Who Wrote of Connection to Spy Ring, Is Dead at 87," *The New York Times*, January 5, 2004 (Internet Archive copy, https://web.archive.org/web/2016id_/https://www.nytimes.com/2004/01/05/nyregion/michael-straight-who-wrote-of-connection-to-spy-ring-is-dead-at-87.html).
[^4]: Alvin Johnson, *Pioneer's Progress* (New York: Viking, 1952; Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1960), p. 233.
[^5]: Peter M. Rutkoff and William B. Scott, *New School: A History of The New School for Social Research* (New York: Free Press, 1986), p. 28.
[^6]: Federal Bureau of Investigation, "Straight, Michael W., HQ-1" (FOI/PA 1179375-1), https://archive.org/details/StraightMichaelW.HQ1, special inquiry reports of September 1969 on the interviews with the publisher of The New Republic and with Alice Winchester, editor of *Antiques*.
[^7]: Rutkoff and Scott, *New School*, pp. 10 and 11.
[^8]: Rutkoff and Scott, *New School*, pp. 19 and 21.
[^9]: Alvin Johnson, *Pioneer's Progress*, pp. 167 and 273.
[^10]: Alvin Johnson, *Pioneer's Progress*, p. 280.
[^11]: Rutkoff and Scott, *New School*, p. 30, Johnson's letter of April 1922 to Dorothy Straight.
[^12]: Rutkoff and Scott, *New School*, p. 35.
[^13]: Tara Mastrelli, "'In the Name of Freedom': a Review of Judith Friedlander's *A Light in Dark Times* (2018, Columbia University Press)," *International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society* 34 (2021), pp. 125-135, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10767-019-09344-5, notes citing the New School Archives and Special Collections and the Dartington Hall Trust Archives; the board tenure, the post-1929 foundation support and the Dartington Hall attribution come from these notes. The characterization of founders by Judith Friedlander, *A Light in Dark Times* (Columbia University Press, 2018), p. 307, which quotes in full a 1952 letter by Johnson, is reported through Mastrelli's review.
[^14]: New York Public Library, Manuscripts and Archives Division, Emergency Committee in Aid of Displaced Foreign Scholars records (MssCol 922), Series IV, box 171, folder 15, "Elmhirst Fund 1934-1935," https://archives.nypl.org/mss/922.
[^15]: FBI, summary memorandum of September 10, 1969 and teletypes of September 1969 on interviews with Milton C. Rose and Harriett K. Evison, in "Straight, Michael W., HQ-1" (FOI/PA 1179375-1), https://archive.org/details/StraightMichaelW.HQ1.
[^16]: FBI, summary memorandum of September 10, 1969 ("Miscellaneous Information"), citing the Washington Times-Herald of December 6, 1952, in "Straight, Michael W., HQ-1."
[^17]: Cornell University Library, Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, "Dorothy Whitney Straight Elmhirst papers from Dartington Hall," #3782, https://archives.library.cornell.edu/repositories/2/resources/1289.
[^4]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased During the Year Ending July 1, 1927*, entry for Payne Whitney, B.A. 1898, pp. 171 to 172. https://archive.org/details/obituaryrecordof00yale_4
[^5]: Alvin Johnson, *Pioneer's Progress* (New York: Viking, 1952; Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1960), p. 233.
[^6]: Peter M. Rutkoff and William B. Scott, *New School: A History of The New School for Social Research* (New York: Free Press, 1986), p. 28.
[^7]: Federal Bureau of Investigation, "Straight, Michael W., HQ-1" (FOI/PA 1179375-1), https://archive.org/details/StraightMichaelW.HQ1, special inquiry reports of September 1969 on the interviews with the publisher of The New Republic and with Alice Winchester, editor of *Antiques*.
[^8]: Rutkoff and Scott, *New School*, pp. 10 and 11.
[^9]: Rutkoff and Scott, *New School*, pp. 19 and 21.
[^10]: Alvin Johnson, *Pioneer's Progress*, pp. 167 and 273.
[^11]: Alvin Johnson, *Pioneer's Progress*, p. 280.
[^12]: Rutkoff and Scott, *New School*, p. 30, Johnson's letter of April 1922 to Dorothy Straight.
[^13]: Rutkoff and Scott, *New School*, p. 35.
[^14]: Tara Mastrelli, "'In the Name of Freedom': a Review of Judith Friedlander's *A Light in Dark Times* (2018, Columbia University Press)," *International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society* 34 (2021), pp. 125-135, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10767-019-09344-5, notes citing the New School Archives and Special Collections and the Dartington Hall Trust Archives; the board tenure, the post-1929 foundation support and the Dartington Hall attribution come from these notes. The characterization of founders by Judith Friedlander, *A Light in Dark Times* (Columbia University Press, 2018), p. 307, which quotes in full a 1952 letter by Johnson, is reported through Mastrelli's review.
[^15]: New York Public Library, Manuscripts and Archives Division, Emergency Committee in Aid of Displaced Foreign Scholars records (MssCol 922), Series IV, box 171, folder 15, "Elmhirst Fund 1934-1935," https://archives.nypl.org/mss/922.
[^16]: FBI, summary memorandum of September 10, 1969 and teletypes of September 1969 on interviews with Milton C. Rose and Harriett K. Evison, in "Straight, Michael W., HQ-1" (FOI/PA 1179375-1), https://archive.org/details/StraightMichaelW.HQ1.
[^17]: FBI, summary memorandum of September 10, 1969 ("Miscellaneous Information"), citing the Washington Times-Herald of December 6, 1952, in "Straight, Michael W., HQ-1."
[^18]: Cornell University Library, Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, "Dorothy Whitney Straight Elmhirst papers from Dartington Hall," #3782, https://archives.library.cornell.edu/repositories/2/resources/1289.

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---
aliases:
- Knight Woolley
category: "Business & Finance"
tags:
- Person
- BrownBrothersHarriman
- HarrimanBrothers
- SkullAndBones
- YaleClassOf1917
- BankersAcceptances
- UnionBankingCorporation
- HollandAmericanTrading
- ThyssenFamily
- AlienPropertyCustodian
- ConsolidatedSilesianSteel
- CouncilOnForeignRelations
- AmericanHawaiianSteamship
- SouthernRailway
summary: "Knight Woolley, Yale 1917 and Skull and Bones member, general manager of Harriman Brothers & Co. and partner of Brown Brothers Harriman, named in Union Banking Corporation and 1933 Silesian Steel correspondence."
born: 1895-05-01
died: 1984
location: "New York, New York"
relations:
- type: member_of
with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
start: 1917
role: "member of the class of 1917 (The Order '17)"
fn: 1
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Guaranty Trust Company]]"
start: 1919
end: 1920
role: "as recorded by Sutton"
fn: 8
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Harriman Brothers & Co.]]"
start: 1927-03-17
end: 1931-01-01
role: "general manager from the firm's founding, then partner from January 1, 1929"
fn: 12
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Brown Brothers Harriman]]"
start: 1931-01-01
role: "partner of the merged firm; managing partner of Harriman Brothers & Co. at the time of the 1930 merger; listed as a partner in 1943, 1956 and 1961"
fn: 21
- type: partner_of
with: "[[Prescott Bush]]"
start: 1931-01-01
role: "partners of the merged Brown Brothers Harriman"
fn: 12
- type: partner_of
with: "[[E. Roland Harriman]]"
start: 1931-01-01
role: "partners of the merged Brown Brothers Harriman"
fn: 12
- type: partner_of
with: "[[Robert A. Lovett]]"
start: 1931-01-01
role: "partners of the merged Brown Brothers Harriman"
fn: 12
- type: partner_of
with: "[[Ellery Sedgwick James]]"
start: 1931-01-01
role: "partners of the merged Brown Brothers Harriman; classmate at Yale"
fn: 12
- type: director_of
with: "[[Union Banking Corporation]]"
start: 1932
role: "listed among the directors for 1932 in Sutton's accounts"
fn: 31
- type: director_of
with: "[[Caledonian Insurance Company]]"
start: 1930
role: "director (reported as director of the Caledonian-American in 1942); later chair of the Finance Committee"
fn: 24
- type: director_of
with: "[[American-Hawaiian Steamship Company]]"
start: 1943
role: "director, as reported in the Securities and Exchange Commission summary of May 1943 purchases"
fn: 25
- type: director_of
with: "[[Southern Railway]]"
start: 1946
role: "named as a director in a brief in United States v. Pullman Co."
fn: 27
- type: member_of
with: "[[Federal Reserve Bank of New York]]"
start: 1939
role: "representative of the private banks on the bank's Foreign Exchange Committee, formed in August 1939"
fn: 29
- type: member_of
with: "[[Council on Foreign Relations]]"
start: 1951-11-01
role: "listed in a November 1951 table of corporate officers who were Council members"
fn: 39
created: 2026-10-26
updated: 2026-10-26
---
Knight Woolley (May 1, 1895, Brooklyn, New York, to 1984) was a member of the [[Yale University]] class of 1917 and of [[Skull and Bones]]. Before 1927 he had worked in the foreign department of the [[American Exchange National Bank]]. In that year he organized the private bank that [[W. Averell Harriman]] and [[E. Roland Harriman]] set up as a partnership, and he was a partner of [[Brown Brothers Harriman]] from the 1931 merger into the 1960s.[^1][^2] The record also places him as a director of the [[Union Banking Corporation]] of New York, as the author of a January 1941 letter to the New York state superintendent of banks about that bank, as the author of a January 1933 letter about the [[Consolidated Silesian Steel Company]] that the [[The Guardian|Guardian]] quoted in 2004, and as one of the registered holders of shares in the [[Holland-American Trading Corporation]], seized in 1942.
### Andover, Yale and Skull and Bones
Woolley prepared at [[Phillips Academy]], Andover, where he was class historian at the 1913 commencement, business manager of the school yearbook, the Pot Pourri, and an undergraduate treasurer.[^3][^4][^5] The class history of 1917 at Yale prints his biographical entry. It gives his birth in Brooklyn on May 1, 1895, and his preparation at the Brooklyn Polytechnic Preparatory School and Phillips Academy. It records that he was on the class crews, held the John Eliot Scholarship, was assignment editor of the [[Yale Daily News]], and that "He belongs to [[Psi Upsilon]] and Skull and Bones." The entry closes with the note that Woolley "intends to go into business."[^1] A passage on the class's 1917 military training places him on guard at the sick-stables when an inspection party arrived.[^6]
The class history's entries for [[Prescott Bush]], E. Roland Harriman, Woolley and [[Neil Mallon]] each state the same membership.[^7] [[Antony C. Sutton]]'s catalogue of members by class year lists Woolley under the class of 1917 ("The Order '17"), and his list of the Brown Brothers, Harriman partners names him in the same class.[^8] [[Kris Millegan]] wrote that the office Bush joined under [[George Herbert Walker]] employed "many of his classmates from his Yale class of 1917, including Roland Harriman and Knight Woolley," and that "The three had been close friends at Yale and were all members of Skull and Bones."[^9]
Sutton's account of the 1917 members involved in the [[Guaranty Trust Company]] and Harriman business begins with "the following five members in the class of '17 (only fifteen were initiated)." It names Woolley first, with the dates "Guaranty Trust from 1919-1920, Harriman Company from 1927-1931, then Brown Brothers, Harriman from 1933," and names [[Frank P. Shepard]] alongside him, a vice president of Guaranty Trust from 1920 to 1934.[^8]
### Harriman Brothers and the acceptance business
On March 17, 1927, the Harrimans set up a partnership bank. It was first called W. A. Harriman & Co., without the "Inc.," and soon renamed [[Harriman Brothers & Co.]] [[John A. Kouwenhoven]]'s 1968 firm history names Woolley as the man the Harrimans hired to run it. He came from the foreign department of the American Exchange National Bank, which was then in the process of merging into the [[Irving Trust Company]]. He brought several former colleagues with him, three of them specialists in foreign exchange, among them [[Harold D. Pennington]], who later managed the firm's operations and sat on the board of the Union Banking Corporation. Kouwenhoven also describes Woolley as already an authority on bankers' acceptances, citing his *A B C of Bankers Acceptances*, first published by the American Acceptance Council in 1924. The bank began with four employees in a single room, with capital from the Harrimans and from [[M. Samuel & Co.]], and Averell Harriman's instruction to Woolley was "Here's four million. Go ahead and run the bank." Within less than four years the firm had moved twice and had seventy employees.[^10] Rudy Abramson wrote in his biography of Averell Harriman that the bank started with employees in a single room at 39 Broadway.[^11]
The founding date appears in several forms. Kouwenhoven's text gives March 17, 1927. His partner table comments that Woolley "Had been general manager of Harriman Bros. & Co. from its founding in 1926 until he became a partner," and gives January 1, 1929 as the date he became a partner of Harriman Brothers & Co. and January 1, 1931 as the date of his partnership in the merged firm.[^12] *The Bankers Magazine* of January 1931 wrote that "Harriman Brothers & Co., a co partnership, was formed on February 1, 1927, to further the Harriman interests," that its partners included W. A. Harriman, E. Roland Harriman, Woolley and Prescott S. Bush, and that the directors of the affiliated W. A. Harriman & Co., Inc. included the same four with others. It added that forty-nine foreign banks represented the firm as correspondents, that the firm was a member of the New York Stock Exchange and an associate member of the New York Curb Market, and that it transacted no margin account business.[^13] [[Garry Wills]] gave 1926 and wrote that the Harrimans "put a classmate in as president," identifying Woolley.[^14] A notice of new partnerships in *The New York Times* of May 5, 1929 lists Harriman Brothers & Co., May 1, 1929, 39 Broadway, with the partners W. A. Harriman, E. Roland Harriman, George H. Walker, [[Dale M. Parker]] and Knight Woolley.[^15]
By the time of the merger, the Harriman banking partnership was doing a profitable business in acceptances and foreign exchange, held a seat on the [[New York Stock Exchange]], and carried on a brokerage business, though none on margin account.[^10] The partners' minute book for 1927 records that Woolley, as general manager, had received through [[Ellery Sedgwick James]] and accepted "the offer of a $250,000 participation" in an acceptance credit for a Berlin metal firm, along with [[Brown Brothers & Co.]] and two other banks.[^16] In June 1930 the exchange received a proposal to transfer the membership of William H. Bixby to Woolley, identified as a partner in Harriman Bros. & Co.[^17]
### The 1930 merger and the managing partnership
[[Time]] reported on December 22, 1930 that the two houses had merged "last week," counting 16 partners in the new firm of Brown Bros., Harriman & Co., eleven of them Yale graduates. The same report named Ellery Sedgwick James as a classmate of E. Roland Harriman, Prescott Bush and Woolley.[^18]
Kouwenhoven places the origin of the merger on a train to a Yale reunion in the spring of 1930, when "Ellery James, Knight Woolley, and Prescott Bush" had taken a drawing room in a parlor car and someone suggested that the two firms should merge. Kouwenhoven called the story "now current in various versions, as all good legends are," and recorded [[Thatcher M. Brown]]'s recollection that James first suggested talking with the Harrimans.[^16] Abramson also set the card game in a New Haven Railroad parlor car with James, Bush and Woolley.[^11] [[Zachary Karabell]], writing in *[[Financial History]]*, placed a railcar trip on the same line in the fall of 1930 and wrote: "Roland wasn't on the train that day, but Ellery James and Knight Woolley were." Karabell described Woolley as "rarely without a bespoke double-breasted suit" and as "managing partner of another one of the Harriman firms."[^19]
Kouwenhoven's photograph caption identifies Woolley as the man "who had organized the Harrimans' private bank in 1927," and as "managing partner of Harriman Brothers & Co. at the time when the merger with Brown Brothers & Co. was arranged in the final months of 1930." The caption shows him as a Brown Brothers Harriman partner on a business trip to Vienna in the summer of 1933.[^10]
Wills wrote that Bush "quickly became, with Knight Woolley, the principal expert on what projects to back" at the firm, and quoted Bush's oral-history interviews: "We [he and Woolley] were running the business, the day-to-day business, all the administrative decisions and the executive decisions. We were the ones that did it."[^14] Sutton's list of partners in the mid-1970s, which he gave as twenty-six partners, of whom nine were members of the order, includes Woolley for the class of 1917.[^8]
### Partnership and directorships, 1931 to 1967
The [[New-York Historical Society]] finding aid for the Brown Brothers Harriman records lists clippings for the merger, including a clipping titled "Knight Woolley elected director" dated between December 12, 1930 and January 23, 1931, photographs of Woolley with W. Averell Harriman dated 1933, and photographs of Woolley with the [[Union Pacific Railroad]] board and the Business Advisory Council between 1936 and 1939.[^2] A Brown Brothers Harriman advertisement of October 1943, marking the firm's 125th anniversary, lists the partners as Moreau D. Brown, Thatcher M. Brown, Prescott S. Bush, Louis Curtis, E. R. Harriman, W. A. Harriman (then newly named ambassador to Russia), Ray Morris and Woolley.[^20] A Brown Brothers Harriman notice in *The Economist* of July 22, 1961 lists "Knight Woolley" among the partners, with Prescott S. Bush, Robert A. Lovett, [[Thomas McCance]] and others; the firm's notices in *Trusts and Estates* for July 1956 and January 1961 list him in the same way.[^21][^22] Photographs dated July 1964 in the finding aid show the senior partners Harriman, Lovett, Bush and Woolley in a newly built room at 59 Wall Street, and a photograph caption dated July 28, 1964 shows them in a post-luncheon discussion; a photograph of Woolley, Harriman and Kouwenhoven at the Harriman estate is dated May 19, 1967.[^2][^23]
The finding aid also records that Woolley "was a director of [[Caledonian Insurance Company]] beginning in the 1930s," and that he later chaired its Finance Committee, to which the bank acted as investment advisor.[^2] An October 1942 survey of insurance directorships held by private bankers wrote that "Knight Woolley is a director of the Caledonian-American," counted thirty insurance companies with board or trustee members who were partners in the bank, and described W. A. Harriman of the same firm as then in London as President Roosevelt's personal representative and Lend-Lease co-ordinator.[^24]
A Securities and Exchange Commission summary of insider transactions reported in the *Chicago Daily Tribune* of July 17, 1943 lists a May purchase of 700 shares of [[American-Hawaiian Steamship Company]] by "Knight Woolley, director."[^25] The *Daily Worker* wrote on October 5, 1946 that W. Averell Harriman exerted influence over Pacific shipping lines, including the American-Hawaiian Steamship Co. as one of the Pacific's "Big Three," "through Attorney Knight Woolley, his man Friday, who represents Harriman's interests on the American-Hawaiian board," and added that Woolley was a partner of the Harriman bank.[^26] A brief in *United States v. Pullman Co.* (Supreme Court, October term 1946, appeal of the United States) lists "Guy Cary and Knight Woolley, directors of the Southern Railway Co." among the members of the board of the Air Reduction Co.[^27]
### Federal Reserve Bank of New York and Guaranty Trust
Sutton wrote in 1983 that Woolley "was also a director of the Federal Reserve Bank," and that "Guaranty Trust was represented by Knight Woolley."[^28] The twenty-fifth annual report of the [[Federal Reserve Bank of New York]], for 1939, states that the bank organized a general committee of New York money-market interests in August 1939, and a foreign exchange committee of five commercial-bank representatives, two representatives of private banks and investment houses, and one each for foreign banks and for Stock Exchange firms. It names "Mr. Knight Woolley, Brown Brothers Harriman & Co." among the members of the foreign exchange committee, "representing private banks and investment houses," with R. F. Loree of Guaranty Trust as chairman.[^29] The bank's Circular No. 1015 of January 8, 1931 announced that the Federal Reserve Board had reappointed Clarence M. Woolley of Greenwich, Connecticut, chairman of American Radiator and Standard Sanitary Corporation, as a Class C director for the three years from January 1, 1931.[^30]
*The Bankers Magazine* of January 1931 listed Guaranty Trust Company of New York among the corporations of which W. A. Harriman was a director.[^13]
### Union Banking Corporation
Sutton's 1976 chapter notes give the 1932 directors of the Union Banking Corporation as taken from the 1932 edition of the Bankers Directory and from Poor's Directory of Directors, and state that "J.L. Guinter and Knight Woolley were also directors."[^31] In his 1983 book on Skull and Bones, Sutton lists eight directors for 1932, among them Woolley.[^28]
On January 14, 1941, Woolley wrote to [[William R. White]], superintendent of banks for the State of New York, about the Union Banking Corporation, which he described as "a state institution under your supervision." The letter names four directors, "E. R. Harriman, [[Ray Morris]], Prescott S. Bush and our manager, H. D. Pennington," as "my partners," and writes on their behalf. It describes the corporation as "in effect a New York office, or agency, of the [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]], in Rotterdam," and says: "Should the United States enter the war, they feel they might be under some embarrassment because of their connection with the bank, even though we have no financial interest in the Union Banking Corporation, nor do we participate in its earnings." Woolley asked White for "a frank expression from you as to the action" the directors should take.[^32]
The letter also describes the bank's operations. Its only depositor was the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, its activity was limited to occasional payments and a few purchases and sales of securities, and its accounts were frozen under the presidential proclamation of May 10, 1940. The company's accounts were kept at the [[Chase National Bank]], the [[National City Bank]], the Guaranty Trust Company and the Harriman firm itself. Morris or Pennington had to sign checks jointly with the company's president, [[Cornelius Lievense]], or with an assistant, and a representative of the firm had to be present whenever the company's safe deposit box at the Chase Bank was opened.[^32] A report of the corporation issued on January 1, 1941 and reprinted in the same source lists as directors Lievense, E. Roland Harriman, Pennington, Bush, J. Kouwenhoven, Ray Morris and J. G. Groeninger.[^32]
The letter gives the origin of the directorships as a meeting in Europe in 1925 between W. A. Harriman and [[Fritz Thyssen]], after which "various members of the Harriman organizations" served on the board. It states that the directors act "merely as a matter of business courtesy."[^32] White replied on May 13, 1941 that the department "would not feel free to object" if the directors resigned, but that "the department would be gratified if these gentlemen could find it possible to remain on the board during this period of uncertainty."[^33] A memorandum of the [[Treasury Department]] dated August 18, 1941 also concerns the company.[^34]
In the 1942 vesting orders, Woolley's name appears on the Holland-American Trading Corporation and not on the Union Banking Corporation. Vesting Order 248, executed October 20, 1942 and published in the [[Federal Register]] of November 7, 1942, vests the 4,000 shares of the Union Banking Corporation held for the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart. Its registered owners are E. Roland Harriman with 3,991 shares, Cornelius Lievense with 4, and Harold D. Pennington, Ray Morris, Prescott S. Bush, H. J. Kouwenhoven and Johann G. Groeninger with one share each. Woolley is not among them.[^35]
Vesting Order 261 covers the Holland-American Trading Corporation. It was executed on October 28, 1942 by [[Leo T. Crowley]], [[Alien Property Custodian]], filed December 18, 1942, and published in the *Federal Register* of December 19, 1942. It vests 500 shares, registered to E. Roland Harriman (491), Cornelius Lievense (4), and one share each to H. D. Pennington, Ray Morris, Knight Woolley, H. J. Kouwenhoven and J. G. Groeninger. The shares "are held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N. V., Rotterdam, The Netherlands, which bank is owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family".[^36] The Guardian described the Holland-American and [[Seamless Steel Equipment Corporation]] seizures as affiliates against which "further seizures were made" after the Union Banking Corporation seizure.[^37]
### Sutton's characterization
Sutton wrote that "Averell Harriman, his brother Roland Harriman, and members E.S. James and Knight Woolley, through the Union Bank (in which they held a major interest) were prime financial backers of Hitler."[^28] The sentence is Sutton's.
### The Consolidated Silesian Steel letter
The Guardian reported in September 2004 that a letter of January 1933 from Woolley to W. Averell Harriman concerned the Consolidated Silesian Steel Company (CSSC), a Silesian steel and mining company, after Polish moves to nationalize the plant. The newspaper quotes the letter: "The Consolidated Silesian Steel Company situation has become increasingly complicated, and I have accordingly brought in [[Sullivan and Cromwell]], in order to be sure that our interests are protected." The letter continues: "After studying the situation Foster Dulles is insisting that their man in Berlin get into the picture and obtain the information which the directors here should have. You will recall that Foster is a director and he is particularly anxious to be certain that there is no liability attaching to the American directors." The Guardian cited [[National Archives]] files as the source of the letter and described Woolley as Bush's friend and fellow "bonesman."[^38]
### Council on Foreign Relations and the Luce correspondence
A table of corporations whose officers were members of the [[Council on Foreign Relations]], dated November 1951, lists Brown Brothers Harriman with E. Roland Harriman, Ray Morris, Knight Woolley and Thomas McCance among its officers who were Council members.[^39] A list of membership proposals sent to [[Allen Dulles]] with the agenda for the Council's board meeting of December 17, 1951 names Woolley as the proposer of Grinnell Morris, vice president of the Central Hanover Bank.[^40]
The New-York Historical Society holds the papers of [[Henry Luce]] (MS 3014). Its finding aid lists a correspondence file headed "Woolley, Knight (Mr. and Mrs.)," dated 1936 to 1957.[^41]
### The Hopkins telegram of July 9, 1941
A telegram of July 9, 1941 from the Acting Secretary of State to Ambassador [[John G. Winant]] in London, number 2483, carried a message from [[Harry Hopkins]] about British exports of consumer goods and "the next lend lease bill," and ends "Have seen Woolley." The telegram gives no first name or post for Woolley. The records found do not establish whether the Woolley named is Knight Woolley, whose partner W. Averell Harriman was then in London as Roosevelt's Lend-Lease representative.[^24][^42]
### The Boys' Club and memoir
A letterhead of the Boys' Club of New York in the correspondence of the Medallic Art Company, kept by the American Numismatic Society, lists Knight Woolley as assistant secretary, with E. Roland Harriman as vice president and Robert A. Lovett as assistant secretary.[^43] Woolley privately printed a memoir in 1975, titled *In Retrospect: A Very Personal Memoir*.[^44]
### Papers and dates
The New-York Historical Society holds the records of Brown Brothers Harriman (MS 78). Its people files include a folder headed "Knight Woolley (1895 - [1984]), 1923-1967," and the Tax Department scrapbooks include a folder on the partners from H to W for 1941 to 1964. The finding aid dates his life 1895 to 1984.[^2]
### Footnotes
[^1]: *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. 1 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1917), entry for Knight Woolley, pp. 343 to 344, https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr
[^2]: Brown Brothers Harriman Records, MS 78, New-York Historical Society, finding aid: People Files (Box 77, Folder 7, "Knight Woolley (1895 - [1984]), 1923-1967"); clippings (December 12, 1930 to January 23, 1931); photographs (1933; 1936 to 1939; July 1964; May 19, 1967); Tax Department scrapbook ("Partners H-W. Newquist - Woolley, 1941-1964"); historical note on Caledonian Insurance Company. https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms78_brown_brothers_harriman/
[^3]: "Andover Townsman," June 13, 1913, report of the commencement exercises of Phillips Academy, naming "the class historian, Knight Woolley." https://archive.org/details/andover_townsman_1913-06-13
[^4]: *Pot Pourri* (Phillips Academy, Andover, 1913), staff list and class biographies naming Knight Woolley business manager. https://archive.org/details/potpourri00unse_20
[^5]: *Phillips Bulletin*, vol. 8, list of student offices naming Knight Woolley, Brooklyn, New York, undergraduate treasurer. https://archive.org/details/phillipsbulletin08phil
[^6]: *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen*, vol. 1 (1917), narrative of the class's 1917 military training, p. 405, https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr
[^7]: *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen*, vol. 1 (1917), entries for Prescott Sheldon Bush (pp. 105 to 106), Edward Roland Noel Harriman, Knight Woolley (pp. 343 to 344) and Henry Neil Mallon, https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr
[^8]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2002; first published 1983), membership catalogue by class year, the section on Brown Brothers, Harriman listing the partners who were members of the order, and the section on the Union Bank and the class of 1917 (the "five members in the class of '17" passage, with the dates for Woolley and Shepard). The dating and the counts are Sutton's. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^9]: Kris Millegan, *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), chapter on Prescott Bush and Harriman & Co. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^10]: John A. Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking: An Historical Portrait of a Great Private Bank, Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., 1818-1968* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1968), pp. 13 to 15, on the 1927 founding, Woolley's appointment as general manager, the former American Exchange colleagues, the 1924 *A B C of Bankers Acceptances*, the four-million instruction, the staff of seventy, the 1930 position, and the photograph caption of Woolley ("Courtesy of Miss Julie Brennan"). https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^11]: Rudy Abramson, *Spanning the Century: The Life of W. Averell Harriman, 1891-1986* (New York: William Morrow, 1992), chapters on the Harriman banks and the merger. https://archive.org/details/spanningcenturyl00abra
[^12]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), partner table, pp. 231 to 235, entry for Knight Woolley (became partner of Harriman Bros. & Co. January 1, 1929; of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. January 1, 1931; comment: "Had been general manager of Harriman Bros. & Co. from its founding in 1926 until he became a partner. Resident in New York."). https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^13]: *The Bankers Magazine*, vol. 122, no. 1 (January 1931), listing the partners of Harriman Brothers & Co., the directors of W. A. Harriman & Co., Inc., and the corporations of which W. A. Harriman was a director. https://archive.org/details/sim_bankers-magazine_1931-01_122_1
[^14]: Garry Wills, "Father Knows Best," *The New York Review of Books*, November 5, 1992, on Harriman Brothers & Co. "not founded until 1926," the classmate "put in as president (Knight Woolley)," Bush and Woolley as the firm's principal experts, and the oral-history quotation. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
[^15]: Notices of new partnerships, *The New York Times*, May 5, 1929, financial pages. https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1929-05-05_78_26034_0
[^16]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 16 to 17, minute book entry of 1927 quoting the partners' records on the $250,000 participation, the account of the card game on the train to a Yale reunion in the spring of 1930, and the recollection of Thatcher M. Brown. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^17]: Stock Exchange membership notices, *The New York Times*, June 13, 1930, financial pages, proposal to transfer the membership of William H. Bixby to Knight Woolley, "a partner in Harriman Bros. & Co." https://archive.org/details/per_new-york-times-magazine_the-new-york-times_1930-06-13_79_26438
[^18]: "Business: Brown-Harriman," *Time*, December 22, 1930, https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,740853,00.html
[^19]: Zachary Karabell, "Inside Money: Brown Brothers Harriman and the American Way of Power," *Financial History* 138 (Summer 2021), Museum of American Finance, pp. 14 to 17 (passages at pp. 15 to 17). https://archive.org/details/financialhistory138
[^20]: Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. advertisement on the firm's 125th anniversary, *The Commercial and Financial Chronicle*, October 14, 1943. https://archive.org/details/sim_commercial-and-financial-chronicle_1943-10-14_158_4220
[^21]: Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. statement of condition with list of partners and limited partners, *The Economist*, July 22, 1961. https://archive.org/details/sim_economist_1961-07-22_200_6152
[^22]: Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. notices listing partners and limited partners, *Trusts and Estates*, vol. 95, no. 7 (July 1956) and vol. 100, no. 1 (January 1961). https://archive.org/details/sim_trusts-estates_1956-07_95_7 and https://archive.org/details/sim_trusts-estates_1961-01_100_1
[^23]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), photograph caption dated July 28, 1964, "The senior partners in a post-luncheon discussion." https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^24]: "Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.," *The Insurance Eastern Underwriter*, October 9, 1942, on partners of the bank who were insurance company directors. https://archive.org/details/sim_insurance-eastern-underwriter_1942-10-09_43_41
[^25]: Summary of Securities and Exchange Commission insider transactions, *Chicago Daily Tribune*, July 17, 1943. https://archive.org/details/per_chicago-daily-tribune_1943-07-17_102_170
[^26]: *Daily Worker*, October 5, 1946, vol. 23, no. 239, article on West Coast shipping boards. https://archive.org/details/per_daily-worker_daily-worker_1946-10-05_23_239
[^27]: *United States v. Pullman Co.*, 331 U.S. 865 (1947), No. 253, Supreme Court of the United States, October term 1946, printed record, passage on interlocking directorates of the directors of the Pullman Company. https://archive.org/details/micro_IA40385610_0183
[^28]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), section on the Union Banking Corporation (eight directors for 1932), the passage on Guaranty Trust, and the passage on Averell Harriman, Roland Harriman, E.S. James and Knight Woolley and the Union Bank. The lists and characterizations are Sutton's. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^29]: Federal Reserve Bank of New York, *Twenty-Fifth Annual Report* (for the year 1939), pp. 16 to 17 and note 2 on the foreign exchange committee. https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-reserve-bank-of-new-york-annual-report_1939-12-31
[^30]: Federal Reserve Bank of New York, Circular No. 1015, "Appointment of Directors," January 8, 1931. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/files/docs/historical/ny%20circulars/1931_01015.pdf
[^31]: Antony C. Sutton, *Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler* (1976), notes to the chapter on the Union Bank, note 15, citing Bankers Directory, 1932 edition, p. 2557, and Poor's Directory of Directors: "J.L. Guinter and Knight Woolley were also directors."
[^32]: Knight Woolley to William R. White, January 14, 1941, as reprinted with a newspaper account of the Union Banking Corporation, a report of the corporation issued January 1, 1941, and a narrative of the directorship, in Millegan, *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), pp. 214 to 217 and 222 to 223. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^33]: William R. White to Knight Woolley, May 13, 1941, reprinted in Millegan, *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), pp. 216 to 217. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^34]: Treasury Department memorandum, Mr. May to Mr. J. W. Pehle, August 18, 1941, "Re: Union Banking Corporation," ref. 9-151, with handwritten notation by J. W. Pehle, declassified by NARA (authority NND 960103).
[^35]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 248, "All of the Capital Stock of Union Banking Corporation and Certain Indebtedness Owing by It," executed October 20, 1942, F.R. Doc. 42-11568, 7 *Federal Register* 9097 to 9098 (November 7, 1942), registered-owners table. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf
[^36]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 261, "All of the Capital Stock of Holland-American Trading Corporation," executed October 28, 1942, signed Leo T. Crowley, F.R. Doc. 42-13532, filed December 18, 1942, *Federal Register*, vol. 7, no. 248 (December 19, 1942), p. 10627, holder table of 500 shares. https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-register-find_1942-12-19_7_248
[^37]: Ben Aris and Duncan Campbell, "How Bush's grandfather helped Hitler's rise to power," *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
[^38]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004, quoting the January 1933 letter from Knight Woolley to Averill Harriman and citing National Archives files. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
[^39]: Council on Foreign Relations, Receipts (1946-1951), Research Budget, with Contributions of Corporations, Individual Contributions to the 25th Anniversary Fund and Corporations with Officers who are members of the Council on Foreign Relations, November 1951, CIA CREST document CIA-RDP80R01731R001100170005-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001100170005-1
[^40]: Walter H. Mallory, Council on Foreign Relations, to Allen W. Dulles, December 10, 1951, enclosing the agenda of the 94th meeting of the board (December 17, 1951) and the "Membership Proposals, Suggested List, December 1951," CIA CREST document CIA-RDP80R01731R001100170002-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001100170002-4
[^41]: Henry R. Luce Papers, MS 3014, New-York Historical Society, finding aid, file "Woolley, Knight (Mr. and Mrs.), 1936-1957." https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms3014_henry_luce/all
[^42]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1941*, vol. III, document 6, telegram 2483, the Acting Secretary of State to the Ambassador in the United Kingdom (Winant), July 9, 1941, relaying a message from Hopkins. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1941v03/d6
[^43]: Letterhead of The Boys' Club of New York, in Medallic Art Co. correspondence, American Numismatic Society, ca. 1908 to 1931 (officers: Charles H. Sabin, president; E. Roland Harriman, vice-president; Knight Woolley and Robert A. Lovett, assistant secretaries). https://archive.org/details/medallicartco19000amer
[^44]: Knight Woolley, *In Retrospect: A Very Personal Memoir* (privately printed, 1975), as cited in the notes to Darwin Payne, *Initiative in Energy: Dresser Industries, Inc., 1880-1978* (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979). https://archive.org/details/initiativeinener00payn_0

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---
category: "Business & Finance"
aliases:
- "Whitney family"
- "The Whitneys"
tags:
- Person
- Family
- Whitney
- Payne
- StandardOil
- SkullAndBones
- Yale
- WhitneyMuseum
- Philanthropy
- CIAFoundations
- Harriman
- StreetRailways
- NavalReform
summary: "New England family whose New York fortune joined William C. Whitney's street railways to the Payne share of Standard Oil, whose members belonged to Skull and Bones, and whose trust recurs in CIA-linked records."
location: "New York City"
relations:
- type: member_of
with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
start: 1851
role: "eight Whitneys in Sutton's index, from Emerson Cogswell Whitney to Payne Whitney"
fn: 13
- type: founded
with: "[[Yale Aviation Corps]]"
start: 1916
role: "Payne Whitney, B.A. 1898"
fn: 16
- type: founded
with: "[[Whitney Museum of American Art]]"
start: 1930
role: "Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney"
fn: 20
- type: owned
with: "[[New York Herald Tribune]]"
role: "John Hay Whitney, former owner and publisher, per the 1967 Chronicle report"
fn: 31
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Oliver Hazard Payne]]"
start: 1869
role: "brother of Flora Payne Whitney, uncle of Harry Payne Whitney and Payne Whitney"
fn: 9
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Dorothy Payne Whitney]]"
role: "daughter of William Collins Whitney"
fn: 2
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Michael Whitney Straight]]"
role: "grandson of William Collins Whitney"
fn: 47
created: 2026-10-26
updated: 2026-10-26
---
The Whitney family is a New England line that settled at [[Watertown, Massachusetts]] and became a New York fortune through [[William Collins Whitney]], a lawyer and financier who served as [[Grover Cleveland]]'s Secretary of the Navy and who married [[Flora Payne]], sister of the [[Standard Oil]] treasurer [[Oliver Hazard Payne]]. [[Antony C. Sutton]] places the Whitney family, dated to 1635 at Watertown, among the old-line families of [[Skull and Bones]] in his chart, which he titles "Hypothesis Number One," and he places the Payne family under Standard Oil among the new-wealth families.[^1] The [[Yale University]] Obituary Record entry for [[Payne Whitney]] traces the family to John Whitney, who came from England in 1635 and settled at Watertown.[^2]
### William Collins Whitney
William Collins Whitney was born in [[Conway, Massachusetts]] on July 5, 1841, the son of [[James Scollay Whitney]], a Democratic leader in Massachusetts and superintendent of the United States Armory at [[Springfield, Massachusetts]]. He entered Yale in the class of 1863, took a course at [[Harvard Law School]], read law in the office of Abraham R. Lawrence and began practice in [[New York City]] in 1865 with his classmate Henry Farnam Dimock, who married his sister. In 1871 he helped organize the Young Men's Democratic Club, which took part in the movement that overthrew the [[Tweed Ring]]. He was appointed Counsel to the Corporation of the City of New York on August 9, 1875, was twice reappointed and resigned on November 6, 1882. At the 1884 Democratic convention in [[Chicago]] he exerted what the Yale record calls a powerful influence for Cleveland.[^3]
### Secretary of the Navy
Whitney practiced law until March 1885, when he became Secretary of the Navy, and he held the post until the close of Cleveland's administration in 1889. Yale University gave him an LL.D. in 1888.[^3] His first annual report, dated December 1885, argues that the department's bureau system left no one with a duty to deliberate: the Secretary was a civilian with a staff of one stenographer, one clerk and three messengers, and the department's decisions, among them the rebuilding of the [[USS Omaha]] for $572,000, had no identifiable author. He recommended a board of naval officers and experts to advise the Secretary, as the French and German navies had, and an Assistant Secretary of the Navy.[^4]
The report for 1887, dated December 6, 1887, states that the country lacked factories for steel gun forgings, for armor and for secondary batteries, and that all three were then being built under contracts with the department. It says that "it was a fatal mistake for this country to be dependent upon any other nation for its implements of war."[^5] The department had advertised in the summer of 1886 for armor and gun steel of domestic manufacture, allowed about seven months for bids and opened them on March 22, 1887. The result was a contract with the [[Bethlehem Iron Company]], under which a plant for armor and gun steel was being erected at [[Bethlehem, Pennsylvania]].[^5] The report for 1888 gives June 1, 1887 as the date of the contracts and describes them as the first important step toward a navy modern in character.[^6]
The Yale record credits his tenure with improvements in steel manufacture that made it possible for the first time to equip American war vessels fully with an armament produced at home.[^3]
### The street railways and the Whitney Group
After 1889 Whitney turned to finance. The Yale record says he developed the [[Metropolitan Street Railway]] from a single company through reorganization and consolidation, that it bought out its only rival and that it was in turn merged into the [[Interurban Street Railway Company]]. It adds that for several years he held no visible office or connection with the system, yet controlled its operations and secured the results he sought through others, and that his judgment in selecting men to carry out his plans was unerring. He retired from active business in 1902. He was a trustee of the [[Consolidated Gas Company]] and a director of the [[Metropolitan Opera and Real Estate Company]], the [[Metropolitan Steamship Company]], the New York Loan and Investment Company, the Manufacturing Investment Company, the [[Mergenthaler Linotype Company]], the [[Guggenheim Exploration Company]] and the Cuba Company, and he held shares in several local banks. He died at his New York home on February 2, 1904.[^3] Sutton wrote that a cluster of capitalists known as "the Whitney Group" were heavily criticized in several books, and that the group's New York street railway franchises generated enormous profits.[^7]
The railway system went into receivership three and a half years after his death. The [[New-York Tribune]] of September 26, 1907 reported that [[Adrian H. Joline]] and [[Douglas Robinson]] had been named receivers of the New York City Railway Company, the lessee of the Metropolitan Street Railway, which had guaranteed a 7 percent dividend to Metropolitan stockholders. The paper called the receivership a "friendly proceeding" and wrote that a receivership might otherwise have been precipitated by interests "distinctly unfriendly to the Ryan-Belmont control." It adds that Judge [[Emile Henry Lacombe]], who appointed the receivers, had been an assistant corporation counsel while Whitney was Corporation Counsel, and had been named a federal judge during Whitney's term in Cleveland's cabinet.[^8]
On October 13, 1869, Whitney married Flora Payne, daughter of [[Henry B. Payne]], a United States senator from Ohio, and sister of his classmate Oliver Hazard Payne. They had two sons, who graduated from Yale in 1894 and 1898, and three daughters.[^3]
### Oliver Hazard Payne and the Standard Oil treasurership
Oliver Hazard Payne was born in [[Cleveland, Ohio|Cleveland]] on July 21, 1839, the son of Henry B. Payne, who served in the Ohio Senate, in the [[United States Congress]] and as a United States senator from 1885 to 1891. He left the Yale class of 1863 in October 1861 to accept a commission in the [[124th Ohio Infantry]], rose to colonel and was brevetted brigadier general on March 13, 1865. The Yale Corporation voted him a B.A. in 1878, and he was enrolled in the class of 1863 from that date. After the war he entered the oil refining business in Cleveland with [[James B. Clark]] and [[John Huntington]]. The business was absorbed by the Standard Oil Company, and Payne served as its treasurer until 1884, when he moved to New York City and joined its board.[^9]
The decree in the government's suit, as set out in the Supreme Court's 1911 opinion, names "Oliver H. Payne" among the seven individual defendants who joined the combination, together with [[John D. Rockefeller]], [[William Rockefeller]], [[Henry H. Rogers]], [[Henry M. Flagler]], [[John D. Archbold]] and [[Charles M. Pratt]].[^10] The opinion places the trust agreement of 1882, which vested the stock of forty corporations in nine trustees, in the second of three periods of the alleged combination, and it lists "O. H. Payne" among the individual holders of stock exchanged into the Standard Oil Company of New Jersey in 1899.[^11]
His directorships included the [[American Tobacco Company]], the Virginia and Southeastern Railway Company, the Coal Creek Mining and Manufacturing Company and the [[Tennessee Coal and Iron Company]]. His largest gifts went to the Cornell Medical School, and in 1887 he endowed the Loomis Laboratory. Payne's will left one million dollars each to Yale, the [[New York Public Library]] and [[Lakeside Hospital]] in Cleveland. He spent each summer from 1898 to 1914 in Europe on his steam yacht Aphrodite, and he died in New York City on June 27, 1917. The Yale record names his nephews as [[Harry Payne Whitney]], Payne Whitney and [[Henry Payne Bingham]].[^9]
Sutton wrote that "The Paynes are not in The Order," and that adding the Payne piece of the Standard Oil fortune made Whitney's fortune "that much larger."[^12]
### Skull and Bones membership
Sutton's index of the Order by class year lists eight Whitneys: [[Emerson Cogswell Whitney]] (1851), [[Edward Payson Whitney]] (1854), [[James Lyman Whitney]] (1855), William Collins Whitney (1863), [[Edward Baldwin Whitney]] (1878), [[Joseph Ernest Whitney]] (1882), Harry Payne Whitney (1894) and Payne Whitney (1898).[^13] Sutton's text names W.C. Whitney and his two sons as "the core of Whitney influence" in the society, and he ties that influence to the Harriman family and to intermarriage with the Paynes and the Vanderbilts.[^14]
Sutton's chart table prints the two sons' years in reverse, giving Payne Whitney as 1894 and Harry Payne Whitney as 1898, while his text and index give Harry Payne Whitney as 1894 and Payne Whitney as 1898. The Yale records give the same graduating years as Sutton's text and index.[^15][^3] The Yale Obituary Record for Payne Whitney lists "Skull and Bones" among his undergraduate activities.[^2]
### Payne Whitney
Payne Whitney was born in New York City on March 20, 1876. He rowed on the Yale crews and captained the Senior crew, took an LL.B. at Harvard Law School in 1901 and was a director and member of the executive board of the [[Great Northern Paper Company]] from 1903 to 1927. The Yale record also lists him as director and vice-president of the [[Northern Finance Corporation]] from 1911 and of the [[Whitney Realty Company]] from 1910, a trustee of the [[United States Trust Company]] from 1905 and of the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] from 1922, a director of the [[First National Bank of New York]] from 1924, a former director of the [[Northern Pacific Railroad]] and chairman of the executive committee of the [[Vanadium Corporation of America]] from 1923. In 1923 he gave $2,000,000 to the New York Public Library, of which he had been a trustee since 1915.[^2]
On February 6, 1902, in Washington, he married [[Helen Hay Whitney|Helen Hay]], daughter of [[John Hay]], then Secretary of State. Their children were Joan, who married [[Charles S. Payson]] of the Yale class of 1921, and [[John Hay Whitney]], of the class of 1926, then a student at the [[University of Oxford]]. Payne Whitney died in [[Manhasset, New York]], on May 25, 1927. The Yale record lists his surviving siblings as Harry Payne Whitney and a sister, the wife of [[Leonard Knight Elmhirst]] of [[Yorkshire]], England.[^2]
In June 1916 Payne Whitney formed the [[Yale Aviation Corps]]. A Yale Obituary Record entry for a member of the corps says it was "formed by Payne Whitney, '98, in June, 1916," and that [[Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 1]] was organized by [[F. Trubee Davison]] of the class of 1918, a unit afterward known as the Huntington Unit.[^16]
The New York appraisal of his estate was reported in November 1928. The Washington Daily News headed its account "Payne Whitney Left Biggest Estate Ever Appraised in U.S.," gave the appraised net value as more than $175,000,000 and the expected death tax as about $20,000,000, of which about $15,600,000 would go to New York State. The larger part of the estate was a half interest in the Northern Finance Corporation, a holding company for securities, which the paper said grew from a fund set aside by his uncle, Colonel Oliver H. Payne, who established it to be relieved of the care of large blocks of Standard Oil and subsidiary stocks and tobacco shares.[^17]
### Harry Payne Whitney, Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney and the Whitney Museum
Harry Payne Whitney, Yale 1894, was born in New York on April 29, 1872. He married the sculptor [[Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney]] in 1896, according to Sutton, who wrote that the Whitney-Payne fortune then "joined some Vanderbilt money," which he says was channeled into the [[Guaranty Trust Company]] and the [[J. P. Morgan & Company|J. P. Morgan]] and Guggenheim interests.[^18] He kept a racing stable whose horses won the Preakness and the Kentucky Derby and were the leading money winners of 1924, and he was a member of the American polo team that brought the international cup back from England in 1909. He died of pneumonia at his Fifth Avenue home on October 26, 1930, at 58. The United Press reported that he was the son of the Secretary of the Navy in Cleveland's cabinet and that he had inherited from his father a fortune estimated at $200,000,000.[^19]
Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney became the leading patron of American art from 1907 until her death in 1942, established the [[Whitney Studio Club]] in Greenwich Village in 1914, and founded the [[Whitney Museum of American Art]] in 1930, after the Metropolitan Museum of Art declined the gift of her collection of more than five hundred works. The museum opened in 1931 on West Eighth Street.[^20]
Their son [[Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney]], Yale 1922, is listed in the 1927 Yale record as a nephew of Payne Whitney.[^2] Sutton writes that Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney married Marie Norton, and that after their divorce she married [[W. Averell Harriman]].[^18] The Library of Congress finding aid for the Harriman papers lists the marriage in 1930 to Marie Norton Whitney, who died in 1970.[^21]
### Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney in the Truman administration
The [[Harry S. Truman Library]] photograph record for a meeting of the [[National Security Council]] on August 19, 1948 names Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney, Assistant Secretary of the Air Force, among those at the table: he sits with Secretary of the Army [[Kenneth Royall]], Executive Secretary [[Sidney Souers]], National Security Resources Board Chairman [[Arthur M. Hill]], Director of Central Intelligence Roscoe Hillenkoetter, Secretary of Defense [[James Forrestal]], Secretary of State [[George Marshall|George C. Marshall]], President Truman and Under Secretary of the Navy [[W. John Kenney]].[^22] The State Department's volume of Foreign Relations documents on intelligence for 1945 to 1950 lists "Whitney, C. V., Assistant Secretary of the Air Force."[^23] A second Truman Library record, dated March 5, 1950, captions him as Acting Secretary of Commerce at the swearing-in of the director of the Census Bureau, and the library's other photographs describe him as Under Secretary of Commerce.[^24]
### Dorothy Payne Whitney and the Straight line
The 1927 Yale record for Payne Whitney lists a sister, the wife of Leonard K. Elmhirst, and that sister is [[Dorothy Payne Whitney]].[^2] She had married [[Willard Straight]] in 1911, and the couple founded [[The New Republic]] in 1914 with [[Herbert Croly]].[^25] Sutton wrote that [[The Nation]] and the New Republic on the left "were financed by Willard Straight, using Payne Whitney (The Order) funds."[^26] An [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] summary of a 1969 interview with the magazine's publisher, as cited on the Dorothy Payne Whitney page, records that her family's fund had founded the magazine and had been used for its operation until 1954.[^27]
The [[William C. Whitney Foundation]] appears in the FBI file on Michael Straight. Milton C. Rose, senior partner of [[Mudge, Rose, Guthrie and Alexander]], told the FBI that the foundation was "created by Mr. Straight's parents in memory of his grandfather" and that Michael Whitney Straight had been its president "since its inception in 1937." The same summary records that Straight was questioned before a special House committee investigating tax-exempt foundations, as reported by the [[Washington Times-Herald]] on December 6, 1952, about $19,000 in grants the foundation had made to organizations "cited as subversive or communist fronts."[^28]
### Michael Whitney Straight
[[Michael Whitney Straight]], Dorothy Payne Whitney's son, was a grandson of William Collins Whitney and the president of the William C. Whitney Foundation according to the FBI summary cited above.[^28] In June 1963 he told FBI agents that [[Anthony Blunt]] had recruited him for Soviet intelligence while he was at Cambridge, and that account was followed by Blunt's confession in 1964. The Soviet file, the British and American responses and the rest of the record are on his page.[^29]
### John Hay Whitney, the embassy and the Herald Tribune
John Hay Whitney, called Jock, was the son of Payne Whitney and Helen Hay and a member of the Yale class of 1926.[^2] The Department of State's Office of the Historian records his appointment as ambassador to the [[United Kingdom]] on February 11, 1957, with credentials presented on February 28, 1957, and his departure from the post on January 14, 1961.[^30]
The [[San Francisco Chronicle]] reported on February 25, 1967 that Whitney was the former owner, publisher and editor of the [[New York Herald Tribune]], and that he was a one-third partner in its successor, the [[World Journal Tribune]], and a member of that paper's three-man executive board.[^31] A statement of ownership for [[United Nations World]] dated October 1, 1947 lists "J. H. Whitney, 630 Fifth Ave., New York, N. Y." among the holders of one percent or more of the magazine's securities, beside [[Nelson Rockefeller]] and [[Max Ascoli]].[^32]
On March 26, 1969 [[Henry A. Kissinger]] wrote to [[Peter Flanigan]] about Whitney's interest in the [[President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board|Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board]]. Kissinger's memorandum reads: "You should know that this has twice been raised with the President and rejected both times."[^33]
### J. H. Whitney and Company, William H. Jackson and the CIA
The investment firm [[J. H. Whitney and Company]] had its offices at 630 Fifth Avenue in New York, the address given in the 1947 ownership statement.[^32] A letter of May 29, 1947, on the firm's letterhead and signed "W. H. Jackson," came from [[William Harding Jackson|William H. Jackson]] and was addressed to Rear Admiral [[Roscoe H. Hillenkoetter]], then Director of Central Intelligence. It reads: "You need only call upon me and I shall do anything within my power to be of assistance," and it offers to come to Washington "whenever you request it regardless of other appointments."[^34]
The writer of that letter is William Harding Jackson (1901 to 1971), the later Deputy Director of Central Intelligence. He was born in [[Nashville, Tennessee]], took a B.A. at [[Princeton University]] in 1924 and an LL.B. at Harvard in 1928, worked as a lawyer and investment banker in New York, served in the Army from 1942 to 1945 and in 1944 sat on General [[Omar Bradley]]'s intelligence staff.[^35] A member of the three-man board that reported to the National Security Council on the national intelligence system in January 1949, he was named Deputy Director of Central Intelligence by [[Walter Bedell Smith]] and served from October 1950 until August 3, 1951; the CIA's announcement of his resignation that month calls him William H. Jackson "of Princeton, New Jersey" and says he resigned "due to the pressure of private business."[^36][^37] The Eisenhower Library's description of the President's Committee on International Information Activities identifies its chairman, William H. Jackson, as "a managing partner in the investment firm J.H. Whitney and Company, and a former Deputy Director of the Central Intelligence Agency."[^38] From August 1951 to February 1956 he was a part-time assistant and senior consultant to the Director of Central Intelligence.[^35]
The CIA's official history of the Walter Bedell Smith years says that when Smith and Jackson could not recruit "men of great prestige with practical experience" for the [[Board of National Estimates]], they created a group of outside advisers who met in Princeton, known as "the Princeton Consultants." The history lists among the group's original members [[Vannevar Bush]], [[George Kennan]], [[Hamilton Fish Armstrong]], [[Alexander Standish]], "a partner in J. H. Whitney & Company," [[Barklie McKee Henry]] and [[Burton Fahs]].[^39] Barklie McKee Henry was later a member of the Jackson Committee, appointed by President Eisenhower in January 1953 with Jackson as chairman; its other members were [[Robert Cutler]], [[C. D. Jackson]], [[Roger Kyes]], [[Sigurd Larmon]], [[Gordon Gray]] and [[John C. Hughes]], and its report went to the President on June 30, 1953.[^38]
A second letter, of October 3, 1952, on the same letterhead and signed by William H. Jackson, was sent to the Central Intelligence Agency about a correspondent who had to interview "a great number of people." Jackson wrote that "if he wants to see Secretary Lovett, General Smith is the person to arrange it."[^40] The letter refers to [[Robert A. Lovett]] and to Smith, then the Director of Central Intelligence.
Hillenkoetter, the addressee of the 1947 letter, was at the same National Security Council table as Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney on August 19, 1948.[^22]
### The Granary Fund and the John Hay Whitney Trust
On February 25, 1967 the San Francisco Chronicle reported from a schedule of contributions filed with the Massachusetts attorney general that the [[Granary Fund]] of [[Boston]] received $300,000 in 1964 from the [[John G. Thornton Trust]], $150,000 from the [[James Carlisle Trust]] and $500 in miscellaneous contributions. Officials who asked not to be named called the Thornton and Carlisle trusts CIA fronts, and the paper described the Granary Fund as a fund used by the CIA to channel money to organizations at home and abroad.[^31] The same report says the Granary Fund gave a John Hay Whitney Trust for Charitable Purposes $225,000 in 1964 and $100,000 in 1965.[^31]
The Chronicle reported that the Whitney trust was a charitable trust established by Whitney on December 29, 1958, during his term as ambassador to the United Kingdom. [[Walter N. Thayer]], head of the Whitney communications corporation, made a statement on Whitney's behalf that the trust had operated since that date and that its pledges and contributions to tax-exempt organizations had all been properly reported.[^31][^30] A [[Los Angeles Times]] report of February 26, 1967 said that Representative [[Wright Patman]] had named eight funds in 1964 in connection with the [[J. M. Kaplan Fund]], among them the [[Gotham Foundation]], and that the Internal Revenue Service had not yet produced records for four more, among them the Granary Fund.[^41] A February 21, 1967 newspaper item in the CIA reading room, "Foundations Fail to File Tax Report," also lists the Granary Fund, Boston, among foundations under question.[^42]
The 1967 reports followed the disclosure of CIA funding for the [[National Student Association]]. The [[Ramparts]] article by [[Sol Stern]] on the association and the CIA appeared in March 1967, and the [[The New York Times|New York Times]] reported the magazine's account on February 16, 1967.[^43][^44] The [[Church Committee]]'s 1976 report on foreign and military intelligence states: "Until 1967 the Agency also maintained covert ties to American foundations in order to pass funds secretly to private groups whose work the CIA supported."[^45] The report says that most of those funds "were transmitted through legitimate or 'devised' foundations, that is, fictitious entities established by the CIA," and that at least 108 of the 700 grants over $10,000 made by 164 foundations other than the Ford, Rockefeller and Carnegie foundations in 1963 to 1966 involved partial or complete CIA funding.[^46]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chart "Hypothesis Number One: A Secret Society Dominated By Old Line American Families And New Wealth Has Existed From 1833 To The Present Day," with the spokes WHITNEY FAMILY (1635, Watertown, Mass.) and PAYNE FAMILY (Standard Oil). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones.
[^2]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased During the Year Ending July 1, 1927*, entry for Payne Whitney, B.A. 1898, pp. 171 to 172 (birth, death, descent from John Whitney of Watertown, Yale relatives, crews, the listing "member Hé Boulé, Delta Kappa Epsilon, and Skull and Bones," directorships, gifts, marriage to Helen Hay, children and survivors). https://archive.org/details/obituaryrecordof00yale_4.
[^3]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased 1900 to 1910*, entry for William Collins Whitney, class of 1863, pp. 350 to 352. https://archive.org/details/1900t10obituary00yaleuoft.
[^4]: William C. Whitney, *Report of the Secretary of the Navy*, December 1885, in *Annual Reports of the Navy Department* (Government Printing Office, 1885), pp. xxxviii to xli (the Secretary's staff, the rebuilding of the Omaha at $572,000, the proposed advisory board and Assistant Secretary). https://archive.org/details/annualreportsna00deptgoog.
[^5]: William C. Whitney, *Report of the Secretary of the Navy*, Navy Department, Washington, December 6, 1887, in *Annual Reports of the Navy Department* (Government Printing Office, 1887), passages on the armor, gun-steel and secondary-battery factories and the Bethlehem Iron Company contract. https://archive.org/details/annualreportsna06deptgoog.
[^6]: *Report of the Secretary of the Navy* for 1888, in *Annual Reports of the Navy Department* (Government Printing Office, 1888), passage on the contracts of June 1, 1887 with the Bethlehem Iron Company and the department's 1886 report on armor and gun production. https://archive.org/details/annualreportsna02deptgoog.
[^7]: Sutton (1983), section "The Whitney Family" and the Whitney table, passage on "the Whitney Group" and the New York street railway franchises. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones.
[^8]: *New-York Tribune*, September 26, 1907, p. 1 (Joline and Robinson as receivers of the New York City Railway Company; the guaranteed dividend; "friendly proceeding"; the Ryan-Belmont control; Judge Lacombe and William C. Whitney as Corporation Counsel). https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn83030214/1907-09-26/ed-1/?sp=1.
[^9]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, B.A. 1863, pp. 295 to 296. https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft.
[^10]: *Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States*, 221 U.S. 1 (1911), Section 2 of the decree as set out in the opinion, naming "the seven individual defendants" and including "Oliver H. Payne." https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/221/1.
[^11]: *Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States*, 221 U.S. 1 (1911), the opinion's description of the trust agreement of 1882 and its nine trustees, and the list of individual stockholders including "O. H. Payne." https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/221/1.
[^12]: Sutton (1983), the passage on the Paynes and Standard Oil. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones.
[^13]: Sutton (1983), index of members by class year: the Whitney entries under 1851, 1854, 1855, 1863, 1878, 1882, 1894 and 1898, and the list for the class of 1863, which does not include Payne. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones.
[^14]: Sutton (1983), the section "The Whitney-Stimson-Bundy-Acheson Chain of Influence," point 1 ("the core of Whitney influence"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones.
[^15]: Sutton (1983), Whitney table, which prints "1894 Payne Whitney" and "1898 Harry Payne Whitney"; text, which gives "Harry Payne ('94) and Payne Whitney ('98)." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones.
[^16]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased 1915 to 1920*, entry for Albert Dillon Sturtevant, Ph.B. 1916, Sheffield Scientific School, stating that the Yale Aviation Corps was "formed by Payne Whitney, '98, in June, 1916," and that Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 1 was organized by F. Trubee Davison (B.A. 1918). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft.
[^17]: "Payne Whitney Left Biggest Estate Ever Appraised in U.S.," *Washington Daily News*, November 23, 1928, p. 6. https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn82016181/1928-11-23/ed-1/?sp=6.
[^18]: Sutton (1983), the passage on the Harriman family, the Whitney-Payne fortune and the Vanderbilt marriage, and the account of Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney's marriage to Marie Norton. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones.
[^19]: "Harry Payne Whitney, Multi-Millionaire, Is Dead," United Press, *The Indianapolis Times*, October 27, 1930, p. 2. https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn82015313/1930-10-27/ed-1/?sp=2.
[^20]: Whitney Museum of American Art, "Whitney History: Founding." https://whitney.org/about/history.
[^21]: Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, *W. Averell Harriman Papers: A Finding Aid to the Collection in the Library of Congress* (2016), chronology entry "1930 Married Marie Norton Whitney (died 1970)." https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003012.pdf.
[^22]: Harry S. Truman Library, photograph 73-2702, "Truman with National Security Council," August 19, 1948 (identification of Assistant Secretary of the Air Force Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney and Director of Central Intelligence Roscoe Hillenkoetter at the table). https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/photograph-records/73-2702.
[^23]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945-1950, Emergence of the Intelligence Establishment*, "Persons," entry "Whitney, C. V., Assistant Secretary of the Air Force." https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945-50Intel/persons.
[^24]: Harry S. Truman Library, photograph 2017-286, swearing-in of Roy V. Peel as Director of the Bureau of the Census, March 5, 1950 (caption: "Mr. C. V. Whitney, Acting Secretary of Commerce"), and the library's index entry for "Whitney, C. V. (Cornelius Vanderbilt), 1899-1992." https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/photograph-records/2017-286.
[^25]: Tara Mastrelli, "Dorothy Payne Whitney Straight Elmhirst," Histories of The New School, May 25, 2018 (founding of The New Republic with Willard Straight and Herbert Croly; the 1911 marriage), as cited on the Dorothy Payne Whitney page. https://histories.newschool.edu/people/dorothy-payne-whitney-straight-elmhirst.
[^26]: Sutton (1983), the section on the press (the Nation and New Republic passage). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones.
[^27]: FBI, "Straight, Michael W., HQ-1" (FOI/PA 1179375-1), special inquiry report of September 1969, interview with the publisher of *The New Republic*, as cited on the Dorothy Payne Whitney page. https://archive.org/details/StraightMichaelW.HQ1.
[^28]: FBI, "Straight, Michael W., HQ-1," summary memorandum of September 10, 1969, interviews with Milton C. Rose and Harriett K. Evison, the William C. Whitney Foundation passage, the summary of the Washington Times-Herald article of December 6, 1952, and the statement that Straight was president of the foundation, as cited on the Michael Whitney Straight page. https://archive.org/details/StraightMichaelW.HQ1.
[^29]: FBI, "Straight, Michael W., HQ-1," memorandum of June 25, 1963 on the interview of June 18, 1963, as cited on the Michael Whitney Straight page. https://archive.org/details/StraightMichaelW.HQ1.
[^30]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, "John Hay Whitney (1904-1982)," Principal Officers and Chiefs of Mission, United Kingdom. https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/whitney-john-hay.
[^31]: San Francisco Chronicle, "CIA Link to Charity Funds," February 25, 1967 (CIA reading room copy). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00149r000800060024-5.
[^32]: *United Nations World*, December 1947 (Vol. 1, No. 10), statement of ownership, management and circulation for October 1, 1947. https://archive.org/details/united-nations-world_1947-12_1_10.
[^33]: Henry A. Kissinger to Peter Flanigan, memorandum, March 26, 1969, on the Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board and John Hay Whitney (CIA reading room copy, document LOC-HAK-1-2-69-2). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-loc-hak-1-2-69-2.
[^34]: William H. Jackson to Rear Admiral R. H. Hillenkoetter, letter of May 29, 1947, on J. H. Whitney & Co. letterhead, 630 Fifth Avenue (CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP80B01676R004000040034-9). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r004000040034-9.
[^35]: Georgetown University Library, *William Harding Jackson Papers* (GTM-101014), biographical note (born March 25, 1901, Nashville; B.A. Princeton 1924; LL.B. Harvard 1928; lawyer and investment banker in New York; Army 1942 to 1945; Bradley's intelligence staff 1944; Deputy Director of the CIA from August 18, 1950 to August 3, 1951; part-time assistant and senior consultant to the CIA director, August 1951 to February 1956; died September 28, 1971). https://findingaids.library.georgetown.edu/repositories/15/resources/10428.
[^36]: Central Intelligence Agency, press release of August 23, 1951 announcing Allen W. Dulles as Deputy Director of Central Intelligence to succeed William H. Jackson, "of Princeton, New Jersey," who "resigned that post due to the pressure of private business," and noting that both men were members of the three-man board that reported to the National Security Council in January 1949 (CIA reading room, CIA-RDP57-00384R000100150018-8). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp57-00384r000100150018-8.
[^37]: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, "Persons," entry "Jackson, William H.," member of the National Security Council Survey Committee in 1948 and Deputy Director of Central Intelligence from October 7, 1950. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/persons.
[^38]: Dwight D. Eisenhower Library, *U.S. President's Committee on International Information Activities (Jackson Committee): Records, 1950-53*, finding aid, historical note (appointment of William H. Jackson, "a managing partner in the investment firm J.H. Whitney and Company, and a former Deputy Director of the Central Intelligence Agency," as chairman; members; report of June 30, 1953). https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/finding-aids/pdf/us-presidents-committee-on-international-information-activities.pdf.
[^39]: Central Intelligence Agency, "General Walter Bedell Smith as Director of Central Intelligence, October 1950 to February 1953," vol. III (CREST document 00669377), passages on the Board of National Estimates, the Princeton Consultants and their original members, and the references to William Jackson as deputy director. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-00669377.
[^40]: William H. Jackson to the Central Intelligence Agency, letter of October 3, 1952, on J. H. Whitney & Co. letterhead (CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP80R01731R000500470007-3). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r000500470007-3.
[^41]: Don Irwin and Vincent J. Burke, "21 Foundations, Union Got Money From CIA," *Los Angeles Times*, February 26, 1967 (CIA reading room copy). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00149r000600210002-4.
[^42]: "Foundations Fail to File Tax Report," February 21, 1967 (CIA reading room copy), list including the Granary Fund, Boston. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp73-00475r000101290002-3.
[^43]: Sol Stern, "A Short Account of International Student Politics and the Cold War with Particular Reference to the NSA, CIA, Etc.," *Ramparts*, March 1967. https://archive.org/details/nsa-and-the-cia.
[^44]: "Ramparts Says C.I.A. Received Student Report," *New York Times*, February 16, 1967 (CIA reading room copy), as cited on the Michael Josselson page. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00149r000800100021-3.
[^45]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Foreign and Military Intelligence*, Book I, S. Rept. 94-755 (1976), p. 182. https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel01unit.
[^46]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Foreign and Military Intelligence*, Book I, S. Rept. 94-755 (1976), p. 183 (devised foundations; 108 of 700 grants). https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel01unit.
[^47]: FBI, "Straight, Michael W., HQ-1," summary memorandum of September 10, 1969 (Straight as grandson of William C. Whitney), as cited on the Michael Whitney Straight page. https://archive.org/details/StraightMichaelW.HQ1.

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---
aliases:
- William Howard Taft
- William H. Taft
- Wm. H. Taft
- W. H. Taft
- Governor Taft
- President Taft
- Chief Justice Taft
category: "Political Figure"
tags:
- Person
- SkullAndBones
- YaleUniversity
- PhilippineCommission
- PhilippineAmericanWar
- WaterCure
- TaftKatsura
- SecretaryOfWar
- PanamaCanal
- Cuba1906
- DollarDiplomacy
- NicaraguaLoans
- SupremeCourt
- Olmstead
- Sutton
summary: "27th President and 10th Chief Justice, Yale 1878 and Skull and Bones, first civil governor of the Philippines, and the American party to the 1905 Tokyo conversation with Katsura."
born: 1857-09-15
died: 1930-03-08
location: "Cincinnati, Ohio"
created: 2026-10-26
updated: 2026-10-26
relations:
- type: member_of
with: "[[Skull and Bones]]"
role: "member, Yale class of 1878"
fn: 17
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Yale University]]"
start: 1913
end: 1921
role: "Kent Professor of Law"
fn: 2
- type: head_of
with: "[[Philippine Commission]]"
start: 1900-03
end: 1901-07
role: "president of the United States Philippine Commission"
fn: 21
- type: head_of
with: "[[Philippines]]"
start: 1901-07
end: 1904-02
role: "first civil governor"
fn: 21
- type: appointed
with: "[[Theodore Roosevelt]]"
start: 1904-02-01
end: 1908-06-30
role: "Secretary of War"
fn: 30
- type: head_of
with: "[[Panama Canal]]"
start: 1904
role: "placed in charge of the Isthmian Canal project"
fn: 30
- type: head_of
with: "[[Cuba]]"
start: 1906-09-29
end: 1906-10-13
role: "provisional governor"
fn: 39
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Katsura Taro]]"
start: 1905-07-27
role: "conversation in Tokyo and agreed memorandum of July 29, 1905, reported to Elihu Root"
fn: 35
- type: appointed
with: "[[Warren G. Harding]]"
start: 1921-07-11
end: 1930-02-03
role: "Chief Justice of the United States"
fn: 54
- type: head_of
with: "[[Supreme Court of the United States]]"
start: 1921-07-11
end: 1930-02-03
role: "Chief Justice of the United States"
fn: 54
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Alphonso Taft]]"
role: "son"
fn: 3
- type: relative_of
with: "[[Henry W. Taft]]"
role: "brother"
fn: 14
---
William Howard Taft (September 15, 1857 to March 8, 1930) was the 27th President of the United States, serving from 1909 to 1913, and the 10th Chief Justice of the United States, serving from 1921 to 1930.[^1] He was a member of the Yale class of 1878 and of [[Skull and Bones]]. He was the first civil governor of the [[Philippines]] and then Secretary of War from 1904 to 1908.[^1] He held the Kent Professorship of Law at [[Yale University]] from 1913 to 1921.[^2]
### Alphonso Taft and the family
His father was [[Alphonso Taft]] (1810 to 1891), born at Townshend, Vermont, on November 5, 1810, the only child of Peter R. and Sylvia (Howard) Taft. Alphonso Taft took the Yale degree of 1833, taught for two years at Ellington, Connecticut, and was a tutor at Yale from 1835 to 1837. He was admitted to the bar at New Haven in August 1838 and settled in Cincinnati in January 1840. He sat on the Cincinnati Board of Education for twenty-five years, ran as the Republican candidate for Congress in 1856, was appointed judge of the Superior Court of Cincinnati in 1865, and resigned in 1871. He became a member of the Yale Corporation in 1872, when its members were first elected by the alumni, and held the seat until 1882. Yale gave him the LL.D. in 1867. In March 1876 he entered the cabinet of President [[Ulysses S. Grant]] as Secretary of War and two months later was transferred to the attorney-generalship, which he held until March 1877. [[Chester A. Arthur]] appointed him minister to Austria in April 1882 and he was transferred to Russia in 1884, where he remained until August 1885. He died at San Diego, California, on May 21, 1891.[^3]
The Office of the Historian gives the Austria-Hungary appointment as April 26, 1882, with credentials presented on June 30, 1882 and a departure on August 25, 1884, and the Russia appointment as July 4, 1884, with credentials presented on September 3, 1884 and a recall presented on July 31, 1885.[^4]
The Yale record of William Howard Taft names Alphonso Taft's parents as Peter Rawson Taft, a judge in Windham County, Vermont, and Sylvia (Howard) Taft of West Townshend, Vermont. His mother was Louisa Maria (Torrey) Taft, daughter of Samuel Davenport and Susan Holman (Waters) Torrey, of Millbury, Massachusetts.[^5] Alphonso Taft's first wife, Fanny (Phelps) Taft, was the daughter of Charles Phelps of Townshend; she died on June 2, 1852. He married Louisa M. Torrey on December 26, 1853.[^3]
Alphonso Taft is named as a co-founder of Skull and Bones. [[David A. Richards]] named him as a cofounder with [[William Huntington Russell]] in the Yale Alumni Magazine in 2015.[^6] [[Antony C. Sutton]] wrote that the American chapter "was founded in 1833 at Yale University by General William Huntington Russell and Alphonso Taft who, in 1876, became Secretary of War in the Grant Administration."[^7] Sutton also wrote that Alphonso Taft was Attorney General in 1876 and 1877, then minister to Austria from 1882 to 1884, and ambassador to Russia from 1884 to 1885.[^8]
Sutton's chart of old-line families gives the Taft family a settlement date of 1679 at [[Braintree, Massachusetts|Braintree]].[^9]
### The half brothers, the brothers and the two Charles Phelps Tafts
The Yale record lists two half brothers of William Howard Taft, Charles P. Taft (Yale 1864), who was editor of the [[Cincinnati Times-Star]], and Peter R. Taft (Yale 1867).[^10] The elder Charles Phelps Taft was born on December 21, 1843, in Cincinnati and died there on December 31, 1929. His Yale entry lists as his nephews Peter R. Taft's son Hulbert Taft (1900), Walbridge S. Taft (1907), William Howard Taft 2d (1909), [[Robert A. Taft]] (1910) and "Charles P. Taft, 2d, '18."[^11]
William Howard Taft's own entry in the same volume lists his children as Robert Alphonso (B.A. 1910, LL.B. Harvard 1913), Helen Herron (B.A. Bryn Mawr 1915, Ph.D. Yale 1924) and Charles Phelps, 2d (B.A. 1918, LL.B. 1921).[^12] The Yale class of 1918 therefore contained one Charles Phelps Taft, the President's son and the nephew of the elder Charles Phelps Taft. Sutton's book names "Charles Phelps Taft (The Order '18), nephew of President and Chief Justice William Howard Taft" in a passage on the Twentieth Century Foundation and [[Evans Clark]].[^13] The relationship Sutton gives as nephew of the President is, in the Yale record, that of son of the President and nephew of the older Charles.
In 1930 the survivors of William Howard Taft were two brothers, [[Henry W. Taft]] (Yale 1880) and [[Horace D. Taft]] (Yale 1883), and a sister.[^14] The Yale record also names Henry W. Taft as one of four authors, with [[George W. Wickersham]], [[A. Lawrence Lowell]] and William Howard Taft, of the 1919 book The Covenanter, an American Exposition of the League of Nations.[^15] Henry W. Taft joined the New York law firm [[Cadwalader, Wickersham & Taft]] in 1889, and the firm took that name in 1914; Wickersham had joined it in 1883.[^16]
### Yale, 1878, and Skull and Bones
Taft attended Woodward High School in Cincinnati and then Yale. The Yale record describes him as salutatorian of the class of 1878, its class orator, and a member of Linonia, Delta Kappa, Phi Theta Psi, He Boule, Psi Upsilon, Skull and Bones and Phi Beta Kappa.[^17] The membership index in Antony C. Sutton's 1983 book lists "Taft, William Howard" in the class of 1878, and his list of Yale faculty members who were in the society gives "TAFT, William H. 1878 Professor of Law (1913)."[^18] Sutton wrote that eight Tafts had been members of the society and that "the great contribution of the Tafts to The Order" was "on the world court system and world law."[^19]
Taft took the LL.B. at the Cincinnati Law School in 1880 and was admitted to the Ohio bar that year. He worked in his father's law office in 1880 and 1881 and then in partnership with Harlan P. Lloyd as Lloyd and Taft from 1883 to 1887. He was assistant county solicitor of Hamilton County from 1885 to 1887, judge of the Superior Court of Cincinnati from 1887 to 1890, solicitor general of the United States from 1890 to 1892, and United States circuit judge for the Sixth Circuit from 1892 to 1900.[^20]
### The Philippine Commission and the governorship, 1900 to 1904
Taft was president of the United States Philippine Commission from March 1900 to July 1901, and then the first civil governor of the Philippine Islands from July 1901 to February 1904.[^21] In June 1902 he was sent to Rome by President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] to confer with [[Leo XIII]] about the purchase of church lands in the Philippines, and he returned to the islands in July.[^21] The Yale record says that while governor he went to Washington in December 1901 to testify before the Senate Committee on the Philippine Islands and the House Committee on Insular Affairs.[^21]
The printed hearings of the Senate Committee on the Philippines, chaired by [[Henry Cabot Lodge]], are Senate Document 331, 57th Congress, first session, Part 1, "Affairs in the Philippine Islands." Taft's statement runs over several sessions, and the session of February 4, 1902 opens with the committee's roll of Senators Lodge, Allison, Hale, Proctor, Beveridge, Burrows, McComas, Dietrich, Culberson, Dubois, Carmack and Patterson.[^22]
### The water cure before the Lodge committee, 1902
In the session of February 4, 1902, Senator Patterson asked Taft for information on the use of the so-called water cure to obtain surrenders of guns. Taft said he had intended to speak of the charges of torture "which were made from time to time, and have been made in letters written from the Philippines by soldiers and others," and that such charges would, "if they were true," be "the basis for proper charges against the management of the Army."[^23]
Taft first took up the insurgent side. He said that the captured correspondence between the insurgent leaders showed "that the policy of terrorism adopted toward the Filipino people by the insurgent leaders in this guerrilla warfare was recognized by them as necessary," naming the correspondence of Sandico, whom he described as a brigadier general. He described the fighting as "chiefly ambushing," with a great deal of shooting into towns at night.[^24] Later in the same session he said that "warfare which depends upon terrorism and murder is a crime."[^25]
Senator Culberson asked what Taft had heard of cruelty by American soldiers. Taft answered "Never of the mutilation of bodies," and said: "I have heard charges of whippings and charges of what has been alluded to as the water cure. They were rife in Manila."[^26] Culberson asked about a case in which a Filipino prisoner was shot after surrendering; Taft said he had not heard of it. Taft then said that "individual instances of water cure, that torture which I believe involves pouring water down the throat so that the man swells and gets the impression that he is going to be suffocated and then tells what he knows, which was a frequent treatment under the Spaniards, I am told," were among the things that "are true."[^27]
Patterson then described Macabebe troops enlisted in the American Army who would throw natives on the ground, pour buckets of water down their throats "till they swelled up to an abnormal size," and jump on their stomachs, with the result that guns were produced "with the knowledge of American officers." Taft answered: "I have no doubt there were such instances, of course, a great many more than there ought to have been, but if the Senator will excuse me, dependence on private letters from private individuals as to what occurred is dependence on a very broken reed." He added that he "did not realize the unreliability of such letters until I had experienced what it was," and that he had been at Manila throughout, in daily conference with General [[Arthur MacArthur]].[^28]
Taft pointed to the efforts of the military commanders, "especially General MacArthur," in ordering courts-martial and investigations and in issuing orders to the troops that such methods "would be condemned and must not be adopted." When the chairman asked whether any men had been punished, Taft said he knew that courts-martial had been ordered and that "some courts-martial were lectured for not punishing more heavily than they did men whom the evidence showed had been guilty of that method of securing evidence."[^29]
### Secretary of War and the Isthmus, 1904 to 1908
Taft was Secretary of War under Theodore Roosevelt from February 1, 1904 to June 30, 1908.[^30] The Yale record says he was placed in charge of the Isthmian Canal project in 1904 and visited the isthmus in November and thereafter.[^30] Under the order of the Secretary of War of June 24, 1904, the Canal Zone was declared open to the commerce of all friendly nations, with customs districts at Ancon and Cristobal and the governor of the zone as head of the customs service.[^31]
[[John Barrett]], the American minister at Panama, reported on December 6, 1904 on the Secretary's visit. He wrote that the method of negotiation was to lay each day before the Panama officials the proposed order, which the Panama officials considered and returned, and that Taft then laid it before Admiral Walker, General [[George W. Davis]], Judge [[Charles E. Magoon]] and Barrett in conference. Barrett added that "Mr. Nelson W. Cromwell, assisted by Mr. Farnham, has acted as an Intermediary between the two Governments, and as an adviser of Panama."[^32] Taft told President [[Manuel Amador Guerrero|Amador]] on November 27, 1904 that the United States "has no desire to exercise any power except that which it deems necessary under the treaty to insure the building, maintenance, and protection of the canal."[^32]
On November 5, 1905 the Liberal leaders of [[Panama]] presented Taft with a memorandum on the coming elections. Their representatives were [[Pablo Arosemena]], then vice president of the Republic, [[Belisario Porras]], [[Eusebio Morales]] and General [[Domingo Diaz]]. The American minister and governor of the Canal Zone, Charles E. Magoon, reported the meeting in a despatch of November 10, 1905. He quoted the leaders' questions, including whether the American government guaranteed "public order and constitutional succession in this Republic."[^33] The Panama Journal printed Taft's reply, that "no government which, in order to remain in power, needed to have recourse to fraud and violence at the polls had the right to exist."[^33]
### The July 1905 conversation with Katsura
Taft was in Tokyo in July 1905 with a congressional party, a journey the Yale record dates to July through October 1905 and describes as a visit to the Philippine Islands, Japan and China.[^34] On July 27, 1905 he held a long conversation with [[Katsura Taro]], then prime minister of Japan and temporarily in charge of the foreign ministry in place of Baron Komura, who was on his way to the Portsmouth peace conference. Taft reported it to Secretary of State [[Elihu Root]] in a memorandum dated July 29, 1905 and in a cable from Tokyo of the same date; both are in the [[Library of Congress]] Manuscript Division and are catalogued by the Theodore Roosevelt Center. The catalogue describes the memorandum as the account Secretary of War Taft gives of a conversation he had with Count Katsura about Japan's desires in regard to the Philippine Islands and Korea, and the cable as an "agreed memorandum of conversation" between the prime minister of Japan and Taft on the Philippine Islands, Korea and the maintenance of peace in the Far East.[^35]
[[Tyler Dennett]] printed the text of the agreed memorandum in Current History in October 1924 with the American's name replaced by asterisks. In the first part Katsura observed that Japan's only interest in the Philippines would be, in his opinion, "to have these islands governed by a strong and friendly nation like the United States," and stated that "Japan does not harbor any aggressive designs whatever on the Philippines." The second part records Katsura's proposal for a good understanding among Japan, the United States and Great Britain. It records the statement that the President could not enter into even a confidential informal agreement "without the consent of the Senate," and the view that the people of the United States were so fully in accord with the policy of Japan and Great Britain that appropriate action "could be counted on by them quite as confidently as if the United States were under treaty obligations." In the third part Katsura said Japan was constrained to take definite steps to prevent Korea from falling back into her former condition. The American "fully admitted the justness of the Count's observations" and said that "in his personal opinion, the establishment by Japanese troops of a suzerainty over Korea to the extent of requiring that Korea enter into no foreign treaties without the consent of Japan was the logical result of the present war." He added that President Roosevelt would concur, "although he had no authority to give assurance of this," and that he would forward a memorandum of the conversation to Mr. Root and the President.[^36]
Dennett wrote that at Katsura's request the agreement was regarded as so secret that it was not disclosed even to [[Lloyd C. Griscom]], the American minister at Tokyo. Roosevelt replied on July 31, 1905: "Your conversation with Count Katsura absolutely correct in every respect. Wish you would state to Katsura that I confirm every word you said."[^37] The conversation is the one later called the Taft-Katsura agreement.
In November 1905 the American legation at [[Seoul]] was withdrawn, and Katsura wrote that the Imperial Government was "profoundly satisfied with the prompt and just steps" taken. The American chargé at Tokyo, [[Huntington Wilson]], reported that the fact that the United States "has been the first to take this step" was "esteemed as a very graceful and friendly act."[^38]
### Cuba, 1906
In September 1906 Roosevelt sent Taft and Assistant Secretary of State [[Robert Bacon]] to Cuba as commissioners. They arrived at Havana on the morning of September 19 on the U.S.S. Des Moines, during a cessation of hostilities arranged by Roosevelt's public letter to the Cuban minister at Washington, and set up their offices at the residence of the American minister at Marianao. After a week of interviews they drew up a compromise that kept [[Tomas Estrada Palma|Palma]] as president, with a coalition cabinet and new congressional elections; the Liberals agreed and the Moderates refused. Palma's resignation, which he declared irrevocable, left the republic without an executive, and on September 29, 1906 the commissioners established a provisional government under the authority of the President of the United States.[^39]
Taft signed the proclamation of that date as "Secretary of War of the United States, Provisional Governor of Cuba." It stated that the provisional government would be maintained "only long enough to restore order and peace and public confidence," and that the heads of all departments, including the commander of the rural guard, would report to him for instructions.[^40] The American minister, [[Edwin V. Morgan]], reported on October 13, 1906 that political prisoners were set at liberty, that the disbanding and disarming of the rebel forces was the chief concern of the provisional government, that Taft issued a general amnesty proclamation on October 10, and that on October 13 he transferred the provisional governorship to Charles E. Magoon, who had succeeded him.[^39] Root wrote to the Cuban minister on October 1, 1906 that "you will perceive in the terms of Secretary Taft's proclamation" that the purpose of the United States was the preservation of Cuban independence.[^41]
### Dollar diplomacy and Nicaragua, 1909 to 1912
In his first annual message, dated December 7, 1909, Taft told Congress that the government had terminated diplomatic relations with the Zelaya government of [[Nicaragua]]. He said that "recently two Americans were put to death by order of President Zelaya himself."[^42]
Taft's annual message of December 3, 1912 has a section headed "Diplomacy a hand maid of commercial intercourse and peace." It says: "This policy has been characterized as substituting dollars for bullets. It is one that appeals alike to idealistic humanitarian sentiments, to the dictates of sound policy and strategy, and to legitimate commercial aims. It is an effort frankly directed to the increase of American trade upon the axiomatic principle that the Government of the United States shall extend all proper support to every legitimate and beneficial American enterprise abroad."[^43] The same message said that the "terrible events" of the revolution in Nicaragua in the summer of 1912 "might have been averted" had the Senate approved the loan convention. It said that "it became necessary to land over 2,000 marines and bluejackets in Nicaragua," and it recorded "with sorrow the death of seven American marines and bluejackets."[^44]
The message gave the reason for the Central American policy in terms of the Monroe doctrine: "the Monroe doctrine is more vital in the neighborhood of the Panama Canal and the zone of the Caribbean than anywhere else." It said the government had been "glad to encourage and support American bankers" who would help the Central American republics, because "the protection of their customhouses from being the prey of would-be dictators would remove at one stroke the menace of foreign creditors and the menace of revolutionary disorder," and that bankers "may naturally be loath to advance a loan adequate to set the country upon its feet without the support of some such convention as that of June, 1911, upon which the Senate has not yet acted."[^45]
The loan of September 1, 1911 was made by [[Brown Brothers Harriman|Brown Brothers and Company]] and [[J. and W. Seligman and Company]] to the Republic of Nicaragua. Customs receipts were pledged as security, and a collector general of customs was to be nominated by the bankers. On November 2, 1911 the bankers wrote to the Department of State that they had nominated [[Clifford D. Ham]], who was at the time "Surveyor of the Port of Manila, in the Philippine Islands." They wrote that he had been "recommended to us as a person qualified for the position and worthy of our confidence."[^46] Secretary of State [[Philander C. Knox]] approved the nomination on November 11, 1911. He wrote that "I therefore approve the selection of Mr. Clifford D. Ham as Collector-General of Customs of Nicaragua." His letter added that the approval "must not in any wise be understood as indicating that the Government of the United States will lend any other or further good offices" beyond what it would give "any legitimate American enterprise abroad."[^47]
The American minister in Managua wrote on February 14, 1912 that the legation "did not wish to take any official part in the business negotiations between the Nicaraguan Government and Brown Brothers et al." The minister also reported that the currency experts read the clause that put the government's lake steamers under the Pacific railroad option to mean that Brown Brothers "will on the exercise of the option acquire a franchise to navigate the lakes and San Juan River."[^48]
### The 1912 split
Taft was renominated for president at the Republican convention in Chicago in June 1912, and he failed of election in November.[^49] [[Henry L. Stimson]], whom Taft had appointed Secretary of War in 1911, stayed in the administration through the break with Theodore Roosevelt that year.[^50]
### Kent Professor and Chief Justice, 1913 to 1930
Taft held the Kent Professorship of Law in Yale College and the professorship of constitutional law in the Law School from 1913 to 1921. He had been a member of the Yale Corporation from 1906 to 1913 and again from 1922 to 1925.[^51] The Yale record lists him as president of the American Red Cross from 1905 to 1913, a founder and president in 1915 of the League to Enforce Peace, trustee of the [[Carnegie Institution of Washington]] from 1906 to 1915, chancellor of the [[Smithsonian Institution]] from 1923, and an incorporator of the American Law Institute.[^52] It lists him as co-chairman of the National War Labor Board in 1918 and 1919, and as the arbiter in 1922 of the Amory oil concessions, at the joint request of the British and Porto Rican governments.[^53]
The Supreme Court's list of members gives [[Warren G. Harding]] as the president who appointed Taft, with service from July 11, 1921 to February 3, 1930.[^54] The Yale record says he was Chief Justice from 1921 until his resignation on February 3, 1930, on account of ill health. He died on March 8, 1930 of cerebral arteriosclerosis and was buried at [[Arlington National Cemetery]].[^55]
### Olmstead v. United States, 1928
Taft delivered the opinion of the Court in Olmstead v. United States, argued on February 20 and 21, 1928 and decided on June 4, 1928. The writ was limited to the single question whether the use of evidence of private telephone conversations, intercepted by wire tapping, violated the Fourth and Fifth Amendments. The convictions were for a conspiracy to violate the National Prohibition Act, and the information leading to the discovery of the conspiracy "was largely obtained by intercepting messages on the telephones of the conspirators by four federal prohibition officers."[^56] The syllabus records that the tapping connections were made in the basement of a large office building and on public streets, and that no trespass was committed upon any property of the defendants.[^56]
The opinion held that the evidence did not violate either amendment. Taft wrote: "The language of the Amendment can not be extended and expanded to include telephone wires reaching to the whole world from the defendant's house or office. The intervening wires are not part of his house or office any more than are the highways along which they are stretched." The opinion stated that Congress could protect the secrecy of telephone messages by making them inadmissible in federal criminal trials, and that it was not for the courts to do so by "attributing an enlarged and unusual meaning to the Fourth Amendment."[^57] Justices Holmes, Brandeis, Butler and Stone dissented, and the judgments were affirmed.[^58]
### The family in Sutton's chart
Sutton's chart places "THE ORDER" at the center of nine old-line families, with the Taft family listed at 1679 in Braintree.[^9] Sutton wrote that the "most influential Trustee of Antioch College was the co-founder of The Order," and he named that trustee as Alphonso Taft. [[Horace Mann]] was president of [[Antioch College]] from 1853.[^59]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930 (New Haven: Yale University, 1930), entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," pp. 69 to 72. https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
[^2]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," p. 71 (Kent professor of law in Yale College and professor of constitutional law in the Law School, 1913 to 1921). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
[^3]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1890-91 (New Haven: Yale University, 1891), class of 1833, entry "Alphonso Taft," pp. 18 to 19 of the volume. https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1859_1924/1890-91.pdf
[^4]: Office of the Historian, Department of State, "Alphonso Taft (1810-1891)," Department History, People, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary entries for Austria (appointed April 26, 1882; credentials presented June 30, 1882; left post August 25, 1884) and Russia (appointed July 4, 1884; credentials presented September 3, 1884; recall presented July 31, 1885). https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/taft-alphonso
[^5]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," p. 69 (parents, Peter Rawson Taft and Sylvia (Howard) Taft; mother Louisa Maria (Torrey) Taft, daughter of Samuel Davenport and Susan Holman (Waters) Torrey, of Milbury, Mass.). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
[^6]: David A. Richards, "The origins of the tomb," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May and June 2015, naming Alphonso Taft as a cofounder with William Huntington Russell. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4072-the-origins-of-the-tomb
[^7]: Antony C. Sutton, America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones (1983), passage on the founding of the American chapter. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^8]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), passage on the founders, "Alphonso Taft went further: he was Secretary of War in 1876" and "U.S. Attorney General in 1876-7, then U.S. Minister to Austria in 1882-4, and finally U.S. Ambassador to Russia in 1884-5." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^9]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), chart "Hypothesis Number One," family list ("TAFT FAMILY (1679, Braintree, Mass.)"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^10]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," p. 69 (relatives: "Charles P. Taft, '64 (half brother)" and "Peter R. Taft, '67 (half brother)"). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
[^11]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "Charles Phelps Taft, B.A. 1864" (born December 21, 1843, Cincinnati; died December 31, 1929, Cincinnati; Yale relatives: "Peter R Taft, '67 (brother), and his son, Hulbert Taft, '00; Walbridge S Taft, '07, William Howard Taft, 2d, '09, Robert A Taft, '10, and Charles P. Taft, 2d, '18 (nephews)"). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
[^12]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," p. 72 ("Children: Robert Alphonso (B.A. 1910, LL.B. Harvard 1913); Helen Herron ... ; and Charles Phelps, 2d (B.A. 1918, LL.B. 1921)"). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
[^13]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), passage on the Twentieth Century Foundation and Evans Clark, naming "Charles Phelps Taft (The Order '18), nephew of President and Chief Justice William Howard Taft." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^14]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," p. 72 (survived by "two brothers, Henry W. Taft, '80, and Horace D. Taft, '83, and a sister, Mrs. William A. Edwards"). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
[^15]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," p. 71 (one of the authors, with George W. Wickersham, A. Lawrence Lowell and Henry W. Taft, of The Covenanter, an American Exposition of the League of Nations, 1919). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
[^16]: Yale News, "Cadwalader, Wickersham and Taft Donate Historical Records to Yale University Library," September 20, 2000 (Henry W. Taft, Class of 1880, "brother of William Howard Taft," joined in 1889; George W. Wickersham joined in 1883; the firm "officially became known as Cadwalader, Wickersham and Taft in 1914"). https://news.yale.edu/2000/09/20/cadwalader-wickersham-and-taft-donate-historical-records-yale-university-library
[^17]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," p. 69 (Woodward High School; salutatorian; class orator; Linonia, Delta Kappa, Phi Theta Psi, He Boule, Psi Upsilon, Skull and Bones and Phi Beta Kappa; LL.B. Cincinnati Law School 1880, admitted to the Ohio bar). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
[^18]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1878 ("Taft, William Howard"), and the list of Yale faculty members ("TAFT, William H. 1878 Professor of Law (1913)"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^19]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), passage on the world court system and world law ("The great contribution of the Tafts to The Order was on the world court system and world law") and the count of eight Tafts who have been members of the society. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^20]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," pp. 69 to 70 (Lloyd and Taft 1883 to 1887; assistant county solicitor of Hamilton County 1885 to 1887; judge of the Superior Court of Cincinnati 1887 to 1890; solicitor general 1890 to 1892; circuit judge, Sixth Circuit, 1892 to 1900). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
[^21]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," p. 70 (president of the United States Philippine Commission, March 1900 to July 1901; first civil governor, July 1901 to February 1904; Rome in June 1902 to confer with Pope Leo XIII on purchase of church lands; Washington in December 1901 to testify before the Senate and House committees). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
[^22]: Senate Document No. 331, 57th Congress, 1st session, Part 1, "Affairs in the Philippine Islands," hearings before the Committee on the Philippines of the United States Senate, session of February 4, 1902, "Statement of Governor William H. Taft, Continued," p. 68 (present: Senators Lodge, chairman, Allison, Hale, Proctor, Beveridge, Burrows, McComas, Dietrich, Culberson, Dubois, Carmack and Patterson). https://archive.org/details/affairsinphilip01philgoog
[^23]: Senate Document No. 331, 57th Congress, 1st session, Part 1, p. 71 (heading "The so-called water cure"; Patterson's request and Taft's reply). https://archive.org/details/affairsinphilip01philgoog
[^24]: Senate Document No. 331, 57th Congress, 1st session, Part 1, p. 72 (headings "The system of terrorism" and "Character of warfare"; the correspondence of Sandico). https://archive.org/details/affairsinphilip01philgoog
[^25]: Senate Document No. 331, 57th Congress, 1st session, Part 1, p. 79 ("Now, I say that warfare which depends upon terrorism and murder is a crime"). https://archive.org/details/affairsinphilip01philgoog
[^26]: Senate Document No. 331, 57th Congress, 1st session, Part 1, p. 74 (Culberson: "Have you heard in a similar way of instances in which American soldiers have been guilty of what might be termed cruelty?"; Taft: "Never of the mutilation of bodies ... They were rife in Manila"). https://archive.org/details/affairsinphilip01philgoog
[^27]: Senate Document No. 331, 57th Congress, 1st session, Part 1, pp. 74 to 75 (the Metcalf case; Taft's statement on "individual instances of water cure ... all these things are true"). https://archive.org/details/affairsinphilip01philgoog
[^28]: Senate Document No. 331, 57th Congress, 1st session, Part 1, pp. 75 to 76 (heading "The so-called water cure"; Patterson's Macabebe question; Taft: "I have no doubt there were such instances," "a great many more than there ought to have been," "a very broken reed," "I did not realize the unreliability of such letters until I had experienced what it was"). https://archive.org/details/affairsinphilip01philgoog
[^29]: Senate Document No. 331, 57th Congress, 1st session, Part 1, p. 75 (heading "Efforts of army officers to prevent cruelty"; General MacArthur's orders; "some courts-martial were lectured for not punishing more heavily"). https://archive.org/details/affairsinphilip01philgoog
[^30]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," pp. 70 to 71 (Secretary of War under Roosevelt, February 1, 1904 to June 30, 1908; Isthmian Canal project from 1904; Cuba 1906; the 1905 trip to the Philippines, Japan and China with a congressional committee, July to October 1905; Cuba, Puerto Rico and Panama 1907; first Filipino Legislative Assembly 1907 with return through Russia). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
[^31]: Order of the Secretary of War, June 24, 1904, Sections 1 to 3, printed in Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, 1904, Panama. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1904
[^32]: John Barrett to the Secretary of State, Panama, December 6, 1904, No. 71 B, with inclosed remarks of Secretary Taft to President Amador of November 27, 1904, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1904, Panama. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1904
[^33]: Charles E. Magoon to the Secretary of State, Panama, November 10, 1905 (despatch No. 21), with the translation from the Panama Journal of November 8, 1905, in Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, 1905, document 726, p. 717. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1905/d726
[^34]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," p. 70 ("visited Philippine Islands, Japan, and China with a congressional committee July-October, 1905"). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
[^35]: Theodore Roosevelt Digital Library, "Memorandum from William H. Taft to Elihu Root," July 29, 1905, Library of Congress Manuscript Division, 7 pages, https://www.theodorerooseveltcenter.org/digital-library/o50423/ ; and "Telegram from Rudolph Forster to Benjamin F. Barnes," July 29, 1905, forwarding a copy of the cable sent from Tokyo by Secretary of War Taft to Secretary of State Root, https://www.theodorerooseveltcenter.org/digital-library/o50427
[^36]: Tyler Dennett, "Roosevelt's Secret Pact With Japan," Current History (October 1924), pp. 16 to 17, text of the "agreed memorandum" of July 29, 1905, covering the conversation of July 27. https://archive.org/details/current-history_1924-10_21_1
[^37]: Dennett, "Roosevelt's Secret Pact With Japan," Current History (October 1924), pp. 16 to 17 (the request that the agreement be kept secret from Lloyd C. Griscom; Roosevelt's telegram of July 31, 1905). The article was expanded in Dennett, Roosevelt and the Russo-Japanese War (Garden City: Doubleday, Page, 1925). https://archive.org/details/current-history_1924-10_21_1
[^38]: Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, 1905, document 602, Chargé Huntington Wilson to the Secretary of State, Tokyo, November 30, 1905, with the enclosed notes of November 25 and 28, 1905, including Count Katsura's reply. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1905/d602
[^39]: Minister Edwin V. Morgan to the Secretary of State, Habana, October 13, 1906, No. 217, with inclosed "Epitome of events attendant upon establishment of the provisional government in Cuba," Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, 1906, Part 1, Cuba, document 436. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1906p1/d436
[^40]: Proclamation "To the people of Cuba," Habana, September 29, 1906, signed Wm. H. Taft, Secretary of War of the United States, Provisional Governor of Cuba, inclosure 2 to Morgan's despatch of October 13, 1906, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1906, Part 1, Cuba, document 436. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1906p1/d436
[^41]: Elihu Root to the Cuban Minister (Quesada), Washington, October 1, 1906, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1906, Part 1, Cuba, document 433. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1906p1/d433
[^42]: Taft, first annual message to Congress, December 7, 1909, in Presidential Addresses and State Papers of William Howard Taft, from March 4, 1909, to March 4, 1910 (1910), p. 458. https://archive.org/details/presidentialaddr00unit
[^43]: Taft, "Fourth Annual Message," December 3, 1912, section "Diplomacy a hand maid of commercial intercourse and peace," The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/fourth-annual-message-16
[^44]: Taft, annual message to Congress, December 3, 1912, printed as the "Message of the President" in Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912, pp. XI to XIII. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912
[^45]: Taft, "Fourth Annual Message," December 3, 1912, section "Central America needs our help in debt adjustment," The American Presidency Project, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/fourth-annual-message-16 ; and Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912, "Message of the President," p. XIII. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912
[^46]: Brown Brothers and Company and J. and W. Seligman and Company to the Secretary of State, New York, November 2, 1911, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912, Nicaragua, document 1482. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1482
[^47]: Secretary of State P. C. Knox to Brown Brothers and Company and J. and W. Seligman and Company, November 11, 1911, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912, Nicaragua, document 1484. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1484
[^48]: The American Minister to the Secretary of State, Managua, February 14, 1912, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912, Nicaragua, document 1498. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1498
[^49]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," p. 71 (renominated for president at the Republican convention in Chicago in June 1912; failed of election in November). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
[^50]: Henry L. Stimson and McGeorge Bundy, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1948), ch. II, "With Roosevelt and Taft," pp. 18 to 55, and table of contents ("The Split of 1912").
[^51]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," p. 71 (member of the Yale Corporation 1906 to 1913 and again 1922 to 1925). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
[^52]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," pp. 71 to 72 (American Red Cross 1905 to 1913; League to Enforce Peace 1915; Carnegie Institution of Washington 1906 to 1915; chancellor of the Smithsonian Institution 1923; incorporator of the American Law Institute). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
[^53]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," p. 71 (co-chairman of the National War Labor Board, 1918 to 1919; arbiter in the Amory oil concessions in 1922 at the joint request of the British and Porto Rican governments). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
[^54]: Supreme Court of the United States, "Members of the Supreme Court of the United States," list of justices with appointing president and dates of service, entry for "Taft, William Howard" (Connecticut; Harding; July 11, 1921; February 3, 1930). https://www.supremecourt.gov/about/members_text.aspx
[^55]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930, entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," p. 72 (death due to cerebral arteriosclerosis on March 8, 1930; buried at Arlington National Cemetery; Chief Justice of the United States 1921 until resignation on February 3, 1930). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
[^56]: Olmstead v. United States, 277 U.S. 438 (1928), opinion of the Court by Chief Justice Taft and syllabus (Library of Congress, United States Reports). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/usrep/usrep277/usrep277438/usrep277438.pdf
[^57]: Olmstead v. United States, 277 U.S. 438 (1928), opinion of the Court (the telephone wires passage; Congress may protect the secrecy of telephone messages by legislation). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/usrep/usrep277/usrep277438/usrep277438.pdf
[^58]: Olmstead v. United States, 277 U.S. 438 (1928), dissenting opinions of Justices Holmes, Brandeis and Butler and the statement of Justice Stone concurring in the dissents; judgments affirmed. https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/usrep/usrep277/usrep277438/usrep277438.pdf
[^59]: Sutton, America's Secret Establishment (1983), passage on Horace Mann and Antioch College ("The most influential Trustee of Antioch College was the co-founder of The Order"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones