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20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Central Intelligence Agency.md
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@ -22,37 +22,44 @@ relations:
role: "Office of Security release of police techniques through LEAA"
start: 1970
end: 1973
fn: 10
fn: 14
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Bobby Ray Inman]]"
reverse: true
role: "deputy director"
start: 1981-02
end: 1982-04
fn: 37
fn: 41
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Psychological Strategy Board]]"
role: "Member agency; the Director of Central Intelligence chaired meeting M-8"
start: 1952-01-10
fn: 64
fn: 68
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Max Millikan]]"
reverse: true
role: "Assistant Director, Research and Reports (1951); Special Consultant (1952)"
start: 1951-01
end: 1952-03
fn: 65
fn: 69
- type: funded
with: "[[Center for International Studies]]"
role: "agency money reported to have set up the center in 1951; $300,000 reported in 1967"
start: 1951
fn: 72
fn: 76
- type: employed_by
with: "[[F. Trubee Davison]]"
reverse: true
start: 1951
end: 1952
role: "Assistant Director for Personnel, assistant to Walter Bedell Smith"
fn: 8
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Ronald Pandolfi]]"
reverse: true
start: 1995
role: "analyst; described as a CIA scientist (Farley, 1995) and CIA analyst (Cox Committee, 1999)"
fn: 49
fn: 53
---
The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) is a primary intelligence-gathering organization of the United States government. In the context of psychic research, the CIA played a significant, albeit often covert, role in funding and overseeing programs aimed at exploring and utilizing psychic phenomena for intelligence purposes.[^1]
@ -60,37 +67,37 @@ The CIA, particularly through its Photographic Intelligence Division, was instru
### Personnel posts, 1951 to 1973
In July 1951 an [[Associated Press]] item reported that [[F. Trubee Davison]], formerly Assistant Secretary of War for Air and president of the [[American Museum of Natural History]], would join the Agency on July 16 as a principal assistant to [[Walter Bedell Smith]], and that he probably would do personnel work.[^3] A memorandum from Davison dated September 11, 1951 appears on a CIA routing slip addressed to the Assistant Director (Personnel).[^4] CIA documents of 1968, 1969 and 1972 name [[Hugh T. Cunningham]] as the Agency's Director of Training.[^5] The Covert Action Information Bulletin reported in 1990 that Cunningham served in the Agency from 1947 to 1973 and that Davison, Cunningham, [[William P. Bundy]] and [[Dino Pionzio]] (deputy chief of station in [[Santiago]] in 1970) were members of the Yale society [[Skull and Bones]].[^6] [[Antony C. Sutton]]'s index of members lists Davison under the class of 1918, Cunningham (Hugh Terry) under 1934, Bundy under 1939 and Pionzio under 1950.[^7]
In July 1951 an [[Associated Press]] item reported that [[F. Trubee Davison]], formerly Assistant Secretary of War for Air and president of the [[American Museum of Natural History]], would join the Agency on July 16 as a principal assistant to [[Walter Bedell Smith]], and that he probably would do personnel work.[^3] A memorandum from Davison dated September 11, 1951 appears on a CIA routing slip addressed to the Assistant Director (Personnel).[^4] A Springfield (Ohio) Sun editorial of July 1951 reported that Davison had "been appointed director of personnel and assistant to Lieut. General Walter Bedell Smith, chief of the Central Intelligence Agency," and that the Agency "has been rather unfortunate in its chiefs."[^5] A memorandum of September 10, 1951 from [[Allen Dulles|Allen W. Dulles]], then Deputy Director of Central Intelligence, is addressed to "Trubee Davison, Esq. (Asst. Director, Personnel)."[^6] Davison chaired the Agency's Career Service Committee: the minutes of its second meeting (October 1, 1951) record that the committee separated a Trainee Program from a Career Service Program, that "the establishment of a Career Corps, as such, had been disapproved by the DCI," and that of the first class of nineteen trainees sixteen had graduated and fourteen been placed; the minutes of its fourteenth meeting (January 1952) list him with Matthew Baird, Director of Training, and [[Sherman Kent]], Assistant Director for National Estimates.[^7] The New York Times reported in 1974 that he left the post in April 1952, "when it was announced that he had completed his mission of organizing the C.I.A.'s personnel."[^8] CIA documents of 1968, 1969 and 1972 name [[Hugh T. Cunningham]] as the Agency's Director of Training.[^9] The Covert Action Information Bulletin reported in 1990 that Cunningham served in the Agency from 1947 to 1973 and that Davison, Cunningham, [[William P. Bundy]] and [[Dino Pionzio]] (deputy chief of station in [[Santiago]] in 1970) were members of the Yale society [[Skull and Bones]].[^10] [[Antony C. Sutton]]'s index of members lists Davison under the class of 1918, Cunningham (Hugh Terry) under 1934, Bundy under 1939 and Pionzio under 1950.[^11]
### Early Involvement in Psi Research
The CIA's interest in psi research dates back to the early 1970s, partly in response to rumors of extensive Soviet psi research. Following a number of scandals in the mid-1970s, including revelations of domestic spying, the CIA came under unprecedented scrutiny from Congress. This led to a preference for "clean" spying methods, making psychic intelligence an appealing, low-profile alternative to traditional human intelligence (HUMINT).[^1]
In 1972, the CIA, through officials like [[Kenneth A. Kress|Ken Kress]] from the Technical Services Division (TSD) (later the Office of Technical Service, OTS), provided the initial funding for [[Hal Puthoff]]'s psi research program at [[Stanford Research Institute]] (SRI). This funding, initially $50,000 for eight months, was contingent on the researchers demonstrating a repeatable psi phenomenon. The Office of Research and Development (ORD) also jointly managed the funding and contract.[^1] In the late 1960s, the CIA had approached Hal Puthoff and Russell Targ at Stanford University to develop a program to counter a similar effort in the Soviet Union, which led to the creation of the [[Stargate Project]], a program that trained individuals in [[Remote Viewing]] to spy on foreign targets. The program was reportedly highly successful, and Puthoff reported directly to the Director of the CIA and the [[White House]].[^8]
In 1972, the CIA, through officials like [[Kenneth A. Kress|Ken Kress]] from the Technical Services Division (TSD) (later the Office of Technical Service, OTS), provided the initial funding for [[Hal Puthoff]]'s psi research program at [[Stanford Research Institute]] (SRI). This funding, initially $50,000 for eight months, was contingent on the researchers demonstrating a repeatable psi phenomenon. The Office of Research and Development (ORD) also jointly managed the funding and contract.[^1] In the late 1960s, the CIA had approached Hal Puthoff and Russell Targ at Stanford University to develop a program to counter a similar effort in the Soviet Union, which led to the creation of the [[Stargate Project]], a program that trained individuals in [[Remote Viewing]] to spy on foreign targets. The program was reportedly highly successful, and Puthoff reported directly to the Director of the CIA and the [[White House]].[^12]
### The Search for Behavioral Control
Since [[World War II]] the CIA searched secretly for ways to control human behavior, an effort that extended the wartime [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]] quest for a truth drug and echoed both the Nazi experiments at [[Dachau]] and [[Albert Hofmann]]'s discovery of [[LSD]]. The programs were triggered by the 1949 show trial of [[Josef Cardinal Mindszenty]] in [[Hungary]], whose glazed confession convinced Agency officials the Communists had developed a technique to render defendants zombielike; what began as defensive research quickly turned offensive, with documents stressing the goal of "controlling an individual to the point where he will do our bidding against his will and even against such fundamental laws of nature as self-preservation." The effort passed through [[Project Bluebird and Project Artichoke|Project BLUEBIRD]] (1950), ARTICHOKE (1952), and finally [[Project MKUltra|MKULTRA]] under the [[Office of Technical Service|Technical Services Staff]], with [[Richard Helms]] its most important sponsor and his protégé [[Sidney Gottlieb]] running it day to day. The research systematically violated the will of subjects drawn from groups officials considered expendable, mental patients, prostitutes, foreigners, drug addicts, and prisoners; as one Agency psychologist put it, operators lacked "a universal concept of mankind" and were willing to do things to foreigners they would not try on Americans. "It was strictly a patriotic vision," he said.[^9]
Since [[World War II]] the CIA searched secretly for ways to control human behavior, an effort that extended the wartime [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]] quest for a truth drug and echoed both the Nazi experiments at [[Dachau]] and [[Albert Hofmann]]'s discovery of [[LSD]]. The programs were triggered by the 1949 show trial of [[Josef Cardinal Mindszenty]] in [[Hungary]], whose glazed confession convinced Agency officials the Communists had developed a technique to render defendants zombielike; what began as defensive research quickly turned offensive, with documents stressing the goal of "controlling an individual to the point where he will do our bidding against his will and even against such fundamental laws of nature as self-preservation." The effort passed through [[Project Bluebird and Project Artichoke|Project BLUEBIRD]] (1950), ARTICHOKE (1952), and finally [[Project MKUltra|MKULTRA]] under the [[Office of Technical Service|Technical Services Staff]], with [[Richard Helms]] its most important sponsor and his protégé [[Sidney Gottlieb]] running it day to day. The research systematically violated the will of subjects drawn from groups officials considered expendable, mental patients, prostitutes, foreigners, drug addicts, and prisoners; as one Agency psychologist put it, operators lacked "a universal concept of mankind" and were willing to do things to foreigners they would not try on Americans. "It was strictly a patriotic vision," he said.[^13]
### Police Technique Program Through LEAA
From 1970 the Office of Security used the [[LEAA|Law Enforcement Assistance Administration]] as its channel for releasing agency techniques to police. A June 10, 1970 memorandum to the Director of Central Intelligence recommended LEAA as "the best vehicle to expand dissemination of this technique to all public law enforcement officials in the United States" for the Trace Metal Detection Technique, which the Director had declassified.[^10] The memorandum carried the concurrence of the Deputy Director for Plans, [[Thomas Karamessines]]. It stated that the only stipulation placed on recipients was that there be "no public connection between the technique and this Agency."[^10]
From 1970 the Office of Security used the [[LEAA|Law Enforcement Assistance Administration]] as its channel for releasing agency techniques to police. A June 10, 1970 memorandum to the Director of Central Intelligence recommended LEAA as "the best vehicle to expand dissemination of this technique to all public law enforcement officials in the United States" for the Trace Metal Detection Technique, which the Director had declassified.[^14] The memorandum carried the concurrence of the Deputy Director for Plans, [[Thomas Karamessines]]. It stated that the only stipulation placed on recipients was that there be "no public connection between the technique and this Agency."[^14]
Between June 1970 and December 1971 Office of Security representatives demonstrated the technique to approximately 35 police departments, three professional police associations and representatives of 83 other state and local departments. Outside the Washington area they appeared as "consultants" to LEAA, and "no mention was made of the Agency."[^11] The office provided six men to LEAA in 1970 for the same briefings.[^12]
Between June 1970 and December 1971 Office of Security representatives demonstrated the technique to approximately 35 police departments, three professional police associations and representatives of 83 other state and local departments. Outside the Washington area they appeared as "consultants" to LEAA, and "no mention was made of the Agency."[^15] The office provided six men to LEAA in 1970 for the same briefings.[^16]
The Explosive Residue Detection Technique was declassified in March 1971, and the Security Office recommended dissemination through LEAA or the LEAA-funded National Bomb Data Center.[^11] On November 10, 1971 agency officers demonstrated it to LEAA staff and then met [[Lester Shubin]] and [[Marc Nerenstone]], whom the memorandum describes as "both witting of the Agency's role in the development of the technique."[^13]
The Explosive Residue Detection Technique was declassified in March 1971, and the Security Office recommended dissemination through LEAA or the LEAA-funded National Bomb Data Center.[^15] On November 10, 1971 agency officers demonstrated it to LEAA staff and then met [[Lester Shubin]] and [[Marc Nerenstone]], whom the memorandum describes as "both witting of the Agency's role in the development of the technique."[^17]
A February 16, 1972 Office of Security memorandum records that LEAA never reimbursed the agency's travel costs "because of their desire to avoid unclassified (i.e. public) reimbursement of the money to CIA" and that "LEAA indicated it did not wish to be publicly affiliated with CIA."[^14] A May 9, 1973 survey of the Office of Research and Development recorded that an adhesive restraint, a non-lethal incapacitation system, had been made available to LEAA in August 1972. It said that "if they developed the system, it would be used for civilian crowd and riot control."[^15] On June 18, 1973 the House adopted by voice vote the Holtzman amendment to H.R. 8152, which the Office of Legislative Counsel summarized as prohibiting LEAA from using the agency's services, equipment, personnel and facilities.[^16]
A February 16, 1972 Office of Security memorandum records that LEAA never reimbursed the agency's travel costs "because of their desire to avoid unclassified (i.e. public) reimbursement of the money to CIA" and that "LEAA indicated it did not wish to be publicly affiliated with CIA."[^18] A May 9, 1973 survey of the Office of Research and Development recorded that an adhesive restraint, a non-lethal incapacitation system, had been made available to LEAA in August 1972. It said that "if they developed the system, it would be used for civilian crowd and riot control."[^19] On June 18, 1973 the House adopted by voice vote the Holtzman amendment to H.R. 8152, which the Office of Legislative Counsel summarized as prohibiting LEAA from using the agency's services, equipment, personnel and facilities.[^20]
Section 508 of the Crime Control Act of 1973 authorized LEAA to use federal agency services "(not including the Central Intelligence Agency)," a restriction absent from the 1968 statute.[^17] An Office of General Counsel memorandum of October 15, 1973 concluded that the agency was not required to reject all LEAA requests and would decide each one case by case.[^18] In July 1978 the Office of Legislative Counsel reviewed reauthorization language that would bar any use of CIA services by LEAA, and reported that the agency did not endorse the provision but had no formal objection to it.[^19] On November 14, 1975 an agency officer briefed two staff members of a House select committee on the LEAA liaison. The memorandum records that the agency discontinued liaison with LEAA in 1973 as a result of the Kennedy-Holtzman amendment, and that one staff member asked where the agency fit into the operation of the Law Enforcement Intelligence Unit, described as "a communications network between police intelligence agencies"; the officer answered that he knew of no such nationwide network in which the agency had taken part.[^20]
Section 508 of the Crime Control Act of 1973 authorized LEAA to use federal agency services "(not including the Central Intelligence Agency)," a restriction absent from the 1968 statute.[^21] An Office of General Counsel memorandum of October 15, 1973 concluded that the agency was not required to reject all LEAA requests and would decide each one case by case.[^22] In July 1978 the Office of Legislative Counsel reviewed reauthorization language that would bar any use of CIA services by LEAA, and reported that the agency did not endorse the provision but had no formal objection to it.[^23] On November 14, 1975 an agency officer briefed two staff members of a House select committee on the LEAA liaison. The memorandum records that the agency discontinued liaison with LEAA in 1973 as a result of the Kennedy-Holtzman amendment, and that one staff member asked where the agency fit into the operation of the Law Enforcement Intelligence Unit, described as "a communications network between police intelligence agencies"; the officer answered that he knew of no such nationwide network in which the agency had taken part.[^24]
### The 1977 Notifications to Institutions
In the summer of 1977 the agency located MKULTRA documents it had believed destroyed in 1973, and notified the institutions named in them. Director of Central Intelligence [[Stansfield Turner]] wrote to Senator [[Daniel K. Inouye]] on August 2, 1977 that the agency now held "the names of 185 non-government researchers and assistants" and the names of 80 institutions where the work was done or with which the researchers were affiliated. He listed them as 44 colleges or universities, 15 research foundations or chemical or pharmaceutical companies and the like, 12 hospitals or clinics, and 3 penal institutions. The names went to the Senate committee on a classified basis, and the Director wrote that he had "a legal obligation under the Privacy Act not to publicly disclose the names of the individual researchers without their consent."[^21]
In the summer of 1977 the agency located MKULTRA documents it had believed destroyed in 1973, and notified the institutions named in them. Director of Central Intelligence [[Stansfield Turner]] wrote to Senator [[Daniel K. Inouye]] on August 2, 1977 that the agency now held "the names of 185 non-government researchers and assistants" and the names of 80 institutions where the work was done or with which the researchers were affiliated. He listed them as 44 colleges or universities, 15 research foundations or chemical or pharmaceutical companies and the like, 12 hospitals or clinics, and 3 penal institutions. The names went to the Senate committee on a classified basis, and the Director wrote that he had "a legal obligation under the Privacy Act not to publicly disclose the names of the individual researchers without their consent."[^25]
General Counsel [[Anthony A. Lapham]] wrote to each institution in August 1977. The letter stated that the institution "is included among the institutions at which some portion of this CIA-sponsored research appears to have been performed or with which one or more individuals performing some aspect of this research were affiliated," and that the agency "does not intend to reveal to the public the identities of any institutions that knowingly or unknowingly were involved in MKULTRA activities, or the names of individual researchers."[^22] On September 7, 1977 A. R. Cinquegrana of the Office of General Counsel sent the president of the [[New School for Social Research]], [[John R. Everett]], copies of the two MKULTRA subproject files relating to the school, with a letter stating that "the name of the School has been reinserted wherever it appears in the original documents."[^23] Lapham's letter of November 7, 1977 asked whether each institution had itself made its correspondence public, and wrote that "Where an institution has itself made public these relationships, there would seem to be little point in our continued refusal to confirm these facts."[^24] On March 17, 1978 Assistant General Counsel Cinquegrana wrote that the agency would presume an institution wished its identity protected if it did not respond by April 15, 1978.[^25]
General Counsel [[Anthony A. Lapham]] wrote to each institution in August 1977. The letter stated that the institution "is included among the institutions at which some portion of this CIA-sponsored research appears to have been performed or with which one or more individuals performing some aspect of this research were affiliated," and that the agency "does not intend to reveal to the public the identities of any institutions that knowingly or unknowingly were involved in MKULTRA activities, or the names of individual researchers."[^26] On September 7, 1977 A. R. Cinquegrana of the Office of General Counsel sent the president of the [[New School for Social Research]], [[John R. Everett]], copies of the two MKULTRA subproject files relating to the school, with a letter stating that "the name of the School has been reinserted wherever it appears in the original documents."[^27] Lapham's letter of November 7, 1977 asked whether each institution had itself made its correspondence public, and wrote that "Where an institution has itself made public these relationships, there would seem to be little point in our continued refusal to confirm these facts."[^28] On March 17, 1978 Assistant General Counsel Cinquegrana wrote that the agency would presume an institution wished its identity protected if it did not respond by April 15, 1978.[^29]
The Senate Health Subcommittee invited the presidents of 20 institutions to testify on September 20 and 21, 1977. Only one accepted, and that president was not scheduled to testify because the others declined.[^26]
The Senate Health Subcommittee invited the presidents of 20 institutions to testify on September 20 and 21, 1977. Only one accepted, and that president was not scheduled to testify because the others declined.[^30]
### Notable Operations and Impact
@ -112,103 +119,103 @@ Following the Israeli bombing of the Iraqi nuclear reactor at [[Osirak bombing]]
### Involvement with BCCI
The CIA used the [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International|BCCI]] extensively, particularly in connection with covert U.S. operations in [[Central America]].[^27] Even before [[Oliver North]] established his network for illegal payments to the [[Contras]], the [[National Security Council]] used BCCI to channel money to them through [[Saudi Arabia]].[^27] The CIA maintained accounts in BCCI for covert operations.[^28]
The CIA used the [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International|BCCI]] extensively, particularly in connection with covert U.S. operations in [[Central America]].[^31] Even before [[Oliver North]] established his network for illegal payments to the [[Contras]], the [[National Security Council]] used BCCI to channel money to them through [[Saudi Arabia]].[^31] The CIA maintained accounts in BCCI for covert operations.[^32]
In 1986, the CIA issued a report stating that BCCI had owned [[First American Bank]] since 1982.[^29] In 1991, Acting CIA Director [[Richard J. Kerr]] confirmed that the agency had used BCCI to move money around the world.[^30] The CIA also maintained slush funds at BCCI branches, which were used for payoffs of Pakistani military officers and Afghan rebel leaders.[^31]
In 1986, the CIA issued a report stating that BCCI had owned [[First American Bank]] since 1982.[^33] In 1991, Acting CIA Director [[Richard J. Kerr]] confirmed that the agency had used BCCI to move money around the world.[^34] The CIA also maintained slush funds at BCCI branches, which were used for payoffs of Pakistani military officers and Afghan rebel leaders.[^35]
William J. Casey, former CIA Director, met secretly with [[Agha Hasan Abedi]] over a three-year period, discussing U.S. arms deals with Iran and the arming of Afghan resistance forces.[^32] The CIA began using BCCI in the bank's earliest days, as it was establishing itself in countries where American intelligence had few assets.[^32]
William J. Casey, former CIA Director, met secretly with [[Agha Hasan Abedi]] over a three-year period, discussing U.S. arms deals with Iran and the arming of Afghan resistance forces.[^36] The CIA began using BCCI in the bank's earliest days, as it was establishing itself in countries where American intelligence had few assets.[^36]
The [[BCCI Kerry-Brown Senate Report|Kerry-Brown Senate Report]] recorded that the agency produced several hundred reports on BCCI between 1979 and 1991, including special analyses in 1985, 1986 and 1989. The 1985 report, delivered in January 1985 to the Treasury's intelligence liaison, [[Douglas Mulholland]], who called it "dynamite," stated that BCCI secretly owned First American Bank; the 1986 report went to the [[State Department]], the Defense Intelligence Agency, the [[National Security Agency]], the National Security Council, Commerce and the Treasury, except for "the two agencies which would have had a statutory responsibility to begin investigations in response," the [[Federal Reserve Board|Federal Reserve]] and the [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]]. Acting Director Richard J. Kerr testified on October 25, 1991, that the agency's own use of BCCI had been "limited and routine," and acknowledged "extensive use of First American" for ordinary accounts. The agency denied any relationship between William J. Casey and Agha Hasan Abedi; the report recorded a contrary account from a BCCI official of meetings at the [[Madison Hotel]] in Washington, and the view of the agency's legal department that any such activity by Casey would have been undertaken "in his position as an advisor to the President, rather than in his position as Director of Central Intelligence," outside the agency's records.[^33]
The [[BCCI Kerry-Brown Senate Report|Kerry-Brown Senate Report]] recorded that the agency produced several hundred reports on BCCI between 1979 and 1991, including special analyses in 1985, 1986 and 1989. The 1985 report, delivered in January 1985 to the Treasury's intelligence liaison, [[Douglas Mulholland]], who called it "dynamite," stated that BCCI secretly owned First American Bank; the 1986 report went to the [[State Department]], the Defense Intelligence Agency, the [[National Security Agency]], the National Security Council, Commerce and the Treasury, except for "the two agencies which would have had a statutory responsibility to begin investigations in response," the [[Federal Reserve Board|Federal Reserve]] and the [[Department of Justice|Justice Department]]. Acting Director Richard J. Kerr testified on October 25, 1991, that the agency's own use of BCCI had been "limited and routine," and acknowledged "extensive use of First American" for ordinary accounts. The agency denied any relationship between William J. Casey and Agha Hasan Abedi; the report recorded a contrary account from a BCCI official of meetings at the [[Madison Hotel]] in Washington, and the view of the agency's legal department that any such activity by Casey would have been undertaken "in his position as an advisor to the President, rather than in his position as Director of Central Intelligence," outside the agency's records.[^37]
### Operations and Activities
The CIA sent the [[Inter-Services Intelligence|Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI)]] agency enormous quantities of cash to keep things moving through [[Pakistan]] during the [[Soviet-Afghan War]].[^34] The CIA was responsible for obtaining arms and ammunition for the [[Mujahideen]], but once delivered to [[Karachi]], the ISI was responsible for moving the equipment.[^34]
The CIA sent the [[Inter-Services Intelligence|Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI)]] agency enormous quantities of cash to keep things moving through [[Pakistan]] during the [[Soviet-Afghan War]].[^38] The CIA was responsible for obtaining arms and ammunition for the [[Mujahideen]], but once delivered to [[Karachi]], the ISI was responsible for moving the equipment.[^38]
In 1980, Jimmy Carter signed a presidential "finding" authorizing the CIA to aid the Afghan rebels in "harassment" of the Soviet occupying forces through secret supplies of light weapons and limited funds.[^35] This became the largest covert-action program since [[World War Two]].[^35]
In 1980, Jimmy Carter signed a presidential "finding" authorizing the CIA to aid the Afghan rebels in "harassment" of the Soviet occupying forces through secret supplies of light weapons and limited funds.[^39] This became the largest covert-action program since [[World War Two]].[^39]
### Deputy Director Bobby Ray Inman, 1981 to 1982
President Ronald Reagan nominated [[Bobby Ray Inman]], then director of the [[NSA]], as deputy director of Central Intelligence in 1981.[^36] The White House announced his resignation on April 21, 1982.[^37] The White House biography gives March 1982 as the date he resigned.[^36]
President Ronald Reagan nominated [[Bobby Ray Inman]], then director of the [[NSA]], as deputy director of Central Intelligence in 1981.[^40] The White House announced his resignation on April 21, 1982.[^41] The White House biography gives March 1982 as the date he resigned.[^40]
The [[Philadelphia Inquirer]] reported that Inman had submitted his resignation during a "heated internal debate" over a secret counterintelligence study, and that he and other intelligence officials had since narrowed the study's scope. Its sources said two topics that Inman, Casey and FBI Director William Webster had feared might be included, the organization of U.S. counterintelligence agencies and deceptive Soviet missile telemetry, were not on the agenda approved by an interagency working group chaired by John Kohler of the intelligence community staff.[^38] A CBS radio commentary of April 22, 1982 described William J. Casey, the director, as "a professional politician."[^39]
The [[Philadelphia Inquirer]] reported that Inman had submitted his resignation during a "heated internal debate" over a secret counterintelligence study, and that he and other intelligence officials had since narrowed the study's scope. Its sources said two topics that Inman, Casey and FBI Director William Webster had feared might be included, the organization of U.S. counterintelligence agencies and deceptive Soviet missile telemetry, were not on the agenda approved by an interagency working group chaired by John Kohler of the intelligence community staff.[^42] A CBS radio commentary of April 22, 1982 described William J. Casey, the director, as "a professional politician."[^43]
### Senior Review Panel
The Senior Review Panel was an advisory body within the Director's area that reviewed draft national intelligence estimates and commented on them to the Director of Central Intelligence, the Chairman of the National Intelligence Council and the relevant National Intelligence Officer. In a 1991 letter printed in the Senate report on the nomination of [[Robert Gates]], Gates wrote that "The SRP's sole function was to review draft national estimates and offer comments as a group to the DCI, the Chairman/NIC and the relevant NIO."[^40] The Senate report records that [[James D. Theberge]] served on the panel from January 1986 until his death in January 1988, and that he had been hired on a three-days-per-week basis.[^40] Panel memoranda in the CIA reading room carry his name among the signers of comments dated September 1, September 8, September 24, October 22 and December 1, 1987, alongside [[William Leonhart]], B. McPherson and, on some, [[Richard L. Walker]] or [[Courtland D. Perkins]].[^41]
The Senior Review Panel was an advisory body within the Director's area that reviewed draft national intelligence estimates and commented on them to the Director of Central Intelligence, the Chairman of the National Intelligence Council and the relevant National Intelligence Officer. In a 1991 letter printed in the Senate report on the nomination of [[Robert Gates]], Gates wrote that "The SRP's sole function was to review draft national estimates and offer comments as a group to the DCI, the Chairman/NIC and the relevant NIO."[^44] The Senate report records that [[James D. Theberge]] served on the panel from January 1986 until his death in January 1988, and that he had been hired on a three-days-per-week basis.[^44] Panel memoranda in the CIA reading room carry his name among the signers of comments dated September 1, September 8, September 24, October 22 and December 1, 1987, alongside [[William Leonhart]], B. McPherson and, on some, [[Richard L. Walker]] or [[Courtland D. Perkins]].[^45]
### UAP Research and Secrecy
The CIA has a long and complex history with the [[Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena]] (UAP) issue. The agency has been a key player in the government's long-standing policy of secrecy and denial on the UAP topic. The Robertson Panel, a CIA-sponsored committee in 1953, recommended a policy of debunking UAP reports and using the mass media to ridicule the topic. This policy was highly effective in creating the stigma that has surrounded the UAP issue for decades.[^8]
The CIA has a long and complex history with the [[Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena]] (UAP) issue. The agency has been a key player in the government's long-standing policy of secrecy and denial on the UAP topic. The Robertson Panel, a CIA-sponsored committee in 1953, recommended a policy of debunking UAP reports and using the mass media to ridicule the topic. This policy was highly effective in creating the stigma that has surrounded the UAP issue for decades.[^12]
The CIA is also said to have operated a little-known "weird desk," which was responsible for investigating unusual medical issues, implants, and abductions related to UAP encounters. [[Dr. William Livingston]], who served as a medical advisor to the [[Advanced Aerospace Threat Identification Program]] (AATIP), is described as having presided over this desk.[^8]
The CIA is also said to have operated a little-known "weird desk," which was responsible for investigating unusual medical issues, implants, and abductions related to UAP encounters. [[Dr. William Livingston]], who served as a medical advisor to the [[Advanced Aerospace Threat Identification Program]] (AATIP), is described as having presided over this desk.[^12]
In recent years, the CIA has been more involved in the official UAP investigation. The agency was a participant in the [[UAP Task Force]] and is a member of the current [[All-domain Anomaly Resolution Office]] (AARO). However, the agency's long history of secrecy and obfuscation on the UAP topic has led to a great deal of skepticism about its willingness to be fully transparent.[^8]
In recent years, the CIA has been more involved in the official UAP investigation. The agency was a participant in the [[UAP Task Force]] and is a member of the current [[All-domain Anomaly Resolution Office]] (AARO). However, the agency's long history of secrecy and obfuscation on the UAP topic has led to a great deal of skepticism about its willingness to be fully transparent.[^12]
### Dark Alliance Investigation
The CIA's covert action division, the Directorate of Operations, created and managed the Contra project during the 1980s, with its Latin American Division headed by [[Dewey Clarridge]] from 1981 to 1984. The agency recruited Contra leaders including [[Enrique Bermudez|Enrique Bermúdez]] in 1980 and [[Eden Pastora]] in 1981. The CIA maintained station chiefs in [[Costa Rica]], notably [[Joseph Fernandez|Joseph Fernández]] from 1984 to 1986, who were integral to Oliver North's illegal Contra resupply operation.[^42]
The CIA's covert action division, the Directorate of Operations, created and managed the Contra project during the 1980s, with its Latin American Division headed by [[Dewey Clarridge]] from 1981 to 1984. The agency recruited Contra leaders including [[Enrique Bermudez|Enrique Bermúdez]] in 1980 and [[Eden Pastora]] in 1981. The CIA maintained station chiefs in [[Costa Rica]], notably [[Joseph Fernandez|Joseph Fernández]] from 1984 to 1986, who were integral to Oliver North's illegal Contra resupply operation.[^46]
### Contra Drug Trafficking and the Frogman Case
Federal law enforcement records and congressional testimony established that the CIA had reports of [[Cocaine]] being transshipped through Contra-linked facilities, including [[Ilopango Airbase]] in [[El Salvador]]. When defense attorneys in the [[Frogman Case]] obtained letters from CIA assets claiming seized drug money belonged to the Contras, the CIA's Costa Rican station cabled Langley that both men were assets of an organization that had "unwittingly received CIA support." CIA lawyer Lee Strickland flew to [[San Francisco]] and asked the prosecutor to ensure depositions did not go forward. The government returned $36,020 in seized drug money and a CIA cable declared: "CIA equities are fully protected."[^43]
Federal law enforcement records and congressional testimony established that the CIA had reports of [[Cocaine]] being transshipped through Contra-linked facilities, including [[Ilopango Airbase]] in [[El Salvador]]. When defense attorneys in the [[Frogman Case]] obtained letters from CIA assets claiming seized drug money belonged to the Contras, the CIA's Costa Rican station cabled Langley that both men were assets of an organization that had "unwittingly received CIA support." CIA lawyer Lee Strickland flew to [[San Francisco]] and asked the prosecutor to ensure depositions did not go forward. The government returned $36,020 in seized drug money and a CIA cable declared: "CIA equities are fully protected."[^47]
Webb wrote that the pseudonymous agent [[Ivan Gomez|Iván Gómez]], assigned to Costa Rica in 1982 as the CIA's liaison to the Contra armies, admitted during polygraph tests that he had laundered drug money, and that he was fired in 1989 for repeated polygraph failures concerning drug dealing.[^43] The CIA Inspector General's 1998 report stated that CIA records show a CIA independent contractor used the alias "Ivan Gomez" in Costa Rica in the 1980s, that CIA records place the contractor in the United States during April and May 1982, and that he denied meeting Carlos Cabezas.[^44]
Webb wrote that the pseudonymous agent [[Ivan Gomez|Iván Gómez]], assigned to Costa Rica in 1982 as the CIA's liaison to the Contra armies, admitted during polygraph tests that he had laundered drug money, and that he was fired in 1989 for repeated polygraph failures concerning drug dealing.[^47] The CIA Inspector General's 1998 report stated that CIA records show a CIA independent contractor used the alias "Ivan Gomez" in Costa Rica in the 1980s, that CIA records place the contractor in the United States during April and May 1982, and that he denied meeting Carlos Cabezas.[^48]
### The Secret 1982 Agreement with the Justice Department
In early 1982, CIA director William J. Casey and Attorney General [[William French Smith]] signed a formal Memorandum of Understanding that exempted the CIA from reporting drug crimes committed by its non-employees - a category including agents, assets, and non-staff employees. Drug offenses were specifically removed from the list of crimes the CIA was required to report. The agreement remained in effect from 1982 to 1995.[^45]
In early 1982, CIA director William J. Casey and Attorney General [[William French Smith]] signed a formal Memorandum of Understanding that exempted the CIA from reporting drug crimes committed by its non-employees - a category including agents, assets, and non-staff employees. Drug offenses were specifically removed from the list of crimes the CIA was required to report. The agreement remained in effect from 1982 to 1995.[^49]
### Ilopango Obstruction
When [[DEA]] agent [[Celerino Castillo]] began investigating Contra drug trafficking at Ilopango, the CIA intervened directly.[^46] On April 25, 1986 the El Salvador station replied to a Costa Rica station cable of April 23 about Carlos Amador. The reply asked: "Based on that information, [El Salvador] Station would appreciate [Costa Rica] Station advising [DEA] not to make any inquiries to anyone re: hangar no. 4 at Ilopango since only legitimate [CIA] supported operations were conducted from this facility." The same cable stated that station air operations had moved from Hangar 4 into Hangar 5, which the station still occupied.[^47]
When [[DEA]] agent [[Celerino Castillo]] began investigating Contra drug trafficking at Ilopango, the CIA intervened directly.[^50] On April 25, 1986 the El Salvador station replied to a Costa Rica station cable of April 23 about Carlos Amador. The reply asked: "Based on that information, [El Salvador] Station would appreciate [Costa Rica] Station advising [DEA] not to make any inquiries to anyone re: hangar no. 4 at Ilopango since only legitimate [CIA] supported operations were conducted from this facility." The same cable stated that station air operations had moved from Hangar 4 into Hangar 5, which the station still occupied.[^51]
### Inspector General Investigation
CIA Inspector General [[Fred Hitz]] testified before the [[House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence|House Intelligence Committee]] in March 1998 that the CIA "did not, in an expeditious or consistent fashion, cut off relationships with individuals supporting the Contra program who were alleged to have engaged in drug trafficking activity," including trafficking within the United States. His 400-page report documented CIA relationships with more than 50 suspected drug traffickers during the Contra war.[^45]
CIA Inspector General [[Fred Hitz]] testified before the [[House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence|House Intelligence Committee]] in March 1998 that the CIA "did not, in an expeditious or consistent fashion, cut off relationships with individuals supporting the Contra program who were alleged to have engaged in drug trafficking activity," including trafficking within the United States. His 400-page report documented CIA relationships with more than 50 suspected drug traffickers during the Contra war.[^49]
### Hughes Electronics and the Pandolfi Estimate, 1995 to 1998
On July 19, 1995 an analyst from the agency's Directorate of Intelligence visited the Hughes facility in El Segundo, California, while researching a draft National Intelligence Estimate on the effect of technology transfers on China's military capabilities. The analyst was [[Ronald Pandolfi]].[^48] The analyst alleged that during a visit to the plant he came across information indicating that technical data had been improperly passed by Hughes to the PRC in connection with the 1995 failure investigation of a Long March 2E, and that the agency ignored his request for a formal report to headquarters.[^49] The Congressional Research Service reports that in April 1996 Pandolfi had reportedly prepared an estimate on how Hughes may have helped improve China's missile capabilities, and that the agency did not approve it.[^50] The New York Times reported that agency officials said the estimate was "not 'rigorous' enough" and that it was not distributed to other government officials.[^48]
On July 19, 1995 an analyst from the agency's Directorate of Intelligence visited the Hughes facility in El Segundo, California, while researching a draft National Intelligence Estimate on the effect of technology transfers on China's military capabilities. The analyst was [[Ronald Pandolfi]].[^52] The analyst alleged that during a visit to the plant he came across information indicating that technical data had been improperly passed by Hughes to the PRC in connection with the 1995 failure investigation of a Long March 2E, and that the agency ignored his request for a formal report to headquarters.[^53] The Congressional Research Service reports that in April 1996 Pandolfi had reportedly prepared an estimate on how Hughes may have helped improve China's missile capabilities, and that the agency did not approve it.[^54] The New York Times reported that agency officials said the estimate was "not 'rigorous' enough" and that it was not distributed to other government officials.[^52]
In September 1998 the agency told Hughes about Pandolfi's briefing to the Senate Intelligence Committee, according to an internal cable of September 23, 1998. The Cox Committee judged that the agency's notification was "ill-advised and an impediment" to the committee's investigation, and the agency said it had notified Hughes "as a courtesy."[^49] Bill Harlow, an agency spokesman, declined in December 1998 to discuss Pandolfi's experiences or the 1996 estimate "because of the investigations."[^48] The Congressional Research Service reports that Senator Richard Shelby said in September 2000 that the Justice Department had decided not to charge an unnamed CIA official with obstructing a Senate investigation.[^50]
In September 1998 the agency told Hughes about Pandolfi's briefing to the Senate Intelligence Committee, according to an internal cable of September 23, 1998. The Cox Committee judged that the agency's notification was "ill-advised and an impediment" to the committee's investigation, and the agency said it had notified Hughes "as a courtesy."[^53] Bill Harlow, an agency spokesman, declined in December 1998 to discuss Pandolfi's experiences or the 1996 estimate "because of the investigations."[^52] The Congressional Research Service reports that Senator Richard Shelby said in September 2000 that the Justice Department had decided not to charge an unnamed CIA official with obstructing a Senate investigation.[^54]
### Iran-Contra Indictments
Multiple CIA officials were indicted during the Iran-Contra investigation. Clarridge was indicted on seven counts of perjury. Fernández was indicted on four counts. [[Alan Fiers]] pleaded guilty to withholding information from Congress. All were pardoned by former CIA director [[George H.W. Bush]].[^42]
Multiple CIA officials were indicted during the Iran-Contra investigation. Clarridge was indicted on seven counts of perjury. Fernández was indicted on four counts. [[Alan Fiers]] pleaded guilty to withholding information from Congress. All were pardoned by former CIA director [[George H.W. Bush]].[^46]
### Interrogation videotapes and the 2004 to 2006 directorship
[[Porter Goss]], a former House intelligence chairman, was confirmed by the Senate 77 to 17 on September 22, 2004, was sworn in at the White House on September 24, 2004, and announced his resignation on May 5, 2006.[^51] His executive director, [[Kyle Foggo]], the agency's No. 3 official, resigned in May 2006 while the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] was examining whether he had improperly helped the defense contractor [[Brent Wilkes]] obtain large CIA contracts.[^52] Foggo pleaded guilty in 2008 to one count of defrauding the government and was sentenced on February 26, 2009 to 37 months.[^53]
[[Porter Goss]], a former House intelligence chairman, was confirmed by the Senate 77 to 17 on September 22, 2004, was sworn in at the White House on September 24, 2004, and announced his resignation on May 5, 2006.[^55] His executive director, [[Kyle Foggo]], the agency's No. 3 official, resigned in May 2006 while the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] was examining whether he had improperly helped the defense contractor [[Brent Wilkes]] obtain large CIA contracts.[^56] Foggo pleaded guilty in 2008 to one count of defrauding the government and was sentenced on February 26, 2009 to 37 months.[^57]
The [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]]'s 2014 study of the detention and interrogation program records that the CIA destroyed videotapes of the interrogations of [[Abu Zubaydah]] and [[Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri]] on November 9, 2005, the day after the Senate's November 8 vote against an amendment to establish an independent commission on detainee treatment.[^54] In an October 31, 2005 email, the CIA attorney [[John Rizzo]] wrote that he needed "to be the skunk at the party again."[^54]
The [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]]'s 2014 study of the detention and interrogation program records that the CIA destroyed videotapes of the interrogations of [[Abu Zubaydah]] and [[Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri]] on November 9, 2005, the day after the Senate's November 8 vote against an amendment to establish an independent commission on detainee treatment.[^58] In an October 31, 2005 email, the CIA attorney [[John Rizzo]] wrote that he needed "to be the skunk at the party again."[^58]
Emails released by the [[United States Department of Justice|Justice Department]] in April 2010, under a Freedom of Information Act request by the [[American Civil Liberties Union]], state that in November 2005 [[Jose A. Rodriguez Jr.|Jose Rodriguez]] told Goss and others he "felt it was extremely important to destroy the tapes and that if there was any heat, he would take it," and that Goss "laughed and said he'd be the one to take the heat." The same email states: "PG, however, agreed with the decision." NBC News reported that the email is an after-the-fact summary that does not prove Goss approved the destruction, that current and former intelligence officials have said he did not and was angry to find out, and that Rodriguez's lawyer disputed that.[^55] On November 9, 2010, the Justice Department said special prosecutor [[John Durham]] would not bring criminal charges over the destruction.[^56]
Emails released by the [[United States Department of Justice|Justice Department]] in April 2010, under a Freedom of Information Act request by the [[American Civil Liberties Union]], state that in November 2005 [[Jose A. Rodriguez Jr.|Jose Rodriguez]] told Goss and others he "felt it was extremely important to destroy the tapes and that if there was any heat, he would take it," and that Goss "laughed and said he'd be the one to take the heat." The same email states: "PG, however, agreed with the decision." NBC News reported that the email is an after-the-fact summary that does not prove Goss approved the destruction, that current and former intelligence officials have said he did not and was angry to find out, and that Rodriguez's lawyer disputed that.[^59] On November 9, 2010, the Justice Department said special prosecutor [[John Durham]] would not bring criminal charges over the destruction.[^60]
### Foreign Broadcast Information Service
The [[Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service]] became a unit of the agency in 1947. The [[War Department]] had sponsored the service from January 2, 1946, and the [[Director of Central Intelligence]] assumed control of it on July 31, 1946, before the [[National Security Act of 1947]] replaced the [[Central Intelligence Group]] with the agency.[^57] The administrative history of the service's record group lists the successor as "Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Central Intelligence Agency, 1947-."[^58] The service's 1969 history says it came to the agency "almost mature, trained and disciplined, and ready to plunge immediately into the tasks outlined for it."[^59]
The [[Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service]] became a unit of the agency in 1947. The [[War Department]] had sponsored the service from January 2, 1946, and the [[Director of Central Intelligence]] assumed control of it on July 31, 1946, before the [[National Security Act of 1947]] replaced the [[Central Intelligence Group]] with the agency.[^61] The administrative history of the service's record group lists the successor as "Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Central Intelligence Agency, 1947-."[^62] The service's 1969 history says it came to the agency "almost mature, trained and disciplined, and ready to plunge immediately into the tasks outlined for it."[^63]
Within the agency the service sat under the [[Assistant Director for Operations]]. In January 1947 the Assistant Director presented a propaganda analysis program to the PRC, approving the proposed program but excluding "interpretative analysis" from its scope, and the requested staff was twelve at $61,000 a year. [[Lawrence K. White]] was announced as deputy chief of the service on January 9, 1947.[^60]
Within the agency the service sat under the [[Assistant Director for Operations]]. In January 1947 the Assistant Director presented a propaganda analysis program to the PRC, approving the proposed program but excluding "interpretative analysis" from its scope, and the requested staff was twelve at $61,000 a year. [[Lawrence K. White]] was announced as deputy chief of the service on January 9, 1947.[^64]
The service's functions were folded into the [[Open Source Center]] in November 2005. The release announcing the center said the Director of the CIA would administer it on behalf of the DNI.[^61]
The service's functions were folded into the [[Open Source Center]] in November 2005. The release announcing the center said the Director of the CIA would administer it on behalf of the DNI.[^65]
### Psychological warfare liaison, 1946 to 1952
In July 1946 the Central Intelligence Group's Central Planning Staff closed out its liaison with the Security Advisory Board of the [[Office of War Information]]. The memorandum designated a liaison officer to the Director, charged him with recommending when appropriate whether the board should be placed under the [[National Intelligence Authority]], and recorded that no further action by the Security Branch was required. The board was being replaced by a new Security Advisory Board under the [[State-War-Navy Coordinating Committee]].[^62]
In July 1946 the Central Intelligence Group's Central Planning Staff closed out its liaison with the Security Advisory Board of the [[Office of War Information]]. The memorandum designated a liaison officer to the Director, charged him with recommending when appropriate whether the board should be placed under the [[National Intelligence Authority]], and recorded that no further action by the Security Branch was required. The board was being replaced by a new Security Advisory Board under the [[State-War-Navy Coordinating Committee]].[^66]
In July 1947 the Assistant Director of the Office of Research and Evaluation complained to the chief of the Group's Interdepartmental Coordinating and Planning Staff that the arrangement for the Group's seat on the coordinating committee's subcommittee for psychological warfare was "not operable." The principal member came from the [[Office of Special Operations]] and the alternate from the Office of Research and Evaluation, and the memorandum was addressed to the Executive Director.[^63]
In July 1947 the Assistant Director of the Office of Research and Evaluation complained to the chief of the Group's Interdepartmental Coordinating and Planning Staff that the arrangement for the Group's seat on the coordinating committee's subcommittee for psychological warfare was "not operable." The principal member came from the [[Office of Special Operations]] and the alternate from the Office of Research and Evaluation, and the memorandum was addressed to the Executive Director.[^67]
On January 10, 1952 the eighth meeting of the [[Psychological Strategy Board]] was chaired by Walter Bedell Smith, the Director of Central Intelligence. Its members were the Deputy Secretary of Defense, William C. Foster, and the Under Secretary of State, James E. Webb. [[Edward W. Barrett]], Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs, attended as a participant from the Department of State.[^64]
On January 10, 1952 the eighth meeting of the [[Psychological Strategy Board]] was chaired by Walter Bedell Smith, the Director of Central Intelligence. Its members were the Deputy Secretary of Defense, William C. Foster, and the Under Secretary of State, James E. Webb. [[Edward W. Barrett]], Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs, attended as a participant from the Department of State.[^68]
In a letter stamped January 30, 1951, [[Max Millikan]] wrote that he had "gone on leave from MIT to head up the Office of Research and Reports in this Agency."[^65] On October 29, 1951 he wrote to a prospective recruit that for "the last nine or ten months" he had been "trying to put together for General Smith an organization to do economic research."[^66] A memorandum of conversation dated January 22, 1951 lists "Dr. Max Millikan, Central Intelligence Agency" among the participants in a discussion with State Department officers of psychological intelligence, and records his concern that splitting that work among several organizations would produce the shortcomings of decentralization.[^67] A memorandum of March 6, 1951, addressed to the intelligence chiefs of the State Department, the Army, the Navy and the Air Force, was issued "For the Director of Central Intelligence" over Millikan's typed name as Assistant Director, Research and Reports.[^68] A letter he signed as Assistant Director on November 26, 1951 says that "Walt Rostow at the Center for International Studies has sought my assistance in finding him someone to help out with some research."[^69] A letter of March 3, 1952 addresses him as Special Consultant, Central Intelligence Agency.[^70] In an interview note of March 5, 1952 titled "Origin of PSB," a CIA historian recorded that Millikan "participated in a 'contract study,' State and MIT," which the note identifies as the "Troy Project," and that its study "had considerable to do with the creation of the PSB."[^71]
In a letter stamped January 30, 1951, [[Max Millikan]] wrote that he had "gone on leave from MIT to head up the Office of Research and Reports in this Agency."[^69] On October 29, 1951 he wrote to a prospective recruit that for "the last nine or ten months" he had been "trying to put together for General Smith an organization to do economic research."[^70] A memorandum of conversation dated January 22, 1951 lists "Dr. Max Millikan, Central Intelligence Agency" among the participants in a discussion with State Department officers of psychological intelligence, and records his concern that splitting that work among several organizations would produce the shortcomings of decentralization.[^71] A memorandum of March 6, 1951, addressed to the intelligence chiefs of the State Department, the Army, the Navy and the Air Force, was issued "For the Director of Central Intelligence" over Millikan's typed name as Assistant Director, Research and Reports.[^72] A letter he signed as Assistant Director on November 26, 1951 says that "Walt Rostow at the Center for International Studies has sought my assistance in finding him someone to help out with some research."[^73] A letter of March 3, 1952 addresses him as Special Consultant, Central Intelligence Agency.[^74] In an interview note of March 5, 1952 titled "Origin of PSB," a CIA historian recorded that Millikan "participated in a 'contract study,' State and MIT," which the note identifies as the "Troy Project," and that its study "had considerable to do with the creation of the PSB."[^75]
The agency's financing of the [[Center for International Studies]] at MIT is recorded in several places. [[Patrick Oster]] reported in the Washington Post of September 11, 1977 that the agency "secretly financed a research project at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in order to gain data on how to turn Russian scientists into CIA agents," as part of "Project MK-ULTRA," with a foundation as a "front," and that the researcher was affiliated with MIT's Center for International Studies, "which was set up in 1951 with CIA money and had as its first director Max F. Millikan, a former assistant director of the agency."[^72] Time reported on February 24, 1967 "directly and without masquerade" "$300,000 to finance M.I.T.'s topflight Center for International Studies," and that MIT then "terminated the contract 'for practical, not moral reasons.'"[^73] [[Andreas Lowenfeld]], of the State Department's Office of Legal Adviser, testifying before the Senate Judiciary Committee's Internal Security Subcommittee, said of the center in 1951 and 1952: "they had some kind of contract with the CIA," and, asked whether he knew it was a CIA operation, "I was never formally told, but it became apparent."[^74]
The agency's financing of the [[Center for International Studies]] at MIT is recorded in several places. [[Patrick Oster]] reported in the Washington Post of September 11, 1977 that the agency "secretly financed a research project at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in order to gain data on how to turn Russian scientists into CIA agents," as part of "Project MK-ULTRA," with a foundation as a "front," and that the researcher was affiliated with MIT's Center for International Studies, "which was set up in 1951 with CIA money and had as its first director Max F. Millikan, a former assistant director of the agency."[^76] Time reported on February 24, 1967 "directly and without masquerade" "$300,000 to finance M.I.T.'s topflight Center for International Studies," and that MIT then "terminated the contract 'for practical, not moral reasons.'"[^77] [[Andreas Lowenfeld]], of the State Department's Office of Legal Adviser, testifying before the Senate Judiciary Committee's Internal Security Subcommittee, said of the center in 1951 and 1952: "they had some kind of contract with the CIA," and, asked whether he knew it was a CIA operation, "I was never formally told, but it became apparent."[^78]
The third progress report on NSC 59/1 records that the CIA had been assigned a continuing study of balloons as propaganda carriers and "instructed to stockpile one thousand large-sized propaganda balloons of the best type presently available."[^75] The [[Project Troy]] report had placed balloon work inside political warfare, stating that "The balloon problem is a part of political warfare. It cannot be handled by a separate balloon shop."[^76]
The third progress report on NSC 59/1 records that the CIA had been assigned a continuing study of balloons as propaganda carriers and "instructed to stockpile one thousand large-sized propaganda balloons of the best type presently available."[^79] The [[Project Troy]] report had placed balloon work inside political warfare, stating that "The balloon problem is a part of political warfare. It cannot be handled by a separate balloon shop."[^80]
In February 1961 [[Allen Dulles|Allen W. Dulles]] wrote to Millikan, then director of the center, that he was "very deeply interested in the proposal in your letter of January 23," and expected to attend at least part of the meetings of May 18 to 21, 1961, at which the center would review its first ten years.[^77]
In February 1961 Allen W. Dulles wrote to Millikan, then director of the center, that he was "very deeply interested in the proposal in your letter of January 23," and expected to attend at least part of the meetings of May 18 to 21, 1961, at which the center would review its first ten years.[^81]
A CIA document titled "Principles Governing Budgetary Relationships Between CENIS and CIA" describes an annual contract under which research projects were "mutually agreed upon case by case" between the agency and the Center for International Studies, within an annual authorization of $500,000. The document is undated.[^78] A CIA list of recipients of Office of Research and Reports unclassified studies names Max Millikan, [[Walt Rostow]], [[Wilfred Malenbaum]], [[Everett Hagen]], [[Evsey Domar]] and [[Thomas Schelling]], each listed under the Center for International Studies.[^79] A CIA memorandum dated February 16, 1959, forwarding a [[National Review]] Bulletin item, carries the item's text stating that [[Richard Bissell]] and [[Robert Amory]] "lean ideologically on CIA's outriding auxiliary at MIT, the Center for International Studies," and that they have been influenced by the theories of "W. W. Rostow, director of the Center."[^80] The MIT President's report for 1962 to 1963 refers to "Max F. Millikan, Director of the Center for International Studies."[^81] A CIA Office of Legislative Counsel journal entry of March 3, 1967 records that "the Agency has Senator Fulbright's letter concerning a Center for International Studies, MIT, and is preparing a response."[^82]
A CIA document titled "Principles Governing Budgetary Relationships Between CENIS and CIA" describes an annual contract under which research projects were "mutually agreed upon case by case" between the agency and the Center for International Studies, within an annual authorization of $500,000. The document is undated.[^82] A CIA list of recipients of Office of Research and Reports unclassified studies names Max Millikan, [[Walt Rostow]], [[Wilfred Malenbaum]], [[Everett Hagen]], [[Evsey Domar]] and [[Thomas Schelling]], each listed under the Center for International Studies.[^83] A CIA memorandum dated February 16, 1959, forwarding a [[National Review]] Bulletin item, carries the item's text stating that [[Richard Bissell]] and [[Robert Amory]] "lean ideologically on CIA's outriding auxiliary at MIT, the Center for International Studies," and that they have been influenced by the theories of "W. W. Rostow, director of the Center."[^84] The MIT President's report for 1962 to 1963 refers to "Max F. Millikan, Director of the Center for International Studies."[^85] A CIA Office of Legislative Counsel journal entry of March 3, 1967 records that "the Agency has Senator Fulbright's letter concerning a Center for International Studies, MIT, and is preparing a response."[^86]
### Footnotes
@ -216,81 +223,85 @@ A CIA document titled "Principles Governing Budgetary Relationships Between CENI
[^2]: Hersh, Seymour M. *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy*. Random House, 1991.
[^3]: Associated Press item, "F. Trubee Davison to Join CIA in Personnel Post," CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP78-04718A000500180115-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp78-04718a000500180115-2
[^4]: Memorandum from F. Trubee Davison, September 11, 1951, on CIA Official Routing Slip, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP80R01731R003100090067-0. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003100090067-0
[^5]: CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP84-00780R003200020017-9 (May 15, 1969), CIA-RDP84-00780R003200020006-1 (1968) and CIA-RDP80-00536A000300070001-5 (Midcareer Course No. 32, 1972). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-00536a000300070001-5
[^6]: "Bush's Boy's Club: Skull and Bones," *Covert Action Information Bulletin*, no. 33 (Winter 1990), pp. 20 to 22. https://archive.org/details/CAIB33
[^7]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^8]: Elizondo, Luis. *Imminent*. William Morrow, 2024.
[^9]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979, Chapters 1-2.
[^10]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum to the Director of Central Intelligence, "Release of Trace Metal Detection Technique to Law Enforcement Officials," June 10, 1970, CIA-RDP83B00823R000600150029-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00823r000600150029-5
[^11]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security, memorandum on the relationship with LEAA, CIA CREST document C01435053. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01435053
[^12]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security, "Relationship with Police," CIA CREST document C01435041. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01435041
[^13]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security memorandum, "Technology Transfer of ERDT to LEAA," November 10, 1971, CIA-RDP83B00823R000600150007-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00823r000600150007-9
[^14]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security, memorandum for the Deputy Director of Security, "LEAA Request for Agency Support, Where's What," February 16, 1972, CIA-RDP83B00823R000200060130-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00823r000200060130-3
[^15]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Research and Development, "Survey of ORD for Non-Foreign Intelligence Activities," May 9, 1973, CIA CREST document 01430445, entry on LEAA. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01430445
[^16]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Legislative Counsel, summary of the Holtzman Amendment, CIA-RDP76M00527R000700190003-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp76m00527r000700190003-1
[^17]: Crime Control Act of 1973, Pub. L. 93-83, sec. 508, 87 Stat. 211 (August 6, 1973). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-87/pdf/STATUTE-87-Pg197.pdf
[^18]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of General Counsel, memorandum for the record, "CIA Action on LEAA Requests," OGC 73-1954, October 15, 1973, CIA-RDP75-00793R000300160026-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00793r000300160026-2
[^19]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Legislative Counsel memorandum, "Law Enforcement Assistance Administration Reauthorization Legislation," July 12, 1978, CIA-RDP81M00980R001800050017-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp81m00980r001800050017-0
[^20]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum for the Review Staff, "Briefing of House Select Committee Staff re LEAA Relationships," November 14, 1975, CIA-RDP89B00552R000100110024-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp89b00552r000100110024-1
[^21]: Turner, Stansfield, Director of Central Intelligence, letter to Senator Daniel K. Inouye, chairman, Select Committee on Intelligence, August 2, 1977, in New School digital object NS010102_000027, PDF pp. 96-103 (figures at p. 101; Privacy Act at p. 102). https://digital.archives.newschool.edu/index.php/Detail/objects/NS010102_000027
[^22]: Lapham, Anthony A., General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, August 1977 (stamped August 15, 1977), in NS010102_000027, PDF pp. 94-95.
[^23]: Cinquegrana, A. R., Office of General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, September 7, 1977, in NS010102_000027, PDF p. 7. https://digital.archives.newschool.edu/index.php/Detail/objects/NS010102_000027
[^24]: Lapham, Anthony A., General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, November 7, 1977, in NS010102_000027, PDF p. 3.
[^25]: Cinquegrana, A. R., Assistant General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, March 17, 1978, in NS010102_000027, PDF p. 1.
[^26]: Thomas, Jo, "Extent of University Work for C.I.A. Is Hard to Pin Down," New York Times, October 9, 1977, CIA reading room clipping CIA-RDP88-01315R000300390007-3.
[^27]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 126.
[^28]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 147.
[^29]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 12.
[^30]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 9.
[^31]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 149.
[^32]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 347.
[^33]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 11, "BCCI, the CIA and Foreign Intelligence." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm
[^34]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 334.
[^35]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 341.
[^36]: White House, Office of the Press Secretary, "Biography of Bobby Ray Inman," December 16, 1993. https://clintonwhitehouse6.archives.gov/1993/12/1993-12-16-biography-of-bobby-ray-inman.html
[^37]: George C. Wilson and George Gardner Jr., "Leaving for Private Industry: Inman Quitting," *The Washington Post*, April 22, 1982, CIA CREST copy CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230020-3. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230020-3
[^38]: Michael J. Sniffen, *Philadelphia Inquirer*, April 1982, CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230017-7. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230017-7
[^39]: CBS Radio network commentary, April 22, 1982, "Admiral Inman Resigns," CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230019-5. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230019-5
[^40]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Intelligence, *Nomination of Robert M. Gates to be Director of Central Intelligence*, S. Exec. Rept. 102-19, 102d Cong., 1st sess., October 24, 1991, section 5, PDF pages 186 to 188. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/sites-default-filesations-10219.pdf
[^41]: CREST Senior Review Panel memoranda CIA-RDP93T00837R000400110005-3 (NIC-03024-87, September 1, 1987), CIA-RDP93T01222R000100010013-9 (NIC-03595-87, September 8, 1987), CIA-RDP92T00306R000300090020-0 (September 24, 1987), CIA-RDP93T00451R000300080006-5 (NIC-04228-87, October 22, 1987) and CIA-RDP93T00451R000400110014-1 (December 1, 1987). https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t00837r000400110005-3, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t01222r000100010013-9, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp92t00306r000300090020-0, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t00451r000300080006-5, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t00451r000400110014-1
[^42]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Prologue and Chapter 5: "God, Fatherland and Freedom"
[^43]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Chapter 5: "God, Fatherland and Freedom"
[^44]: CIA Office of Inspector General, Report of Investigation Concerning Allegations of Connections Between CIA and the Contras in Cocaine Trafficking to the United States, Volume I, January 29, 1998, findings on Carlos Cabezas and "Ivan Gomez." https://irp.fas.org/cia/product/cocaine/findings2.html
[^45]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Epilogue: "The damage that has been done"
[^46]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Chapter 13: "The wrong kind of friends"
[^47]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Inspector General, Chapter X, part 2, section C.2 (Carlos Amador: CIA cables of April 23 and April 25, 1986). https://oig.justice.gov/special/9712/ch10p2.htm
[^48]: Gerth, Jeff, "Old Concerns Over Data Transfer to China Get New Attention," *The New York Times,* December 7, 1998, section A, p. 20, archived copy at https://web.archive.org/web/20201101033224/https://www.nytimes.com/1998/12/07/us/old-concerns-over-data-transfer-to-china-get-new-attention.html
[^49]: U.S. House of Representatives, Select Committee on U.S. National Security and Military/Commercial Concerns with the People's Republic of China, Report (Cox Report), H. Rept. 105-851, vol. II, ch. 5, pp. 55-57, and Appendix A, pp. 208-209, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CRPT-105hrpt851/pdf/CRPT-105hrpt851.pdf
[^50]: Congressional Research Service, "China: Possible Missile Technology Transfers under U.S. Satellite Export Policy: Actions and Chronology," report 98-485 F, entries for April 1996 and September 1998, with notes 76 and 77, https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/98-485F.html
[^51]: Congressional Record, Senate, September 22, 2004, Rollcall Vote No. 187 (yeas 77, nays 17). https://irp.fas.org/congress/2004_cr/goss092204.html ; "Porter Goss Sworn in As New CIA Director," PBS NewsHour, September 24, 2004 (sworn in by Andrew Card in the Oval Office). https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/government_programs-july-dec04-cia_09-24 ; Norris, "Goss Is Latest to Leave Bush Administration," NPR transcript, May 5, 2006. https://www.npr.org/transcripts/5387220
[^52]: JURIST, "FBI probes CIA defense contracts after top official resigns," May 2006 (FBI probe of Foggo's possible help to ADCS). https://www.jurist.org/news/2006/05/fbi-probes-cia-defense-contracts-after ; Paul Blumenthal, "MSNBC: Foggo Gone," Sunlight Foundation, May 8, 2006 (resignation reported Monday). https://sunlightfoundation.com/2006/05/08/msnbc-foggo-gone/
[^53]: NBC News, "Ex-CIA executive gets 37 months in prison," February 26, 2009 (one count of fraud, 27 counts dropped, Judge James Cacheris, 37 months as requested). https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna29413971 ; Associated Press, "CIA officer gets jail time for fraud," Philadelphia Inquirer, February 27, 2009. https://www.inquirer.com/philly/news/nation_world/20090227_CIA_officer_gets_jail_time_for_fraud.html
[^54]: Select Committee on Intelligence, United States Senate, Committee Study of the Central Intelligence Agency's Detention and Interrogation Program, S. Rept. 113-288 (December 2014), executive summary and findings, sections on the 2005 videotapes ("The CIA destroyed the CIA interrogation videotapes the following day"; Rizzo's October 31, 2005 email). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/CRPT-113srpt288.pdf
[^55]: NBC News, "Ex-CIA chief agreed with tape destruction," April 2010 (e-mails released by the Justice Department under an ACLU FOIA request; "PG, however, agreed with the decision"; the disputed account). https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna36589750
[^56]: JURIST, "No charges to be filed in CIA videotape destruction case: DOJ," November 2010 (spokesman Matthew Miller on Durham's decision; Durham appointed 2008 by Attorney General Michael Mukasey). https://www.jurist.org/news/2010/11/no-charges-to-be-filed-in-cia-videotape-destruction-case/
[^57]: Joseph E. Roop, "Foreign Broadcast Information Service. History. Part I: 1941-1947" (Central Intelligence Agency, approved for release April 1969), pp. 279, 299-300 and 303. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
[^58]: National Archives and Records Administration, Guide to Federal Records, Record Group 262, administrative history. https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/262.html.
[^59]: Roop, Part I, p. 2. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
[^60]: Roop, Part II (CIA Directorate of Intelligence, August 1970), pp. 2 and 151-152. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690.
[^61]: Office of the Director of National Intelligence, "ODNI Announces Establishment of Open Source Center," News Release No. 6-05, November 8, 2005. https://irp.fas.org/news/2005/11/odni110805.html.
[^62]: Central Intelligence Group, Central Planning Staff, memorandum "Liquidation of Security Advisory Board, OWI (C.I.G. Liaison with New Security Advisory Board under SWNCC)," July 22, 1946. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP78-04007A000300040024-9. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp78-04007a000300040024-9
[^63]: Central Intelligence Group, Chief, ICAPS, to the Executive Director, memorandum "CIG Membership on SWNCC Subcommittee for Psychological Warfare," July 21, 1947. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP84-00022R000400100046-0. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp84-00022r000400100046-0
[^64]: Central Intelligence Agency, Minutes of the Eighth Meeting of the Psychological Strategy Board (PSB M-8), January 10, 1952, membership and other participants. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP80-01065A000500100033-6. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp80-01065a000500100033-6
[^65]: Max F. Millikan, letter stamped January 30, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003100150032-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003100150032-1
[^66]: Max F. Millikan, letter of October 29, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP79-01157A000200020002-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp79-01157a000200020002-2
[^67]: CIA, memorandum of conversation, "Psychological Intelligence," January 22, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003500180026-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003500180026-1
[^68]: CIA, "Report of Intelligence Project Initiations, February 1951," memorandum of March 6, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP60-00213A000200030008-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp60-00213a000200030008-3
[^69]: Max F. Millikan, letter of November 26, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003000200096-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003000200096-6
[^70]: Stuart A. Rice, Assistant Director for Statistical Standards, Bureau of the Budget, letter to Max F. Millikan, March 3, 1952, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00662R000300120004-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00662r000300120004-5
[^71]: A. B. Darling, note of interview with Max Millikan, "Origin of PSB," March 5, 1952, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP83-00036R000400050039-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83-00036r000400050039-0
[^72]: Patrick Oster, "CIA Envisioned Soviet Scientists as U.S. Agents," Chicago Sun-Times, reprinted in the Washington Post, September 11, 1977, p. A-9, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP88-01315R000400460003-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01315r000400460003-8
[^73]: Time, February 24, 1967, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP84-00161R000400210135-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84-00161r000400210135-8
[^74]: U.S. Senate, Committee on the Judiciary, Internal Security Subcommittee, extracts from hearings (Part 3) on State Department security and passport regulations, testimony of Andreas F. Lowenfeld, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00149R000400560007-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00149r000400560007-3
[^75]: FRUS, The Intelligence Community, 1950-1955, Document 57 (third progress report on NSC 59/1), paragraph 12. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d57
[^76]: CIA reading room document CIA-RDP79S01011A000900030019-8, excerpt of the Project Troy report to the Secretary of State, February 1, 1951 (balloon chapter). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP79S01011A000900030019-8
[^77]: Allen W. Dulles, letter to Max F. Millikan, February 27, 1961, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80B01676R003500160028-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003500160028-9
[^78]: CIA, "Principles Governing Budgetary Relationships Between CENIS and CIA" (undated; released 2000), CIA reading room document CIA-RDP67-00059A000200090016-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp67-00059a000200090016-2
[^79]: CIA, "Recipients for ORR Unclassified Studies" (undated list), CIA reading room document CIA-RDP63-00314R000100180007-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp63-00314r000100180007-7
[^80]: CIA memorandum from the Assistant to the Director, February 16, 1959, forwarding a National Review Bulletin item, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00001R000100260064-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000100260064-9
[^81]: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, President's Report Issue for the year ending July 1, 1963, p. 165, MIT Libraries, DSpace. https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/160055
[^82]: CIA Office of Legislative Counsel, journal entry, "Friday, 3 March 1967," CIA reading room document CIA-RDP69B00369R000200020044-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp69b00369r000200020044-4
[^5]: "General Smith Names A Deputy," editorial, *Springfield (Ohio) Sun*, July 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00001R000300090028-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000300090028-6
[^6]: Memorandum from Allen W. Dulles to "Trubee Davison, Esq. (Asst. Director, Personnel)," September 10, 1951, CIA-RDP80R01731R003100020077-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003100020077-6
[^7]: "Minutes of 2nd Career Service Committee Meeting," October 1, 1951, CIA-RDP80-01826R000400090089-6; "Minutes of 14th Career Service Committee Meeting," CIA-RDP80-01826R000400090006-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-01826r000400090089-6 ; https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-01826r000400090006-7
[^8]: "F. Trubee Davison Dies at 78," *New York Times*, November 16, 1974. https://web.archive.org/web/20240107180328/https://www.nytimes.com/1974/11/16/archives/f-trubee-davison-dies-at-78-led-natural-history-museum-aviation.html
[^9]: CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP84-00780R003200020017-9 (May 15, 1969), CIA-RDP84-00780R003200020006-1 (1968) and CIA-RDP80-00536A000300070001-5 (Midcareer Course No. 32, 1972). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-00536a000300070001-5
[^10]: "Bush's Boy's Club: Skull and Bones," *Covert Action Information Bulletin*, no. 33 (Winter 1990), pp. 20 to 22. https://archive.org/details/CAIB33
[^11]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^12]: Elizondo, Luis. *Imminent*. William Morrow, 2024.
[^13]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979, Chapters 1-2.
[^14]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum to the Director of Central Intelligence, "Release of Trace Metal Detection Technique to Law Enforcement Officials," June 10, 1970, CIA-RDP83B00823R000600150029-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00823r000600150029-5
[^15]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security, memorandum on the relationship with LEAA, CIA CREST document C01435053. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01435053
[^16]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security, "Relationship with Police," CIA CREST document C01435041. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01435041
[^17]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security memorandum, "Technology Transfer of ERDT to LEAA," November 10, 1971, CIA-RDP83B00823R000600150007-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00823r000600150007-9
[^18]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Security, memorandum for the Deputy Director of Security, "LEAA Request for Agency Support, Where's What," February 16, 1972, CIA-RDP83B00823R000200060130-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83b00823r000200060130-3
[^19]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Research and Development, "Survey of ORD for Non-Foreign Intelligence Activities," May 9, 1973, CIA CREST document 01430445, entry on LEAA. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01430445
[^20]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Legislative Counsel, summary of the Holtzman Amendment, CIA-RDP76M00527R000700190003-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp76m00527r000700190003-1
[^21]: Crime Control Act of 1973, Pub. L. 93-83, sec. 508, 87 Stat. 211 (August 6, 1973). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-87/pdf/STATUTE-87-Pg197.pdf
[^22]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of General Counsel, memorandum for the record, "CIA Action on LEAA Requests," OGC 73-1954, October 15, 1973, CIA-RDP75-00793R000300160026-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00793r000300160026-2
[^23]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Legislative Counsel memorandum, "Law Enforcement Assistance Administration Reauthorization Legislation," July 12, 1978, CIA-RDP81M00980R001800050017-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp81m00980r001800050017-0
[^24]: Central Intelligence Agency, memorandum for the Review Staff, "Briefing of House Select Committee Staff re LEAA Relationships," November 14, 1975, CIA-RDP89B00552R000100110024-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp89b00552r000100110024-1
[^25]: Turner, Stansfield, Director of Central Intelligence, letter to Senator Daniel K. Inouye, chairman, Select Committee on Intelligence, August 2, 1977, in New School digital object NS010102_000027, PDF pp. 96-103 (figures at p. 101; Privacy Act at p. 102). https://digital.archives.newschool.edu/index.php/Detail/objects/NS010102_000027
[^26]: Lapham, Anthony A., General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, August 1977 (stamped August 15, 1977), in NS010102_000027, PDF pp. 94-95.
[^27]: Cinquegrana, A. R., Office of General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, September 7, 1977, in NS010102_000027, PDF p. 7. https://digital.archives.newschool.edu/index.php/Detail/objects/NS010102_000027
[^28]: Lapham, Anthony A., General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, November 7, 1977, in NS010102_000027, PDF p. 3.
[^29]: Cinquegrana, A. R., Assistant General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, letter to John R. Everett, March 17, 1978, in NS010102_000027, PDF p. 1.
[^30]: Thomas, Jo, "Extent of University Work for C.I.A. Is Hard to Pin Down," New York Times, October 9, 1977, CIA reading room clipping CIA-RDP88-01315R000300390007-3.
[^31]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 126.
[^32]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 147.
[^33]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 12.
[^34]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 9.
[^35]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 149.
[^36]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 347.
[^37]: Kerry, Senator John, and Senator Hank Brown. *The BCCI Affair: A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.* December 1992, ch. 11, "BCCI, the CIA and Foreign Intelligence." https://irp.fas.org/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/11intel.htm
[^38]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 334.
[^39]: Beaty, Jonathan and Gwynne, S. C. *The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of BCCI*. New York: Random House, 1993, p. 341.
[^40]: White House, Office of the Press Secretary, "Biography of Bobby Ray Inman," December 16, 1993. https://clintonwhitehouse6.archives.gov/1993/12/1993-12-16-biography-of-bobby-ray-inman.html
[^41]: George C. Wilson and George Gardner Jr., "Leaving for Private Industry: Inman Quitting," *The Washington Post*, April 22, 1982, CIA CREST copy CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230020-3. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230020-3
[^42]: Michael J. Sniffen, *Philadelphia Inquirer*, April 1982, CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230017-7. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230017-7
[^43]: CBS Radio network commentary, April 22, 1982, "Admiral Inman Resigns," CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230019-5. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00552R000201230019-5
[^44]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Intelligence, *Nomination of Robert M. Gates to be Director of Central Intelligence*, S. Exec. Rept. 102-19, 102d Cong., 1st sess., October 24, 1991, section 5, PDF pages 186 to 188. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/sites-default-filesations-10219.pdf
[^45]: CREST Senior Review Panel memoranda CIA-RDP93T00837R000400110005-3 (NIC-03024-87, September 1, 1987), CIA-RDP93T01222R000100010013-9 (NIC-03595-87, September 8, 1987), CIA-RDP92T00306R000300090020-0 (September 24, 1987), CIA-RDP93T00451R000300080006-5 (NIC-04228-87, October 22, 1987) and CIA-RDP93T00451R000400110014-1 (December 1, 1987). https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t00837r000400110005-3, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t01222r000100010013-9, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp92t00306r000300090020-0, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t00451r000300080006-5, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp93t00451r000400110014-1
[^46]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Prologue and Chapter 5: "God, Fatherland and Freedom"
[^47]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Chapter 5: "God, Fatherland and Freedom"
[^48]: CIA Office of Inspector General, Report of Investigation Concerning Allegations of Connections Between CIA and the Contras in Cocaine Trafficking to the United States, Volume I, January 29, 1998, findings on Carlos Cabezas and "Ivan Gomez." https://irp.fas.org/cia/product/cocaine/findings2.html
[^49]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Epilogue: "The damage that has been done"
[^50]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Chapter 13: "The wrong kind of friends"
[^51]: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Inspector General, Chapter X, part 2, section C.2 (Carlos Amador: CIA cables of April 23 and April 25, 1986). https://oig.justice.gov/special/9712/ch10p2.htm
[^52]: Gerth, Jeff, "Old Concerns Over Data Transfer to China Get New Attention," *The New York Times,* December 7, 1998, section A, p. 20, archived copy at https://web.archive.org/web/20201101033224/https://www.nytimes.com/1998/12/07/us/old-concerns-over-data-transfer-to-china-get-new-attention.html
[^53]: U.S. House of Representatives, Select Committee on U.S. National Security and Military/Commercial Concerns with the People's Republic of China, Report (Cox Report), H. Rept. 105-851, vol. II, ch. 5, pp. 55-57, and Appendix A, pp. 208-209, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CRPT-105hrpt851/pdf/CRPT-105hrpt851.pdf
[^54]: Congressional Research Service, "China: Possible Missile Technology Transfers under U.S. Satellite Export Policy: Actions and Chronology," report 98-485 F, entries for April 1996 and September 1998, with notes 76 and 77, https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/98-485F.html
[^55]: Congressional Record, Senate, September 22, 2004, Rollcall Vote No. 187 (yeas 77, nays 17). https://irp.fas.org/congress/2004_cr/goss092204.html ; "Porter Goss Sworn in As New CIA Director," PBS NewsHour, September 24, 2004 (sworn in by Andrew Card in the Oval Office). https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/government_programs-july-dec04-cia_09-24 ; Norris, "Goss Is Latest to Leave Bush Administration," NPR transcript, May 5, 2006. https://www.npr.org/transcripts/5387220
[^56]: JURIST, "FBI probes CIA defense contracts after top official resigns," May 2006 (FBI probe of Foggo's possible help to ADCS). https://www.jurist.org/news/2006/05/fbi-probes-cia-defense-contracts-after ; Paul Blumenthal, "MSNBC: Foggo Gone," Sunlight Foundation, May 8, 2006 (resignation reported Monday). https://sunlightfoundation.com/2006/05/08/msnbc-foggo-gone/
[^57]: NBC News, "Ex-CIA executive gets 37 months in prison," February 26, 2009 (one count of fraud, 27 counts dropped, Judge James Cacheris, 37 months as requested). https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna29413971 ; Associated Press, "CIA officer gets jail time for fraud," Philadelphia Inquirer, February 27, 2009. https://www.inquirer.com/philly/news/nation_world/20090227_CIA_officer_gets_jail_time_for_fraud.html
[^58]: Select Committee on Intelligence, United States Senate, Committee Study of the Central Intelligence Agency's Detention and Interrogation Program, S. Rept. 113-288 (December 2014), executive summary and findings, sections on the 2005 videotapes ("The CIA destroyed the CIA interrogation videotapes the following day"; Rizzo's October 31, 2005 email). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/CRPT-113srpt288.pdf
[^59]: NBC News, "Ex-CIA chief agreed with tape destruction," April 2010 (e-mails released by the Justice Department under an ACLU FOIA request; "PG, however, agreed with the decision"; the disputed account). https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna36589750
[^60]: JURIST, "No charges to be filed in CIA videotape destruction case: DOJ," November 2010 (spokesman Matthew Miller on Durham's decision; Durham appointed 2008 by Attorney General Michael Mukasey). https://www.jurist.org/news/2010/11/no-charges-to-be-filed-in-cia-videotape-destruction-case/
[^61]: Joseph E. Roop, "Foreign Broadcast Information Service. History. Part I: 1941-1947" (Central Intelligence Agency, approved for release April 1969), pp. 279, 299-300 and 303. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
[^62]: National Archives and Records Administration, Guide to Federal Records, Record Group 262, administrative history. https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/262.html.
[^63]: Roop, Part I, p. 2. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
[^64]: Roop, Part II (CIA Directorate of Intelligence, August 1970), pp. 2 and 151-152. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-06741690.
[^65]: Office of the Director of National Intelligence, "ODNI Announces Establishment of Open Source Center," News Release No. 6-05, November 8, 2005. https://irp.fas.org/news/2005/11/odni110805.html.
[^66]: Central Intelligence Group, Central Planning Staff, memorandum "Liquidation of Security Advisory Board, OWI (C.I.G. Liaison with New Security Advisory Board under SWNCC)," July 22, 1946. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP78-04007A000300040024-9. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp78-04007a000300040024-9
[^67]: Central Intelligence Group, Chief, ICAPS, to the Executive Director, memorandum "CIG Membership on SWNCC Subcommittee for Psychological Warfare," July 21, 1947. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP84-00022R000400100046-0. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp84-00022r000400100046-0
[^68]: Central Intelligence Agency, Minutes of the Eighth Meeting of the Psychological Strategy Board (PSB M-8), January 10, 1952, membership and other participants. CIA reading room copy, CIA-RDP80-01065A000500100033-6. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp80-01065a000500100033-6
[^69]: Max F. Millikan, letter stamped January 30, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003100150032-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003100150032-1
[^70]: Max F. Millikan, letter of October 29, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP79-01157A000200020002-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp79-01157a000200020002-2
[^71]: CIA, memorandum of conversation, "Psychological Intelligence," January 22, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003500180026-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003500180026-1
[^72]: CIA, "Report of Intelligence Project Initiations, February 1951," memorandum of March 6, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP60-00213A000200030008-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp60-00213a000200030008-3
[^73]: Max F. Millikan, letter of November 26, 1951, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80R01731R003000200096-6. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r003000200096-6
[^74]: Stuart A. Rice, Assistant Director for Statistical Standards, Bureau of the Budget, letter to Max F. Millikan, March 3, 1952, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00662R000300120004-5. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00662r000300120004-5
[^75]: A. B. Darling, note of interview with Max Millikan, "Origin of PSB," March 5, 1952, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP83-00036R000400050039-0. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp83-00036r000400050039-0
[^76]: Patrick Oster, "CIA Envisioned Soviet Scientists as U.S. Agents," Chicago Sun-Times, reprinted in the Washington Post, September 11, 1977, p. A-9, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP88-01315R000400460003-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01315r000400460003-8
[^77]: Time, February 24, 1967, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP84-00161R000400210135-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84-00161r000400210135-8
[^78]: U.S. Senate, Committee on the Judiciary, Internal Security Subcommittee, extracts from hearings (Part 3) on State Department security and passport regulations, testimony of Andreas F. Lowenfeld, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00149R000400560007-3. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00149r000400560007-3
[^79]: FRUS, The Intelligence Community, 1950-1955, Document 57 (third progress report on NSC 59/1), paragraph 12. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d57
[^80]: CIA reading room document CIA-RDP79S01011A000900030019-8, excerpt of the Project Troy report to the Secretary of State, February 1, 1951 (balloon chapter). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP79S01011A000900030019-8
[^81]: Allen W. Dulles, letter to Max F. Millikan, February 27, 1961, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP80B01676R003500160028-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003500160028-9
[^82]: CIA, "Principles Governing Budgetary Relationships Between CENIS and CIA" (undated; released 2000), CIA reading room document CIA-RDP67-00059A000200090016-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp67-00059a000200090016-2
[^83]: CIA, "Recipients for ORR Unclassified Studies" (undated list), CIA reading room document CIA-RDP63-00314R000100180007-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp63-00314r000100180007-7
[^84]: CIA memorandum from the Assistant to the Director, February 16, 1959, forwarding a National Review Bulletin item, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP75-00001R000100260064-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000100260064-9
[^85]: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, President's Report Issue for the year ending July 1, 1963, p. 165, MIT Libraries, DSpace. https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/160055
[^86]: CIA Office of Legislative Counsel, journal entry, "Friday, 3 March 1967," CIA reading room document CIA-RDP69B00369R000200020044-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp69b00369r000200020044-4

15
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/Office of Strategic Services.md
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@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
---
created: 2025-07-23
updated: 2026-10-09
updated: 2026-10-26
title: Office of Strategic Services
aliases:
- OSS
@ -26,6 +26,11 @@ relations:
role: "Divided the foreign information field under Executive Order 9182 and the June 13, 1942 military order"
start: 1942-06-13
fn: 1
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Donald Barr]]"
reverse: true
role: "Army service with the OSS in Washington and Europe; Research and Analysis Branch (brief), per the CIA review of his son's memoir"
fn: 15
---
The Office of Strategic Services (OSS) was the United States wartime intelligence and covert operations agency established by a Military Order of June 13, 1942 that redesignated the Coordinator of Information's office and placed it under the Joint Chiefs of Staff, under the direction of General William J. "Wild Bill" Donovan, whom the order appointed Director of Strategic Services. It replaced the earlier Coordinator of Information (COI) office established July 11, 1941, and the order revoked the order of July 11, 1941.[^1] The OSS coordinated intelligence gathering, ran covert operations behind enemy lines, conducted psychological warfare, and analyzed foreign intelligence. President Truman dissolved it by Executive Order 9621 on September 20, 1945, effective October 1, 1945.[^2] Much of its personnel, methodology, and organizational culture transferred directly into the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], created by the [[National Security Act of 1947]].[^3]
@ -68,6 +73,10 @@ The Foreign Nationalities Branch reported on the [[Mazzini Society]] and its riv
The Office of Strategic Services considered the [[New School for Social Research]] "the best collection of German, left-leaning intellectuals in the United States." Over two hundred students who had studied at the school's University in Exile worked for the government during the war, and New School scholars were involved in more than twenty-five government-associated projects routed through [[Rockefeller Foundation]] intermediaries.[^12]
### Personnel Files and Donald Barr
[[Donald Barr]], a [[Columbia College]] graduate of 1941 who later became headmaster of the [[Dalton School]], "went into the Army and served with the Office of Strategic Services in Washington, D.C., and Europe."[^13][^14] The Center for the Study of Intelligence's review of his son [[William Barr]]'s 2022 memoir refers to the elder Barr's "brief service in the Research and Analysis Branch of the Office of Strategic Services during World War II."[^15] The [[National Archives and Records Administration|National Archives]] database of OSS personnel files (Record Group 226, Entry 224), dated December 23, 2010, lists a "Barr, Donald" with a T-5 serial number 36647447 and, on the following line, a Pfc serial number 39227927, in box 38. The database gives no middle initial, birthplace or unit, and records found do not establish whether either serial belongs to the Columbia graduate.[^16]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Military Order, "Office of Strategic Services," June 13, 1942, Federal Register, June 16, 1942, 7 F.R. 4469-4470, paragraphs 1 to 5. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-06-16/pdf/FR-1942-06-16.pdf
@ -82,3 +91,7 @@ The Office of Strategic Services considered the [[New School for Social Research
[^10]: John D. Marks, *The Search for the Manchurian Candidate*. Times Books, 1979, Chapter 1.
[^11]: CIA-RDP13X00001R000100180008-7, Office of Strategic Services, Foreign Nationalities Branch organization file (1942-43), "Confusion Among Liberal and Socialist Italian and Spanish Anti-Fascists in the United States (Summary of FNB Memo No. 111)," Secretariat memorandum to Colonel Donovan, March 27, 1943, PDF p. 154; memorandum No. 111, PDF pp. 157-159. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp13x00001r000100180008-7
[^12]: Daniel Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State" (PhD diss., Duke University, 2013), pp. 137-138, citing Claus-Dieter Krohn, Intellectuals in Exile: Refugee Scholars and the New School for Social Research (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1993), pp. 139-149, 165-167. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/232a76ac-f2d8-4827-99fe-50b3b109fa6c/content
[^13]: "Obituaries," *Columbia College Today,* May 2004, class of 1941. https://web.archive.org/web/20190905000723/https://www.college.columbia.edu/cct_archive/may04/obituaries1.html
[^14]: Wolfgang Saxon, "Donald Barr, 82, Headmaster And Science Honors Educator," *The New York Times,* February 10, 2004, section B, p. 8. https://www.nytimes.com/2004/02/10/nyregion/donald-barr-82-headmaster-and-science-honors-educator.html
[^15]: Central Intelligence Agency, Center for the Study of Intelligence, review essay on William P. Barr, *One Damn Thing After Another* (William Morrow, 2022), *Studies in Intelligence* 67, no. 1 (extracts, March 2023). https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/4-Review-Essay-Barr-Memoir.pdf
[^16]: National Archives and Records Administration, Records of the Office of Strategic Services, RG 226, Entry 224, OSS Personnel Files, name database dated 12/23/2010. https://www.archives.gov/iwg/declassified-records/rg-226-oss/personnel-database.pdf

22
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT/USA/President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board.md
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@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ summary: "White House board of private citizens created by Eisenhower in 1956 to
start: 1956-01-13
location: "Washington, D.C."
created: 2026-09-24
updated: 2026-09-24
updated: 2026-10-26
relations:
- type: founded
with: "[[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]"
@ -44,6 +44,13 @@ relations:
reverse: true
start: 1956-01-13
fn: 2
- type: member_of
with: "[[Clare Boothe Luce]]"
reverse: true
role: "member 1973 to 1977 and 1980 to 1986"
start: 1973
end: 1986
fn: 7
- type: member_of
with: "[[Maxwell Taylor]]"
reverse: true
@ -92,17 +99,17 @@ relations:
reverse: true
role: "chairman"
start: 2001-10-05
fn: 7
fn: 8
- type: member_of
with: "[[Ray Hunt]]"
reverse: true
start: 2001-10-05
fn: 7
fn: 8
- type: member_of
with: "[[Stephen Friedman]]"
reverse: true
start: 2001-10-05
fn: 7
fn: 8
---
President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] created the President's Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities by Executive Order 10656, issued on February 6, 1956, printed in the *[[Federal Register]]* on February 8 (21 Fed. Reg. 859) and effective from January 13, 1956. Its members were drawn from persons "outside government" chosen for their "ability, experience, and knowledge" in matters of national defense and security, and served without pay beyond travel and per diem. The order directed the board to review the foreign intelligence work of the government and the performance of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] and to report to the President "twice yearly (or more often if needed)."[^1][^2]
@ -131,9 +138,11 @@ President [[Jimmy Carter]] abolished the board on May 4, 1977, by Executive Orde
Executive Order 12863, issued by President [[Bill Clinton]], provided: "There is hereby established within the White House Office, Executive Office of the President, the President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board (PFIAB). The PFIAB shall consist of not more than 16 members, who shall serve at the pleasure of the President." One third of the members at any time were, "to the extent practicable," to serve terms of no more than two years, and the President was to designate a chairman and vice chairman from among them.[^6]
[[Clare Boothe Luce]] served on the board for 1973 to 1977 and 1980 to 1986, according to the chronology in the Library of Congress finding aid for her papers, which also holds a board series (Boxes 729-790, 1974-1987, with classified material in the 1981-1987 folders) and a 1980 essay on abolition of the board.[^7]
### 2001 Appointments
On October 5, 2001, the [[White House]] announced that President [[George W. Bush]] intended to appoint members "for a term of two years": Lieutenant General [[Brent Scowcroft]] as chairman, with [[Cresencio Arcos|Cresencio S. Arcos]], [[Jim Barksdale]], Robert Addison Day, [[Stephen Friedman]], [[Alfred Lerner]], [[Ray Hunt|Ray Lee Hunt]], [[Rita Hauser|Rita E. Hauser]], [[David E. Jeremiah]], [[Arnold Kanter|Arnold Lee Kanter]], James Calhoun Langdon, Jr., Marie Elizabeth Pate-Cornell, John Harrison Streicker and Peter Barton Wilson.[^7]
On October 5, 2001, the [[White House]] announced that President [[George W. Bush]] intended to appoint members "for a term of two years": Lieutenant General [[Brent Scowcroft]] as chairman, with [[Cresencio Arcos|Cresencio S. Arcos]], [[Jim Barksdale]], Robert Addison Day, [[Stephen Friedman]], [[Alfred Lerner]], [[Ray Hunt|Ray Lee Hunt]], [[Rita Hauser|Rita E. Hauser]], [[David E. Jeremiah]], [[Arnold Kanter|Arnold Lee Kanter]], James Calhoun Langdon, Jr., Marie Elizabeth Pate-Cornell, John Harrison Streicker and Peter Barton Wilson.[^8]
### Footnotes
@ -143,4 +152,5 @@ On October 5, 2001, the [[White House]] announced that President [[George W. Bus
[^4]: White House, President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board, "Board Panel on Covert Action Operations," Top Secret, September 10, 1963. National Security Archive, Document 6. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/document/32956-document-6-white-house-pfiab-board-panel-covert-action-operations-top-secret
[^5]: Carter, Jimmy. Executive Order 11984, "President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board," May 4, 1977. The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-11984-presidents-foreign-intelligence-advisory-board
[^6]: Clinton, William J. Executive Order 12863, "President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board." The White House, archived. https://clintonwhitehouse5.archives.gov/textonly/WH/EOP/pfiab/eo12863.html
[^7]: The White House, Office of the Press Secretary. "Personnel Announcement," October 5, 2001. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2001/10/text/20011005-8.html
[^7]: Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, *Clare Boothe Luce Papers: A Finding Aid* (MSS30759), chronology and container list. https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003044.pdf
[^8]: The White House, Office of the Press Secretary. "Personnel Announcement," October 5, 2001. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2001/10/text/20011005-8.html

181
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Brown Brothers Harriman.md
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@ -69,8 +69,7 @@ relations:
with: "[[Knight Woolley]]"
reverse: true
start: 1931-01-01
end: 1956-01-01
role: "general manager and managing partner of Harriman Brothers & Co. (partner from January 1, 1929); partner of the merged firm"
role: "general manager and managing partner of Harriman Brothers & Co. (partner from January 1, 1929); partner of the merged firm; listed as a partner in 1943, 1956 and 1961"
fn: 4
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Thatcher Magoun Brown]]"
@ -97,7 +96,7 @@ relations:
with: "[[Ray Morris]]"
reverse: true
start: 1921-01-01
end: 1956-01-01
end: "1956"
role: "partner; registered holder of 1 Union Banking Corporation share in 1942"
fn: 4
- type: employed_by
@ -119,37 +118,37 @@ relations:
start: 1965-01-01
end: 1991-01-01
role: "partner after resigning as Under Secretary of the Treasury for Monetary Affairs"
fn: 19
fn: 28
- type: contractor_to
with: "[[Nicaragua]]"
start: 1911-09-01
end: 1924-01-01
role: "lender and fiscal agent under the agreement of September 1, 1911, the supplemental agreement of March 26, 1912 and the agreement of November 4, 1912; repaid in 1924 according to Thatcher M. Brown"
fn: 40
fn: 52
- type: investigated
with: "[[New York Stock Exchange]]"
reverse: true
start: 2006-11-13
role: "Hearing Board decision HPD 06-200: violation of NYSE Rule 342(a) and (b); censure and $170,000 fine"
fn: 52
fn: 64
- type: investigated
with: "[[New York State Banking Department]]"
reverse: true
start: 2007-08-01
role: "written agreement requiring improvement of anti-money laundering controls, recited in the 2014 FINRA order"
fn: 54
fn: 66
- type: investigated
with: "[[Financial Industry Regulatory Authority]]"
reverse: true
start: 2014-02-04
role: "Acceptance, Waiver and Consent No. 2013035821401 on anti-money laundering failures involving penny stock; censure and $8,000,000 fine"
fn: 54
fn: 66
- type: investigated
with: "[[Securities and Exchange Commission]]"
reverse: true
start: 2014-09-10
role: "cease-and-desist order, File No. 3-16076, for late Section 16(a) filings and Schedule 13G amendments; $120,000 civil penalty"
fn: 53
fn: 65
---
Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. is a private banking partnership in [[New York City|New York]]. Effective January 1, 1931 the businesses of Brown Brothers & Co., [[Harriman Brothers & Co.]] and [[W. A. Harriman & Co.]], Inc. were united in the co-partnership firm of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.[^1] Its partners included [[Robert A. Lovett]], [[W. Averell Harriman]], [[E. Roland Harriman]] and [[Prescott Bush]], and it appears in the record of the [[Nicaragua]] customs loans of 1911 and 1912, the [[Union Banking Corporation]] and the Cold War intelligence establishment.
@ -158,79 +157,81 @@ Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. is a private banking partnership in [[New York Cit
The Brown partnership descends from [[Alexander Brown]], a [[Belfast]] linen merchant who emigrated to the United States in 1800. In 1818 he founded [[Alex. Brown & Sons]], according to the finding aid for the firm's records at the [[New-York Historical Society]].[^2] [[Time]] dated the house differently, stating that it was "formed in 1825 by Alexander Brown, previously a linen merchant."[^3] The finding aid records that Alexander Brown's eldest son William founded [[William Brown & Co.]] in [[Liverpool]] in 1810, which became [[Brown Shipley & Co.]] in 1839 and separated from Brown Brothers as a distinct business in 1918.[^2] The partner table in the firm's 1968 history lists [[Montagu Norman]] as a partner of the Brown Shipley house from 1900 to 1915, before he became Governor of the [[Bank of England]].[^4] By 1929 only three of the twelve Brown Brothers partners were Browns: the senior partner [[James Brown]] and his cousins James Crosby Brown and [[Thatcher Magoun Brown]].[^5]
W. A. Harriman & Co., Inc. was organized on November 13, 1919 under the management of W. Averell Harriman, [[George Herbert Walker]] (president from 1920 until 1930) and Prescott Bush. The firm opened an office in [[Berlin]] in 1922, extended short-term credits to German industries, helped finance zinc mines in [[Silesia]], and in 1928 financed the [[Aviation Corporation]], which became [[Pan American World Airways]].[^6] Time reported that in 1920 Averell Harriman "set out to make the U. S. great upon the sea" and formed an alliance with the [[Hamburg-American Line]], that he was thwarted in it, and that the firm "made many a loan in [[Germany]]."[^3] On St. Patrick's Day, 1927, the Harrimans set up a partnership bank, originally called W. A. Harriman & Co. without the "Inc." and soon renamed Harriman Brothers & Co. [[Knight Woolley]] of the foreign department of the American Exchange National Bank became its general manager. The bank started with four employees, capital from the Harrimans and M. Samuel & Co., Ltd., and Averell Harriman's instruction, "Here's four million. Go ahead and run the bank."[^7] The firm's partner table gives October 30, 1926 as the date E. Roland Harriman and Averell Harriman became partners of the Harriman bank and describes Woolley as general manager "from its founding in 1926."[^4] The first bankers acceptance created by the bank, dated October 24, 1927, financed a German metal refining company's import of Chilean copper. The minute book of the bank's partners records for 1927 that Woolley accepted, through [[Ellery Sedgwick James]], "the offer of a $250,000 participation" with Brown Brothers & Co. and two other banks in an acceptance credit for a Berlin metal firm.[^8]
W. A. Harriman & Co., Inc. was organized on November 13, 1919 under the management of W. Averell Harriman, [[George Herbert Walker]] (president from 1920 until 1930) and Prescott Bush. The firm opened an office in [[Berlin]] in 1922, extended short-term credits to German industries, helped finance zinc mines in [[Silesia]], and in 1928 financed the [[Aviation Corporation]], which became [[Pan American World Airways]].[^6] Time reported that in 1920 Averell Harriman "set out to make the U. S. great upon the sea" and formed an alliance with the [[Hamburg-American Line]], that he was thwarted in it, and that the firm "made many a loan in [[Germany]]."[^3] On St. Patrick's Day, 1927, the Harrimans set up a partnership bank, originally called W. A. Harriman & Co. without the "Inc." and soon renamed Harriman Brothers & Co. [[Knight Woolley]] of the foreign department of the American Exchange National Bank became its general manager. The bank started with four employees, capital from the Harrimans and M. Samuel & Co., Ltd., and Averell Harriman's instruction, "Here's four million. Go ahead and run the bank."[^7] The firm's partner table gives October 30, 1926 as the date E. Roland Harriman and Averell Harriman became partners of the Harriman bank and describes Woolley as general manager "from its founding in 1926."[^4] The sources differ on the founding date. *The Bankers Magazine* of January 1931 wrote that Harriman Brothers & Co. "was formed on February 1, 1927," and listed the partners as W. A. Harriman, E. Roland Harriman, Woolley and Prescott S. Bush.[^8] [[Garry Wills]] wrote that the firm was "not founded until 1926" and that the Harrimans "put a classmate in as president," naming Woolley.[^9] *The New York Times* of May 5, 1929 listed a new partnership of Harriman Brothers & Co. as of May 1, 1929 at 39 Broadway, with W. A. Harriman, E. Roland Harriman, George H. Walker, Dale M. Parker and Woolley.[^10] The first bankers acceptance created by the bank, dated October 24, 1927, financed a German metal refining company's import of Chilean copper. The minute book of the bank's partners records for 1927 that Woolley accepted, through [[Ellery Sedgwick James]], "the offer of a $250,000 participation" with Brown Brothers & Co. and two other banks in an acceptance credit for a Berlin metal firm.[^11]
The firm's 1968 history, written by [[John A. Kouwenhoven]], quotes the 1950 firm history by Thatcher M. Brown that "it became clear to us, during the year 1930, that we were doing too large a business for our capital," after losses on securities underwritten before the 1929 crash and the withdrawal of capital by older partners.[^9] The merger was announced on December 12, 1930, according to [[Zachary Karabell]], who wrote that the announcement appeared on the front page of [[The New York Times]] on the day the Bank of United States collapsed, and that clerks carried the Harriman family's securities from 39 Broadway to 59 Wall Street under armed guard.[^10] The finding aid lists newspaper clippings announcing the merger and a clipping reporting Woolley's election as a director, dated December 12, 1930 to January 23, 1931.[^2] Time reported on December 22, 1930 that the two houses had merged "last week," counting sixteen partners in the new firm of Brown Bros., Harriman & Co., eleven of them [[Yale University|Yale]] graduates.[^3] The printed circular announcing the union is dated January 2, 1931 and states that the businesses were united "effective January 1, 1931."[^1] The chronology in the finding aid to the W. Averell Harriman papers at the [[Library of Congress]] lists him as partner of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. from 1931 to 1946.[^11] The firm's history page counts seventeen partners, twelve of them Yale graduates.[^12] [[Antony C. Sutton]] wrote that before 1933 the firm "consisted of two firms," W. A. Harriman Company and Brown Brothers, and gave 1933 as the year of the merger.[^13]
The firm's 1968 history, written by [[John A. Kouwenhoven]], quotes the 1950 firm history by Thatcher M. Brown that "it became clear to us, during the year 1930, that we were doing too large a business for our capital," after losses on securities underwritten before the 1929 crash and the withdrawal of capital by older partners.[^12] The merger was announced on December 12, 1930, according to [[Zachary Karabell]], who wrote that the announcement appeared on the front page of [[The New York Times]] on the day the Bank of United States collapsed, and that clerks carried the Harriman family's securities from 39 Broadway to 59 Wall Street under armed guard.[^13] The finding aid lists newspaper clippings announcing the merger and a clipping reporting Woolley's election as a director, dated December 12, 1930 to January 23, 1931.[^2] Time reported on December 22, 1930 that the two houses had merged "last week," counting sixteen partners in the new firm of Brown Bros., Harriman & Co., eleven of them [[Yale University|Yale]] graduates.[^3] The printed circular announcing the union is dated January 2, 1931 and states that the businesses were united "effective January 1, 1931."[^1] The chronology in the finding aid to the W. Averell Harriman papers at the [[Library of Congress]] lists him as partner of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. from 1931 to 1946.[^14] The firm's history page counts seventeen partners, twelve of them Yale graduates.[^15] [[Antony C. Sutton]] wrote that before 1933 the firm "consisted of two firms," W. A. Harriman Company and Brown Brothers, and gave 1933 as the year of the merger.[^16]
Three accounts place the origin of the merger on a train to a Yale event. The firm's history page states that "according to firm lore" the idea was first floated among six partners in November 1930 on the train from New York to [[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]] for the Yale-[[Harvard University|Harvard]] football game.[^12] Karabell described a railcar chartered on the New Haven line from Grand Central Station to a Yale reunion on a fall day in 1930, and wrote, "Roland wasn't on the train that day, but Ellery James and Knight Woolley were."[^10] Kouwenhoven placed the card game in the spring of 1930, with James, Woolley and Prescott Bush traveling to a Yale reunion with two other classmates, and called it a story "now current in various versions, as all good legends are." He recorded Thatcher Brown's recollection that James first suggested talking with the Harrimans, and Roland Harriman's recollection that James spoke to him about "working under one roof" before the crash of 1929.[^9]
Three accounts place the origin of the merger on a train to a Yale event. The firm's history page states that "according to firm lore" the idea was first floated among six partners in November 1930 on the train from New York to [[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]] for the Yale-[[Harvard University|Harvard]] football game.[^15] Karabell described a railcar chartered on the New Haven line from Grand Central Station to a Yale reunion on a fall day in 1930, and wrote, "Roland wasn't on the train that day, but Ellery James and Knight Woolley were."[^13] Kouwenhoven placed the card game in the spring of 1930, with James, Woolley and Prescott Bush traveling to a Yale reunion with two other classmates, and called it a story "now current in various versions, as all good legends are." He recorded Thatcher Brown's recollection that James first suggested talking with the Harrimans, and Roland Harriman's recollection that James spoke to him about "working under one roof" before the crash of 1929.[^12]
The firm's history page states that in 1931, a few months after the merger closed, Germany declared a Stillhalte (standstill) on debt payments to foreign private creditors, including over $10 million in credits from the firm, roughly the size of its entire capital, against liabilities of nearly ten times that amount, and that "an emergency infusion of $10 million from the Harrimans, Averell and Roland, staved off collapse."[^12] Karabell wrote, "Every Brown Brothers partner was personally exposed."[^10] The firm's 1968 history states that the Banking Act of 1933 required private banking houses to choose between underwriting and deposit banking, that Brown Brothers Harriman remained a bank of deposit, and that several partners resigned on June 9, 1934 to join Brown Harriman & Co., Inc. in the investment banking business.[^14][^4]
The firm's history page states that in 1931, a few months after the merger closed, Germany declared a Stillhalte (standstill) on debt payments to foreign private creditors, including over $10 million in credits from the firm, roughly the size of its entire capital, against liabilities of nearly ten times that amount, and that "an emergency infusion of $10 million from the Harrimans, Averell and Roland, staved off collapse."[^15] Karabell wrote, "Every Brown Brothers partner was personally exposed."[^13] The firm's 1968 history states that the Banking Act of 1933 required private banking houses to choose between underwriting and deposit banking, that Brown Brothers Harriman remained a bank of deposit, and that several partners resigned on June 9, 1934 to join Brown Harriman & Co., Inc. in the investment banking business.[^4][^17]
### The Partners
Time named the partners it considered most prominent. It described Ellery Sedgwick James as a Brown Brothers partner and a classmate of E. Roland Harriman, Prescott Bush and Knight Woolley. It described Robert A. Lovett as a partner and the son of Judge [[Robert Scott Lovett]], "longtime personal attorney and close friend of the late Edward Henry Harriman and now chairman of his Union Pacific."[^3]
The partner table in Kouwenhoven's history gives the dates. James was a partner of Brown Brothers from January 1, 1925 and died on November 25, 1932. Lovett became a partner on January 1, 1926 and left on December 16, 1940 for Washington, rejoining on June 1, 1946, April 1, 1949 and March 1, 1953. Woolley became a partner of Harriman Brothers on January 1, 1929 and of the merged firm on January 1, 1931. Bush became a partner of Harriman Brothers on January 1, 1930 and of the merged firm on January 1, 1931. Averell Harriman was a partner of the merged firm from January 1, 1931 to October 31, 1946, and a limited partner afterward. [[Ray Morris]] was a partner from January 1, 1921 to 1956, [[Charles J. Rhoads]] from January 1, 1921 to June 30, 1929, [[Thomas McCance]] from January 1, 1945 and [[Robert V. Roosa]] from January 1, 1965.[^4] [[Harold D. Pennington]] was a partner of Harriman Brothers during 1930, a manager of the merged firm, and a partner from January 1, 1945 to December 31, 1956. Kouwenhoven wrote that he was from the start manager in charge of operations for the new concern and that he walked behind the handcarts that moved the Harriman securities to the vault at 59 Wall Street with a pistol in his pocket.[^15] [[Moreau Delano]] (1877 to 1936) was a partner from 1907, and Thatcher M. Brown (1876 to 1954) from 1907 to May 2, 1954.[^4]
The partner table in Kouwenhoven's history gives the dates. James was a partner of Brown Brothers from January 1, 1925 and died on November 25, 1932. Lovett became a partner on January 1, 1926 and left on December 16, 1940 for Washington, rejoining on June 1, 1946, April 1, 1949 and March 1, 1953. Woolley became a partner of Harriman Brothers on January 1, 1929 and of the merged firm on January 1, 1931. Bush became a partner of Harriman Brothers on January 1, 1930 and of the merged firm on January 1, 1931. Averell Harriman was a partner of the merged firm from January 1, 1931 to October 31, 1946, and a limited partner afterward. [[Ray Morris]] was a partner from January 1, 1921 to 1956, [[Charles J. Rhoads]] from January 1, 1921 to June 30, 1929, [[Thomas McCance]] from January 1, 1945 and [[Robert V. Roosa]] from January 1, 1965.[^4] [[Harold D. Pennington]] was a partner of Harriman Brothers during 1930, a manager of the merged firm, and a partner from January 1, 1945 to December 31, 1956. Kouwenhoven wrote that he was from the start manager in charge of operations for the new concern and that he walked behind the handcarts that moved the Harriman securities to the vault at 59 Wall Street with a pistol in his pocket.[^18] [[Moreau Delano]] (1877 to 1936) was a partner from 1907, and Thatcher M. Brown (1876 to 1954) from 1907 to May 2, 1954.[^4] The firm's anniversary advertisement of October 1943 listed the partners as Moreau D. Brown, Thatcher M. Brown, Prescott S. Bush, Louis Curtis, E. R. Harriman, W. A. Harriman, Ray Morris and Knight Woolley.[^19] The partner notices in *Trusts and Estates* for July 1956 list Woolley, Morris and Pennington, and those of January 1961 and *The Economist* of July 22, 1961 list Woolley and name neither Morris nor Pennington.[^20][^21] The finding aid for the firm's records at the New-York Historical Society dates photographs of the senior partners W. Averell Harriman, Lovett, Bush and Woolley to July 1964 and May 19, 1967.[^22]
Karabell described Thatcher Brown, great-grandson of Alexander Brown, as managing partner of the Brown firm and Woolley as managing partner of "another one of the Harriman firms."[^10] The New-York Historical Society finding aid lists images of the Thatcher Brown and Moreau Delano partnerships, one dated January 1, 1907, and holds the Moreau Delano papers for 1931 to 1935. It lists Thatcher M. Brown's papers for 1890 to 1966 and his firm history *Brown Brothers & Co. [and] Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., 1900-1950*. The records were gathered in part to support *Partners in Banking*, which Kouwenhoven wrote after the firm hired him in 1964 as Director of the Historical Files and which [[Doubleday & Co.]] commissioned for the firm's 150th anniversary in 1968.[^2]
Karabell described Thatcher Brown, great-grandson of Alexander Brown, as managing partner of the Brown firm and Woolley as managing partner of "another one of the Harriman firms."[^13] The New-York Historical Society finding aid lists images of the Thatcher Brown and Moreau Delano partnerships, one dated January 1, 1907, and holds the Moreau Delano papers for 1931 to 1935. It lists Thatcher M. Brown's papers for 1890 to 1966 and his firm history *Brown Brothers & Co. [and] Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., 1900-1950*. The records were gathered in part to support *Partners in Banking*, which Kouwenhoven wrote after the firm hired him in 1964 as Director of the Historical Files and which [[Doubleday & Co.]] commissioned for the firm's 150th anniversary in 1968.[^2]
Robert A. Lovett married Adele Quartley Brown, daughter of the senior partner James Brown, in 1919, joined Brown Brothers in 1921, was granted a power of attorney in January 1925 and was admitted to partnership in 1926. In that year he was also elected a director of the [[Union Pacific Railroad]] and member of its executive committee. Kouwenhoven recorded that Roland Harriman and Lovett met as eight-year-old boys in 1903.[^16] A November 1951 table of corporations whose officers belonged to the [[Council on Foreign Relations]] lists Brown Brothers Harriman with E. Roland Harriman, Ray Morris, Knight Woolley and Thomas McCance.[^17] A 1981 North American roster of the [[Trilateral Commission]] lists Robert V. Roosa as a partner of the firm.[^18] The Kennedy Library's biographical note records that Roosa was a director of the Council on Foreign Relations from 1966 to 1981.[^19]
Robert A. Lovett married Adele Quartley Brown, daughter of the senior partner James Brown, in 1919, joined Brown Brothers in 1921, was granted a power of attorney in January 1925 and was admitted to partnership in 1926. In that year he was also elected a director of the [[Union Pacific Railroad]] and member of its executive committee. The Defense Department biography says that he became a clerk at the [[National Bank of Commerce]] in 1921, and the biography printed in the Senate subcommittee record of 1960 gives the sequence as that bank from 1921 to 1923, then clerk at Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. from 1923 and partner in 1926, and records that he became chairman of the executive committee of the Union Pacific on May 28, 1953.[^23][^24] Kouwenhoven recorded that Roland Harriman and Lovett met as eight-year-old boys in 1903.[^25] A November 1951 table of corporations whose officers belonged to the [[Council on Foreign Relations]] lists Brown Brothers Harriman with E. Roland Harriman, Ray Morris, Knight Woolley and Thomas McCance.[^26] A 1981 North American roster of the [[Trilateral Commission]] lists Robert V. Roosa as a partner of the firm.[^27] The Kennedy Library's biographical note records that Roosa was a director of the Council on Foreign Relations from 1966 to 1981.[^28]
### Public Service of the Partners
Thatcher Brown wrote in 1950 that public service "was more or less expected of the leaders of our business." Kouwenhoven recorded that Averell Harriman chaired the Commerce Department's [[Business Advisory Council]] from 1937 to 1939, served with the [[National Recovery Administration]], the [[National Defense Advisory Commission]] and the Office of Production Management, and went to Great Britain as President Roosevelt's special representative to coordinate lend-lease aid. During the war Roland Harriman managed the North Atlantic Area of the [[American Red Cross]] and Prescott Bush became national campaign chairman of the combined fund-raising drives of the [[United Service Organizations|USO]] and other wartime charities in 1942. Lovett was called to Washington in June 1940 as Special Assistant to the Secretary of War (the partner table dates the post from December 1940 to April 1941) and served as Assistant Secretary of War for Air from 1941 to 1945. The firm's history reproduces the Distinguished Service Medal citation calling him "the eyes, ears, and hands of the Secretary of War in respect to the growth of that enormous American air power."[^20] President Truman appointed Roland Harriman president of the American Red Cross in 1950. Bush served as United States Senator from [[Connecticut]] from 1952 to 1962, and Lovett served as Under Secretary of State from 1947 to 1949 and as Deputy Secretary and Secretary of Defense from 1950 to 1953.[^21] The [[United States Senate]] timeline for Connecticut records that Bush won election to the Senate on November 4, 1952, "following a defeat in the 1950 election," and that he "served until 1963."[^22]
Thatcher Brown wrote in 1950 that public service "was more or less expected of the leaders of our business." Kouwenhoven recorded that Averell Harriman chaired the Commerce Department's [[Business Advisory Council]] from 1937 to 1939, served with the [[National Recovery Administration]], the [[National Defense Advisory Commission]] and the Office of Production Management, and went to Great Britain as President Roosevelt's special representative to coordinate lend-lease aid. During the war Roland Harriman managed the North Atlantic Area of the [[American Red Cross]] and Prescott Bush became national campaign chairman of the combined fund-raising drives of the [[United Service Organizations|USO]] and other wartime charities in 1942. According to the firm's history, Lovett was called to Washington in June 1940 as Special Assistant to the Secretary of War (the partner table dates the post from December 1940 to April 1941), while Stimson's memoir dates his arrival as air assistant to November 1940.[^29] He served as Assistant Secretary of War for Air from 1941 to 1945. The firm's history reproduces the Distinguished Service Medal citation calling him "the eyes, ears, and hands of the Secretary of War in respect to the growth of that enormous American air power."[^30] President Truman appointed Roland Harriman president of the American Red Cross in 1950. Bush served as United States Senator from [[Connecticut]] from 1952 to 1962, and Lovett served as Under Secretary of State from 1947 to 1949 and as Deputy Secretary and Secretary of Defense from 1950 to 1953.[^31] The [[United States Senate]] timeline for Connecticut records that Bush won election to the Senate on November 4, 1952, "following a defeat in the 1950 election," and that he "served until 1963."[^32]
Roosa, who had served in London with the Enemy Objectives Unit of the [[Office of Strategic Services]] in the Second World War, joined the [[Federal Reserve Bank of New York]] after the war, served as Under Secretary of the Treasury for Monetary Affairs under Presidents Kennedy and Johnson until 1964, and worked at the firm from 1965 to 1991. He was chairman of the board of trustees of the [[Brookings Institution]] from 1975 to 1986.[^19] Kouwenhoven quoted the American Banker on Roosa's resignation from the Treasury: "one of the great innovators" in financial affairs.[^23] The finding aid lists correspondence about the appointment of partner Charles J. Rhoads as [[Commissioner of Indian Affairs]] in 1929, donated to the [[American Philosophical Society]] in 1965.[^2]
Roosa, who had served in London with the Enemy Objectives Unit of the [[Office of Strategic Services]] in the Second World War, joined the [[Federal Reserve Bank of New York]] after the war, served as Under Secretary of the Treasury for Monetary Affairs under Presidents Kennedy and Johnson until 1964, and worked at the firm from 1965 to 1991. He was chairman of the board of trustees of the [[Brookings Institution]] from 1975 to 1986.[^28] Kouwenhoven quoted the American Banker on Roosa's resignation from the Treasury: "one of the great innovators" in financial affairs.[^33] The finding aid lists correspondence about the appointment of partner Charles J. Rhoads as [[Commissioner of Indian Affairs]] in 1929, donated to the [[American Philosophical Society]] in 1965.[^2]
### Robert A. Lovett and the Intelligence Establishment
Lovett's oral history at the [[Harry S. Truman Library]], recorded July 7, 1971, describes his move from the firm to the [[State Department]] in 1947. He recalled that the President telephoned him early in the morning at a superintendent's cottage on his father's place in [[Locust Valley, New York|Locust Valley]]. The President told him, "I've got to get a new Secretary of State and I've signed up General Marshall on the condition which he made that you'd come down and be his Under Secretary." Lovett answered, "I've got to go and check with my partners; I've got to get permission to get out of the firm and the New York State Bank Department has to approve."[^24] The library's biographical summary lists his posts as Under Secretary of State from 1947 to 1949, private law practice with Brown Brothers, Harriman and Company from 1949 to 1950, Deputy Secretary of Defense from 1950 to 1951, and later Secretary of Defense. The firm's partner table gives April 1, 1949 to October 3, 1950 as his second period as partner.[^24][^4]
Lovett's oral history at the [[Harry S. Truman Library]], recorded July 7, 1971, describes his move from the firm to the [[State Department]] in 1947. He recalled that the President telephoned him early in the morning at a superintendent's cottage on his father's place in [[Locust Valley, New York|Locust Valley]]. The President told him, "I've got to get a new Secretary of State and I've signed up General Marshall on the condition which he made that you'd come down and be his Under Secretary." Lovett answered, "I've got to go and check with my partners; I've got to get permission to get out of the firm and the New York State Bank Department has to approve."[^34] The library's biographical summary lists his posts as Under Secretary of State from 1947 to 1949, private law practice with Brown Brothers, Harriman and Company from 1949 to 1950, Deputy Secretary of Defense from 1950 to 1951, and later Secretary of Defense. The firm's partner table gives April 1, 1949 to October 3, 1950 as his second period as partner.[^4][^34]
In the *Foreign Relations of the United States* volume on the intelligence community, a memorandum of March 30, 1950 from [[George F. Kennan]] records that the [[National Security Council]] directive NSC 10/2 of June 1948 established an Office of Special Projects (later the [[Office of Policy Coordination]]) in the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] to plan and conduct covert operations, and that Kennan's designation as the State Department's representative for the purpose was made known to the Council by a letter signed August 13, 1948 by Lovett.[^25] A State Department memorandum of October 15, 1952 recalls the "concept of General Marshall, Mr. Forrestal, Mr. Lovett and Mr. Kennan, when OPC was set up in the spring of 1948," that covert political warfare was of primary interest to the State Department.[^26] The first meeting of the [[Psychological Strategy Board]], held on July 2, 1951 in the Director of Central Intelligence's conference room, was attended by [[Walter Bedell Smith]], Lovett as Deputy Secretary of Defense, [[Gordon Gray]], [[Allen Dulles]] and Edward Barrett for the Under Secretary of State.[^27] On October 24, 1952 President Truman addressed a memorandum on communications intelligence to Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] and Secretary of Defense Lovett, designating them a Special Committee of the National Security Council for the subject. The volume also prints a memorandum to Lovett from the Director of the [[National Security Agency]] and representatives of the Military Services and Joint Chiefs of Staff.[^28] The volume lists Lovett as a member of the Strategic Missile Evaluation Committee (the "Teapot Committee") from June 16, 1953 to February 8, 1954 and of the [[President's Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities]] from January 13, 1956.[^29]
In the *Foreign Relations of the United States* volume on the intelligence community, a memorandum of March 30, 1950 from [[George F. Kennan]] records that the [[National Security Council]] directive NSC 10/2 of June 1948 established an Office of Special Projects (later the [[Office of Policy Coordination]]) in the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] to plan and conduct covert operations, and that Kennan's designation as the State Department's representative for the purpose was made known to the Council by a letter signed August 13, 1948 by Lovett.[^35] A State Department memorandum of October 15, 1952 recalls the "concept of General Marshall, Mr. Forrestal, Mr. Lovett and Mr. Kennan, when OPC was set up in the spring of 1948," that covert political warfare was of primary interest to the State Department.[^36] The first meeting of the [[Psychological Strategy Board]], held on July 2, 1951 in the Director of Central Intelligence's conference room, was attended by [[Walter Bedell Smith]], Lovett as Deputy Secretary of Defense, [[Gordon Gray]], [[Allen Dulles]] and Edward Barrett for the Under Secretary of State.[^37] On October 24, 1952 President Truman addressed a memorandum on communications intelligence to Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] and Secretary of Defense Lovett, designating them a Special Committee of the National Security Council for the subject. The volume also prints a memorandum to Lovett from the Director of the [[National Security Agency]] and representatives of the Military Services and Joint Chiefs of Staff.[^38] The volume lists Lovett as a member of the Strategic Missile Evaluation Committee (the "Teapot Committee") from June 16, 1953 to February 8, 1954 and of the [[President's Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities]] from January 13, 1956.[^39]
A State Department memorandum of December 22, 1955 reported that Allen Dulles had said the White House would soon announce the appointment of a Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities, and listed the expected members as John E. Hull, Richard Connolly, James Doolittle, James Killian, David Bruce, Benjamin Fairless and Morris Hadley. The board was established by Executive Order 10656 of February 6, 1956.[^30] The Center for the Study of Intelligence newsletter of Spring 1995 states that [[David K. E. Bruce]] and Lovett prepared a report for President Eisenhower in the fall of 1956 and that they "had been charter members" of the board; the CIA History Staff searched the board's files, the Eisenhower Library, the National Archives and the Virginia Historical Society without finding it.[^31] [[Peter Grose]] wrote that Killian delegated Lovett and Bruce to investigate the covert action programs, and described Lovett as "a partner in the investment banking firm of Brown Brothers Harriman." Grose and [[Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.]], who saw the report among Robert Kennedy's papers, quoted from it. Lovett told the Taylor board of inquiry on the Bay of Pigs in 1961 that Bruce "was very much disturbed" and that "instead of completing the report in thirty days we took two months or more." According to Schlesinger, the report found that "no one, other than those in the CIA immediately concerned with their day to day operation, has any detailed knowledge of what is going on," that a "horde of CIA representatives" was exerting "significant, almost unilateral influences" on the formulation of foreign policy, and asked whether anyone in an authoritative position was weighing "the long-range wisdom of activities which have entailed our virtual abandonment of the international 'golden rule.'"[^32] Schlesinger wrote that the full board's December 1956 statement on "the extremely informal and somewhat exclusive methods" used for clandestine projects was signed by another board member, [[Joseph P. Kennedy]], and that in its January 1961 report the board stated, "We have been unable to conclude that, on balance, all of the covert action programs undertaken by CIA up to this time have been worth the risk or the great expenditure of manpower, money and other resources involved." Schlesinger also wrote that when [[Richard Bissell]] and others briefed the board on the Cuban project in late 1960, "its members, Lovett particularly, registered dismay."[^32]
A State Department memorandum of December 22, 1955 reported that Allen Dulles had said the White House would soon announce the appointment of a Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities, and listed the expected members as John E. Hull, Richard Connolly, James Doolittle, James Killian, David Bruce, Benjamin Fairless and Morris Hadley. The board was established by Executive Order 10656 of February 6, 1956.[^40] The Center for the Study of Intelligence newsletter of Spring 1995 states that [[David K. E. Bruce]] and Lovett prepared a report for President Eisenhower in the fall of 1956 and that they "had been charter members" of the board; the CIA History Staff searched the board's files, the Eisenhower Library, the National Archives and the Virginia Historical Society without finding it.[^41] [[Peter Grose]] wrote that Killian delegated Lovett and Bruce to investigate the covert action programs, and described Lovett as "a partner in the investment banking firm of Brown Brothers Harriman." Grose and [[Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.]], who saw the report among Robert Kennedy's papers, quoted from it. Lovett told the Taylor board of inquiry on the Bay of Pigs in 1961 that Bruce "was very much disturbed" and that "instead of completing the report in thirty days we took two months or more." According to Schlesinger, the report found that "no one, other than those in the CIA immediately concerned with their day to day operation, has any detailed knowledge of what is going on," that a "horde of CIA representatives" was exerting "significant, almost unilateral influences" on the formulation of foreign policy, and asked whether anyone in an authoritative position was weighing "the long-range wisdom of activities which have entailed our virtual abandonment of the international 'golden rule.'"[^42] Schlesinger wrote that the full board's December 1956 statement on "the extremely informal and somewhat exclusive methods" used for clandestine projects was signed by another board member, [[Joseph P. Kennedy]], and that in its January 1961 report the board stated, "We have been unable to conclude that, on balance, all of the covert action programs undertaken by CIA up to this time have been worth the risk or the great expenditure of manpower, money and other resources involved." Schlesinger also wrote that when [[Richard Bissell]] and others briefed the board on the Cuban project in late 1960, "its members, Lovett particularly, registered dismay."[^42]
### Prescott Bush and the Union Banking Corporation
Karabell wrote that Bush had gone from selling rubber flooring to working as a vice president at Harriman with his college friend E. Roland Harriman, and that he had married the daughter of George Herbert Walker of [[St. Louis]].[^10] Kouwenhoven's caption describes Bush as vice-president and a director of W. A. Harriman & Co., Inc. and a partner in Harriman Brothers & Co. at the time of the merger, and as secretary of the [[United States Golf Association]] in 1932 and its president from 1935.[^6]
Karabell wrote that Bush had gone from selling rubber flooring to working as a vice president at Harriman with his college friend E. Roland Harriman, and that he had married the daughter of George Herbert Walker of [[St. Louis]].[^13] Kouwenhoven's caption describes Bush as vice-president and a director of W. A. Harriman & Co., Inc. and a partner in Harriman Brothers & Co. at the time of the merger, and as secretary of the [[United States Golf Association]] in 1932 and its president from 1935.[^6]
Bush appears in the records of the Union Banking Corporation, a New York company whose stock the [[Office of the Alien Property Custodian]] vested in 1942. Vesting Order Number 248, executed October 20, 1942, vested "all of the capital stock of Union Banking Corporation, a New York corporation," consisting of 4,000 shares of $100 par value stock. It listed the registered owners: E. Roland Harriman, 3,991 shares; [[Cornelius Lievense]], 4; Harold D. Pennington, 1; Ray Morris, 1; Prescott S. Bush, 1; [[H. J. Kouwenhoven]], 1; and [[Johann G. Groeninger]], 1. The order says the shares were "held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N. V., Rotterdam," which it describes as "owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family, nationals of Germany and/or Hungary." A second paragraph vested claims of that bank and of the August [[Thyssen-Bank]], Berlin, Germany, against the corporation for indebtedness. The order was published in the [[Federal Register]] on November 7, 1942.[^33] Of the seven holders, four (Harriman, Morris, Bush and Pennington) appear in the firm's partner table or staff records.[^4][^15]
Bush appears in the records of the Union Banking Corporation, a New York company whose stock the [[Office of the Alien Property Custodian]] vested in 1942. Vesting Order Number 248, executed October 20, 1942, vested "all of the capital stock of Union Banking Corporation, a New York corporation," consisting of 4,000 shares of $100 par value stock. It listed the registered owners: E. Roland Harriman, 3,991 shares; [[Cornelius Lievense]], 4; Harold D. Pennington, 1; Ray Morris, 1; Prescott S. Bush, 1; [[H. J. Kouwenhoven]], 1; and [[Johann G. Groeninger]], 1. The order says the shares were "held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N. V., Rotterdam," which it describes as "owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family, nationals of Germany and/or Hungary." A second paragraph vested claims of that bank and of the August [[Thyssen-Bank]], Berlin, Germany, against the corporation for indebtedness. The order was published in the [[Federal Register]] on November 7, 1942.[^43] Of the seven holders, four (Harriman, Morris, Bush and Pennington) appear in the firm's partner table or staff records.[^4][^18]
A [[Department of the Treasury|Treasury Department]] memorandum of August 18, 1941 on the corporation records that it was wholly owned by the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart of Rotterdam. It records that the corporation's president, Cornelius Lievense, claimed no knowledge of the bank's ownership but believed it possible that Baron [[Heinrich Thyssen]], brother of [[Fritz Thyssen]], might own a substantial interest. It also records gold purchases of more than eight million dollars in 1931 to 1933, of which $3,085,000 was delivered to the [[Federal Reserve Bank]] on June 15, 1934. It records that in the fall of 1938 the corporation held two million dollars in currency in a New York safe deposit box, later deposited in its account with Brown Brothers Harriman.[^34]
A [[Department of the Treasury|Treasury Department]] memorandum of August 18, 1941 on the corporation records that it was wholly owned by the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart of Rotterdam. It records that the corporation's president, Cornelius Lievense, claimed no knowledge of the bank's ownership but believed it possible that Baron [[Heinrich Thyssen]], brother of [[Fritz Thyssen]], might own a substantial interest. It also records gold purchases of more than eight million dollars in 1931 to 1933, of which $3,085,000 was delivered to the [[Federal Reserve Bank]] on June 15, 1934. It records that in the fall of 1938 the corporation held two million dollars in currency in a New York safe deposit box, later deposited in its account with Brown Brothers Harriman.[^44]
Sutton wrote that the Union Banking Corporation was "a joint Thyssen-Harriman operation," and listed eight directors for 1932. He named E. Roland Harriman as a vice president of W. A. Harriman & Co., Ellery Sedgwick James as a partner of Brown Brothers, Prescott Sheldon Bush as a partner of Brown Brothers Harriman, Knight Woolley as a director of [[Guaranty Trust Company]] and of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, and H. J. Kouwenhoven, Johann Groninger, Cornelius Lievense and [[J. L. Guinter]] as the remaining directors.[^35] The 1942 vesting order lists Morris and Pennington among the registered holders. Kouwenhoven's partner table gives James's death as November 25, 1932.[^33][^4]
Sutton wrote that the Union Banking Corporation was "a joint Thyssen-Harriman operation," and listed eight directors for 1932. He named E. Roland Harriman as a vice president of W. A. Harriman & Co., Ellery Sedgwick James as a partner of Brown Brothers, Prescott Sheldon Bush as a partner of Brown Brothers Harriman, Knight Woolley as a director of [[Guaranty Trust Company]] and of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, and H. J. Kouwenhoven, Johann Groninger, Cornelius Lievense and [[J. L. Guinter]] as the remaining directors.[^45] The Federal Reserve Bank of New York's annual report for 1939 lists Woolley as a member of the bank's foreign exchange committee, representing private banks and investment houses.[^46] The bank's Circular No. 1015 of January 8, 1931 names Clarence M. Woolley of Greenwich, Connecticut, chairman of American Radiator and Standard Sanitary Corporation, as a Class C director of the bank for three years from January 1, 1931.[^47] The 1942 vesting order lists Morris and Pennington among the registered holders. Kouwenhoven's partner table gives James's death as November 25, 1932.[^4][^43]
### The Yale Concentration
Time counted eleven Yale graduates among the sixteen partners, and the firm's history page counts twelve among seventeen.[^3][^12] Sutton's catalogue of [[Skull and Bones]] members by class year, printed in the 2002 edition of his book, gives Prescott Sheldon Bush, Edward Roland Noel Harriman and Knight Woolley for the class of 1917, W. Averell Harriman for the class of 1913, and Robert Abercrombie Lovett for the class of 1918. It also lists William Ellery Sedgwick James for the class of 1917.[^36] Sutton wrote that among the firm's 26 partners in the mid-1970s, no fewer than nine were members of the order, and listed [[Walter H. Brown]] (1945), Bush (1917), Granger Kent Costikyan (1929), E. Roland Harriman (1917), W. Averell Harriman (1913), Stephen Young Hord (1921), Lovett (1918), John Beckwith Madden (1941) and Woolley (1917).[^37] Karabell wrote that James and Woolley had each been sworn into Skull and Bones before enlisting in the military and that Lovett belonged to their circle.[^10] Kouwenhoven's table gives Hord's partnership as beginning January 1, 1945 in Chicago and Madden's on January 1, 1955.[^4]
Time counted eleven Yale graduates among the sixteen partners, and the firm's history page counts twelve among seventeen.[^3][^15] Sutton's catalogue of [[Skull and Bones]] members by class year, printed in the 2002 edition of his book, gives Prescott Sheldon Bush, Edward Roland Noel Harriman and Knight Woolley for the class of 1917, W. Averell Harriman for the class of 1913, and Robert Abercrombie Lovett for the class of 1918. It also lists William Ellery Sedgwick James for the class of 1917.[^48] Sutton wrote that among the firm's 26 partners in the mid-1970s, no fewer than nine were members of the order, and listed [[Walter H. Brown]] (1945), Bush (1917), Granger Kent Costikyan (1929), E. Roland Harriman (1917), W. Averell Harriman (1913), Stephen Young Hord (1921), Lovett (1918), John Beckwith Madden (1941) and Woolley (1917).[^49] Karabell wrote that James and Woolley had each been sworn into Skull and Bones before enlisting in the military and that Lovett belonged to their circle.[^13] Kouwenhoven's table gives Hord's partnership as beginning January 1, 1945 in Chicago and Madden's on January 1, 1955.[^4]
### Nicaragua, 1911 to 1912
The firm's loans to the Republic of Nicaragua are documented in the *Foreign Relations of the United States* for 1911 and 1912. The headnote to the loan convention records that the Nicaraguan assembly ratified it on June 15 and July 7, 1911, and that it was "Still pending in the Senate of the United States."[^38] In a July 17, 1911 message the President proposed amending Article IV, under which the Nicaraguan government "will appoint from a list of names to be presented to it by the fiscal agent of the loan and approved by the President of the United States of America, a collector general of customs." The message proposed striking the words "who need not be a Nicaraguan and" from the article.[^39]
The firm's loans to the Republic of Nicaragua are documented in the *Foreign Relations of the United States* for 1911 and 1912. The headnote to the loan convention records that the Nicaraguan assembly ratified it on June 15 and July 7, 1911, and that it was "Still pending in the Senate of the United States."[^50] In a July 17, 1911 message the President proposed amending Article IV, under which the Nicaraguan government "will appoint from a list of names to be presented to it by the fiscal agent of the loan and approved by the President of the United States of America, a collector general of customs." The message proposed striking the words "who need not be a Nicaraguan and" from the article.[^51]
Brown Brothers and [[J. and W. Seligman and Company]] wrote to the Secretary of State on November 2, 1911 that "on September 1, 1911, we entered into an agreement with the Republic of Nicaragua, by which we undertook to make a temporary loan of $1,500,000, which the Republic urgently needed." The two houses had nominated [[Clifford D. Ham]], Surveyor of the Port of [[Manila]], as Collector General of Customs.[^40] On November 11, 1911 the Secretary of State told the Nicaraguan minister that he had approved the nomination.[^41]
Brown Brothers and [[J. and W. Seligman and Company]] wrote to the Secretary of State on November 2, 1911 that "on September 1, 1911, we entered into an agreement with the Republic of Nicaragua, by which we undertook to make a temporary loan of $1,500,000, which the Republic urgently needed." The two houses had nominated [[Clifford D. Ham]], Surveyor of the Port of [[Manila]], as Collector General of Customs, and wrote that he "has been recommended to us as a person qualified for the position and worthy of our confidence."[^52] On November 11, 1911 the Secretary of State told the Nicaraguan minister that he had approved the nomination.[^53]
The loans followed in a series of agreements. The houses reported the [[Ethelburga]] contract of December 9, 1911, which later failed.[^42] They reported a supplemental agreement of March 26, 1912 for loans up to $775,000.[^43] Their June 3, 1912 letter reported contracts dated May 25, 1912 with the [[Corporation of Foreign Bondholders]].[^44] On August 2, 1912 the houses wrote that the Republic had asked for an immediate loan of $100,000 "for the purpose of enabling it to reestablish order," and that they would make it through the [[National Bank of Nicaragua]], which had opened at [[Managua]] on August 1. They wrote that "The entire capital stock of that Bank is pledged with us as security for the various loans which we have heretofore made to the Republic," and that "the Bank is under our management and control."[^45] On November 13, 1912 they reported an agreement dated November 4, 1912 and a separate fund of $400,000.[^46]
The loans followed in a series of agreements. The houses reported the [[Ethelburga]] contract of December 9, 1911, which later failed.[^54] They reported a supplemental agreement of March 26, 1912 for loans up to $775,000.[^55] Their June 3, 1912 letter reported contracts dated May 25, 1912 with the [[Corporation of Foreign Bondholders]].[^56] On August 2, 1912 the houses wrote that the Republic had asked for an immediate loan of $100,000 "for the purpose of enabling it to reestablish order," and that they would make it through the [[National Bank of Nicaragua]], which had opened at [[Managua]] on August 1. They wrote that "The entire capital stock of that Bank is pledged with us as security for the various loans which we have heretofore made to the Republic," and that "the Bank is under our management and control."[^57] On November 13, 1912 they reported an agreement dated November 4, 1912 and a separate fund of $400,000.[^58]
In a February 14, 1912 letter the American Minister wrote that the Legation "did not wish to take any official part in the business negotiations between the Nicaraguan Government and Brown Brothers et al."[^47] In 1914 the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations took testimony on the convention. [[Charles A. Douglas]], who said that "I have represented Nicaragua for a little over a year," testified that Ham was "nominated and put there really by the bankers with the assent of the Secretary of State." He said that Brown Brothers and Seligman were the only bankers he knew in connection with the Nicaraguan affair, and that the treaty "was never ratified."[^48] The same hearing volume prints a list of five agreements the committee received. Two of them were between the Republic and Brown Bros. & Co. and J. & W. Seligman & Co., one for the purchase of Treasury bills and one for the purchase of railroad and bank stock. The others were between the Republic and the National Bank of Nicaragua, the [[Ferrocarril del Pacifico de Nicaragua]], and the [[United States Mortgage and Trust Company]].[^49] The finding aid lists an excerpt from Senate Committee on Foreign Relations confidential hearings on Nicaragua from October 1912, a transcript from June 1914, and a [[Linton Wells]] memorandum on the involvement of Brown Brothers and Seligman in Nicaraguan affairs covering 1911 to 1929.[^2]
In a February 14, 1912 letter the American Minister wrote that the Legation "did not wish to take any official part in the business negotiations between the Nicaraguan Government and Brown Brothers et al."[^59] In 1914 the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations took testimony on the convention. [[Charles A. Douglas]], who said that "I have represented Nicaragua for a little over a year," testified that Ham was "nominated and put there really by the bankers with the assent of the Secretary of State." He said that Brown Brothers and Seligman were the only bankers he knew in connection with the Nicaraguan affair, and that the treaty "was never ratified."[^60] The same hearing volume prints a list of five agreements the committee received. Two of them were between the Republic and Brown Bros. & Co. and J. & W. Seligman & Co., one for the purchase of Treasury bills and one for the purchase of railroad and bank stock. The others were between the Republic and the National Bank of Nicaragua, the [[Ferrocarril del Pacifico de Nicaragua]], and the [[United States Mortgage and Trust Company]].[^61] The finding aid lists an excerpt from Senate Committee on Foreign Relations confidential hearings on Nicaragua from October 1912, a transcript from June 1914, and a [[Linton Wells]] memorandum on the involvement of Brown Brothers and Seligman in Nicaraguan affairs covering 1911 to 1929.[^2]
Kouwenhoven reproduced a specimen of the 1912 Nicaraguan paper currency bearing the signature of James Brown, senior partner of Brown Brothers & Co., as "Presidente" of the Banco Nacional de Nicaragua. He recorded that [[Oswald Garrison Villard]] published an editorial entitled "The Republic of Brown Brothers" in *[[The Nation]]* on June 7, 1922, charging that the United States had reduced Haiti, Santo Domingo and Nicaragua "to the status of colonies." Kouwenhoven wrote that the firm's records, including James Brown's private diary and an unpublished account by Thatcher M. Brown, "suggest that it was quite the other way around," that the loan was made in 1911 at the request of the State Department, which "was anxious" for a one-year loan for currency reform and a bank headed by Americans. Thatcher Brown's account, quoted there, describes James Brown and Albert Straus of the Seligman firm before a Senate committee, Senator Williams's remark that "I always knew Wall Street bankers were crooks, but this is the first time I ever realized they were damn fools as well," and payment of the loans "principal and interest, in 1924." The J. G. White Engineering Corporation was employed by Brown Brothers and the Seligmans to put the country's railroads into operating condition.[^50]
The minister also reported that both currency experts read the clause that put the government's lake steamers under the Pacific railroad option to mean that Brown Brothers "will on the exercise of the option acquire a franchise to navigate the lakes and San Juan River."[^59]
Kouwenhoven reproduced a specimen of the 1912 Nicaraguan paper currency bearing the signature of James Brown, senior partner of Brown Brothers & Co., as "Presidente" of the Banco Nacional de Nicaragua. He recorded that [[Oswald Garrison Villard]] published an editorial entitled "The Republic of Brown Brothers" in *[[The Nation]]* on June 7, 1922, charging that the United States had reduced Haiti, Santo Domingo and Nicaragua "to the status of colonies." Kouwenhoven wrote that the firm's records, including James Brown's private diary and an unpublished account by Thatcher M. Brown, "suggest that it was quite the other way around," that the loan was made in 1911 at the request of the State Department, which "was anxious" for a one-year loan for currency reform and a bank headed by Americans. Thatcher Brown's account, quoted there, describes James Brown and Albert Straus of the Seligman firm before a Senate committee, Senator Williams's remark that "I always knew Wall Street bankers were crooks, but this is the first time I ever realized they were damn fools as well," and payment of the loans "principal and interest, in 1924." The J. G. White Engineering Corporation was employed by Brown Brothers and the Seligmans to put the country's railroads into operating condition.[^62]
### Later Records
The [[Office of Government Ethics]] disclosure that [[Jay Clayton]] filed on his nomination to the SEC listed Brown Brothers Harriman among the clients from which he had earned more than $5,000 in a year.[^51]
The [[Office of Government Ethics]] disclosure that [[Jay Clayton]] filed on his nomination to the SEC listed Brown Brothers Harriman among the clients from which he had earned more than $5,000 in a year.[^63]
### Regulatory Record
The firm's FINRA registration record, CRD number 104487, classifies it as a partnership. It states that the firm "was formed in [[Pennsylvania]]," that its FINRA registration ran from January 4, 1933 to July 12, 2017, and that it ceased business on June 12, 2017. The record describes the bank as principally regulated by the [[New York State Department of Financial Services]] and the securities division as principally regulated by the [[Financial Industry Regulatory Authority]].[^52]
The firm's FINRA registration record, CRD number 104487, classifies it as a partnership. It states that the firm "was formed in [[Pennsylvania]]," that its FINRA registration ran from January 4, 1933 to July 12, 2017, and that it ceased business on June 12, 2017. The record describes the bank as principally regulated by the [[New York State Department of Financial Services]] and the securities division as principally regulated by the [[Financial Industry Regulatory Authority]].[^64]
The record lists three regulatory events. The first is a [[New York Stock Exchange]] Hearing Board decision dated November 13, 2006 (case HPD 06-200). It found that the firm violated NYSE Rule 342(a) and (b) by failing to establish and maintain adequate policies, procedures and controls. The firm consented, without admitting or denying guilt, to a censure and a fine of $170,000.[^52]
The record lists three regulatory events. The first is a [[New York Stock Exchange]] Hearing Board decision dated November 13, 2006 (case HPD 06-200). It found that the firm violated NYSE Rule 342(a) and (b) by failing to establish and maintain adequate policies, procedures and controls. The firm consented, without admitting or denying guilt, to a censure and a fine of $170,000.[^64]
The second is an order of the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] dated September 10, 2014, File No. 3-16076. The order records that BBH "also serves as the general partner" of the BBH Fund, and that "BBH designated certain of its partners to exercise voting and investment power over investments of the BBH Fund and to serve as directors of the BBH Fund." It found failures to timely file Section 16(a) reports concerning two corporations in which the firm held more than 10 percent, and failures to amend Schedule 13G filings. The firm consented without admitting or denying the findings and paid a civil penalty of $120,000.[^53]
The second is an order of the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] dated September 10, 2014, File No. 3-16076. The order records that BBH "also serves as the general partner" of the BBH Fund, and that "BBH designated certain of its partners to exercise voting and investment power over investments of the BBH Fund and to serve as directors of the BBH Fund." It found failures to timely file Section 16(a) reports concerning two corporations in which the firm held more than 10 percent, and failures to amend Schedule 13G filings. The firm consented without admitting or denying the findings and paid a civil penalty of $120,000.[^65]
The third is a FINRA Acceptance, Waiver and Consent, No. 2013035821401, accepted by FINRA on February 4, 2014. Respondents were the firm and Harold A. Crawford, its Global Anti Money Laundering Compliance Officer from May 2007 through December 31, 2013. The order states that in August 2007 the firm and the then-named New York State Banking Department entered into a written agreement requiring it to improve its system of internal controls, policies and procedures on verifying the identities of account holders and to devote resources to an effective anti-money laundering program. For January 1, 2009 through June 30, 2013, FINRA found that the firm directly executed sales or, as a custodian, delivered to other firms the securities underlying the sale of at least 6 billion shares of low-priced securities, generating at least $850 million in proceeds to the sellers, less than 20 percent of it through transactions where the firm acted as executing broker. The firm conducted penny stock transactions for omnibus accounts of banks in Switzerland, Guernsey and Jersey on behalf of undisclosed underlying customers. FINRA found that the firm and Crawford were aware its brokerage activity had expanded when its Swiss bank clients "realized they could offer their underlying clients anonymous access to U.S. Securities markets." It found that the anti-money laundering program failed to monitor and investigate suspicious penny stock activity, including delivery-versus-payment transactions, failed to conduct adequate periodic reviews of correspondent accounts for foreign financial institutions, failed to ensure that suspicious activity was reported, and that the firm lacked a supervisory system to prevent the distribution of unregistered securities. The firm was censured and fined $8,000,000, and Crawford was suspended for one month and fined $25,000, without admitting or denying the findings. The firm's corrective action statement states that equity brokerage accounted for less than 1 percent of annual revenues in 2013 and that it announced in December 2013 a decision to close the business effective June 2014. The BrokerCheck record states that the firm paid the fine on February 12, 2014.[^54][^52]
The third is a FINRA Acceptance, Waiver and Consent, No. 2013035821401, accepted by FINRA on February 4, 2014. Respondents were the firm and Harold A. Crawford, its Global Anti Money Laundering Compliance Officer from May 2007 through December 31, 2013. The order states that in August 2007 the firm and the then-named New York State Banking Department entered into a written agreement requiring it to improve its system of internal controls, policies and procedures on verifying the identities of account holders and to devote resources to an effective anti-money laundering program. For January 1, 2009 through June 30, 2013, FINRA found that the firm directly executed sales or, as a custodian, delivered to other firms the securities underlying the sale of at least 6 billion shares of low-priced securities, generating at least $850 million in proceeds to the sellers, less than 20 percent of it through transactions where the firm acted as executing broker. The firm conducted penny stock transactions for omnibus accounts of banks in Switzerland, Guernsey and Jersey on behalf of undisclosed underlying customers. FINRA found that the firm and Crawford were aware its brokerage activity had expanded when its Swiss bank clients "realized they could offer their underlying clients anonymous access to U.S. Securities markets." It found that the anti-money laundering program failed to monitor and investigate suspicious penny stock activity, including delivery-versus-payment transactions, failed to conduct adequate periodic reviews of correspondent accounts for foreign financial institutions, failed to ensure that suspicious activity was reported, and that the firm lacked a supervisory system to prevent the distribution of unregistered securities. The firm was censured and fined $8,000,000, and Crawford was suspended for one month and fined $25,000, without admitting or denying the findings. The firm's corrective action statement states that equity brokerage accounted for less than 1 percent of annual revenues in 2013 and that it announced in December 2013 a decision to close the business effective June 2014. The BrokerCheck record states that the firm paid the fine on February 12, 2014.[^64][^66]
The affiliated entities on the same record are [[Brown Brothers Harriman Investments]], LLC, [[Brown Brothers Harriman Credit Partners]], LLC, and the [[Brown Brothers Harriman Mutual Fund Advisory Department]].[^52]
The affiliated entities on the same record are [[Brown Brothers Harriman Investments]], LLC, [[Brown Brothers Harriman Credit Partners]], LLC, and the [[Brown Brothers Harriman Mutual Fund Advisory Department]].[^64]
### Footnotes
@ -241,50 +242,62 @@ The affiliated entities on the same record are [[Brown Brothers Harriman Investm
[^5]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 192. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^6]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 12 to 13, text and caption of the photograph of Prescott S. Bush. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^7]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 13. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^8]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 14 to 15 (first bankers acceptance of October 24, 1927) and p. 16 (minute book entry of 1927). https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^9]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 16 to 17, quoting Thatcher M. Brown's informal history of the firm. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^10]: Zachary Karabell, "Inside Money: Brown Brothers Harriman and the American Way of Power," *Financial History* 138 (Summer 2021), Museum of American Finance, pp. 14 to 17 (passages quoted at pp. 15 to 16). https://archive.org/details/financialhistory138
[^11]: W. Averell Harriman Papers, A Finding Aid to the Collection in the Library of Congress, Manuscript Division (2016), Biographical Note (chronology 1891 to 1986). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003012.pdf
[^12]: Brown Brothers Harriman, "Joining Forces: The Birth of Brown Brothers Harriman," firm history page. https://www.bbh.com/apac/en/bbh-who-we-are/our-story/200-years-of-partnership/joining-forces-the-birth-of-brown-brothers-harriman.html
[^13]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2002), memoranda on Guaranty Trust and Brown Brothers, Harriman, and the Harriman chronology. The dating is Sutton's.
[^14]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 15, on the Banking Act of 1933 and the "Big Four" houses of 1931. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^15]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 197 to 198, caption of the photograph of Harold D. Pennington. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^16]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 17 to 18. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^17]: Council on Foreign Relations, Receipts (1946-1951), Research Budget, with Contributions of Corporations, Individual Contributions to the 25th Anniversary Fund and Corporations with Officers who are members of the Council on Foreign Relations, November 1951, CIA-RDP80R01731R001100170005-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001100170005-1
[^18]: The Trilateral Commission, membership roster "As of July 1, 1981," reprinted in Congressional Research Service, *The Trilateral Commission*, Issue Packet IP0092 (Library of Congress, 1981). https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/19810501_IP0092_2d3ea09e2c6068af730f41d315f4ea490bc91878.pdf
[^19]: Jennifer Marciello, "Collection Opening: Robert V. Roosa Personal Papers," John F. Kennedy Presidential Library archives blog, November 7, 2024. https://jfk.blogs.archives.gov/2024/11/07/collection-opening-robert-v-roosa-personal-papers
[^20]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 202 to 203. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^21]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 203. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^22]: United States Senate, Connecticut timeline, entry for November 4, 1952 (Prescott Bush). https://www.senate.gov/states/CT/timeline.htm
[^23]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 208. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^24]: "Oral History Interview with Robert A. Lovett," July 7, 1971, Harry S. Truman Library, transcript pp. 4 to 7, with the library's biographical summary. https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/oral-histories/lovettra
[^25]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 4, Memorandum from the Counselor of the Department of State (Kennan) to the Under Secretary of State (Webb), March 30, 1950. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d4
[^26]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 129, Memorandum from Robert P. Joyce of the Policy Planning Staff to the Under Secretary of State (Bruce), October 15, 1952. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d129
[^27]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 78, Minutes of a Meeting of the Psychological Strategy Board, July 2, 1951. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d78
[^28]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 132, Memorandum from President Truman to Secretary of State Acheson and Secretary of Defense Lovett, October 24, 1952, and document 136, Memorandum from the Director of the National Security Agency (Canine) and Representatives of the Military Services and Joint Chiefs of Staff to Secretary of Defense Lovett. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d132
[^29]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, list of persons, entry for Lovett, Robert A. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/persons
[^30]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 247, Memorandum from the Secretary of State's Special Assistant for Intelligence and Research (Armstrong) to Secretary of State Dulles, December 22, 1955, with the editorial note on Executive Order 10656. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d247
[^31]: Central Intelligence Agency, Center for the Study of Intelligence Newsletter, no. 3 (Spring 1995), "The Elusive 'Bruce-Lovett Report.'" https://web.archive.org/web/2005/https://www.cia.gov/csi/bulletin/csi3.htm
[^32]: Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., *Robert Kennedy and His Times* (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1978), pp. 455 to 458, and Peter Grose, *Gentleman Spy: The Life of Allen Dulles* (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1994), pp. 444 to 448, (excerpts at https://cryptome.org/0001/bruce-lovett.htm)
[^33]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 248, "All of the Capital Stock of Union Banking Corporation and Certain Indebtedness Owing by It," executed October 20, 1942, F.R. Doc. 42-11568, 7 *Federal Register* 9097 to 9098 (November 7, 1942). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf
[^34]: Treasury Department memorandum, Mr. May to Mr. J. W. Pehle, August 18, 1941, "Re: Union Banking Corporation," ref. 9-151, with handwritten notation by J. W. Pehle, declassified by NARA (authority NND 960103).
[^35]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (Trine Day, 2002), section "The Union Banking Connection." The lists and characterizations are Sutton's.
[^36]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2002), membership catalogue by class year in the 2002 edition.
[^37]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (Trine Day, 2002), section on Brown Brothers, Harriman, list of partners "who were also members of The Order in the mid 1970s." The count and list are Sutton's.
[^38]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1478, headnote to the Loan Convention between the United States and Nicaragua. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1478
[^39]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1480, Senate Executive E, 62d Congress, 1st session, amendments proposed in the President's message of July 17, 1911. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1480
[^40]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1482, Brown Brothers and Company and J. and W. Seligman and Company to the Secretary of State, November 2, 1911. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1482
[^41]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1485, the Secretary of State to the Nicaraguan Minister, November 11, 1911. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1485
[^42]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1486, December 13, 1911. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1486
[^43]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1504, Brown Brothers and Company and J. and W. Seligman and Company to the Secretary of State, April 2, 1912. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1504
[^44]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1509, June 3, 1912. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1509
[^45]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1512, Brown Brothers and Company and J. and W. Seligman and Company to the Secretary of State, August 2, 1912. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1512
[^46]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1517, Brown Brothers and Company and J. and W. Seligman and Company to the Secretary of State, November 13, 1912. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1517
[^47]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1498, the American Minister to the Secretary of State, February 14, 1912. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1498
[^48]: *Convention between the United States and Nicaragua*, hearing before the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate, 63d Congress, 2d session (Washington, 1914), statement of Charles A. Douglas, counsel for the Government of Nicaragua. https://archive.org/details/conventionbetwee00unitrich
[^49]: *Convention between the United States and Nicaragua*, hearing before the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate, 63d Congress, 2d session (Washington, 1914), list of agreements submitted to the committee in May 1914. https://archive.org/details/conventionbetwee00unitrich
[^50]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 189 to 190, quoting Thatcher M. Brown's account; Oswald Garrison Villard, "The Republic of Brown Brothers," *The Nation*, June 7, 1922, as described there. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^51]: ProPublica, "Jay Clayton," *Trump Town*, from his OGE Form 278e financial disclosure (database updated October 2019). https://projects.propublica.org/trump-town/staffers/jay-clayton
[^52]: FINRA BrokerCheck, firm report for Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., CRD 104487, Disclosure Events, Firm Statement and Firm History sections. https://files.brokercheck.finra.org/firm/firm_104487.pdf
[^53]: Securities and Exchange Commission, Order Instituting Cease-and-Desist Proceedings, Release No. 34-73047 (September 10, 2014), File No. 3-16076, *In the Matter of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.* https://www.sec.gov/litigation/admin/2014/34-73047.pdf
[^54]: Financial Industry Regulatory Authority, Letter of Acceptance, Waiver and Consent No. 2013035821401, *Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.* (CRD 104487) and Harold A. Crawford (CRD 5326696), accepted February 4, 2014, with the Corrective Action Statement of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. https://www.finra.org/sites/default/files/fda_documents/2013035821401_FDA_D821567%20%282019-1562955575747%29.pdf
[^8]: *The Bankers Magazine*, vol. 122, no. 1 (January 1931), news item on the combination of Brown Brothers & Co. and the Harriman firms. https://archive.org/details/sim_bankers-magazine_1931-01_122_1
[^9]: Garry Wills, "Father Knows Best," *The New York Review of Books*, November 5, 1992. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1992/11/05/father-knows-best/
[^10]: Notices of new partnerships, *The New York Times*, May 5, 1929, financial pages. https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-times_1929-05-05_78_26034_0
[^11]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 14 to 15 (first bankers acceptance of October 24, 1927) and p. 16 (minute book entry of 1927). https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^12]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 16 to 17, quoting Thatcher M. Brown's informal history of the firm. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^13]: Zachary Karabell, "Inside Money: Brown Brothers Harriman and the American Way of Power," *Financial History* 138 (Summer 2021), Museum of American Finance, pp. 14 to 17 (passages quoted at pp. 15 to 16). https://archive.org/details/financialhistory138
[^14]: W. Averell Harriman Papers, A Finding Aid to the Collection in the Library of Congress, Manuscript Division (2016), Biographical Note (chronology 1891 to 1986). https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2003/ms003012.pdf
[^15]: Brown Brothers Harriman, "Joining Forces: The Birth of Brown Brothers Harriman," firm history page. https://www.bbh.com/apac/en/bbh-who-we-are/our-story/200-years-of-partnership/joining-forces-the-birth-of-brown-brothers-harriman.html
[^16]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2002), memoranda on Guaranty Trust and Brown Brothers, Harriman, and the Harriman chronology. The dating is Sutton's.
[^17]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 15, on the Banking Act of 1933 and the "Big Four" houses of 1931. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^18]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 197 to 198, caption of the photograph of Harold D. Pennington. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^19]: Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. anniversary advertisement, *Commercial and Financial Chronicle*, October 14, 1943.
[^20]: Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. notices listing partners, *Trusts and Estates*, vol. 95, no. 7 (July 1956) and vol. 100, no. 1 (January 1961). https://archive.org/details/sim_trusts-estates_1956-07_95_7 and https://archive.org/details/sim_trusts-estates_1961-01_100_1
[^21]: Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. statement of condition with list of partners, *The Economist*, July 22, 1961. https://archive.org/details/sim_economist_1961-07-22_200_6152
[^22]: Brown Brothers Harriman Records, MS 78, New-York Historical Society, finding aid, photographs (July 24 and 28, 1964; May 19, 1967). https://findingaids.library.nyu.edu/nyhs/ms78_brown_brothers_harriman/
[^23]: Robert A. Lovett, biography, Historical Office, Office of the Secretary of Defense (archived copy, November 23, 2023). https://web.archive.org/web/2023/https://history.defense.gov/DOD-History/Deputy-Secretaries-of-Defense/Article-View/Article/585251/robert-a-lovett/
[^24]: *Organizing for National Security: Hearings before the Subcommittee on National Policy Machinery*, Part 1 (1960), Exhibit IV, "Biographies," p. 233. https://archive.org/details/HearingsOnOrganizingForNationalSecurity1960
[^25]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 17 to 18. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^26]: Council on Foreign Relations, Receipts (1946-1951), Research Budget, with Contributions of Corporations, Individual Contributions to the 25th Anniversary Fund and Corporations with Officers who are members of the Council on Foreign Relations, November 1951, CIA-RDP80R01731R001100170005-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80r01731r001100170005-1
[^27]: The Trilateral Commission, membership roster "As of July 1, 1981," reprinted in Congressional Research Service, *The Trilateral Commission*, Issue Packet IP0092 (Library of Congress, 1981). https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/19810501_IP0092_2d3ea09e2c6068af730f41d315f4ea490bc91878.pdf
[^28]: Jennifer Marciello, "Collection Opening: Robert V. Roosa Personal Papers," John F. Kennedy Presidential Library archives blog, November 7, 2024. https://jfk.blogs.archives.gov/2024/11/07/collection-opening-robert-v-roosa-personal-papers
[^29]: Henry L. Stimson and McGeorge Bundy, *On Active Service in Peace and War* (Harper & Brothers, 1948), p. 338. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.506235
[^30]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 202 to 203. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^31]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 203. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^32]: United States Senate, Connecticut timeline, entry for November 4, 1952 (Prescott Bush). https://www.senate.gov/states/CT/timeline.htm
[^33]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), p. 208. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^34]: "Oral History Interview with Robert A. Lovett," July 7, 1971, Harry S. Truman Library, transcript pp. 4 to 7, with the library's biographical summary. https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/oral-histories/lovettra
[^35]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 4, Memorandum from the Counselor of the Department of State (Kennan) to the Under Secretary of State (Webb), March 30, 1950. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d4
[^36]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 129, Memorandum from Robert P. Joyce of the Policy Planning Staff to the Under Secretary of State (Bruce), October 15, 1952. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d129
[^37]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 78, Minutes of a Meeting of the Psychological Strategy Board, July 2, 1951. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d78
[^38]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 132, Memorandum from President Truman to Secretary of State Acheson and Secretary of Defense Lovett, October 24, 1952, and document 136, Memorandum from the Director of the National Security Agency (Canine) and Representatives of the Military Services and Joint Chiefs of Staff to Secretary of Defense Lovett. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d132
[^39]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, list of persons, entry for Lovett, Robert A. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/persons
[^40]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950-1955, The Intelligence Community*, document 247, Memorandum from the Secretary of State's Special Assistant for Intelligence and Research (Armstrong) to Secretary of State Dulles, December 22, 1955, with the editorial note on Executive Order 10656. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d247
[^41]: Central Intelligence Agency, Center for the Study of Intelligence Newsletter, no. 3 (Spring 1995), "The Elusive 'Bruce-Lovett Report.'" https://web.archive.org/web/2005/https://www.cia.gov/csi/bulletin/csi3.htm
[^42]: Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., *Robert Kennedy and His Times* (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1978), pp. 455 to 458, and Peter Grose, *Gentleman Spy: The Life of Allen Dulles* (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1994), pp. 444 to 448, (excerpts at https://cryptome.org/0001/bruce-lovett.htm)
[^43]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 248, "All of the Capital Stock of Union Banking Corporation and Certain Indebtedness Owing by It," executed October 20, 1942, F.R. Doc. 42-11568, 7 *Federal Register* 9097 to 9098 (November 7, 1942). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf
[^44]: Treasury Department memorandum, Mr. May to Mr. J. W. Pehle, August 18, 1941, "Re: Union Banking Corporation," ref. 9-151, with handwritten notation by J. W. Pehle, declassified by NARA (authority NND 960103).
[^45]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (Trine Day, 2002), section "The Union Banking Connection." The lists and characterizations are Sutton's.
[^46]: Federal Reserve Bank of New York, *Twenty-Fifth Annual Report* (for the year 1939), pp. 16 to 17 and note 2 on the foreign exchange committee. https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-reserve-bank-of-new-york-annual-report_1939-12-31
[^47]: Federal Reserve Bank of New York, Circular No. 1015, "Appointment of Directors," January 8, 1931. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/files/docs/historical/ny%20circulars/1931_01015.pdf
[^48]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2002), membership catalogue by class year in the 2002 edition.
[^49]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (Trine Day, 2002), section on Brown Brothers, Harriman, list of partners "who were also members of The Order in the mid 1970s." The count and list are Sutton's.
[^50]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1478, headnote to the Loan Convention between the United States and Nicaragua. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1478
[^51]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1480, Senate Executive E, 62d Congress, 1st session, amendments proposed in the President's message of July 17, 1911. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1480
[^52]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1482, Brown Brothers and Company and J. and W. Seligman and Company to the Secretary of State, November 2, 1911. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1482
[^53]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1485, the Secretary of State to the Nicaraguan Minister, November 11, 1911. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1485
[^54]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1486, December 13, 1911. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1486
[^55]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1504, Brown Brothers and Company and J. and W. Seligman and Company to the Secretary of State, April 2, 1912. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1504
[^56]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1509, June 3, 1912. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1509
[^57]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1512, Brown Brothers and Company and J. and W. Seligman and Company to the Secretary of State, August 2, 1912. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1512
[^58]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1517, Brown Brothers and Company and J. and W. Seligman and Company to the Secretary of State, November 13, 1912. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1517
[^59]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912*, Nicaragua, document 1498, the American Minister to the Secretary of State, February 14, 1912. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1912/d1498
[^60]: *Convention between the United States and Nicaragua*, hearing before the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate, 63d Congress, 2d session (Washington, 1914), statement of Charles A. Douglas, counsel for the Government of Nicaragua. https://archive.org/details/conventionbetwee00unitrich
[^61]: *Convention between the United States and Nicaragua*, hearing before the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate, 63d Congress, 2d session (Washington, 1914), list of agreements submitted to the committee in May 1914. https://archive.org/details/conventionbetwee00unitrich
[^62]: Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking* (1968), pp. 189 to 190, quoting Thatcher M. Brown's account; Oswald Garrison Villard, "The Republic of Brown Brothers," *The Nation*, June 7, 1922, as described there. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^63]: ProPublica, "Jay Clayton," *Trump Town*, from his OGE Form 278e financial disclosure (database updated October 2019). https://projects.propublica.org/trump-town/staffers/jay-clayton
[^64]: FINRA BrokerCheck, firm report for Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., CRD 104487, Disclosure Events, Firm Statement and Firm History sections. https://files.brokercheck.finra.org/firm/firm_104487.pdf
[^65]: Securities and Exchange Commission, Order Instituting Cease-and-Desist Proceedings, Release No. 34-73047 (September 10, 2014), File No. 3-16076, *In the Matter of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.* https://www.sec.gov/litigation/admin/2014/34-73047.pdf
[^66]: Financial Industry Regulatory Authority, Letter of Acceptance, Waiver and Consent No. 2013035821401, *Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.* (CRD 104487) and Harold A. Crawford (CRD 5326696), accepted February 4, 2014, with the Corrective Action Statement of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. https://www.finra.org/sites/default/files/fda_documents/2013035821401_FDA_D821567%20%282019-1562955575747%29.pdf

20
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Columbia University.md
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@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
---
created: 2026-10-15
updated: 2026-10-15
updated: 2026-10-26
title: Columbia University
aliases:
- Columbia
@ -81,6 +81,12 @@ relations:
start: 1947
end: 1949
fn: 13
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Donald Barr]]"
reverse: true
end: 1964
role: "instructor in English, then assistant to the dean and assistant dean, School of Engineering; director, Science Honors Program"
fn: 62
---
Columbia University is a private research university in [[New York City]]. It was founded in 1754 as King's College by royal charter of King George II, took the name Columbia in 1784, and moved to its [[Morningside Heights]] campus in 1897.[^1] Its laboratories, institutes, clinicians and graduates recur in the documented record of the [[Manhattan Project]], CIA-sponsored behavioral research, Army-contracted drug testing, Cold War area studies, parapsychology and the analysis staff of the wartime [[Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service]].
@ -155,6 +161,10 @@ The [[Defense Intelligence Agency]] (DIA) listed Columbia among the "universitie
Irving Langmuir's colloquium on "pathological science," given at the Knolls Research Laboratory on December 18, 1953, was transcribed and edited for the CIA. The transcript records that on April 23, 1920 "Professor Bergen Davis from Columbia University" gave a colloquium in Langmuir's laboratory, and that Langmuir never published his own investigation of the Davis-Barnes effect.[^55] The psychologist [[Arthur Jensen]] received his Ph.D. from Columbia in 1956.[^56]
### Science Honors Program and the School of Engineering
The School of Engineering announced the Science Honors Program on June 10, 1958: sixty selected high-school students would attend Saturday classes taught by university faculty, under the Joint Program for Technical Education, funded since 1956 by the [[Hebrew Technical Institute]], which gave an additional $25,000. [[Donald Barr]] was director, and the advisory board included [[Margaret Mead]]. By September 1959 the program had 150 students after the [[Fund for the Advancement of Education]] matched the grant.[^60][^61] Barr taught English at Columbia after his OSS service, received a master's degree in 1950, and in 1955 was asked by the Engineering School to oversee its search for promising science students. He became assistant dean of the Engineering faculty in 1959 and from 1963 administered the [[National Science Foundation]]'s Cooperative College-School Program until he left for the [[Dalton School]] in 1964.[^62] An article by Barr, "Sex, Love, and Modern Education," appeared in [[Columbia College Today]] in fall 1967.[^63]
### The 1968 disturbances and the Institute for Defense Analyses
The fact-finding commission appointed to investigate the April and May 1968 disturbances at Columbia was chaired by [[Archibald Cox]] of Harvard. Its report states that Columbia became an institutional member of the [[Institute for Defense Analyses]] (IDA), a body created to give the Secretary of Defense and the Joint Chiefs of Staff access to university research on weapons systems and warfare, and that Kirk and the Columbia trustee [[William A. M. Burden]] served on the IDA board of trustees.[^57] The report records that in January 1968 Kirk appointed a faculty committee under Professor Louis Henkin to study Columbia's external relations, that in early April the trustees approved ending formal institutional sponsorship of IDA while having IDA appoint one member of the university community as an individual trustee, and that critics took this as an attempt to claim severance while keeping the relationship. It reports that the leaders of Students for a Democratic Society cultivated the IDA issue, and that six students faced discipline for the March 27 IDA demonstration.[^58] The commission treats the planned gymnasium in Morningside Park as a second source of the protest.[^59]
@ -276,3 +286,11 @@ The fact-finding commission appointed to investigate the April and May 1968 dist
[^58]: *Crisis at Columbia*, sections on the IDA affiliation and the March 27, 1968 IDA demonstration, and the Commission's appraisal of the IDA issue.
[^59]: *Crisis at Columbia*, section "The Gymnasium in Morningside Park."
[^60]: "College Science Courses for Gifted Secondary Pupils," *School and Society* 86, no. 2141 (November 22, 1958), p. 422. https://archive.org/details/sim_usa-today_1958-11-22_86_2141
[^61]: Marjorie Oden, "Field Notes," *Consulting Engineer* 13, no. 3 (September 1959). https://archive.org/details/sim_consulting-engineer_1959-09_13_3
[^62]: "Obituaries," *Columbia College Today,* May 2004. https://web.archive.org/web/20190905000723/https://www.college.columbia.edu/cct_archive/may04/obituaries1.html
[^63]: Dalton School Archives, agent record "Barr, Donald." https://daltonarchives.libraryhost.com/agents/people/276

42
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Council on Foreign Relations.md
View file

@ -86,12 +86,12 @@ relations:
reverse: true
end: 2023-06-30
role: "president, 1,868,393 dollars reportable compensation in the return for the year to June 2023"
fn: 33
fn: 35
- type: head_of
with: "[[David Rubenstein]]"
reverse: true
role: "chairman in the return for the year to June 2023"
fn: 33
fn: 35
- type: funded
with: "[[Bernard L. Schwartz]]"
reverse: true
@ -103,8 +103,22 @@ relations:
reverse: true
role: "director, term expiring 1987; Executive Committee; Vice Chairman of the Board"
fn: 28
- type: director_of
with: "[[William P. Bundy]]"
reverse: true
start: 1964
end: 1972
role: "board of directors"
fn: 33
- type: employed_by
with: "[[William P. Bundy]]"
reverse: true
start: 1972
end: 1984
role: "editor of Foreign Affairs"
fn: 34
created: 2026-10-01
updated: 2026-10-09
updated: 2026-10-26
---
The Council on Foreign Relations is a New York membership organization that publishes [[Foreign Affairs]] and runs study groups, a meetings program for members, affiliated Committees on Foreign Relations in other cities and a corporate subscription program.
@ -143,7 +157,7 @@ The fourth page of the November 1951 table lists corporations with officers who
### Officers and committees in 1952
For 1952 to 1953 the Council's officers were [[R. C. Leffingwell]] as chairman of the board, Allen W. Dulles as vice-chairman (on leave), [[Henry M. Wriston]] as president, David Rockefeller as vice-president, Frank Altschul as vice-president and secretary, [[Devereux C. Josephs]] as vice-president and treasurer, [[Walter H. Mallory]] as executive director (on leave) and George S. Franklin Jr. as acting executive director. The directors included [[W. Averell Harriman]], [[William A. M. Burden]], [[John W. Davis]], [[Grayson Kirk]], [[Lewis W. Douglas]], [[Thomas K. Finletter]], [[Whitney H. Shepardson]] and Taylor. Rockefeller chaired the Membership Committee; Dulles sat on the Committee on Studies with Wriston, Armstrong, Dean, Mosely and others; Armstrong edited Foreign Affairs, whose Editorial Advisory Board comprised [[George H. Blakeslee]], Davis, Dulles, [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], [[George Kennan]], Langer, [[Charles H. McIlwain]], Seymour and Wriston.[^4]
For 1952 to 1953 the Council's officers were [[R. C. Leffingwell]] as chairman of the board, Allen W. Dulles as vice-chairman (on leave), [[Henry M. Wriston]] as president, David Rockefeller as vice-president, Frank Altschul as vice-president and secretary, [[Devereux C. Josephs]] as vice-president and treasurer, [[Walter H. Mallory]] as executive director (on leave) and George S. Franklin Jr. as acting executive director. The directors included W. Averell Harriman, [[William A. M. Burden]], [[John W. Davis]], [[Grayson Kirk]], [[Lewis W. Douglas]], [[Thomas K. Finletter]], [[Whitney H. Shepardson]] and Taylor. Rockefeller chaired the Membership Committee; Dulles sat on the Committee on Studies with Wriston, Armstrong, Dean, Mosely and others; Armstrong edited Foreign Affairs, whose Editorial Advisory Board comprised [[George H. Blakeslee]], Davis, Dulles, [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], [[George Kennan]], Langer, [[Charles H. McIlwain]], Seymour and Wriston.[^4]
Membership stood at 927 on August 1, 1951 and 933 on August 1, 1952, in the classes resident (420 and 420), resident academic (164 and 167), junior (13 and 9), nonresident (160 and 160) and nonresident academic (170 and 177). The Committees on Foreign Relations held 191 meetings that year, and a grant from the Fund for Adult Education financed the reprinting of an article from Foreign Affairs nine times a year, with a discussion guide, for about 1,000 adult discussion groups.[^4]
@ -199,17 +213,19 @@ Two months earlier, on January 9, 2002, [[Space Systems/Loral]] had signed a con
Foreign Affairs published "The Sources of Soviet Conduct" in July 1947 over the signature "X," credited by the journal to George F. Kennan; the article called for "a long-term, patient but firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies."[^32]
William P. Bundy served on the Council's board of directors from 1964 to 1972.[^33] A 1972 press item reported that he would succeed Hamilton Fish Armstrong, who had edited the quarterly for 43 years, as editor of Foreign Affairs in the fall of 1972.[^34] The Princeton finding aid gives his editorship as 1972 to 1984.[^33] He also served as a trustee of the [[American Assembly]] from 1964 to 1984.[^33]
### Recent filings
The Council's Form 990 for the year ended June 30, 2023 reports revenue of 106,930,600 dollars, expenses of 83,166,400 dollars and year-end assets of 719,707,600 dollars; the same series of returns on the [[ProPublica]] Nonprofit Explorer shows revenue of 59,633,100 dollars and assets of 438,237,900 dollars for the year to June 2011.[^2] The 2023 return lists contributions of 63,113,857 dollars, Foreign Affairs revenue of 11,709,500, individual membership revenue of 9,036,200 and corporate membership revenue of 1,103,843, with 711 employees and 34 voting members of the governing body. It describes the membership as "over 5,000," states that the members elect all voting directors, and gives the year of founding as 1921.[^33]
The Council's Form 990 for the year ended June 30, 2023 reports revenue of 106,930,600 dollars, expenses of 83,166,400 dollars and year-end assets of 719,707,600 dollars; the same series of returns on the [[ProPublica]] Nonprofit Explorer shows revenue of 59,633,100 dollars and assets of 438,237,900 dollars for the year to June 2011.[^2] The 2023 return lists contributions of 63,113,857 dollars, Foreign Affairs revenue of 11,709,500, individual membership revenue of 9,036,200 and corporate membership revenue of 1,103,843, with 711 employees and 34 voting members of the governing body. It describes the membership as "over 5,000," states that the members elect all voting directors, and gives the year of founding as 1921.[^35]
[[Richard Haass]] is shown as president through June 30, 2023 with reportable compensation of 1,868,393 dollars and 59,851 dollars of other compensation; [[Michael Froman]] is named as principal officer. Other reported compensation includes 524,534 dollars to the chief investment officer, [[Giovanna Ban]], 519,740 to the executive vice president and chief financial officer, Keith Olson, 459,793 to the director of studies, [[James M. Lindsay]], 330,419 to the editor of Foreign Affairs, [[Daniel Kurtz-Phelan]], and 280,205 to the distinguished fellow [[Martin Indyk]]. [[David Rubenstein]] is chairman, [[Blair Effron]] and [[Jami Miscik]] vice-chairmen, and the directors include [[Thad Allen]], [[Ashton B. Carter]] (through October 2022), [[Kenneth I. Chenault]], [[Laurence D. Fink]] (through June 30, 2023), [[Timothy F. Geithner]] (through June 30, 2023), [[James P. Gorman]], [[Stephen J. Hadley]], [[Jeh Johnson]], [[William H. McRaven]], [[Janet Napolitano]], [[Meghan O'Sullivan]], [[Ruth Porat]], [[Laurene Powell Jobs]], [[Frances F. Townsend]], [[Daniel H. Yergin]] and [[Fareed Zakaria]]. Schedule O reports business relationships between Haass and directors Effron, [[Stephen C. Freidheim]] and [[Nicholas Beim]]; between Rubenstein and Carter and Yergin; between Miscik and Gorman; and between directors [[James Manyika]] and Porat. Schedule I lists fellowship payments including 596,458 dollars for nine International Affairs Fellows, 288,750 dollars for four fellows in national security, 119,350 dollars for six in Japan, 100,000 dollars for one Edward R. Murrow press fellow and 80,000 dollars for one Stanton nuclear security fellow. The donor schedule is redacted in the public copy.[^33]
[[Richard Haass]] is shown as president through June 30, 2023 with reportable compensation of 1,868,393 dollars and 59,851 dollars of other compensation; [[Michael Froman]] is named as principal officer. Other reported compensation includes 524,534 dollars to the chief investment officer, [[Giovanna Ban]], 519,740 to the executive vice president and chief financial officer, Keith Olson, 459,793 to the director of studies, [[James M. Lindsay]], 330,419 to the editor of Foreign Affairs, [[Daniel Kurtz-Phelan]], and 280,205 to the distinguished fellow [[Martin Indyk]]. [[David Rubenstein]] is chairman, [[Blair Effron]] and [[Jami Miscik]] vice-chairmen, and the directors include [[Thad Allen]], [[Ashton B. Carter]] (through October 2022), [[Kenneth I. Chenault]], [[Laurence D. Fink]] (through June 30, 2023), [[Timothy F. Geithner]] (through June 30, 2023), [[James P. Gorman]], [[Stephen J. Hadley]], [[Jeh Johnson]], [[William H. McRaven]], [[Janet Napolitano]], [[Meghan O'Sullivan]], [[Ruth Porat]], [[Laurene Powell Jobs]], [[Frances F. Townsend]], [[Daniel H. Yergin]] and [[Fareed Zakaria]]. Schedule O reports business relationships between Haass and directors Effron, [[Stephen C. Freidheim]] and [[Nicholas Beim]]; between Rubenstein and Carter and Yergin; between Miscik and Gorman; and between directors [[James Manyika]] and Porat. Schedule I lists fellowship payments including 596,458 dollars for nine International Affairs Fellows, 288,750 dollars for four fellows in national security, 119,350 dollars for six in Japan, 100,000 dollars for one Edward R. Murrow press fellow and 80,000 dollars for one Stanton nuclear security fellow. The donor schedule is redacted in the public copy.[^35]
Five of the directors named in the 2023 return (Rubenstein, Manyika, O'Sullivan, Townsend and Yergin) are members of the North American group in the Trilateral Commission's list of September 6, 2024, on which five Council fellows also appear.[^34]
Five of the directors named in the 2023 return (Rubenstein, Manyika, O'Sullivan, Townsend and Yergin) are members of the North American group in the Trilateral Commission's list of September 6, 2024, on which five Council fellows also appear.[^36]
### Jeffrey Epstein
Two biographical statements in the [[Department of Justice]]'s [[Epstein Files|Epstein Library]], one headed "Biographical Information of Jeffrey E. Epstein" and one "About Jeffrey E. Epstein," neither dated on its face, describe [[Jeffrey Epstein]] as "a former member of the Trilateral Commission and a former member of the Council on Foreign Relations." No Council membership roll appears in the documents examined.[^35] An exchange of November 8 and 15, 2010 between Epstein and the Council's director of events concerns travel and a weekend event.[^36]
Two biographical statements in the [[Department of Justice]]'s [[Epstein Files|Epstein Library]], one headed "Biographical Information of Jeffrey E. Epstein" and one "About Jeffrey E. Epstein," neither dated on its face, describe [[Jeffrey Epstein]] as "a former member of the Trilateral Commission and a former member of the Council on Foreign Relations." No Council membership roll appears in the documents examined.[^37] An exchange of November 8 and 15, 2010 between Epstein and the Council's director of events concerns travel and a weekend event.[^38]
### Footnotes
@ -245,7 +261,9 @@ Two biographical statements in the [[Department of Justice]]'s [[Epstein Files|E
[^30]: U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Political-Military Affairs, Office of Defense Trade Controls, consent agreement with Space Systems/Loral, Inc., January 9, 2002, Exhibit 10.1 to Loral Space & Communications Ltd. Form 8-K, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/0001006269/000095012302000193/y56456ex10-1.txt
[^31]: U.S. Department of State, Office of Defense Trade Controls, Draft Charging Letter to Space Systems/Loral, Inc. (undated), https://www.pmddtc.state.gov/sys_attachment.do?sys_id=032ef245db15df00d0a370131f96192b
[^32]: "X" (George F. Kennan), "The Sources of Soviet Conduct," Foreign Affairs, vol. 25, no. 4, July 1947, https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/russian-federation/1947-07-01/sources-soviet-conduct
[^33]: Internal Revenue Service, Form 990 of Council on Foreign Relations Inc for the year ended June 30, 2023 (tax year 2022), Parts I, III, VI, VII, VIII, Schedules B, I and O, IRS e-file XML object 202430169349300598, https://apps.irs.gov/pub/epostcard/990/xml/2024/2024_TEOS_XML_01A.zip (member 2024_TEOS_XML_01A/202430169349300598_public.xml)
[^34]: The Trilateral Commission, membership list "Last updated September 6, 2024," North American Group, https://archive.org/details/tc-membership-list-sept-6-2024-1
[^35]: Department of Justice, Epstein Library, "Biographical Information of Jeffrey E. Epstein," EFTA00725190, and "About Jeffrey E. Epstein," EFTA00725191, https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00725190.pdf and https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00725191.pdf
[^36]: Department of Justice, Epstein Library, emails of November 8 and 15, 2010 between Jeffrey Epstein and the Council on Foreign Relations director of events, EFTA00751793, https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00751793.pdf
[^33]: William P. Bundy Papers (MC189), Biography/History, Princeton University Library, https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/PRIN_MUDD_MC189
[^34]: "William Bundy to Head Foreign Affairs Journal," press item, 1972, CIA Reading Room, CIA-RDP88-01314R000100540012-3, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01314r000100540012-3
[^35]: Internal Revenue Service, Form 990 of Council on Foreign Relations Inc for the year ended June 30, 2023 (tax year 2022), Parts I, III, VI, VII, VIII, Schedules B, I and O, IRS e-file XML object 202430169349300598, https://apps.irs.gov/pub/epostcard/990/xml/2024/2024_TEOS_XML_01A.zip (member 2024_TEOS_XML_01A/202430169349300598_public.xml)
[^36]: The Trilateral Commission, membership list "Last updated September 6, 2024," North American Group, https://archive.org/details/tc-membership-list-sept-6-2024-1
[^37]: Department of Justice, Epstein Library, "Biographical Information of Jeffrey E. Epstein," EFTA00725190, and "About Jeffrey E. Epstein," EFTA00725191, https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00725190.pdf and https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00725191.pdf
[^38]: Department of Justice, Epstein Library, emails of November 8 and 15, 2010 between Jeffrey Epstein and the Council on Foreign Relations director of events, EFTA00751793, https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00751793.pdf

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---
aliases:
- Dalton School
- The Dalton School
- Dalton Schools Inc
- Dalton Schools, Inc.
- Children's University School
category: "Private Organization"
tags:
- Organization
- DaltonSchool
- PrivateSchool
- DaltonPlan
- HelenParkhurst
- DonaldBarr
- JeffreyEpstein
- WilliamBarr
- BearStearns
- AlanGreenberg
- GardnerDunnan
- DavidSambur
- Form990
- UpperEastSide
summary: "The Dalton School is a Manhattan private school founded in 1919 by Helen Parkhurst, whose headmaster Donald Barr resigned in 1974 and which employed Jeffrey Epstein from 1974 to 1976."
location: "New York, New York"
created: 2026-10-26
updated: 2026-10-26
relations:
- type: founded
with: "[[Helen Parkhurst]]"
reverse: true
start: 1919
fn: 4
- type: head_of
with: "[[Donald Barr]]"
reverse: true
start: 1964
end: 1974
role: "headmaster"
fn: 15
- type: head_of
with: "[[Peter Branch]]"
reverse: true
start: 1974
role: "interim headmaster from July 1, 1974, according to his account to Thomas Volscho"
fn: 27
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Jeffrey Epstein]]"
reverse: true
start: 1974
end: 1976
role: "mathematics and physics teacher"
fn: 24
- type: head_of
with: "[[Gardner Dunnan]]"
reverse: true
start: 1975
end: 1997
role: "headmaster"
fn: 36
- type: head_of
with: "[[Jose Manuel De Jesus]]"
reverse: true
role: "Head of School, as listed on the Form 990 for the fiscal year ending June 2025"
fn: 46
- type: director_of
with: "[[David Sambur]]"
reverse: true
start: 2023
role: "trustee, as listed on the Forms 990 for the fiscal years ending June 2023 to June 2025 and on Apollo's leadership page"
fn: 48
---
The Dalton School is a private school at 108 East 89th Street in [[Manhattan]]. [[Helen Parkhurst]] founded it in 1919 as the Children's University School, and the [[Dalton Plan]] she devised gave the school its name. Its headmaster from 1964 to 1974 was [[Donald Barr]], the father of [[William Barr]]. From September 1974 to 1976 the school employed [[Jeffrey Epstein]] as a mathematics and physics teacher. The tax-exempt corporation that operates it is Dalton Schools Inc.
### Helen Parkhurst and the Laboratory Plan
Parkhurst's own account, in the 1922 book *Education on the Dalton Plan*, places her first teaching experience fifteen years before September 1919 and describes drafting a "laboratory plan" for children between eight and twelve. The plan, she wrote, was perfected in 1913, when pupils were organized into groups with a free choice of laboratories, and by 1915 the school timetable had been eliminated entirely.[^1] In 1914 she sought leave to study the method of [[Maria Montessori]] in Italy, and in 1915 she served as Montessori's assistant in California, where she tested her plan on a selected group of one hundred children between nine and twelve. From December 1915 to January 1918 she looked after Montessori's interests in the United States, and then resumed her own experiments with the support of the Child Education Foundation, which she directed.[^2]
The plan was first applied in full in September 1919 in an ungraded school for disabled boys, after Mrs. W. Murray Crane, a trustee of that school and chair of its educational committee, accepted it in November 1918. Crane then proposed the plan for the high school in her home town, [[Dalton, Massachusetts]], where it began in February 1920 under the principal, Ernest Jackman. Soon afterward the school was visited by Mrs. Anne Saunderson and Belle Rennie of London. Rennie wrote about the work after returning to England, and Parkhurst, fearing that "laboratory" would be misunderstood, named it the Dalton Laboratory Plan.[^3] The school's own history gives a different date, stating that the Laboratory Plan "was put into effect as an experiment in the High School of Dalton, Massachusetts, in 1916," and that the plan and the school took their names from that beginning.[^4] The school's history also describes Parkhurst's earlier work in a one-room school in [[Tacoma, Washington]] and with Montessori.[^4]
Parkhurst moved to [[New York City]] in 1919 and opened her first school on [[West 74th Street]]. The Lower School later moved to West 72nd Street, and the high school opened in the autumn of 1929 in the building at 108 East 89th Street.[^4] The 1922 book states that the Children's University School was founded through the generosity of Mr. and Mrs. Murray Crane, and its title page gives Parkhurst's position as "Education Director, Children's University School."[^5] The book describes the method in terms of a contract. "Each pupil is classified as a member of a form, and for each form a maximum and a minimum curriculum is drawn up." The curriculum is "divided up into jobs and the pupil accepts the work assigned for his class as a contract."[^6] It names freedom as "the first principle of the Dalton Laboratory Plan," and says that under the method "there are no bells to tear him away at an appointed hour."[^7] The school's current statement of the plan describes a "triangular framework of House, Assignment, and Lab" and quotes the same passage on freedom.[^8]
### The Dalton Plan in England
The book carries an introduction by T. P. Nunn, professor of education at the [[University of London]], who recounted how the plan reached Britain. Belle Rennie's account appeared in the *Times* Education Supplement in May 1920. A month later Rosa Bassett began a large-scale trial at the Streatham County Secondary School for girls in London, and in August 1920 her first results were discussed at the Cardiff meeting of the British Association. When Parkhurst came to England in July 1921, Nunn wrote, no hall could hold all who wished to hear her, and when Bassett opened her school to visitors for three days "the roads of Streatham were encumbered with over two thousand pilgrims."[^9] Parkhurst thanked in her foreword Sir Michael Sadler, Edmond Holmes, C. W. Kimmins and Nunn for their advice in England, and the book carries chapters by Bassett on a year at Streatham and by John Eades, headmaster of Kirkstall Road School in Leeds, on the plan in an elementary school.[^10] A separate book by Evelyn Dewey, published in 1922 with thanks to Bassett's school and to Jackman for information on the Massachusetts high school, devotes chapters to the Dalton high school, to Streatham and to the Children's University School.[^11] The school's history states that schools in the Netherlands, Australia, England, Korea, the Czech Republic, Taiwan and Chile have adopted the plan, and that two schools in Japan are founded on it.[^12]
### Incorporation, the Todhunter consolidation and growth
The school's archive dates its organizational documents from 1921 and describes records of the incorporation of the Dalton School and its consolidation with the [[Todhunter School]], including charters and by-laws, concentrated in the 1920s and 1930s.[^13] The archive holds a certificate of approval of the consolidation and affidavit dated July 1939 and the consolidation of Dalton Schools, Inc. and the Todhunter School, with the absolute charter of Dalton Schools, Inc. from the Regents of the University of the State of New York, dated July 28, 1939.[^13] The school's history credits [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] with promoting the 1939 merger.[^4]
The same history records that the student newspaper, *The Daltonian*, was founded in 1933, the literary magazine *Blue Flag* in 1935, and the community service program in 1942, and that during the Second World War students spent summers as farm laborers in New York State.[^4] The archive's series of files on Parkhurst as head of the school covers 1924 to 1942, and a further folder of correspondence of 1971 to 1974 concerns her estate, a loan and her brother as executor.[^14] The First Program for kindergartners and first graders moved to 61 East 91st Street in 1964, and a physical education center opened at 200 East 87th Street in 1992.[^4]
### Donald Barr's headship, 1964 to 1974
Donald Barr was born in Manhattan on August 2, 1921, graduated from [[Columbia College]] in 1941, served with the [[Office of Strategic Services]] in Washington and Europe, and returned to Columbia, where he directed the Science Honors Program at the School of Engineering. In 1963 the [[National Science Foundation]] asked him to administer its Cooperative College-School Program, which he did until he became headmaster of Dalton in 1964.[^15] The school's archive holds a series for his headship covering 1964 to 1972, including a headmaster's report to parents of November 1965.[^16] His 1971 book, *Who Pushed Humpty Dumpty?*, gave an account of the Dalton years.[^17]
*Time* reported on April 5, 1971 that the trustees "picked a stubborn new headmaster in 1964" who "arrived at Dalton with a dim view of 'orthodox' progressive education's emphasis on emotional development." He carried out trustee decisions to make the all-girl high school coeducational and to more than double the school to 1,000 pupils, added tests to supplement written evaluations, and tried to ban blue jeans and long hair on boys. In 1970 he expelled five sixth-graders, four for "extortion" and one for stealing $15 from a teacher. At a November 1970 board meeting trustees asked for his removal; an evaluation committee was named, and two months later the board voted unanimously to keep him. In March 1971 a 21-page memorandum from his supporters named the president of the parents' association as a plotter against him, and a mail poll run by the Honest Ballot Association went 435 to 300 against the parents' representative.[^18] In 1968 he told the *New York Times*: "They think they can cheat on tests, steal from one another's lockers and exploit each other emotionally so long as they have the right opinions about the war or civil rights or something else. That is not morality."[^19]
On February 20, 1974 the *New York Times* reported that Barr had resigned "in protest of what he considers the trustee's interference with his leadership." In a letter to faculty and parents the day before he wrote: "I am not comfortable with the definition of board-head relations that I see becoming current in schools everywhere." The board said the resignation "was not requested and not expected." [[Richard Ravitch]], a construction executive and president of the board, said: "The issue is the prerogatives of the board and the headmaster." The article recorded that school officials had dismissed clerical and administrative staff in January 1974, that more than half a dozen teaching positions would be eliminated in the fall, that tuition would rise by about $150, and that the board had hired an outside committee to study the school. Barr said he would remain until June 7. Enrollment was 1,254 from prekindergarten through twelfth grade, and the board had 20 members.[^20]
The 2004 *New York Times* obituary of Barr states that his tenure ended "in 1974 with his departure after disputes with the trustees over budget priorities and his disciplinarian approach to substance abuse."[^21] [[Marie Brenner]] wrote in *Vanity Fair* that Ravitch told her: "I brought in the dean of the Harvard School of Education and the head of Teachers College to evaluate Barr... I fired him. It took years to get him out, but we did it." She wrote that Barr announced his resignation "as part of an arrangement."[^22] The next year Barr became headmaster of the [[Hackley School]] in Tarrytown, New York.[^21] The *Times* later described him as having run "a private school in the cramped confines of Manhattan before becoming headmaster of the Hackley School on an 83-acre campus in Tarrytown."[^23]
### Epstein at Dalton, 1974 to 1976
The school's student newspaper reported in September 1974 that Epstein was starting that year as a mathematics and physics teacher. He was 21, from Brooklyn, and arrived without a college degree, according to the *New York Times*.[^24] [[Thomas Volscho]] wrote in the *Daily Beast* that Epstein began "after the summer of 1974," that reports of a 1973 start are incorrect because the 1973-74 yearbook has no mention of him, and that Epstein confirmed in a deposition that he taught at Dalton from 1974 to 1976.[^25] The school archive holds a folder titled "Physics A, B, A-B, and Advanced Physics, Assignments, Epstein, 1975-1976."[^26]
The *Daltonian* recorded Epstein at the piano in the first parent-faculty musical "in recent memory" in April 1975, where he "proved himself to be the ivory show man." It named him as coach of the school's math team, with a February 1976 meet against Ramaz and the Manhattan Talmudic Academy and a March 5, 1976 issue reporting "Boss Epstein watching from the sidelines." The 1974-75 yearbook carries his remark, "I'm teaching a bunch of little brats next year."[^25] The *New York Times* reported that he appeared in later issues as coach of the Dalton Tigers math team until the beginning of 1976.[^24]
[[Peter Branch]], who had been upper school director, became interim headmaster after Barr. Branch, who told Volscho he was upper school director before the appointment, said that his appointment began on July 1, 1974 and that Barr's contract expired on June 30.[^27] Branch told the *New York Times* that Epstein "was a young teacher who didn't come up to snuff. So, ultimately, he was asked to leave," that he had heard concerns from faculty about Epstein's teaching, and that he did not recall anyone raising concerns about Epstein's conduct with students.[^24] Branch told the *Miami Herald* that Epstein "had not adequately grown as a new teacher to the standard of the school."[^28] In the update to Volscho's article, Branch said that mathematics and science faculty asked him what he was "going to do about Jeff," that Epstein's teaching had not improved over the previous year, and that Branch then told Epstein it was time to move on. Volscho wrote that after the 1975-76 year Epstein told the school he was not returning.[^27]
Volscho wrote that he put a request under the New York Freedom of Information Law to the State Education Department and was told it had no teaching license on file for Epstein, and added that a private school such as Dalton does not require its teachers to hold a state license.[^27]
In an update to the same article, Volscho wrote that the journalist [[Edward Jay Epstein]] had recently claimed that investigators from the firm [[Kroll]], hired by [[L Brands]], the company of [[Les Wexner]], to look into Jeffrey Epstein's background, told him that Epstein had faked his resume to land the Dalton job.[^27]
### The hiring accounts
Accounts of who hired Epstein conflict. [[Law and Crime]] wrote on July 13, 2019 that Epstein was hired "by the school's headmaster Donald Barr in the mid 1970's."[^29] [[Frank Figliuzzi]], a former [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] assistant director, cited press reports, as CNBC described his remarks, that Barr's father had hired a 20-something Epstein to teach math despite his having no college degree.[^30] Brenner wrote in *Vanity Fair* that Barr "brought in photographers, White Russian aristocrats, anti-Castro Cuban grandees, and a group of gifted college dropouts, including one Jeffrey Epstein."[^22]
The *New York Times* wrote on July 12, 2019: "In February 1974, Mr. Barr had announced that he was resigning as headmaster, protesting the meddling by the board of trustees, but that he would stay on until the end of the school year. It is unclear whether Mr. Barr hired Mr. Epstein during that time."[^24] [[Susan Semel]], who taught social studies at Dalton from the 1960s into the 1980s and wrote a history of the school, told the *Times*: "Barr didn't care about credentials as long as you were interesting and knew your stuff." She told NPR: "Donald Barr would hire young people, and not necessarily young people who had a lot of credentials." NPR wrote that it is unclear whether Barr hired Epstein.[^24][^31] HuffPost quoted seven former students that teachers like Epstein were not unusual at Dalton in the 1970s, and appended a clarification that an earlier version had said Barr hired Epstein at age 20 and that it is unclear whether Barr had a role in the hiring.[^32] [[Snopes]] concluded: "It's not clear whether Donald Barr played any part in hiring Epstein to work at Dalton School."[^33]
Volscho set out the timeline. Barr resigned in February 1974 (according to the March 14, 1974 *Daltonian*), "seven months before Jeffrey Epstein began teaching there that fall." He wrote that "it is possible that Donald Barr may have hired Epstein, if he made personnel decisions long in advance," but that the *Daltonian* showed the school lost four mathematics teachers before the 1974-75 year, so the school "may have hired Epstein, in part, out of an urgent need to fill vacant positions." Branch told him that he did not recall hiring Epstein, was "relatively certain Barr or possibly the head of the Math Department hired Epstein because hiring decisions were typically made in the spring," and that Barr liked to hire unconventional teachers.[^27]
William Barr, then attorney general, was asked in a deposition before the [[House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform]] on August 18, 2025 whether his father's role as headmaster had been a consideration in the ethics analysis of his continued involvement in the Epstein matter. He answered: "I don't know whether I was aware of that at that time. Obviously not. It's not pertinent at all."[^34] A Justice Department official told CNBC in 2019 that, because of Barr's prior association with [[Kirkland & Ellis]], the attorney general "has and will remain recused from any retrospective review of the resolution of the earlier [Southern District of Florida] matter."[^30]
### Bear Stearns and the Greenberg route
[[Vicky Ward]] wrote in *Vanity Fair* in March 2003 that Epstein, in his early 20s, "got a job teaching physics and math at Dalton, the elite Manhattan private school." While there, she wrote, he began tutoring the son of [[Bear Stearns]] chairman [[Alan Greenberg|Ace Greenberg]] and was friendly with a daughter of Greenberg's. He went to Bear Stearns, where, under the mentorship of Greenberg and [[James Cayne]], he became a limited partner, "a rung beneath full partner," and left abruptly in 1981.[^35]
NPR reported, citing the *Miami Herald*, that Epstein got the Bear Stearns job because an impressed parent told Greenberg to hire him. Greenberg's daughter told the *Herald*: "Give Jeff credit. He was brilliant."[^31] HuffPost reported that Epstein lasted two years at Dalton before Bear Stearns hired him after he tutored the chairman's son.[^32] Ward wrote that rumors circulated inside the firm that Epstein was involved in a technical infringement; Greenberg says he can't recall this, and Cayne denies it happened.[^35] Semel told NPR that Epstein was taken with the "glitz and ritz" at Dalton, with its wealthy and influential student and parent body.[^31]
### Gardner Dunnan, 1975 to 1997
[[Gardner Dunnan]] headed the school after the interim period. The archive's series for his headship covers 1975 to 1997 and holds 52 folders and three DVDs, and its catalogue also lists a 1975-76 high school course, "Exploring Human Nature," taught with a colleague.[^36] The *New York Times* reported that under the new leadership Dunnan "tentatively explored a rollback" of the strict rules and announced in early 1975 a policy allowing denim in the building.[^24] The archive holds fundraising and capital campaign correspondence of Dunnan for 1988 to 1992 and alumni correspondence for 1995 to 1997.[^37] The archive's oral history project holds his release form of May 1, 2008.[^38]
Dunnan's attorney told the *Times* in 2019 that Dunnan had not been aware of any concerns about Epstein's conduct at the school.[^24] News reports in 1997 quoted Dunnan saying he was stepping down because of school officials' concerns with his leadership and personal life.[^39] The Associated Press reported in 2018 that his LinkedIn account lists several positions at schools in the New York City area since he left Dalton.[^39]
### The 2018 suit against Dunnan and the school
On June 7, 2018 a former student filed suit in the [[U.S. District Court for the District of New Jersey]] in [[Newark, New Jersey]] against Dunnan and Dalton Schools, Inc., alleging that Dunnan sexually abused her in the fall of 1986 while she was a student. The complaint contended that Dalton "knew or should have known that Dunnan engaged in acts of inappropriate, abusive, and/or harmful behavior toward individuals over whom he had power or control." Dunnan denied the allegations in an email: "During a career spanning more than 55 years in education I have never mistreated a student or previously been accused of doing that, and am heartbroken about these false accusations." Through a spokeswoman the school said: "We take these issues very seriously and support any victim of sexual abuse."[^39]
The docket, No. 2:18-cv-10258 (D.N.J.), was assigned to Judge Claire C. Cecchi. An amended complaint followed on June 29, 2018. On August 3, 2018 the school moved to dismiss for lack of jurisdiction, supported by an affidavit of Michael Hwang, and in October Dunnan moved to change venue. On January 9, 2019 the court granted the motion to change venue, transferred the action to the Southern District of New York and dismissed the jurisdictional motion as moot. The New Jersey case was terminated on January 10, 2019, and a case with the same caption was opened in the Southern District of New York as No. 1:19-cv-02099 on March 7, 2019.[^40]
### 2019 reporting and the school's response
Epstein was charged with sex trafficking of minors in federal court in Manhattan in July 2019. The *New York Times* reported on July 12, 2019 that former Dalton students recalled how he interacted with teenage girls, and that officials of the school did not respond to requests for comment.[^24] Several former students told NPR that they remember seeing Epstein surrounded by female students, though none recalled any incident of misconduct. One described a "general circle of girls."[^31] Alumni and former teachers reconnected through email chains and Facebook comments.[^32]
NPR reported that none of the 2019 charges is connected to Epstein's time at Dalton, though prosecutors had raised the question in the past.[^31] In a 2009 deposition, an attorney asked Epstein whether he ever had "sexual contact" with female students he taught at Dalton. Epstein replied, "While I was a teacher?" and then answered "No." Asked about sexual encounters with students after he left the school, he answered "Not that I remember." Asked whether he had dated anyone who had previously been his student at Dalton, he invoked the Fifth, Sixth and 14th Amendments.[^25][^31]
The [[Survivors Network of those Abused by Priests]] urged the school on July 16, 2019 to contact former students and staff who might have seen, suspected or suffered crimes by Epstein.[^41]
### Trustees and the Form 990
The organization that files for the school is Dalton Schools Inc, employer identification number 13-2751872, at 108 East 89th Street. The [[Internal Revenue Service]] ruling date is November 1, 1973.[^42] [[ProPublica]]'s Nonprofit Explorer carries its Form 990 filings. Totals for fiscal years ending June 30 are as follows.[^43]
| Fiscal year | Total revenue | Total expenses | Total assets |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2011 | $64,891,346 | $57,627,856 | $145,505,007 |
| 2012 | $65,597,100 | $61,661,087 | $146,267,620 |
| 2013 | $67,656,214 | $62,959,184 | $154,542,495 |
| 2014 | $64,779,686 | $65,130,870 | $165,886,976 |
| 2015 | $69,979,280 | $67,178,498 | $166,018,740 |
| 2016 | $98,408,838 | $70,482,638 | $190,788,670 |
| 2017 | $96,959,513 | $73,002,104 | $228,968,236 |
| 2018 | $91,560,732 | $78,339,938 | $251,102,217 |
| 2019 | $80,050,092 | $81,438,602 | $254,955,328 |
| 2020 | $90,558,973 | $82,996,922 | $250,410,973 |
| 2021 | $87,154,384 | $95,937,721 | $268,184,018 |
| 2022 | $98,396,076 | $93,666,007 | $246,644,269 |
| 2023 | $110,777,355 | $98,572,032 | $284,093,708 |
| 2024 | $107,368,051 | $103,278,173 | $289,382,113 |
| 2025 | $112,825,136 | $107,234,408 | $296,398,422 |
The filing for fiscal 2025 reports net assets of $239,346,270 and total liabilities of $57,052,152.[^44]
The Form 990 for the fiscal year ending June 2025 lists [[Jose Manuel De Jesus]] as Head of School, with reportable compensation of $1,075,533, and Michael Hwang as assistant head for operations and chief financial officer, with $476,487. The school's own leadership page lists De Jesus as Head of School and Hwang as assistant head for operations.[^45] Erica Klein is listed as president, Alexander Robinson as treasurer and Bruce Menin as secretary, each with no reportable compensation.[^46] For fiscal 2022 the filing lists James Best as Head of School and Ellen C. Stein as interim head; for fiscal 2023 it lists Best as former head of school, Stein as interim head and De Jesus as head of school.[^47]
The filings for fiscal years 2023, 2024 and 2025 list [[David Sambur]] as a trustee. Apollo's leadership page gives his title as "Partner, Co-Head of Private Equity and Head of Equity" and states that "Mr. Sambur serves on the Board of Trustees for the Dalton School and the Jewish Museum of New York."[^48] Sambur is a partner at [[Apollo Global Management]], which he joined in 2004.[^48] The fiscal 2025 filing also lists a trustee named Alison Nathan. A judge of the same name has sat on the [[U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit]] since 2022; records found do not establish whether the trustee and the judge are the same person.[^49]
[^1]: Helen Parkhurst, *Education on the Dalton Plan* (E. P. Dutton, 1922), chap. 1, pp. 12-13, on her first teaching "fifteen years" before September 1919, the laboratory plan perfected in 1913 and the abolition of the timetable in 1915. https://archive.org/details/educationondalto00parkiala
[^2]: Parkhurst, *Education on the Dalton Plan*, pp. 13-14, on the 1914 application to study the Montessori method, the 1915 California work as Montessori's assistant, the test on one hundred children, the 1915-1918 period and the Child Education Foundation. https://archive.org/details/educationondalto00parkiala
[^3]: Parkhurst, *Education on the Dalton Plan*, pp. 14-16, on the September 1919 trial, Mrs. W. Murray Crane, the February 1920 start at Dalton High School, the visit of Mrs. Saunderson and Belle Rennie, and the naming of the Dalton Laboratory Plan; foreword on Ernest Jackman as principal of the Dalton High School. https://archive.org/details/educationondalto00parkiala
[^4]: "Our School History," The Dalton School, passages on the Children's University School, Tacoma and Montessori, the 1916 Dalton, Massachusetts experiment, West 74th Street, the 1929 building, the 1939 Todhunter merger and Eleanor Roosevelt, *The Daltonian* (1933), *Blue Flag* (1935), community service (1942), the First Program (1964) and the Physical Education Center (1992), and the adoption of the plan abroad. https://www.dalton.org/our-school/history
[^5]: Parkhurst, *Education on the Dalton Plan*, title page, and p. 16 on the founding of the Children's University School through the generosity of Mr. and Mrs. W. Murray Crane. https://archive.org/details/educationondalto00parkiala
[^6]: Parkhurst, *Education on the Dalton Plan*, chap. 3, "The Plan in Practice," pp. 34-35. https://archive.org/details/educationondalto00parkiala
[^7]: Parkhurst, *Education on the Dalton Plan*, chap. 2, "The Plan in Principle," p. 19. https://archive.org/details/educationondalto00parkiala
[^8]: "The Dalton Plan," The Dalton School, passage on House, Assignment and Lab and the quotation from the 1922 book. https://www.dalton.org/learning/the-dalton-plan
[^9]: T. P. Nunn, introduction, in Parkhurst, *Education on the Dalton Plan*, pp. xvi-xvii, on Belle Rennie, the May 1920 *Times* Education Supplement, Rosa Bassett and Streatham, the Cardiff meeting and the July 1921 visit. https://archive.org/details/educationondalto00parkiala
[^10]: Parkhurst, *Education on the Dalton Plan*, foreword (June 1922) and contents, on Sadler, Holmes, Kimmins and Nunn, Bassett's chapter ix and Eades's chapter x. https://archive.org/details/educationondalto00parkiala
[^11]: Evelyn Dewey, *The Dalton Laboratory Plan* (E. P. Dutton, 1922), preface (December 1921) and contents. https://archive.org/details/daltonlaboratory00dewe
[^12]: "Our School History," The Dalton School, passage on schools that have adopted the Dalton Plan. https://www.dalton.org/our-school/history
[^13]: The Dalton School Archives, "Organizational Documents" (1.1), 1921-1991, with items "The Dalton Schools, Inc. and the Todhunter School, 1939," "Certificate of Approval of Consolidation and Affidavit, Todhunter, July 1939" and "Consolidation of Dalton Schools, Inc. and the Todhunter School and Absolute Charter of Dalton Schools, Inc. by the Regents of the University of the State of New York, July 28, 1939." https://daltonarchives.libraryhost.com/search?q[]=Todhunter&op[]=&field[]=
[^14]: The Dalton School Archives, search for "Parkhurst," records "Helen Parkhurst [9 folders], 1924-1942" (1.5.1) and the 1971-1974 correspondence folder (Box 099, 11.1). https://daltonarchives.libraryhost.com/search?q[]=Parkhurst&op[]=&field[]=
[^15]: "Obituaries," *Columbia College Today*, May 2004, class of 1941, passages on Barr's birth, Columbia degree, OSS service, Science Honors Program, the 1963 National Science Foundation program and the move to Dalton. https://web.archive.org/web/20190905000723/https://www.college.columbia.edu/cct_archive/may04/obituaries1.html
[^16]: "Donald Barr [4 folders], 1964-1972," The Dalton School Archives, Head of School's Office (1.5.1), and "Headmasters Report to the Parents on the Progress and Plans of Dalton School, November 1965." https://daltonarchives.libraryhost.com/repositories/2/archival_objects/1857
[^17]: "Barr, Donald 1921-2004," *Something About the Author*, obituary notice (Gale), on *Who Pushed Humpty Dumpty?: Dilemmas in American Education* (1971). https://www.encyclopedia.com/children/scholarly-magazines/barr-donald-1921-2004
[^18]: "Education: The Dalton Brawl," *Time*, April 5, 1971. https://time.com/archive/6814618/education-the-dalton-brawl/
[^19]: Rebecca Klein, "Jeffrey Epstein Was Their Teacher. He Became A Monster," *HuffPost*, July 12, 2019, passage quoting Barr's 1968 *New York Times* article. https://www.huffingtonpost.ca/entry/jeffrey-epstein-math-science-students-memories_n_5d28cf17e4b0060b11ebf987
[^20]: Gene I. Maeroff, "Barr Quits Dalton School Post, Charging Trustees' Interference," *New York Times*, February 20, 1974, p. 41. https://www.nytimes.com/1974/02/20/archives/barr-quits-dalton-school-post-charging-trustees-interference.html (access copy: https://web.archive.org/web/2020/https://www.nytimes.com/1974/02/20/archives/barr-quits-dalton-school-post-charging-trustees-interference.html)
[^21]: Wolfgang Saxon, "Donald Barr, 82, Headmaster And Science Honors Educator," *New York Times*, February 10, 2004, section B, p. 8. https://www.nytimes.com/2004/02/10/nyregion/donald-barr-82-headmaster-and-science-honors-educator.html
[^22]: Marie Brenner, "'I Had No Problem Being Politically Different': Young William Barr Among the Manhattan Liberals," *Vanity Fair*, October 7, 2019. https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2019/10/the-untold-tale-of-young-william-barr
[^23]: Gene I. Maeroff, "Barr Puts His Stamp on Hackley," *New York Times*, March 13, 1977. https://www.nytimes.com/1977/03/13/archives/barr-puts-his-stamp-on-hackley.html
[^24]: Mike Baker and Amy Julia Harris, "Jeffrey Epstein Taught at Dalton. His Behavior Was Noticed.," *New York Times*, July 12, 2019 (print, July 15, 2019, p. A16, "New Teacher in Gold Chains, and Lingering Questions Over Conduct"). https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/12/nyregion/jeffrey-epstein-dalton-teacher.html (access copy: https://web.archive.org/web/20200107115402/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/12/nyregion/jeffrey-epstein-dalton-teacher.html)
[^25]: Thomas Volscho, "Jeffrey Epstein Dodged Questions About Sex With His Dalton Prep School Students," *Daily Beast*, published July 12, 2019, updated September 27, 2019, passages on the September 1974 *Daltonian*, the 1973-74 yearbook, the deposition, the April 1975 musical, the math team and the 2009 deposition. https://www.thedailybeast.com/jeffrey-epstein-dodged-questions-about-sex-with-his-dalton-prep-school-students (access copy: https://web.archive.org/web/20200117212831/https://www.thedailybeast.com/jeffrey-epstein-dodged-questions-about-sex-with-his-dalton-prep-school-students)
[^26]: "Physics A, B, A-B, and Advanced Physics, Assignments, Epstein, 1975-1976," Box 047, The Dalton School Archives, Academic Affairs by Department: Science, Physics (2.4.9). https://daltonarchives.libraryhost.com/repositories/2/archival_objects/2640
[^27]: Volscho, *Daily Beast*, July 12, 2019, updated September 27, 2019, passages on Barr's resignation and the four mathematics teachers, Branch's appointment of July 1, 1974, Branch's telephone account, the FOIL response and the update on Kroll. https://web.archive.org/web/20200117212831/https://www.thedailybeast.com/jeffrey-epstein-dodged-questions-about-sex-with-his-dalton-prep-school-students
[^28]: Snopes, "Did Bill Barr's Father 'Mentor' Jeffrey Epstein and Write a 'Bizarre' Novel?", passage quoting Peter Branch to the *Miami Herald*. https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/bill-barr-jeffrey-epstein-book/
[^29]: "The 'Epstein-Barr' Problem of New York City's Dalton School," *Law and Crime*, July 13, 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/2019/https://lawandcrime.com/high-profile/the-epstein-barr-problem-of-new-york-citys-dalton-school/
[^30]: Dan Mangan, "Attorney General Bill Barr will not recuse himself from Jeffrey Epstein child sex prosecution," *CNBC*, July 9, 2019. https://www.cnbc.com/2019/07/09/bill-barr-will-not-recuse-himself-in-jeffrey-epstein-prosecution.html
[^31]: Cat Schuknecht, "A Young Jeffrey Epstein Made An Impression On His High School Students," *NPR*, July 19, 2019. https://www.npr.org/2019/07/19/742725946/a-young-jeffrey-epstein-made-an-impression-on-his-high-school-students
[^32]: Klein, *HuffPost*, July 12, 2019, passages on former students, the clarification, the move to Bear Stearns and the email chains. https://www.huffingtonpost.ca/entry/jeffrey-epstein-math-science-students-memories_n_5d28cf17e4b0060b11ebf987
[^33]: Snopes, same article, passages on whether Barr played any part in hiring Epstein. https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/bill-barr-jeffrey-epstein-book/
[^34]: Deposition of William P. Barr, House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, August 18, 2025, p. 51, lines 9 to 12. https://oversight.house.gov/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/Barr-Transcript.pdf
[^35]: Vicky Ward, "The Talented Mr. Epstein," *Vanity Fair*, March 2003. https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2003/03/jeffrey-epstein-200303
[^36]: "Gardner P. Dunnan [52 folders, 3 DVDs], 1975-1997," The Dalton School Archives, Head of School's Office (1.5.1); and "Exploring Human Nature, High School, Fallick and Dunnan, 1975-1976," Box 124 (2.4.14). https://daltonarchives.libraryhost.com/repositories/2/archival_objects/1860
[^37]: The Dalton School Archives, search for "Dunnan," records "Fundraising Correspondence, Gardner Dunnan [2 folders], 1988-1992" (8.2), "Capital Campaign Correspondence, Gardner Dunnan, 1990-1992" (8.3) and "Gardner Dunnan Alumni Correspondence, 1995-1997" (9). https://daltonarchives.libraryhost.com/search?q[]=Dunnan&op[]=&field[]=
[^38]: The Dalton School Archives, "Gardner Dunnan, Release Form, May 1, 2008," Oral History Project (11.2), Box 104. https://daltonarchives.libraryhost.com/search?q[]=Dunnan&op[]=&field[]=
[^39]: Associated Press (David Porter), "Ex-head of prestigious Dalton School accused of abuse in 80s," June 7, 2018. https://www.ksl.com/article/46336552/ex-head-of-prestigious-dalton-school-accused-of-abuse-in-80s
[^40]: Docket, a former student v. Dalton Schools, Inc., No. 2:18-cv-10258 (D.N.J.), filed June 7, 2018, terminated January 10, 2019 (entries 6, 12, 37 and 46); and docket, No. 1:19-cv-02099 (S.D.N.Y.), filed March 7, 2019, as indexed by CourtListener. https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/7077975/
[^41]: Zach Hiner, "Dalton School Should Do Outreach in Wake of Epstein Scandal," Survivors Network of those Abused by Priests, July 16, 2019. https://www.bishop-accountability.org/news2019/07_08/2019_07_16_Zach_Priests_Dalton_in.htm
[^42]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer, Dalton Schools Inc., EIN 13-2751872, organization record (address, NTEE code B200, ruling date 1973-11-01). https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/api/v2/organizations/132751872.json
[^43]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer, Dalton Schools Inc., extracted filing data for fiscal years 2011 to 2023 (API) and 2024 and 2025 (organization page). https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/132751872
[^44]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer, Dalton Schools Inc., organization page, fiscal year ending June 2025 (filed May 8, 2026). https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/132751872
[^45]: "Leadership," The Dalton School, administrative team listing. https://www.dalton.org/our-school/leadership
[^46]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer, Dalton Schools Inc., organization page, officers and key employees on the Form 990 for the fiscal year ending June 2025. https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/132751872
[^47]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer, Dalton Schools Inc., organization page, officers and key employees on the Forms 990 for the fiscal years ending June 2022 and June 2023. https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/132751872
[^48]: Apollo Global Management, David Sambur leadership page. https://www.apollo.com/aboutus/leadership-and-people/david-sambur
[^49]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer, Dalton Schools Inc., organization page, trustees on the Form 990 for the fiscal year ending June 2025; and Federal Judicial Center, "Nathan, Alison Julie" (Second Circuit commission March 30, 2022). https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/nathan-alison-julie

10
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Kirkland & Ellis.md
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@ -51,7 +51,7 @@ relations:
end: 2008
fn: 4
created: 2026-09-25
updated: 2026-09-25
updated: 2026-10-26
---
Kirkland & Ellis LLP is an American law firm with a large Washington office. Two of its lawyers, the litigation partner [[Jay Lefkowitz]] and [[Kenneth Starr]], then of counsel, represented [[Jeffrey Epstein]] in 2007 and 2008 in negotiating the [[Epstein non-prosecution agreement]] with the [[U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of Florida]], whose head, [[Alexander Acosta]], had been an associate in the firm's Washington office. Lefkowitz was at the same time the [[George W. Bush]] administration's part-time Special Envoy for Human Rights in [[North Korea]]. In late 2008 Acosta recused himself from matters involving the firm because he had begun to discuss employment with it. [[William Barr]] joined the firm in 2009 and, as Attorney General in 2019, recused himself from the Justice Department's review of the Florida agreement because of that tie.[^1][^2][^3][^4]
@ -80,7 +80,9 @@ On December 15, 2010 a correspondent writing as "jagesq" told Epstein that forme
### Barr
Barr joined Kirkland & Ellis in 2009. After Epstein's July 2019 arrest in New York, Barr told reporters on July 8, 2019: "I'm recused from that matter because one of the law firms that represented Epstein long ago was a firm I subsequently joined for a period of time." The next day a Justice Department official said that Barr had consulted career ethics officials and "concluded he did not have to recuse himself from the current prosecution" in the [[U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of New York|Southern District of New York]], and that "[d]ue to his prior association with Kirkland and Ellis, the Attorney General has and will remain recused from any retrospective review of the resolution of the earlier [Southern District of Florida] matter." The former [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] assistant director [[Frank Figliuzzi]] called the distinction "a distinction without a difference," saying the two matters were "inexorably linked," and also pointed to reports that Barr's father, [[Donald Barr]], as headmaster of the [[Dalton School]] in the 1970s, had hired Epstein to teach mathematics although Epstein had no college degree.[^12]
Barr joined Kirkland & Ellis in 2009. After Epstein's July 2019 arrest in New York, Barr told reporters on July 8, 2019: "I'm recused from that matter because one of the law firms that represented Epstein long ago was a firm I subsequently joined for a period of time." The next day a Justice Department official said that Barr had consulted career ethics officials and "concluded he did not have to recuse himself from the current prosecution" in the [[U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of New York|Southern District of New York]], and that "[d]ue to his prior association with Kirkland and Ellis, the Attorney General has and will remain recused from any retrospective review of the resolution of the earlier [Southern District of Florida] matter." The former [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] assistant director [[Frank Figliuzzi]] called the distinction "a distinction without a difference," saying the two matters were "inexorably linked," and also pointed to reports that Barr's father, [[Donald Barr]], as headmaster of the [[Dalton School]] in the 1970s, had hired Epstein to teach mathematics although Epstein had no college degree.[^12] The [[New York Times]] wrote on July 12, 2019 that Barr announced in February 1974 that he was resigning as headmaster but would stay until the end of the school year, and that "It is unclear whether Mr. Barr hired Mr. Epstein during that time."[^13] [[Snopes]] reported that Epstein began teaching at Dalton in September 1974 and that "It's not clear whether Donald Barr played any part in hiring Epstein to work at Dalton School."[^14] [[Thomas Volscho]] wrote in the [[Daily Beast]] that [[Peter Branch]], interim headmaster from July 1, 1974, did not recall hiring Epstein and was "relatively certain Barr or possibly the head of the Math Department hired Epstein."[^15]
In his August 18, 2025 deposition before the [[House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform]], Barr was asked about the issue of the firm's representation of Epstein and his former employment there. He answered: "I actually don't think I would've had to recuse myself from that. But I just was never involved in that." He added that "the thing that happened under my tenure relating to Epstein was the investigation of Epstein in the Southern District. And I did not recuse myself from that."[^16]
### Lefkowitz's Retirement
@ -100,3 +102,7 @@ Lefkowitz retired from the firm in March 2026 after three decades, saying: "Alth
[^10]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA01830557, DataSet 10, email, "jagesq" to Jeffrey Epstein, "krischer richardson," December 15, 2010. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%2010/EFTA01830557.pdf
[^11]: U.S. Department of Justice, Epstein Library, EFTA00798522, DataSet 9, Affirmation of John M. Browning in Support of Motion to Unseal, People v. Jeffrey E. Epstein, App. Div. No. 6081 (N.Y. App. Div., 1st Dep't), with press article exhibit. https://www.justice.gov/epstein/files/DataSet%209/EFTA00798522.pdf
[^12]: "Attorney General Bill Barr will not recuse himself from Jeffrey Epstein child sex prosecution," *CNBC,* July 9, 2019. https://www.cnbc.com/2019/07/09/bill-barr-will-not-recuse-himself-in-jeffrey-epstein-prosecution.html
[^13]: Mike Baker and Amy Julia Harris, "Jeffrey Epstein Taught at Dalton. His Behavior Was Noticed," *The New York Times,* July 12, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/12/nyregion/jeffrey-epstein-dalton-teacher.html
[^14]: Snopes, "Did Bill Barr's Father 'Mentor' Jeffrey Epstein and Write a 'Bizarre' Novel?" https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/bill-barr-jeffrey-epstein-book/
[^15]: Thomas Volscho, "Jeffrey Epstein Dodged Questions About Sex With His Dalton Prep School Students," *The Daily Beast,* July 12, 2019 (updated September 27, 2019). https://www.thedailybeast.com/jeffrey-epstein-dodged-questions-about-sex-with-his-dalton-prep-school-students
[^16]: Deposition of William P. Barr, House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, August 18, 2025, pp. 92-93. https://oversight.house.gov/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/Barr-Transcript.pdf

89
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/National Review.md
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@ -54,9 +54,9 @@ relations:
reverse: true
start: 1957
role: "managing editor from 1959"
fn: 8
fn: 9
created: 2026-10-01
updated: 2026-10-01
updated: 2026-10-26
---
*National Review* is an American conservative magazine whose first issue was dated November 19, 1955, under the editor and publisher [[William F. Buckley Jr.]] The opening statement by Buckley in that issue said that the magazine "stands athwart history, yelling Stop."[^1] National Review Inc., a New York corporation (EIN 13-1899384), has been a wholly owned subsidiary of the [[National Review Institute]], a 501(c)(3) charity Buckley founded in 1991, since August 1, 2015.[^2]
@ -73,47 +73,61 @@ Willmoore Kendall, a political scientist, worked from 1942 in the offices of Int
Frank Meyer joined the British Communist Party in 1931 as a student at Oxford, was expelled from the London School of Economics and deported from England in 1934, and began to draw away from the party in 1945. In the early 1950s, John Judis wrote, he was an expert government witness at Smith Act trials in New York and Chicago. [[Ralph de Toledano]], who had known him on the left, introduced him to Buckley in 1955, and he became a senior editor in 1957 and remained until his death in 1972.[^7]
[[Priscilla Buckley]], the managing editor from 1959, appears in a printed biographical directory entry preserved in the FBI file as "reports officer CIA, Washington, 1951-53," followed by "with Nat. Review mag., N.Y.C., 1957-, mng. editor, 1959-."[^8] In the entries for William F. Buckley Jr. reproduced in the same file from two editions of a biographical directory, the listed positions are "Sr. editor American Mercury, 1952" in one and "Asso. editor Am. Mercury, 1952" in the other, then editor-in-chief of *National Review* from 1955; the second also lists membership of the [[United States Information Agency|U.S. Information Agency]]'s advisory commission from 1969, and neither entry lists service with the Central Intelligence Agency.[^8]
A CIA file holds letters from Whittaker Chambers to Buckley. In one dated March 10, 1957, Chambers wrote: "My silence has lasted too long." In a later letter on the CIA copy, a check mark sits beside Chambers's account of [[Allen Dulles]] saying "there seems no reason to suppose that the Russian mind is not the equal of the American mind," followed by: "Perhaps Bukharin's last words should hang in Mr. Dulles' office too, in the offices of both Mr. Dulleses."[^8]
[[Priscilla Buckley]], the managing editor from 1959, appears in a printed biographical directory entry preserved in the FBI file as "reports officer CIA, Washington, 1951-53," followed by "with Nat. Review mag., N.Y.C., 1957-, mng. editor, 1959-."[^9] In the entries for William F. Buckley Jr. reproduced in the same file from two editions of a biographical directory, the listed positions are "Sr. editor American Mercury, 1952" in one and "Asso. editor Am. Mercury, 1952" in the other, then editor-in-chief of *National Review* from 1955; the second also lists membership of the [[United States Information Agency|U.S. Information Agency]]'s advisory commission from 1969, and neither entry lists service with the Central Intelligence Agency.[^9]
### Buckley in Mexico City
Hunt wrote that he volunteered to open the Office of Policy Coordination station in [[Mexico City]], began planning in the late summer of 1950, and interviewed candidates to work for him as agents outside the embassy: "First on my list was Bill Buckley, who readily agreed and set about working out details of his cover." Hunt wrote that Burnham had told him Buckley was looking for the best way of working against the Stalinists and that Buckley spoke English, Spanish and French.[^9]
Hunt wrote that he volunteered to open the Office of Policy Coordination station in [[Mexico City]], began planning in the late summer of 1950, and interviewed candidates to work for him as agents outside the embassy: "First on my list was Bill Buckley, who readily agreed and set about working out details of his cover." Hunt wrote that Burnham had told him Buckley was looking for the best way of working against the Stalinists and that Buckley spoke English, Spanish and French.[^10]
Hunt wrote that he assigned Buckley to help Eudocio Ravines, a Chilean communist who had been recruited by the Agency and was living in Mexico City under an alias, finish *The Yenan Way* and translate it into English; that when Scribner's accepted the translation Buckley decided to leave Mexico and the Agency; and that Buckley told him he was thinking either of purchasing the *American Mercury* or of founding a magazine of his own. In a footnote Hunt wrote that he and his wife had asked Buckley to be guardian of their children and executor of their estate, and that Buckley, already the children's godfather, agreed.[^10]
Hunt wrote that he assigned Buckley to help Eudocio Ravines, a Chilean communist who had been recruited by the Agency and was living in Mexico City under an alias, finish *The Yenan Way* and translate it into English; that when Scribner's accepted the translation Buckley decided to leave Mexico and the Agency; and that Buckley told him he was thinking either of purchasing the *American Mercury* or of founding a magazine of his own. In a footnote Hunt wrote that he and his wife had asked Buckley to be guardian of their children and executor of their estate, and that Buckley, already the children's godfather, agreed.[^11]
### The Director of Security's Memorandum, 1958
A memorandum of November 24, 1958 from the CIA's Director of Security to the [[Director of Central Intelligence]] concerns an article in the *National Review Bulletin* of November 15, 1958 asserting that the Agency was responsible for the Dutch publication of Boris Pasternak's *Doctor Zhivago.* The memorandum states that a source of the [[CIA Office of Security|Office of Security]] had advised that Ralph de Toledano wrote the article, describes de Toledano as a member of "the extreme right wing element" and a close associate of Senator [[Joseph McCarthy]], and states that the editors of *National Review* and the *Bulletin* "have had numerous articles in the past charging that the Committee for Free Europe and [[Radio Free Europe]] are CIA sponsored and financed."[^11] A text excerpt from the magazine, catalogued with the Agency's records as of 1958, states that *National Review* was encouraged by the enthusiasm of a number of serious persons for a "private investigation of Radio Free Europe," that an informal meeting of prospective members of a committee had been held, and that the enterprise was hampered by lack of funds.[^12]
A memorandum of November 24, 1958 from the CIA's Director of Security to the [[Director of Central Intelligence]] concerns an article in the *National Review Bulletin* of November 15, 1958 asserting that the Agency was responsible for the Dutch publication of Boris Pasternak's *Doctor Zhivago.* The memorandum states that a source of the [[CIA Office of Security|Office of Security]] had advised that Ralph de Toledano wrote the article, describes de Toledano as a member of "the extreme right wing element" and a close associate of Senator [[Joseph McCarthy]], and states that the editors of *National Review* and the *Bulletin* "have had numerous articles in the past charging that the Committee for Free Europe and [[Radio Free Europe]] are CIA sponsored and financed."[^12] A text excerpt from the magazine, catalogued with the Agency's records as of 1958, states that *National Review* was encouraged by the enthusiasm of a number of serious persons for a "private investigation of Radio Free Europe," that an informal meeting of prospective members of a committee had been held, and that the enterprise was hampered by lack of funds.[^13]
### The FBI File, 1950 to 1969
The FBI file begins with a memorandum of October 20, 1950 from [[Louis B. Nichols]], Assistant to the Director, to [[Clyde Tolson]]. It records that Buckley, who had been editor of the *Yale Daily News* the year before and had sponsored a forum at which Nichols spoke, had written asking to visit the Bureau, that Nichols arranged for him to call at his office, and that "an Agent in Mr. Jones' office will take Buckley on a very special tour." Nichols noted that after the Yale forum he had said that someday the Bureau would hear from Buckley. A later note in the file describes Buckley as an outspoken anticommunist who became friendly with Nichols, by then an executive vice president of Schenley Industries. A summary memorandum in the file records that Buckley and his wife came to the Bureau on October 25, 1950, were given "a very special tour of Bureau facilities" and met the Director, and that in April 1953 Buckley told Nichols he was writing a book to counteract the books of [[Alan Barth]] and Biddle denouncing loyalty and security investigations. A memorandum of October 1962 records that Buckley, identified as editor of *National Review,* was given a special tour on October 26, 1962 after a brief visit with the Director in his office, commented on the excellence of the communism exhibit, and was provided Bureau transportation to the [[White House]] for the public tour.[^13]
The FBI file begins with a memorandum of October 20, 1950 from [[Louis B. Nichols]], Assistant to the Director, to [[Clyde Tolson]]. It records that Buckley, who had been editor of the *Yale Daily News* the year before and had sponsored a forum at which Nichols spoke, had written asking to visit the Bureau, that Nichols arranged for him to call at his office, and that "an Agent in Mr. Jones' office will take Buckley on a very special tour." Nichols noted that after the Yale forum he had said that someday the Bureau would hear from Buckley. A later note in the file describes Buckley as an outspoken anticommunist who became friendly with Nichols, by then an executive vice president of Schenley Industries. A summary memorandum in the file records that Buckley and his wife came to the Bureau on October 25, 1950, were given "a very special tour of Bureau facilities" and met the Director, and that in April 1953 Buckley told Nichols he was writing a book to counteract the books of [[Alan Barth]] and Biddle denouncing loyalty and security investigations. A memorandum of October 1962 records that Buckley, identified as editor of *National Review,* was given a special tour on October 26, 1962 after a brief visit with the Director in his office, commented on the excellence of the communism exhibit, and was provided Bureau transportation to the [[White House]] for the public tour.[^14]
On May 28, 1969 the President named Buckley to the U.S. Advisory Commission on Information. An FBI memorandum of the following days states that the White House had requested an investigation; that the Bureau's main files showed "limited but cordial relations with Buckley in the past"; and that he had been on the Bureau's Special Correspondents List until May 25, 1967, when he was removed after writing in *National Review* a mock editorial of the *[[New York Times]]* "at the expense of the Director." A teletype dated June 2, 1969 ordered the inquiry completed by June 9 and directed that no neighborhood investigation be conducted without Bureau approval.[^14]
On May 28, 1969 the President named Buckley to the U.S. Advisory Commission on Information. An FBI memorandum of the following days states that the White House had requested an investigation; that the Bureau's main files showed "limited but cordial relations with Buckley in the past"; and that he had been on the Bureau's Special Correspondents List until May 25, 1967, when he was removed after writing in *National Review* a mock editorial of the *[[New York Times]]* "at the expense of the Director." A teletype dated June 2, 1969 ordered the inquiry completed by June 9 and directed that no neighborhood investigation be conducted without Bureau approval.[^15]
A teletype in the inquiry lists associates of the appointee, among them Senator [[Barry Goldwater]], Senator [[Jacob Javits]], Peter Starr, president of Starr Broadcasting Group of Omaha, and James Burnham, assistant editor of *National Review.* It states that "among others" the members of the board of directors of *National Review* were Roger A. Moore, Morrie Ryskind and Lloyd H. Smith, with other names redacted.[^15] A biographical summary in the file lists Buckley as chairman of the board of directors of Starr Broadcasting Group, Omaha, Nebraska, and as a member of the board of directors of Catawba Corporation, New York.[^16] Peter Starr told agents that he had known Buckley since 1954, that Buckley was the majority stockholder and chairman of Starr Broadcasting Group and Starr the minority stockholder, and that the company had been founded with Buckley's financial backing. A person whose name is redacted told agents that Buckley had published *National Review* for many years although it operated at a financial loss and that he had offset losses by soliciting contributions from friends and subscribers.[^17]
A teletype in the inquiry lists associates of the appointee, among them Senator [[Barry Goldwater]], Senator [[Jacob Javits]], Peter Starr, president of Starr Broadcasting Group of Omaha, and James Burnham, assistant editor of *National Review.* It states that "among others" the members of the board of directors of *National Review* were Roger A. Moore, Morrie Ryskind and Lloyd H. Smith, with other names redacted.[^16] A biographical summary in the file lists Buckley as chairman of the board of directors of Starr Broadcasting Group, Omaha, Nebraska, and as a member of the board of directors of Catawba Corporation, New York.[^17] Peter Starr told agents that he had known Buckley since 1954, that Buckley was the majority stockholder and chairman of Starr Broadcasting Group and Starr the minority stockholder, and that the company had been founded with Buckley's financial backing. A person whose name is redacted told agents that Buckley had published *National Review* for many years although it operated at a financial loss and that he had offset losses by soliciting contributions from friends and subscribers.[^18]
In 1966 the *New York Daily News* reported that the Historic Research Foundation, of which Buckley was a trustee, planned a $2,000 grant to study the Warren Commission report.[^19]
### The Vietnam documents hoax, 1971
A 1971 clipping from the *San Bernardino Sun-Telegram*, held in the CIA reading room, describes a set of "secret Vietnam documents" that the magazine published as a hoax. Dispatches were attributed to former Secretary of State [[Dean Rusk]], the CIA and others. The article quotes Buckley as saying the purpose was to demonstrate that "the Pentagon and the CIA are not composed of incompetents."[^20]
### Hunt and Watergate, 1973
On January 21, 1973 the program *Firing Line* on station WETA in Washington, hosted by Buckley, broadcast a discussion on the CIA and Cuba with E. Howard Hunt and the Havana lawyer Mario Lazo. A transcript prepared for a public affairs staff is among the CIA's records. Buckley introduced Hunt as having been intimately involved as an official in the Central Intelligence Agency in the [[Bay of Pigs]], and asked him whether public identification as a long-time CIA official allowed him to discuss the Agency's activities.[^18]
On January 21, 1973 the program *Firing Line* on station WETA in Washington, hosted by Buckley, broadcast a discussion on the CIA and Cuba with E. Howard Hunt and the Havana lawyer Mario Lazo. A transcript prepared for a public affairs staff is among the CIA's records. Buckley introduced Hunt as having been intimately involved as an official in the Central Intelligence Agency in the [[Bay of Pigs]], and asked him whether public identification as a long-time CIA official allowed him to discuss the Agency's activities.[^21]
In August 1973 an FBI background check on Buckley for a government appointment recorded the statement of [[Arthur Schlesinger Jr.]], who said on August 15 that he had debated Buckley publicly on a number of occasions, thought him a person of good character and a loyal American, and had some question concerning Buckley's associates because it was his understanding that Buckley was a good friend of E. Howard Hunt, "connected with the Watergate break-in," and the godfather of some of his children; Schlesinger said he was very much opposed to Buckley's ideas and would not recommend him for a government position. The teletype also directed the New York office to check court records on a libel suit against *Esquire* magazine and [[Gore Vidal]].[^19]
In August 1973 an FBI background check on Buckley for a government appointment recorded the statement of [[Arthur Schlesinger Jr.]], who said on August 15 that he had debated Buckley publicly on a number of occasions, thought him a person of good character and a loyal American, and had some question concerning Buckley's associates because it was his understanding that Buckley was a good friend of E. Howard Hunt, "connected with the Watergate break-in," and the godfather of some of his children; Schlesinger said he was very much opposed to Buckley's ideas and would not recommend him for a government position. The teletype also directed the New York office to check court records on a libel suit against *Esquire* magazine and [[Gore Vidal]].[^22]
Hunt wrote in *Undercover* that after his testimony to the Senate, thousands of telegrams and letters arrived and were answered by "a small committee William Buckley established in my behalf at his National Review offices." Hunt wrote that Buckley solicited funds for his legal defense and, when returns were disappointing, suggested that he retain Buckley's personal attorney, C. Dickerman Williams, at no cost.[^20]
Hunt wrote in *Undercover* that after his testimony to the Senate, thousands of telegrams and letters arrived and were answered by "a small committee William Buckley established in my behalf at his National Review offices." Hunt wrote that Buckley solicited funds for his legal defense and, when returns were disappointing, suggested that he retain Buckley's personal attorney, C. Dickerman Williams, at no cost.[^23]
### Copeland and the Watergate Hearings, 1973
The staff report on the CIA and Watergate prepared for Senator [[Howard Baker]] of the Senate Watergate Committee after the committee's public hearings records that in the issue of September 14, 1973 of *National Review,* [[Miles Copeland]] wrote an article entitled "The Unmentionable Uses of a CIA," suggesting that [[James McCord]] had led the Watergate burglars into a trap. The report records it alongside an article in *Harper's Magazine* by Andrew St. George that indicated former Director of Central Intelligence [[Richard Helms]] had prior knowledge of the break-in.[^21] The journal of the CIA's Office of Legislative Counsel for November 19, 1973 records a conversation between two Senate Armed Services Committee staff members and Copeland in London about allegations in two recent articles by him in *National Review,* and a meeting with Senator [[Stuart Symington]], who said that he was inclined to "let all the St. Georges and Copelands have their say" and then rebut them on the Senate floor.[^22]
The staff report on the CIA and Watergate prepared for Senator [[Howard Baker]] of the Senate Watergate Committee after the committee's public hearings records that in the issue of September 14, 1973 of *National Review,* [[Miles Copeland]] wrote an article entitled "The Unmentionable Uses of a CIA," suggesting that [[James McCord]] had led the Watergate burglars into a trap. The report records it alongside an article in *Harper's Magazine* by Andrew St. George that indicated former Director of Central Intelligence [[Richard Helms]] had prior knowledge of the break-in.[^24] The journal of the CIA's Office of Legislative Counsel for November 19, 1973 records a conversation between two Senate Armed Services Committee staff members and Copeland in London about allegations in two recent articles by him in *National Review,* and a meeting with Senator [[Stuart Symington]], who said that he was inclined to "let all the St. Georges and Copelands have their say" and then rebut them on the Senate floor.[^25]
### Agency Assessments, 1957 to 1962
A memorandum of December 13, 1957 for the Director of Central Intelligence, prepared by an assistant to the Director, counts 26 clippings in the Agency's files on references to the CIA by the columnist Fulton Lewis Jr. between January 1950 and December 1957, fourteen of them derogatory. It names Senator McCarthy, Westbrook Pegler, *The American Mercury* and *The National Review* as examples of others sharing Lewis's general point of view who "have shown no friendliness toward CIA," and states that there is no evidence that the groups have any cohesiveness, including an agreed plan of attack.[^23] An action memorandum from the Office of the Director dated October 1962 records that Director [[John McCone]] had picked out of his press clipping file an article from *National Review* of October 9 entitled "Swiped from the CIA, Relocation Bulletin 19, Toilet Facilities," and asked for background.[^24]
A memorandum of December 13, 1957 for the Director of Central Intelligence, prepared by an assistant to the Director, counts 26 clippings in the Agency's files on references to the CIA by the columnist Fulton Lewis Jr. between January 1950 and December 1957, fourteen of them derogatory. It names Senator McCarthy, Westbrook Pegler, *The American Mercury* and *The National Review* as examples of others sharing Lewis's general point of view who "have shown no friendliness toward CIA," and states that there is no evidence that the groups have any cohesiveness, including an agreed plan of attack.[^26] An action memorandum from the Office of the Director dated October 1962 records that Director [[John McCone]] had picked out of his press clipping file an article from *National Review* of October 9 entitled "Swiped from the CIA, Relocation Bulletin 19, Toilet Facilities," and asked for background.[^27]
A 1968 *New York Times* report, held in the CIA reading room, said that Buckley was starting a newsletter to expose "Communist intrigues" in American life. Buckley said the publication would become "the rallying point for the forces struggling to restore an ordered America."[^28]
### Liberty Lobby libel suit, 1985
In October 1985 a federal jury in Washington found that Liberty Lobby, publisher of *The Spotlight*, had libeled *National Review* and Buckley and awarded $1,001. Liberty Lobby's attorney [[Mark Lane]] had accused Buckley in closing argument of working with Hunt "to put Spotlight out of business."[^29]
### Ownership and Funding
The National Review Institute's Form 990 for the fiscal year ended July 31, 2017 reports National Review Inc. in Schedule R as a related corporation engaged in magazine sales, 100 percent owned by the Institute. The return lists as trustees [[Rich Lowry]], Jack Fowler, [[John Bolton]], [[Dick DeVos]], David Bahnsen, Daniel Mahoney, Brian Murdock, John Buser, L. Stanton Towne, Robert Agostinelli and Peter Travers among others, and as fellows [[Jonah Goldberg]], [[Kevin Williamson]], [[Kathryn Lopez]], [[Ramesh Ponnuru]] and Jay Nordlinger. Lowry and Fowler received reportable compensation of 367,206 dollars and 225,397 dollars respectively from related organizations, and the Institute's president received 289,752 dollars.[^25]
The National Review Institute's Form 990 for the fiscal year ended July 31, 2017 reports National Review Inc. in Schedule R as a related corporation engaged in magazine sales, 100 percent owned by the Institute. The return lists as trustees [[Rich Lowry]], Jack Fowler, [[John Bolton]], [[Dick DeVos]], David Bahnsen, Daniel Mahoney, Brian Murdock, John Buser, L. Stanton Towne, Robert Agostinelli and Peter Travers among others, and as fellows [[Jonah Goldberg]], [[Kevin Williamson]], [[Kathryn Lopez]], [[Ramesh Ponnuru]] and Jay Nordlinger. Lowry and Fowler received reportable compensation of 367,206 dollars and 225,397 dollars respectively from related organizations, and the Institute's president received 289,752 dollars.[^30]
ProPublica's Nonprofit Explorer lists the Institute's total revenue as 519,459 dollars for the fiscal year ended July 2013, 3,963,429 dollars for July 2014, 3,286,106 dollars for July 2015, 9,034,282 dollars for July 2016, 5,689,857 dollars for July 2017 and 7,342,526 dollars for July 2018.[^26]
ProPublica's Nonprofit Explorer lists the Institute's total revenue as 519,459 dollars for the fiscal year ended July 2013, 3,963,429 dollars for July 2014, 3,286,106 dollars for July 2015, 9,034,282 dollars for July 2016, 5,689,857 dollars for July 2017 and 7,342,526 dollars for July 2018.[^31]
### Footnotes
@ -124,22 +138,27 @@ ProPublica's Nonprofit Explorer lists the Institute's total revenue as 519,459 d
[^5]: E. Howard Hunt, *Undercover: Memoirs of an American Secret Agent* (G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1974), pp. 68-69 (page numbers taken from the running heads of the scanned text). https://archive.org/details/undercovermemoirsofanamericansecretagent
[^6]: "Willmoore Kendall," *Modern Age,* online biographical profile. https://modernagejournal.com/willmoore-kendall-3/244747/
[^7]: John B. Judis, "The Godfather of American Conservatism," Alicia Patterson Foundation. https://aliciapatterson.org/john-judis/the-godfather-of-american-conservatism/
[^8]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., headquarters file part 2, printed biographical directory entries for Priscilla Langford Buckley and William Frank Buckley Jr. (directory titles not shown in the scan). https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-2
[^9]: Hunt, *Undercover,* pp. 68-69.
[^10]: Hunt, *Undercover,* pp. 76-77 (page numbers taken from the running heads of the scanned text).
[^11]: Central Intelligence Agency, Memorandum for the Director of Central Intelligence from the Director of Security, "Article in the National Review Bulletin of 15 November 1958 concerning the book 'Dr. Zhivago,'" November 24, 1958, CIA Reading Room document 0005796341 (scan partly illegible). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-0005796341
[^12]: CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP74-00297R000900080057-6, text excerpt from *National Review.* https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp74-00297r000900080057-6
[^13]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., headquarters file part 1, memorandum L. B. Nichols to Mr. Tolson, October 20, 1950, with Buckley's letter of October 19, 1950, and later routing note; summary memorandum on the main file; memorandum on the October 26, 1962 tour. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1
[^14]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., headquarters file part 2, "Special Inquiry - White House" memorandum and teletype of June 2, 1969. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-2
[^15]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., headquarters file part 2, 1969 inquiry teletype listing associates and board members (names partly redacted; scan partly illegible).
[^16]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., headquarters file part 1, biographical summary (the scan is partly illegible). https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1
[^17]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., headquarters file part 2, 1969 interview summaries (Peter H. Starr; one interviewee redacted).
[^18]: *Firing Line,* WETA-TV Washington, January 21, 1973, transcript, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP84-00499R000200010003-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84-00499r000200010003-1
[^19]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., headquarters file part 2, teletype of August 1973 reporting the interview of Arthur Schlesinger on "8/15/73."
[^20]: Hunt, *Undercover,* pp. 322-323 (page numbers taken from the running heads of the scanned text).
[^21]: United States Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities (staff), "CIA Investigation," report to Senator Howard Baker on the CIA and Watergate, 1973, introduction and note citing Miles Copeland, "The Unmentionable Uses of a CIA," *National Review,* September 14, 1973, p. 996; CIA Reading Room document C01481990. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01481990
[^22]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Legislative Counsel, Journal, Monday, November 19, 1973, items 5 and 6, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP75B00380R000400010011-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75b00380r000400010011-9
[^23]: Central Intelligence Agency, Memorandum for the Director, "Fulton Lewis, Jr.," December 13, 1957, paras 2, 18 and 19, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP74-00297R000900070007-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp74-00297r000900070007-2
[^24]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of the Director, Action Memorandum No. S-254 (October 1962; day not legible in the scan), CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP80B01676R000200060002-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r000200060002-4
[^25]: National Review Institute, Form 990 for the fiscal year ended July 31, 2017, Part VII and Schedule R (see note 2).
[^26]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer, National Review Institute, EIN 13-3649537, API v2 organization record. https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/133649537
[^8]: Letter from Whittaker Chambers to William F. Buckley Jr., March 10, 1957, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP75-00001R000100020108-6 (file dated January 27, 1970). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75-00001r000100020108-6
[^9]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., headquarters file part 2, printed biographical directory entries for Priscilla Langford Buckley and William Frank Buckley Jr.. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-2
[^10]: Hunt, *Undercover,* pp. 68-69.
[^11]: Hunt, *Undercover,* pp. 76-77 (page numbers taken from the running heads of the scanned text).
[^12]: Central Intelligence Agency, Memorandum for the Director of Central Intelligence from the Director of Security, "Article in the National Review Bulletin of 15 November 1958 concerning the book 'Dr. Zhivago,'" November 24, 1958, CIA Reading Room document 0005796341. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-0005796341
[^13]: CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP74-00297R000900080057-6, text excerpt from *National Review.* https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp74-00297r000900080057-6
[^14]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., headquarters file part 1, memorandum L. B. Nichols to Mr. Tolson, October 20, 1950, with Buckley's letter of October 19, 1950, and later routing note; summary memorandum on the main file; memorandum on the October 26, 1962 tour. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1
[^15]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., headquarters file part 2, "Special Inquiry - White House" memorandum and teletype of June 2, 1969. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-2
[^16]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., headquarters file part 2, 1969 inquiry teletype listing associates and board members (names partly redacted).
[^17]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., headquarters file part 1, biographical summary. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1
[^18]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., headquarters file part 2, 1969 interview summaries (Peter H. Starr; one interviewee redacted).
[^19]: CIA-RDP73-00475R000202020001-1, *New York Daily News*, September 8, 1966. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp73-00475r000202020001-1
[^20]: CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP80-01601R000300360081-4, *San Bernardino Sun-Telegram*, July 23, 1971, "The Misadventure of Buckley." https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80-01601R000300360081-4
[^21]: *Firing Line,* WETA-TV Washington, January 21, 1973, transcript, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP84-00499R000200010003-1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84-00499r000200010003-1
[^22]: FBI file on William F. Buckley Jr., headquarters file part 2, teletype of August 1973 reporting the interview of Arthur Schlesinger on "8/15/73."
[^23]: Hunt, *Undercover,* pp. 322-323 (page numbers taken from the running heads of the scanned text).
[^24]: United States Senate, Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities (staff), "CIA Investigation," report to Senator Howard Baker on the CIA and Watergate, 1973, introduction and note citing Miles Copeland, "The Unmentionable Uses of a CIA," *National Review,* September 14, 1973, p. 996; CIA Reading Room document C01481990. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-01481990
[^25]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Legislative Counsel, Journal, Monday, November 19, 1973, items 5 and 6, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP75B00380R000400010011-9. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp75b00380r000400010011-9
[^26]: Central Intelligence Agency, Memorandum for the Director, "Fulton Lewis, Jr.," December 13, 1957, paras 2, 18 and 19, CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP74-00297R000900070007-2. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp74-00297r000900070007-2
[^27]: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of the Director, Action Memorandum No. S-254 (October 1962), CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP80B01676R000200060002-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r000200060002-4
[^28]: CIA Reading Room document CIA-RDP88-01314R000100310006-5, Henry Raymont, "Buckley Starting Newsletter to Expose Leftist Influence," *New York Times*, 1968. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp88-01314r000100310006-5
[^29]: George Archibald, *Washington Times*, October 25, 1985, p. 3-A, CIA-RDP90-00845R000201140006-4. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP90-00845R000201140006-4 ; *The Washington Post*, October 26, 1985, "National Review Wins $1,001 in Libel Suit Against Liberty Lobby."
[^30]: National Review Institute, Form 990 for the fiscal year ended July 31, 2017, Part VII and Schedule R (see note 2).
[^31]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer, National Review Institute, EIN 13-3649537, API v2 organization record. https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/133649537

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@ -94,6 +94,11 @@ relations:
role: "published the May 5, 1987 profile of Richard Secord, the first witness before the joint committees"
start: 1987-05-05
fn: 34
- type: director_of
with: "[[E. Roland Harriman]]"
reverse: true
role: "Director, per Antony C. Sutton (1976); no dates given"
fn: 45
---
Newsweek is an American news weekly, founded in 1933 as News-Week and owned from 1961 to 2010 by the [[Washington Post]] Company. Its staff and stringers appear in the 1977 Rolling Stone account of CIA press relations by [[Carl Bernstein]], and it reported on the [[Contras]] and the [[Iran-Contra affair]]. It covered the [[Dark Alliance]] story, calling it a powerful series.[^1]
@ -104,6 +109,8 @@ The masthead of the July 29, 1933 issue (volume 1, number 24) lists T. J. C. Mar
Time wrote in 1961 that when Astor "got control in 1937" Newsweek had reached a circulation of 250,000 but had cost its original investors $2,250,000 in four years. Astor died in 1959 and left his controlling 60 percent of the stock, 177,200 shares, to the Vincent Astor Foundation, a trust he established in 1948.[^4] Bernstein dates [[Malcolm Muir]]'s tenure as editor to the magazine's founding in 1937 and places it until the sale to the Washington Post Company in 1961.[^5] In Time's account of the sale, Muir was board chairman and [[John Denson]] was the editor who resigned a month before the sale to join the [[New York Herald Tribune]].[^6]
[[Antony C. Sutton]] wrote in 1976 that [[E. Roland Harriman]] was a director of Newsweek magazine, without giving dates. The statement appears in a list of his later positions that also named the [[Union Pacific Railroad]] chairmanship (held 1946 to 1969, according to the company's annual reports), a seat on the board of governors of the [[American Red Cross]] (which he headed from 1950 to 1973) and membership of the [[American Museum of Natural History]].[^45]
### Sale to the Washington Post Company, 1961
In January 1961 Time reported that the Astor Foundation was asking $8,000,000 for its stock. The publisher [[Samuel Newhouse]] had offered more than market value and was rejected, reportedly on the insistence of Astor's widow, [[Brooke Astor|Brooke Russell Marshall Astor]], who sat on the Newsweek and Foundation boards. The Meredith Publishing Company approached and withdrew. Muir said a management group was negotiating to buy the majority interest.[^4]
@ -172,6 +179,8 @@ Newsweek's May 23 edition said the original information came from a "knowledgeab
According to [[Gary Webb]]'s account, [[William J. Casey]] himself leaked news of the Contra project to Newsweek because he wanted to ensure the project did not get shelved. Once it became public knowledge that the Reagan administration was helping the Contras, Webb wrote, stopping it would look like a sellout, another [[Bay of Pigs]]. Webb presented the leak to Newsweek as an illustration of how the CIA used the media to build political support for its covert operations and to box in congressional opponents.[^1]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Webb, Gary. *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion.* Seven Stories Press, 1998. Ch. 6.
[^2]: *News-Week*, vol. 1, no. 24, July 29, 1933, masthead (Martyn, president and treasurer; Samuel T. Williamson, editor). https://archive.org/details/sim_newsweek-us_1933-07-29_1_24
[^3]: "Press: Today," *Time*, September 11, 1933. https://time.com/archive/6751591/press-today/
@ -216,3 +225,4 @@ According to [[Gary Webb]]'s account, [[William J. Casey]] himself leaked news o
[^42]: "Newsweek retracts Quran report," Al Jazeera (Reuters), May 17, 2005. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2005/5/17/newsweek-retracts-quran-report.
[^43]: Howard B. Schonberger, *Aftermath of War: Americans and the Remaking of Japan, 1945-1952* (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1989), pp. 7, 135, 157-158. https://archive.org/details/aftermathofwaram0000scho
[^44]: United Press International, "De Borchgrave named CEO of UPI," December 16, 1998, https://www.upi.com/Archives/1998/12/16/De-Borchgrave-named-CEO-of-UPI/2072913784400/ (appointment; start January 4; editor in chief of The Washington Times, 1985 to 1991; Newsweek chief foreign correspondent, 1963 to 1980; senior adviser at CSIS and director of the Global Organized Crime Project).
[^45]: Antony C. Sutton, *Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler* (1976), pp. 106 to 107.

95
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@ -11,45 +11,52 @@ tags:
summary: "The Rockefeller Foundation, endowed from the Standard Oil fortune in 1913, ran Latin American public-health campaigns, supplied trustees to the State Department, and in 1943 funded the McGill psychiatric institute later tied to CIA experiments."
location: New York, NY
created: 2026-06-12
updated: 2026-10-09
updated: 2026-10-26
relations:
- type: funded
with: "[[New School for Social Research]]"
start: 1933
end: 1943
role: "co-funded University in Exile appointments and the Research Project on Totalitarian Communication"
fn: 11
fn: 12
- type: funded
with: "[[Max Ascoli]]"
start: 1931
role: "fellowship that brought him to the United States"
fn: 25
fn: 26
- type: funded
with: "[[Princeton Listening Center]]"
start: 1939-11
end: 1941-06
role: "foundation funding for the listening center, per the Princeton finding aid and Mercado"
fn: 29
fn: 30
- type: funded
with: "[[Institute of World Affairs]]"
role: "grants to the Institute's predecessor projects and to Institute studies; donor listed in the historical note"
start: 1941-03
end: 1951
fn: 24
fn: 25
- type: director_of
with: "[[Cyrus Vance]]"
reverse: true
role: "trustee 1970 to 1977; chairman of the board 1975 to 1977"
start: 1970
end: 1977
fn: 8
fn: 9
- type: director_of
with: "[[Cyrus Vance]]"
reverse: true
role: "trustee again 1980 until retirement effective June 30, 1982"
start: 1980
end: 1982-06-30
fn: 9
fn: 10
- type: director_of
with: "[[Robert A. Lovett]]"
reverse: true
role: "trustee; chairman of the finance committee, April 1954 to April 1955"
start: 1954
end: 1955
fn: 8
- type: subject_of
with: "[[Estate of Arturo Giron Alvarez v. The Johns Hopkins University]]"
reverse: true
@ -83,41 +90,42 @@ The Foundation's survey programs doubled as intelligence-gathering. The Harvard
### State Department Pipeline
The Foundation's board functioned as a recruiting pool for US foreign policy. In 1952, as [[John Foster Dulles]] prepared to become Eisenhower's secretary of state, he turned over the chair of the Foundation to [[John D. Rockefeller III|John D. Rockefeller 3rd]] and tapped his friend [[Dean Rusk]] for the presidency. When [[John F. Kennedy]] formed his cabinet in December 1960, Robert Lovett, a Foundation trustee, declined State, Defense, and Treasury and instead recommended Rusk, then the Foundation's president, who took the call from the president-elect while attending a board meeting and became secretary of state; trustee [[Chester Bowles]] joined him as undersecretary. Earlier figures linking the Foundation to the foreign-policy establishment included UN undersecretary-general [[Ralph Bunche]] (a former grantee and trustee), [[Council on Foreign Relations]] guiding light Fosdick, Union Theological Seminary president Henry Pitney Van Dusen, and Colombia's [[Alberto Lleras Camargo]], who collaborated with Nelson Rockefeller and became a Foundation trustee.[^7]
The Foundation's board functioned as a recruiting pool for US foreign policy. In 1952, as [[John Foster Dulles]] prepared to become Eisenhower's secretary of state, he turned over the chair of the Foundation to [[John D. Rockefeller III|John D. Rockefeller 3rd]] and tapped his friend [[Dean Rusk]] for the presidency. When [[John F. Kennedy]] formed his cabinet in December 1960, [[Robert A. Lovett]], a Foundation trustee, declined State, Defense, and Treasury and instead recommended Rusk, then the Foundation's president, who took the call from the president-elect while attending a board meeting and became secretary of state; trustee [[Chester Bowles]] joined him as undersecretary. Earlier figures linking the Foundation to the foreign-policy establishment included UN undersecretary-general [[Ralph Bunche]] (a former grantee and trustee), [[Council on Foreign Relations]] guiding light Fosdick, Union Theological Seminary president Henry Pitney Van Dusen, and Colombia's [[Alberto Lleras Camargo]], who collaborated with Nelson Rockefeller and became a Foundation trustee.[^7] The Foundation's trustee list for April 1954 to April 1955 includes Lovett and Rusk. Lovett was a member of the executive committee and chairman of the finance committee in that year.[^8]
The chairman of the board at the end of 1976 was [[Cyrus Vance]], a trustee from 1970 who had chaired the board since 1975. The trustees listed as of December 31, 1976 included [[W. Michael Blumenthal]], [[Theodore Hesburgh]], [[Vernon Jordan]], [[Lane Kirkland]], [[Bill Moyers]], [[Robert V. Roosa]], [[Frederick Seitz]], [[Paul Volcker]] and [[Clifton R. Wharton, Jr.|Clifton Wharton]], with John D. Rockefeller 3rd as honorary chairman. The president's report for 1976 states that in the selection of Americans to serve the incoming administration of [[Jimmy Carter]] the chairman of the board, Vance, had been appointed Secretary of State and the chairman of its Audit Committee, Blumenthal, Secretary of the Treasury, and that "Mr. Vance becomes the third Trustee in the history of the Foundation to be named Secretary of State, the others being John Foster Dulles and Dean Rusk."[^8] In October 1975 Vance had headed a world affairs delegation to China, which the president's report mentions in connection with a Foundation working paper, "China Diary."[^8] He rejoined the board in 1980 and retired effective June 30, 1982, having served on its Executive and Finance Committees; the 1982 report notes the retirement in the same year of the chairman, Hesburgh, and of the former chairman, Vance, whose combined service on the board was 30 years.[^9]
The chairman of the board at the end of 1976 was [[Cyrus Vance]], a trustee from 1970 who had chaired the board since 1975. The trustees listed as of December 31, 1976 included [[W. Michael Blumenthal]], [[Theodore Hesburgh]], [[Vernon Jordan]], [[Lane Kirkland]], [[Bill Moyers]], [[Robert V. Roosa]], [[Frederick Seitz]], [[Paul Volcker]] and [[Clifton R. Wharton, Jr.|Clifton Wharton]], with John D. Rockefeller 3rd as honorary chairman. The president's report for 1976 states that in the selection of Americans to serve the incoming administration of [[Jimmy Carter]] the chairman of the board, Vance, had been appointed Secretary of State and the chairman of its Audit Committee, Blumenthal, Secretary of the Treasury, and that "Mr. Vance becomes the third Trustee in the history of the Foundation to be named Secretary of State, the others being John Foster Dulles and Dean Rusk."[^9] In October 1975 Vance had headed a world affairs delegation to China, which the president's report mentions in connection with a Foundation working paper, "China Diary."[^9] He rejoined the board in 1980 and retired effective June 30, 1982, having served on its Executive and Finance Committees; the 1982 report notes the retirement in the same year of the chairman, Hesburgh, and of the former chairman, Vance, whose combined service on the board was 30 years.[^10]
### Mind-Control Research Funding
The Foundation's reach extended into the psychiatric research that the CIA would later exploit. In 1943 it funded the establishment of the [[Allan Memorial Institute]] at [[McGill University]] in Montreal (the book renders the name "Allen"), the psychiatric institute later directed by [[D. Ewen Cameron]], whose depatterning experiments became [[MKULTRA]] Subproject 68. The Foundation also funded [[Sensory Deprivation]] research, the technique of strapping subjects in a sealed box cut off from light, sound, smell, and touch; in March 1955 the [[National Institutes of Health]] began CIA-funded experiments using the standard method minus the practice of releasing subjects on request, after which mind-control experiments spread under funding directed by [[Sidney Gottlieb]] of the CIA's [[TSS|Technical Services Staff]], part of an old-boy network that included Nelson Rockefeller's former CIAA associate [[J.C. King]]. Colby and Dennett note that Nelson "needed little introduction to MKULTRA," the CIA's use of the health and welfare bureaucracy for mind-control work having begun during his own tenure as undersecretary of HEW.[^10]
The Foundation's reach extended into the psychiatric research that the CIA would later exploit. In 1943 it funded the establishment of the [[Allan Memorial Institute]] at [[McGill University]] in Montreal (the book renders the name "Allen"), the psychiatric institute later directed by [[D. Ewen Cameron]], whose depatterning experiments became [[MKULTRA]] Subproject 68. The Foundation also funded [[Sensory Deprivation]] research, the technique of strapping subjects in a sealed box cut off from light, sound, smell, and touch; in March 1955 the [[National Institutes of Health]] began CIA-funded experiments using the standard method minus the practice of releasing subjects on request, after which mind-control experiments spread under funding directed by [[Sidney Gottlieb]] of the CIA's [[TSS|Technical Services Staff]], part of an old-boy network that included Nelson Rockefeller's former CIAA associate [[J.C. King]]. Colby and Dennett note that Nelson "needed little introduction to MKULTRA," the CIA's use of the health and welfare bureaucracy for mind-control work having begun during his own tenure as undersecretary of HEW.[^11]
### New School for Social Research
The Foundation paired with the [[New School for Social Research]] in 1933 to bring German and Central European scholars to the University in Exile. [[Alvin Johnson]] and the Foundation agreed on a dozen individuals to rescue, and the Foundation's Paris associate [[Tracy Kittredge]] wrote on the State Department's view of the question on March 29, 1933. The [[Emergency Committee in Aid of Displaced Foreign Scholars]] acted for the Foundation in these early cases and did not seek permanent United States posts for the men it supported.[^11] Johnson later went to Raymond Fosdick, then the Foundation's president, for travel and two-year stipends for five scholars, and the Foundation supplied expert information on who was a Nazi or Fascist.[^12]
The Foundation paired with the [[New School for Social Research]] in 1933 to bring German and Central European scholars to the University in Exile. [[Alvin Johnson]] and the Foundation agreed on a dozen individuals to rescue, and the Foundation's Paris associate [[Tracy Kittredge]] wrote on the State Department's view of the question on March 29, 1933. The [[Emergency Committee in Aid of Displaced Foreign Scholars]] acted for the Foundation in these early cases and did not seek permanent United States posts for the men it supported.[^12] Johnson later went to Raymond Fosdick, then the Foundation's president, for travel and two-year stipends for five scholars, and the Foundation supplied expert information on who was a Nazi or Fascist.[^13]
The New School's history states that after Johnson had raised only $10,000, [[Hiram J. Halle]] gave the whole $60,000 for the University in Exile, and that additional funding from the Foundation "enabled him to enlarge his rescue efforts."[^13] [[Daniel Bessner]] describes Halle as associated with the Foundation, which he says spent $1.4 million helping displaced scholars.[^14]
The New School's history states that after Johnson had raised only $10,000, [[Hiram J. Halle]] gave the whole $60,000 for the University in Exile, and that additional funding from the Foundation "enabled him to enlarge his rescue efforts."[^14] [[Daniel Bessner]] describes Halle as associated with the Foundation, which he says spent $1.4 million helping displaced scholars.[^15]
The Rockefeller Archive Center's account of the Foundation's refugee scholar program states that Foundation officers worked closely with Johnson, with whom they had been working since 1933, and that the Foundation depended on the Emergency Committee to find permanent employment for scholars and on the [[United States Department of State]] to secure non-quota visas.[^15] Johnson's memoir has his request to Fosdick growing from five scholars to fifteen and then twenty-five, then to a project of one hundred, which Fosdick put to his trustees and approved the next day; the New York Times obituary of June 9, 1971 states that the Foundation "approved the request and assured the financing of 100 emigres."[^16] The Foundation's grant records group the New School's files under the refugee-scholar program, with a separate file for the [[Ecole Libre des Hautes Etudes]] and wartime projects including Totalitarian Communication Studies and War and Peace Studies.[^17] A July 31, 1941 letter from [[Marc Bloch]] to Johnson, written after the French government barred French males of military age from leaving Paris, is filed in the Foundation's records.[^18]
The Rockefeller Archive Center's account of the Foundation's refugee scholar program states that Foundation officers worked closely with Johnson, with whom they had been working since 1933, and that the Foundation depended on the Emergency Committee to find permanent employment for scholars and on the [[United States Department of State]] to secure non-quota visas.[^16] Johnson's memoir has his request to Fosdick growing from five scholars to fifteen and then twenty-five, then to a project of one hundred, which Fosdick put to his trustees and approved the next day; the New York Times obituary of June 9, 1971 states that the Foundation "approved the request and assured the financing of 100 emigres."[^17] The Foundation's grant records group the New School's files under the refugee-scholar program, with a separate file for the [[Ecole Libre des Hautes Etudes]] and wartime projects including Totalitarian Communication Studies and War and Peace Studies.[^18] A July 31, 1941 letter from [[Marc Bloch]] to Johnson, written after the French government barred French males of military age from leaving Paris, is filed in the Foundation's records.[^19]
The Foundation funded the [[Research Project on Totalitarian Communication]] at the New School, led by [[Hans Speier]] and [[Ernst Kris]], which analyzed radio broadcasts from totalitarian countries and was coordinated with the British Broadcasting Corporation and government agencies. Foundation funding ended in 1943, and many of the researchers later held federal posts. John Foster Dulles, a Foundation trustee, urged the Foundation to continue work in this field after the war in order to counter Soviet propaganda in Europe.[^19]
The Foundation funded the [[Research Project on Totalitarian Communication]] at the New School, led by [[Hans Speier]] and [[Ernst Kris]], which analyzed radio broadcasts from totalitarian countries and was coordinated with the British Broadcasting Corporation and government agencies. Foundation funding ended in 1943, and many of the researchers later held federal posts. John Foster Dulles, a Foundation trustee, urged the Foundation to continue work in this field after the war in order to counter Soviet propaganda in Europe.[^20]
The Foundation's grants reached the [[Institute of World Affairs]] through its predecessor projects and through studies run by the Institute. Its grants for the Research Project on Totalitarian Communication were $15,960 in March 1941 and $19,000 in 1942.[^20] A study titled "Germany's Position in European Postwar Reconstruction," compiled by the Institute from 1944 to 1949, was funded by the Foundation "in order to study the results of post-World War I reconstruction in Germany, with an eye toward the practical implementation of these lessons following World War II."[^21] The Social and Economic Controls in Germany and Russia project, formed in 1941, was financed by the Foundation and "focused largely on labor politics in Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia."[^22] A folder for [[Joseph H. Willits]] for 1941 to 1952 concerns a Foundation grant for the project of [[Hans Neisser]] titled Domestic Determinants of International Trade.[^23] The Institute's historical note reports its funding for 1943 to 1951 at $630,000, with the Foundation among its donors.[^24]
The Foundation's grants reached the [[Institute of World Affairs]] through its predecessor projects and through studies run by the Institute. Its grants for the Research Project on Totalitarian Communication were $15,960 in March 1941 and $19,000 in 1942.[^21] A study titled "Germany's Position in European Postwar Reconstruction," compiled by the Institute from 1944 to 1949, was funded by the Foundation "in order to study the results of post-World War I reconstruction in Germany, with an eye toward the practical implementation of these lessons following World War II."[^22] The Social and Economic Controls in Germany and Russia project, formed in 1941, was financed by the Foundation and "focused largely on labor politics in Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia."[^23] A folder for [[Joseph H. Willits]] for 1941 to 1952 concerns a Foundation grant for the project of [[Hans Neisser]] titled Domestic Determinants of International Trade.[^24] The Institute's historical note reports its funding for 1943 to 1951 at $630,000, with the Foundation among its donors.[^25]
### Refugee Scholar Fellowships, 1931 to 1933
The Italian anti-fascist [[Max Ascoli]] came to the United States in 1931 on a Foundation fellowship; Ascoli wrote in 1954 that the offer was made in the spring of 1931 by the Foundation's representative in Italy, [[Luigi Einaudi]].[^25][^26] In 1933 Johnson recruited Ascoli, with the Austrian scholar [[Erich Hula]], as one of two additional Rockefeller scholars for the University in Exile, and Ascoli joined the Graduate Faculty in late 1933.[^27]
The Italian anti-fascist [[Max Ascoli]] came to the United States in 1931 on a Foundation fellowship; Ascoli wrote in 1954 that the offer was made in the spring of 1931 by the Foundation's representative in Italy, [[Luigi Einaudi]].[^26][^27] In 1933 Johnson recruited Ascoli, with the Austrian scholar [[Erich Hula]], as one of two additional Rockefeller scholars for the University in Exile, and Ascoli joined the Graduate Faculty in late 1933.[^28]
### Belém Virus Laboratory
In the Brazilian Amazon the Foundation's medical infrastructure directly served the development drive. The BR-010 highway pushed south from [[Belem|Belém]] toward [[Juscelino Kubitschek|Kubitschek's]] new capital at Brasília, "shielded from the jungle's malarial counterattacks by mosquito control programs and scientists from the Rockefeller Foundation-funded Belém Virus Laboratory," the same road network that opened uncontacted indigenous territories to settlement and mining.[^28]
In the Brazilian Amazon the Foundation's medical infrastructure directly served the development drive. The BR-010 highway pushed south from [[Belem|Belém]] toward [[Juscelino Kubitschek|Kubitschek's]] new capital at Brasília, "shielded from the jungle's malarial counterattacks by mosquito control programs and scientists from the Rockefeller Foundation-funded Belém Virus Laboratory," the same road network that opened uncontacted indigenous territories to settlement and mining.[^29]
### Princeton Listening Center and Wartime Monitoring
The Foundation's money reached American radio monitoring before the government had a monitoring service of its own. The [[Princeton Listening Center]] was launched in November 1939 at [[Princeton University]] with Foundation funding, and its finding aid states that it was financed by the Foundation and continued its work until June 1941, when the [[Federal Communications Commission]] took over; [[Stephen C. Mercado]] likewise gives the absorption by the [[Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service]] as June.[^29] Daniel Bessner writes that Washington organizations "used intermediaries at the Rockefeller Foundation to assign projects to Graduate Faculty members," some of whom could not work directly for the government because they remained foreign nationals.[^30]
The Foundation's money reached American radio monitoring before the government had a monitoring service of its own. The [[Princeton Listening Center]] was launched in November 1939 at [[Princeton University]] with Foundation funding, and its finding aid states that it was financed by the Foundation and continued its work until June 1941, when the [[Federal Communications Commission]] took over; [[Stephen C. Mercado]] likewise gives the absorption by the [[Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service]] as June.[^30] Daniel Bessner writes that Washington organizations "used intermediaries at the Rockefeller Foundation to assign projects to Graduate Faculty members," some of whom could not work directly for the government because they remained foreign nationals.[^31]
A [[Baltimore Sun]] article described the service as a joint project of the FCC, Princeton and the Foundation. [[Harold N. Graves Jr.]] wrote a memo for [[Lloyd Free]] on July 9, 1941 about his "embarrassment" at inaccuracies in the article, among them its claim of a joint project.[^31]
A [[Baltimore Sun]] article described the service as a joint project of the FCC, Princeton and the Foundation. [[Harold N. Graves Jr.]] wrote a memo for [[Lloyd Free]] on July 9, 1941 about his "embarrassment" at inaccuracies in the article, among them its claim of a joint project.[^32]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Gerard Colby and Charlotte Dennett, *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon*. HarperCollins, 1995. Ch. 2.
[^2]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 2; Ch. 3.
[^3]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 3.
@ -125,27 +133,28 @@ A [[Baltimore Sun]] article described the service as a joint project of the FCC,
[^5]: *Estate of Arturo Giron Alvarez v. Rockefeller Foundation*, No. 22-1678 (4th Cir. March 20, 2024), on appeal from No. 1:15-cv-00950-TDC (D. Md.). https://www.ca4.uscourts.gov/opinions/221678.P.pdf
[^6]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 9; Ch. 10.
[^7]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 12; Ch. 18; Ch. 23.
[^8]: Rockefeller Foundation, Annual Report 1976, text on the Foundation's trustees. https://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/Annual-Report-1976-1.pdf
[^9]: Rockefeller Foundation, Annual Report 1982, text on the Foundation's trustees. https://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/Annual-Report-1982-1.pdf
[^10]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 18.
[^11]: Peter M. Rutkoff and William B. Scott, New School: A History of The New School for Social Research (New York: Free Press, 1986), p. 86, p. 91 and p. 94.
[^12]: Alvin Johnson, Pioneer's Progress (University of Nebraska Press, 1960), pp. 366-367.
[^13]: Histories of The New School, "University in Exile." https://histories.newschool.edu/histories/university-exile
[^14]: Daniel Morris Bessner, The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State (Duke University dissertation, 2013), p. 84 and note 16. https://hdl.handle.net/10161/7101
[^15]: Rockefeller Archive Center, "The Rockefeller Foundation's Refugee Scholar Program," REsource, https://resource.rockarch.org/story/the-rockefeller-foundations-refugee-scholar-program-world-war-ii-nazi-europe/ (Foundation officers worked closely with Alvin Johnson of the New School for Social Research, with whom they had been working since 1933; the Emergency Committee found permanent employment for scholars).
[^16]: Alvin Johnson, Pioneer's Progress (Viking Press, 1952; University of Nebraska Press, 1960), pp. 366 to 367; "Dr. Alvin Johnson Of New School Dies," The New York Times, June 9, 1971, p. 1, https://www.nytimes.com/1971/06/09/archives/dr-alvin-johnson-of-new-school-dies-dr-alvin-johnson-of-new-school.html
[^17]: Rockefeller Archive Center, DIMES catalog, Rockefeller Foundation records, RG 1.1, Series 200, file groups "Refugee Scholars - New School for Social Research - (French Institute)," "New School for Social Research - Totalitarian Communication Studies," and "War and Peace Studies," https://dimes.rockarch.org.
[^18]: Rockefeller Archive Center, REsource story "The Rockefeller Foundation's Refugee Scholar Program" (letter from Marc Bloch to Alvin Johnson, July 31, 1941, RAC, RG 1.1, Series 200, Box 48, Folder 550).
[^19]: "Rockefeller Foundation Support for Communications Media in the 1930s and 1940s," Rockefeller Archive Center, RE:source, https://resource.rockarch.org/story/rockefeller-foundation-support-for-communications-media-in-the-1930s-and-1940s/
[^20]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State" (PhD diss., Duke University, 2013), pp. 130-131. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/232a76ac-f2d8-4827-99fe-50b3b109fa6c/content
[^21]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "'Germany's Postion in European Postwar Reconstruction', 1944-1949," Institute of World Affairs records, Box 5, Folders 32-33. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27256
[^22]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Social and Economic Controls in Germany and Russia, 1941-1956," Institute of World Affairs records, Series 3. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27285
[^23]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Willits, Joseph H., 1941-1952," Box 3, Folder 6. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27198
[^24]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Institute of World Affairs records," NS-02-16-01, historical note. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/resources/235
[^25]: Boston University, Bridge, "Connections," November 23, 2001, https://www.bu.edu/bridge/archive/2001/11-23/connections.htm. Also Isabelle Richet, review of Davide Grippa, Un antifascista tra Italia e Stati Uniti, Primo Levi Center, November 24, 2014, https://primolevicenter.org/printed-matter/an-antifascist-between-italy-and-the-united-states/.
[^26]: "The Reporter's Notes," The Reporter, September 23, 1954, pp. 2-6, https://archive.org/details/sim_reporter_1954-09-23_11_5.
[^27]: Peter M. Rutkoff and William B. Scott, New School: A History of the New School for Social Research (New York: Free Press, 1986), pp. 102 and 118.
[^28]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 22.
[^29]: Princeton University Library, "Princeton Listening Center Records, 1939-1941" (AC015), finding aid. https://findingaids.princeton.edu/catalog/AC015. Stephen C. Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis, 1941-1945," Studies in Intelligence 45, no. 5 (2001), on the Princeton Listening Center's launch in November 1939 with funding from the Rockefeller Foundation, and on its absorption by FBIS in June. https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol45no5/html/v45i5a04p.htm.
[^30]: Daniel Morris Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State" (PhD dissertation, Duke University, 2013), p. 138. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/items/19152946-8fbb-4b9b-9da0-faca0979e718.
[^31]: Roop, Part I, pp. 93-95, on the Baltimore Sun article of July 1941 and Graves's memo of 9 July 1941. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.
[^8]: Rockefeller Foundation, Annual Report 1954, "Trustees" (April 1954 to April 1955), "Executive Committee" and "Finance Committee" lists, with Robert A. Lovett as chairman of the finance committee. https://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/Annual-Report-1954-1.pdf
[^9]: Rockefeller Foundation, Annual Report 1976, text on the Foundation's trustees. https://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/Annual-Report-1976-1.pdf
[^10]: Rockefeller Foundation, Annual Report 1982, text on the Foundation's trustees. https://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/Annual-Report-1982-1.pdf
[^11]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 18.
[^12]: Peter M. Rutkoff and William B. Scott, New School: A History of The New School for Social Research (New York: Free Press, 1986), p. 86, p. 91 and p. 94.
[^13]: Alvin Johnson, Pioneer's Progress (University of Nebraska Press, 1960), pp. 366-367.
[^14]: Histories of The New School, "University in Exile." https://histories.newschool.edu/histories/university-exile
[^15]: Daniel Morris Bessner, The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State (Duke University dissertation, 2013), p. 84 and note 16. https://hdl.handle.net/10161/7101
[^16]: Rockefeller Archive Center, "The Rockefeller Foundation's Refugee Scholar Program," REsource, https://resource.rockarch.org/story/the-rockefeller-foundations-refugee-scholar-program-world-war-ii-nazi-europe/ (Foundation officers worked closely with Alvin Johnson of the New School for Social Research, with whom they had been working since 1933; the Emergency Committee found permanent employment for scholars).
[^17]: Alvin Johnson, Pioneer's Progress (Viking Press, 1952; University of Nebraska Press, 1960), pp. 366 to 367; "Dr. Alvin Johnson Of New School Dies," The New York Times, June 9, 1971, p. 1, https://www.nytimes.com/1971/06/09/archives/dr-alvin-johnson-of-new-school-dies-dr-alvin-johnson-of-new-school.html
[^18]: Rockefeller Archive Center, DIMES catalog, Rockefeller Foundation records, RG 1.1, Series 200, file groups "Refugee Scholars - New School for Social Research - (French Institute)," "New School for Social Research - Totalitarian Communication Studies," and "War and Peace Studies," https://dimes.rockarch.org.
[^19]: Rockefeller Archive Center, REsource story "The Rockefeller Foundation's Refugee Scholar Program" (letter from Marc Bloch to Alvin Johnson, July 31, 1941, RAC, RG 1.1, Series 200, Box 48, Folder 550).
[^20]: "Rockefeller Foundation Support for Communications Media in the 1930s and 1940s," Rockefeller Archive Center, RE:source, https://resource.rockarch.org/story/rockefeller-foundation-support-for-communications-media-in-the-1930s-and-1940s/
[^21]: Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State" (PhD diss., Duke University, 2013), pp. 130-131. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/232a76ac-f2d8-4827-99fe-50b3b109fa6c/content
[^22]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "'Germany's Postion in European Postwar Reconstruction', 1944-1949," Institute of World Affairs records, Box 5, Folders 32-33. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27256
[^23]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Social and Economic Controls in Germany and Russia, 1941-1956," Institute of World Affairs records, Series 3. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27285
[^24]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Willits, Joseph H., 1941-1952," Box 3, Folder 6. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/archival_objects/27198
[^25]: New School Archives and Special Collections, "Institute of World Affairs records," NS-02-16-01, historical note. https://findingaids.archives.newschool.edu/repositories/3/resources/235
[^26]: Boston University, Bridge, "Connections," November 23, 2001, https://www.bu.edu/bridge/archive/2001/11-23/connections.htm. Also Isabelle Richet, review of Davide Grippa, Un antifascista tra Italia e Stati Uniti, Primo Levi Center, November 24, 2014, https://primolevicenter.org/printed-matter/an-antifascist-between-italy-and-the-united-states/.
[^27]: "The Reporter's Notes," The Reporter, September 23, 1954, pp. 2-6, https://archive.org/details/sim_reporter_1954-09-23_11_5.
[^28]: Peter M. Rutkoff and William B. Scott, New School: A History of the New School for Social Research (New York: Free Press, 1986), pp. 102 and 118.
[^29]: Colby and Dennett, Ch. 22.
[^30]: Princeton University Library, "Princeton Listening Center Records, 1939-1941" (AC015), finding aid. https://findingaids.princeton.edu/catalog/AC015. Stephen C. Mercado, "FBIS Against the Axis, 1941-1945," Studies in Intelligence 45, no. 5 (2001), on the Princeton Listening Center's launch in November 1939 with funding from the Rockefeller Foundation, and on its absorption by FBIS in June. https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol45no5/html/v45i5a04p.htm.
[^31]: Daniel Morris Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State" (PhD dissertation, Duke University, 2013), p. 138. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/items/19152946-8fbb-4b9b-9da0-faca0979e718.
[^32]: Roop, Part I, pp. 93-95, on the Baltimore Sun article of July 1941 and Graves's memo of 9 July 1941. https://archive.org/details/ForeignBroadcastInformationServiceHistoryPart11941-1947.

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@ -0,0 +1,294 @@
---
created: 2026-10-26
updated: 2026-10-26
title: Russell and Company
aliases:
- Russell and Company
- Russell & Company
- Russell & Co.
- Russell and Co.
- Russell & Co., Canton
- Russell & Co., Guangzhou
- Samuel Russell & Co.
- Kee-Chang-Hong
tags:
- Organization
- TradingHouse
- ChinaTrade
- OpiumTrade
- Canton
- Boston
- Delano
- Forbes
- Perkins
- 1820s
- 1830s
- 1840s
- 1890s
- Bankruptcy
category: "Private Organization"
summary: "American commission house at Canton that Samuel Russell founded, which absorbed the Boston firm Perkins and Company in 1831, handled Turkish and Indian opium, and failed in 1891."
start: 1824-01-01
end: 1891
location: "Canton, China"
relations:
- type: founded
with: "[[Samuel Russell]]"
reverse: true
start: 1824-01-01
role: "founder; the Library of Congress dates the Canton house to 1819"
fn: 3
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Philip Ammidon]]"
reverse: true
start: 1824-01-01
end: 1830-06-30
role: "partner"
fn: 1
- type: employed_by
with: "[[William H. Low]]"
reverse: true
start: 1829-09-01
end: 1833-12-31
role: "partner; left Canton in ill health and died at the Cape of Good Hope"
fn: 1
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Augustine Heard]]"
reverse: true
start: 1830-11-01
end: 1836-12-31
role: "partner"
fn: 1
- type: employed_by
with: "[[John Cleve Green]]"
reverse: true
start: 1834-01-01
end: 1836-12-31
role: "partner; special agent at Canton for N. L. and G. Griswold of New York"
fn: 1
- type: employed_by
with: "[[John Murray Forbes]]"
reverse: true
start: 1834-01-01
end: 1838-12-31
role: "partner"
fn: 1
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Joseph Coolidge]]"
reverse: true
start: 1834-01-01
end: 1839-12-31
role: "partner"
fn: 1
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Abiel Abbot Low]]"
reverse: true
start: 1837-01-01
end: 1840-12-31
role: "partner; nephew of William H. Low"
fn: 1
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Robert Bennet Forbes]]"
reverse: true
start: 1839-01-01
end: 1840-07-07
role: "partner; chief of the house until his departure for New York"
fn: 1
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Warren Delano Jr.]]"
reverse: true
start: 1840-01-01
role: "partner; succeeded Robert Bennet Forbes as chief of the house"
fn: 7
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Russell Sturgis]]"
reverse: true
start: 1842-01-01
end: 1843-12-31
role: "partner"
fn: 1
- type: employed_by
with: "[[W. C. Hunter]]"
reverse: true
start: 1837-01-01
end: 1842-12-31
role: "partner; author of The Fan Kwae at Canton (1882)"
fn: 1
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Edward King]]"
reverse: true
start: 1837-07-01
end: 1842-12-31
role: "partner"
fn: 1
- type: represented
with: "[[Houqua]]"
start: 1829-08-01
role: "agent for the Canton merchant's foreign business, secured to the house in 1830"
fn: 15
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Opium War]]"
start: 1839-03-22
end: 1842-08-29
role: "partners at Canton signed the May 25, 1839 memorial to Congress after the opium surrender"
fn: 29
---
Russell and Company was an American commission house at [[Canton]], [[China]], formed by [[Samuel Russell]] of [[Middletown, Connecticut]]. [[W. C. Hunter]], a partner of the house, wrote that it "confined itself strictly to agency business."[^1] The [[Baker Library]] at [[Harvard Business School]] describes it as "the largest American commission house in China" until its demise in 1891.[^2] Its Canton correspondence includes the Turkish opium trade, and from 1830 the house kept the ship Lintin at anchor as its receiving ship in the opium anchorage off Canton.[^3][^4]
### Founding and partners
The [[Library of Congress]] finding aid for the firm's papers describes it as a "Trading house founded in 1819 by Samuel Russell" in Canton.[^3] Hunter, a partner from 1837 to 1842 whose 1882 book describes the Canton factories, dates the house to January 1, 1824, as the successor of Samuel Russell & Co., which he says existed from December 26, 1818 to December 26, 1823, and records that the Chinese knew the house as Kee-Chang-Hong.[^1] The National Historic Landmark nomination for Russell's Middletown house, prepared by the [[National Park Service]], places his arrival in Canton in 1819 under arrangements made by Edward Carrington and Providence merchants, and dates the commission house in partnership with [[Philip Ammidon]] to 1824.[^5] It adds that the first Canton venture returned about $15,000 to each of five partners in 1823.[^5]
From January 1, 1824, until the middle of 1830 the sole partners were Russell and Ammidon.[^1] In September 1829 [[William H. Low]] arrived from [[Salem, Massachusetts]], and in November 1830 [[Augustine Heard]] arrived from [[Boston]] in the bark Lintin under Captain R. B. Forbes. Both became partners. Low left Canton in ill health in 1833 and died at the [[Cape of Good Hope]]. Hunter lists the 1834 to 1836 admissions as [[John Cleve Green]], special agent at Canton for N. L. and G. Griswold of [[New York]], [[John Murray Forbes]], who had arrived in the Lintin in 1830 to join the office, and [[Joseph Coolidge]], who arrived in 1832. Heard retired in the same term.[^1] The nomination states that Ammidon, unable to return to Canton, was terminated from the partnership after Low and Russell accepted Heard on a recommendation in 1830.[^5]
In 1837 [[Abiel Abbot Low]], a nephew of William H. Low, and Hunter were admitted, and [[Edward King]] became a partner in July of that year. [[Robert Bennet Forbes]], the elder brother of John Murray Forbes, arrived in the Bashaw in October 1838 and was admitted on January 1, 1839, becoming chief of the house.[^1] Hunter gives his departure for New York in the Niantic on July 7, 1840.[^1] The Forbes brothers were nephews of [[Thomas Handasyd Perkins]], who headed the Boston house of J. and T. H. Perkins, and Robert Bennet Forbes's plans for the Lintin station in 1829 and 1830 ran through arrangements with the Perkins family and the [[Bryant and Sturgis]] house.[^6]
[[Warren Delano Jr.]] joined in the term beginning in 1840 and succeeded Forbes as chief. Hunter describes him as formerly of the house of [[Russell, Sturgis and Company]] of Canton and [[Manila]].[^1] The [[Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library]] catalogues him as Warren Delano II (1809 to 1898), the maternal grandfather of [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], and dates his partnership to January 1840.[^7] [[Russell Sturgis]] became a partner on January 1, 1842.[^1]
Forbes's own memoir gives his partnership in Russell and Company as running from January 1, 1840 to January 1, 1844, and again from January 1, 1849 to January 1, 1857, and says that he held the vice-consulate while in China on his last visit.[^8] Hunter's list has him admitted in 1839 and leaving for New York in July 1840.[^1]
### Samuel Russell of Middletown
The nomination gives Samuel Wadsworth Russell's dates as 1789 to 1862 and his ancestry as a line from William Russell (1612 to 1664), a founder of the Saybrook and New Haven colonies, through the Rev. [[Noadiah Russell]] (1659 to 1713), second pastor of the Congregational church at Middletown from 1698 and one of the founders of [[Yale University]], and his eldest son the Rev. William Russell (born 1690). It names his grandfather as Captain Samuel Russell (born 1727) and his father as Captain John Russell (1765 to 1801), who died insolvent.[^5] His middle name came from a great uncle, [[Jeremiah Wadsworth]] of Hartford, Commissary General of the Continental Army, who had married the Rev. William Russell's daughter Mehitable.[^5] The nomination records that Russell was twelve when his father died, that he was an apprentice clerk to the Middletown merchants Whittlesley and Alsop, and that after a voyage that ended in 1813 he acted as Middletown commission merchant for Hull and Griswold, and that the first Russell and Company was founded in a building he had leased there.[^5]
The nomination dates his withdrawal from the Canton house to 1836, with his profits reinvested in industry, banking and western railroad stock, and gives his estate at death in 1862 as $630,000, left to his widow and his sole surviving son, Samuel Wadsworth Russell Jr.[^5] Hunter records that Russell and John Perkins Cushing took their final leave of Canton in the Bashaw on February 27, 1831; the nomination says both returned to America upon completing their work in March 1831.[^5][^9] The house at Middletown, designed by [[Ithiel Town]] in 1827 to 1830, passed to [[Wesleyan University]] in 1937 by the gift of his great-grandson Thomas MacDonough Russell Jr.[^5]
The Yale biographical sketches record that the Rev. William Russell of Middletown (Yale tutor, minister 1715 to 1761), the eldest child of the Rev. Noadiah Russell and Mary Hamlin, married Mary Pierpont in 1719 and had four sons and five daughters, of whom the Rev. William Russell (Yale 1745) and the Rev. Noadiah Russell (Yale 1750) and one other son survived him.[^10] [[Matthew Talcott Russell]] was the second son of that Noadiah Russell of Thompson, Connecticut, born March 19, 1761, a lawyer at Middletown, and the father of [[William Huntington Russell]], a co-founder of the [[Skull and Bones]] society, who was graduated from Yale in 1833.[^11][^12] The nomination says that Wadsworth had been apprenticed to his uncle Matthew Talcott of Middletown, and the Yale sketch records that Matthew Talcott Russell was named for Colonel Matthew Talcott of Middletown, who had married his aunt and paid for his education.[^5][^11] The sketch of the Rev. William Russell gives the Rev. Noadiah Russell (Yale 1750) as his son and the father of Matthew Talcott Russell; the nomination gives the Rev. William Russell's daughter Mehitable as the wife of Jeremiah Wadsworth, Samuel Russell's great uncle, and names Samuel Russell's grandfather as Captain Samuel Russell (born 1727).[^5][^10][^11]
The Hamlin family genealogy of 1900 records Samuel Russell, born at Middletown on August 25, 1789, as the son of Capt. John Russell (born August 19, 1765, died December 7, 1801), who was the son of Capt. Samuel Russell (born July 7, 1727), a brother of the Rev. Noadiah Russell (Yale 1750). John Russell and Matthew Talcott Russell were first cousins, and Samuel Russell and William Huntington Russell were second cousins, with William Russell, the son of the Yale founder Noadiah Russell, as their common great-grandfather.[^13] [[Kris Millegan]] calls William Huntington Russell Samuel Russell's cousin in his opening article and at pages 151 to 152, his second cousin at page 313, and, at page 52, calls Samuel Russell his uncle.[^14]
### The 1831 merger with Perkins and Company
The Library of Congress finding aid states that in 1831 the China trading operations of [[John P. Cushing]], [[William Perkins and Company]] of Boston, and [[Houqua]], the Canton merchant, merged with Russell and Company.[^3] The Baker Library guide to the firm's records gives the same event from the Boston side: Cushing, who had been the sole agent in Canton for Perkins and Company, arranged to dissolve the Boston house by merging its Canton business into Russell and Company in 1831.[^2]
Hunter's account is dated by deaths. Thomas T. Forbes, who had succeeded Cushing at Perkins and Company in 1828, drowned in a typhoon on August 9, 1829, with S. H. Monson, the bookkeeper of Russell and Company. Among Forbes's papers was a sealed letter to Russell and Company asking them, in case of accident, to take charge of the local business of his own firm and of J. and T. H. Perkins. They did so, "and naturally came with it that of Houqua, who had been the intimate personal friend of Mr. Cushing during his unbroken residence of over twenty years in Canton."[^15] Cushing, who was in England when the news arrived, returned to Canton in the Bashaw in August 1830, and arrangements "were then definitely concluded by which Russell & Co. were officially appointed sole agents for the Boston house, that of Perkins & Co. being wound up, while the important foreign business of Houqua was then also definitely secured to them."[^15]
The nomination describes the reorganization as one directed by Cushing: Heard was made the representative of Perkins and their associated Boston firms, Robert Bennet Forbes was given charge of the Lintin station storeship business, and John Murray Forbes was placed with the firm as an assistant in line for partnership.[^5] The editor of John Murray Forbes's letters adds that Cushing, returning from Europe, went overland to Canton to look after the Perkins business and merged it into Russell and Company before the arrival in China of Forbes's father and uncle.[^16] The Baker Library holds the Perkins and Company letter books from Canton that precede the merger, and the Library of Congress finding aid says that more Russell and Company business records are in the William Perkins and Company records at Baker Library.[^2][^3]
### Turkish opium and the Indian trade
The Library of Congress finding aid says that the correspondence after 1818 contains much information on the daily operation of the Canton company and on the Turkish opium trade, along with the Amsterdam commodity exchanges.[^3] Its subject index includes an entry for the opium trade with Turkey, and among the firms represented in the correspondence it lists [[Clarke and Company]], of Smyrna, [[Turkey]].[^3] The box list includes account books for 1816 to 1829 that carry a manuscript on the Chinese method of preparing opium for smoking.[^17]
The nomination's account of the trade is longer. It states that Americans, largely excluded from the Indian and Persian markets, were for a time restricted to Turkish opium transshipped through American ports, that the Perkins brothers of Boston had been associated with the Turkish opium trade since the 1780s and organized a Smyrna merchant house in 1816, and that there is no evidence that Russell took part in the opium trade during his first Canton venture.[^5] It states that by the time Ammidon left, his dealings "had made Russell & Company one of the most important American sellers of the opium in Canton, second or third in the trade behind the British firms of Jardine Matheson & Company and Dent & Company," that during the first Opium War the firm "managed to hold its position in the Turkish trade and became the third largest purveyor of the drug from India," and that by 1842 it was the largest and strongest American house in China.[^5]
Robert Bennet Forbes's memoir describes a 1828 voyage to Smyrna in the Danube, a vessel fitted out at New York by [[Sturgis and Perkins]]. He states the object plainly: "the principal object being to procure Turkey opium for China."[^18] He carried a credit on the [[Baring Brothers]] of about £60,000 and a cargo of coffee and specie. At Smyrna the principal American merchant was [[Joseph Langdon]]. Forbes says that he sailed from [[Vourla]] under the convoy of the United States schooner Porpoise through the Archipelago and then went on to [[Gibraltar]] to await operations on a larger scale.[^19] On the way up the Mediterranean he met the brig Leander, of Salem, bound home from Smyrna, and he suspected from her that her owner, [[Joseph Peabody]], who held an interest in the China and [[India]] trade, had been on the same errand.[^19]
The Indian side of the trade ran through the store-ships anchored at [[Lintin]]. Forbes writes that the store-ships lay outside at Lintin and that the drug was run up the river in small boats, sometimes carried by the mandarin boats sent to protect the revenue.[^20] He gives the annual value of the trade as ten or twelve million dollars and says that the officials encouraged its introduction "from India and Turkey, not only by levying a duty on it for their own benefit, but by consuming it."[^20] Hunter says the Lintin was Russell and Company's "receiving ship" from 1830, and that she held her anchorage for nine years.[^4] Robert Bennet Forbes sought the command of the Lintin station ship in 1829 and 1830. The station ship was then the Tartar of Bryant and Sturgis, commanded by a relative of Mr. Sturgis.[^6] Forbes wrote that from January 1 to the closing of the port the commission account and the gains of the Lintin "showed a grand result."[^21]
### The 1839 surrender at Canton
In March 1839 the imperial commissioner [[Lin Zexu]] demanded the opium held by the foreign community at Canton. The [[Chinese Repository]], published at Canton, printed the sequence. On March 21 the General Chamber of Commerce, whose chairman was [[William S. Wetmore]], resolved in a letter to the Hong merchants that there was "an almost unanimous feeling in the community of the absolute necessity of the foreign residents of Canton having no connexion with the opium traffic," and that night the Hong merchants reported that Lin would be at the Consoo house at ten the next morning unless opium was delivered.[^22] An edict of April 1 addressed the chairman of the Chamber and called on the American consul to surrender a quantity of opium not less than the British superintendent had given up.[^22] A later edict from Lin recorded that the American consul [[P. W. Snow]] had declared that "the merchants of his country, acting in obedience to the new regulations, will not presume to traffic in opium," and objected that Snow's added remark about ordering offending ships home did not accord with conforming to the law.[^23]
[[Charles Elliot]], the British superintendent of trade, notified Lin on March 28, 1839 that he held himself responsible for delivering 20,283 chests of opium owned by British subjects, and that as the chests came into his possession each would be delivered up.[^24] Forbes's memoir records that Elliot called on British subjects and on all who held British-owned opium to surrender it in the name of [[Queen Victoria]], and that schedules were made chest by chest for delivery to Lin's officers.[^25] Hunter gives the count: by May 2, 15,501 chests had been handed over, and the whole quantity, 20,283 chests, was completed on May 21.[^26]
Hunter wrote that the Americans had not delivered any American-owned opium, "of which we held at the time of surrender about fifty cases of Turkey."[^27] He adds: "The English on leaving placed theirs in charge of the American houses. A large share of it fell under the control of Russell & Co."[^27] He describes a discussion among the Canton agents about charging half-commissions on consignments withdrawn from the trade, and says the charge was dropped on the quantity Russell and Company delivered up, which he gives as nearly 15,000 dollars.[^28] Forbes wrote that the American hong housed the United States consul, P. W. Snow, together with Russell and Company and Russell, Sturgis and Company, and that the foreign community was kept under strict guard while the delivery went on.[^25]
### The memorial of the American merchants
A memorial dated at Canton on May 25, 1839 was printed by the [[United States House of Representatives]] as House Document 40 of the 26th Congress, first session, dated January 9, 1840 and referred to the [[United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs]]. The caption describes it as the memorial of R. B. Forbes and others, American merchants at Canton, for a commercial agent to be sent to China to negotiate a commercial treaty, with a naval force to protect the persons and property of Americans. It is signed by Russell Sturgis, W. Delano Jr., Gideon Nye Jr., R. B. Forbes, A. A. Low, Edward King, S. B. Rawle, and Jas. Ryan.[^29]
The memorial states that the signers were "made prisoners in our factories" on March 22, that the commissioner had obtained "upwards of twenty thousand chests of British owned opium," valued at more than ten million dollars, and that the signers had been threatened over a bond under which a ship found bringing opium would be given up for punishment by death.[^29] It gives the opium sales at Canton by season: 3,210 chests for $3,657,000 in 1816 to 1817, 5,822 chests in 1822 to 1823, 9,535 chests in 1827 to 1828, and 23,670 chests for $15,332,759 in 1832 to 1833. It states that the receiving vessels moved from Whampoa to Lintin about 1821, that the Governor and the Hoppo had boats that received opium at Lintin, and that the officials took a fee of twenty to seventy dollars a chest.[^29]
The memorial also states: "We have no wish to see a revival of the opium trade," that most of the signers had signed a voluntary pledge to abstain from dealing in the drug, and that the drug had been "productive of much evil and of scarcely a single good to the Chinese." It continues that the signers could not "perceive the slightest ground for justification of the robbery committed upon British subjects here." It asks the government to act, if it thought fit, with Great Britain, France and Holland to obtain six demands: envoys at Peking, a fixed tariff, bonding warehouses, trade at other ports, compensation for the stoppage of trade, and limits on punishments of foreigners until Chinese laws were made known. Failing that, it asks for an agent or commissioner with a naval force to protect American commerce and to prevent any paper blockade. It names Snow as the consul whose despatches to the State Department would confirm the account and expresses "entire approbation" of his conduct.[^29]
On April 25, 1840, as the British blockade was expected, a petition to Lin from American houses asking that their ships be allowed to come directly to Whampoa was signed by Augustine Heard and Company, Gideon Nye Jr., A. A. Ritchie, James Ryan, Henry W. Hubbell, Olyphant and Company, Russell and Company, S. W. Lewis, Henry Fessenden, John Shillaber and Isaac M. Bull.[^30] The Chinese Repository gives Lin's reply as a declaration that it was an "egregious mistake" to think the English contemplated a blockade.[^30]
The treaty between the United States and China was signed at the village of Wanghia (Mong-Ha in Hunter's spelling) at Macao on July 3, 1844, by [[Caleb Cushing]] and [[Qiying]]. Hunter, who dates the signing, described the two signatories as together the end of Old Canton.[^31]
### Opium, Houqua and the Chesapeake in 1840
Hunter records that in 1840 Russell and Company bought the British ship Cambridge, renamed her Chesapeake under the American flag, and loaded her with British goods valued at £150,000 for [[Whampoa]]. On June 22, 1840, as H.M.S. Volage took up a station off [[Chuenpi]], she sailed past it, and she was the last vessel to enter the port.[^32] When the Chinese authorities then sought a large foreign ship to anchor above a raft across the river, they applied to Warren Delano Jr., "the then chief of Russell & Co.," who had never left Canton. The Chesapeake was made over to the mandarins, her American papers were removed, and the officials fitted her out as an auxiliary defence.[^33]
Forbes's account gives the firm a separate position on the opium trade itself. He wrote that between January and July 1840 Russell and Company "controlled considerable operations" for the Canton merchant Houqua, whose shipments were made in the firm's name and were known to the consignees to be for his account. When it became certain that the English government would make stringent demands on China, it was "arranged to buy all this property amounting to millions, and account to him for the returns," so that the shipments could not be seized in England, and the firm took its usual commission.[^34] He also wrote that the firm considered it important to keep a pledge made by John Cleve Green and that it had nothing to do with opium "between 1840 and 1844," a period he placed outside his own tenure.[^35] Forbes also wrote about the money. He said the price of the surrendered drug was contested, one side arguing that it had cost $400 or $500 a chest and the other that it sold for $250 or $300 at the time of seizure.[^35] He wrote that "most of the smaller holders of scrip were great losers, and that the large agents, who sold mostly on commission, turned their attention to speculation in scrip and in the drug itself, and made large fortunes."[^35] He also wrote that he sent out the schooner Anglona for Russell and Company in early 1841, and that she raced the Ariel from Macao Roads round Lintin.[^36] Hunter, for his part, records that Houqua liked to compare himself with "that famous house" with which, through Russell and Company, he had had years of important business. Hunter's footnote identifies the phrase "Ba-Blo" as Baring Brothers & Co.[^37]
The city of Canton was ransomed in 1841, after Sir [[Hugh Gough]]'s British forces took the heights above it. Hunter gives the ransom as six million dollars, five million of which were paid on the 31st, and the Hong merchants contributed two million dollars toward it, of which Houqua gave 1,100,000.[^38] For Houqua's share, Captain Elliot received three promissory notes drawn by Russell and Company at thirty days in favour of Houqua, who endorsed them to Elliot's order. The notes, for 400,000, 400,000 and 300,000 dollars, were deposited for collection with [[Jardine, Matheson and Company]] and [[Dent and Company]], and Russell and Company had moved its own office to Macao.[^37] Hunter writes: "At this time the last-named house held about two and a half millions of dollars belonging to their constituent, the endorser." The sentence follows his statement that the offices of Jardine, Matheson and Company, Dent and Company and Russell and Company had been removed to Macao, and he says the notes were cashed, less a discount of a little under a thousand dollars.[^37]
### Railroads and the partners' American institutions
Several of the partners turned to American railroads and institutions in the next decades. The editor of John Murray Forbes's letters, his daughter [[Sarah Forbes Hughes]], writes that for the ten years before 1856 his business in ships and merchandise had been "gradually decreasing," that his work was "mainly devoted to the Michigan Central," and to the enterprise already, in 1856, known by its permanent title of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, and that the ocean telegraph "was soon to do away with the old-fashioned China merchant."[^39] She quotes his notes that he was "undoubtedly very busy with the Michigan Central Railroad, and also with the small roads which then formed the embryo of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy."[^40] The two roads are the [[Michigan Central Railroad]] and the [[Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad]].
In 1857 the Michigan Central was in trouble. Forbes was called up from [[Naushon]] in October and asked to go to [[London]] to raise a loan of two million dollars, which the editor says might have prevented the railroad's bankruptcy.[^41] The letters print a resolution of the directors of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, dated October 18, 1898, which records their sorrow at Forbes's death.[^42] In the second volume he is described as chairman of the board of that road, with his cousin C. E. Perkins managing it.[^43]
Samuel Russell turned to American investment after he returned to Middletown in 1831. The Library of Congress finding aid says that he founded the [[Russell Manufacturing Company]] for elastic webbing and that his real estate speculation reached [[Chicago]], [[Milwaukee]], and land in Michigan, [[Ohio]], [[Kentucky]], and [[New Jersey]].[^44] Of the later partners, the [[Landmarks Preservation Commission]] designation report for the [[Low Memorial Library]] at [[Columbia University]], given by [[Seth Low]] in honor of his father Abiel Abbot Low, says that the elder Low was a prominent tea merchant in the China trade who established an import business in 1849 and was associated with the construction of the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad and the founding of [[Newport News, Virginia]].[^45] The Trustee minutes of [[Princeton University]] record that John Cleve Green gave $200,000 for the School of Science on September 20, 1872; the John C. Green School of Science was occupied in 1874 and destroyed by fire on November 26 and 27, 1928.[^46] The university's museum reference entry on Green says that by the time President McCosh retired in 1888 Green and his residuary legatees had contributed "upwards of a million and a half, perhaps two million dollars," and describes his China fortune as derived from tea and textiles and, after the end of the East India Company's monopoly, from the opium trade, enhanced by railroad investments.[^47]
### The Delano family
The Franklin D. Roosevelt Library finding aid for the Delano family papers says that Warren Delano II sailed to China in 1833 as supercargo on the Commerce, became associated at Canton with Russell Sturgis and Company, and in January 1840 became a partner in Russell and Company. During the [[Opium War]] he remained in Canton and [[Macao]] and served as acting consul. The panic of 1857 brought severe losses, and in 1859 he returned to China to restore his fortune. His family, including the president's mother, joined him at [[Hong Kong]] in 1862, and he died at his house [[Algonac]] on January 17, 1898.[^7] The finding aid states that the papers include material on the history of Russell and Company's financial interests in China.[^7]
Forbes's memoir records the terms of a later reorganization of the house in 1846, under which "W. Delano was to retire after a time" and [[Edward Delano]] remained a partner.[^48] The memoir adds that Edward Delano returned home in 1846.[^49]
### William Huntington Russell and the Russell name at Yale
[[Franklin Bowditch Dexter]]'s biographical sketches of Yale graduates give Matthew Talcott Russell as the second son of Rev. Noadiah Russell, Yale 1750, born in 1761. He settled as a lawyer in Middletown in 1786, served sixteen years as city treasurer, and in 1797 married Mary, eldest daughter of Rev. [[Enoch Huntington]] of Middletown. The sketch says their children were seven daughters and six sons, and that "The fifth son was graduated here in 1833."[^11] The Yale obituary record gives William Huntington Russell as the son of Matthew Talcott Russell (Yale 1779) and Mary Huntington Russell, born in Middletown on August 12, 1809.[^12]
The 1856 act incorporating the [[Russell Trust Association]], the trust through which Skull and Bones conducts its corporate affairs, names William H. Russell, [[John S. Beach]], [[Henry B. Harrison]], [[Daniel C. Gilman]], [[Henry T. Blake]] and [[Henry D. White]] as its first incorporators.[^50] A letter to the [[Yale Alumni Magazine]] by [[Bruce L. Reynolds]] in 2015 attributed the money for the society's 1856 building to Russell and Company, citing [[James Bradley]]'s book on the China trade.[^51]
### Failure and closing
The Library of Congress holds records dated 1812 to 1894, chiefly from 1819 to 1840, which were given to the library by [[Thomas Macdonough Russell]] in 1931.[^3] The Baker Library records of the firm are dated 1820 to 1891, and the Baker Library's Forbes family business records include papers on the creation of the Shanghai Navigation Company, a steamboat company on the Yangtze River.[^2]
The second volume of the Forbes letters describes the last years of John Murray Forbes, who died in 1898. The editor, Sarah Forbes Hughes, writes that he was grieved by "the failure of his old house in China, Russell & Co., occasioned by some speculations in steamers and the close competition by German commission merchants." She adds that his friends, the "time-honored" Baring Brothers, had suspended payment, and that these events gave him "an actual physical shock."[^43] A footnote to that passage prints Forbes's letter of 1859 to the managers of the firm, which argued that its commission business alone could yield $200,000 a year net on a capital of $2,000,000, and that speculations of any sort would damage that capital.[^52]
The [[Hong Kong Daily Press]] of July 22, 1891 reported a petition in bankruptcy before the Acting Chief Justice, E. J. Ackroyd. A Canton merchant petitioned "for the adjudication in bankruptcy" of W. H. Forbes, J. M. Forbes, A. W. Pomeroy, Chas. V. Smith and C. A. Tomes, "trading under the style of Russell & Co. at Hongkong and elsewhere." The petitioner's claim was for $1,044, and the court made an order adjudicating all the debtors bankrupts.[^53] The index to the Forbes letters lists J. Malcolm Forbes and William Hathaway Forbes as sons of John Murray Forbes; the records found do not establish whether they are the W. H. Forbes and J. M. Forbes named in the petition.[^54] On September 1, 1891 the Supreme Court of Hong Kong heard an application in a suit by No Chi Kiu and four others against Ng Woon Soon and others, which the report described as "a case arising out of the How Qua property and the failure of Messrs. Russell & Co." Counsel read an affidavit stating that Russell and Company became insolvent in June, that Hong Kong lots formerly registered in the Land Office as the property of John Murray Forbes junior had been registered in the name of a trustee for the creditors of Russell and Company, that an equitable charge by Russell and Company in favour of John Murray Forbes, trustee for How Qua, secured a sum in taels with interest at seven per cent, and that judgments of about $229,000 had been obtained against the partners in the late firm.[^55]
The [[Hong Kong Telegraph]] of August 31, 1891 printed a letter signed A. B. McKean from the head office of the [[National Bank of China]], Limited, in Hong Kong. It reported that at a statutory meeting of shareholders in London on July 30 "an informal resolution was passed in favor of winding up the Bank," that the bank's articles of association appointed "the late firm of Russell & Co." secretaries of the bank for fifty years on a commission on profits, and that "the failure of Russell & Co. in June, and their consequent inability to carry out their part, cancels this agreement." It stated that "Rumours, absolutely false, have been circulated to the effect that the Bank has sustained heavy losses owing to the failure of Russell & Co." and that counsel's opinion in London was that the resolution of July 30 was not binding on the bank.[^56]
### Footnotes
[^1]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 156-157 (house constitution, the Samuel Russell & Co. dates, the Kee-Chang-Hong name, the phrase on agency business, partner admissions and departures, Delano, Sturgis and Forbes). https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^2]: Heard Library, Baker Library, Harvard Business School, collection guide, "Russell & Company records," Mss:766, 1820-1891, 25 volumes, with the history paragraph on the 1831 merger, the Perkins and Company letter books and the firm's demise in 1891; same guide, Forbes Family business records, Mss:766 1803-1942. https://www.library.hbs.edu/hc/heard/manuscript-collections.html
[^3]: Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, "Russell & Co., Guangzhou, China, Records," MSS38562, finding aid revised February 2024, collection summary, scope and content note, subject index, related material, container list. https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms010075 and https://lccn.loc.gov/mm80038562
[^4]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 150, the Lintin as Russell and Company's "receiving ship" from 1830 and the nine years her anchors were not raised. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^5]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, Connecticut (designated 2001), section 8 statement of significance, pp. 8-11, drawing on Alain Munkittrick, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell (1789-1862): A Study in Ordered Investment," Wesleyan University honors thesis, 1973, which is based on the Russell & Company papers at the Library of Congress. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text
[^6]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 131-132, his plans in 1829-1830 for the command of the Lintin station, arranged with the Perkins family and Bryant and Sturgis, whom he calls "my powerful friends," and the Tartar then on the station. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^7]: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, finding aid for the Delano family papers, biographical introduction to Warren Delano II (1809-1898), pp. 1-2 of the PDF, and the description of the papers. The library's numbering is Warren Delano II; this page uses the name Warren Delano Jr. https://www.fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/findingaid_delanofamily.pdf
[^8]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), p. 223, his partnership in Russell and Company from January 1, 1840 to January 1, 1844 and from January 1, 1849 to January 1, 1857, and his service as vice-consul. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^9]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 122-123, the departure of Mr. Russell and Mr. Cushing from Canton in the Bashaw, February 27, 1831. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^10]: Franklin Bowditch Dexter, *Biographical Sketches of the Graduates of Yale College*, vol. II (1745-1763), sketch of the Rev. William Russell of Middletown, p. 90, born Middletown November 20, 1690, eldest child of the Rev. Noadiah Russell and Mary Hamlin; married Mary Pierpont August 19, 1719; four sons and five daughters, including the Rev. William Russell (Yale 1745) and the Rev. Noadiah Russell (Yale 1750). https://archive.org/details/biographicalsket02dext
[^11]: Franklin Bowditch Dexter, *Biographical Sketches of the Graduates of Yale College*, vol. IV (1778-1792), sketch of Matthew Talcott Russell (Yale 1779), pp. 125-126. https://archive.org/details/biographicalsket04dextuoft
[^12]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale College*, entry for William Huntington Russell, son of Matthew Talcott Russell (Yale 1779) and Mary (Huntington) Russell, born in Middletown, August 12, 1809. https://archive.org/details/1880t90obituary00yaleuoft
[^13]: *The Hamlin Family: A Genealogy of Capt. Giles Hamlin of Middletown, Connecticut, 1654-1900* (1900), entries [302] for Capt. John Russell (pp. 118 to 119), [307] for Matthew Talcott Russell (p. 119) and [638] for Samuel Russell, born at Middletown August 25, 1789, with the descent lines "(John, Samuel, William, Mary Hamlin, Giles)" and "(Noadiah, William, Mary Hamlin, Giles)". https://archive.org/details/hamlinfamilygene00andr
[^14]: Kris Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), opening article ("His cousin Samuel Russell's family enterprise"), pp. 151 to 152 ("General William Huntington Russell, Samuel Russell's cousin"), p. 313 ("Samuel Russell, second cousin to Bones founder William H.") and p. 52 ("drug money provided by his uncle, Samuel Russell"). https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^15]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 118-119, the death of Thomas T. Forbes and S. H. Monson on August 9, 1829, the sealed letter to Russell and Company, Cushing's return in August 1830 and the appointment of Russell and Company as sole agents. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^16]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 1, editor's note on Cushing and the Perkins business at Canton, roughly p. 62. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb
[^17]: Library of Congress finding aid MSS38562, box 9, account books, 1816-1829, with the entry for "Notes on the Chinese Method of Preparing Opium for Smoking." https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms010075
[^18]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 123-124, the voyage to Smyrna fitted out at New York by Sturgis and Perkins to procure Turkey opium for China. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^19]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 124-125, the Smyrna consignment to Joseph Langdon, the Barings credit, the convoy from Vourla under the schooner Porpoise, the passage to Gibraltar, and the brig Leander and Joseph Peabody. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^20]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 142-144, the store-ships at Lintin, the smuggling boats, the mandarin boats, the annual value of the trade, and the government's encouragement of opium from India and Turkey. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^21]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), p. 159, the commission account and gains of the Lintin from January 1 to the closing of the port. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^22]: *The Chinese Repository*, vol. 7, no. 12 (April 1839), "Crisis in the Opium Traffic," the proceedings of March 21, 1839 (letter of the General Chamber of Commerce to the Hong merchants, W. S. Wetmore, chairman) and the edict of April 1, 1839. https://archive.org/details/chineserepositor7121unse
[^23]: *The Chinese Repository*, vol. 8, no. 1 (May 1839), the edict to Elliot, Johnston, Snow and Van Basel and the commissioner's reply on the American consul's declaration. https://archive.org/details/chineserepositor8118unse
[^24]: *Correspondence relating to China*, presented to both Houses of Parliament by command of Her Majesty (London, 1840), enclosure 21 in no. 146, Captain Elliot to the Imperial Commissioner, Canton, March 28, 1839. https://archive.org/details/CorrespondenceRelatingToChina1840
[^25]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 146-147, the surrender of British-owned opium in the name of Queen Victoria, the schedules issued chest by chest, the nominal value of 20,283 chests, the American hong with Mr. P. W. Snow, United States consul, Russell and Company, and Russell, Sturgis and Company, and the strict guard over the foreign community. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^26]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 144, the 15,501 chests given up by May 2, 1839, and the completed total of 20,283 chests on May 21. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^27]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 146, the statement that the Americans had not delivered any American-owned opium and held about fifty cases of Turkey at the time of surrender, and the sentences on the English placing theirs in charge of the American houses and on the share that fell under the control of Russell and Co. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^28]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 145-146 and note 1, the half-commission discussion and the charge foregone on the quantity delivered up by Russell and Company, nearly 15,000 dollars. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^29]: U.S. House of Representatives, 26th Congress, 1st session, H. Doc. 40, "Merchants of the United States at Canton, China. Memorial of R. B. Forbes and others," January 9, 1840, referred to the Committee on Foreign Affairs (U.S. Serial Set vol. 364), pp. 1-4, with the signatures dated Canton, May 25, 1839. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/SERIALSET-00364_00_00-030-0040-0000
[^30]: *The Chinese Repository*, vol. 9, no. 1 (May 1840), the petition of American houses at Canton dated April 25, 1840 and the commissioner's reply. https://archive.org/details/chineserepositor9118unse
[^31]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 154-155, the treaty of the United States signed at Mong-Ha (Macao) on July 3, 1844 by Mr. Caleb Cushing and Ke-Ying. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^32]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 147, the purchase of the Cambridge, her renaming as the Chesapeake under the American flag, the British cargo, the sailing past the blockade station on June 22, 1840, and her arrival as the last vessel to enter the port. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^33]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), p. 147, the application to Mr. Delano, "the then chief of Russell & Co.," the sale of the Chesapeake to the mandarins and her fitting out as an auxiliary defence. https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^34]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 161-162, the operations controlled for Houqua between January and July 1840, the purchase of the shipments to prevent their seizure in England, the shipments made in the firm's name, and the commission charged. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^35]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), pp. 160-161, the dispute over the price of the surrendered opium ($400 or $500 a chest against $250 or $300 at seizure), the passage on the holders of scrip and the speculators who made large fortunes, and the pledge made by Mr. Green with the statement that the firm had nothing to do with opium between 1840 and 1844. This is Forbes's own account. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^36]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), p. 302, the schooner Anglona sent out in early 1841 for Russell and Company and her race with the Ariel from Macao Roads round Lintin. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^37]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 46-47, the three promissory notes of 400,000, 400,000 and 300,000 dollars drawn by Russell and Company in Houqua's favour, the deposit with Jardine, Matheson and Company and Dent and Company, the sentence beginning "At this time the last-named house," the discount, and Houqua's remark "My all same, 'Ba-Blo.'" https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^38]: W. C. Hunter, *The "Fan Kwae" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825-1844* (London, 1882), pp. 45-46 (the Hong merchants' contribution of 2,000,000 dollars and Houqua's share of 1,100,000 dollars) and p. 150 (the ransom of six million dollars, five million paid on the 31st). https://archive.org/details/fankwaeatcanton00huntgoog
[^39]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 1, p. 160, the editor's text on John Murray Forbes's business in the 1850s, the Michigan Central, the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy and the ocean telegraph. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb
[^40]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 1, p. 138, quoting Forbes's notes. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb
[^41]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 1, pp. 168-169, the October loan request in London to prevent the Michigan Central's bankruptcy during the crisis of 1857. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect01forb
[^42]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 2, Appendix A, resolution of the board of directors of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, October 18, 1898. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect02forb
[^43]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 2, pp. 224-225, the editor's account of the chairmanship of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy board, C. E. Perkins, the failure of Russell and Company and the suspension of Baring Brothers and Company. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect02forb
[^44]: Library of Congress finding aid MSS38562, scope and content note on Samuel Russell (1789 to circa 1862) of Middletown, the Greek Revival mansion letters of 1827-1830, the Russell Manufacturing Company, the 1831 return to Middletown, and the land speculation subjects. https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms010075
[^45]: New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission, Designation List 139, LP-1118, "Low Memorial Library Interior," February 3, 1981, history of the donor. https://s-media.nyc.gov/agencies/lpc/lp/1118.pdf
[^46]: Princetoniana Museum, The Trustees of Princeton University, reference entry "John C. Green School of Science," citing Trustee Minutes of September 20, 1872, with the dates of occupancy (1874) and destruction by fire (November 26-27, 1928). https://www.princetonianamuseum.org/reference/5ef15e9b-6369-491c-a2e0-cc20b816db83
[^47]: Princetoniana Museum, The Trustees of Princeton University, reference entry "John C. Green," including President McCosh's farewell report of 1888. https://princetonianamuseum.org/reference/b5388d91-1efc-4e01-ace3-3b5d7a6e3774
[^48]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), p. 168, the 1846 reorganization terms under which W. Delano was to retire and Edward Delano was to remain a partner. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^49]: Robert Bennet Forbes, *Personal Reminiscences* (1882), p. 355, the return of Edward Delano in 1846. https://archive.org/details/personalreminis01forbgoog
[^50]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, certified copies (March 28, 2001) of "An Act incorporating Russell Trust Association" (1856), resolution amending the charter (July 1870), and resolution confirming the by-laws (approved March 24, 1887). The act names William H. Russell, John S. Beach, Henry B. Harrison, Daniel C. Gilman, Henry T. Blake and Henry D. White as the body corporate, with the power of the General Assembly to amend or repeal it.
[^51]: Bruce L. Reynolds '66, letter, "More secrets of the Tomb," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, responding to the May/June 2015 article, citing James Bradley, *The China Mirage* (Little, Brown, 2015). The passage is the letter writer's account. https://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4127-more-secrets-of-the-tomb
[^52]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 2, p. 225 and note 1, Forbes's letter of 1859 to the managers of Russell and Company. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect02forb
[^53]: *Hong Kong Daily Press*, July 22, 1891, p. 2, "In Bankruptcy," before Mr. E. J. Ackroyd, Acting Chief Justice. https://archive.org/details/NPDP18910722
[^54]: Sarah Forbes Hughes, ed., *Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes* (Boston, 1899), vol. 2, index, p. 244, entries for J. Malcolm Forbes and William Hathaway Forbes, sons of J. M. F. https://archive.org/details/lettersrecollect02forb
[^55]: *Hong Kong Daily Press*, September 2, 1891, p. 2, Supreme Court, 1st September, before Sir James Russell, Chief Justice, No Chi Kiu and four others v. Ng Woon Soon, Creasy Ewens and Ng Chau Fong. https://archive.org/details/NPDP18910902
[^56]: *Hong Kong Telegraph*, August 31, 1891, p. 3, letter to the editor from the head office of the National Bank of China, Limited, signed A. B. McKean. https://archive.org/details/NPTG18910831

285
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Skull and Bones.md
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@ -31,62 +31,73 @@ relations:
with: "[[George H.W. Bush]]"
reverse: true
role: "member, Class of 1948"
fn: 37
fn: 48
- type: member_of
with: "[[George W. Bush]]"
reverse: true
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with: "[[McGeorge Bundy]]"
reverse: true
role: "member, Class of 1940"
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with: "[[Prescott Bush]]"
reverse: true
role: "member, Class of 1917"
fn: 31
fn: 41
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with: "[[E. Roland Harriman]]"
reverse: true
role: "member, Class of 1917"
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fn: 41
- type: member_of
with: "[[W. Averell Harriman]]"
reverse: true
role: "member, Class of 1913"
fn: 30
fn: 40
- type: member_of
with: "[[Henry L. Stimson]]"
reverse: true
role: "member, Class of 1888"
fn: 26
fn: 36
- type: member_of
with: "[[F. Trubee Davison]]"
reverse: true
role: "member, Class of 1918"
fn: 55
fn: 69
- type: member_of
with: "[[Payne Whitney]]"
reverse: true
role: "B.A. 1898"
fn: 73
- type: member_of
with: "[[Henry Luce]]"
reverse: true
role: "member, Class of 1920"
fn: 42
fn: 53
- type: member_of
with: "[[William F. Buckley Jr.]]"
reverse: true
role: "member, Class of 1950"
fn: 45
fn: 58
- type: member_of
with: "[[John Kerry]]"
reverse: true
role: "member, Class of 1966"
fn: 49
fn: 62
- type: founded
with: "[[William Huntington Russell]]"
reverse: true
start: "1832"
fn: 1
- type: head_of
with: "[[William Huntington Russell]]"
reverse: true
start: 1856
role: "president of the Russell Trust Association"
fn: 16
- type: founded
with: "[[Alphonso Taft]]"
reverse: true
@ -98,174 +109,214 @@ Skull and Bones is a senior society at [[Yale University]] in [[New Haven, Conne
### Founding and the tomb
[[David A. Richards]] wrote in the [[Yale Alumni Magazine]] in May and June 2015 that "The society had been founded in 1832."[^1] Richards wrote that the conception "seems to have been that of the 1833 valedictorian, class orator, and secretary of [[Phi Beta Kappa]], William Huntington Russell," and named [[Alphonso Taft]], father of [[William Howard Taft]], as a cofounder.[^1] He wrote that the members first called their club the Eulogian Club, and that a skull and crossbones over the number 322, on a meeting notice posted by one member in the first year, gave the society its name and badge.[^1] Graduate members are called patriarchs and initiates are called knights.[^1]
[[David A. Richards]] wrote in the [[Yale Alumni Magazine]] in May and June 2015 that "The society had been founded in 1832."[^1] Richards wrote that the conception "seems to have been that of the 1833 valedictorian, class orator, and secretary of [[Phi Beta Kappa]], [[William Huntington Russell]]," and named [[Alphonso Taft]], father of [[William Howard Taft]], as a cofounder.[^1] He wrote that the members first called their club the Eulogian Club, and that a skull and crossbones over the number 322, on a meeting notice posted by one member in the first year, gave the society its name and badge.[^1] Graduate members are called patriarchs and initiates are called knights.[^1]
[[Antony C. Sutton]] dated the founding to 1833. His chart is titled "Hypothesis Number One: A Secret Society Dominated By Old Line American Families And New Wealth Has Existed From 1833 To The Present Day."[^2] Sutton wrote that the American chapter "was founded in 1833 at Yale University by General William Huntington Russell and Alphonso Taft."[^3]
Before 1856 the society met in a low-studded back room on the third floor of the building opposite the college yard that became the [[Courant building]].[^4] Richards wrote that the alumni built a hall on High Street in 1856, near the corner of [[Chapel Street]]. The name "Tomb" attached to it at that time, and Richards wrote that "a tomb is what it resembled": "a single forbidding, windowless block in Egypto-Doric style."[^1] Its cost was later estimated at about $30,000.[^1] A nineteenth-century description of the building, reprinted by Sutton, gives its iron doors, its roof plates of 1867 and the value of the premises as "upwards of $30,000."[^5]
Bagg wrote in *Four Years at Yale* (1871) that the modern society system at Yale "began in 1832 when a strictly senior society called 'Skull and Bones' was established," and that "The society was originated in 1832 by fifteen members of the class which graduated the following year. General Russell, the valedictorian of that class, is its reputed founder, and the best known of his associates is Judge Alphonso Taft of Cincinnati. Some injustice in the conferring of Phi Beta Kappa elections seems to have led to its establishment, and apparently it was for some time regarded throughout college as a sort of burlesque convivial club."[^4] Bagg wrote that "the popular college tradition, that it was transplanted from a German university, is scouted by old neutral graduates as absurd," that the faculty once broke in on a meeting and was persuaded to spare the society "by the intercessions and explanations of its founder, then serving as tutor among them," and that the members knew the society as "Eulogia," or the "Eulogian Club."[^4] He noted that the society's catalogue places the founders in the "third decade of the second period," which "may seem to make in favor of the German university theory, in the minds of many," and that "the blank space in place of the eleventh man's name in the list of the founders, may perhaps be thought a straw in the same direction."[^4]
The catalogue of the Connecticut Alpha chapter of Phi Beta Kappa (August 1838) lists six of the fourteen names in the Skull and Bones roster for 1833 as members of the class: John Campbell Beach, Noah Bishop, Robert Robertson, William Huntington Russell, Alphonso Taft and George Ingersoll Wood. It names "William H. Russell, M.D." as the chapter's corresponding secretary for 1837 and 1838.[^5]
An anonymous pamphlet on the 1876 break-in at the hall, which Sutton reprints, names the founder as "General R[...] (Russell)" and states that he "was in Germany before Senior Year and formed a warm friendship with a leading member of a German society. He brought back with him to college, authority to found a chapter here."[^6] Sutton's comment on the pamphlet is that the society "is not American at all. It is a branch of a FOREIGN secret society."[^6]
The Yale Obituary Record gives the degree of Alphonso Taft as B.A. 1833, with service as a tutor at Yale from 1835 to 1837 and as a member of the Yale Corporation from 1872 to 1882.[^7]
Before 1856 the society met in a low-studded back room on the third floor of the building opposite the college yard that became the [[Courant building]].[^8] Richards wrote that the alumni built a hall on High Street in 1856, near the corner of [[Chapel Street]]. The name "Tomb" attached to it at that time, and Richards wrote that "a tomb is what it resembled": "a single forbidding, windowless block in Egypto-Doric style."[^1] Its cost was later estimated at about $30,000.[^1] [[Lyman Bagg]]'s description of the building in *[[Four Years at Yale]]* (1871), which Sutton reprints in an appendix, gives its iron doors, its roof plates of 1867 and the value of the premises as "upwards of $30,000."[^9]
The Yale obituary record and Franklin Bowditch Dexter's sketches of Yale graduates give the family of William Huntington Russell. He was the son of Matthew Talcott Russell (Yale 1779), a Middletown lawyer who served sixteen years as city treasurer, and of Mary Huntington Russell, eldest daughter of Rev. Enoch Huntington of Middletown.[^10][^11] Dexter wrote that the couple had seven daughters and six sons and that "The fifth son was graduated here in 1833."[^10] [[Samuel Russell]] (1789 to 1862), who founded [[Russell and Company]] at Canton, was a Middletown Russell of the same colonial family. The Hamlin genealogy of 1900 records Samuel Russell, born at Middletown on August 25, 1789, and William Huntington Russell as second cousins, both descended from William Russell, a son of the Rev. [[Noadiah Russell]] (1659 to 1713), one of the founders of Yale College.[^12] The National Historic Landmark nomination for Samuel Russell's house traces him through Noadiah Russell and the Rev. William Russell (born 1690) to his grandfather Captain Samuel Russell (born 1727) and his father Captain John Russell (1765 to 1801), and records that Jeremiah Wadsworth, the Commissary General, was his great uncle by marriage to the Rev. William Russell's daughter Mehitable.[^13] The Yale sketch of the Rev. William Russell lists the Rev. Noadiah Russell (Yale 1750), the father of Matthew Talcott Russell, among his sons.[^14] Millegan calls Samuel Russell William Huntington Russell's cousin in two passages, his second cousin in a third and his uncle in a fourth.[^15]
### The 1856 charter and RTA Incorporated
Richards wrote: "The first step was to incorporate the club in the State of Connecticut as a trust; they called it the Russell Trust Association." The purpose, in his account, was to let "a proper corporation" hold "fee-simple title" to the building.[^1] Sutton states that the Order "was incorporated as The Russell Trust in 1856," and writes that [[Daniel C. Gilman]] became treasurer of the association and Russell its president; Gilman was assistant librarian at Yale in the fall of 1856 and was appointed librarian in 1858.[^6]
Richards wrote: "The first step was to incorporate the club in the State of Connecticut as a trust; they called it the Russell Trust Association." The purpose, in his account, was to let "a proper corporation" hold "fee-simple title" to the building.[^1] Sutton states that the Order "was incorporated as The Russell Trust in 1856," and writes that [[Daniel C. Gilman]] became treasurer of the association and Russell its president; Gilman was assistant librarian at Yale in the fall of 1856 and was appointed librarian in 1858.[^16]
The special act of the General Assembly, a certified copy of which the Connecticut Secretary of the State issued on March 28, 2001, resolved that William H. Russell, [[John S. Beach]], [[Henry B. Harrison]], Daniel C. Gilman, [[Henry T. Blake]] and [[Henry D. White]], "and all such other persons as may be from time to time associated with them," were constituted "a body corporate and politic" under the name of the Russell Trust Association, "for the purpose of the intellectual and moral improvement of its members, and for that only." The act capped the real and personal estate the association could hold at fifteen thousand dollars, fixed its first meeting at New Haven on the last Wednesday of July 1856, and reserved to the General Assembly the power to alter, amend or repeal it.[^7] A resolution approved in July 1870 amended the charter to raise the ceiling on the property the association could hold. A resolution approved on March 24, 1887 validated a meeting held in November 1885 and the by-laws adopted there. An act approved on July 9, 1943 raised the ceiling to seven hundred thousand dollars; the members accepted it unanimously at New Haven on November 12, 1943, and the certificate was sworn by [[Morris Hadley]] as president.[^7] Sutton's index lists Hadley under the class of 1916.[^8]
The special act of the General Assembly, a certified copy of which the Connecticut Secretary of the State issued on March 28, 2001, resolved that William H. Russell, [[John S. Beach]], [[Henry B. Harrison]], Daniel C. Gilman, [[Henry T. Blake]] and [[Henry D. White]], "and all such other persons as may be from time to time associated with them," were constituted "a body corporate and politic" under the name of the Russell Trust Association, "for the purpose of the intellectual and moral improvement of its members, and for that only." The act capped the real and personal estate the association could hold at fifteen thousand dollars, fixed its first meeting at New Haven on the last Wednesday of July 1856, and reserved to the General Assembly the power to alter, amend or repeal it.[^17] A resolution approved in July 1870 amended the charter to raise the ceiling on the property the association could hold to three hundred and fifty thousand dollars. A resolution approved on March 24, 1887 validated a meeting held in November 1885 and the by-laws adopted there. An act approved on July 9, 1943 raised the ceiling to seven hundred thousand dollars; the members accepted it unanimously at New Haven on November 12, 1943, and the certificate was sworn by [[Morris Hadley]] as president.[^17] Sutton's index lists Hadley under the class of 1916.[^18] Bagg listed the same names with their class years and wrote that "the first of whom has since acted as president, the one next to the last as treasurer, of the association"; the next-to-last name in the act is Henry D. White, and Sutton wrote that Gilman became treasurer.[^4]
On April 14, 1961 the Connecticut registry shows the incorporation of RTA Incorporated, a nonstock corporation.[^9] Its certificate of incorporation states that it is formed "for exclusively educational purposes," including the intellectual and moral improvement of its members and "the support of education at Yale University." All members of the Russell Trust Association became members of the new corporation, together with undergraduates at Yale elected under its by-laws; the activities of the corporation were to be managed by a board of six directors, two elected each year. On dissolution, the assets after the payment of lawful claims were to "be paid to Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, to be by it used for its general educational purposes."[^10] The oath on the certificate was sworn by Henry B. Van Sinderen, John W. Hincks, Howard S. Weaver, H. P. Baldwin Terry and Sidney Lovett. The same names appear in Sutton's index of members, under the classes of 1911, 1952, 1948, 1935 and 1950.[^10][^11]
On April 14, 1961 the Connecticut registry shows the incorporation of RTA Incorporated, a nonstock corporation.[^19] Its certificate of incorporation states that it is formed "for exclusively educational purposes," including the intellectual and moral improvement of its members and "the support of education at Yale University." All members of the Russell Trust Association became members of the new corporation, together with undergraduates at Yale elected under its by-laws; the activities of the corporation were to be managed by a board of six directors, two elected each year. On dissolution, the assets after the payment of lawful claims were to "be paid to Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, to be by it used for its general educational purposes."[^20] The oath on the certificate was sworn by Henry B. Van Sinderen, John W. Hincks, Howard S. Weaver, H. P. Baldwin Terry and Sidney Lovett. The same names appear in Sutton's index of members, under the classes of 1911, 1952, 1948, 1935 and 1950.[^20][^21]
The October 1983 membership catalogue that Sutton reproduces tells members to send corrections and changes of address to the secretary of RTA Incorporated at a post office box in Yale Station, New Haven.[^12] In November 1983 the members voted an amending certificate that increased the board from six to eight directors (nine when the term of the president would otherwise have expired), lengthened terms to four years, let the president continue as a director, and deleted the section of the 1961 certificate that required a two-thirds vote of members for fundamental changes. The certificate records 35 members as the quorum, 71 present in person or by proxy and 48 as the vote required.[^13] [[Kris Millegan]], who reprinted the filings, quoted the New Haven Register of September 27, 1991 as reporting that "almost 700 of the club's approximately 800 surviving members narrowly voted to admit women."[^14] [[Ron Rosenbaum]] reported in [[Esquire]] in 1977 that when a class of the 1970s proposed tapping Yale women, the officers of the Russell Trust Association threatened to bar that class from the tomb and change the locks.[^15]
The October 1983 membership catalogue that Sutton reproduces tells members to send corrections and changes of address to the secretary of RTA Incorporated at a post office box in Yale Station, New Haven.[^22] In November 1983 the members voted an amending certificate that increased the board from six to eight directors (nine when the term of the president would otherwise have expired), lengthened terms to four years, let the president continue as a director, and deleted the section of the 1961 certificate that required a two-thirds vote of members for fundamental changes. The certificate records 35 members as the quorum, 71 present in person or by proxy and 48 as the vote required.[^23] [[Kris Millegan]], who reprinted the filings, quoted the New Haven Register of September 27, 1991 as reporting that "almost 700 of the club's approximately 800 surviving members narrowly voted to admit women."[^24] [[Ron Rosenbaum]] reported in [[Esquire]] in 1977 that when a class of the 1970s proposed tapping Yale women, the officers of the Russell Trust Association threatened to bar that class from the tomb and change the locks.[^25]
The Connecticut business registry lists "RUSSELL TRUST ASSOCIATION, THE" as a domestic business of the type "Special Chartered," with status "Active" and account number 0269315. It lists RTA INCORPORATED as an active nonstock corporation, account number 0059060, registered on April 14, 1961, with a billing address at 64 High Street in New Haven and a post office box in the 06520 postal district.[^9]
The Connecticut business registry lists "RUSSELL TRUST ASSOCIATION, THE" as a domestic business of the type "Special Chartered," with status "Active" and account number 0269315. It lists RTA INCORPORATED as an active nonstock corporation, account number 0059060, registered on April 14, 1961, with a billing address at 64 High Street in New Haven and a post office box in the 06520 postal district.[^19]
Sutton wrote that "the Russell Trust Association is run entirely by Patriarchs," and that the organization, both as the association and as the Deer Iland Corporation, is "essentially geared towards the post graduation world."[^16] Rosenbaum wrote that the [[File and Claw]] break-in pamphlet was among the papers he found in a box in the manuscript room of the [[Yale University Library|Yale library]], filed "under Skull and Bones's corporate name, Russell Trust Association."[^15] Sutton lists three nineteenth-century publications about the society: the student paper The Iconoclast, published October 13, 1873; an anonymous pamphlet on an 1876 break-in at the society's hall; and an anonymous satire titled The Order, The Fall of Skull and Bones (New Haven, 1876).[^17] He wrote that the [[Sterling Memorial Library]] at Yale, which has "major holdings" of the society's records, had refused researchers further access to "Russell Trust papers."[^18]
Sutton wrote that "the Russell Trust Association is run entirely by Patriarchs," and that the organization, both as the association and as the Deer Iland Corporation, is "essentially geared towards the post graduation world."[^26] Rosenbaum wrote that the [[File and Claw]] break-in pamphlet was among the papers he found in a box in the manuscript room of the [[Yale University Library|Yale library]], filed "under Skull and Bones's corporate name, Russell Trust Association."[^25] Sutton lists three nineteenth-century publications about the society: the student paper The Iconoclast, published October 13, 1873; an anonymous pamphlet on an 1876 break-in at the society's hall; and an anonymous satire titled The Order, The Fall of Skull and Bones (New Haven, 1876).[^27] He wrote that the [[Sterling Memorial Library]] at Yale, which has "major holdings" of the society's records, had refused researchers further access to "Russell Trust papers."[^28]
### Finances and the island
The Internal Revenue Service lists RTA Incorporated (employer identification number 06-0768741, post office box in New Haven) as a section 501(c)(3) organization with a ruling date of February 1966.[^19] Its annual return for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021 gives its mission as "To provide structured programs of intellectual inquiry, sensitivity training and personal development for students of Yale University focusing on topics of intellectual, political or cultural importance." The return describes the corporation as a Type III functionally integrated supporting organization under section 509(a)(3), with Yale University as the one supported organization; states that the organization has members who vote for the board; reports 13 officers and directors, ten of them voting; and reports four employees and twenty volunteers. Of total expenses of $575,657, occupancy accounted for $199,381 and conferences and meetings for $74,195.[^20] Its Schedule R lists the Deer Island Club, a post office box in [[Alexandria Bay, New York]], as a related organization with the activity "Social Club" under section 501(c)(7).[^20]
The Internal Revenue Service lists RTA Incorporated (employer identification number 06-0768741, post office box in New Haven) as a section 501(c)(3) organization with a ruling date of February 1966.[^29] Its annual return for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021 gives its mission as "To provide structured programs of intellectual inquiry, sensitivity training and personal development for students of Yale University focusing on topics of intellectual, political or cultural importance." The return describes the corporation as a Type III functionally integrated supporting organization under section 509(a)(3), with Yale University as the one supported organization; states that the organization has members who vote for the board; reports 13 officers and directors, ten of them voting; and reports four employees and twenty volunteers. Of total expenses of $575,657, occupancy accounted for $199,381 and conferences and meetings for $74,195.[^30] Its Schedule R lists the Deer Island Club, a post office box in [[Alexandria Bay, New York]], as a related organization with the activity "Social Club" under section 501(c)(7).[^30]
The Internal Revenue Service return data for fiscal years ending in June show the following. In fiscal 2011, total assets of $4,229,513. In fiscal 2017, total assets of $3,906,458, with contributions of $163,612. In fiscal 2018, contributions of $5,133,725 and total assets of $8,922,229. In fiscal 2019, contributions of $5,061,958 and total assets of $13,791,929. In fiscal 2021, contributions of $693,165 and total assets of $16,127,481. In fiscal 2022, total assets of $17,182,221, and in fiscal 2023, $17,146,085. The 2025 entry in the exempt-organization master file lists assets of $17,071,890.[^19][^21]
The Internal Revenue Service return data for fiscal years ending in June show the following. In fiscal 2011, total assets of $4,229,513. In fiscal 2017, total assets of $3,906,458, with contributions of $163,612. In fiscal 2018, contributions of $5,133,725 and total assets of $8,922,229. In fiscal 2019, contributions of $5,061,958 and total assets of $13,791,929. In fiscal 2021, contributions of $693,165 and total assets of $16,127,481. In fiscal 2022, total assets of $17,182,221, and in fiscal 2023, $17,146,085. The 2025 entry in the exempt-organization master file lists assets of $17,071,890.[^29][^31]
Millegan wrote in 2003, from the corporation's returns of the preceding years, that investment earnings were sometimes over $400,000 a year, that the corporation reported $4,000 to $10,000 a year as "rental of facility for educational programs" for the island, that it spent about $50,000 a year on conferences, conventions and meetings and renovation costs of more than a quarter of a million dollars in 1998, and that its only charitable gifts in the returns he read were $5,000 to the Yale scholarship fund in each of 1999 and 2000. He wrote that contributions fell from $164,000 in 1997.[^14] Rosenbaum reported in 1977, citing "one source," that each initiate received "a no-strings, tax-free gift of $15,000 from the Russell Trust Association."[^15] [[Jacques Leslie]], a Yale student of the class of 1968 who was asked to join the society, wrote in [[Salon]] in March 2000 that students heard rumors that the society's assets made it "the largest corporation in Connecticut," and that each member was guaranteed a lifetime annual stipend of $20,000. Leslie added: "Nobody knew whether the rumors were true."[^22] Rosenbaum wrote that one could ask [[J. Richardson Dilworth]], "the Bonesman who now manages the Rockefeller fortune," "just how wealthy the Bones society is and whether it's true that each new initiate gets a no-strings gift of fifteen thousand dollars cash and guaranteed financial security for life."[^15]
Millegan wrote in 2003, from the corporation's returns of the preceding years, that investment earnings were sometimes over $400,000 a year, that the corporation reported $4,000 to $10,000 a year as "rental of facility for educational programs" for the island, that it spent about $50,000 a year on conferences, conventions and meetings and renovation costs of more than a quarter of a million dollars in 1998, and that its only charitable gifts in the returns he read were $5,000 to the Yale scholarship fund in each of 1999 and 2000. He wrote that contributions fell from $164,000 in 1997.[^24] Rosenbaum reported in 1977, citing "one source," that each initiate received "a no-strings, tax-free gift of $15,000 from the Russell Trust Association."[^25] [[Jacques Leslie]], a Yale student of the class of 1968 who was asked to join the society, wrote in [[Salon]] in March 2000 that students heard rumors that the society's assets made it "the largest corporation in Connecticut," and that each member was guaranteed a lifetime annual stipend of $20,000. Leslie added: "Nobody knew whether the rumors were true."[^32] Rosenbaum wrote that one could ask [[J. Richardson Dilworth]], "the Bonesman who now manages the Rockefeller fortune," "just how wealthy the Bones society is and whether it's true that each new initiate gets a no-strings gift of fifteen thousand dollars cash and guaranteed financial security for life."[^25]
Sutton writes that the society meets once a year, with patriarchs only, on [[Deer Island]] in the St. Lawrence River at Alexandria Bay, where the [[Deer Iland Club]] operates; the island was donated in 1906 by George Douglas Miller (listed in Sutton's index under the class of 1870), and the club was established in 1907.[^23] Rosenbaum described it as a "private resort island owned and maintained by the Russell Trust Association."[^15] The Connecticut registry lists the Deer Island Club Corporation as an active nonstock corporation, account number 0053733, registered and organized on February 20, 1907, with its billing address in care of the New Haven law firm [[Wiggin & Dana]]; it lists a separate specially chartered nonstock corporation, The Deer Island Association, registered on May 19, 1915 (account number 0269028).[^9]
Sutton writes that the society meets once a year, with patriarchs only, on [[Deer Island]] in the St. Lawrence River at Alexandria Bay, where the [[Deer Iland Club]] operates; the island was donated in 1906 by George Douglas Miller (listed in Sutton's index under the class of 1870), and the club was established in 1907.[^33] Rosenbaum described it as a "private resort island owned and maintained by the Russell Trust Association."[^25] The Connecticut registry lists the Deer Island Club Corporation as an active nonstock corporation, account number 0053733, registered and organized on February 20, 1907, with its billing address in care of the New Haven law firm [[Wiggin & Dana]]; it lists a separate specially chartered nonstock corporation, The Deer Island Association, registered on May 19, 1915 (account number 0269028).[^19]
### Membership in government, intelligence and finance
Sutton reproduces entries from a 1971 membership catalogue and an index of members arranged by class year.[^24] The class years below come from that index unless another source is cited. Printed records of the period give the same affiliations for several members, as noted.
Sutton reproduces entries from a 1971 membership catalogue and an index of members arranged by class year.[^34] The class years below come from that index unless another source is cited. Printed records of the period give the same affiliations for several members, as noted.
[[Henry L. Stimson]] is listed under the class of 1888.[^25] A 1897 catalogue of the Phillips Academy society H.A.E. lists his Yale degree of 1888 with Skull and Bones among his Yale societies.[^26] The Yale Obituary Record for 1950 to 1951 lists among his undergraduate honors "He Boule, Psi Upsilon, Skull and Bones, Chi Delta Theta, Phi Beta Kappa."[^27] Rosenbaum named Stimson among the members in 1977.[^15] Leslie also named Stimson, as a member of the class of 1888.[^22] Sutton writes that Stimson married Mabel White, the daughter of Charles A. White, a member of the society, and that Stimson "proved he was capable in the law." When William Howard Taft, also a member, was looking for a Secretary of War in 1911, Sutton writes, he appointed Stimson.[^28] William Howard Taft is listed under the class of 1878.[^29] Sutton also gives Alphonso Taft's tenure as Secretary of War in 1876, under President Grant.[^3]
The Yale Obituary Record for 1929 to 1930 lists among William Howard Taft's undergraduate societies "Linonia, Delta Kappa, Phi Theta Psi, He Boule, Psi Upsilon, Skull and Bones, and Phi Beta Kappa."[^7]
[[W. Averell Harriman]] is listed under the class of 1913, and [[E. Roland Harriman]], his brother, under the class of 1917.[^30] The class history of 1917 prints Edward Roland Noel Harriman's biographical entry with the statement that he is "a member of Psi Upsilon and Skull and Bones."[^31] Rosenbaum named Averell Harriman among the members in 1977.[^15] Sutton writes that Harriman and his fellow investment bankers "have dominated the direction of The Order."[^32] E. Roland Harriman appears in the [[Union Banking Corporation]] record discussed below.[^33] Sutton wrote that the Harriman brothers and two other members, [[Ellery Sedgwick James|E.S. James]] and [[Knight Woolley]], "through the Union Bank (in which they held a major interest) were prime financial backers of Hitler."[^34] The same class history prints entries for William Ellery Sedgwick James and Knight Woolley that state membership in Skull and Bones, as it does for Prescott Sheldon Bush and [[Neil Mallon|Henry Neil Mallon]].[^31]
[[Henry L. Stimson]] is listed under the class of 1888.[^35] A 1897 catalogue of the Phillips Academy society H.A.E. lists his Yale degree of 1888 with Skull and Bones among his Yale societies.[^36] The Yale Obituary Record for 1950 to 1951 lists among his undergraduate honors "He Boule, Psi Upsilon, Skull and Bones, Chi Delta Theta, Phi Beta Kappa."[^37] Rosenbaum named Stimson among the members in 1977.[^25] Leslie also named Stimson, as a member of the class of 1888.[^32] Sutton writes that Stimson married Mabel White, the daughter of Charles A. White, a member of the society, and that Stimson "proved he was capable in the law." When William Howard Taft, also a member, was looking for a Secretary of War in 1911, Sutton writes, he appointed Stimson.[^38] William Howard Taft is listed under the class of 1878.[^39] Sutton also gives Alphonso Taft's tenure as Secretary of War in 1876, under President Grant.[^3]
[[Prescott Bush]] is listed under the class of 1917. The class history of 1917 states of him: "He belongs to the Whiffenpoofs, Psi Upsilon, and Skull and Bones."[^31] The 1971 entry in Sutton's catalogue gives his offices as Yale Corporation member from 1944 to 1958, United States Senator from Connecticut from 1952 to 1963, and former partner of [[Brown Brothers Harriman]].[^35] [[Anthony L. Kimery]]'s article in the CIA reading room states that Prescott Bush and a Yale classmate named Mallon were "Yale classmates and initiates of Skull and Bones," and describes Prescott Bush as "a managing partner of Brown Brothers Harriman and major benefactor of Yale."[^36] Kimery wrote that Mallon, as longtime chairman of the board of Dresser Industries, "personally offered Bush the IDECO job," and that Mallon "steered prospective candidates for spy work to Dulles and often provided cover employment to CIA operatives."[^36]
[[W. Averell Harriman]] is listed under the class of 1913, and [[E. Roland Harriman]], his brother, under the class of 1917.[^40] The class history of 1917 prints Edward Roland Noel Harriman's biographical entry with the statement that he is "a member of Psi Upsilon and Skull and Bones."[^41] Rosenbaum named Averell Harriman among the members in 1977.[^25] Sutton writes that Harriman and his fellow investment bankers "have dominated the direction of The Order."[^42] E. Roland Harriman appears in the [[Union Banking Corporation]] record discussed below.[^43] Sutton wrote that the Harriman brothers and two other members, [[Ellery Sedgwick James|E.S. James]] and [[Knight Woolley]], "through the Union Bank (in which they held a major interest) were prime financial backers of Hitler."[^44] The same class history prints entries for William Ellery Sedgwick James and Knight Woolley that state membership in Skull and Bones, as it does for Prescott Sheldon Bush and [[Neil Mallon|Henry Neil Mallon]].[^41] The 1979 company history of Dresser Industries by [[Darwin Payne]] states that Harriman, Bush, Woolley and Mallon had been fellow members of the society.[^45]
On October 20, 1942 the [[Alien Property Custodian]], [[Leo T. Crowley]], signed Vesting Order No. 248 concerning the Union Banking Corporation, a New York corporation. The order vested "all of the capital stock" of the corporation, 4,000 shares of $100 par value, held for the benefit of [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]] of Rotterdam, which the order describes as "owned or controlled by members of the [[Thyssen family]], nationals of Germany and/or Hungary." The registered owners were E. Roland Harriman (3,991 shares), [[Cornelius Lievense]] (4), [[Harold D. Pennington]] (1), [[Ray Morris]] (1), Prescott S. Bush (1), [[H. J. Kouwenhoven]] (1) and [[Johann G. Groeninger]] (1). The order was published in the [[Federal Register]] on November 7, 1942.[^33]
[[Prescott Bush]] is listed under the class of 1917. The class history of 1917 states of him: "He belongs to the Whiffenpoofs, Psi Upsilon, and Skull and Bones."[^41] The 1971 entry in Sutton's catalogue gives his offices as Yale Corporation member from 1944 to 1958, United States Senator from Connecticut from 1952 to 1963, and former partner of [[Brown Brothers Harriman]].[^46] [[Anthony L. Kimery]]'s article in the CIA reading room states that Prescott Bush and a Yale classmate named Mallon were "Yale classmates and initiates of Skull and Bones," and describes Prescott Bush as "a managing partner of Brown Brothers Harriman and major benefactor of Yale."[^47] Kimery wrote that Mallon, as longtime chairman of the board of Dresser Industries, "personally offered Bush the IDECO job," and that Mallon "steered prospective candidates for spy work to Dulles and often provided cover employment to CIA operatives."[^47]
[[George H.W. Bush]] is listed under the class of 1948, and [[George W. Bush]] under the class of 1968.[^37] The index also lists [[Jonathan James Bush]] under the class of 1953.[^38] The 1971 entry for George H.W. Bush gives his service as a United States congressman from 1966 to 1970, and the entry for George W. Bush gives his service as a lieutenant and pilot in the United States Air Force from June 1968 to June 1970.[^39] Kimery writes that George H.W. Bush joined the society in his junior year.[^36]
On October 20, 1942 the [[Alien Property Custodian]], [[Leo T. Crowley]], signed Vesting Order No. 248 concerning the Union Banking Corporation, a New York corporation. The order vested "all of the capital stock" of the corporation, 4,000 shares of $100 par value, held for the benefit of [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]] of Rotterdam, which the order describes as "owned or controlled by members of the [[Thyssen family]], nationals of Germany and/or Hungary." The registered owners were E. Roland Harriman (3,991 shares), [[Cornelius Lievense]] (4), [[Harold D. Pennington]] (1), [[Ray Morris]] (1), Prescott S. Bush (1), [[H. J. Kouwenhoven]] (1) and [[Johann G. Groeninger]] (1). The order was published in the [[Federal Register]] on November 7, 1942.[^43]
[[Robert A. Lovett]] is listed under the class of 1918.[^40] Sutton writes that Judge Robert Scott Lovett, a friend and attorney of [[E. H. Harriman]] and general counsel for the [[Union Pacific Railroad]], handled $250,000 that Harriman gave the [[Republican National Committee]] in 1904 after a request from President [[Theodore Roosevelt]], citing [[George Kennan]]'s biography of Harriman. Sutton writes that the judge's son, Robert Abercrombie Lovett, went to Yale and was initiated with the two Harriman brothers.[^41]
[[George H.W. Bush]] is listed under the class of 1948, and [[George W. Bush]] under the class of 1968.[^48] The index also lists [[Jonathan James Bush]] under the class of 1953.[^49] The 1971 entry for George H.W. Bush gives his service as a United States congressman from 1966 to 1970, and the entry for George W. Bush gives his service as a lieutenant and pilot in the United States Air Force from June 1968 to June 1970.[^50] Kimery writes that George H.W. Bush joined the society in his junior year.[^47]
[[Henry Luce]] is listed under the class of 1920.[^42] Rosenbaum named Luce among the members in 1977, together with Averell Harriman and Stimson.[^15] Leslie named Luce as well.[^22]
[[Robert A. Lovett]] is listed under the class of 1918.[^51] Sutton writes that Judge Robert Scott Lovett, a friend and attorney of [[E. H. Harriman]] and general counsel for the [[Union Pacific Railroad]], handled $250,000 that Harriman gave the [[Republican National Committee]] in 1904 after a request from President [[Theodore Roosevelt]], citing [[George Kennan]]'s biography of Harriman. Sutton writes that the judge's son, Robert Abercrombie Lovett, went to Yale and was initiated with the two Harriman brothers.[^52]
[[William P. Bundy]] is listed under the class of 1939, and [[McGeorge Bundy]] under the class of 1940.[^43] Sutton writes that William P. Bundy held key positions in government while his brother McGeorge was in the White House. Sutton presents the brothers' positions as a possible control of the information reaching the President on Vietnam, and writes: "We are not saying this happened. We believe it to be a hypothesis worthy of examination."[^44]
[[Henry Luce]] is listed under the class of 1920.[^53] Rosenbaum named Luce among the members in 1977, together with Averell Harriman and Stimson.[^25] Leslie named Luce as well.[^32] Sutton's name index lists fourteen members of the class of 1920, among them "Hadden, Briton" and "Luce, Henry Robinson."[^54] [[Briton Hadden]] co-founded [[Time Inc.]] with Luce in 1923. The Harvard Crimson of May 16, 1919 printed a special dispatch from New Haven dated May 15 listing the men elected to Skull and Bones: DeForest Van Slyck, James McHenry, Joseph Weir Sargent, L. G. Adams, Daniel R. Winter, Henry R. Luce, John M. Hincks, Harry P. Davison, Theodore L. Safford, Morehead Patterson, Briton Hadden, Alfred C. Schermerhorn, Frank P. Hefflefinger, Francis T. Hobson and David L. Ingalls. The same dispatch lists the Scroll and Key and Wolf's Head elections for 1919.[^55]
[[William F. Buckley Jr.]] is listed under the class of 1950.[^45] [[William Sloane Coffin]] is listed under the class of 1949.[^46] An FBI memorandum of October 20, 1950 records that Buckley "graduated at Yale in 1950, and was chairman of" the [[Yale Daily News]].[^47] [[Potter Stewart]] is listed under the class of 1937, and Rosenbaum named him among the members in 1977.[^48] [[John Kerry|John Forbes Kerry]] is listed under the class of 1966.[^49] [[Archibald MacLeish]] is listed under the class of 1915 and [[Richard A. Moore]] under the class of 1936.[^50] The Library of Congress lists MacLeish as Librarian of Congress from 1939.[^51] Sutton wrote that the constitution of [[UNESCO]] "was written largely by The Order, i.e., member Archibald MacLeish."[^52]
[[William P. Bundy]] is listed under the class of 1939, and [[McGeorge Bundy]] under the class of 1940.[^56] Sutton writes that William P. Bundy held key positions in government while his brother McGeorge was in the White House. Sutton presents the brothers' positions as a possible control of the information reaching the President on Vietnam, and writes: "We are not saying this happened. We believe it to be a hypothesis worthy of examination."[^57]
[[Percy Avery Rockefeller]] is listed under the class of 1900.[^53] [[Harry Payne Whitney]] is listed under the class of 1894.[^54] Sutton's chart places the Payne family and the [[Rockefeller family]] under [[Standard Oil]], and the Davison family under [[J. P. Morgan]].[^24]
[[William F. Buckley Jr.]] is listed under the class of 1950.[^58] [[William Sloane Coffin]] is listed under the class of 1949.[^59] An FBI memorandum of October 20, 1950 records that Buckley "graduated at Yale in 1950, and was chairman of" the [[Yale Daily News]].[^60] [[Potter Stewart]] is listed under the class of 1937, and Rosenbaum named him among the members in 1977.[^61] [[John Kerry|John Forbes Kerry]] is listed under the class of 1966.[^62] [[Archibald MacLeish]] is listed under the class of 1915 and [[Richard A. Moore]] under the class of 1936.[^63] The Library of Congress lists MacLeish as Librarian of Congress from 1939.[^64] Sutton wrote that the constitution of [[UNESCO]] "was written largely by The Order, i.e., member Archibald MacLeish."[^65]
[[Percy Avery Rockefeller]] is listed under the class of 1900.[^66] [[Harry Payne Whitney]] is listed under the class of 1894.[^67] [[Payne Whitney]] is listed under the class of 1898; Sutton's text gives the two brothers as 1894 and 1898, and his chart table prints the years in reverse.[^68] Sutton's chart places the Payne family and the [[Rockefeller family]] under [[Standard Oil]], and the Davison family under [[J. P. Morgan]].[^34]
### The Yale Unit and the Central Intelligence Agency
The Yale Alumni Magazine reported in 2006 that [[F. Trubee Davison]] co-founded the Yale aviation group that grew into the first squadron of the Naval Air Reserve, and that of the two dozen Yale students he recruited before the United States entered the war, five were Bonesmen. Davison crashed during a training flight and was disabled for life; the magazine reported that while he recovered at home, fellow members wrote to him about candidates for membership, initiations abroad and other society business, and that the yearbook entries for Davison, [[Winter Mead]] and [[Charles C. Haffner Jr.]] confirmed that each was a member.[^55] Sutton's index lists Davison under the class of 1918.[^56]
The Yale Alumni Magazine reported in 2006 that [[F. Trubee Davison]] co-founded the Yale aviation group that grew into the first squadron of the Naval Air Reserve, and that of the two dozen Yale students he recruited before the United States entered the war, five were Bonesmen. Davison crashed during a training flight and was disabled for life; the magazine reported that while he recovered at home, fellow members wrote to him about candidates for membership, initiations abroad and other society business, and that the yearbook entries for Davison, [[Winter Mead]] and [[Charles C. Haffner Jr.]] confirmed that each was a member.[^69] Sutton's index lists Davison under the class of 1918.[^70] The Air Force biography dates the crash to July 28, 1917, over Huntington Bay, New York, and Ralph D. Paine's 1925 history records that the injury was a fractured vertebra with injury to the spinal cord.[^71]
An Associated Press item in the CIA reading room reports that "Brig. Gen. Trubee Davison, former Assistant Secretary of War for Air," would join the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] on July 16, 1951, as "a principal assistant" to [[Walter Bedell Smith]], and that he "probably would do personnel work." The item adds that Davison had been president of the [[American Museum of Natural History]] since 1933 and assistant chief of the Army Air Force air staff during part of World War II.[^57] A memorandum of September 11, 1951 from Davison to the Deputy Director of Central Intelligence appears on a routing slip addressed to the Assistant Director (Personnel).[^58] The Covert Action Information Bulletin reported in 1990, citing the New York Times of July 5, 1951, that Davison was the CIA's Director of Personnel in 1951, and that two of his sons, [[Endicott Peabody Davison]] and [[Daniel Pomeroy Davison]], were also Bonesmen.[^59]
The Yale News account of the First Yale Unit states that on April 19, 1917, Tap Day in New Haven, two representatives from Yale arrived in Florida, where the unit was training, to tap students at noon. Davison was the first tapped for the society, and eleven other members of the unit were tapped with him.[^72]
The same article in the Covert Action Information Bulletin listed other members it connected to intelligence work. It reported that [[Hugh Cunningham]], of the class of 1934, a Rhodes Scholar, served in the CIA from 1947 to 1973 in positions that included the Board of National Estimates and the Director of Training from 1969 to 1973, citing Victor Marchetti and John D. Marks.[^59] CIA documents released to the reading room name Hugh T. Cunningham as Director of Training in 1968, 1969 and 1972.[^60] Sutton's index lists a Hugh Terry Cunningham under the class of 1934.[^61] The article reported that William P. Bundy began in the [[Office of Strategic Services]] during World War II and worked at the CIA from 1951 to 1961, including the Office of National Estimates; that [[Dino Pionzio]], of the class of 1950, was CIA deputy chief of station in [[Santiago]], [[Chile]] in 1970 and later a vice president at [[Dillon, Read & Co.]]; and that Richard A. Moore served as a special assistant to the chief of military intelligence in World War II and later as special assistant to President [[Richard Nixon]].[^59] Sutton's index lists Dino John Pionzio under the class of 1950.[^62]
The Yale Obituary Record for Payne Whitney, B.A. 1898, who died on May 25, 1927, lists "Skull and Bones" among his undergraduate activities.[^73] A Yale Obituary Record entry for a member of the Yale Aviation Corps says the corps was "formed by Payne Whitney, '98, in June, 1916," and that Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 1 was organized by Davison.[^74]
Rosenbaum wrote in 1977 that "Bill Bundy or Bill Buckley, both of whom went into the C.I.A. after leaving Bones," could be asked whether Skull and Bones was useful training for "the clandestine trade," and that George Bush "ran the C.I.A."[^63] He wrote that Coffin "headed for the C.I.A. not long after graduation from Bones," and that "the man Coffin tapped for Bones, William F. Buckley Jr., was himself tapped by the C.I.A. the following year."[^63] The Covert Action Information Bulletin reported that, according to "several experts on the CIA," Buckley began cooperating with the Agency in [[Mexico City]] in 1952, where his friend [[Howard Hunt|E. Howard Hunt]] was station chief, and that his older brother [[James L. Buckley]], also a member in the bulletin's account, was Under Secretary of State for Security Assistance, Science and Technology in 1981 and 1982. It cited Donald Freed and Fred Landis, *Death in Washington* (1980), for the statement that on September 14, 1976, a week before the assassination of [[Orlando Letelier]], [[Michael Townley]] and [[Guillermo Novo]] visited Senator Buckley's office in New York.[^59]
An Associated Press item in the CIA reading room reports that "Brig. Gen. Trubee Davison, former Assistant Secretary of War for Air," would join the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] on July 16, 1951, as "a principal assistant" to [[Walter Bedell Smith]], and that he "probably would do personnel work." The item adds that Davison had been president of the [[American Museum of Natural History]] since 1933 and assistant chief of the Army Air Force air staff during part of World War II.[^75] A memorandum of September 11, 1951 from Davison to the Deputy Director of Central Intelligence appears on a routing slip addressed to the Assistant Director (Personnel).[^76] The Covert Action Information Bulletin reported in 1990, citing the New York Times of July 5, 1951, that Davison was the CIA's Director of Personnel in 1951, and that two of his sons, [[Endicott Peabody Davison]] and [[Daniel Pomeroy Davison]], were also Bonesmen.[^77] The New York Times obituary of November 16, 1974 states that he left the post the following April, when it was announced that he had completed his mission of organizing the personnel of the Agency; CIA committee minutes of October 1951 and January 1952 list him as Assistant Director for Personnel and chairman of the Career Service Committee.[^78]
Kimery's article cites [[Robin W. Winks]]'s account of Yale's ties to the intelligence services and quotes Winks that Yale "influenced the CIA more than any other institution."[^36]
The same article in the Covert Action Information Bulletin listed other members it connected to intelligence work. It reported that [[Hugh Cunningham]], of the class of 1934, a Rhodes Scholar, served in the CIA from 1947 to 1973 in positions that included the Board of National Estimates and the Director of Training from 1969 to 1973, citing Victor Marchetti and John D. Marks.[^77] CIA documents released to the reading room name Hugh T. Cunningham as Director of Training in 1968, 1969 and 1972.[^79] Sutton's index lists a Hugh Terry Cunningham under the class of 1934.[^80] The article reported that William P. Bundy began in the [[Office of Strategic Services]] during World War II and worked at the CIA from 1951 to 1961, including the Office of National Estimates; that [[Dino Pionzio]], of the class of 1950, was CIA deputy chief of station in [[Santiago]], [[Chile]] in 1970 and later a vice president at [[Dillon, Read & Co.]]; and that Richard A. Moore served as a special assistant to the chief of military intelligence in World War II and later as special assistant to President [[Richard Nixon]].[^77] Sutton's index lists Dino John Pionzio under the class of 1950.[^81]
Rosenbaum wrote in 1977 that "Bill Bundy or Bill Buckley, both of whom went into the C.I.A. after leaving Bones," could be asked whether Skull and Bones was useful training for "the clandestine trade," and that George Bush "ran the C.I.A."[^82] He wrote that Coffin "headed for the C.I.A. not long after graduation from Bones," and that "the man Coffin tapped for Bones, William F. Buckley Jr., was himself tapped by the C.I.A. the following year."[^82] The Covert Action Information Bulletin reported that, according to "several experts on the CIA," Buckley began cooperating with the Agency in [[Mexico City]] in 1952, where his friend [[Howard Hunt|E. Howard Hunt]] was station chief, and that his older brother [[James L. Buckley]], also a member in the bulletin's account, was Under Secretary of State for Security Assistance, Science and Technology in 1981 and 1982. It cited Donald Freed and Fred Landis, *Death in Washington* (1980), for the statement that on September 14, 1976, a week before the assassination of [[Orlando Letelier]], [[Michael Townley]] and [[Guillermo Novo]] visited Senator Buckley's office in New York.[^77]
Kimery's article cites [[Robin W. Winks]]'s account of Yale's ties to the intelligence services and quotes Winks that Yale "influenced the CIA more than any other institution."[^47]
### Communications
Sutton wrote that the society had "a significant penetration into communications," and gave as its first example that "Henry Luce of Time-Life is in The Order."[^83]
### Sutton's hypothesis
Sutton's book, first published in 1983 as [[America's Secret Establishment]], sets out three hypotheses. The first is that "a secret society comprising members of old line American families and representatives of financial power" has existed since 1833.[^3] The chart renders the hypothesis visually, placing "THE ORDER" at the center of a wheel of families.[^24]
Sutton's book, first published in 1983 as [[America's Secret Establishment]], sets out three hypotheses. The first is that "a secret society comprising members of old line American families and representatives of financial power" has existed since 1833.[^3] The chart renders the hypothesis visually, placing "THE ORDER" at the center of a wheel of families.[^34]
The chart gives settlement dates for the old-line families: Whitney (1635, [[Watertown, Massachusetts]]), Stimson (1635, Watertown), Perkins (1631, [[Boston]]), Taft (1679, [[Braintree, Massachusetts|Braintree]]), Phelps (1630, [[Dorchester, Massachusetts|Dorchester]]), Bundy (1635, Boston), Wadsworth (1632, [[Newtown, Massachusetts|Newtown]]), Lord (1635, [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]]) and Gilman (1638, [[Hingham, Massachusetts|Hingham]]).[^24] The chart's new-wealth families are the Rockefeller and Payne families (Standard Oil), the Harriman family (railroads), the Davison family (J. P. Morgan), the Weyerhaeuser family (lumber), the Pillsbury family (flour milling) and the Sloane family (retail).[^24]
The chart gives settlement dates for the old-line families: Whitney (1635, [[Watertown, Massachusetts]]), Stimson (1635, Watertown), Perkins (1631, [[Boston]]), Taft (1679, [[Braintree, Massachusetts|Braintree]]), Phelps (1630, [[Dorchester, Massachusetts|Dorchester]]), Bundy (1635, Boston), Wadsworth (1632, [[Newtown, Massachusetts|Newtown]]), Lord (1635, [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]]) and Gilman (1638, [[Hingham, Massachusetts|Hingham]]).[^34] The chart's new-wealth families are the Rockefeller and Payne families (Standard Oil), the Harriman family (railroads), the Davison family (J. P. Morgan), the Weyerhaeuser family (lumber), the Pillsbury family (flour milling) and the Sloane family (retail).[^34]
In the text Sutton describes "old line American families who arrived on the East coast in the 1600s, e.g., Whitney, Lord, Phelps, Wadsworth, Allen, Bundy, Adams and so on," and "families who acquired wealth in the last 100 years, sent their sons to Yale and in time became almost old line families, e.g., Harriman, Rockefeller, Payne, Davison."[^3] He adds that "Some families, like the Whitneys, were Connecticut Yankees and acquired wealth in the nineteenth century."[^3] Sutton writes that active members "have enough influence to push their sons and relatives into The Order," and that there is "significant inter-marriage among the families."[^3]
### Other writers
Jacques Leslie's 2000 article in Salon named [[John Hersey]] and William Sloane Coffin among the members, along with Stimson, Stewart, Harriman and Luce. Leslie also recounted [[Bill Minutaglio]]'s biography of George W. Bush, which records that Bush considered joining a society called "Gin and Tonic" and was swayed when his father, then a congressman, conducted the tapping himself.[^22]
Jacques Leslie's 2000 article in Salon named [[John Hersey]] and William Sloane Coffin among the members, along with Stimson, Stewart, Harriman and Luce. Leslie also recounted [[Bill Minutaglio]]'s biography of George W. Bush, which records that Bush considered joining a society called "Gin and Tonic" and was swayed when his father, then a congressman, conducted the tapping himself.[^32]
[[Alexandra Robbins]] published [[Secrets of the Tomb]] in 2002, with the subtitle "Skull and Bones, the Ivy League, and the Hidden Paths of Power."[^64]
[[Alexandra Robbins]] published [[Secrets of the Tomb]] in 2002, with the subtitle "Skull and Bones, the Ivy League, and the Hidden Paths of Power."[^84]
Millegan issued [[Fleshing Out Skull & Bones]] through [[Trine Day]] in 2003. The book includes a chapter titled "Geronimo's Bones" by [[Howard Altman]], dated July 2003, and Millegan's own chapter on RTA Incorporated, with certified copies of the corporation's filings.[^65][^14]
Millegan issued [[Fleshing Out Skull & Bones]] through [[Trine Day]] in 2003. The book includes a chapter titled "Geronimo's Bones" by [[Howard Altman]], dated July 2003, and Millegan's own chapter on RTA Incorporated, with certified copies of the corporation's filings.[^24][^85]
### The Geronimo skull claim
The George H.W. Bush Presidential Library's file FOIA 2009-0116-F describes its contents as records "related to the Skull and Bones Society at Yale University, of which George H. W. Bush and his father Prescott Bush were both members."[^66] The file contains correspondence from President Bush to William F. Buckley Jr. and [[Thomas W. Ludlow Ashley]] about a Buckley article in [[National Review]], which had answered [[Pat Buchanan]]'s description of Bush's foreign policy as "Skull and Bones foreign policy" in the 1992 campaign. It also contains administrative forms for a Skull and Bones tea at the White House on October 20, 1989.[^66] The library's description states that "Several of the articles address the rumor that Prescott Bush and a group of Skull and Bones members had disinterred and taken Apache leader [[Geronimo]]'s skull."[^66]
The George H.W. Bush Presidential Library's file FOIA 2009-0116-F describes its contents as records "related to the Skull and Bones Society at Yale University, of which George H. W. Bush and his father Prescott Bush were both members."[^86] The file contains correspondence from President Bush to William F. Buckley Jr. and [[Thomas W. Ludlow Ashley]] about a Buckley article in [[National Review]], which had answered [[Pat Buchanan]]'s description of Bush's foreign policy as "Skull and Bones foreign policy" in the 1992 campaign. It also contains administrative forms for a Skull and Bones tea at the White House on October 20, 1989.[^86] The library's description states that "Several of the articles address the rumor that Prescott Bush and a group of Skull and Bones members had disinterred and taken Apache leader [[Geronimo]]'s skull."[^86]
The Yale Alumni Magazine reported in May 2006 that [[Marc Wortman]], researching Davison's war years in the F. Trubee Davison Papers at Sterling Memorial Library, found a letter of June 7, 1918 from Winter Mead '19 to Davison '18, about an exhumation at [[Fort Sill]], Oklahoma. It reads (with the magazine's expansions of the letter's abbreviations): "The skull of the worthy Geronimo the Terrible, exhumed from its tomb at Fort Sill by your club & the K[night] Haffner, is now safe inside the T[omb] together with his well worn femurs[,] bit & saddle horn." The magazine reported that Haffner's yearbook entry places him at the artillery school at Fort Sill between August 1917 and July 1918, that Mead was not at Fort Sill, and that Judith Schiff, chief research archivist at Sterling, said the letter "adds to the seriousness of the belief" and "has a very strong likelihood of being true, since it was written so close to the time." It reported that the rumor had reached public attention in 1986, when Ned Anderson, then chair of the [[San Carlos Apache Tribe]], received an anonymous letter from a writer who claimed to be a member, with a photograph of a skull in a display case and a copy of what appeared to be a centennial history of the society by [[F. O. Matthiessen]] (class of 1923). In that history, which quotes a society log book of 1919, six members unearthed the skull; the history names three of them, all at Fort Sill in early 1918: Ellery James, Neil Mallon and Prescott Bush, all of the class of 1917. The magazine reported that Anderson met Jonathan Bush '53 and Endicott Peabody Davison '45, who showed a display case containing a skull that they said was a child's and offered it to him; he declined. It also reported that the historian David H. Miller of Cameron University said the grave at Fort Sill was unmarked and overgrown until the 1920s and doubted that the Bonesmen found Geronimo's grave, and that Alexandra Robbins told the magazine that members spoke to her of "a skull in a glass case by the front door that they call Geronimo."[^55] The Yale Alumni Magazine also reported that Ron Rosenbaum, in 2001, recorded on videotape what appeared to be an initiation in the society's courtyard in which members carried skulls and "femur-sized bones."[^55]
The Yale Alumni Magazine reported in May 2006 that [[Marc Wortman]], researching Davison's war years in the F. Trubee Davison Papers at Sterling Memorial Library, found a letter of June 7, 1918 from Winter Mead '19 to Davison '18, about an exhumation at [[Fort Sill]], Oklahoma. It reads (with the magazine's expansions of the letter's abbreviations): "The skull of the worthy Geronimo the Terrible, exhumed from its tomb at Fort Sill by your club & the K[night] Haffner, is now safe inside the T[omb] together with his well worn femurs[,] bit & saddle horn." The magazine reported that Haffner's yearbook entry places him at the artillery school at Fort Sill between August 1917 and July 1918, that Mead was not at Fort Sill, and that Judith Schiff, chief research archivist at Sterling, said the letter "adds to the seriousness of the belief" and "has a very strong likelihood of being true, since it was written so close to the time." It reported that the rumor had reached public attention in 1986, when Ned Anderson, then chair of the [[San Carlos Apache Tribe]], received an anonymous letter from a writer who claimed to be a member, with a photograph of a skull in a display case and a copy of what appeared to be a centennial history of the society by [[F. O. Matthiessen]] (class of 1923). In that history, which quotes a society log book of 1919, six members unearthed the skull; the history names three of them, all at Fort Sill in early 1918: Ellery James, Neil Mallon and Prescott Bush, all of the class of 1917. The magazine reported that Anderson met Jonathan Bush '53 and Endicott Peabody Davison '45, who showed a display case containing a skull that they said was a child's and offered it to him; he declined. It also reported that the historian David H. Miller of Cameron University said the grave at Fort Sill was unmarked and overgrown until the 1920s and doubted that the Bonesmen found Geronimo's grave, and that Alexandra Robbins told the magazine that members spoke to her of "a skull in a glass case by the front door that they call Geronimo."[^69] The Yale Alumni Magazine also reported that Ron Rosenbaum, in 2001, recorded on videotape what appeared to be an initiation in the society's courtyard in which members carried skulls and "femur-sized bones."[^69]
Altman's chapter reports that a man who said he was "Geronimo's great-great grandson" came to the [[New Haven Advocate]] office in the late summer of 1989 and described the bones as dug up by Prescott Bush and taken to the society's building.[^65] The chapter's principal source for the claim is Anderson. Anderson told Altman that a former Bonesman, referred to as "Pat," had tipped him off, and that the Bonesman had given him a picture of what Anderson said were Geronimo's bones in New Haven.[^65] Anderson said that the bones were dug up in 1918 by Prescott Bush and others, and that he had arranged a meeting with Jonathan Bush: "Bush was taken aback when confronted with the evidence," Anderson told Altman.[^65] Altman wrote that when he later tracked down Bush, Bush was cordial but would not discuss the meeting.[^65] The [[Mescalero Apache]] leader [[Wendell Chino]], who represented the family, called Anderson's bid to move the remains "a publicity stunt to attract tourists."[^65]
Altman's chapter reports that a man who said he was "Geronimo's great-great grandson" came to the [[New Haven Advocate]] office in the late summer of 1989 and described the bones as dug up by Prescott Bush and taken to the society's building.[^85] The chapter's principal source for the claim is Anderson. Anderson told Altman that a former Bonesman, referred to as "Pat," had tipped him off, and that the Bonesman had given him a picture of what Anderson said were Geronimo's bones in New Haven.[^85] Anderson said that the bones were dug up in 1918 by Prescott Bush and others, and that he had arranged a meeting with Jonathan Bush: "Bush was taken aback when confronted with the evidence," Anderson told Altman.[^85] Altman wrote that when he later tracked down Bush, Bush was cordial but would not discuss the meeting.[^85] The [[Mescalero Apache]] leader [[Wendell Chino]], who represented the family, called Anderson's bid to move the remains "a publicity stunt to attract tourists."[^85]
The complaint in [[Geronimo et al. v. Obama et al.]] was filed in the [[United States District Court for the District of Columbia]] on February 17, 2009, the hundredth anniversary of Geronimo's death.[^67] It was brought by a group of twenty descendants of Geronimo and named [[Barack Obama]], [[Robert M. Gates]], [[Peter Geren]], Yale University and the Order of Skull and Bones as defendants.[^68] The lawyer for the plaintiffs, [[Ramsey Clark]], told the Yale Alumni Magazine that the principal defendant was the United States Army, as owner of Fort Sill, and that the society received one paragraph of the 32-page complaint; a university spokeswoman said that Skull and Bones is not part of the university and is legally independent of it.[^67] The court's account of the complaint states that Geronimo was buried at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, "in the dress of a chief with his possessions," and that "a group of Yale University students who were members of the organization named the Order of Skull and Bones opened the tomb of Geronimo and removed his skull, other bones, and items that were buried with Geronimo's body."[^68]
The complaint in [[Geronimo et al. v. Obama et al.]] was filed in the [[United States District Court for the District of Columbia]] on February 17, 2009, the hundredth anniversary of Geronimo's death.[^87] It was brought by a group of twenty descendants of Geronimo and named [[Barack Obama]], [[Robert M. Gates]], [[Peter Geren]], Yale University and the Order of Skull and Bones as defendants.[^88] The lawyer for the plaintiffs, [[Ramsey Clark]], told the Yale Alumni Magazine that the principal defendant was the United States Army, as owner of Fort Sill, and that the society received one paragraph of the 32-page complaint; a university spokeswoman said that Skull and Bones is not part of the university and is legally independent of it.[^87] The court's account of the complaint states that Geronimo was buried at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, "in the dress of a chief with his possessions," and that "a group of Yale University students who were members of the organization named the Order of Skull and Bones opened the tomb of Geronimo and removed his skull, other bones, and items that were buried with Geronimo's body."[^88]
In its July 27, 2010 memorandum opinion, the court wrote that "the only alleged discovery or wrongful removal described by the complaint occurred in or around 1918." Judge [[Richard W. Roberts]] held that the statute the complaint invoked applies only to discoveries after November 16, 1990, that the alleged 1918 removal fell outside it, and that the United States had not waived sovereign immunity.[^68] The court granted the federal defendants' motion to dismiss and wrote that the complaint "will be dismissed as to all defendants."[^68] Intervenor plaintiffs, who were other lineal descendants of Geronimo, had argued that the gravesite should not be disturbed under Apache custom.[^68]
In its July 27, 2010 memorandum opinion, the court wrote that "the only alleged discovery or wrongful removal described by the complaint occurred in or around 1918." Judge [[Richard W. Roberts]] held that the statute the complaint invoked applies only to discoveries after November 16, 1990, that the alleged 1918 removal fell outside it, and that the United States had not waived sovereign immunity.[^88] The court granted the federal defendants' motion to dismiss and wrote that the complaint "will be dismissed as to all defendants."[^88] Intervenor plaintiffs, who were other lineal descendants of Geronimo, had argued that the gravesite should not be disturbed under Apache custom.[^88]
### The Pancho Villa skull suit
A complaint filed pro se in the [[United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas]], Corpus Christi Division, on October 31, 2017, *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340, named the Russell Trust Association, George H.W. Bush, [[Mitt Romney|Willard Mitt Romney]] and Yale University as defendants. The magistrate judge summarized it: the plaintiff alleged that the society possesses the skull of [[Pancho Villa]], which was stolen from his grave in 1926, that the defendants know of its presence in the society's headquarters on the Yale campus, and that Romney is a member; he asked that the skull be returned so that it could be buried with Villa's body in Mexico City.[^69] On November 13, 2017 the magistrate judge, [[Jason B. Libby]], ordered a more definite statement on the plaintiff's standing and the court's jurisdiction. In a memorandum and recommendation of November 21, 2017 he recommended dismissal for lack of subject matter jurisdiction: the complaint presented no federal question, complete diversity was lacking because the plaintiff, of Corpus Christi, and Bush, of Houston, were citizens of Texas, and no amount in controversy was alleged. None of the defendants had appeared. Judge [[Nelva Gonzales Ramos]] adopted the recommendation and entered final judgment on December 18, 2017; she denied a motion for reconsideration and a request for a refund of the filing fee on January 23, 2018, and the Fifth Circuit dismissed the plaintiff's appeal (No. 18-40008) on February 28, 2018. The docket records the return of service on the Russell Trust Association as executed on December 21, 2017.[^69]
A complaint filed pro se in the [[United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas]], Corpus Christi Division, on October 31, 2017, *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340, named the Russell Trust Association, George H.W. Bush, [[Mitt Romney|Willard Mitt Romney]] and Yale University as defendants. The magistrate judge summarized it: the plaintiff alleged that the society possesses the skull of [[Pancho Villa]], which was stolen from his grave in 1926, that the defendants know of its presence in the society's headquarters on the Yale campus, and that Romney is a member; he asked that the skull be returned so that it could be buried with Villa's body in Mexico City.[^89] On November 13, 2017 the magistrate judge, [[Jason B. Libby]], ordered a more definite statement on the plaintiff's standing and the court's jurisdiction. In a memorandum and recommendation of November 21, 2017 he recommended dismissal for lack of subject matter jurisdiction: the complaint presented no federal question, complete diversity was lacking because the plaintiff, of Corpus Christi, and Bush, of Houston, were citizens of Texas, and no amount in controversy was alleged. None of the defendants had appeared. Judge [[Nelva Gonzales Ramos]] adopted the recommendation and entered final judgment on December 18, 2017; she denied a motion for reconsideration and a request for a refund of the filing fee on January 23, 2018, and the Fifth Circuit dismissed the plaintiff's appeal (No. 18-40008) on February 28, 2018. The docket records the return of service on the Russell Trust Association as executed on December 21, 2017.[^89]
The magistrate judge's memorandum states that "the Russell Trust Association is the governing body of the Society," citing Robbins. It cites the Washington Post of August 11, 1988, which reported that a group of Mexican nationals in El Paso, Texas wished to sue the society in 1988 to reclaim Villa's skull but had difficulty establishing standing, and Mark Singer, "La Cabeza de Villa," The New Yorker, November 27, 1989, and it cites the Geronimo suit as another action over remains attributed to the society.[^69]
The magistrate judge's memorandum states that "the Russell Trust Association is the governing body of the Society," citing Robbins. It cites the Washington Post of August 11, 1988, which reported that a group of Mexican nationals in El Paso, Texas wished to sue the society in 1988 to reclaim Villa's skull but had difficulty establishing standing, and Mark Singer, "La Cabeza de Villa," The New Yorker, November 27, 1989, and it cites the Geronimo suit as another action over remains attributed to the society.[^89]
### Footnotes
[^1]: David A. Richards, "The origins of the tomb," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2015, with editors' note on the author's listing among Skull and Bones members in the Class of 1967 graduation book. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4072-the-origins-of-the-tomb
[^2]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983), chart "Hypothesis Number One," after the text on the three hypotheses. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^3]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), opening chapter and the passage that sets out Hypothesis One, with the old-line and new-wealth families. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^4]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), nineteenth-century description of the hall reprinted in the appendix, passage on the earlier meeting room in the Courant building. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^5]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), appendix, undated nineteenth-century description of the hall, its doors and roof plates and its value. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^6]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passages stating that the Order "was incorporated as The Russell Trust in 1856" and on Daniel C. Gilman's role as treasurer, his appointment as assistant librarian in 1856 and as librarian in 1858. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^7]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, certified copies (March 28, 2001) of "An Act incorporating Russell Trust Association" (1856); resolution amending the charter (July 1870); resolution confirming the by-laws (approved March 24, 1887); and "An Act amending the charter of The Russell Trust Association" (approved July 9, 1943) with the certificate of acceptance of November 12, 1943 sworn by the president and secretary, as reprinted in Kris Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), pp. 694 to 696. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^8]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1916 (Hadley, Morris). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^9]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, Connecticut Business Registry (data.ct.gov dataset n7gp-d28j), business master records for account numbers 0269315 (The Russell Trust Association; Special Chartered; Active), 0059060 (RTA Incorporated; Non-Stock; Active; registered April 14, 1961; organization meeting February 28, 1962; billing street 64 High Street, New Haven), 0053733 (The Deer Island Club Corporation; Non-Stock; Active; registered February 20, 1907) and 0269028 (The Deer Island Association; Non-Stock Specially Chartered; Active; registered May 19, 1915). https://data.ct.gov/resource/n7gp-d28j.json?accountnumber=0059060
[^10]: Certificate of Incorporation of RTA Incorporated (1961), under the Nonstock Corporation Act of Connecticut, sections 3 to 6 and oath of the signers, as reprinted in Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), pp. 697 to 700. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^11]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year: Van Sinderen, Henry B. (1911); Hincks, John Winslow (1952); Terry, Henry Porter Baldwin (1935); Weaver, Howard Sayer (1948); Lovett, Sidney (1950). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^12]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), description of the October 1983 membership catalogue, whose inside title page directs corrections to "The Secretary, RTA Incorporated, P.O. Box 2138, Yale Station, New Haven, Conn. 06520." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^13]: Certificate amending the Certificate of Incorporation of RTA Incorporated (December 1983), with the vote of the members, as reprinted in Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), pp. 701 to 702. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^14]: Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," July 2003, in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), pp. 691 to 693, quoting the New Haven Register, September 27, 1991. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^15]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977
[^16]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), concluding passage on the Russell Trust Association and the Deer Iland Corporation as organizations geared to the post-graduation world. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^17]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), notes on nineteenth-century publications: *The Iconoclast* (New Haven, October 13, 1873); an anonymous *Skull & Bones* pamphlet on the 1876 break-in; *The Order, The Fall of Skull and Bones* (New Haven, 1876). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^18]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on access to the Russell Trust papers at the Sterling Library, Yale University. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^19]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer, organization record for RTA Incorporated, EIN 06-0768741, New Haven, Connecticut (Internal Revenue Service return data, fiscal years 2011 to 2023; ruling date February 1966). https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/60768741
[^20]: RTA Incorporated, IRS Form 990 for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021 (e-file object 202241189349302124), Part I, Part III, Part VI, Part IX, Schedule A (supporting organization, Yale University, EIN 06-0646973), Schedule O and Schedule R (Deer Island Club, EIN 13-1897694). https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/60768741
[^21]: Internal Revenue Service, Exempt Organizations Business Master File extract for Connecticut (eo_ct.csv), entry for RTA Incorporated, EIN 060768741, tax period 2025-06 (asset amount 17,071,890; income amount 2,178,912; revenue amount 808,538). https://www.irs.gov/charities-non-profits/exempt-organizations-business-master-file-extract-eo-bmf
[^22]: Jacques Leslie, "Smirk from the past" ("Yale"), *Salon*, March 1, 2000. https://www.salon.com/2000/03/01/yale/
[^23]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), Deer Iland Club entry (island donated in 1906 by Patriarch George Douglas Miller; club established 1907; 76th season in 1983) and index of members by class year, class of 1870 (Miller, George Douglas). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^24]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), chart of families, October 1983 membership catalogue (living members) and index of members by class year. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^25]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1888 (Stimson, Henry Lewis). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^26]: *A Catalogue of the Members of H. A. E. of Phillips Academy, Andover* (New Haven: T. M. & T. Press, 1897), entry 25, Henry Lewis Stimson ("Yale, 1888, A.B." with the society list that includes Skull and Bones). https://archive.org/details/catalogueofmembe00pial
[^27]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1950-1951 (New Haven: Yale University, 1951), entry "Henry Lewis Stimson, B.A. 1888," p. 11. http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1950-51.pdf
[^28]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on Henry Stimson's career, his marriage to Mabel White and his 1911 appointment. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^29]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1878 (Taft, William Howard). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^30]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1913 (Harriman, William Averell) and class of 1917 (Harriman, Edward Roland N.), and the passage that reads "William Averell Harriman (113) and Edward Roland Noel Harriman (17) joined The Order." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^31]: George Mosher Murray and others, *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. 1 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1917), biographical entries for Prescott Sheldon Bush (pp. 105 to 106), Edward Roland Noel Harriman, William Ellery Sedgwick James, Henry Neil Mallon and Knight Woolley. https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr
[^32]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), chapter on the Harriman family and the investment bankers, passage ending "have dominated the direction of The Order." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^33]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 248 (executed October 20, 1942), 7 Fed. Reg. 9097-9098 (November 7, 1942), F.R. Doc. 42-11568. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf
[^34]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on Averell Harriman, Roland Harriman, E.S. James, Knight Woolley and the Union Bank. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^35]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entry "BUSH, 1917, Prescott S." (Yale Corporation, U.S. Senator, former partner of Brown Brothers Harriman). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^36]: Anthony L. Kimery, "George Bush and the CIA: In the Company of Friends," CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP99-01448R000401570011-0, sections "The Early Years: Waltzing with Spooks" and the passage on Henry Neil Mallon, citing Robin W. Winks, *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* (William Morrow, 1987), ch. 1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401570011-0
[^37]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entries "BUSH, 1948, George Herbert Walker" and "BUSH, 1968" (George Walker Bush), and class index. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^38]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entry "BUSH, 1953, Jonathan James" (investments). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^39]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entries for George Herbert Walker Bush ("U.S. Congressman, '66-70") and George Walker Bush ("Lieut., Pilot, USAF, June '68-June 70"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^40]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1918 (Lovett, Robert Abercrombie), and the passage on the Lovett family ("The Order '18"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^41]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on Judge Robert Scott Lovett, citing George Kennan's biography of E. H. Harriman, and on Robert Abercrombie Lovett's initiation. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^42]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1920 (Luce, Henry Robinson). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^43]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1939 (Bundy, William Putman) and class of 1940 (Bundy, McGeorge). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^44]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on the Bundy brothers and Vietnam, where the book states its own hypothesis. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^45]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1950 (Buckley, William Frank Jr.). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^46]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1949 (Coffin, William S. Jr.). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^47]: FBI headquarters file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 1, memorandum L. B. Nichols to Mr. Tolson, October 20, 1950. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1
[^48]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1937 (Stewart, Potter). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^49]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1966 (Kerry, John Forbes). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^50]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, classes of 1915 (MacLeish, Archibald) and 1936 (Moore, Richard Anthony). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^51]: Library of Congress, "Librarians of Congress" (Archibald MacLeish and Luther Harris Evans, 1939-1953). https://guides.loc.gov/librarians-of-congress
[^52]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), closing section on education, "UNESCO - Constitution, Archibald MacLeish ('15)." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^53]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1900 (Rockefeller, Percy Avery). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^54]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1894 (Whitney, Harry Payne). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^55]: Kathrin Day Lassila and Mark Alden Branch, "Whose Skull and Bones?," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20060614215733/http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/2006_05/notebook.html
[^56]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1918 (Davison, Fredrick Trubee). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^57]: Associated Press item, "F. Trubee Davison to Join CIA in Personnel Post," CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP78-04718A000500180115-2 (released May 10, 2000). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp78-04718a000500180115-2
[^58]: Memorandum from F. Trubee Davison dated September 11, 1951, on CIA Official Routing Slip, CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP80R01731R003100090067-0. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003100090067-0
[^59]: "Bush's Boy's Club: Skull and Bones," *Covert Action Information Bulletin*, no. 33 (Winter 1990), pp. 20 to 22, citing the *New York Times*, July 5, 1951, Marchetti and Marks, *The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence* (1974), pp. 110 to 111, Payne and Dobson, *Who's Who in Espionage* (1984), and Freed and Landis, *Death in Washington* (1980), p. 168. https://archive.org/details/CAIB33
[^60]: CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP84-00780R003200020017-9 (letter of May 15, 1969 signed by Hugh T. Cunningham, Director of Training); CIA-RDP84-00780R003200020006-1 (Midcareer Executive Development Course correspondence, 1968); CIA-RDP80-00536A000300070001-5 (Midcareer Course No. 32, April to June 1972, listing Hugh Cunningham, Director of Training). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-00536a000300070001-5
[^61]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1934 (Cunningham, Hugh Terry). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^62]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1950 (Pionzio, Dino John). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^63]: Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977, passages on the C.I.A. careers of Bill Bundy, Bill Buckley and William Sloane Coffin. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977
[^64]: Alexandra Robbins, *Secrets of the Tomb: Skull and Bones, the Ivy League, and the Hidden Paths of Power* (Little, Brown, 2002). https://archive.org/details/secretsoftombsku00robb
[^65]: Howard Altman, "Geronimo's Bones," in Kris Millegan, *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), pp. 33 to 37. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^66]: George H. W. Bush Presidential Library, "Records on Skull and Bones Society," FOIA 2009-0116-F, scope and content note, processed August 2009. https://www.bush41library.gov/download/file/4777
[^67]: Carole Bass, "Apaches sue to recover Geronimo's skull," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2009. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/2421-apaches-sue-to-recover-geronimo-s-skull
[^68]: *Geronimo et al. v. Obama et al.*, No. 09-303 (RWR) (D.D.C. July 27, 2010), memorandum opinion of Judge Richard W. Roberts, background, discussion and conclusion. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303/pdf/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303-0.pdf
[^69]: *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340 (S.D. Tex.), docket entries 1 (complaint, October 31, 2017), 4 (order for more definite statement, November 13, 2017), 6 (memorandum and recommendation, November 21, 2017, with footnotes 1 to 3), 7 and 8 (order adopting and final judgment, December 18, 2017), 9 (return of service on the Russell Trust Association, executed December 21, 2017), 16 (order of January 23, 2018) and 17 (Fifth Circuit dismissal, February 28, 2018, No. 18-40008). https://archive.org/details/gov.uscourts.txsd.1463674
[^4]: Lyman Bagg, *Four Years at Yale* (New Haven: Henry Holt, 1871), p. 52 ("modern system, which began in 1832"), pp. 145 to 147 (the Russell Trust Association, the society, its founders and catalogue) and p. 153 ("Eulogia"). https://archive.org/details/fouryearsatyale00baggrich
[^5]: *Catalogue of the Connecticut Alpha of the Phi Beta Kappa*, August 1838, officers for 1837-8 and list of members of 1833, compared with the roster of the class of 1833 in Sutton (1983). https://archive.org/details/catalogueofconne00phib
[^6]: Anonymous pamphlet on the 1876 break-in at the hall, as quoted in Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), Memorandum Two, and reprinted in Kris Millegan, *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones ; https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^7]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1929-1930 (New Haven: Yale University, 1930), entry "William Howard Taft, B.A. 1878," pp. 69 to 72, including the entry for his father ("Alphonso Taft (B A. 1833, LL.D. 1867) ... tutor at Yale 1835-37; member of Yale Corporation 1872-1882"). https://web.archive.org/web/2024/http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1929-30.pdf
[^8]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), nineteenth-century description of the hall reprinted in the appendix, passage on the earlier meeting room in the Courant building. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^9]: Lyman Bagg, *Four Years at Yale* (New Haven: Henry Holt, 1871), pp. 145 to 146, description of the hall, its doors and roof plates and its value, reprinted in the appendix to Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983). https://archive.org/details/fouryearsatyale00baggrich
[^10]: Franklin Bowditch Dexter, *Biographical Sketches of the Graduates of Yale College*, vol. IV (1778-1792), sketch of Matthew Talcott Russell (Yale 1779), pp. 125 to 126. https://archive.org/details/biographicalsket04dextuoft
[^11]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University, deceased from June, 1880, to June, 1890*, entry for William Huntington Russell, born in Middletown, August 12, 1809, pp. 241 to 242. https://archive.org/details/1880t90obituary00yaleuoft
[^12]: *The Hamlin Family: A Genealogy of Capt. Giles Hamlin of Middletown, Connecticut, 1654-1900* (1900), entries [302], [307] and [638] (Capt. John Russell; Matthew Talcott Russell; Samuel Russell, born at Middletown August 25, 1789). https://archive.org/details/hamlinfamilygene00andr
[^13]: National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination, "Samuel Wadsworth Russell House," Middletown, section 8, pp. 8-11. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/70000688_text
[^14]: Franklin Bowditch Dexter, *Biographical Sketches of the Graduates of Yale College*, vol. II (1745-1763), sketch of the Rev. William Russell of Middletown, p. 90. https://archive.org/details/biographicalsket02dext
[^15]: Kris Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), opening article and pp. 151 to 152 ("cousin"), p. 313 ("second cousin") and p. 52 ("uncle"). https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^16]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passages stating that the Order "was incorporated as The Russell Trust in 1856" and on Daniel C. Gilman's role as treasurer, his appointment as assistant librarian in 1856 and as librarian in 1858. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^17]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, certified copies (March 28, 2001) of "An Act incorporating Russell Trust Association" (1856); resolution amending the charter (July 1870); resolution confirming the by-laws (approved March 24, 1887); and "An Act amending the charter of The Russell Trust Association" (approved July 9, 1943) with the certificate of acceptance of November 12, 1943 sworn by the president and secretary, as reprinted in Kris Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in Millegan (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), pp. 693 to 696. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^18]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1916 (Hadley, Morris). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^19]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, Connecticut Business Registry (data.ct.gov dataset n7gp-d28j), business master records for account numbers 0269315 (The Russell Trust Association; Special Chartered; Active), 0059060 (RTA Incorporated; Non-Stock; Active; registered April 14, 1961; organization meeting February 28, 1962; billing street 64 High Street, New Haven), 0053733 (The Deer Island Club Corporation; Non-Stock; Active; registered February 20, 1907) and 0269028 (The Deer Island Association; Non-Stock Specially Chartered; Active; registered May 19, 1915). https://data.ct.gov/resource/n7gp-d28j.json?accountnumber=0059060
[^20]: Certificate of Incorporation of RTA Incorporated (1961), under the Nonstock Corporation Act of Connecticut, sections 3 to 6 and oath of the signers, as reprinted in Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), pp. 697 to 700. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^21]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year: Van Sinderen, Henry B. (1911); Hincks, John Winslow (1952); Terry, Henry Porter Baldwin (1935); Weaver, Howard Sayer (1948); Lovett, Sidney (1950). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^22]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), description of the October 1983 membership catalogue, whose inside title page directs corrections to "The Secretary, RTA Incorporated, P.O. Box 2138, Yale Station, New Haven, Conn. 06520." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^23]: Certificate amending the Certificate of Incorporation of RTA Incorporated (December 1983), with the vote of the members, as reprinted in Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), pp. 701 to 702. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^24]: Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," July 2003, in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (2003), pp. 691 to 693, quoting the New Haven Register, September 27, 1991. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^25]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977
[^26]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), concluding passage on the Russell Trust Association and the Deer Iland Corporation as organizations geared to the post-graduation world. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^27]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), notes on nineteenth-century publications: *The Iconoclast* (New Haven, October 13, 1873); an anonymous *Skull & Bones* pamphlet on the 1876 break-in; *The Order, The Fall of Skull and Bones* (New Haven, 1876). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^28]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on access to the Russell Trust papers at the Sterling Library, Yale University. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^29]: ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer, organization record for RTA Incorporated, EIN 06-0768741, New Haven, Connecticut (Internal Revenue Service return data, fiscal years 2011 to 2023; ruling date February 1966). https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/60768741
[^30]: RTA Incorporated, IRS Form 990 for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021 (e-file object 202241189349302124), Part I, Part III, Part VI, Part IX, Schedule A (supporting organization, Yale University, EIN 06-0646973), Schedule O and Schedule R (Deer Island Club, EIN 13-1897694). https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/60768741
[^31]: Internal Revenue Service, Exempt Organizations Business Master File extract for Connecticut (eo_ct.csv), entry for RTA Incorporated, EIN 060768741, tax period 2025-06 (asset amount 17,071,890; income amount 2,178,912; revenue amount 808,538). https://www.irs.gov/charities-non-profits/exempt-organizations-business-master-file-extract-eo-bmf
[^32]: Jacques Leslie, "Smirk from the past" ("Yale"), *Salon*, March 1, 2000. https://www.salon.com/2000/03/01/yale/
[^33]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), Deer Iland Club entry (island donated in 1906 by Patriarch George Douglas Miller; club established 1907; 76th season in 1983) and index of members by class year, class of 1870 (Miller, George Douglas). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^34]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), chart of families, October 1983 membership catalogue (living members) and index of members by class year. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^35]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1888 (Stimson, Henry Lewis). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^36]: *A Catalogue of the Members of H. A. E. of Phillips Academy, Andover* (New Haven: T. M. & T. Press, 1897), entry 25, Henry Lewis Stimson ("Yale, 1888, A.B." with the society list that includes Skull and Bones). https://archive.org/details/catalogueofmembe00pial
[^37]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1950-1951 (New Haven: Yale University, 1951), entry "Henry Lewis Stimson, B.A. 1888," p. 11. http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1950-51.pdf
[^38]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on Henry Stimson's career, his marriage to Mabel White and his 1911 appointment. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^39]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1878 (Taft, William Howard). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^40]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1913 (Harriman, William Averell) and class of 1917 (Harriman, Edward Roland N.), and the passage that reads "William Averell Harriman (113) and Edward Roland Noel Harriman (17) joined The Order." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^41]: George Mosher Murray and others, *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. 1 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1917), biographical entries for Prescott Sheldon Bush (pp. 105 to 106), Edward Roland Noel Harriman, William Ellery Sedgwick James, Henry Neil Mallon and Knight Woolley. https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr
[^42]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), chapter on the Harriman family and the investment bankers, passage ending "have dominated the direction of The Order." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^43]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 248 (executed October 20, 1942), 7 Fed. Reg. 9097-9098 (November 7, 1942), F.R. Doc. 42-11568. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf
[^44]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on Averell Harriman, Roland Harriman, E.S. James, Knight Woolley and the Union Bank. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^45]: Darwin Payne, *Initiative in Energy: Dresser Industries, Inc., 1880-1978* (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979), chapter "New Command in a Troubled Era." https://archive.org/details/initiativeinener00payn_0
[^46]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entry "BUSH, 1917, Prescott S." (Yale Corporation, U.S. Senator, former partner of Brown Brothers Harriman). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^47]: Anthony L. Kimery, "George Bush and the CIA: In the Company of Friends," CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP99-01448R000401570011-0, sections "The Early Years: Waltzing with Spooks" and the passage on Henry Neil Mallon, citing Robin W. Winks, *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* (William Morrow, 1987), ch. 1. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp99-01448r000401570011-0
[^48]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entries "BUSH, 1948, George Herbert Walker" and "BUSH, 1968" (George Walker Bush), and class index. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^49]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entry "BUSH, 1953, Jonathan James" (investments). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^50]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), 1971 membership catalogue entries for George Herbert Walker Bush ("U.S. Congressman, '66-70") and George Walker Bush ("Lieut., Pilot, USAF, June '68-June 70"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^51]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1918 (Lovett, Robert Abercrombie), and the passage on the Lovett family ("The Order '18"). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^52]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on Judge Robert Scott Lovett, citing George Kennan's biography of E. H. Harriman, and on Robert Abercrombie Lovett's initiation. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^53]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1920 (Luce, Henry Robinson). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^54]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), name index, class of 1920. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^55]: "Tap Day Results!," special dispatch from New Haven, May 15, 1919, *The Harvard Crimson*, May 16, 1919. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1919/5/16/tap-day-results-pnew-haven-conn/
[^56]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1939 (Bundy, William Putman) and class of 1940 (Bundy, McGeorge). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^57]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on the Bundy brothers and Vietnam, where the book states its own hypothesis. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^58]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1950 (Buckley, William Frank Jr.). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^59]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1949 (Coffin, William S. Jr.). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^60]: FBI headquarters file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 1, memorandum L. B. Nichols to Mr. Tolson, October 20, 1950. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1
[^61]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1937 (Stewart, Potter). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^62]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1966 (Kerry, John Forbes). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^63]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, classes of 1915 (MacLeish, Archibald) and 1936 (Moore, Richard Anthony). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^64]: Library of Congress, "Librarians of Congress" (Archibald MacLeish and Luther Harris Evans, 1939-1953). https://guides.loc.gov/librarians-of-congress
[^65]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), closing section on education, "UNESCO - Constitution, Archibald MacLeish ('15)." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^66]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1900 (Rockefeller, Percy Avery). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^67]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1894 (Whitney, Harry Payne). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^68]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1898 (Whitney, Payne), and the Whitney table and text. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^69]: Kathrin Day Lassila and Mark Alden Branch, "Whose Skull and Bones?," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20060614215733/http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/2006_05/notebook.html
[^70]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1918 (Davison, Fredrick Trubee). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^71]: United States Air Force, "Brigadier General Frederick Trubee Davison," official biography. https://web.archive.org/web/20250401000815/https://www.af.mil/About-Us/Biographies/Display/Article/3928479/frederick-trubee-davison/ ; Ralph D. Paine, *The First Yale Unit* (1925), chapter "Trubee, the Crippled Leader." https://archive.org/details/firstyaleunit0000ralp
[^72]: Yale News, "Defending Allied skies: Yale's pioneering pilots form first naval aviation unit" (August 17, 2014), text on Tap Day, April 19, 1917. https://news.yale.edu/2014/08/17/defending-allied-skies-yale-s-pioneering-pilots-form-first-naval-aviation-unit
[^73]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased During the Year Ending July 1, 1927*, entry for Payne Whitney, B.A. 1898, pp. 171 to 172 (listing "member Hé Boulé, Delta Kappa Epsilon, and Skull and Bones"). https://archive.org/details/obituaryrecordof00yale_4
[^74]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased 1915 to 1920*, entry for Albert Dillon Sturtevant, Ph.B. 1916. https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft
[^75]: Associated Press item, "F. Trubee Davison to Join CIA in Personnel Post," CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP78-04718A000500180115-2 (released May 10, 2000). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp78-04718a000500180115-2
[^76]: Memorandum from F. Trubee Davison dated September 11, 1951, on CIA Official Routing Slip, CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP80R01731R003100090067-0. https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP80R01731R003100090067-0
[^77]: "Bush's Boy's Club: Skull and Bones," *Covert Action Information Bulletin*, no. 33 (Winter 1990), pp. 20 to 22, citing the *New York Times*, July 5, 1951, Marchetti and Marks, *The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence* (1974), pp. 110 to 111, Payne and Dobson, *Who's Who in Espionage* (1984), and Freed and Landis, *Death in Washington* (1980), p. 168. https://archive.org/details/CAIB33
[^78]: "F. Trubee Davison Dies at 78," *New York Times*, November 16, 1974. https://web.archive.org/web/20240107180328/https://www.nytimes.com/1974/11/16/archives/f-trubee-davison-dies-at-78-led-natural-history-museum-aviation.html ; "Minutes of 2nd Career Service Committee Meeting," October 1, 1951, CIA-RDP80-01826R000400090089-6, and "Minutes of 14th Career Service Committee Meeting," CIA-RDP80-01826R000400090006-7. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-01826r000400090089-6 ; https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-01826r000400090006-7
[^79]: CIA Reading Room, document CIA-RDP84-00780R003200020017-9 (letter of May 15, 1969 signed by Hugh T. Cunningham, Director of Training); CIA-RDP84-00780R003200020006-1 (Midcareer Executive Development Course correspondence, 1968); CIA-RDP80-00536A000300070001-5 (Midcareer Course No. 32, April to June 1972, listing Hugh Cunningham, Director of Training). https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80-00536a000300070001-5
[^80]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1934 (Cunningham, Hugh Terry). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^81]: Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), index of members by class year, class of 1950 (Pionzio, Dino John). https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^82]: Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977, passages on the C.I.A. careers of Bill Bundy, Bill Buckley and William Sloane Coffin. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977
[^83]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull and Bones* (1983), section "Communications." https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^84]: Alexandra Robbins, *Secrets of the Tomb: Skull and Bones, the Ivy League, and the Hidden Paths of Power* (Little, Brown, 2002). https://archive.org/details/secretsoftombsku00robb
[^85]: Howard Altman, "Geronimo's Bones," in Kris Millegan, *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), pp. 33 to 37. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^86]: George H. W. Bush Presidential Library, "Records on Skull and Bones Society," FOIA 2009-0116-F, scope and content note, processed August 2009. https://www.bush41library.gov/download/file/4777
[^87]: Carole Bass, "Apaches sue to recover Geronimo's skull," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2009. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/2421-apaches-sue-to-recover-geronimo-s-skull
[^88]: *Geronimo et al. v. Obama et al.*, No. 09-303 (RWR) (D.D.C. July 27, 2010), memorandum opinion of Judge Richard W. Roberts, background, discussion and conclusion. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303/pdf/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303-0.pdf
[^89]: *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340 (S.D. Tex.), docket entries 1 (complaint, October 31, 2017), 4 (order for more definite statement, November 13, 2017), 6 (memorandum and recommendation, November 21, 2017, with footnotes 1 to 3), 7 and 8 (order adopting and final judgment, December 18, 2017), 9 (return of service on the Russell Trust Association, executed December 21, 2017), 16 (order of January 23, 2018) and 17 (Fifth Circuit dismissal, February 28, 2018, No. 18-40008). https://archive.org/details/gov.uscourts.txsd.1463674

208
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Standard Oil.md
View file

@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
---
created: 2026-06-13
updated: 2026-10-15
updated: 2026-10-26
title: Standard Oil
aliases:
- Standard Oil Company
@ -46,47 +46,47 @@ relations:
with: "[[I.G. Farben]]"
start: 1929-11-09
role: "four agreements of November 9, 1929, and the Standard-I.G. and Jasco patent licensing"
fn: 12
fn: 14
- type: investigated
with: "[[Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program]]"
reverse: true
start: 1942-03-05
end: 1942-04-07
role: "Part 11, Rubber, hearings on the I.G. Farben agreements"
fn: 12
fn: 14
- type: prosecuted
with: "[[Department of Justice]]"
reverse: true
start: 1942-03-25
role: "criminal information, complaint and consent decree of March 25, 1942"
fn: 36
fn: 38
- type: investigated
with: "[[Federal Trade Commission]]"
reverse: true
start: 1949-12-02
end: 1951-10
role: "international petroleum cartel staff investigation; staff report filed October 1951"
fn: 41
fn: 43
- type: prosecuted
with: "[[Department of Justice]]"
reverse: true
start: 1953-04-14
role: "civil antitrust complaint in the international petroleum cartel case, Civil No. 86-27"
fn: 57
fn: 59
- type: owned
with: "[[Creole Petroleum Company]]"
role: "Venezuelan subsidiary; Nelson Rockefeller sat on its board"
fn: 72
fn: 74
- type: partner_of
with: "[[Arabian American Oil Company]]"
start: 1948-12
role: "30 percent stake in Aramco from December 1948; Socony-Vacuum held 10 percent"
fn: 51
fn: 53
- type: participant_in
with: "[[Iranian Consortium]]"
start: 1954-04-01
role: "eight percent share of the 1954 consortium"
fn: 64
fn: 66
---
Standard Oil was the petroleum monopoly founded in 1870 by [[John D. Rockefeller]] that controlled roughly ninety percent of American oil refining before the [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]] ordered its dissolution in 1911 under the [[Sherman Antitrust Act]]. The breakup created successor companies, including Standard Oil of [[New Jersey]] (later [[Exxon]]), Standard Oil of New York ([[Mobil]]), and Standard Oil of California ([[Chevron]]), whose combined assets preserved the [[Rockefeller Foundation|Rockefeller]] family's financial power.[^1] Between 1929 and 1942 the New Jersey company's patent and licensing arrangements ran through the German chemical combine [[I.G. Farben]]; after the war it held a 30 percent interest in the [[Arabian American Oil Company]] (Aramco) and an 8 percent share of the 1954 [[Iranian Consortium]].
@ -97,83 +97,85 @@ The government's bill alleged that the conspiracy was formed "in or about the ye
The appeal was brought by "The Standard Oil Company of New Jersey and thirty-three other corporations," together with John D. Rockefeller, William Rockefeller and five other individuals.[^6] [[Edward Douglass White]] delivered the opinion of the Court on May 15, 1911, which affirmed the decree under the antitrust act of 1890 with directions to modify it and kept jurisdiction in the court below to compel compliance.[^7] [[John Marshall Harlan]] concurred in part and dissented in part.[^8]
[[Oliver Hazard Payne]], a Yale graduate of the class of 1863 and a brother of Flora Payne, the wife of [[William Collins Whitney]], served as the company's treasurer until 1884 and then sat on its board until his death in 1917, according to the Yale Obituary Record.[^9] The decree in the government's suit names "Oliver H. Payne" among the seven individual defendants, beside John D. Rockefeller and William Rockefeller, in the list reproduced in the Court's opinion.[^10] The Yale record states that Payne's nephews were [[Harry Payne Whitney]], [[Payne Whitney]] and [[Henry Payne Bingham]].[^9]
### Successor companies
The Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) changed its name to Exxon Corporation in November 1972; on November 30, 1999 a wholly owned subsidiary of Exxon was merged into Mobil Corporation and Exxon changed its name to Exxon Mobil Corporation, a New Jersey corporation incorporated in 1882.[^9] The Standard Oil Company of California, incorporated in Delaware in 1926, took the name Chevron Corporation in 1984, ChevronTexaco Corporation in 2001, and Chevron Corporation again in 2005.[^10] The Senate's 1974 print, in describing the five defendants in the 1953 cartel case, gives their then-current names as Exxon (Standard Oil of New Jersey), Mobil ([[Socony-Vacuum]] Oil Company), Socal ([[Standard Oil of California|Standard Oil Company of California]]), [[Texaco]] ([[The Texas Company]]) and [[Gulf Oil|Gulf]].[^11]
The Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) changed its name to Exxon Corporation in November 1972; on November 30, 1999 a wholly owned subsidiary of Exxon was merged into Mobil Corporation and Exxon changed its name to Exxon Mobil Corporation, a New Jersey corporation incorporated in 1882.[^11] The Standard Oil Company of California, incorporated in Delaware in 1926, took the name Chevron Corporation in 1984, ChevronTexaco Corporation in 2001, and Chevron Corporation again in 2005.[^12] The Senate's 1974 print, in describing the five defendants in the 1953 cartel case, gives their then-current names as Exxon (Standard Oil of New Jersey), Mobil ([[Socony-Vacuum]] Oil Company), Socal ([[Standard Oil of California|Standard Oil Company of California]]), [[Texaco]] ([[The Texas Company]]) and [[Gulf Oil|Gulf]].[^13]
### The 1929 agreements with I.G. Farben
The company's chemical relationship with I.G. Farben rested on four agreements dated November 9, 1929. [[Thurman Arnold]], the assistant attorney general in charge of antitrust, described them to the [[Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program|Truman Committee]] on March 26, 1942 as the "division of the fields" agreement, the four-party agreement, the coordination agreement and the German sales agreement.[^12] Arnold testified that Standard turned its non-oil chemical processes over to I.G., and that I.G. turned over to Standard the patents and discoveries that directly concerned oil production, including synthetic gasoline, so that each company held a world monopoly in its field.[^13] The arrangement created two patent pools, one for synthetic rubber and chemicals controlled from [[Germany]] and one for synthetic gasoline controlled by Standard Oil.[^14]
The company's chemical relationship with I.G. Farben rested on four agreements dated November 9, 1929. [[Thurman Arnold]], the assistant attorney general in charge of antitrust, described them to the [[Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program|Truman Committee]] on March 26, 1942 as the "division of the fields" agreement, the four-party agreement, the coordination agreement and the German sales agreement.[^14] Arnold testified that Standard turned its non-oil chemical processes over to I.G., and that I.G. turned over to Standard the patents and discoveries that directly concerned oil production, including synthetic gasoline, so that each company held a world monopoly in its field.[^15] The arrangement created two patent pools, one for synthetic rubber and chemicals controlled from [[Germany]] and one for synthetic gasoline controlled by Standard Oil.[^16]
Arnold gave his own account of the motive in the same testimony: "these arrangements were not entered into with any desire to help Germany. The sole motive was an attempt on the part of the Standard Oil to get a protected market, to eliminate independent competition, and, finally, to restrict world production in order to maintain that control."[^15] He read into the record a letter signed by [[Walter C. Teagle]] of Standard, in which each party proposed "to hold itself willing to take care of any future eventualities in a spirit of mutual helpfulness" and, if performance of the agreements were restrained or prevented "by operation of any existing or future law" or the beneficial interest of either party alienated "by operation of law or governmental authority," to "enter into new negotiations in the spirit of the present agreements."[^16]
Arnold gave his own account of the motive in the same testimony: "these arrangements were not entered into with any desire to help Germany. The sole motive was an attempt on the part of the Standard Oil to get a protected market, to eliminate independent competition, and, finally, to restrict world production in order to maintain that control."[^17] He read into the record a letter signed by [[Walter C. Teagle]] of Standard, in which each party proposed "to hold itself willing to take care of any future eventualities in a spirit of mutual helpfulness" and, if performance of the agreements were restrained or prevented "by operation of any existing or future law" or the beneficial interest of either party alienated "by operation of law or governmental authority," to "enter into new negotiations in the spirit of the present agreements."[^18]
Arnold identified a second set of arrangements as the Hague Memorandum, made in September 1939, which he said carried the 1929 conspiracy through the war between Germany and [[United Kingdom|Great Britain]]. He read a letter of October 12, 1939 from [[Frank A. Howard]], the president of the [[Standard Oil Development Company]], stating that in [[Netherlands|Holland]] "They delivered to me assignments of some 2,000 foreign patents" and that the parties had worked toward "complete plans for a modus Vivendi which would operate through the term of the war, whether or not the United States came in."[^17]
Arnold identified a second set of arrangements as the Hague Memorandum, made in September 1939, which he said carried the 1929 conspiracy through the war between Germany and [[United Kingdom|Great Britain]]. He read a letter of October 12, 1939 from [[Frank A. Howard]], the president of the [[Standard Oil Development Company]], stating that in [[Netherlands|Holland]] "They delivered to me assignments of some 2,000 foreign patents" and that the parties had worked toward "complete plans for a modus Vivendi which would operate through the term of the war, whether or not the United States came in."[^19]
[[William S. Farish]], the president of the New Jersey company, testified on March 31, 1942 and described the 1939 readjustment. The company's patent licensing had run through two American corporations, Standard-I.G. and [[Jasco]], in one of which Standard held 80 per cent and in the other 50 per cent, the Germans holding the other shares; the stock holdings represented roughly the German participations in licensing fixed by the 1929 contracts. Farish said that substantially all the patents had originated with I.G. and that legal title to most of them, especially the foreign patents, had been left in I.G. to avoid the expense of transfers.[^18] The assignments were taken by an American trustee who, if the United States went to war with Germany, would be subject to account to the [[Alien Property Custodian]] for any equitable interest of the Germans. The German 20 per cent interest in Standard-I.G. was purchased at book value ($20,000), and the Germans retained title to their 20 per cent of the royalties.[^19]
[[William S. Farish]], the president of the New Jersey company, testified on March 31, 1942 and described the 1939 readjustment. The company's patent licensing had run through two American corporations, Standard-I.G. and [[Jasco]], in one of which Standard held 80 per cent and in the other 50 per cent, the Germans holding the other shares; the stock holdings represented roughly the German participations in licensing fixed by the 1929 contracts. Farish said that substantially all the patents had originated with I.G. and that legal title to most of them, especially the foreign patents, had been left in I.G. to avoid the expense of transfers.[^20] The assignments were taken by an American trustee who, if the United States went to war with Germany, would be subject to account to the [[Alien Property Custodian]] for any equitable interest of the Germans. The German 20 per cent interest in Standard-I.G. was purchased at book value ($20,000), and the Germans retained title to their 20 per cent of the royalties.[^21]
The same agreements appear in the first order the Custodian issued. Vesting Order No. 1, signed by [[Leo T. Crowley]] on March 25, 1942 (the date of the consent decree) and published in the Federal Register on March 31, 1942, vested all right, title and interest of I.G. Farbenindustrie, A.G. in the Division of Fields Agreement of November 9, 1929 and the Jasco Agreement of September 30, 1930; the four-party, coordination and German sales agreements; a series of agreements of October 7, 1938 among [[Ruhrchemie]], I.G., [[Royal Dutch Shell|Shell]] and [[M.W. Kellogg Company|Kellogg]] on hydrocarbon synthesis; the Hague Memorandum dated September 25, 1939, effective September 1, 1939; the trust agreement executed March 8, 1940 by Walter Schaefer and Harold Koechling; and a trust agreement of August 31, 1939 among Frank A. Howard, W.E. Currie and P.L. Young. The order also vested the stock, patents and contracts of the [[Standard Catalytic Company]], the capital stock of Jasco, Inc. (including five certificates held by Schaefer and Koechling as trustees), and all patents held by or in the name of Standard-I.G. Company, Standard Catalytic Company, Jasco, Inc. or W.E. Currie, listed in four schedules.[^20] The Custodian's annual report for March 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943, a period in which 1,792 vesting orders were issued, lists it first and states that German holders of American patents had "acquired a substantial influence in American industry" through patent contracts, naming synthetic rubber among the affected industries.[^21][^22]
The same agreements appear in the first order the Custodian issued. Vesting Order No. 1, signed by [[Leo T. Crowley]] on March 25, 1942 (the date of the consent decree) and published in the Federal Register on March 31, 1942, vested all right, title and interest of I.G. Farbenindustrie, A.G. in the Division of Fields Agreement of November 9, 1929 and the Jasco Agreement of September 30, 1930; the four-party, coordination and German sales agreements; a series of agreements of October 7, 1938 among [[Ruhrchemie]], I.G., [[Royal Dutch Shell|Shell]] and [[M.W. Kellogg Company|Kellogg]] on hydrocarbon synthesis; the Hague Memorandum dated September 25, 1939, effective September 1, 1939; the trust agreement executed March 8, 1940 by Walter Schaefer and Harold Koechling; and a trust agreement of August 31, 1939 among Frank A. Howard, W.E. Currie and P.L. Young. The order also vested the stock, patents and contracts of the [[Standard Catalytic Company]], the capital stock of Jasco, Inc. (including five certificates held by Schaefer and Koechling as trustees), and all patents held by or in the name of Standard-I.G. Company, Standard Catalytic Company, Jasco, Inc. or W.E. Currie, listed in four schedules.[^22] The Custodian's annual report for March 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943, a period in which 1,792 vesting orders were issued, lists it first and states that German holders of American patents had "acquired a substantial influence in American industry" through patent contracts, naming synthetic rubber among the affected industries.[^23][^24]
The [[Federal Trade Commission]]'s staff later recorded the German marketing side of the relationship: an agreement of 1928 among Standard (New Jersey), Royal Dutch Shell and the [[Anglo-Persian Oil Company]], which together controlled more than 60 percent of the German domestic market, with the cooperation reported of the marketing subsidiaries of [[Leuna]] and I.G. Farben, and the distributor [[Deutsche Gasolin]] A.G. owned 50 percent by Standard and 50 percent by I.G. Farbenindustrie in 1933.[^23]
The [[Federal Trade Commission]]'s staff later recorded the German marketing side of the relationship: an agreement of 1928 among Standard (New Jersey), Royal Dutch Shell and the [[Anglo-Persian Oil Company]], which together controlled more than 60 percent of the German domestic market, with the cooperation reported of the marketing subsidiaries of [[Leuna]] and I.G. Farben, and the distributor [[Deutsche Gasolin]] A.G. owned 50 percent by Standard and 50 percent by I.G. Farbenindustrie in 1933.[^25]
### Synthetic rubber and the buna patents
Arnold told the Truman Committee that I.G. Farben had "the deciding voice on policy questions with respect to buna synthetic rubber." He said that between 1932 and 1934 four rubber companies and one chemical company approached Standard seeking licenses, and that negotiations in 1932 between [[B.F. Goodrich|Goodrich]] and Standard were subject to the supervision of I.G., which refused to accept various portions of the proposed terms.[^24] Howard's letter of February 6, 1940 to [[E.J. Sadler]] stated the company's position: "The interest of the Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey in the buna process dates back to the original agreement of 1929 between I. G. and Jersey."[^25] Arnold also said that for Standard's own butyl development the company licensed only two rubber companies, apart from specialty companies.[^26]
Arnold told the Truman Committee that I.G. Farben had "the deciding voice on policy questions with respect to buna synthetic rubber." He said that between 1932 and 1934 four rubber companies and one chemical company approached Standard seeking licenses, and that negotiations in 1932 between [[B.F. Goodrich|Goodrich]] and Standard were subject to the supervision of I.G., which refused to accept various portions of the proposed terms.[^26] Howard's letter of February 6, 1940 to [[E.J. Sadler]] stated the company's position: "The interest of the Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey in the buna process dates back to the original agreement of 1929 between I. G. and Jersey."[^27] Arnold also said that for Standard's own butyl development the company licensed only two rubber companies, apart from specialty companies.[^28]
The company issued a release on the day of the consent decree, introduced as Exhibit 359, which stated that "The developments made under these agreements have advanced the progress of American industry and its ability to meet the war emergency."[^27] Arnold asked the committee to keep the release in mind when weighing the documents, one of which showed that the company had refused to let the British have a sample of rubber as late as 1941.[^28]
The company issued a release on the day of the consent decree, introduced as Exhibit 359, which stated that "The developments made under these agreements have advanced the progress of American industry and its ability to meet the war emergency."[^29] Arnold asked the committee to keep the release in mind when weighing the documents, one of which showed that the company had refused to let the British have a sample of rubber as late as 1941.[^30]
### Ethyl, aviation fuel and the German plants
Standard and [[General Motors]] each held 50 per cent of the [[Ethyl Gasoline Corporation]], described in the 1942 criminal information as sole producer of the tetraethyl lead used in nearly all American motor fuels.[^29] In 1940 the Supreme Court recorded that Standard "owns one-half of the capital stock" of Ethyl and that "The remainder is owned by General Motors Corporation and E. I. du Pont de Nemours Company."[^30] Howard's February 6, 1940 letter reported that [[Ethyl G.m.b.H.]], a German company owned half by the [[British Associated Ethyl Company]] and half by I.G. Farbenindustrie, paid in full a debt of nearly $900,000 owed to the Ethyl Gasoline Corporation about one month after the war began, although it could have deferred payment for two more months.[^31]
Standard and [[General Motors]] each held 50 per cent of the [[Ethyl Gasoline Corporation]], described in the 1942 criminal information as sole producer of the tetraethyl lead used in nearly all American motor fuels.[^31] In 1940 the Supreme Court recorded that Standard "owns one-half of the capital stock" of Ethyl and that "The remainder is owned by General Motors Corporation and E. I. du Pont de Nemours Company."[^32] Howard's February 6, 1940 letter reported that [[Ethyl G.m.b.H.]], a German company owned half by the [[British Associated Ethyl Company]] and half by I.G. Farbenindustrie, paid in full a debt of nearly $900,000 owed to the Ethyl Gasoline Corporation about one month after the war began, although it could have deferred payment for two more months.[^33]
The committee's summary states that Standard, through the New Jersey company as well as its subsidiary, helped build an aviation gasoline plant for Germany at [[Hamburg]] as late as 1939. It cites a memorandum signed by E.J. Gohr dated August 1, 1939 describing I.G. representatives leaving [[New York City|New York]] on August 4 for a week in the South and [[Indiana]] and returning to New York for discussions on the detailed design of the plant, and a letter of August 11, 1939 from R.P. Russell of the Standard Oil Development Company stating that the company was "not only willing but anxious to do everything we can to assist the Kellogg and I. G. gentlemen in preparing the process design."[^32] Farish's statement of March 31, 1942 answered the charge that the German subsidiary D.A.P.G. had planned a plant at Hamburg in 1938 or 1939 with the words "This is true and as a German corporation, operating in Germany, with which country we were not then at war, it could not have done otherwise," and called the charge that Standard shipped to Italian and German air lines in [[Brazil]] contrary to the wishes of the State Department "unfounded."[^33]
The committee's summary states that Standard, through the New Jersey company as well as its subsidiary, helped build an aviation gasoline plant for Germany at [[Hamburg]] as late as 1939. It cites a memorandum signed by E.J. Gohr dated August 1, 1939 describing I.G. representatives leaving [[New York City|New York]] on August 4 for a week in the South and [[Indiana]] and returning to New York for discussions on the detailed design of the plant, and a letter of August 11, 1939 from R.P. Russell of the Standard Oil Development Company stating that the company was "not only willing but anxious to do everything we can to assist the Kellogg and I. G. gentlemen in preparing the process design."[^34] Farish's statement of March 31, 1942 answered the charge that the German subsidiary D.A.P.G. had planned a plant at Hamburg in 1938 or 1939 with the words "This is true and as a German corporation, operating in Germany, with which country we were not then at war, it could not have done otherwise," and called the charge that Standard shipped to Italian and German air lines in [[Brazil]] contrary to the wishes of the State Department "unfounded."[^35]
The summary also quotes a memorandum from Howard to Teagle and Farish on the effect of the cartel agreement on fuels for the [[Army Air Corps]]: "To meet the very proper desires of the Air Corps as expressed to us we shall have to violate our agreements and perhaps forfeit the confidence of our associates, both American and foreign." The summary concludes that Standard "met with difficulties in developing aviation gasoline for our own Army because of the cartel agreement."[^34]
The summary also quotes a memorandum from Howard to Teagle and Farish on the effect of the cartel agreement on fuels for the [[Army Air Corps]]: "To meet the very proper desires of the Air Corps as expressed to us we shall have to violate our agreements and perhaps forfeit the confidence of our associates, both American and foreign." The summary concludes that Standard "met with difficulties in developing aviation gasoline for our own Army because of the cartel agreement."[^36]
Standard's Brazilian subsidiary and the German-controlled line [[Condor Syndikat|Condor]] and the [[Lineas Aereas Transcontinentales Italianas|Lati]] line, which ran from [[Italy]] to Brazil, were the subject of testimony by [[Adolf Berle]], the assistant secretary of state. Berle said the Secretary of State requested in March 1941 that Standard Oil of New Jersey make no sales to the two lines except from New York or [[Aruba]]; that the department had reason to believe, and Standard had reported, that the lines were drawing supplies from the Brazilian subsidiary; and that after a conference on April 14, 1941 the company agreed to supply them, if at all, only through that subsidiary, which would deliver only with the approval of the American ambassador in [[Rio de Janeiro]].[^35]
Standard's Brazilian subsidiary and the German-controlled line [[Condor Syndikat|Condor]] and the [[Lineas Aereas Transcontinentales Italianas|Lati]] line, which ran from [[Italy]] to Brazil, were the subject of testimony by [[Adolf Berle]], the assistant secretary of state. Berle said the Secretary of State requested in March 1941 that Standard Oil of New Jersey make no sales to the two lines except from New York or [[Aruba]]; that the department had reason to believe, and Standard had reported, that the lines were drawing supplies from the Brazilian subsidiary; and that after a conference on April 14, 1941 the company agreed to supply them, if at all, only through that subsidiary, which would deliver only with the approval of the American ambassador in [[Rio de Janeiro]].[^37]
### The 1942 consent decree
On March 25, 1942 the [[Department of Justice]] filed a criminal information and a complaint against Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) and entered a consent decree with it. The information named as defendants the New Jersey company, the Delaware corporation of similar name, the Standard Oil Development Company, the Standard Oil Company of Louisiana, the Standard Catalytic Company, Jasco, Inc., the [[Hydro Engineering and Chemical Company]], and Teagle, Farish and Howard.[^29] Arnold told the committee on March 27 that the company pleaded nolo contendere and paid fines of $50,000. Asked by [[Harry S. Truman]], the committee's chairman, why the fines were so small, Arnold said the department judged that getting the patents loose was more important than fines large enough to involve years of litigation. The chairman remarked that the fines were "rather out of proportion with other fines," and Arnold answered, "I have to confess they are somewhat out of proportion." Arnold said he had not been present at the New York negotiations, which covered a period of weeks, and that "when the smoke all cleared away and the matter reached my office, it was simply a take-it-or-leave-it proposition, and at that point, after consultation with a number of people, I finally took it." Asked by the committee's chief counsel, [[Hugh A. Fulton]], whether the company had held back the butyl patents during the negotiations, Arnold said: "Butyl had not been made available."[^36]
On March 25, 1942 the [[Department of Justice]] filed a criminal information and a complaint against Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) and entered a consent decree with it. The information named as defendants the New Jersey company, the Delaware corporation of similar name, the Standard Oil Development Company, the Standard Oil Company of Louisiana, the Standard Catalytic Company, Jasco, Inc., the [[Hydro Engineering and Chemical Company]], and Teagle, Farish and Howard.[^31] Arnold told the committee on March 27 that the company pleaded nolo contendere and paid fines of $50,000. Asked by [[Harry S. Truman]], the committee's chairman, why the fines were so small, Arnold said the department judged that getting the patents loose was more important than fines large enough to involve years of litigation. The chairman remarked that the fines were "rather out of proportion with other fines," and Arnold answered, "I have to confess they are somewhat out of proportion." Arnold said he had not been present at the New York negotiations, which covered a period of weeks, and that "when the smoke all cleared away and the matter reached my office, it was simply a take-it-or-leave-it proposition, and at that point, after consultation with a number of people, I finally took it." Asked by the committee's chief counsel, [[Hugh A. Fulton]], whether the company had held back the butyl patents during the negotiations, Arnold said: "Butyl had not been made available."[^38]
Arnold said the decree compelled Standard to license anyone royalty-free under the crucial rubber patents and the other patents involved in the conspiracy, including the toluol patents, and required the company to transfer the know-how for them; he said he was reluctant to sign because the decree had no provision allowing the Attorney General or the court to pass on future relations between I.G. Farben and Standard. He said the company had indicated its willingness to make restitution "in the sum of millions of dollars and at the cost of its future domination of the industry."[^37] He put the cost of the royalty-free licensing to the company at possibly $10,000,000, and said the company's release gave $6,000,000.[^38] The final judgment required the defendants to dissolve the [[Hydro Patents Company]] and the Hydro Engineering and Chemical Company within one year, enjoined them from entering into patent transfer arrangements with I.G. Farben without notice to the Attorney General, and recorded the Alien Property Custodian's consent to the decree, including limits on royalties and compulsory licensing under the patents.[^39] The information had described the Hydro Patents Company as the vehicle for the hydrogenation process in the United States under the Mutual Licensing Plan of July 11, 1930.[^40]
Arnold said the decree compelled Standard to license anyone royalty-free under the crucial rubber patents and the other patents involved in the conspiracy, including the toluol patents, and required the company to transfer the know-how for them; he said he was reluctant to sign because the decree had no provision allowing the Attorney General or the court to pass on future relations between I.G. Farben and Standard. He said the company had indicated its willingness to make restitution "in the sum of millions of dollars and at the cost of its future domination of the industry."[^39] He put the cost of the royalty-free licensing to the company at possibly $10,000,000, and said the company's release gave $6,000,000.[^40] The final judgment required the defendants to dissolve the [[Hydro Patents Company]] and the Hydro Engineering and Chemical Company within one year, enjoined them from entering into patent transfer arrangements with I.G. Farben without notice to the Attorney General, and recorded the Alien Property Custodian's consent to the decree, including limits on royalties and compulsory licensing under the patents.[^41] The information had described the Hydro Patents Company as the vehicle for the hydrogenation process in the United States under the Mutual Licensing Plan of July 11, 1930.[^42]
### The Federal Trade Commission staff report
The Federal Trade Commission resolved on December 2, 1949 to investigate agreements among American petroleum companies and with their foreign partners; the Department of Justice deferred its own investigation to avoid duplicating the commission's work, and the commission's staff filed its report in October 1951.[^41] Published in 1952 as a committee print of the Senate Select Committee on Small Business, the report listed Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey) as one of seven international companies, with crude production in 1949 of 1,317.7 thousand barrels daily.[^42] It recorded that Creole Petroleum Corp. was a subsidiary of the New Jersey company and that the company owned 30 percent of the Trans-Arabian Pipe Line.[^43] It described the board of Aramco as three members each from Standard Oil Co. (N.J.), Standard Oil Co. of California and Texas Co., one from Socony-Vacuum and one with no listed affiliation, and stated that the directors of Standard of New Jersey and Socony-Vacuum who determined Aramco policy also shaped the behavior of the Iraq Petroleum Company.[^44]
The Federal Trade Commission resolved on December 2, 1949 to investigate agreements among American petroleum companies and with their foreign partners; the Department of Justice deferred its own investigation to avoid duplicating the commission's work, and the commission's staff filed its report in October 1951.[^43] Published in 1952 as a committee print of the Senate Select Committee on Small Business, the report listed Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey) as one of seven international companies, with crude production in 1949 of 1,317.7 thousand barrels daily.[^44] It recorded that Creole Petroleum Corp. was a subsidiary of the New Jersey company and that the company owned 30 percent of the Trans-Arabian Pipe Line.[^45] It described the board of Aramco as three members each from Standard Oil Co. (N.J.), Standard Oil Co. of California and Texas Co., one from Socony-Vacuum and one with no listed affiliation, and stated that the directors of Standard of New Jersey and Socony-Vacuum who determined Aramco policy also shaped the behavior of the Iraq Petroleum Company.[^46]
The Justice Department report to the National Security Council of January 1953 stated that "an indictment could have been returned on the basis of the Federal Trade Commission's staff report and a small number of documents in the possession of the Department of Justice," and that the pending investigation was being conducted "with the aid of a committee composed of representatives of State, CIA, Defense and Justice."[^45] The commission's evidence also covered the domestic side of the cartel, including production curtailment on the Gulf Coast and the profit Standard of California earned on its Middle East oil at prices charged to the [[United States Navy|Navy]].[^46]
The Justice Department report to the National Security Council of January 1953 stated that "an indictment could have been returned on the basis of the Federal Trade Commission's staff report and a small number of documents in the possession of the Department of Justice," and that the pending investigation was being conducted "with the aid of a committee composed of representatives of State, CIA, Defense and Justice."[^47] The commission's evidence also covered the domestic side of the cartel, including production curtailment on the Gulf Coast and the profit Standard of California earned on its Middle East oil at prices charged to the [[United States Navy|Navy]].[^48]
### Aramco and the Saudi concessions
Standard of California obtained a petroleum concession in Saudi Arabia in 1933, located wholly within the territory of the 1928 [[Red Line Agreement]]; the concession passed to Aramco, which was owned by Standard of California and The Texas Company.[^47] The Achnacarry Agreement, which Walter Teagle of Standard, Sir [[Henri Deterding]] of Royal Dutch Shell and the Anglo-Persian Oil Company made in September 1928, aimed to eliminate competition among the parties, prevent overproduction and divide world markets on an "as is" basis.[^48]
Standard of California obtained a petroleum concession in Saudi Arabia in 1933, located wholly within the territory of the 1928 [[Red Line Agreement]]; the concession passed to Aramco, which was owned by Standard of California and The Texas Company.[^49] The Achnacarry Agreement, which Walter Teagle of Standard, Sir [[Henri Deterding]] of Royal Dutch Shell and the Anglo-Persian Oil Company made in September 1928, aimed to eliminate competition among the parties, prevent overproduction and divide world markets on an "as is" basis.[^50]
Aramco's production rose from 21,296 barrels daily in 1944 to 58,386 in 1945, most of it for military use, and its owners sought a permanent market.[^49] Discussions between Standard of New Jersey, Socony-Vacuum and the two owners began before mid-1946; an agreement in principle was reached in December 1946, and formal agreements were signed on March 12, 1947 giving Jersey a 30 percent and Socony a 10 percent interest in Aramco and the Trans-Arabian Pipe Line, conditional on a favorable settlement of the red-line controversy by March 12, 1951.[^50] Jersey was to pay $76,500,000 and Socony $25,500,000 for their stock, and both guaranteed $102,000,000 in bank loans. The agreements became effective in December 1948, after the withdrawal in November 1948 of the suit brought by the [[Compagnie Française des Pétroles]]; the Commission's staff put the total financial cost to the two companies for their 40 percent interest at nearly one-half billion dollars, and noted that they obtained a veto over amendments to Aramco's bylaws.[^51] The 1974 print's account of operations under the Red Line agreement states that, on the excuse that Aramco's owners were "unable to finance" a pipeline to the Mediterranean, Jersey and Socony-Vacuum were admitted to partnership; that both agreed to guarantee loans totaling $273,000,000 and became parties to joint contracts for oil from Aramco for eighteen years in the ratio 3:3:3:1; and that this "provided for the transfer of effective control of Aramco to the two American companies, Jersey and Socony."[^47]
Aramco's production rose from 21,296 barrels daily in 1944 to 58,386 in 1945, most of it for military use, and its owners sought a permanent market.[^51] Discussions between Standard of New Jersey, Socony-Vacuum and the two owners began before mid-1946; an agreement in principle was reached in December 1946, and formal agreements were signed on March 12, 1947 giving Jersey a 30 percent and Socony a 10 percent interest in Aramco and the Trans-Arabian Pipe Line, conditional on a favorable settlement of the red-line controversy by March 12, 1951.[^52] Jersey was to pay $76,500,000 and Socony $25,500,000 for their stock, and both guaranteed $102,000,000 in bank loans. The agreements became effective in December 1948, after the withdrawal in November 1948 of the suit brought by the [[Compagnie Française des Pétroles]]; the Commission's staff put the total financial cost to the two companies for their 40 percent interest at nearly one-half billion dollars, and noted that they obtained a veto over amendments to Aramco's bylaws.[^53] The 1974 print's account of operations under the Red Line agreement states that, on the excuse that Aramco's owners were "unable to finance" a pipeline to the Mediterranean, Jersey and Socony-Vacuum were admitted to partnership; that both agreed to guarantee loans totaling $273,000,000 and became parties to joint contracts for oil from Aramco for eighteen years in the ratio 3:3:3:1; and that this "provided for the transfer of effective control of Aramco to the two American companies, Jersey and Socony."[^49]
In April 1945, when Standard of California and Texas still owned Aramco, Assistant Secretary of State [[William L. Clayton]] wrote to Assistant Secretary [[James C. Dunn]] on ways of helping the government of [[Saudi Arabia]] meet its budget deficit that the department "should avoid putting the Arabian American Oil Company in an embarrassing position without giving it every opportunity to stand on its own feet."[^52] In June 1945 the American minister in Saudi Arabia, [[William A. Eddy]], predicted that the king's alternative to American assistance would be "to bleed Aramco for loans to stabilize his economy," and wrote that the company's opinion was that "Aramco is the substance and the Legation the shadow."[^53] In August 1945 the State Department described a proposed arrangement under which Navy oil would carry a royalty of 15 cents a barrel, against the 23 cents specified in the existing Aramco concession.[^54]
In April 1945, when Standard of California and Texas still owned Aramco, Assistant Secretary of State [[William L. Clayton]] wrote to Assistant Secretary [[James C. Dunn]] on ways of helping the government of [[Saudi Arabia]] meet its budget deficit that the department "should avoid putting the Arabian American Oil Company in an embarrassing position without giving it every opportunity to stand on its own feet."[^54] In June 1945 the American minister in Saudi Arabia, [[William A. Eddy]], predicted that the king's alternative to American assistance would be "to bleed Aramco for loans to stabilize his economy," and wrote that the company's opinion was that "Aramco is the substance and the Legation the shadow."[^55] In August 1945 the State Department described a proposed arrangement under which Navy oil would carry a royalty of 15 cents a barrel, against the 23 cents specified in the existing Aramco concession.[^56]
### The grand jury and the cartel case
The Attorney General's report to the National Security Council of January 1953 stated that the cartel had existed since 1928 and that seven of the major oil companies controlled all major oil producing areas outside the United States, all foreign refining operations and the patents covering refining processes, divided world markets and maintained non-competitive world prices. It stated that a decision to terminate the investigation "would be regarded by the world as a confession that our abhorrence of monopoly and restrictive cartel activities does not extend to the world's most important single industry."[^41][^55] [[Frank Church]]'s preface to the 1974 print records the sequence: the Attorney General announced a grand jury investigation on July 17, 1952, subpoenas went to 21 companies in August, and the State Department had opposed the investigation from the outset (Acheson memorandum of April 16, 1952).[^56] On January 12, 1953, in the last days of the Truman administration, Truman wrote to Attorney General [[James P. McGranery]] directing a civil suit instead of the grand jury, conditioned on the voluntary production of documents; the department filed a civil complaint on April 14, 1953 in the District Court for the District of Columbia naming Standard Oil of New Jersey, Socony-Vacuum, Standard Oil of California, The Texas Company and Gulf Oil, alleging violations of the Sherman Act from 1928, and the case was transferred to the Southern District of New York at the defendants' request.[^57]
The Attorney General's report to the National Security Council of January 1953 stated that the cartel had existed since 1928 and that seven of the major oil companies controlled all major oil producing areas outside the United States, all foreign refining operations and the patents covering refining processes, divided world markets and maintained non-competitive world prices. It stated that a decision to terminate the investigation "would be regarded by the world as a confession that our abhorrence of monopoly and restrictive cartel activities does not extend to the world's most important single industry."[^43][^57] [[Frank Church]]'s preface to the 1974 print records the sequence: the Attorney General announced a grand jury investigation on July 17, 1952, subpoenas went to 21 companies in August, and the State Department had opposed the investigation from the outset (Acheson memorandum of April 16, 1952).[^58] On January 12, 1953, in the last days of the Truman administration, Truman wrote to Attorney General [[James P. McGranery]] directing a civil suit instead of the grand jury, conditioned on the voluntary production of documents; the department filed a civil complaint on April 14, 1953 in the District Court for the District of Columbia naming Standard Oil of New Jersey, Socony-Vacuum, Standard Oil of California, The Texas Company and Gulf Oil, alleging violations of the Sherman Act from 1928, and the case was transferred to the Southern District of New York at the defendants' request.[^59]
### Iran and the 1954 consortium
Church wrote that in March 1951 [[Iran]] had nationalized all local assets of the [[Anglo-Iranian Oil Company]], that Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] had considered developing an American capability to restore Iranian production even in the absence of the company, and that the Justice Department believed the cooperation of the established major American companies was not required.[^56][^57] [[Herbert Hoover Jr.]] was appointed the new administration's special representative on the Iranian problem. On August 6, 1953 National Security Council Action Memorandum No. 875b designated the Attorney General to "develop a solution which would protect the interests of the free world in the Near East as a vital source of petroleum supplies," and in October 1953 overall authority was transferred from the Attorney General to the Secretary of State.[^57][^58] Church wrote that the American majors, encouraged by the downgrading of the cartel case to a civil action, stated that they would be willing to participate in a solution because of the "large national security interests involved" (letter from [[Orvil Harden]], December 4, 1953).[^58]
Church wrote that in March 1951 [[Iran]] had nationalized all local assets of the [[Anglo-Iranian Oil Company]], that Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] had considered developing an American capability to restore Iranian production even in the absence of the company, and that the Justice Department believed the cooperation of the established major American companies was not required.[^58][^59] [[Herbert Hoover Jr.]] was appointed the new administration's special representative on the Iranian problem. On August 6, 1953 National Security Council Action Memorandum No. 875b designated the Attorney General to "develop a solution which would protect the interests of the free world in the Near East as a vital source of petroleum supplies," and in October 1953 overall authority was transferred from the Attorney General to the Secretary of State.[^59][^60] Church wrote that the American majors, encouraged by the downgrading of the cartel case to a civil action, stated that they would be willing to participate in a solution because of the "large national security interests involved" (letter from [[Orvil Harden]], December 4, 1953).[^60]
Representatives of eight companies, namely the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, Royal Dutch Shell, Compagnie Française des Pétroles, Standard Oil France, Standard of California, Texas, Gulf and Socony, met in [[London]] on December 14, 15 and 17, 1953 at the invitation of the Anglo-Iranian company, with Hoover attending as an observer at the request of the Justice Department.[^59] [[John Foster Dulles]]'s memorandum of January 8, 1954 records that after the meeting of the National Security Council that day he, Wilson, Humphrey, Attorney General [[Herbert Brownell Jr.]] and Anderson discussed legal clearance for the American companies, and that the Attorney General "felt that he could give some sort of agreement not to sue" if requested in the national interest, and that the pending lawsuit would be continued in a way that would avoid undesirable publicity, which "would require some cooperation from the attorneys for the oil companies."[^60] On January 13, 1954 the assistant attorney general [[Stanley N. Barnes]] and the antitrust attorney [[Leonard Emmerglick]] gave Brownell the division's two primary objections to the consortium agreement: the possible use of a veto by the Anglo-Iranian company, the British government and the Iranian government, and the lack of freedom to set prices and markets.[^61] The National Security Council decided on January 14 that the security interests of the United States required the American petroleum companies to participate in an international consortium.[^58]
Representatives of eight companies, namely the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, Royal Dutch Shell, Compagnie Française des Pétroles, Standard Oil France, Standard of California, Texas, Gulf and Socony, met in [[London]] on December 14, 15 and 17, 1953 at the invitation of the Anglo-Iranian company, with Hoover attending as an observer at the request of the Justice Department.[^61] [[John Foster Dulles]]'s memorandum of January 8, 1954 records that after the meeting of the National Security Council that day he, Wilson, Humphrey, Attorney General [[Herbert Brownell Jr.]] and Anderson discussed legal clearance for the American companies, and that the Attorney General "felt that he could give some sort of agreement not to sue" if requested in the national interest, and that the pending lawsuit would be continued in a way that would avoid undesirable publicity, which "would require some cooperation from the attorneys for the oil companies."[^62] On January 13, 1954 the assistant attorney general [[Stanley N. Barnes]] and the antitrust attorney [[Leonard Emmerglick]] gave Brownell the division's two primary objections to the consortium agreement: the possible use of a veto by the Anglo-Iranian company, the British government and the Iranian government, and the lack of freedom to set prices and markets.[^63] The National Security Council decided on January 14 that the security interests of the United States required the American petroleum companies to participate in an international consortium.[^60]
On January 20, 1954 Brownell advised the National Security Council that the consortium, if organized as described and with the freedom of each member to sell oil at prices it determined, did not violate the antitrust laws. The opinion was given "subject to the express reservation of all rights of the United States" to continue prosecuting the action against Standard Oil Company of New Jersey and others, pending in the Southern District of New York as Civil No. 86-27.[^62] Hoover wrote on January 21 that the "five United States companies now named in the Cartel antitrust case are the only ones from this country who meet such a criteria" for participation in an Iranian settlement.[^63]
On January 20, 1954 Brownell advised the National Security Council that the consortium, if organized as described and with the freedom of each member to sell oil at prices it determined, did not violate the antitrust laws. The opinion was given "subject to the express reservation of all rights of the United States" to continue prosecuting the action against Standard Oil Company of New Jersey and others, pending in the Southern District of New York as Civil No. 86-27.[^64] Hoover wrote on January 21 that the "five United States companies now named in the Cartel antitrust case are the only ones from this country who meet such a criteria" for participation in an Iranian settlement.[^65]
The consortium's composition as set out on April 1, 1954 gave the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company 40 per cent, Royal Dutch Shell 14 per cent, Compagnie Française des Pétroles 6 per cent, and 8 per cent each to Jersey Standard, Socony-Vacuum, California Standard, Gulf Oil and Texas, making the American share 40 per cent; its negotiating representatives for [[Tehran]] were Harden of Jersey Standard, Snow of the Anglo-Iranian company and Loudon of Royal Dutch Shell.[^64] By May 1954 the consortium insisted that it control extraction and refining as principals, while the Iranians insisted that management remain under the [[National Iranian Oil Company]], and Ambassador [[Loy Henderson]] reported that the two sides were moving toward an agency arrangement.[^65] A joint Iranian-British statement of August 5, 1954 set compensation at 25 million pounds payable over ten years, free of interest, with payments beginning no earlier than January 1, 1957.[^66] On September 21, 1954 the Finance Minister, [[Ali Amini]], introduced into the [[Majlis]] a single-article bill to ratify an agreement signed by Iran and the National Iranian Oil Company on one side and by Gulf, Socony Vacuum, Standard Oil Company of New Jersey, Standard Oil Company of California, the Texas Oil Company, the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, N.V. Bataafsche Petroleum Maatschappij and Compagnie Française des Pétroles on the other.[^67] The Iranian Senate ratified the agreement on October 28, 1954 by 41 votes to 4, with 3 abstentions.[^68]
The consortium's composition as set out on April 1, 1954 gave the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company 40 per cent, Royal Dutch Shell 14 per cent, Compagnie Française des Pétroles 6 per cent, and 8 per cent each to Jersey Standard, Socony-Vacuum, California Standard, Gulf Oil and Texas, making the American share 40 per cent; its negotiating representatives for [[Tehran]] were Harden of Jersey Standard, Snow of the Anglo-Iranian company and Loudon of Royal Dutch Shell.[^66] By May 1954 the consortium insisted that it control extraction and refining as principals, while the Iranians insisted that management remain under the [[National Iranian Oil Company]], and Ambassador [[Loy Henderson]] reported that the two sides were moving toward an agency arrangement.[^67] A joint Iranian-British statement of August 5, 1954 set compensation at 25 million pounds payable over ten years, free of interest, with payments beginning no earlier than January 1, 1957.[^68] On September 21, 1954 the Finance Minister, [[Ali Amini]], introduced into the [[Majlis]] a single-article bill to ratify an agreement signed by Iran and the National Iranian Oil Company on one side and by Gulf, Socony Vacuum, Standard Oil Company of New Jersey, Standard Oil Company of California, the Texas Oil Company, the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, N.V. Bataafsche Petroleum Maatschappij and Compagnie Française des Pétroles on the other.[^69] The Iranian Senate ratified the agreement on October 28, 1954 by 41 votes to 4, with 3 abstentions.[^70]
Church's preface describes the later course of the consortium and the cartel case. Clause 28 of the Participants Agreement, which he printed for the first time, permitted companies holding an aggregate of 31 percent or more of the equity to set crude production at any level below the desires of the rest of the members; the Antitrust Division attorney Emmerglick wrote on August 19, 1954 that the "plan goes beyond the premises upon which the Attorney General's opinion delivered to the National Security Council was based." The Attorney General, who "felt that he had already crossed this bridge on January 20," approved the plan, and on September 15, 1954 "agreed that approval of the consortium was inconsistent with the cartel case as the complaint is drawn and that necessarily the case must proceed with emphasis on the marketing aspects and not on the production control aspects."[^58][^69] The Statement of Claims prepared in 1961 concerned marketing; consent decrees were entered against Gulf, Exxon and Texaco, and the case against Mobil and Socal was dismissed without prejudice. Church wrote that the National Security Council "perverted the law" and that "nowhere is there any reference to consultation with the United States Congress."[^69]
Church's preface describes the later course of the consortium and the cartel case. Clause 28 of the Participants Agreement, which he printed for the first time, permitted companies holding an aggregate of 31 percent or more of the equity to set crude production at any level below the desires of the rest of the members; the Antitrust Division attorney Emmerglick wrote on August 19, 1954 that the "plan goes beyond the premises upon which the Attorney General's opinion delivered to the National Security Council was based." The Attorney General, who "felt that he had already crossed this bridge on January 20," approved the plan, and on September 15, 1954 "agreed that approval of the consortium was inconsistent with the cartel case as the complaint is drawn and that necessarily the case must proceed with emphasis on the marketing aspects and not on the production control aspects."[^60][^71] The Statement of Claims prepared in 1961 concerned marketing; consent decrees were entered against Gulf, Exxon and Texaco, and the case against Mobil and Socal was dismissed without prejudice. Church wrote that the National Security Council "perverted the law" and that "nowhere is there any reference to consultation with the United States Congress."[^71]
### Guatemala, June 1954
On June 16, 1954, in a telephone call recorded by Secretary of State Dulles's secretary, [[Allen Dulles]], the Director of Central Intelligence, told John Foster Dulles that he was seeing that morning "men from Standard of NJ" who would "lay before him their position with regard to the small country down south," and that besides finding out their position he would "possibly slow things up without formalized action." The call concerned the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] operation against the government of [[Jacobo Arbenz]] in [[Guatemala]]; the Secretary asked whether [[Bourke B. Hickenlooper]] might introduce a sanctions bill in the Senate.[^70]
On June 16, 1954, in a telephone call recorded by Secretary of State Dulles's secretary, [[Allen Dulles]], the Director of Central Intelligence, told John Foster Dulles that he was seeing that morning "men from Standard of NJ" who would "lay before him their position with regard to the small country down south," and that besides finding out their position he would "possibly slow things up without formalized action." The call concerned the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] operation against the government of [[Jacobo Arbenz]] in [[Guatemala]]; the Secretary asked whether [[Bourke B. Hickenlooper]] might introduce a sanctions bill in the Senate.[^72]
### Latin America and the Rockefeller Network
Standard Oil of New Jersey's extensive holdings in [[Venezuela]] and across [[Latin America]] made the region central to the family's interests, and the young [[Nelson Rockefeller]] became a director of the company's Venezuelan subsidiary, Creole Petroleum, in the 1930s. His effort to manage the political risk to those holdings led to his 1940 appointment as [[Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs]], the wartime office that fused commercial interests, intelligence collection, and propaganda across the hemisphere.[^71] Creole Petroleum Corp. was a subsidiary of Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey) in 1949.[^72] Executive Order 8840 of July 30, 1941 established the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs within the Executive Office of the President and defined its functions and duties.[^73]
Standard Oil of New Jersey's extensive holdings in [[Venezuela]] and across [[Latin America]] made the region central to the family's interests, and the young [[Nelson Rockefeller]] became a director of the company's Venezuelan subsidiary, Creole Petroleum, in the 1930s. His effort to manage the political risk to those holdings led to his 1940 appointment as [[Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs]], the wartime office that fused commercial interests, intelligence collection, and propaganda across the hemisphere.[^73] Creole Petroleum Corp. was a subsidiary of Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey) in 1949.[^74] Executive Order 8840 of July 30, 1941 established the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs within the Executive Office of the President and defined its functions and duties.[^75]
### Footnotes
@ -185,68 +187,70 @@ Standard Oil of New Jersey's extensive holdings in [[Venezuela]] and across [[La
[^6]: *Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States*, 221 U.S. 1 (decided May 15, 1911), opinion of White, C.J., opening paragraph ("The Standard Oil Company of New Jersey and thirty-three other corporations, John D. Rockefeller, William Rockefeller, and five other individual defendants prosecute this appeal"). https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/221/1
[^7]: *Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States*, 221 U.S. 1 (decided May 15, 1911), concluding part of the opinion ("Our order will therefore be one of affirmance, with directions, however, to modify the decree"; the court below "to retain jurisdiction"). https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/221/1
[^8]: *Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States*, 221 U.S. 1 (decided May 15, 1911), opinion of Harlan, J., "concurring in part and dissenting in part." https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/221/1
[^9]: Exxon Mobil Corporation, Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 1999 (filed March 23, 2000), Item 1 ("Exxon Mobil Corporation ('ExxonMobil'), formerly named Exxon Corporation, was incorporated in the State of New Jersey in 1882"; merger of Mobil Corporation into a wholly owned subsidiary of Exxon on November 30, 1999) and SEC header (former conformed name Standard Oil Co of New Jersey, date of name change 1972-11-23), accession no. 0000930661-00-000656. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/34088/0000930661-00-000656.txt
[^10]: Chevron Corporation, Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2024 (filed February 21, 2025), note to Item 1 ("Incorporated in Delaware in 1926 as Standard Oil Company of California, the company adopted the name Chevron Corporation in 1984 and ChevronTexaco Corporation in 2001. In 2005, ChevronTexaco Corporation changed its name to Chevron Corporation"), accession no. 0000093410-25-000009. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/93410/000009341025000009/cvx-20241231.htm
[^11]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VI ("Standard Oil of New Jersey (now Exxon), Socony-Vacuum Oil Company (now Mobil), Standard Oil Company of California (Socal), The Texas Company (now Texaco), and Gulf Oil Corporation (Gulf)"). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^12]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), statement of Thurman W. Arnold, Assistant Attorney General, March 26, 1942, p. 4309 (the four agreements of November 9, 1929; "division of the fields," four-party, coordination and German sales agreements; Exhibits 360 to 364-A, appendix pp. 4561-4580). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^13]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, pp. 4309-4310 (allocation of fields; I.G. turning over patents directly concerning oil production, including synthetic gasoline). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^14]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4309 (two patent pools, one for synthetic rubber and chemicals controlled by Germany, one for synthetic gasoline controlled by Standard Oil). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^15]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, pp. 4307-4308 ("these arrangements were not entered into with any desire to help Germany. The sole motive was an attempt on the part of the Standard Oil to get a protected market, to eliminate independent competition, and, finally, to restrict world production in order to maintain that control"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^16]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4310 (letter signed by Mr. Teagle, Exhibit 367, appendix p. 4584); U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 7 ("Walter Teagle of Standard"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^17]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, pp. 4310-4311 (The Hague Memorandum; letter of Frank A. Howard of October 12, 1939, Exhibit 368, appendix pp. 4584-4585). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^18]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), testimony of W.S. Farish, March 31, 1942, p. 4374 (Standard-I.G. and Jasco holdings of 80 and 50 per cent; patents originated with I.G.; legal title left in I.G.). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^19]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Farish testimony, p. 4375 (assignment to an American trustee; German 20 per cent interest in Standard-I.G. bought at "book value ($20,000)"; Jasco settlement). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^20]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 1, "Vesting of Property of I.G. Farbenindustrie, Standard-I.G. Co., and Others," signed by Leo T. Crowley, March 25, 1942, 7 *Federal Register* 2417 (March 31, 1942) (Exhibit A, items 1 to 14 and schedules A to D of patents; issued under Executive Order 9095, 7 F.R. 1971). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-03-31/pdf/FR-1942-03-31.pdf
[^21]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, *Annual Report for the Period March 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943* (Washington: GPO, 1943), Exhibit A, "List of Vesting Orders Issued by the Office of Alien Property Custodian, Mar. 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943," first entry (interest of I.G. Farbenindustrie in Standard Catalytic Co. and Jasco Inc.). https://archive.org/details/officeofalienpro00unit
[^22]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, *Annual Report for the Period March 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943* (Washington: GPO, 1943), p. 97 (German interests in American patents and cartels; "acquired a substantial influence in American industry"; synthetic rubber among the industries listed). https://archive.org/details/officeofalienpro00unit
[^23]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), p. 325 and note (agreement of 1928 among Standard (New Jersey), Shell and Anglo-Iranian in Germany; marketing subsidiaries of Leuna and I.G. Farben; Deutsche Gasolin A.G. "owned 50 percent by Standard (Now Jersey), and 50 percent by I. G. Farbenindustrie"). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^24]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4312 ("I. G. Farben had the deciding voice on policy questions with respect to buna synthetic rubber"; four rubber companies and one chemical company, 1932 to 1934; Goodrich negotiations of 1932). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^25]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4312 (letter of Frank A. Howard to E.J. Sadler, February 6, 1940, Exhibit 371, appendix p. 4589); the same letter at pp. 4589-4590. https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^26]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4312 (butyl licensing). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^27]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4307 (Exhibit 359, release issued by Standard Oil on March 25, 1942, appendix p. 4560-4561; "The developments made under these agreements have advanced the progress of American industry and its ability to meet the war emergency"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^28]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4308 (refusal to let the British have a rubber sample as late as 1941). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^29]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Exhibit 441, information in the District Court of the United States for the District of New Jersey, appendix pp. 4693-4697 (defendants; Standard and General Motors each owning 50 per cent of the Ethyl Gasoline Corporation, "sole producer of tetraethyl lead," p. 4697). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^30]: Ethyl Gasoline Corp. v. United States, 309 U.S. 436 (1940), Harvard Caselaw Access Project, https://static.case.law/us/309/cases/0436-01.json.
[^31]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Howard letter of February 6, 1940 (Exhibit 371), appendix pp. 4589-4590 (Ethyl G.m.b.H. "owned 50% by the British Associated Ethyl Co. and 50% by I. G. Farbenindustrie," payment of "nearly $900,000"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^32]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), committee summary, pp. 4825-4826 (memorandum signed by E.J. Gohr, August 1, 1939, Exhibit S. 69, appendix p. 4907; letter of R.P. Russell to E.V. Murphree, August 11, 1939, on the process design of the "D. A. P. G. catalytic cracking plant"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^33]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Farish statement, March 31, 1942, p. 4360 (items 3 and 4 of the charges Farish listed; "This is true and as a German corporation, operating in Germany ... it could not have done otherwise"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^34]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), committee summary, pp. 4827-4828 (memorandum of Frank A. Howard to Messrs. Teagle and Farish, Exhibit S. 75, appendix p. 4916; "Thus Standard met with difficulties in developing aviation gasoline for our own Army because of the cartel agreement," p. 4828). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^35]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), testimony of Adolf A. Berle Jr., Assistant Secretary of State, April 3, 1942, pp. 4506-4508 (Lati and Condor; request of March 1941; conference of April 14, 1941). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^36]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold, March 27, 1942, p. 4345 (information, complaint and consent decree filed "day before yesterday"; nolo contendere; fines of $50,000; exchange with the chairman); consent decree of March 25, 1942 indexed at p. 4346. https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^37]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold, pp. 4346-4347 (royalty-free licensing under the rubber and toluol patents; transfer of know-how; no provision for the Attorney General or the court to pass on future relations with I.G.; "in the sum of millions of dollars and at the cost of its future domination of the industry," p. 4347). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^38]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold, p. 4328 (royalty-free licensing and compulsory licensing after the war; cost to the company "possibly $10,000,000. I think their release says $6,000,000"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^39]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Exhibit 440, "Final Judgment," United States v. Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) et al., District Court of the United States for the District of New Jersey, appendix pp. 4677-4687 (defendants named at p. 4677; paragraph (14), dissolution of Hydro Patents Co. and Hydro Engineering and Chemical Co. one year after entry, p. 4684; Alien Property Custodian consent and compulsory licensing, p. 4686). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^40]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Exhibit 441, information, paragraphs 34 and 35 (Hydro Patents Company and the Mutual Licensing Plan of July 11, 1930), appendix p. 4702. https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^41]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), pp. 29-33 (Report of the Attorney General to the National Security Council relative to the grand jury investigation of the international oil cartel, January 1953): pp. 29-30 (Federal Trade Commission resolution of December 2, 1949; subpoenas duces tecum of January 1950; staff report filed October 1951; instruction of June 23, 1952); p. 31 (cartel since 1928); p. 32 (committee of State, CIA, Defense and Justice). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^42]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), p. 24, Table 9 (crude oil production of seven international companies, 1949: Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey) 1,317.7 thousand barrels daily). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^43]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 27-28 (pipeline ownership: Creole Petroleum Corp., "a subsidiary of Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey)"; Trans-Arabian Pipe Line, Jersey 30 per cent, Texas 30, Standard of California 30, Socony-Vacuum 10; Interprovincial Pipe Line and Imperial Oil). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^44]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 31-32 (interlocking directorates; Aramco board of three members each from Standard Oil Co. (N.J.), Standard Oil Co. of California and Texas Co., one from Socony-Vacuum and one unaffiliated; summary: four of the seven companies own all the shares of Aramco). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^45]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 32 (Justice Department report of January 1953: "an indictment could have been returned on the basis of the Federal Trade Commission's staff report and a small number of documents in the possession of the Department of Justice"). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^46]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), pp. 5-6 and 29 (Federal Trade Commission material on production curtailment and on Navy prices). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^47]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 10 (1933 Saudi concession; Standard of New Jersey 30 per cent and Socony 10 per cent of Aramco stock; loans totaling $273,000,000; eighteen-year contracts; ratio 3:3:3:1). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^48]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 7 (Achnacarry Agreement of September 1928; Walter Teagle of Standard, Sir Henri Deterding of Shell and Anglo-Persian; "as is" basis; "Standard's fear of the American antitrust laws" and the parties' decision not to sign the final agreement). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^49]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 118-119 (Aramco in 1944 to 1946; Standard of California and Texas as owners; Ras Tanura refinery; production of 21,296 barrels daily in 1944 and 58,386 in 1945). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^50]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 119-121 (agreement in principle in December 1946; formal agreements of March 12, 1947; condition of settlement of the red-line controversy by March 12, 1951). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^51]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 122-124 (stock subscription agreements of March 12, 1947; Jersey $76,500,000 and Socony $25,500,000; guaranty of $102,000,000 in bank loans; effective December 1948 after the withdrawal of the Compagnie Francaise des Petroles suit in November 1948; limited veto; "nearly one-half billion dollars"). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^52]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, Volume VIII, *The Near East and Africa*, Document 850, Clayton to Dunn, April 7, 1945. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v08/d850
[^53]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, Volume VIII, *The Near East and Africa*, Document 892, Eddy to the Secretary of State, Jidda, June 21, 1945. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v08/d892
[^54]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, Volume VIII, *The Near East and Africa*, Document 920, Secretary of State to the Ambassador in the United Kingdom, August 8, 1945. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v08/d920
[^55]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 33 ("A decision at this time to terminate the pending investigation would be regarded by the world as a confession that our abhorrence of monopoly and restrictive cartel activities does not extend to the world's most important single industry"; letter of Harry S. Truman to Attorney General James P. McGranery, January 12, 1953). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^56]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. V (policies of "prosecution of the International Petroleum Cartel Case" and "creation of the Iranian Consortium"; announcement of July 17, 1952; subpoenas of August 1952 against 21 companies; Acheson memorandum of April 16, 1952). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^57]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VI (Truman letter of January 12, 1953; civil complaint filed April 14, 1953 in the District Court for the District of Columbia naming Standard Oil of New Jersey, Socony-Vacuum, Standard Oil Company of California, The Texas Company and Gulf Oil; transfer to the Southern District of New York at the defendants' request; Hoover appointed; National Security Council Action Memorandum No. 875b of August 6, 1953). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^58]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VII (transfer of authority in October 1953; letter from Harden, December 4, 1953; National Security Council decision of January 14, 1954; opinion of January 20, 1954; clause 28 of the Participants Agreement; Emmerglick memorandum of August 19, 1954). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^59]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 397, Butterworth to the Department of State, London, December 18, 1953. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d397
[^60]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 61 (memorandum of John Foster Dulles, January 8, 1954, following the meeting of the National Security Council). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^61]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 62 (memorandum to the files, Stanley N. Barnes, January 13, 1954). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^62]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 411, Brownell to the National Security Council, January 20, 1954 (action pending as Civil No. 86-27, Southern District of New York). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d411
[^63]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 413, Hoover to the Secretary of State, January 21, 1954. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d413
[^64]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 449, Aldrich to the Department of State, London, April 1, 1954. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d449
[^65]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 458, Henderson to the Department of State, Tehran, May 8, 1954. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d458
[^66]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 490, Henderson to the Department of State, Tehran, August 5, 1954 (joint Iranian-British statement: compensation of 25 million pounds payable over ten years, free of interest, payments not to begin before January 1, 1957). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d490
[^67]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 496, Henderson to the Department of State, Tehran, September 21, 1954 (single-article bill introduced by Finance Minister Amini). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d496
[^68]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 502, Secretary of State to the Embassy in Iran, October 28, 1954, editorial note (agreement in principle signed August 5, 1954 between the Government of Iran and the International Oil Consortium; ratified by the Iranian Senate on October 28, 1954, 41 votes to 4, with 3 abstentions). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d502
[^69]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VIII (memorandum to Barnes, September 15, 1954; Statement of Claims of 1961; consent decrees against Gulf, Exxon and Texaco; dismissal as to Mobil and Socal without prejudice; Emmerglick, September 15, 1954). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^70]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Guatemala, Document 189, Memorandum of Telephone Conversation between Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and Director of Central Intelligence Allen Dulles, Washington, June 16, 1954, 11:20 a.m. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54Guat/d189
[^71]: Colby, Gerard, and Charlotte Dennett. *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon: Nelson Rockefeller and Evangelism in the Age of Oil.* HarperCollins, 1995.
[^72]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), p. 27 (Creole Petroleum Corp., a subsidiary of Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey)). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^73]: Executive Order 8840, "Establishing the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs in the Executive Office of the President and Defining Its Functions and Duties," July 30, 1941. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-8840-establishing-the-office-the-coordinator-inter-american-affairs-the
[^9]: Yale University, *Obituary Record of the Graduates of the Undergraduate Schools, Deceased 1915 to 1920*, entry for Oliver Hazard Payne, B.A. 1863, pp. 295 to 296 (treasurer until 1884; board thereafter; death June 27, 1917; nephews). https://archive.org/details/1915t20obituary00yaleuoft
[^10]: *Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States*, 221 U.S. 1 (1911), decree Section 2 as set out in the opinion ("the seven individual defendants"; "Oliver H. Payne"). https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/221/1
[^11]: Exxon Mobil Corporation, Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 1999 (filed March 23, 2000), Item 1 ("Exxon Mobil Corporation ('ExxonMobil'), formerly named Exxon Corporation, was incorporated in the State of New Jersey in 1882"; merger of Mobil Corporation into a wholly owned subsidiary of Exxon on November 30, 1999) and SEC header (former conformed name Standard Oil Co of New Jersey, date of name change 1972-11-23), accession no. 0000930661-00-000656. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/34088/0000930661-00-000656.txt
[^12]: Chevron Corporation, Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2024 (filed February 21, 2025), note to Item 1 ("Incorporated in Delaware in 1926 as Standard Oil Company of California, the company adopted the name Chevron Corporation in 1984 and ChevronTexaco Corporation in 2001. In 2005, ChevronTexaco Corporation changed its name to Chevron Corporation"), accession no. 0000093410-25-000009. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/93410/000009341025000009/cvx-20241231.htm
[^13]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VI ("Standard Oil of New Jersey (now Exxon), Socony-Vacuum Oil Company (now Mobil), Standard Oil Company of California (Socal), The Texas Company (now Texaco), and Gulf Oil Corporation (Gulf)"). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^14]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), statement of Thurman W. Arnold, Assistant Attorney General, March 26, 1942, p. 4309 (the four agreements of November 9, 1929; "division of the fields," four-party, coordination and German sales agreements; Exhibits 360 to 364-A, appendix pp. 4561-4580). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^15]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, pp. 4309-4310 (allocation of fields; I.G. turning over patents directly concerning oil production, including synthetic gasoline). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^16]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4309 (two patent pools, one for synthetic rubber and chemicals controlled by Germany, one for synthetic gasoline controlled by Standard Oil). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^17]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, pp. 4307-4308 ("these arrangements were not entered into with any desire to help Germany. The sole motive was an attempt on the part of the Standard Oil to get a protected market, to eliminate independent competition, and, finally, to restrict world production in order to maintain that control"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^18]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4310 (letter signed by Mr. Teagle, Exhibit 367, appendix p. 4584); U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 7 ("Walter Teagle of Standard"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^19]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, pp. 4310-4311 (The Hague Memorandum; letter of Frank A. Howard of October 12, 1939, Exhibit 368, appendix pp. 4584-4585). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^20]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), testimony of W.S. Farish, March 31, 1942, p. 4374 (Standard-I.G. and Jasco holdings of 80 and 50 per cent; patents originated with I.G.; legal title left in I.G.). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^21]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Farish testimony, p. 4375 (assignment to an American trustee; German 20 per cent interest in Standard-I.G. bought at "book value ($20,000)"; Jasco settlement). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^22]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 1, "Vesting of Property of I.G. Farbenindustrie, Standard-I.G. Co., and Others," signed by Leo T. Crowley, March 25, 1942, 7 *Federal Register* 2417 (March 31, 1942) (Exhibit A, items 1 to 14 and schedules A to D of patents; issued under Executive Order 9095, 7 F.R. 1971). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-03-31/pdf/FR-1942-03-31.pdf
[^23]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, *Annual Report for the Period March 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943* (Washington: GPO, 1943), Exhibit A, "List of Vesting Orders Issued by the Office of Alien Property Custodian, Mar. 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943," first entry (interest of I.G. Farbenindustrie in Standard Catalytic Co. and Jasco Inc.). https://archive.org/details/officeofalienpro00unit
[^24]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, *Annual Report for the Period March 11, 1942 to June 30, 1943* (Washington: GPO, 1943), p. 97 (German interests in American patents and cartels; "acquired a substantial influence in American industry"; synthetic rubber among the industries listed). https://archive.org/details/officeofalienpro00unit
[^25]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), p. 325 and note (agreement of 1928 among Standard (New Jersey), Shell and Anglo-Iranian in Germany; marketing subsidiaries of Leuna and I.G. Farben; Deutsche Gasolin A.G. "owned 50 percent by Standard (Now Jersey), and 50 percent by I. G. Farbenindustrie"). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^26]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4312 ("I. G. Farben had the deciding voice on policy questions with respect to buna synthetic rubber"; four rubber companies and one chemical company, 1932 to 1934; Goodrich negotiations of 1932). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^27]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4312 (letter of Frank A. Howard to E.J. Sadler, February 6, 1940, Exhibit 371, appendix p. 4589); the same letter at pp. 4589-4590. https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^28]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4312 (butyl licensing). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^29]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4307 (Exhibit 359, release issued by Standard Oil on March 25, 1942, appendix p. 4560-4561; "The developments made under these agreements have advanced the progress of American industry and its ability to meet the war emergency"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^30]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold statement, p. 4308 (refusal to let the British have a rubber sample as late as 1941). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^31]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Exhibit 441, information in the District Court of the United States for the District of New Jersey, appendix pp. 4693-4697 (defendants; Standard and General Motors each owning 50 per cent of the Ethyl Gasoline Corporation, "sole producer of tetraethyl lead," p. 4697). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^32]: Ethyl Gasoline Corp. v. United States, 309 U.S. 436 (1940), Harvard Caselaw Access Project, https://static.case.law/us/309/cases/0436-01.json.
[^33]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Howard letter of February 6, 1940 (Exhibit 371), appendix pp. 4589-4590 (Ethyl G.m.b.H. "owned 50% by the British Associated Ethyl Co. and 50% by I. G. Farbenindustrie," payment of "nearly $900,000"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^34]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), committee summary, pp. 4825-4826 (memorandum signed by E.J. Gohr, August 1, 1939, Exhibit S. 69, appendix p. 4907; letter of R.P. Russell to E.V. Murphree, August 11, 1939, on the process design of the "D. A. P. G. catalytic cracking plant"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^35]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Farish statement, March 31, 1942, p. 4360 (items 3 and 4 of the charges Farish listed; "This is true and as a German corporation, operating in Germany ... it could not have done otherwise"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^36]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), committee summary, pp. 4827-4828 (memorandum of Frank A. Howard to Messrs. Teagle and Farish, Exhibit S. 75, appendix p. 4916; "Thus Standard met with difficulties in developing aviation gasoline for our own Army because of the cartel agreement," p. 4828). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^37]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), testimony of Adolf A. Berle Jr., Assistant Secretary of State, April 3, 1942, pp. 4506-4508 (Lati and Condor; request of March 1941; conference of April 14, 1941). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^38]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold, March 27, 1942, p. 4345 (information, complaint and consent decree filed "day before yesterday"; nolo contendere; fines of $50,000; exchange with the chairman); consent decree of March 25, 1942 indexed at p. 4346. https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^39]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold, pp. 4346-4347 (royalty-free licensing under the rubber and toluol patents; transfer of know-how; no provision for the Attorney General or the court to pass on future relations with I.G.; "in the sum of millions of dollars and at the cost of its future domination of the industry," p. 4347). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^40]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Arnold, p. 4328 (royalty-free licensing and compulsory licensing after the war; cost to the company "possibly $10,000,000. I think their release says $6,000,000"). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^41]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Exhibit 440, "Final Judgment," United States v. Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) et al., District Court of the United States for the District of New Jersey, appendix pp. 4677-4687 (defendants named at p. 4677; paragraph (14), dissolution of Hydro Patents Co. and Hydro Engineering and Chemical Co. one year after entry, p. 4684; Alien Property Custodian consent and compulsory licensing, p. 4686). https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^42]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, *Investigation of the National Defense Program*, Hearings, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 11 (Rubber) (Washington: GPO, 1942), Exhibit 441, information, paragraphs 34 and 35 (Hydro Patents Company and the Mutual Licensing Plan of July 11, 1930), appendix p. 4702. https://archive.org/details/investigationofn1942unit
[^43]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), pp. 29-33 (Report of the Attorney General to the National Security Council relative to the grand jury investigation of the international oil cartel, January 1953): pp. 29-30 (Federal Trade Commission resolution of December 2, 1949; subpoenas duces tecum of January 1950; staff report filed October 1951; instruction of June 23, 1952); p. 31 (cartel since 1928); p. 32 (committee of State, CIA, Defense and Justice). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^44]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), p. 24, Table 9 (crude oil production of seven international companies, 1949: Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey) 1,317.7 thousand barrels daily). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^45]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 27-28 (pipeline ownership: Creole Petroleum Corp., "a subsidiary of Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey)"; Trans-Arabian Pipe Line, Jersey 30 per cent, Texas 30, Standard of California 30, Socony-Vacuum 10; Interprovincial Pipe Line and Imperial Oil). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^46]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 31-32 (interlocking directorates; Aramco board of three members each from Standard Oil Co. (N.J.), Standard Oil Co. of California and Texas Co., one from Socony-Vacuum and one unaffiliated; summary: four of the seven companies own all the shares of Aramco). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^47]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 32 (Justice Department report of January 1953: "an indictment could have been returned on the basis of the Federal Trade Commission's staff report and a small number of documents in the possession of the Department of Justice"). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^48]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), pp. 5-6 and 29 (Federal Trade Commission material on production curtailment and on Navy prices). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^49]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 10 (1933 Saudi concession; Standard of New Jersey 30 per cent and Socony 10 per cent of Aramco stock; loans totaling $273,000,000; eighteen-year contracts; ratio 3:3:3:1). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^50]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 7 (Achnacarry Agreement of September 1928; Walter Teagle of Standard, Sir Henri Deterding of Shell and Anglo-Persian; "as is" basis; "Standard's fear of the American antitrust laws" and the parties' decision not to sign the final agreement). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^51]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 118-119 (Aramco in 1944 to 1946; Standard of California and Texas as owners; Ras Tanura refinery; production of 21,296 barrels daily in 1944 and 58,386 in 1945). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^52]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 119-121 (agreement in principle in December 1946; formal agreements of March 12, 1947; condition of settlement of the red-line controversy by March 12, 1951). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^53]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), pp. 122-124 (stock subscription agreements of March 12, 1947; Jersey $76,500,000 and Socony $25,500,000; guaranty of $102,000,000 in bank loans; effective December 1948 after the withdrawal of the Compagnie Francaise des Petroles suit in November 1948; limited veto; "nearly one-half billion dollars"). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^54]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, Volume VIII, *The Near East and Africa*, Document 850, Clayton to Dunn, April 7, 1945. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v08/d850
[^55]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, Volume VIII, *The Near East and Africa*, Document 892, Eddy to the Secretary of State, Jidda, June 21, 1945. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v08/d892
[^56]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945*, Volume VIII, *The Near East and Africa*, Document 920, Secretary of State to the Ambassador in the United Kingdom, August 8, 1945. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v08/d920
[^57]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 33 ("A decision at this time to terminate the pending investigation would be regarded by the world as a confession that our abhorrence of monopoly and restrictive cartel activities does not extend to the world's most important single industry"; letter of Harry S. Truman to Attorney General James P. McGranery, January 12, 1953). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^58]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. V (policies of "prosecution of the International Petroleum Cartel Case" and "creation of the Iranian Consortium"; announcement of July 17, 1952; subpoenas of August 1952 against 21 companies; Acheson memorandum of April 16, 1952). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^59]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VI (Truman letter of January 12, 1953; civil complaint filed April 14, 1953 in the District Court for the District of Columbia naming Standard Oil of New Jersey, Socony-Vacuum, Standard Oil Company of California, The Texas Company and Gulf Oil; transfer to the Southern District of New York at the defendants' request; Hoover appointed; National Security Council Action Memorandum No. 875b of August 6, 1953). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^60]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VII (transfer of authority in October 1953; letter from Harden, December 4, 1953; National Security Council decision of January 14, 1954; opinion of January 20, 1954; clause 28 of the Participants Agreement; Emmerglick memorandum of August 19, 1954). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^61]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 397, Butterworth to the Department of State, London, December 18, 1953. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d397
[^62]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 61 (memorandum of John Foster Dulles, January 8, 1954, following the meeting of the National Security Council). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^63]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), p. 62 (memorandum to the files, Stanley N. Barnes, January 13, 1954). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^64]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 411, Brownell to the National Security Council, January 20, 1954 (action pending as Civil No. 86-27, Southern District of New York). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d411
[^65]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 413, Hoover to the Secretary of State, January 21, 1954. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d413
[^66]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 449, Aldrich to the Department of State, London, April 1, 1954. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d449
[^67]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 458, Henderson to the Department of State, Tehran, May 8, 1954. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d458
[^68]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 490, Henderson to the Department of State, Tehran, August 5, 1954 (joint Iranian-British statement: compensation of 25 million pounds payable over ten years, free of interest, payments not to begin before January 1, 1957). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d490
[^69]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 496, Henderson to the Department of State, Tehran, September 21, 1954 (single-article bill introduced by Finance Minister Amini). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d496
[^70]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Volume X, *Iran, 1951-1954*, Document 502, Secretary of State to the Embassy in Iran, October 28, 1954, editorial note (agreement in principle signed August 5, 1954 between the Government of Iran and the International Oil Consortium; ratified by the Iranian Senate on October 28, 1954, 41 votes to 4, with 3 abstentions). https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v10/d502
[^71]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, *The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and U.S. National Security* (committee print, February 21, 1974), preface by Senator Frank Church, p. VIII (memorandum to Barnes, September 15, 1954; Statement of Claims of 1961; consent decrees against Gulf, Exxon and Texaco; dismissal as to Mobil and Socal without prejudice; Emmerglick, September 15, 1954). https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalPetroleumCartelTheIranianConsortiumAndU.S.NationalSecurity
[^72]: *Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954*, Guatemala, Document 189, Memorandum of Telephone Conversation between Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and Director of Central Intelligence Allen Dulles, Washington, June 16, 1954, 11:20 a.m. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54Guat/d189
[^73]: Colby, Gerard, and Charlotte Dennett. *Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon: Nelson Rockefeller and Evangelism in the Age of Oil.* HarperCollins, 1995.
[^74]: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, *The International Petroleum Cartel*, Staff Report to the Federal Trade Commission Submitted to the Subcommittee on Monopoly of the Select Committee on Small Business, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 2d Sess., Committee Print No. 6 (Washington: GPO, 1952), p. 27 (Creole Petroleum Corp., a subsidiary of Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey)). https://archive.org/details/CIA-RDP57-00384R000700130001-2
[^75]: Executive Order 8840, "Establishing the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs in the Executive Office of the President and Defining Its Functions and Duties," July 30, 1941. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-8840-establishing-the-office-the-coordinator-inter-american-affairs-the

18
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Time.md
View file

@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ tags:
- LSD
- MKUltra
summary: "American news magazine, first published in 1923, whose 1991 cover story on the Bank of Credit and Commerce International was later disputed in a Senate subcommittee report."
updated: 2026-10-12
updated: 2026-10-26
start: 1923
location: "New York City, New York"
relations:
@ -79,7 +79,7 @@ Bernstein wrote that [[Allen Dulles]] "often interceded with his good friend, th
Bernstein described [[C. D. Jackson]] as "Luce's personal emissary to the CIA." He wrote that Jackson "approved specific arrangements for providing CIA employees with Time-Life cover," and that some of these arrangements were made with the knowledge of [[Clare Boothe Luce]]. [[Hedley Donovan]], who took over editorial direction of all Time Inc. publications in 1959, denied in a telephone interview that he knew of any such arrangements. Bernstein wrote that, according to CIA officials including those who dealt with Luce, other arrangements for Time cover were made with Donovan's knowledge. Bernstein also wrote that Jackson, while a Time executive, coauthored a CIA-sponsored study recommending the reorganization of the American intelligence services in the early 1950s. "I was never approached and I'd be amazed if Luce approved such arrangements," Donovan said. "Luce had a very scrupulous regard for the difference between journalism and government."[^4]
The [[Church Committee]] took up the same subject in Book I of its final report. The committee recorded that on February 11, 1976 the CIA announced: "Effective immediately, CIA will not enter into any paid or contractual relationship with any full-time or part-time news correspondent accredited by any U.S. news service, newspaper, periodical, radio or television network or station." The committee counted approximately 50 CIA relationships with U.S. journalists or media employees at the time of that announcement, of which fewer than one-half would be terminated under the new guidelines. It found that more than a dozen U.S. news organizations and publishing houses had provided cover for CIA agents abroad. The committee wrote that the use of American journalists and media organizations for clandestine operations "is a threat to the integrity of the press."[^5]
The [[Church Committee]] took up the same subject in Book I of its final report. The committee recorded that on February 11, 1976 the CIA announced: "Effective immediately, CIA will not enter into any paid or contractual relationship with any full-time or part-time news correspondent accredited by any U.S. news service, newspaper, periodical, radio or television network or station." The committee counted about 50 CIA relationships with U.S. journalists or media employees at the time of that announcement, of which fewer than one-half would be terminated under the new guidelines. It found that more than a dozen U.S. news organizations and publishing houses had provided cover for CIA agents abroad. The committee wrote that the use of American journalists and media organizations for clandestine operations "is a threat to the integrity of the press."[^5]
The minutes of the CIA Deputies' Meeting of July 21, 1952 record [[Frank Wisner]] as having "Noted that we were prepared to talk to Mr. Luce's representative any time he came to Washington and that we had sufficient material on hand which would allow TIME and/or LIFE to publish an exclusive story on the Duclos affair over and above the information already made public." In response to a query from the Director, [[Walter Bedell Smith]], on authenticity, Wisner stated that "(1) we were 90% positive that the information in question was authentic; (2) he would, however, pass this along to the TIME and/or LIFE representative; (3) we now have in our possession a photostat copy of Duclos' diary which was written in longhand; (4) he believed we were on safe ground in our '90% estimate' since the Communists had already vociferously decried publicity given so far to the Duclos papers."[^6]
@ -87,7 +87,7 @@ A 2024 article by [[Simon Willmetts]], "The CIA and Time Magazine: Journalistic
### C. D. Jackson and the psychological warfare apparatus
Jackson's papers at the [[Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library]] list him as a Time Inc. vice president from 1940, as president of the [[Free Europe Committee]] from 1951 to 1952, as a special assistant to President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] for international affairs from 1953 to 1954, and as publisher of Life from 1960. A Central Intelligence Agency biographical sheet on Jackson states that he joined Time Incorporated in 1931 as Assistant to the President, became General Manager of Life in 1937 and Vice President of Time Incorporated in 1940, became Publisher of Fortune in February 1949, went on leave in February 1951 to become President of the [[Free Europe Committee|National Committee for a Free Europe]], returned to Time Inc. in February 1952, and in October 1952 was on leave to head the Eisenhower headquarters speech-writer group.[^8] The finding aid states that the Free Europe Committee directed [[Radio Free Europe]]. Jackson died in New York City on September 18, 1964. The papers include a folder on [[Crusade for Freedom]].[^9]
Jackson's papers at the [[Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library]] list him as a Time Inc. vice president from 1940, as president of the [[Free Europe Committee]] from 1951 to 1952, as a special assistant to President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] for international affairs from 1953 to 1954, and as publisher of Life from 1960. A Central Intelligence Agency biographical sheet on Jackson states that he joined Time Incorporated in 1931 as Assistant to the President, became General Manager of Life in 1937 and Vice President of Time Incorporated in 1940, became Publisher of Fortune in February 1949, went on leave in February 1951 to become President of the National Committee for a Free Europe, returned to Time Inc. in February 1952, and in October 1952 was on leave to head the Eisenhower headquarters speech-writer group.[^8] The finding aid states that the Free Europe Committee directed [[Radio Free Europe]]. Jackson died in New York City on September 18, 1964. The papers include a folder on [[Crusade for Freedom]].[^9]
The finding aid sets a condition on use. It records that "Permission of Time Incorporated is required to cite or quote materials originated by any individual in his capacity as an official of Time Incorporated," which applies to the Time Inc. file covering Jackson's career from 1931 to 1964.[^10]
@ -101,15 +101,15 @@ The [[Center for International Studies]] at MIT, which had emerged from [[Projec
### Life and the Zapruder film
After the assassination of [[John F. Kennedy]], [[Abraham Zapruder]] took his camera film to a Dallas processing plant, had three copies made, gave two to representatives of the [[United States Secret Service|Secret Service]], and kept the original and one copy.[^15] [[Richard Stolley]], Life's Los Angeles bureau chief, was the first journalist to reach him. Life obtained the print rights on November 23, 1963 for $50,000. On November 25, 1963 Time-Life bought all rights, including the motion picture rights, for $150,000 in total, paid in six installments. Accounts of the purchase credit C. D. Jackson with approving the purchase of the motion picture rights and with limiting what Life's mass-market magazines would show.[^16] Zapruder told the [[Warren Commission]] that he had received $25,000, which he gave to the family of [[J. D. Tippit]]. The Assassination Records Review Board staff noted that this $25,000 apparently was the first of six payments for the film and its copy, and reported the sale price as $150,000.[^17]
After the assassination of [[John F. Kennedy]], [[Abraham Zapruder]] took his camera film to a Dallas processing plant, had three copies made, gave two to representatives of the [[United States Secret Service|Secret Service]], and kept the original and one copy.[^15] [[Richard Stolley]], Life's Los Angeles bureau chief, was the first journalist to reach him. [[Jim DiEugenio]] wrote in the journal Probe in 1998, drawing on an interview with Stolley, that Life obtained the print rights on November 23, 1963 for $50,000 and that on November 25, 1963 Time-Life bought all rights, including the motion picture rights, for $150,000 in total. He wrote that C. D. Jackson approved the purchase of the motion picture rights and "decided to restrict what that company would show through its mass market magazines," that Life never showed the film in anything near its entirety, that the company sued [[Josiah Thompson]] over stills in *Six Seconds in Dallas*, and that [[Jim Garrison]] subpoenaed the film from Time-Life in 1969 for the [[Clay Shaw]] trial.[^16] Zapruder told the [[Warren Commission]] that he had received $25,000, which he gave to the family of [[J. D. Tippit]]. The Assassination Records Review Board staff noted that this $25,000 apparently was the first of six payments for the film and its copy, and reported the sale price as $150,000.[^17]
At the commission's request a representative of Life brought the original to the commission's offices and screened it several times, because "the original had considerably more detail and more there to study than any of the copies, since in the photographic process each time you copy you lose some detail." The board's letter of April 21, 1995 to the general counsel of Time Warner records that the commission's report shows Life cooperating closely with the commission's investigation.[^18]
In October 1974 [[Lawrence Layburne]], a vice president of Time Inc., informed the [[National Archives and Records Administration|National Archives]] that transfer of the original film to the government was proposed. On April 9, 1975 Time Inc. assigned the copyright to Mrs. Zapruder for "$1 and other valuable consideration," and on the same date deeded first and second generation copies of the film to the federal government. The original was placed at the archives at the Zapruders' request for storage, and no deed of gift transferring the original was ever executed. In 1978 Henry Zapruder asked the archives to hold and administer the original.[^15][^18]
In October 1974 [[Lawrence Layburne]], a vice president of Time Inc., informed the [[National Archives and Records Administration|National Archives]] that transfer of the original film to the government was proposed. The review board's memorandum of April 6, 1995 records that in 1974 Time-Life notified the archives that it was considering whether to donate all of its rights in the film.[^15] A review board letter of April 21, 1995 to the general counsel of [[Time Warner]] gives the notice from Layburne as 1975.[^18] On April 9, 1975 Time Inc. assigned the copyright to Mrs. Zapruder for "$1 and other valuable consideration," and on the same date deeded first and second generation copies of the film to the federal government. The original was placed at the archives at the Zapruders' request for storage, and no deed of gift transferring the original was ever executed. In 1978 Henry Zapruder asked the archives to hold and administer the original.[^15][^18]
The review board's letter of May 1, 1995 to [[E. Gabriel Perle]], a former general counsel of Time Inc., reports that from Time Inc.'s files "it appears that the Zapruders do have legal title to the original film as well as ownership of the copyright." The letter adds that, according to the documents, Time Inc. was constrained by terms in the original contract.[^19] Under the 1992 JFK Records Collection Act the original film was transferred to the JFK Records Collection at the National Archives on August 1, 1998. On August 3, 1999 the Justice Department announced that an arbitration panel, chaired by the former Third Circuit judge Arlin M. Adams, had voted two to one to award the heirs of Abraham Zapruder $16 million for the film. The LMH Company, the film's former owner, had asked for $30 million, and the arbitrator Walter Dellinger dissented, writing that $3 to $5 million would have been enough. The company kept the copyright.[^20]
The review board's executive director, [[T. Jeremy Gunn]], wrote to Time Inc. asking for early reproductions of frames from the film, for any further documentation of the film's chain of custody, and for information from Life's inquiry of 1966 and 1967. The letter states that during the autumn of 1966 Life and [[Bernard Geis Associates]] had jointly retained [[Josiah Thompson]] to research the assassination.[^21]
The review board's executive director, [[T. Jeremy Gunn]], wrote to Time Inc. asking for early reproductions of frames from the film, for any further documentation of the film's chain of custody, and for information from Life's inquiry of 1966 and 1967. The letter states that during the autumn of 1966 Life and [[Bernard Geis Associates]] had jointly retained Josiah Thompson to research the assassination.[^21]
### LSD and the Luce magazines
@ -182,10 +182,10 @@ On September 16, 2018, the Meredith Corporation, which had acquired Time Inc., a
### Footnotes
[^1]: Time, "The First Issue of TIME Magazine: Read It Here," time.com. https://time.com/4684747/first-issue-vault/ (cover dated March 3, 1923).
[^2]: Carl Bernstein, "The CIA and the Media," *Rolling Stone*, October 20, 1977. Reprint at carlbernstein.com, http://www.carlbernstein.com/magazine_cia_and_media.php (passage on the cooperating executives and the New York Times, CBS and Time Inc.).
[^2]: Carl Bernstein, "The CIA and the Media," *Rolling Stone*, October 20, 1977. Reprint, https://ia600409.us.archive.org/23/items/carl-bernstein-cia-and-the-media/Carl%20Bernstein%20CIA%20and%20the%20Media.pdf (passage on the cooperating executives and the New York Times, CBS and Time Inc.).
[^3]: Bernstein, "The CIA and the Media," reprint (passage on Allen Dulles, Luce's briefings of the Agency, and Time's correspondents at CIA briefing dinners).
[^4]: Bernstein, "The CIA and the Media," reprint (passage on C. D. Jackson, Time-Life cover, and Hedley Donovan's denial).
[^5]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Final Report, Book I: Foreign and Military Intelligence*, S. Rep. No. 94-755 (1976), Chapter X.B, "Covert Relationships with the United States Media," pp. 191-201. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_I.pdf
[^5]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, *Final Report, Book I: Foreign and Military Intelligence*, S. Rep. No. 94-755 (1976), Chapter X.B, "Covert Relationships with the United States Media," pp. 191-201 (about 50 relationships and the Director's pledge at p. 192), and the covert action chapter, "The Covert Use of U.S. Journalists and Media Institutions," pp. 454-455 (the announcement of February 11, 1976, the statement on news organizations that provided cover, and the statement that the use of journalists "is a threat to the integrity of the press"). https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_I.pdf
[^6]: Central Intelligence Agency, Deputies' Meeting, July 21, 1952, p. 1. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/1952-07-21.pdf
[^7]: Simon Willmetts, "The CIA and Time Magazine: Journalistic Ethics and Newsroom Dissent," Universiteit Leiden, research output listing, August 19, 2024. https://universiteitleiden.nl/en/research/research-output/governance-and-global-affairs/the-cia-and-time-magazine-journalistic-ethics-and-newsroom-dissent
[^8]: Central Intelligence Agency, "Charles D. Jackson," biographical sheet, CIA-RDP75-00001R000200140002-9, p. 1. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp75-00001r000200140002-9
@ -196,7 +196,7 @@ On September 16, 2018, the Meredith Corporation, which had acquired Time Inc., a
[^13]: Time, February 24, 1967, vol. 89, no. 8, passage on the Center for International Studies, CIA reading room document CIA-RDP84-00161R000400210135-8. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp84-00161r000400210135-8
[^14]: Jennet Conant, *The Irregulars: Roald Dahl and the British Spy Ring in Wartime Washington* (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2008).
[^15]: Assassination Records Review Board, Sheryl Walter, memorandum, "Zapruder film update," April 6, 1995, NARA JFK Collection, ARRB file ZP45MT. https://documents3.theblackvault.com/documents/jfkfiles/NARA-Oct2017/ARRB/SWALTER/WP-DOCS/ZAPRUDER/ZP45MT.WPD.pdf
[^16]: Richard Stolley's purchase of the Zapruder film for Life, as described in "The Zapruder Film Comes to Home Video," kennedysandking.com, October 15, 1998. https://www.kennedysandking.com/john-f-kennedy-articles/333
[^16]: Jim DiEugenio, history of the film's ownership, *Probe* vol. 5, no. 6 (September-October 1998), reproduced as "The Zapruder Film Comes to Home Video," kennedysandking.com, October 15, 1998, citing Stolley's interview on *Burden of Proof*, July 18, 1998. https://www.kennedysandking.com/john-f-kennedy-articles/333
[^17]: Walter memorandum, April 6, 1995, note 1 (Zapruder's Warren Commission testimony and the $25,000 payment).
[^18]: Assassination Records Review Board, letter to Harry M. Johnston III, general counsel, Time Warner Inc., April 21, 1995, ARRB file TMLF421. https://documents3.theblackvault.com/documents/jfkfiles/NARA-Oct2017/ARRB/SWALTER/WP-DOCS/ZAPRUDER/TMLF421.WPD.pdf
[^19]: Assassination Records Review Board, letter to E. Gabriel Perle, May 1, 1995, ARRB file ZPTHXGP. https://documents3.theblackvault.com/documents/jfkfiles/NARA-Oct2017/ARRB/SWALTER/WP-DOCS/ZAPRUDER/ZPTHXGP.WPD.pdf

45
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Union Banking Corporation.md
View file

@ -63,13 +63,19 @@ relations:
start: 1924-08-04
end: 1942-10-20
role: "one of seven directors according to the incorporation documents as reported by the Guardian; registered holder of one share in Vesting Order Number 248"
fn: 11
fn: 14
- type: director_of
with: "[[E. Roland Harriman]]"
reverse: true
start: 1932
role: "director in 1932, according to Sutton (1976), Table 7-1"
fn: 6
fn: 7
- type: director_of
with: "[[Knight Woolley]]"
reverse: true
start: 1932
role: "listed among eight directors for 1932 in Sutton's 1983 account; not among the directors in the corporation's report of January 1, 1941"
fn: 8
---
The Union Banking Corporation (UBC) was a New York corporation incorporated on August 4, 1924 and wholly owned by the [[Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart]] of Rotterdam. The Alien Property Custodian vested all of its capital stock under the [[Trading with the Enemy Act]] on October 20, 1942, in an order that records the stock as held for the benefit of that bank and describes the bank as owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family.[^1]
@ -80,35 +86,44 @@ A Treasury Department memorandum of August 18, 1941, from Mr. May to Mr. [[J. W.
The memorandum records gold purchases of over eight million dollars in 1931 to 1933, of which $3,085,000 was delivered to the [[Federal Reserve Bank]] on June 15, 1934. It states that the rumor that Fritz Thyssen had large gold deposits in the United States might have arisen from those purchases, while adding that all purchases were "satisfactorily accounted for" in the books. It states that in the fall of 1938 the corporation held two million dollars in currency in a New York safe deposit box, later deposited in its account with [[Brown Brothers Harriman]].[^2] The memorandum does not name [[Prescott Bush]].[^2] The [[The Guardian|Guardian]] dated the same memorandum August 16, 1941.[^3]
### Correspondence with the Superintendent of Banks, 1941
On January 14, 1941, Knight Woolley, a partner of Brown Brothers Harriman, wrote to [[William R. White]], superintendent of banks for the State of New York, about the corporation, which he described as "a state institution under your supervision." The letter names "E. R. Harriman, Ray Morris, Prescott S. Bush and our manager, H. D. Pennington" as the directors, and describes the corporation as "in effect a New York office, or agency, of the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, in Rotterdam." The letter calls the four directors "my partners" and says the corporation was located at 39 Broadway. It states that the bank was the corporation's only depositor, that its activity was "limited to occasional payments and a few purchases and sales of securities," and that its accounts had been frozen under the presidential proclamation of May 10, 1940. Morris or Pennington had to sign checks jointly with the president, Cornelius Lievense, or with an assistant, and a representative of the firm had to be present whenever the safe deposit box at the Chase Bank was opened. The letter says: "Should the United States enter the war, they feel they might be under some embarrassment because of their connection with the bank, even though we have no financial interest in the Union Banking Corporation, nor do we participate in its earnings." Woolley asked White for "a frank expression from you as to the action" the directors should take, and wrote that they acted as directors "merely as a matter of business courtesy."[^4]
White replied on May 13, 1941 that the department had not had to give the corporation the unusual attention given other banking organizations affected by the freezing orders "because of the confidence which the department has in the directors of this institution," that it "would not feel free to object" if Harriman, Bush and Pennington resigned, and that "the department would be gratified if these gentlemen could find it possible to remain on the board during this period of uncertainty."[^4] A report of the corporation issued on January 1, 1941 and reprinted in the same source lists the directors as Lievense, E. Roland Harriman, Pennington, Bush, J. Kouwenhoven, Ray Morris and J. G. Groeninger.[^4]
### Vesting Order Number 248
On October 20, 1942 the Alien Property Custodian, Leo T. Crowley, signed Vesting Order Number 248, published in the Federal Register on November 7, 1942. It vested "all of the capital stock of Union Banking Corporation, a New York corporation," consisting of 4,000 shares of $100 par value common stock, and listed the registered owners and their shares: [[E. Roland Harriman]], 3,991; [[Cornelius Lievense]], 4; [[Harold D. Pennington]], 1; [[Ray Morris]], 1; Prescott S. Bush, 1; [[H. J. Kouwenhoven]], 1; and [[Johann G. Groeninger]], 1. The order states "all of which shares are held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N. V., Rotterdam, The Netherlands, which bank is owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family, nationals of Germany and/or Hungary." A second paragraph vested all claims of that bank and of the August Thyssen-Bank, Berlin, against the corporation for indebtedness.[^1]
### Holders and Directors
Of the seven registered holders in the vesting order, four were connected with Brown Brothers Harriman. E. Roland Harriman became a partner of the Harriman bank on October 30, 1926 and of the merged firm on January 1, 1931. Prescott Bush was a partner of Harriman Brothers & Co. on January 1, 1930 and of the merged firm on January 1, 1931. Ray Morris was a partner from January 1, 1921 to 1956. Harold D. Pennington was a partner of Harriman Brothers during 1930, manager in charge of operations of the merged firm from its start, and a partner from January 1, 1945 to December 31, 1956.[^4] The Yale class history of 1917 states of Edward Roland Noel Harriman, "He is a member of Psi Upsilon and Skull and Bones," and of Prescott Sheldon Bush, "He belongs to the Whiffenpoofs, Psi Upsilon, and Skull and Bones."[^5]
Of the seven registered holders in the vesting order, four were connected with Brown Brothers Harriman. E. Roland Harriman became a partner of the Harriman bank on October 30, 1926 and of the merged firm on January 1, 1931. Prescott Bush was a partner of Harriman Brothers & Co. on January 1, 1930 and of the merged firm on January 1, 1931. Ray Morris was a partner from January 1, 1921 to 1956. Harold D. Pennington was a partner of Harriman Brothers during 1930, manager in charge of operations of the merged firm from its start, and a partner from January 1, 1945 to December 31, 1956.[^5] The Yale class history of 1917 states of Edward Roland Noel Harriman, "He is a member of Psi Upsilon and Skull and Bones," and of Prescott Sheldon Bush, "He belongs to the Whiffenpoofs, Psi Upsilon, and Skull and Bones."[^6]
[[Antony C. Sutton]] described the corporation in 1976 as "a joint Thyssen-Harriman operation," wrote that the Harrimans had a financial interest in it, described the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart as a Thyssen front bank in Holland that controlled it, and named E. Roland Harriman, a vice president of W. A. Harriman & Co., and H. J. Kouwenhoven as directors in a table of its directors in 1932.[^6] In his 1983 book on Skull and Bones he listed eight directors: E. Roland Harriman as a vice president of W. A. Harriman & Co.; [[Ellery Sedgwick James]] as a partner of Brown Brothers & Co.; Prescott Sheldon Bush as a partner of Brown Brothers Harriman; [[Knight Woolley]] as a director of [[Guaranty Trust Company]] and of the [[Federal Reserve Bank of New York]]; Cornelius Lievense as president; and H. J. Kouwenhoven, Johann G. Groeninger and [[J. L. Guinter]]. He wrote that four of the directors were members of the Yale class of 1917 and of the same society, and that Kouwenhoven and Groeninger were directors of the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, which he described as the former von Heydt bank.[^7] The firm's partner table gives November 25, 1932 as the date of James's death.[^4]
[[Antony C. Sutton]] described the corporation in 1976 as "a joint Thyssen-Harriman operation," wrote that the Harrimans had a financial interest in it, described the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart as a Thyssen front bank in Holland that controlled it, and named E. Roland Harriman, a vice president of W. A. Harriman & Co., and H. J. Kouwenhoven as directors in a table of its directors in 1932.[^7] In his 1983 book on Skull and Bones he listed eight directors: E. Roland Harriman as a vice president of W. A. Harriman & Co.; [[Ellery Sedgwick James]] as a partner of Brown Brothers & Co.; Prescott Sheldon Bush as a partner of Brown Brothers Harriman; [[Knight Woolley]] as a director of [[Guaranty Trust Company]] and of the [[Federal Reserve Bank of New York]]; Cornelius Lievense as president; and H. J. Kouwenhoven, Johann G. Groeninger and [[J. L. Guinter]]. He wrote that four of the directors were members of the Yale class of 1917 and of the same society, and that Kouwenhoven and Groeninger were directors of the Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, which he described as the former von Heydt bank.[^8] The Federal Reserve Bank of New York's annual report for 1939 lists Knight Woolley of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. as a member of the bank's foreign exchange committee, representing private banks and investment houses.[^9] The bank's Circular No. 1015 of January 8, 1931 names Clarence M. Woolley of Greenwich, Connecticut, chairman of American Radiator and Standard Sanitary Corporation, as a Class C director of the bank for three years from January 1, 1931.[^10] The firm's partner table gives November 25, 1932 as the date of James's death.[^5]
### Holland-American Trading and Seamless Steel Equipment, 1942
Vesting Order Number 259 vested all of the capital stock of the [[Seamless Steel Equipment Corporation]], a New York corporation of 500 shares of $100 par value stock, registered in the name of Cornelius Lievense and held for the benefit of Press- und Walzwerk A.G. of [[Düsseldorf]] and of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart. Vesting Order Number 261 vested all of the capital stock of the [[Holland-American Trading Corporation]], also a New York corporation with 500 shares, held by E. Roland Harriman (491 shares), Lievense (4), and Harold D. Pennington, Ray Morris, Knight Woolley, H. J. Kouwenhoven and J. G. Groeninger (1 share each), for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart. Both orders were executed October 28, 1942 and published in the Federal Register on December 19, 1942.[^8][^9] The Guardian described both companies as affiliates against which "further seizures were made" after the seizure of the Union Banking Corporation.[^10]
Vesting Order Number 259 vested all of the capital stock of the [[Seamless Steel Equipment Corporation]], a New York corporation of 500 shares of $100 par value stock, registered in the name of Cornelius Lievense and held for the benefit of Press- und Walzwerk A.G. of [[Düsseldorf]] and of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart. Vesting Order Number 261 vested all of the capital stock of the [[Holland-American Trading Corporation]], also a New York corporation with 500 shares, held by E. Roland Harriman (491 shares), Lievense (4), and Harold D. Pennington, Ray Morris, Knight Woolley, H. J. Kouwenhoven and J. G. Groeninger (1 share each), for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart. Both orders were executed October 28, 1942 and published in the Federal Register on December 19, 1942.[^11][^12] The Guardian described both companies as affiliates against which "further seizures were made" after the seizure of the Union Banking Corporation.[^13]
### The Guardian Account, 2004
[[Ben Aris]] and [[Duncan Campbell]] reported in the Guardian in 2004 that the incorporation documents of the corporation "list him as one of seven directors" and show that Prescott Bush owned one share worth $125.[^11] They also reported that [[Homer Jones]], chief of the Alien Property Custodian's investigation and research division, sent a memorandum to the custodian's executive committee within weeks of the investigation. Jones named the directors of the bank in that memorandum, including Bush, and wrote that the stock was "held by the above named individuals, however, solely as nominees for the Bank voor Handel, Rotterdam, Holland, which is owned by one or more of the Thyssen family."[^12]
[[Ben Aris]] and [[Duncan Campbell]] reported in the Guardian in 2004 that the incorporation documents of the corporation "list him as one of seven directors" and show that Prescott Bush owned one share worth $125.[^14] They also reported that [[Homer Jones]], chief of the Alien Property Custodian's investigation and research division, sent a memorandum to the custodian's executive committee within weeks of the investigation. Jones named the directors of the bank in that memorandum, including Bush, and wrote that the stock was "held by the above named individuals, however, solely as nominees for the Bank voor Handel, Rotterdam, Holland, which is owned by one or more of the Thyssen family."[^15]
### Footnotes
[^1]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 248, "All of the Capital Stock of Union Banking Corporation and Certain Indebtedness Owing by It," executed October 20, 1942, signed Leo T. Crowley, F.R. Doc. 42-11568, filed November 6, 1942, 7 *Federal Register* 9097 (November 7, 1942). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1942-11-07/pdf/FR-1942-11-07.pdf
[^2]: Treasury Department memorandum, Mr. May to Mr. Pehle, August 18, 1941, "Re: Union Banking Corporation," ref. 9-151, with handwritten notation by J. W. Pehle, declassified by NARA (authority NND 960103).
[^3]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004, which gives the date of the report as "August 16 1941." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
[^4]: John A. Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking: An Historical Portrait of a Great Private Bank, Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., 1818-1968* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1968), partner table pp. 231 to 235 and caption of the Pennington photograph pp. 197 to 198. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^5]: *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. 1 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1917), entries for Edward Roland Noel Harriman and Prescott Sheldon Bush (pp. 105 to 106). https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr
[^6]: Antony C. Sutton, *Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler* (1976), p. 103 (Table 7-1 and text on the 1932 directors and the joint Thyssen-Harriman operation) and pp. 106 to 107 (E. Roland Harriman).
[^7]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983; Trine Day, 2002), section "The Union Banking Connection," with the table of the eight directors in 1932.
[^8]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 259, "All of the Capital Stock of Seamless Steel Equipment Corporation," executed October 28, 1942, filed December 18, 1942 (F.R. Doc. 42-13530), *Federal Register* 7 (December 19, 1942), pp. 10626 to 10627. https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-register-find_1942-12-19_7_248
[^9]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 261, "All of the Capital Stock of Holland-American Trading Corporation," executed October 28, 1942 (F.R. Doc. 42-13532, filed December 18, 1942), *Federal Register* 7 (December 19, 1942), p. 10627, holder table of 500 shares. https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-register-find_1942-12-19_7_248
[^10]: Ben Aris and Duncan Campbell, "How Bush's grandfather helped Hitler's rise to power," *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: "Having gone through the books of the bank, further seizures were made against two affiliates, the Holland-American Trading Corporation and the Seamless Steel Equipment Corporation." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
[^11]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: "the incorporation documents, which list him as one of seven directors, show he owned one share in UBC worth $125." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
[^12]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004, quoting the Homer Jones memorandum from National Archives vesting files. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
[^4]: Kris Millegan, *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society* (Trine Day, 2003), reprint of the Woolley letter of January 14, 1941, the White reply of May 13, 1941 and the corporation's report of January 1, 1941, pp. 214 to 217, and the chapter's narrative of the directorship, pp. 222 to 223. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^5]: John A. Kouwenhoven, *Partners in Banking: An Historical Portrait of a Great Private Bank, Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., 1818-1968* (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1968), partner table pp. 231 to 235 and caption of the Pennington photograph pp. 197 to 198. https://archive.org/details/partnersinbankinganhistoricalportraitofagreatprivateb
[^6]: *History of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Seventeen, Yale College*, vol. 1 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1917), entries for Edward Roland Noel Harriman and Prescott Sheldon Bush (pp. 105 to 106). https://archive.org/details/historyofclassof00murr
[^7]: Antony C. Sutton, *Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler* (1976), p. 103 (Table 7-1 and text on the 1932 directors and the joint Thyssen-Harriman operation) and pp. 106 to 107 (E. Roland Harriman).
[^8]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones* (1983; Trine Day, 2002), section "The Union Banking Connection," with the table of the eight directors in 1932.
[^9]: Federal Reserve Bank of New York, *Twenty-Fifth Annual Report* (for the year 1939), pp. 16 to 17 and note 2 on the foreign exchange committee. https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-reserve-bank-of-new-york-annual-report_1939-12-31
[^10]: Federal Reserve Bank of New York, Circular No. 1015, "Appointment of Directors," January 8, 1931. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/files/docs/historical/ny%20circulars/1931_01015.pdf
[^11]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 259, "All of the Capital Stock of Seamless Steel Equipment Corporation," executed October 28, 1942, filed December 18, 1942 (F.R. Doc. 42-13530), *Federal Register* 7 (December 19, 1942), pp. 10626 to 10627. https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-register-find_1942-12-19_7_248
[^12]: Office of the Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order Number 261, "All of the Capital Stock of Holland-American Trading Corporation," executed October 28, 1942 (F.R. Doc. 42-13532, filed December 18, 1942), *Federal Register* 7 (December 19, 1942), p. 10627, holder table of 500 shares. https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-register-find_1942-12-19_7_248
[^13]: Ben Aris and Duncan Campbell, "How Bush's grandfather helped Hitler's rise to power," *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: "Having gone through the books of the bank, further seizures were made against two affiliates, the Holland-American Trading Corporation and the Seamless Steel Equipment Corporation." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
[^14]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004: "the incorporation documents, which list him as one of seven directors, show he owned one share in UBC worth $125." https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar
[^15]: Aris and Campbell, *The Guardian*, September 25, 2004, quoting the Homer Jones memorandum from National Archives vesting files. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar

260
20 - ORGANIZATIONS/PRIVATE/Yale University.md
View file

@ -30,83 +30,83 @@ relations:
role: "assistant professor of English; OSS Library Project collector in Istanbul from April 1943; returned to Yale in the summer of 1946"
start: 1943
end: 1946
fn: 24
fn: 27
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Richard Bissell]]"
reverse: true
role: "doctorate in economics, 1939; taught economics at Yale before moving to MIT in 1942"
start: 1939
end: 1942
fn: 33
fn: 36
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Sherman Kent]]"
reverse: true
role: "history professor before 1941; left for the OSS Research and Analysis Branch; returned in 1947 or 1949 (the CIA essays give both); left for the CIA in 1950"
start: 1933
end: 1950
fn: 32
fn: 35
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Mark A. May]]"
reverse: true
role: "professor of educational psychology; director of the Institute of Human Relations, 1935 to 1961"
start: 1927
end: 1960
fn: 36
fn: 39
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Stanley Milgram]]"
reverse: true
role: "conducted the obedience experiments in the Yale interaction laboratory; at Harvard by 1963"
start: 1960
end: 1963
fn: 39
fn: 42
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Myron S. Malkin]]"
reverse: true
role: "member of the physics faculty"
start: 1952
end: 1961
fn: 48
fn: 51
- type: employed_by
with: "[[José M. R. Delgado]]"
reverse: true
role: "Department of Psychiatry; came to Yale in 1952 as an instructor"
start: 1952
fn: 41
fn: 44
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Robert B. Livingston]]"
reverse: true
role: "School of Medicine, instructor to assistant professor of physiology under John F. Fulton"
start: 1946
end: 1952
fn: 42
fn: 45
- type: employed_by
with: "[[Robert Byck]]"
reverse: true
role: "Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine; testified before the House Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control on July 26, 1979"
start: 1979
end: 1979
fn: 53
fn: 56
- type: employed_by
with: "[[José A. Cabranes]]"
reverse: true
role: "general counsel and director of government relations"
start: 1975
end: 1979
fn: 58
fn: 62
- type: head_of
with: "[[Richard Levin]]"
reverse: true
role: "twenty-second president"
start: 1993
end: 2013
fn: 77
fn: 81
- type: funded
with: "[[Thiel Foundation]]"
reverse: true
role: "$25,000 grant to Yale University for education, 2006"
start: 2006
end: 2006
fn: 76
fn: 80
---
Yale University is a private university in [[New Haven, Connecticut]], chartered by the [[Connecticut Colony]] in 1701 as a collegiate school. Its senior society [[Skull and Bones]], its wartime faculty recruited into the [[Office of Strategic Services]] and the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], its psychology, psychiatry and neurophysiology laboratories, and its alumni in the federal courts and the executive branch appear in the records of intelligence services, behavioral research, parapsychology, drug policy and finance.
@ -117,170 +117,180 @@ The General Court of the Colony of Connecticut passed an "Act for a Collegiate S
### Skull and Bones and the Russell Trust Association
[[David A. Richards]], who is writing a history of American college societies and whose name the magazine's editors note appears in the Class of 1967 list of Skull and Bones members, wrote in the Yale Alumni Magazine in 2015 that Skull and Bones was founded in 1832 on the conception of [[William Huntington Russell]], the valedictorian of the Class of 1833, with [[Alphonso Taft]] as a cofounder, and that its members called it the Eulogian Club before a skull and crossbones sketched on a chapel-door notice gave it its name and its badge number, 322. He wrote that in 1856 the society's alumni incorporated it in Connecticut as a trust called the Russell Trust Association, so that a corporation could hold title to the windowless "tomb" on High Street, which was later estimated to have cost about $30,000.[^3] A reader's letter in the same magazine, citing [[James Bradley]]'s book *The China Mirage*, stated that the money for the 1856 building was "Russell money" traced to [[Russell and Company]] of Canton, "America's biggest smuggler of Turkish opium into China."[^4] The Connecticut Secretary of the State's business registry lists "The Russell Trust Association" as a domestic business of the type "Special Chartered," status "Active," account number 0269315.[^5]
[[David A. Richards]], who is writing a history of American college societies and whose name the magazine's editors note appears in the Class of 1967 list of Skull and Bones members, wrote in the Yale Alumni Magazine in 2015 that Skull and Bones was founded in 1832 on the conception of [[William Huntington Russell]], the valedictorian of the Class of 1833, with [[Alphonso Taft]] as a cofounder, and that its members called it the Eulogian Club before a skull and crossbones sketched on a chapel-door notice gave it its name and its badge number, 322. He wrote that in 1856 the society's alumni incorporated it in Connecticut as a trust called the Russell Trust Association, so that a corporation could hold title to the windowless "tomb" on High Street, which was later estimated to have cost about $30,000.[^3] [[Lyman Bagg]] wrote in *[[Four Years at Yale]]* (1871) that "General Russell, the valedictorian of that class, is its reputed founder."[^4] A reader's letter in the same magazine, citing [[James Bradley]]'s book *The China Mirage*, stated that the money for the 1856 building was "Russell money" traced to [[Russell and Company]] of Canton, "America's biggest smuggler of Turkish opium into China."[^5] The Hamlin genealogy of 1900 records that the founder of Russell and Company, Samuel Russell (born at Middletown on August 25, 1789), and William Huntington Russell were second cousins, both descended from William Russell, a son of the Yale founder, the Rev. Noadiah Russell.[^6] Yale's obituary notice of William Huntington Russell describes him as "a descendant from one of the founders of the College, each link of the descent having been in his turn a graduate and officer of the institution."[^7] The Connecticut Secretary of the State's business registry lists "The Russell Trust Association" as a domestic business of the type "Special Chartered," status "Active," account number 0269315.[^8]
[[Ron Rosenbaum]] wrote in [[Esquire]] in September 1977 that the society's members included [[McGeorge Bundy]], [[Averell Harriman]], [[Henry L. Stimson]], [[Henry Luce]] and Supreme Court Justice [[Potter Stewart]]. The Yale Obituary Record for 1950 to 1951 lists, among the undergraduate honors of Stimson, B.A. 1888, "He Boule, Psi Upsilon, Skull and Bones, Chi Delta Theta, Phi Beta Kappa."[^6] Rosenbaum also wrote that Bundy's brother [[William P. Bundy]] and [[William F. Buckley]] entered the Central Intelligence Agency after their years in the society.[^7] Bundy majored in mathematics at Yale and then returned to [[Harvard University]] and its Society of Fellows after the war.[^8] A [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] memorandum of October 20, 1950 from [[Louis B. Nichols]] to [[Clyde Tolson]] records that Buckley "graduated at Yale in 1950, and was chairman of" the Yale Daily News, and that the editor of the News had promoted a forum at the Yale Law School in 1949 at which Nichols spoke.[^9]
[[Ron Rosenbaum]] wrote in [[Esquire]] in September 1977 that the society's members included [[McGeorge Bundy]], [[Averell Harriman]], [[Henry L. Stimson]], [[Henry Luce]] and Supreme Court Justice [[Potter Stewart]]. The Yale Obituary Record for 1950 to 1951 lists, among the undergraduate honors of Stimson, B.A. 1888, "He Boule, Psi Upsilon, Skull and Bones, Chi Delta Theta, Phi Beta Kappa."[^9] Rosenbaum also wrote that Bundy's brother [[William P. Bundy]] and [[William F. Buckley Jr.]] entered the Central Intelligence Agency after their years in the society: one could ask "Bill Bundy or Bill Buckley, both of whom went into the C.I.A. after leaving Bones," and "the man Coffin tapped for Bones, William F. Buckley Jr., was himself tapped by the C.I.A. the following year."[^10] Bundy majored in mathematics at Yale and then returned to [[Harvard University]] and its Society of Fellows after the war.[^11] A [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] memorandum of October 20, 1950 from [[Louis B. Nichols]] to [[Clyde Tolson]] records that Buckley "graduated at Yale in 1950, and was chairman of" the Yale Daily News, and that the editor of the News had promoted a forum at the Yale Law School in 1949 at which Nichols spoke.[^12]
[[George W. Bush]] entered Yale in 1964 and received a bachelor's degree in history in 1968.[^10] [[Jacques Leslie]], a member of the Class of 1968, wrote in [[Salon]] in March 2000 that he and Bush had both been asked to join Skull and Bones, that he refused on Tap Night, and that "Bush, on the other hand, joined Bones." Leslie cited [[Bill Minutaglio]]'s biography *First Son* for the account that Bush had considered a society called Gin and Tonic but was swayed when his father, then a congressman, conducted the tapping himself. Leslie listed Stimson (Class of 1888), Stewart, Harriman, Luce, [[John Hersey]] and [[William Sloane Coffin]] as members, and wrote that students heard rumors that the society's assets made it the largest corporation in Connecticut and that each member was guaranteed a lifetime annual stipend of $20,000, adding that "Nobody knew whether the rumors were true."[^11]
[[George W. Bush]] entered Yale in 1964 and received a bachelor's degree in history in 1968.[^13] [[Jacques Leslie]], a member of the Class of 1968, wrote in [[Salon]] in March 2000 that he and Bush had both been asked to join Skull and Bones, that he refused on Tap Night, and that "Bush, on the other hand, joined Bones." Leslie cited [[Bill Minutaglio]]'s biography *First Son* for the account that Bush had considered a society called Gin and Tonic but was swayed when his father, then a congressman, conducted the tapping himself. Leslie listed Stimson (Class of 1888), Stewart, Harriman, Luce, [[John Hersey]] and [[William Sloane Coffin]] as members, and wrote that students heard rumors that the society's assets made it the largest corporation in Connecticut and that each member was guaranteed a lifetime annual stipend of $20,000, adding that "Nobody knew whether the rumors were true."[^14]
The [[George H. W. Bush Presidential Library]] describes its file FOIA 2009-0116-F as records "related to the Skull and Bones Society at Yale University, of which George H. W. Bush and his father Prescott Bush were both members." The file contains correspondence from President Bush to Buckley and [[Thomas W. Ludlow Ashley]] about a Buckley article in [[National Review]] answering [[Pat Buchanan]]'s characterization of Bush's foreign policy as "Skull and Bones foreign policy" during the 1992 campaign, administrative forms for a Skull and Bones tea held at the White House on October 20, 1989, and newspaper articles on the rumor that [[Prescott Bush]] and a group of Skull and Bones members had taken the skull of the Apache leader [[Geronimo]].[^12] Vesting Order 248 of the Alien Property Custodian, executed October 20, 1942 and published in the Federal Register on November 7, 1942, vested "All of the capital stock of Union Banking Corporation," 4,000 shares held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N.V., Rotterdam, "which bank is owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family." It lists the registered owners as [[E. Roland Harriman]] (3,991 shares), Cornelius Lievense (4), Harold D. Pennington (1), Ray Morris (1), Prescott S. Bush (1), H. J. Kouwenhoven (1) and Johann G. Groeninger (1).[^13]
The [[George H. W. Bush Presidential Library]] describes its file FOIA 2009-0116-F as records "related to the Skull and Bones Society at Yale University, of which George H. W. Bush and his father Prescott Bush were both members." The file contains correspondence from President Bush to Buckley and [[Thomas W. Ludlow Ashley]] about a Buckley article in [[National Review]] answering [[Pat Buchanan]]'s characterization of Bush's foreign policy as "Skull and Bones foreign policy" during the 1992 campaign, administrative forms for a Skull and Bones tea held at the White House on October 20, 1989, and newspaper articles on the rumor that [[Prescott Bush]] and a group of Skull and Bones members had taken the skull of the Apache leader [[Geronimo]].[^15] Vesting Order 248 of the Alien Property Custodian, executed October 20, 1942 and published in the Federal Register on November 7, 1942, vested "All of the capital stock of Union Banking Corporation," 4,000 shares held for the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N.V., Rotterdam, "which bank is owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family." It lists the registered owners as [[E. Roland Harriman]] (3,991 shares), Cornelius Lievense (4), Harold D. Pennington (1), Ray Morris (1), Prescott S. Bush (1), H. J. Kouwenhoven (1) and Johann G. Groeninger (1).[^16]
A special act of the [[Connecticut General Assembly]] in 1856 incorporated the Russell Trust Association "for the purpose of the intellectual and moral improvement of its members, and for that only"; the act limited its holdings of real and personal estate to fifteen thousand dollars, and an act approved July 9, 1943 raised the limit to seven hundred thousand dollars.[^14] In 1961 the members incorporated RTA Incorporated as a Connecticut nonstock corporation "for exclusively educational purposes," including "the support of education at Yale University," with its assets on dissolution payable to Yale University.[^15] RTA Incorporated (EIN 06-0768741) is recognized by the [[Internal Revenue Service]] as a section 501(c)(3) organization and reports itself as a Type III functionally integrated supporting organization of Yale University; its return for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021 reports total assets of $16,127,481, and the exempt-organization master file lists assets of $17,071,890 for the period ending June 2025.[^16][^17] A Yale spokeswoman told the Yale Alumni Magazine in 2009 that Skull and Bones is not part of the university and is legally independent of it.[^18]
A special act of the [[Connecticut General Assembly]] in 1856 incorporated the Russell Trust Association "for the purpose of the intellectual and moral improvement of its members, and for that only"; the act limited its holdings of real and personal estate to fifteen thousand dollars, and an act approved July 9, 1943 raised the limit to seven hundred thousand dollars.[^17] In 1961 the members incorporated RTA Incorporated as a Connecticut nonstock corporation "for exclusively educational purposes," including "the support of education at Yale University," with its assets on dissolution payable to Yale University.[^18] RTA Incorporated (EIN 06-0768741) is recognized by the [[Internal Revenue Service]] as a section 501(c)(3) organization and reports itself as a Type III functionally integrated supporting organization of Yale University; its return for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021 reports total assets of $16,127,481, and the exempt-organization master file lists assets of $17,071,890 for the period ending June 2025.[^19][^20] A Yale spokeswoman told the Yale Alumni Magazine in 2009 that Skull and Bones is not part of the university and is legally independent of it.[^21]
[[Antony C. Sutton]]'s book states that the Sterling Library at Yale, which holds major holdings of the society's records, had refused researchers further access to the Russell Trust papers.[^19] Ron Rosenbaum reported in 1977 that he found the File and Claw pamphlet in the library's manuscript room, filed under the corporate name Russell Trust Association.[^20]
[[Antony C. Sutton]]'s book states that the Sterling Library at Yale, which holds major holdings of the society's records, had refused researchers further access to the Russell Trust papers.[^22] Ron Rosenbaum reported in 1977 that he found the File and Claw pamphlet in the library's manuscript room, filed under the corporate name Russell Trust Association.[^23]
In 2017 a pro se complaint, *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340 (S.D. Tex.), named Yale University, the Russell Trust Association, George H.W. Bush and Willard Mitt Romney as defendants. It alleged that the society holds the skull of [[Pancho Villa]] and asked for its return for burial in Mexico City. The court dismissed it for lack of subject matter jurisdiction on December 18, 2017, and the Fifth Circuit dismissed the appeal on February 28, 2018.[^21] In the United States District Court for the District of Columbia, twenty descendants of Geronimo sued Yale University and the Order of Skull and Bones in 2009 over the removal of Geronimo's remains, which the opinion places "in or around 1918." Judge [[Richard W. Roberts]] dismissed the complaint as to all defendants in a memorandum opinion of July 27, 2010.[^22] The Yale Alumni Magazine reported in 2006 a letter of June 7, 1918 from one member to another stating that the skull of Geronimo had been taken from [[Fort Sill]] and was "safe inside" the society's building.[^23]
In 2017 a pro se complaint, *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340 (S.D. Tex.), named Yale University, the Russell Trust Association, George H.W. Bush and Willard Mitt Romney as defendants. It alleged that the society holds the skull of [[Pancho Villa]] and asked for its return for burial in Mexico City. The court dismissed it for lack of subject matter jurisdiction on December 18, 2017, and the Fifth Circuit dismissed the appeal on February 28, 2018.[^24] In the United States District Court for the District of Columbia, twenty descendants of Geronimo sued Yale University and the Order of Skull and Bones in 2009 over the removal of Geronimo's remains, which the opinion places "in or around 1918." Judge [[Richard W. Roberts]] dismissed the complaint as to all defendants in a memorandum opinion of July 27, 2010.[^25] The Yale Alumni Magazine reported in 2006 a letter of June 7, 1918 from one member to another stating that the skull of Geronimo had been taken from [[Fort Sill]] and was "safe inside" the society's building.[^26]
### The Library Project, the Research and Analysis Branch and X-2
Yale's wartime collection of enemy publications served as cover for an Office of Strategic Services operation. In April 1943 Joseph Toy Curtiss, an assistant professor of English, sailed for Istanbul with a $25,000 fund to acquire books and war material for Yale and other libraries; he had been recruited to collect intelligence on the Axis powers, and the operation was called the Library Project. [[Donald Downes]], an OSS officer and Yale graduate, formed the plan after reading a notice in the Yale Library Gazette. Only Curtiss and the collection's two curators, [[Russell Pruden]] and [[Thomas Mendenhall]], knew the purpose at Yale; President [[Charles Seymour]] was not told. The OSS sent the money to [[Walter Pforzheimer|Walter L. Pforzheimer]], a trustee of the Yale Library Associates, who presented it to the university as a gift from anonymous alumni, and two sets of accounts were kept, one for Yale and one for the OSS. The Library Project remained secret until 1953, and Curtiss returned to Yale in the summer of 1946 and taught there for twenty more years.[^24] The Yale research archivist who wrote that account cites [[Robin W. Winks]], a Yale history professor, and his book *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* for the Yale connections of the new intelligence service.[^25] A Walter Pforzheimer received a letter from the chief investigator of the [[Senate Internal Security Subcommittee]] on May 9, 1955, and a letter from [[Daniel O. Graham]] on September 23, 1980 enclosing a partial membership list of the [[National Strategy Committee]]; the records found do not state whether that recipient is the Yale trustee of the same name.[^26]
Yale's wartime collection of enemy publications served as cover for an Office of Strategic Services operation. In April 1943 Joseph Toy Curtiss, an assistant professor of English, sailed for Istanbul with a $25,000 fund to acquire books and war material for Yale and other libraries; he had been recruited to collect intelligence on the Axis powers, and the operation was called the Library Project. [[Donald Downes]], an OSS officer and Yale graduate, formed the plan after reading a notice in the Yale Library Gazette. Only Curtiss and the collection's two curators, [[Russell Pruden]] and [[Thomas Mendenhall]], knew the purpose at Yale; President [[Charles Seymour]] was not told. The OSS sent the money to [[Walter Pforzheimer|Walter L. Pforzheimer]], a trustee of the Yale Library Associates, who presented it to the university as a gift from anonymous alumni, and two sets of accounts were kept, one for Yale and one for the OSS. The Library Project remained secret until 1953, and Curtiss returned to Yale in the summer of 1946 and taught there for twenty more years.[^27] The Yale research archivist who wrote that account cites [[Robin W. Winks]], a Yale history professor, and his book *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* for the Yale connections of the new intelligence service.[^28] A Walter Pforzheimer received a letter from the chief investigator of the [[Senate Internal Security Subcommittee]] on May 9, 1955, and a letter from [[Daniel O. Graham]] on September 23, 1980 enclosing a partial membership list of the [[National Strategy Committee]]; the records found do not state whether that recipient is the Yale trustee of the same name.[^29]
[[Norman Holmes Pearson]], a Yale University professor, headed [[X-2]], the OSS counterintelligence branch, in London, according to a review in the CIA's Studies in Intelligence of the memoirs of Richard W. Cutler, a Yale-educated lawyer who built X-2's agent vetting section at Pearson's direction.[^27] [[James Jesus Angleton]] (class of 1941) entered Yale in 1937, majored in English literature, and edited the poetry review [[Furioso]], which published [[T.S. Eliot]] and [[Ezra Pound]]; he entered [[Harvard Law School]] and then joined the Army in 1943.[^28] According to [[Tom Mangold]]'s biography, he co-founded the magazine with the poet [[Reed Whittemore]] and developed close ties to Eliot and Pound during those years.[^29] [[David Robarge]] wrote in the CIA's Studies in Intelligence in 2009 that Winks's chapter "The Theorist" in *Cloak and Gown*, partly derived from conversations with Angleton, was "the most insightful biographical sketch of Angleton yet written," and described the argument of the scholar David Holzman that the New Criticism prominent at Yale when Angleton attended shaped his approach to counterintelligence.[^30]
[[Norman Holmes Pearson]], a Yale University professor, headed [[X-2]], the OSS counterintelligence branch, in London, according to a review in the CIA's Studies in Intelligence of the memoirs of Richard W. Cutler, a Yale-educated lawyer who built X-2's agent vetting section at Pearson's direction.[^30] [[James Jesus Angleton]] (class of 1941) entered Yale in 1937, majored in English literature, and edited the poetry review [[Furioso]], which published [[T.S. Eliot]] and [[Ezra Pound]]; he entered [[Harvard Law School]] and then joined the Army in 1943.[^31] According to [[Tom Mangold]]'s biography, he co-founded the magazine with the poet [[Reed Whittemore]] and developed close ties to Eliot and Pound during those years.[^32] [[David Robarge]] wrote in the CIA's Studies in Intelligence in 2009 that Winks's chapter "The Theorist" in *Cloak and Gown*, partly derived from conversations with Angleton, was "the most insightful biographical sketch of Angleton yet written," and described the argument of the scholar David Holzman that the New Criticism prominent at Yale when Angleton attended shaped his approach to counterintelligence.[^33]
[[Sherman Kent]] was born in Chicago in 1903, graduated from Yale in 1926 and received a Ph.D. in history there in 1933. In 1941 he left Yale for the Research and Analysis Branch of the Coordinator of Information, later the OSS, and in January 1943 became chief of its Europe-Africa Division. The CIA's collected essays on his years as chairman of the [[Board of National Estimates]], 1952 to 1967, say that his Yale classes had been popular because his enthusiasm brought history to life, and that he bestowed D's and F's "with abandon" on sham or lack of preparation.[^31] One essay says he served on the staff of the [[National War College]] before "returning to Yale in 1947," where he wrote *[[Strategic Intelligence for American World Policy]]*, published in 1949, and that a year after its publication he left Yale for the CIA in the wake of the [[Korean War]]. The editor's note to another essay says Kent "did not return to teach at Yale until 1949," having taught at the National War College in 1946-1947 and held a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1947-1948, and that he joined the CIA's Office of National Estimates in late 1950 under [[William L. Langer]].[^32]
[[Sherman Kent]] was born in Chicago in 1903, graduated from Yale in 1926 and received a Ph.D. in history there in 1933. In 1941 he left Yale for the Research and Analysis Branch of the Coordinator of Information, later the OSS, and in January 1943 became chief of its Europe-Africa Division. The CIA's collected essays on his years as chairman of the [[Board of National Estimates]], 1952 to 1967, say that his Yale classes had been popular because his enthusiasm brought history to life, and that he bestowed D's and F's "with abandon" on sham or lack of preparation.[^34] One essay says he served on the staff of the [[National War College]] before "returning to Yale in 1947," where he wrote *[[Strategic Intelligence for American World Policy]]*, published in 1949, and that a year after its publication he left Yale for the CIA in the wake of the [[Korean War]]. The editor's note to another essay says Kent "did not return to teach at Yale until 1949," having taught at the National War College in 1946-1947 and held a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1947-1948, and that he joined the CIA's Office of National Estimates in late 1950 under [[William L. Langer]].[^35]
[[Richard Bissell]] took a doctorate at Yale in 1939 and taught economics there before moving to the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] in 1942, according to the CIA's official history of the U-2 program by [[Gregory W. Pedlow]] and [[Donald E. Welzenbach]].[^33] [[Tracy Barnes]] graduated from Yale and Harvard Law School before joining the OSS, and served in Europe as a paramilitary operative.[^34]
[[Richard Bissell]] took a doctorate at Yale in 1939 and taught economics there before moving to the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] in 1942, according to the CIA's official history of the U-2 program by [[Gregory W. Pedlow]] and [[Donald E. Welzenbach]].[^36] [[Tracy Barnes]] graduated from Yale and Harvard Law School before joining the OSS, and served in Europe as a paramilitary operative.[^37]
### The 1958 Conference on America's Human Resources
A letter of February 7, 1958 from [[Howard L. Bevis]], chairman of the [[President's Committee on Scientists and Engineers]], to [[Allen Dulles]], then Director of Central Intelligence, thanks Dulles for addressing the Conference on America's Human Resources at Yale on February 3 and 4, 1958 and for an address that "was a distinct contribution." The enclosed list of participants names [[Max Ascoli]] ("Editor and Publisher, The Reporter," of [[The Reporter]]), the publisher [[William Benton]], [[Lloyd Berkner]] of Associated Universities, and [[Frank H. Bartholomew]], president of [[United Press]]. The program's campus map locates the Institute of Human Relations, the Cowles Foundation, the Institute of Far Eastern Languages and the society buildings Skull and Bones, Scroll and Key, Wolf's Head, Book and Snake and the Elihu Club.[^35]
A letter of February 7, 1958 from [[Howard L. Bevis]], chairman of the [[President's Committee on Scientists and Engineers]], to [[Allen Dulles]], then Director of Central Intelligence, thanks Dulles for addressing the Conference on America's Human Resources at Yale on February 3 and 4, 1958 and for an address that "was a distinct contribution." The enclosed list of participants names [[Max Ascoli]] ("Editor and Publisher, The Reporter," of [[The Reporter]]), the publisher [[William Benton]], [[Lloyd Berkner]] of Associated Universities, and [[Frank H. Bartholomew]], president of [[United Press]]. The program's campus map locates the Institute of Human Relations, the Cowles Foundation, the Institute of Far Eastern Languages and the society buildings Skull and Bones, Scroll and Key, Wolf's Head, Book and Snake and the Elihu Club.[^38]
### The Institute of Human Relations and behavioral research
The Yale Institute of Human Relations was first organized in 1929 to integrate teaching at Yale on the study of man. [[Mark A. May]], professor of educational psychology at Yale from 1927 to 1960, was its executive secretary and then its director from 1935 to 1961; its work addressed juvenile delinquency, psychotherapy, cultural conflicts and child rearing. May was a scientific consultant to the War Department in the Second World War on psychological warfare and the psychological effects of weaponry, conducted research for the Office of Scientific Research and Development on psychological damage in soldiers caused by different weapons, and after the war served on the Advisory Commission on Information of the [[United States Information Agency]], chairing it from 1952; Yale holds his papers.[^36] [[Ernst Kris]] joined Yale's Child Study Center in 1949 and became professor of psychology there in 1951 and of psychiatry in 1953, after attending the September 1947 Project RAND conference of social scientists.[^37]
The Yale Institute of Human Relations was first organized in 1929 to integrate teaching at Yale on the study of man. [[Mark A. May]], professor of educational psychology at Yale from 1927 to 1960, was its executive secretary and then its director from 1935 to 1961; its work addressed juvenile delinquency, psychotherapy, cultural conflicts and child rearing. May was a scientific consultant to the War Department in the Second World War on psychological warfare and the psychological effects of weaponry, conducted research for the Office of Scientific Research and Development on psychological damage in soldiers caused by different weapons, and after the war served on the Advisory Commission on Information of the [[United States Information Agency]], chairing it from 1952; Yale holds his papers.[^39] [[Ernst Kris]] joined Yale's Child Study Center in 1949 and became professor of psychology there in 1951 and of psychiatry in 1953, after attending the September 1947 Project RAND conference of social scientists.[^40]
The congressional record of the CIA's behavioral modification program cites Yale work on drug interrogation. A survey titled "'Truth' Drugs in Interrogation," which [[Stansfield Turner]], Director of Central Intelligence, supplied for the record of the August 3, 1977 joint Senate hearing on [[Project MKULTRA]], reports that "Redlich and his associates at Yale" administered sodium amytal to nine volunteers who had invented cover stories for guilty episodes in their pasts, and cites F. C. Redlich, L. J. Ravitz and G. H. Dession, "Narcoanalysis and truth," *American Journal of Psychiatry* 107 (1951).[^38]
The congressional record of the CIA's behavioral modification program cites Yale work on drug interrogation. A survey titled "'Truth' Drugs in Interrogation," which [[Stansfield Turner]], Director of Central Intelligence, supplied for the record of the August 3, 1977 joint Senate hearing on [[Project MKULTRA]], reports that "Redlich and his associates at Yale" administered sodium amytal to nine volunteers who had invented cover stories for guilty episodes in their pasts, and cites F. C. Redlich, L. J. Ravitz and G. H. Dession, "Narcoanalysis and truth," *American Journal of Psychiatry* 107 (1951).[^41]
[[Stanley Milgram]] described his obedience experiments in the *Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology* in 1963 while "Now at Harvard University." The paper reports that the subjects were 40 men aged 20 to 50 drawn from New Haven and surrounding communities by newspaper advertisement and direct mail, who believed they were taking part in a study of memory and learning at Yale; that they were paid $4.50; and that the experiment was conducted "on the grounds of Yale University in the elegant interaction laboratory." Of the 40, 26 obeyed the experimenter's orders to the end, up to the 450-volt switch on a 30-switch shock generator, while fourteen Yale seniors asked beforehand to predict the behavior of 100 hypothetical subjects estimated from 0 to 3 percent, with a mean of 1.2 percent. Milgram acknowledged a grant (NSF G-17916) from the [[National Science Foundation]] and a 1960 grant for exploratory studies from the Higgins Fund at Yale, thanked the research assistants [[Alan C. Elms]] and Jon Wayland, and wrote that he gave the National Science Foundation a first report in January 1961 and first submitted the article to the journal on December 27, 1961.[^39]
[[Stanley Milgram]] described his obedience experiments in the *Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology* in 1963 while "Now at Harvard University." The paper reports that the subjects were 40 men aged 20 to 50 drawn from New Haven and surrounding communities by newspaper advertisement and direct mail, who believed they were taking part in a study of memory and learning at Yale; that they were paid $4.50; and that the experiment was conducted "on the grounds of Yale University in the elegant interaction laboratory." Of the 40, 26 obeyed the experimenter's orders to the end, up to the 450-volt switch on a 30-switch shock generator, while fourteen Yale seniors asked beforehand to predict the behavior of 100 hypothetical subjects estimated from 0 to 3 percent, with a mean of 1.2 percent. Milgram acknowledged a grant (NSF G-17916) from the [[National Science Foundation]] and a 1960 grant for exploratory studies from the Higgins Fund at Yale, thanked the research assistants [[Alan C. Elms]] and Jon Wayland, and wrote that he gave the National Science Foundation a first report in January 1961 and first submitted the article to the journal on December 27, 1961.[^42]
### Neuroelectric research, psychoenergetics and the STARGATE file
[[José M. R. Delgado]] is listed as a contributor to the 1971 proceedings of the Fourth Annual National Conference of the [[Neuroelectric Society]], held in San Antonio, Texas, with the affiliation "Department of Psychiatry, Yale University." The proceedings, edited by [[Norman L. Wulfsohn]] and [[Anthony Sances]], Jr., were filed as CIA-RDP96-00787R000500200005-2 in the [[Project Stargate]] collection.[^40] An early proposal titled "Direct Brain Perception," submitted by [[Edgar Mitchell]] and prepared by [[Andrija Puharich]], includes biographical sketches of its consultants. One states that Delgado "came to Yale in 1952 as an Instructor."[^41]
[[José M. R. Delgado]] is listed as a contributor to the 1971 proceedings of the Fourth Annual National Conference of the [[Neuroelectric Society]], held in San Antonio, Texas, with the affiliation "Department of Psychiatry, Yale University." The proceedings, edited by [[Norman L. Wulfsohn]] and [[Anthony Sances]], Jr., were filed as CIA-RDP96-00787R000500200005-2 in the [[Project Stargate]] collection.[^43] An early proposal titled "Direct Brain Perception," submitted by [[Edgar Mitchell]] and prepared by [[Andrija Puharich]], includes biographical sketches of its consultants. One states that Delgado "came to Yale in 1952 as an Instructor."[^44]
The 1992 "Phenomenological Research and Analysis Technical Volume" of [[Science Applications International Corporation]], by [[Edwin May]] and Wanda L. W. Luke, lists [[Robert B. Livingston]], M.D., of the [[University of California, San Diego]] as a member of its Institutional Review Board with [[Louis Jolyon West|Louis J. West]] of the [[University of California, Los Angeles]], and prints Livingston's 1991 curriculum vitae: Yale University School of Medicine, instructor to assistant professor of physiology under [[John F. Fulton]], 1946-1952, with a publication list that includes work "with José Delgado." The same volume adds Professor [[Steven A. Hillyard]] of UC San Diego to its Scientific Oversight Committee and states that his resume is included in its Section IV, which holds a curriculum vitae recording a Yale Ph.D. in psychology in 1968 with a traineeship under [[Robert Galambos]].[^42]
The 1992 "Phenomenological Research and Analysis Technical Volume" of [[Science Applications International Corporation]], by [[Edwin May]] and Wanda L. W. Luke, lists [[Robert B. Livingston]], M.D., of the [[University of California, San Diego]] as a member of its Institutional Review Board with [[Louis Jolyon West|Louis J. West]] of the [[University of California, Los Angeles]], and prints Livingston's 1991 curriculum vitae: Yale University School of Medicine, instructor to assistant professor of physiology under [[John F. Fulton]], 1946-1952, with a publication list that includes work "with José Delgado." The same volume adds Professor [[Steven A. Hillyard]] of UC San Diego to its Scientific Oversight Committee and states that his resume is included in its Section IV, which holds a curriculum vitae recording a Yale Ph.D. in psychology in 1968 with a traineeship under [[Robert Galambos]].[^45]
[[Annie Jacobsen]] wrote that Puharich's theory of an energy linking the brain and the cells gained traction when [[Lloyd H. Beck]] and [[Walter S. Miles]] of Yale reported that the olfactory nerve of a bee radiated energy in the infrared range.[^43] [[Harold Saxton Burr]] published "Diurnal Potentials in the Maple Tree" in the [[Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine]] in July 1945.[^44] A 1984 interim report on a geophysical effects study, prepared by [[Harold Puthoff]] and Marsha Adams of [[SRI International]] for the U.S. Army Intelligence and Security Command under the [[Center Lane]] special access program, states that its ultra-low-frequency measurements "were stimulated by the work of Burr on relatively steady-state tree potentials," and its reference list cites Burr's 1945 and 1947 papers in the Yale journal and his 1956 paper in *Science*.[^45]
[[Annie Jacobsen]] wrote that Puharich's theory of an energy linking the brain and the cells gained traction when [[Lloyd H. Beck]] and [[Walter S. Miles]] of Yale reported that the olfactory nerve of a bee radiated energy in the infrared range.[^46] [[Harold Saxton Burr]] published "Diurnal Potentials in the Maple Tree" in the [[Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine]] in July 1945.[^47] A 1984 interim report on a geophysical effects study, prepared by [[Harold Puthoff]] and Marsha Adams of [[SRI International]] for the U.S. Army Intelligence and Security Command under the [[Center Lane]] special access program, states that its ultra-low-frequency measurements "were stimulated by the work of Burr on relatively steady-state tree potentials," and its reference list cites Burr's 1945 and 1947 papers in the Yale journal and his 1956 paper in *Science*.[^48]
A survey of international parapsychology research, held in the CIA reading room as a chapter of the book *[[New Psychic Frontiers]]*, lists Yale University, New Haven, among the institutions with parapsychology activity. The entry names [[Henry Margenau]] and [[Dieter Brill]] as the professors involved.[^46] A Defense Intelligence Agency report of August 7, 1984, titled "Psychoenergetics Research," prints an Exhibit 7 headed "Universities Involved in Courses, Research, or Degrees in Parapsychology," on which Yale University appears on the same line as the University of California, Berkeley.[^47]
A survey of international parapsychology research, held in the CIA reading room as a chapter of the book *[[New Psychic Frontiers]]*, lists Yale University, New Haven, among the institutions with parapsychology activity. The entry names [[Henry Margenau]] and [[Dieter Brill]] as the professors involved.[^49] A Defense Intelligence Agency report of August 7, 1984, titled "Psychoenergetics Research," prints an Exhibit 7 headed "Universities Involved in Courses, Research, or Degrees in Parapsychology," on which Yale University appears on the same line as the University of California, Berkeley.[^50]
### Physics, the Space Shuttle and Dimona
[[Myron S. Malkin]] was a member of the Yale physics faculty from 1952 to 1961. He then worked at [[General Electric]] on re-entry vehicles and later directed the [[Space Shuttle program]] at [[NASA]] headquarters from 1973 to 1980.[^48] [[Robert T. Webber]] earned a doctorate in physics at Yale and served as scientific attache at the American embassy in [[Tel Aviv]]. According to [[Seymour Hersh]]'s account in *[[The Samson Option]]*, he shared the interest of [[William N. Dale]] in the [[Dimona]] reactor.[^49]
[[Myron S. Malkin]] was a member of the Yale physics faculty from 1952 to 1961. He then worked at [[General Electric]] on re-entry vehicles and later directed the [[Space Shuttle program]] at [[NASA]] headquarters from 1973 to 1980.[^51] [[Robert T. Webber]] earned a doctorate in physics at Yale and served as scientific attache at the American embassy in [[Tel Aviv]]. According to [[Seymour Hersh]]'s account in *[[The Samson Option]]*, he shared the interest of [[William N. Dale]] in the [[Dimona]] reactor.[^52]
### Walt Rostow, Eugene Rostow and the Yale Law School
[[Walt Rostow]] received a Ph.D. in economics from Yale in 1940.[^50] His brother [[Eugene V. Rostow]], dean of the [[Yale Law School]], is listed as a member of Panel IV of the [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund]] [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund Special Studies Project]], whose 1961 report *[[Prospect for America]]* names him as "dean, Yale University Law School."[^51] [[Max Millikan]] took a B.S. in physics at Yale in 1935 and a Yale Ph.D. in 1941 before working at the [[Office of Price Administration]] in 1942.[^52]
[[Walt Rostow]] received a Ph.D. in economics from Yale in 1940.[^53] His brother [[Eugene V. Rostow]], dean of the [[Yale Law School]], is listed as a member of Panel IV of the [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund]] [[Rockefeller Brothers Fund Special Studies Project]], whose 1961 report *[[Prospect for America]]* names him as "dean, Yale University Law School."[^54] [[Max Millikan]] took a B.S. in physics at Yale in 1935 and a Yale Ph.D. in 1941 before working at the [[Office of Price Administration]] in 1942.[^55]
### Pharmacology and the 1979 cocaine hearings
[[Robert Byck]] of the Yale Department of Pharmacology, described in the hearing record as a professor of psychiatry and pharmacology at Yale who had just returned from an international conference on cocaine in Peru, testified on July 26, 1979 before the [[House Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control]] in the hearings published as *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*.[^53] He opened by saying that, cocaine as then used in the United States was not dangerous in the usual sense, and that the emphasis had been placed in the wrong place. His prepared statement, printed in the same volume, says that freebase smoking "can represent the same threat that the speed epidemics of the 1960's represented in their time," that the United States did not yet have an epidemic of freebase or coca paste smoking, and that "The possibility is strong that this might occur. It is occurring in the countries of South America."[^54] [[Gary Webb]] wrote in *[[Dark Alliance]]* in 1998 that Byck had warned Congress of the coming [[Crack Cocaine|crack]] epidemic in 1979 and had been ignored.[^55]
[[Robert Byck]] of the Yale Department of Pharmacology, described in the hearing record as a professor of psychiatry and pharmacology at Yale who had just returned from an international conference on cocaine in Peru, testified on July 26, 1979 before the [[House Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control]] in the hearings published as *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*.[^56] He opened by saying that, cocaine as then used in the United States was not dangerous in the usual sense, and that the emphasis had been placed in the wrong place. His prepared statement, printed in the same volume, says that freebase smoking "can represent the same threat that the speed epidemics of the 1960's represented in their time," that the United States did not yet have an epidemic of freebase or coca paste smoking, and that "The possibility is strong that this might occur. It is occurring in the countries of South America."[^57] [[Gary Webb]] wrote in *[[Dark Alliance]]* in 1998 that Byck had warned Congress of the coming [[Crack Cocaine|crack]] epidemic in 1979 and had been ignored.[^58]
### Yale-China
The Yale-China Association, known first as Yale-in-China, was founded on February 10, 1901 by young Yale alumni, who chose Hunan Province as the field; a renovated building in central [[Changsha]] provided classrooms and a Western medicine clinic by Christmas 1906. [[Edward H. Hume]], Yale class of 1897, opened a small hospital and with [[Yan Fuqing]] secured land and funding for the medical school, and the 1913 Xiang-ya Agreement with the Hunan authorities was described as a turning point; the preparatory school became Yali High School.[^56] Yale's own China timeline records that Yan Fuqing graduated from the Yale School of Medicine in 1909 and became head of Xiangya Hospital, founder of Shanghai Medical College of Fudan University, and Minister of Health, and that [[Yung Wing]] graduated from Yale College in 1854 and organized the Chinese Educational Mission that sent 120 students to New England.[^57]
The Yale-China Association, known first as Yale-in-China, was founded on February 10, 1901 by young Yale alumni, who chose Hunan Province as the field; a renovated building in central [[Changsha]] provided classrooms and a Western medicine clinic by Christmas 1906. [[Edward H. Hume]], Yale class of 1897, opened a small hospital and with [[Yan Fuqing]] secured land and funding for the medical school, and the 1913 Xiang-ya Agreement with the Hunan authorities was described as a turning point; the preparatory school became Yali High School.[^59] Yale's own China timeline records that Yan Fuqing graduated from the Yale School of Medicine in 1909 and became head of Xiangya Hospital, founder of Shanghai Medical College of Fudan University, and Minister of Health, and that [[Yung Wing]] graduated from Yale College in 1854 and organized the Chinese Educational Mission that sent 120 students to New England.[^60]
### Courts, the Law School and the executive branch
[[José A. Cabranes]] graduated from [[Columbia University]] in 1961 and from Yale Law School in 1965. He was general counsel and director of government relations at Yale from 1975 to 1979. [[Jimmy Carter]] nominated him to the District of Connecticut on November 6, 1979, and [[Bill Clinton]] nominated him to the Second Circuit on May 24, 1994. He served on the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review from 2013 to 2020, presiding from 2018 to 2020.[^58] [[Robert W. Sweet]] graduated from Yale in 1944 and from Yale Law School in 1948, after service as a Navy lieutenant junior grade from 1943 to 1946. Carter nominated him to the Southern District of New York on February 17, 1978.[^59]
Alphonso Taft, Yale class of 1833, was a tutor at Yale from 1835 to 1837 and a member of the Yale Corporation from 1872 to 1882; Yale gave him the LL.D. in 1867.[^61] His son [[William Howard Taft]], Yale class of 1878, held the Kent Professorship of Law in Yale College and the professorship of constitutional law in the Law School from 1913 to 1921. He was a member of the Yale Corporation from 1906 to 1913 and again from 1922 to 1925.[^61]
[[Stephen Cutler]] graduated summa cum laude from Yale and received his law degree there before being named Enforcement Director of the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] in October 2001.[^60] [[William Bradford Reynolds]] received a B.A. from Yale in 1964.[^61] [[Richard Thornburgh]] earned a B.S. in engineering from Yale in 1954.[^62] [[Cyrus Vance]] graduated from Yale in 1939 and received his law degree there in 1942.[^63] [[Dean Acheson]] also graduated from Yale.[^64] [[Mark W. Everson]] received a B.A. in history from Yale.[^65] [[Porter Goss]] took a B.A. in classics and Greek from Yale in 1960.[^66]
[[José A. Cabranes]] graduated from [[Columbia University]] in 1961 and from Yale Law School in 1965. He was general counsel and director of government relations at Yale from 1975 to 1979. [[Jimmy Carter]] nominated him to the District of Connecticut on November 6, 1979, and [[Bill Clinton]] nominated him to the Second Circuit on May 24, 1994. He served on the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review from 2013 to 2020, presiding from 2018 to 2020.[^62] [[Robert W. Sweet]] graduated from Yale in 1944 and from Yale Law School in 1948, after service as a Navy lieutenant junior grade from 1943 to 1946. Carter nominated him to the Southern District of New York on February 17, 1978.[^63]
Other lawyers and officials who took their law degrees at Yale include [[David Boies]] (LL.B. 1966),[^67] [[Alan Dershowitz]],[^68] [[Hillary Clinton]], who met Bill Clinton there,[^69] [[Cory Booker]],[^70] [[Ro Khanna]],[^71] [[JD Vance]] (2013)[^72] and [[Mariano-Florentino Cuéllar]].[^73] [[John Morley]] of Yale Law School helped design the governance structure of [[Anthropic]]'s [[Long-Term Benefit Trust]].[^74] [[William H. Draper III]], nominated by [[Ronald Reagan]] in 1981 to head the [[Export-Import Bank of the United States]], held a Yale B.A. from 1950.[^75]
[[Stephen Cutler]] graduated summa cum laude from Yale and received his law degree there before being named Enforcement Director of the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] in October 2001.[^64] [[William Bradford Reynolds]] received a B.A. from Yale in 1964.[^65] [[Richard Thornburgh]] earned a B.S. in engineering from Yale in 1954.[^66] [[Cyrus Vance]] graduated from Yale in 1939 and received his law degree there in 1942.[^67] [[Dean Acheson]] also graduated from Yale.[^68] [[Mark W. Everson]] received a B.A. in history from Yale.[^69] [[Porter Goss]] took a B.A. in classics and Greek from Yale in 1960.[^70]
Other lawyers and officials who took their law degrees at Yale include [[David Boies]] (LL.B. 1966),[^71] [[Alan Dershowitz]],[^72] [[Hillary Clinton]], who met Bill Clinton there,[^73] [[Cory Booker]],[^74] [[Ro Khanna]],[^75] [[JD Vance]] (2013)[^76] and [[Mariano-Florentino Cuéllar]].[^77] [[John Morley]] of Yale Law School helped design the governance structure of [[Anthropic]]'s [[Long-Term Benefit Trust]].[^78] [[William H. Draper III]], nominated by [[Ronald Reagan]] in 1981 to head the [[Export-Import Bank of the United States]], held a Yale B.A. from 1950.[^79]
### Money, presidents and families
The [[Thiel Foundation]]'s 2006 return reports a grant of $25,000 to Yale University in the education category.[^76] [[Richard Levin]], the economist who served as Yale's twenty-second president from 1993 to 2013, is the father of [[Jonathan Levin]], who was named president of [[Stanford University]] in 2024.[^77] [[Larry Summers]] left his advisory role at the Yale Budget Lab in November 2025.[^78] [[Nick Bostrom]] was teaching at Yale in 2001 when he met [[James Hughes]] and [[Mark Walker]] in the meeting that began the second phase of the [[World Transhumanist Association]].[^79] [[David Goslin]] took his doctorate in sociology at Yale in 1962.[^80]
The [[Thiel Foundation]]'s 2006 return reports a grant of $25,000 to Yale University in the education category.[^80] [[Richard Levin]], the economist who served as Yale's twenty-second president from 1993 to 2013, is the father of [[Jonathan Levin]], who was named president of [[Stanford University]] in 2024.[^81] [[Larry Summers]] left his advisory role at the Yale Budget Lab in November 2025.[^82] [[Nick Bostrom]] was teaching at Yale in 2001 when he met [[James Hughes]] and [[Mark Walker]] in the meeting that began the second phase of the [[World Transhumanist Association]].[^83] [[David Goslin]] took his doctorate in sociology at Yale in 1962.[^84]
The [[Yale Center for British Art]] describes [[Paul Mellon]] as its founder.[^81] [[Cari Tuna]] studied political science at Yale and worked on the college paper before she and [[Dustin Moskovitz]] began the giving that became [[Good Ventures]].[^82] [[Francis Shelden]], the owner of [[North Fox Island]], testified in a 1982 deposition that he received a bachelor of arts degree from Yale.[^83] [[Frederic J. Truslow]] is recorded in the 1963 Harvard Law School yearbook as "B.A. Yale '61."[^84]
The [[Yale Center for British Art]] describes [[Paul Mellon]] as its founder.[^85] [[Cari Tuna]] studied political science at Yale and worked on the college paper before she and [[Dustin Moskovitz]] began the giving that became [[Good Ventures]].[^86] [[Francis Shelden]], the owner of [[North Fox Island]], testified in a 1982 deposition that he received a bachelor of arts degree from Yale.[^87] [[Frederic J. Truslow]] is recorded in the 1963 Harvard Law School yearbook as "B.A. Yale '61."[^88]
Yale's Manuscripts and Archives holds the papers of [[Alvin Johnson]] (MS 615, 1902 to 1969), given by Johnson, [[Agnes de Lima]] and Edith Levy in 1967.[^85] [[Christopher Mellon]] took a master's degree in international affairs at Yale.[^86] [[Rob Reich]] holds a B.A. in philosophy from Yale.[^87]
Yale's Manuscripts and Archives holds the papers of [[Alvin Johnson]] (MS 615, 1902 to 1969), given by Johnson, [[Agnes de Lima]] and Edith Levy in 1967.[^89] [[Christopher Mellon]] took a master's degree in international affairs at Yale.[^90] [[Rob Reich]] holds a B.A. in philosophy from Yale.[^91]
[[Oliver Hazard Payne]], Yale B.A. 1863, left one million dollars to the university by his will; he died in New York City on June 27, 1917.[^92] In June 1916 his nephew [[Payne Whitney]], Yale 1898, formed the [[Yale Aviation Corps]]. A Yale record of one of its members says the corps was formed that month, and that [[F. Trubee Davison]], Yale 1918, organized Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 1.[^93]
### Footnotes
[^1]: "Act for a Collegiate School," General Court of the Colony of Connecticut, October 1701 session, in *The Public Records of the Colony of Connecticut, from August, 1689, to May, 1706*, ed. J. Hammond Trumbull (Hartford: Case, Lockwood and Brainard, 1868), pp. 363-364. https://archive.org/details/bwb_P9-CDP-546
[^2]: "An Act for the more full and compleat Establishment of Yale College in New Haven, and for enlarging the Powers and Priviledges thereof," General Court, May 1745, in *The Public Records of the Colony of Connecticut, from May, 1744, to November, 1750*, ed. Charles J. Hoadly (Hartford: Case, Lockwood and Brainard, 1876), pp. 113-114. https://archive.org/details/publicrecordsofc009conn
[^3]: David A. Richards, "The origins of the tomb," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2015, with editors' note on the author's listing among Skull and Bones members in the Class of 1967 graduation book. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4072-the-origins-of-the-tomb
[^4]: Bruce L. Reynolds '66, letter, "More secrets of the Tomb," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, responding to the May/June 2015 article; the letter cites James Bradley, *The China Mirage* (Little, Brown, 2015). The passage is the letter writer's account. https://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4127-more-secrets-of-the-tomb
[^5]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, Connecticut Business Registry - Business Master, open data set n7gp-d28j, record "RUSSELL TRUST ASSOCIATION, THE" (business type Special Chartered; status Active; citizenship Domestic; account number 0269315); record "RTA INCORPORATED" (account number 0059060, registered April 14, 1961, 64 High Street, New Haven), the successor corporation. https://data.ct.gov/resource/n7gp-d28j.json
[^6]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1950-1951 (New Haven: Yale University, 1951), entry "Henry Lewis Stimson, B.A. 1888," p. 11. http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1950-51.pdf
[^7]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977
[^8]: "Mac Bundy," *The Harvard Crimson*, November 10, 1956. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1956/11/10/mac-bundy-pwhen-mcgeorge-bundy-became/
[^9]: FBI headquarters file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 1, memorandum L. B. Nichols to Mr. Tolson, October 20, 1950, and summary memoranda. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1
[^10]: White House, "Biography of President George W. Bush" (archived). Born July 6, 1946, in New Haven; bachelor's degree in history from Yale University in 1968. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov ; Biography.com, "George W. Bush" (Yale enrollment in 1964). https://www.biography.com/us-president/george-w-bush
[^11]: Jacques Leslie, "Smirk from the past" ("Yale"), *Salon*, March 1, 2000. https://www.salon.com/2000/03/01/yale/
[^12]: George H. W. Bush Presidential Library, "Records on Skull and Bones Society," FOIA 2009-0116-F, processed August 2009 (Records of the White House Office of Policy Development, Emily Mead Subject Files, 23348-002; Press Office of the Vice President, Subject Files, 14925-046; White House Social Office, Cathy Fenton Subject Files, 07104, "10/20/89 Skull and Bones Tea"). The library text describes the Geronimo rumor and does not endorse it. https://www.bush41library.gov/download/file/4777
[^13]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 248, executed October 20, 1942 (Leo T. Crowley, Alien Property Custodian), 7 Fed. Reg. 9097-9098 (November 7, 1942), F.R. Doc. 42-11567 series. Federal Register, vol. 7, no. 220.
[^14]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, certified copies (March 28, 2001) of the 1856 act incorporating the Russell Trust Association and the 1943 amending act, as reprinted in Kris Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2003), pp. 694 to 696. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^15]: Certificate of Incorporation of RTA Incorporated (1961), as reprinted in Millegan (2003), pp. 697 to 700; Connecticut Business Registry, account 0059060 (registered April 14, 1961). https://data.ct.gov/resource/n7gp-d28j.json?accountnumber=0059060
[^16]: RTA Incorporated, IRS Form 990 for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021, Schedule A. https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/60768741
[^17]: Internal Revenue Service, Exempt Organizations Business Master File extract for Connecticut, EIN 060768741, tax period 2025-06. https://www.irs.gov/charities-non-profits/exempt-organizations-business-master-file-extract-eo-bmf
[^18]: Carole Bass, "Apaches sue to recover Geronimo's skull," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2009. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/2421-apaches-sue-to-recover-geronimo-s-skull
[^19]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on access to the Russell Trust papers at the Sterling Library. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^20]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977
[^21]: *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340 (S.D. Tex.), docket entries 1, 6, 7, 8 and 17. https://archive.org/details/gov.uscourts.txsd.1463674
[^22]: *Geronimo et al. v. Obama et al.*, No. 09-303 (RWR) (D.D.C. July 27, 2010). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303/pdf/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303-0.pdf
[^23]: Kathrin Day Lassila and Mark Alden Branch, "Whose Skull and Bones?," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20060614215733/http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/2006_05/notebook.html
[^24]: Judith Ann Schiff, "The library at war," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, Nov/Dec 2019. https://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4991-the-library-at-war
[^25]: Robin W. Winks, *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* (New York: William Morrow, 1987), cited in the Schiff article.
[^26]: Letter from the chief investigator of the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee to Walter Pforzheimer, May 9, 1955, CIA-RDP58-00597A000100240018-8, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp58-00597a000100240018-8 ; Daniel O. Graham to Walter Pforzheimer, September 23, 1980, enclosing a partial membership list of the National Strategy Committee, CIA-RDP02T06251R000900300002-4, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom). Both are cited on the Senate Judiciary Committee and Daniel O. Graham pages.
[^27]: Kevin C. Ruffner, review of Richard W. Cutler, *Counterspy: Memoirs of a Counterintelligence Officer in World War II and the Cold War* (Washington: Brassey's, 2004), *Studies in Intelligence* 49, no. 3. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/volume-49-no-3/counterspy-memoirs-of-a-counterintelligence-officer-in-world-war-ii-and-the-cold-war
[^28]: David Robarge, "'Cunning Passages, Contrived Corridors': Wandering in the Angletonian Wilderness," *Studies in Intelligence* 53, no. 4 (2009), biographical backdrop. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Cunning-Passages-Contrived-Corridors.pdf
[^29]: Tom Mangold, *Cold Warrior: James Jesus Angleton, the CIA's Master Spy Hunter* (Simon & Schuster, 1991).
[^30]: Robarge, "'Cunning Passages, Contrived Corridors,'" *Studies in Intelligence* 53, no. 4 (2009), sections on Winks, *Cloak and Gown*, and on Holzman. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Cunning-Passages-Contrived-Corridors.pdf
[^31]: Donald P. Steury, ed., *Sherman Kent and the Board of National Estimates: Collected Essays* (CIA History Staff, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1994), foreword, the essay on Kent's biography, and Harold P. Ford, "A Tribute to Sherman Kent." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/sherman-kent-and-the-board-of-national-estimates-collected-essays.pdf
[^32]: Steury, *Sherman Kent and the Board of National Estimates*, the essay on *Strategic Intelligence* ("before returning to Yale in 1947"; "A year after *Strategic Intelligence* was published, Sherm left Yale for the CIA") and editor's note 6 to the Kent biography essay. The two passages are printed in the same volume.
[^33]: Gregory W. Pedlow and Donald E. Welzenbach, *The CIA and the U-2 Program, 1954-1974* (CIA History Staff, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1998), biographical passage on Richard M. Bissell. https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA355539
[^34]: Evan Thomas, *The Very Best Men: Four Who Dared: The Early Years of the CIA* (Simon & Schuster, 1995).
[^35]: Howard L. Bevis to Allen W. Dulles, February 7, 1958, with program, campus map and list of participants, "America's Human Resources: To Meet the Scientific Challenge," Yale University, February 3-4, 1958, sponsored by the President's Committee on Scientists and Engineers, CIA-RDP80B01676R003800020106-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003800020106-4
[^36]: Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, "Guide to the Mark Arthur May papers," MS 1447, biographical/historical note and scope and contents. https://ead-pdfs.library.yale.edu/3894.pdf
[^37]: Deutsche Biographie, "Kris, Ernst" (NDB 13, 1982). https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/sfz46084.html ; Library of Congress Manuscript Division, Ernst Kris Papers (MSS84824), register; Daniel M. Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State," Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 2013, p. 190 note 88 (attendee list of RAND R-106). Cited as the Ernst Kris page cites them.
[^38]: "'Truth' Drugs in Interrogation," material supplied by Admiral Stansfield Turner for the record, *Project MKULTRA, the CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification*, Joint Hearing before the Select Committee on Intelligence and the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research of the Committee on Human Resources, U.S. Senate, 95th Cong., 1st sess., August 3, 1977; reference 25, F. C. Redlich, L. J. Ravitz and G. H. Dession, "Narcoanalysis and truth," *American Journal of Psychiatry* 107 (1951): 586-593. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/hearings/95mkultra.pdf
[^39]: Stanley Milgram, "Behavioral Study of Obedience," *Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology* 67, no. 4 (1963): 371-378, author's note 1 and 2, methods, "Preliminary Notions" and "Result of Experiment I." https://archive.org/details/milgram370551
[^40]: *The Nervous System and Electric Currents*, Volume 2, Proceedings of the Fourth Annual National Conference of the Neuroelectric Society, San Antonio, Texas, March 10-12, 1971, edited by Norman L. Wulfsohn and Anthony Sances, Jr. CIA-RDP96-00787R000500200005-2, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
[^41]: Edgar D. Mitchell (submitter) and Henry (Andrija) Puharich, M.D. (editor), "Direct Brain Perception" research proposal, biographical sketches of the researchers. CIA-RDP96-00787R000100190001-2, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
[^42]: Edwin C. May and Wanda L. W. Luke, "Phenomenological Research and Analysis Technical Volume," Science Applications International Corporation, Cognitive Sciences Laboratory, May 8, 1992, Contract MDA908-91-C-0037 (Scientific Oversight Committee and Institutional Review Board sections; Section IV curricula vitae). CIA-RDP96-00789R003100170001-9, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
[^43]: Annie Jacobsen, *Phenomena: The Secret History of the U.S. Government's Investigations into Extrasensory Perception and Psychokinesis* (Little, Brown, 2017).
[^44]: H. S. Burr, "Diurnal Potentials in the Maple Tree," *Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine* 17, no. 6 (July 1945): 727-734. PMC2601777. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2601777/
[^45]: Harold E. Puthoff and Marsha Adams, "Geophysical Effects Study," Interim Report, July 1984, SRI Project 6600, prepared for the Department of the Army, USAINSCOM, Center Lane special access program, text and reference list. CIA-RDP96-00788R001800160001-6, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
[^46]: "Research, Investigation and Teaching: A Survey of the International Scene," in *New Psychic Frontiers*, p. 208, CIA-RDP96-00788R001200230018-6, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
[^47]: Defense Intelligence Agency, Directorate for Scientific and Technical Intelligence, "Psychoenergetics Research," 7 August 1984, Exhibit 7, "Universities Involved in Courses, Research, or Degrees in Parapsychology." CIA-RDP96-00788R001800210001-0, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom).
[^48]: Warren E. Leary, "Myron S. Malkin Is Dead at 70; Designed Space Shuttle Program," *New York Times*, October 26, 1994, Section B, page 13. https://www.nytimes.com/1994/10/26/obituaries/myron-s-malkin-is-dead-at-70-designed-space-shuttle-program.html
[^49]: Seymour M. Hersh, *The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy* (Random House, 1991), chapter 12.
[^50]: Encyclopedia.com, "Rostow, Walt Whitman (1916-2003)," Gale biography. https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/us-history-biographies/walt-whitman-rostow
[^51]: Rockefeller Brothers Fund, *Prospect for America: The Rockefeller Panel Reports* (Garden City: Doubleday, 1961), Panel IV member list. https://archive.org/details/prospect-for-america
[^52]: MIT Libraries, Department of Distinctive Collections, Max F. Millikan papers (MC-0188), biographical note. https://archivesspace.mit.edu/repositories/2/resources/722
[^53]: *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*, Hearings before the Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control, House of Representatives, Ninety-sixth Congress, first session, July 24, 26 and October 10, 1979, Thursday, July 26, 1979, testimony of Robert Byck, M.D., Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine. NCJ 65411. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/65411NCJRS.pdf
[^54]: *Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies*, NCJ 65411, prepared statement of Robert Byck ("My name is Robert Byck ..."), printed in the volume. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/65411NCJRS.pdf
[^55]: Gary Webb, *Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion* (Seven Stories Press, 1998), chapter 15.
[^56]: Aurelia Dochnal, "120th anniversary of Yale-China: the beginnings," *China Hands Magazine*, February 10, 2021. https://chinahandsmagazine.org/2021/02/10/120th-anniversary-of-yale-china-the-beginnings/
[^57]: Yale Center Beijing, "Yale-China History Timeline" (entries for 1854, 1872 and 1909). https://centerbeijing.yale.edu/node/365
[^58]: Federal Judicial Center, "Cabranes, Jose Alberto," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/cabranes-jose-alberto
[^59]: Federal Judicial Center, "Sweet, Robert Workman," Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/sweet-robert-workman
[^60]: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, "Stephen M. Cutler Named SEC Enforcement Director," Press Release 2001-120, October 25, 2001. https://www.sec.gov/news/press/2001-120.txt
[^61]: Federalist Society, "Wm. Bradford Reynolds," fedsoc.org.
[^62]: Office of the Attorney General, U.S. Department of Justice, "Richard Lewis Thornburgh," *Attorneys General of the United States*.
[^63]: Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State, "Cyrus Roberts Vance (1917-2002)." https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/vance-cyrus-roberts
[^64]: Dean Acheson, *Present at the Creation: My Years in the State Department* (Norton, 1969), and Robert L. Beisner, *Dean Acheson: A Life in the Cold War* (Oxford University Press, 2006).
[^65]: National Archives and Records Administration, Catalog Record ID 3936205.
[^66]: Congressional Directory for the 108th Congress (2003 to 2004), August 2004, Florida delegation, Representative Porter J. Goss, Biography, p. 62. Cited on the Porter Goss page.
[^67]: Boies Schiller Flexner LLP, "David Boies," firm biography. https://www.bsfllp.com/people/david-boies.html
[^68]: Harvard Law School, "Alan M. Dershowitz, Felix Frankfurter Professor of Law, Emeritus," faculty biography. https://hls.harvard.edu/faculty/alan-m-dershowitz/
[^69]: "Biography of Hillary Rodham Clinton," The White House, Office of the First Lady (Clinton administration archive, National Archives). https://clintonwhitehouse4.archives.gov/WH/EOP/First_Lady/html/HILLARY_Bio.html
[^70]: "About Cory," Office of U.S. Senator Cory Booker. https://www.booker.senate.gov/about-cory
[^71]: Office of Representative Ro Khanna, "About Rep. Khanna," official biography. https://khanna.house.gov/about/about-rep-khanna
[^72]: J. D. Vance, *Hillbilly Elegy: A Memoir of a Family and Culture in Crisis* (Harper, 2016).
[^73]: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, "Mariano-Florentino (Tino) Cuellar," biography. https://carnegieendowment.org/people/mariano-florentino-tino-cuellar
[^74]: Anthropic, "The Long-Term Benefit Trust," September 19, 2023. https://www.anthropic.com/news/the-long-term-benefit-trust
[^75]: Ronald Reagan, "Nomination of William H. Draper III To Be President and Chairman of the Export-Import Bank of the United States," March 18, 1981, American Presidency Project. https://presidency.ucsb.edu/node/247393
[^76]: The Thiel Foundation, Form 990-PF for 2006, Part VIII and Statement A, grants paid (line 3, Yale University, Education, $25,000). https://990s.foundationcenter.org/990pf_pdf_archive/203/203846597/203846597_200612_990PF.pdf
[^77]: Yale Daily News, "Stanford appoints son of former Yale president Rick Levin as president," April 5, 2024. https://yaledailynews.com/blog/2024/04/05/stanford-appoints-son-of-former-yale-president-rick-levin-as-president/
[^78]: "Larry Summers banned for life from American Economic Association," Associated Press via *Fortune*, December 3, 2025. https://fortune.com/2025/12/03/larry-summers-banned-for-life-from-american-economic-association
[^79]: Nick Bostrom, "A History of Transhumanist Thought," *Journal of Evolution and Technology* 14, no. 1 (April 2005), section 4. https://jetpress.org/volume14/bostrom.pdf
[^80]: American Institutes for Research, "The American Institutes for Research Honors the Life and Legacy of David Goslin," January 6, 2025.
[^81]: "Paul Mellon: Founder," Yale Center for British Art. https://britishart.yale.edu/stories/paul-mellon-founder
[^82]: Ariana Eunjung Cha, "Cari Tuna and Dustin Moskovitz: Young Silicon Valley billionaires pioneer new approach to philanthropy," *The Washington Post*, December 26, 2014; "Billionaire from Evansville to spread the wealth," WFIE 14 News, December 2014. Cited on the Cari Tuna page.
[^83]: *National Bank of Detroit v. Shelden*, 730 F.2d 421 (6th Cir. 1984) (Nos. 82-1737, 82-1905), on the Amsterdam deposition of 1982. https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/433085/national-bank-of-detroit-v-francis-d-shelden-the-trust-company-of-the/
[^84]: *Harvard Law School Year Book*, 1963, entry "Frederic Jennings Truslow, B.A. Yale '61." https://books.google.com/books?id=8oc8AAAAIAAJ
[^85]: Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, "Alvin Saunders Johnson papers," MS 615. https://archives.yale.edu/repositories/12/resources/3846
[^86]: "Unholy Alliance?" *Roll Call*, February 12, 2003. https://rollcall.com/2003/02/12/unholy-alliance/
[^87]: Rob Reich, curriculum vitae, Department of Political Science, Stanford University. https://robreich.people.stanford.edu/files/reich-cv.pdf
[^4]: Lyman Bagg, *Four Years at Yale* (New Haven: Henry Holt, 1871), p. 146. https://archive.org/details/fouryearsatyale00baggrich
[^5]: Bruce L. Reynolds '66, letter, "More secrets of the Tomb," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, responding to the May/June 2015 article; the letter cites James Bradley, *The China Mirage* (Little, Brown, 2015). The passage is the letter writer's account. https://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4127-more-secrets-of-the-tomb
[^6]: *The Hamlin Family: A Genealogy of Capt. Giles Hamlin of Middletown, Connecticut, 1654-1900* (1900), entries [302], [307] and [638]. https://archive.org/details/hamlinfamilygene00andr
[^7]: *Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University, deceased from June, 1880, to June, 1890*, entry for William Huntington Russell, p. 241. https://archive.org/details/1880t90obituary00yaleuoft
[^8]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, Connecticut Business Registry - Business Master, open data set n7gp-d28j, record "RUSSELL TRUST ASSOCIATION, THE" (business type Special Chartered; status Active; citizenship Domestic; account number 0269315); record "RTA INCORPORATED" (account number 0059060, registered April 14, 1961, 64 High Street, New Haven), the successor corporation. https://data.ct.gov/resource/n7gp-d28j.json
[^9]: Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1950-1951 (New Haven: Yale University, 1951), entry "Henry Lewis Stimson, B.A. 1888," p. 11. http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1950-51.pdf
[^10]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977
[^11]: "Mac Bundy," *The Harvard Crimson*, November 10, 1956. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1956/11/10/mac-bundy-pwhen-mcgeorge-bundy-became/
[^12]: FBI headquarters file on William F. Buckley Jr., part 1, memorandum L. B. Nichols to Mr. Tolson, October 20, 1950, and summary memoranda. https://archive.org/details/foia_Buckley_William_F.-HQ-1
[^13]: White House, "Biography of President George W. Bush" (archived). Born July 6, 1946, in New Haven; bachelor's degree in history from Yale University in 1968. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov ; Biography.com, "George W. Bush" (Yale enrollment in 1964). https://www.biography.com/us-president/george-w-bush
[^14]: Jacques Leslie, "Smirk from the past" ("Yale"), *Salon*, March 1, 2000. https://www.salon.com/2000/03/01/yale/
[^15]: George H. W. Bush Presidential Library, "Records on Skull and Bones Society," FOIA 2009-0116-F, processed August 2009 (Records of the White House Office of Policy Development, Emily Mead Subject Files, 23348-002; Press Office of the Vice President, Subject Files, 14925-046; White House Social Office, Cathy Fenton Subject Files, 07104, "10/20/89 Skull and Bones Tea"). The library text describes the Geronimo rumor and does not endorse it. https://www.bush41library.gov/download/file/4777
[^16]: Office of Alien Property Custodian, Vesting Order No. 248, executed October 20, 1942 (Leo T. Crowley, Alien Property Custodian), 7 Fed. Reg. 9097-9098 (November 7, 1942), F.R. Doc. 42-11567 series. Federal Register, vol. 7, no. 220.
[^17]: Connecticut Secretary of the State, certified copies (March 28, 2001) of the 1856 act incorporating the Russell Trust Association and the 1943 amending act, as reprinted in Kris Millegan, "RTA, Incorporated, a Shell Game," in *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones* (Trine Day, 2003), pp. 694 to 696. https://archive.org/details/fleshing_out_skull_and_bones
[^18]: Certificate of Incorporation of RTA Incorporated (1961), as reprinted in Millegan (2003), pp. 697 to 700; Connecticut Business Registry, account 0059060 (registered April 14, 1961). https://data.ct.gov/resource/n7gp-d28j.json?accountnumber=0059060
[^19]: RTA Incorporated, IRS Form 990 for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2021, Schedule A. https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/60768741
[^20]: Internal Revenue Service, Exempt Organizations Business Master File extract for Connecticut, EIN 060768741, tax period 2025-06. https://www.irs.gov/charities-non-profits/exempt-organizations-business-master-file-extract-eo-bmf
[^21]: Carole Bass, "Apaches sue to recover Geronimo's skull," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2009. https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/2421-apaches-sue-to-recover-geronimo-s-skull
[^22]: Antony C. Sutton, *America's Secret Establishment* (1983), passage on access to the Russell Trust papers at the Sterling Library. https://archive.org/details/americas_secret_establishment-skull_and_bones
[^23]: Ron Rosenbaum, "The Last Secrets of Skull and Bones," *Esquire*, September 1977. https://archive.org/details/print-article-the-last-secrets-of-skull-and-bones-esquire-september-1977
[^24]: *Madrigal v. Russell Trust Association*, No. 2:17-cv-00340 (S.D. Tex.), docket entries 1, 6, 7, 8 and 17. https://archive.org/details/gov.uscourts.txsd.1463674
[^25]: *Geronimo et al. v. Obama et al.*, No. 09-303 (RWR) (D.D.C. July 27, 2010). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303/pdf/USCOURTS-dcd-1_09-cv-00303-0.pdf
[^26]: Kathrin Day Lassila and Mark Alden Branch, "Whose Skull and Bones?," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, May/June 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20060614215733/http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/2006_05/notebook.html
[^27]: Judith Ann Schiff, "The library at war," *Yale Alumni Magazine*, Nov/Dec 2019. https://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4991-the-library-at-war
[^28]: Robin W. Winks, *Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961* (New York: William Morrow, 1987), cited in the Schiff article.
[^29]: Letter from the chief investigator of the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee to Walter Pforzheimer, May 9, 1955, CIA-RDP58-00597A000100240018-8, https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp58-00597a000100240018-8 ; Daniel O. Graham to Walter Pforzheimer, September 23, 1980, enclosing a partial membership list of the National Strategy Committee, CIA-RDP02T06251R000900300002-4, CIA reading room (cia.gov/readingroom). Both are cited on the Senate Judiciary Committee and Daniel O. Graham pages.
[^30]: Kevin C. Ruffner, review of Richard W. Cutler, *Counterspy: Memoirs of a Counterintelligence Officer in World War II and the Cold War* (Washington: Brassey's, 2004), *Studies in Intelligence* 49, no. 3. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/volume-49-no-3/counterspy-memoirs-of-a-counterintelligence-officer-in-world-war-ii-and-the-cold-war
[^31]: David Robarge, "'Cunning Passages, Contrived Corridors': Wandering in the Angletonian Wilderness," *Studies in Intelligence* 53, no. 4 (2009), biographical backdrop. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Cunning-Passages-Contrived-Corridors.pdf
[^32]: Tom Mangold, *Cold Warrior: James Jesus Angleton, the CIA's Master Spy Hunter* (Simon & Schuster, 1991).
[^33]: Robarge, "'Cunning Passages, Contrived Corridors,'" *Studies in Intelligence* 53, no. 4 (2009), sections on Winks, *Cloak and Gown*, and on Holzman. https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/Cunning-Passages-Contrived-Corridors.pdf
[^34]: Donald P. Steury, ed., *Sherman Kent and the Board of National Estimates: Collected Essays* (CIA History Staff, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1994), foreword, the essay on Kent's biography, and Harold P. Ford, "A Tribute to Sherman Kent." https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/sherman-kent-and-the-board-of-national-estimates-collected-essays.pdf
[^35]: Steury, *Sherman Kent and the Board of National Estimates*, the essay on *Strategic Intelligence* ("before returning to Yale in 1947"; "A year after *Strategic Intelligence* was published, Sherm left Yale for the CIA") and editor's note 6 to the Kent biography essay. The two passages are printed in the same volume.
[^36]: Gregory W. Pedlow and Donald E. Welzenbach, *The CIA and the U-2 Program, 1954-1974* (CIA History Staff, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1998), biographical passage on Richard M. Bissell. https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA355539
[^37]: Evan Thomas, *The Very Best Men: Four Who Dared: The Early Years of the CIA* (Simon & Schuster, 1995).
[^38]: Howard L. Bevis to Allen W. Dulles, February 7, 1958, with program, campus map and list of participants, "America's Human Resources: To Meet the Scientific Challenge," Yale University, February 3-4, 1958, sponsored by the President's Committee on Scientists and Engineers, CIA-RDP80B01676R003800020106-4. https://archive.org/details/cia-readingroom-document-cia-rdp80b01676r003800020106-4
[^39]: Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, "Guide to the Mark Arthur May papers," MS 1447, biographical/historical note and scope and contents. https://ead-pdfs.library.yale.edu/3894.pdf
[^40]: Deutsche Biographie, "Kris, Ernst" (NDB 13, 1982). https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/sfz46084.html ; Library of Congress Manuscript Division, Ernst Kris Papers (MSS84824), register; Daniel M. Bessner, "The Night Watchman: Hans Speier and the Making of the American National Security State," Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 2013, p. 190 note 88 (attendee list of RAND R-106). Cited as the Ernst Kris page cites them.
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